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Used to suckle the infant Jupiter what name is given in mythology to the Horn of Plenty?	AMALTHEIA, AMALTHEA, Greek Mythology Index AMALTHEIA ΑΜΑΛΘΕΙΑ The nurse of the infant Zeus after his birth in Crete. The ancients themselves appear to have been as uncertain about the etymology of the name as about the real nature of Amaltheia. Hesychius derives it from the verb amaltheuein, to nourish or to enrich ; others from amalthaktos, i. c. firm or hard; and others again from amalê and theia, according to which it would signify the divine goat, or the tender goddess. The common derivation is from amelgein, to milk or suck. According to some traditions Amaltheia is the goat who suckled the infant Jove (Hygin. Poet. Astr. ii. 13; Arat. Phaen. 163; Callim. Hymn. in Jov. 49), and who was afterwards rewarded for this service by being placed among the stars. (Comp. Apollod. i. 1. § 6.) [See AEGA .] According to another set of traditions Amaltheia was a nymph, and daughter of Oceanus , Helios , Haemonius , or of the Cretan king Melisseus (Schol. ad Hom. II. xxi. 194; Eratosth. Catast. 13; Apollod. ii. 7. § 5; Lactant. Instit. i. 22; Hygin. l. c., and Fab. 139, where he calls the nymph Adamanteia ),and is said to have fed Zeus with the milk of a goat. When this goat once broke off one of her horns, the nymph Amaltheia filled it with fresh herbs and fruit and gave it to Zeus, who transplaced it together with the goat among the stars. (Ovid, Fast. v. 115, &c.) According to other accounts Zeus himself broke off one of the horns of the goat Amaltheia, gave it to the daughters of Melisseus, and endowed it with such powers that whenever the possessor wished, it would instantaneously become filled with whatever might be desired. (Apollod. l. c.; Schol. ad Callim. l. c.) This is the story about the origin of the celebrated horn of Amaltheia, commonly called the horn of plenty or cornucopia, which plays such a prominent part in the stories of Greece, and which was used in later times as the symbol of plenty in general. (Strab. x. p. 458, iii. p. 151; Diod. iv. 35.) [See ACHELOUS .] Diodorus (iii. 68) gives an account of Amaltheia, which differs from all the other traditions. According to him the Libyan king Ammon married Amaltheia, a maiden of extraordinary beauty, and gave her a very fertile tract of land which had the form of a bull's horn, and received from its queen the name of the horn of Amaltheia. This account, however, is only one of the many specimens of a rationalistic interpretation of the ancient mythus. The horn appears to be one of the most ancient and simplest vessels for drinking, and thus we find the story of Amaltheia giving Zeus to drink from a horn represented in an ancient work of art still extant. (Galeria Giustiniani, ii. p. 61.) The horn of plenty was frequently given as an attribute to the representations of Tyche or Fortuna. (Paus. iv. 30. § 4, vii. 26. § 3.) EXTERNAL LINKS	Cornucopia
Who played the leading role in the T.V Western series 'Branded'?	Greek & Roman Mythology - Tools ACAMAS Son of Theseus and Phaedra, was brought up with his brother Demophoon by Elephenor, king of Eubcea, and sent with Diomedes as ambassador to Troy, to persuade Priam to send Helen back in peace. After the fall of Troy, in which he took a prominent part as one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse, he with his brother recovered his father's sovereignty over Attica, and then led a colony from Athens to Cyprus, where he died. (Comp. DEMOPHOÖN, ACARNAN AND AMPHOTERUS Sons of Alcmaeon and Callirrhoe. Their mother, hearing of her husband's murder by Phegeus and his sons, prays Zeus, who loves her, to let her boys grow up into men at once, so that they can avenge their father. This done, they slay the sons of Phegeus at Tegea and himself at Psophis, offer up at Delphi the Jewels of Harmonia, which they have thus acquired, and then found a kingdom called after the elder of them Acarnania. (See ALPHESIBCEA. ) ACASTUS Son of Pelias, king of Iolcos who joined the Argonautic expedition, though against his father's will, as a friend of Jason. At his father's death be celebrated funeral games which were the theme of ancient poets and artists, and in which Peleus was represented as participating. He took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt. But his wife Astydameia fell in love with Peleus (q.v.), and this brought ruin on the wedded pair. His daughter was Laodameia, renowned for her tender love to Protesilaus (q.v.). ACCA LARENTIA According to the common legend, wife of the herdsman Faustulus, and nurse to Romalus and Remus; according to another, a favourite of Hercules, and wife to a rich Etruscan, Tarutius, whose possessions she bequeathed to Romulus or (according to another account) the Roman people. She is said to have had twelve sons, with whom she sacrificed once a year for the fertilizing of the Roman fields (arva), and who were thence named Arval Brothers (fratres arvales). One of them having died, Romulus took his place, and founded the priesthood so called. (See ARVAL BROTHERS. ) She at last disappeared on the spot where, afterwards, at the feast of Larentalia (Dec. 23), the flamen of Quirinus and the pontiffs sacrificed to her while invoking Jupiter. All this, together with her name, meaning "mother of the Lares," shows that she was originally a goddess of the earth, to whose care men entrusted their seed-corn and their dead. (See LARES. ) In particular she personified the city lands and their crops. Probably she is the Dea Dia worshipped by the Arval Brothers. ACCENSI In the older constitution of the Roman army, the accensi were men taken from the lowest assessed class to fill gaps in the ranks of the heavy-armed soldiers. They followed the legion unarmed, simply in their clothes (velati, or accensi velati). In action they stood in the rear rank of the third line, ready to pick up the arms of the fallen and fill their places. They were also used as assistant workmen and as orderlies. This last employment may have caused the term accensus to be applied to the subordinate officer whom consuls and proconsuls, praetors and propaetors, and all officers of consular and praetorian rank had at their service in addition to lictors. In later times officers chose these attendants out of their own freedmen, sometimes to marshal their way when they bad nolictorsor had them marching behind, sometimes for miscellaneous duties. Thus the praetor's accensus had to cry the hours of the day, 3, 6, 9, and 12. Unlike the subordinate officers named apparitors, their term of office expired with that of their superior. ACCIUS, OR ATTIUS A Roman poet, who was born 170 B.C. of a freedman and freedwoman, at Pisaurum in Umbria, and died about 90 B.C. He was the most prolific and, under the Republic, the most highy esteemed of tragic poets, especially for his lofty, impassioned' style and powerful descriptions. His talents seem to have secured him a respectable position in Roman society, which he maintained with full consciousness of his merits. His poetical career can be traced through a period of thirty-six years, from B.C. 140, when he exhibited a drama under the same aedfles as the octogenarian Pacuvius, to B.C. 104. Of his tragedies, the titles and fragments of some fifty are preserved. Two of these treat of national subjects (see PRAeTEXTA ), viz., the Brutus and the Decius The former dealt with the expulsion of the Tarquins; the latter with the heroic death of Decius at Sentinum, B.C. 295. The rest, composed after Greek models, embrace almost all cycles of legend, especially the Trojan, which is treated in a great variety of aspects. Accius likewise handled questions of grammar, literary history, and antiquities in the Alexandrine manner and the fashion of his own time and in many different metres. These works (the Didascalica in at least nine books; the Pragmatica on dramatic poetry and acting, etc.) have also perished. ACHAEUS A Greek tragic poet of Eretria, born about 482 B.C., a contemporary of Sophocles, and especially famous in the line of satyric drama. He wrote about forty plays, of which only small fragments are preserved. Not being an Athenian, he only gained one victory. ACHELOUS The god of the river of that name between Aetolia and Acarnania; eldest of the 3000 sons of Oceanus and Tethys, and father of the Sirens by Sterope, the daughter of Porthaon. As a water-god he was capable of metamorphosis, appearing now as a bull, then as a snake, and again as a bull-faced man. In fighting with Heracles for the possession of Deianeira, he lost one horn, but got it back in exchange for the horn of Amaltheia (q.v.). As the oldest and most venerable of river-gods, he was worshipped all over Greece and her colonies, especially Rhodes, Italy, and Sicily. The oracle of Dodona, in every answer which it gave, added an injunction to sacrifice to Achelous; and in religious usage his name stood for any stream or running water. ACHILLES Son of Peleus (king of the Myrmidons in Thessalian Phthia) by the Nereid Thetis, grandson of Aeacus, great-grandson of Zeus. In Homer he is duly brought up by his mother to man's estate, in close friendship with his older cousin Patroclus, the son of Mencetius, a half-brother of Aeacus; is taught the arts of war and eloquence by Phoenix (q.v.) and that of healing by the centaur Chiron, his mother's grandfatber. But later legends lend additional features to the story of his youth. To make her son immortal, Thetis anoints him with ambrosia by-day, and holds him in the fire at night, to destroy whatever mortal element he has derived from his father, until Peleus, coming in one night, sees the boy baking in the fire, and makes an outcry; the goddess, aggrieved at seeing her plan thwarted, deserts husband and child, and goes home to the Nereids. According to a later story she dipped the child in the river Styx, and thus made him invulnerable, all but the heel by which she held him. Then Peleus takes the motherless boy to Chiron on Mount Pelion, who feeds him on the entrails of lions and boars, and the marrow of bears, and instructs him in all knightly and elegant arts. At the age of six the boy was so strong and swift that he slew wild boars and lions, and caught stage without net or hound. Again, as to his share in the expedition to Troy, the legends differ widely. In Homer, Achilles and Patroclus are at once ready to obey the call of Nestor and Odysseus, and their fathers willingly let them go, accompanied by the old man Phoenix. In later legend, Thetis, alarmed by the prophecy of Calchas that Troy cannot be taken without Achilles, and foreseeing his fall in such a war, conducts the boy of nine to the island of Scyros, where in female dress he grows up among the daughters of king Lycomedes, and by one of them, Deldameia, begets Neoptolemus(q.v.). But Calchas betrays his whereabouts, and Odysseus, in concert with Diomedes, unmasks the young hero. Disguised as a merchant, he spreads out female ornaments before the maidens, as well as a shield and spear; suddenly a trumpet sounds the call to battle, the maidens flee, but Achilles clutches at the arms, and declares himself eager to fight. At the first landing of' the Greeks, on the Asian coast, he wounds Telephus (q.v.); at their second, on the Trojan shore, Cycnus (q.v.). Before Troy, Homer makes him the chief of Greek heroes, whom the favour of Hera and Athena, and his own merit have placed above friend and foe. He is graced with all the attributes of a hero: in birth, beauty, swiftness, strength, and valour, he has not his peer; none can resist him, the very sight of him strikes terror into the foe. His anger may be furious, his grief immoderate; but his nature is at bottom kind, affectionate, and generous, even to his enemies. Touching is his love for his parents, especially his mother, and his devotion to his friends. In the first nine years of the war he leads the Greeks on their many plundering excursions around Troy, and destroys eleven inland and twelve seacoast towns. The events of the tenth year, brought on by the deep grudge he bears Agamemnon for taking away Briseis (daughter of Brises), form the subject of Homer's Iliad. When he and his men withdraw from the fight, the Trojans press on irresistibly; they have taken the camp of the Greeks, and are setting their ships on fire. In this extremity he lends Patroclus the arms his father (see PELEUS ) had given him, and lets him lead the Myrmidons to battle. Patroclus drives the Trojans back, but falls by Hector's hand, and the arms are lost, though the corpse is recovered. Grief for his friend and thirst for vengeance at last overcome his grudge against Agamemnon. Furnished by Hephaestus, at the request of Thetis, with splendid new arms, including the shield of wondrous workmanship, he goes out against Hector, well knowing that lie himself must fall soon after him. He makes frightful havoc among the enemy, till at last Hector is the only one that dares await him without the walls, and even he turns in terror at the sight of him. After chasing him three times round the city, Achilles overtakes him, pierces him with his lance, trails his body behind his chariot to the camp, and there casts it for a prey to the birds and dogs. Then with the utmost pomp he lays the loved friend of his youth in the same grave-mound that is to hold his own ashes, and founds funeral games in his honour. The next night Priam comes secretly to his tent, and offers rich gifts to ransom Hector's body; but Achilles, whom the broken-down old king reminds of his own father, gives it up without ransom, and grants eleven days' truce for the burying. After many valiant deeds (see TROJAN WAR ), he is overtaken by the fate which he had himself chosen; for the choice had been given him between an early death with undying fame and a long but inglorious life. Near the Scaean Gate he is struck by the shaft of Paris, guided by Apollo. According to a later legend he was wounded in the one vulnerable heel, and in the temple of Thymbraean Apollo, whither he had gone unarmed to be wedded to Priam's daughter Polyxena (q.v.). Greeks and Trojans fight furiously all day about his body, till Zeus sends down a storm to end the fight. Seventeen days and nights the Greeks, with Thetis and the sea-goddesses and Muses, bewail the dead; then amid numerous sacrifices the body is burnt. Next morning the ashes, with those of Patroclus and of Nestor's son, Antilochus, whom Achilles had loved in the next degree, are placed in a golden pitcher, the work of Hephaestus, and gift of Dionysus, and deposited in the famed tumulus that crowns the promontory of Sigeum. The soul of Homer's Achilles dwells, like other souls, in the lower world, and is there seen by Odysseus together with the souls of his two friends. According to later poets Thetis snatched her son's body out of the burning pyre and carried it to the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube, where the transfigured hero lives on, sovereign of the Pontus and husband of Iphigeneia. Others place him in Elysium, with Medea or Helena to wife. Besides Leuce, where the mariners of Pontus and Greek colonists honoured him with offerings and games, he had many other places of worship; the most venerable, however, was his tomb on the Hellespont, where he appeared to Homer in the full blaze of his armour, and struck the poet blind. In works of art Achilles was represented as similar to Ares, with magnificent physique, and hair bristling up like a mane. One of his most famous statues is that at Paris (from the Villa Borghese), though many take it for an Ares. ACHILLES Achilles of Alexandria, about 450 A.D., probably a Christian; author of a Greek romance in eight books, the story of Cleitophon of Tyre and Leucippe of Byzantium, two lovers who pass through a long train of adventures before they meet. As the whole story is put in the mouth of the hero, many scenes, being told at secondhand, lose in liveliness; and the flow of the narrative is checked by too many digressions, some interesting enough in themselves, by descriptions of places, natural phenomena, works of art, feelings and passions, in which the author exhibits his vast reading. The style has considerable elegance, though often marred by an affectation of neatness and brevity. The novel continued to be popular until the fall of Byzantium. ACRISIUS King of Argos, great-grandson of Danaus, son of Abas, and brother of Proetus. An oracle having declared that a son of his daughter Danae would take his life, he shuts her up in a brazen tower; but Zeus falls into her lap in the shape of a shower of gold, and she bears a son named Perseus. Then mother and child are put in a wooden box and thrown into the sea, but they drift to the island of Seriphus, and are kindly received. Perseus, having grown into a hero, sets out with his mother to seek Acrisius, who has fled from Argos for fear of the oracle coming true; he finds him at Larissa, in Thessaly, and kills him unawares with a discus. ACROPOLIS Properly = Upper Town. The Greek name for the citadel or stronghold of a town. The Acropolis of Athens was situated on a plateau of rock, about 200 feet in height, 1,000 in breadth from east to west, and 460 in length from north to south. It was originally called Cecropia, after Cecrops, the ancestor of the Athenians, whose grave and shrine were shown on the spot. On the north side of the Acropolis was the Erechtheum, the common seat of worship of the ancient gods of Athens, Athene Polias, Hephaestus, Poseidon, and Erechtheus himself, who vias said to have founded the sanctuary. His house was possibly N.E. of the Erechtheum. Pisistrâtus, like the ancient kings, had his residence on the Acropolis, and may have added the stylobate to the temple of Athene recently identified, S. of the Erechtheum. The walls of the fortress proper were destroyed in the Persian wars, 480 and 479 B.C., and restored by Cimon. But the wall surrounding the foot of the hill, called the Pelasgikon or Felargikon, and supposed to be a relic of the oldest inhabitants, was left in ruins. Cimon also laid the foundation of a new temple of Athene on the south side of the hill. This temple was begun afresh and completed in the most splendid style by Pericles, and called the Parthenon. (See PARTHENTON. ) Pericles at the same time adorned the approach to the west side of the Acropolis with the glorious Propylaea, and began to rebuild the Erechtheum in magnificent style. (See ERECHTHEUM , PROPYLAeA. ) There were several other sanctuaries on the Acropolis, that, for instance, of Artemis Brauronia, on the S.E. side of the Propylaea; the beautiful little temple of Athene Nike to the S.W.; and the Pandroseum adjoining the temple of Erechtheus. There were many altars, that of Zeus Hypatos for example, and countless statues, among them that of Athene Promachos, with votive offerings. Among the numerous grottos in the rock, one on the north side was dedicated to Pan, another to Apollo. ACTA The Latin term for official records of transactions, including Acta senatus and Acta populi Romani, both established by Caesar in his first consulship, B.C. 59. (1) Acta senatus. Caesar's law decreed that all transactions of the senate should be regularly written down and published, which had only been done hitherto in exceptional cases. The written reports were continued under the Empire, but Augustus put a stop to their publication. These documents were preserved among the state archives and in the public libraries, where they could only be inspected by permission of the city prefect. At first a temporary duty imposed oil individual senators, the business of reporting grew into a separate office held in rotation, with the title of Ab actis senatus, and the officer holding it had a considerable staff of writers under him, called Actuarii. (2) The Acta (diurna) populi (Romani), or Acta publica, urbana, urbis, diurna populi, or simply Acta or Diurna, were an official daily chronicle, which, in addition to official reports of events in the imperial family, and state and city affairs, contained regulations by the magistrates, transactions and decrees of the senate, accidents, and family news communicated to the editors. They were publicly exhibited on a whitened board (album), which any one might read and copy; and there were men who made a business of multiplying and transmitting such news to the provinces. After a time the originals were placed among the state-archives for the benefit of those who wished to consult them. ACTAEON Son of Aristaeus by Autonoe, the daughter of Cadmus, of Thebes was trained by Chiron into a finished huntsman. Having either seen Artemis (Diana) when bathing, or boasted his superiority in the chase, he was changed by her into a stag, and torn to pieces by his own hounds on Mount Cithaeron. The hounds looked everywhere for their master, and would not be pacified till Chiron showed them an image of him. His statue was often set up on hills and rocks as a protection against the dangerous heat of the dog-days, of which probably the myth itself is but a symbol. ADMETUS Son of Pheres, king of Pherae in Thessaly, who took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the voyage of the Argo. Apollo served him for a time as a shepherd, either from love and as a reward for his piety, or to expiate a capital crime. When Admetus wooed Alcestis, the daughter of Pelias, and her father would only give her to one who should yoke lions and boars to a chariot, he fulfilled the task with Apollo's help; indeed, the god even prevailed on the Moirai to release him from death, provided that any one would volunteer to die for him. He is at length seized with a mortal sickness, and his aged parents refusing to give up the remnant of their days for him, Alcestis dies for her husband, but is sent back to the upper world by Persephone, or, according to another story, is rescued out of the hands of Hades by Heracles. ADONIS Sprung, according to the common legend, from the unnatural love of the Cyprian princess Myrrha (or Smyrna) for her father Cinyras, who, on becoming aware of the crime, pursues her with a sword ; but she, praying to the gods, is changed into a myrtle, out of whose bark springs the beautiful Adonis, the beloved of Aphrodite. While yet a youth, he dies wounded by a boar in hunting; the goddess, inconsolable, makes the anemone grow out of his blood. As she will not give up her darling, and Persephone has fallen in love with him, Zeus decrees that he shall pass half the year with one and half with the other goddess. Adonis (- lord) was properly a Syrian god of nature, a type of vegetation, which after a brief blossoming always dies again. The myth was embodied in a yearly Feast of Adonis held by women, which, starting from Byblos in Syria, the cradle of this worship came by way of Cyprus to Asia Minor and Greece, then under the Ptolemies to Egypt and in the imperial age to Rome. When the river Adonis by Byblos ran red with the soil washed down from Lebanon by the autumn rain, they said Adonis was slain by the boar in the mountains, and the water was dyed with his blood. Then the women set out to seek him, and having found a figure that they took to be his corpse, performed his funeral rites with lamentations as wild as the rejoicings that followed over his resurrection were licentious. The feast was held, in the East, with great magnificence. In Greece the celebration was much simpler, a leading feature being the little "Adonis-gardens," viz. pots holding all kinds of herbs that come out quickly and as quickly fade, which were finally thrown into the water. At the court of Alexandria a figure in costly apparel was displayed on a silver bier, and the next morning carried in procession by the women to the sea, and committed to the waves. In most places the feast was held in the hottest season. ADOPTION At Athens adoption took place either in the adopter's lifetime or by will; or again, if a man died childless and intestate, the State interfered to bring into his house the man next entitled by the Attic law of inheritance asheir and adoptive-son, so that the race and the religious rites peculiar to it might not die out. None but the independent citizen of respectable character could adopt, and he only while he was as yet without male heirs. If there were daughters, one of them was usually betrothed to the adopted son, and the rest portioned off with dowries. If after that a male heir was born, he and the adopted had equal rights. ADOPTION At Rome there were two kinds of adoption, both requiring the adopter to be a male and childless: Arrogatio and Adoption proper. The former could only take place where the person to be adopted was independent (sui juris), and his adopter had no prospect of male offspring; at the instance of the pontifex, and after full proof of admissibility, it had to be sanctioned by the comitia curiata. Adoption proper applied to those still under paternal rule (patria potestas), the father selling his son by formal muncipatio (q.v.) to the adopter, who then, the paternal power being thus abolished, claimed the son before the court as his own, and the father allowed him to be adjudged to him. By either transaction the person adopted passed completely over into the family and rank of the adopter, and naturally took his name in full, but with the addition of a second cognomen formed from his own former nomen gentile by the suffix -anus, e.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus). Women too could be adopted, but not arrogated; neither could they adopt. At the latter end of the Republic we find a testamentary Adoption in existence, which at first likewise produced a change of name, but not of status. ADRASTUS Grandson of Bias, son of Talaus and Lysimache. In a quarrel between the three houses reigning in Argos, the Biantidae, Melampodidae, and Proetidae, he is driven out by Amphiaraus, who also killed his father, flees to his mother's father, king Polybus of Sicyon, and inherits his kingdom. But, reconciled to Amphiaraus, to whom he gives his sister Eriphyle, he returns and rules over Argos. During one stormy night a great scuffle is heard outside the palace: two fugitives, Polyneices son of OEdipus of Thebes, and Tydeus son of OEneus of Calydon (one wrapped in a lion's hide, the other in a boar-skin), have sought refuge in the front-court, and are fighting for a night's lodging. Adrastus, coming forth, recognises the fulfilment of an oracle which had bidden him marry his daughters to a lion and a boar. He gives Argeia to Polyneices and Deipyle to Tydeus, promising to conduct those princes home and reinstate them in their rights. Thus began under his lead the far-famed and fatal expedition of the Seven against Thebes (q.v.). He alone escapes destruction by the help of his divine winged steed Areion. Ten years after, with the sons of the slain, the Epigoni (q.v.), and his own son Aegialeus, he again marches upon Thebes, takes and destroys the town, but loses his son, and dies of grief on his way home at Megara, where, as well as at Sicyon and Athens, he was worshipped as a hero. ADVOCATUS At Rome, under the Republic, a competent friend who gave his advice in a law-suit and came into court in person, not to speak (the patronus causae did that), but to support the cause by his presence. In the imperial age the term was applied to the counsel who pleaded in court in the presence of the parties, for doing which he was allowed, after the time of Claudius, to take a moderate fee. AEACUS Ancestor of the heroic Aeacidae; son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus in Phlius, whom the king of gods, in the form of an eagle, carried off to the island named after her, where her son was born. Asking of Aegina he ruled the Myrmidons, whom Zeus at his request created out of ants (Gr. myrmekes) to people his island, which, according to one story, was uninhabited, according to another, stricken with pestilence. Beloved by the gods for his piety, when a drought desolated Greece, his intercession obtained rain from Zeus; and the grateful Greeks built him in Aegina a temple enclosed by a marble wall. Pindar says he helped Poseidon and Apollo to rear the walls of Troy, erecting that very portion which was afterwards scaled by his son Telemon, and his grandson Neoptolemus. His justice caused him after death to be made a judge in the lower world. At Aegina and Athens he was worshipped as a demigod. His sons by Chiron's daughter Endeis were Telamon and Peleus, the fathers of Ajax and Achilles; another son Phocus, by the Nereid Psamathe; was slain by his half-brothers, for which their father banished them. AEDILES The Curule Aediles, from B.C. 366, were taken at first from the Patrician body alone, soon after from Patricians and Plebeians by turns, and lastly from either. Elected yearly in the comitia tributa under the presidency of a consul, they were, from the first, officers of the whole people, though low in rank; they sat in the sella curulis, from which they took their name, and wore as insignia the toga praetexta. As in rank so in the extent of their powers they stood above the Plebeian Aediles, being entitled to exercise civil jurisdiction in market business, where the latter could only impose, a fine. The functions of the two were very much alike, comprising: (i) the superintendence of trade in the market, where they had to test weights and measures, and the quality of goods; to keep down the price of provisions, both by prohibitive measures, especially against regraters of care, and by the purchase and liberal distribution of food (cura annonae); and, as regards the money-market, to prosecute those who transgressed the laws of usury; (ii) the care of the streets and buildings within the city and the circuit of a mile outside, by cleansing, paving, and improving the streets, or stirring up those who were bound to do it; by seeing that the street traffic was unimpeded; by keeping in repair the temples, public buildings, and works, such as sewers and aqueducts, and seeing that these latter and the fire-apparatus were in working order; (iii) a superintendence of health and morals, including the inspection of baths, taverns, and low houses, the putting down of all that endangered public order and decency, e.g. games of hazard, breaches of sumptuary laws, introduction of foreign religions, etc.; (iv) the exhibition of Games (of which the Roman and Megalensian devolved on the curule, the Plebeian on the plebeian aediles), the supervision of festivities at the feriae Latinae and at games given by private men. The cost of the games given by themselves they defrayed partly out of a sum set apart by the State, but utterly inadequate to the large demands of later times; partly out of the proceeds of fines which were also spent on public buildings, and partly out of their own resources. Thus the aedileship became an expensive luxury, and its enjoyment less and less accessible to men of moderate means. Ambitious men often spent incredible sums in getting lip games, to win the people's favour with a view to higher honours, though the aedileship was not necessary as a stepping-stone to these. In Cicero's time the legal age for the curule Ledileship was thirty-seven. From B.C. 366 their number was unchanged, till Caesar in B.C. 44 added two more, the Plebeian Aediles Ceriales, to whom alone the cura annonae and the management of the ludi Ceriales were entrusted. Under the Empire the office of aedile lost much in importance by some of its functions being handed over to separate officers, especially by the transference of its jurisdiction and its control of games to the praetors; and it fell into such contempt, that even Augustus had to make a tenure of it, or the tribuneship, a condition of eligibility to the praetorship; and succeeding emperors often had to fill it by compulsion. In the 3rd century A.D. it seems to have died altogether. AEDILES The two Plebeian Aediles were appointed B.C. 494 at the same time with the Tribuneship of the Plebs, as servants of the Tribunes, and at first probably nominated by them till 471, when, like them and under their presidency, they began to be elected by the whole body of the Plebs. They took their name from the temple (aedes) of the plebeian goddess Ceres, in which their official archives were kept. Beside the Custody of the plebi-scita, and afterwards of the senatus-consulta, it was their duty to make arrests at the bidding of the tribunes; to carry out the death-sentences, which they passed? by hurling thecriminal down from the Tarpeian rock; to look after the importation of corn; to watch the traffic in the markets; and to organize and superintend the Plebeian and Roman Games. Like the tribunes, they could only be chosen from the body of the Plebs, and wore no badge of office, not so much as the toga praetexta, even after they became an authority independent of the tribunes. AEDON Daughter of Pandareos, wife of the Theban king Zethus, and mother of Itylus. Envious at her sister-in-law, Niobe, having six sons, she tries to kill the eldest, but by mistake kills her own. She is changed by Zeus into a nightingale, and for ever bewails her son. Later legend makes her the wife of an artificer Polytechnus at Colophon in Lydia; she stirs the anger of Hera by boasting that she lives more happily with her husband than the goddess with Zeus. Hera sends Eris ( - strife) to set on foot a wager between husband and wife, that whichever finishes first the piece of work they have in hand (be a chair, she a garment) shall make the other a present of a slave-girl. By Hera's help Aedon wins, and Polytechnus in vexation fetches her sister, Chelidonis, on a false pretext, from her father's house, and having, reduced her to submission oil the way, and bomid her to secrecy on pain of death, presents her to his wife unrecognised as a slave. One day Aedon overhears her sister lamenting her lot at a fountain, and concerts with her to slay Itylus, cook him, and set him before his father to eat. On learning the truth, Polytechnus pursues the sister to her home; but there the gods, to prevent more horrors, turn them all into birds, making Pandareos an osprey, his wife a kingfisher, Polytechnus a pelican, Chelidonis a swallow, and Aedon a nightingale. (Comp. PROCNE. Son of Helios and the Ocean nymph Perseis, brother of Circe and Pasiphae, king of Aea, father of Medea and Absyrtus by the ocean nymph Idyia. (See ARGONAUTS and MEDEA. AEGEUS Son of Pandion (q.v. 2) and Pelia. Having with the help of his brothers Lycus, Pallas, and Nisus wrested Attica from the sons of his uncle Metion, who had driven out his father he seized the sole sovereignty. Dethroned by his brother Pallas and his sons, he was rescued and restored by his son Theseus (q.v.). Having slain Androgeos, son of Minos (q.v.), he was conquered by that king, and compelled to send seven youths and seven maidens to Crete every nine years as victims to the Minotaur. When Theseus set out to free his country from this tribute, he agreed in case of success to exchange the black sail of his ship for a white; but he forgot to do so, and Aegeus seeing the old sail oil the returning vessel, gave up his son for lost, and threw himself into the sea, which is supposed to have been named after him the Aegean. He had a heroon or shrine at Athens. Childless by his first two marriages, and ascribing the fact to the anger of Aphrodite, he is said to have introduced her worship into Athens. (For his son Medus by Medea, see both.) AEGINETAN SCULPTURES The marble pediments of Athena's temple at Aegina, discovered in 1811, restored by Thorwaldsen, and preserved in the Glyptothek at Munich. Their great value consists in the full light they throw on the condition of Greek art, especially of the Aeginetan school, in B.C. 480. (Comp. SCULPTURE. ) Both groups present, with lifelike accuracy and in strictly symmetrical distribution, combats of the Greeks before Troy, while Athena in the centre, as protectress of the Greeks, retains the rigid attitude of the ancient religious statues. Of the figures, originally twentytwo in number, ten in the west pediment representing the contest for the body of Patroclus, are complete, while the eleventh is preserved in fragments; of those in the east pediment representing Heracles and Telamon shielding the fallen Oicles from Laomedon, five remain and many fragments. AEGIS The storm-cloud and thunder-cloud of Zeus, imagined in Homer as a shield forged by Hephaestus, blazing brightly and fringed with tassels of gold, in its centre the awe-inspiring Gorgon's head. When Zeus shakes the aegis, it thunders and lightens, and horror and perdition fall upon those against whom it is lifted. It is borne not only by Zeus "the Aegis-bearer," but by his daughter Athena, and occasionally by Apollo. As the same word means a goatskin, it was explained in later times as the skin of the goat which had suckled Zeus in his infancy. At the bidding of the oracle, he drew it over his thunder-shield in the contest with the Giants, and fastened on it the Gorgon's head. When the aegis became a standing attribute of Athena, it was represented as a skin either shaggy or scaly, with a fringe of snakes and the Gorgon's head in the middle, and either serving the goddess as a breastplate, or hanging behind to screen the back and shoulders, or fastened like a shield on the left arm. AEGISTHUS Son of Thyestes and his daughter Pelopia. At his birth he was exposed by his mother, and brought up by shepherds. His uncle Atreus, husband to Pelopia, finds him and brings him to Mycenae, thinking him to be his own son; but Aegisthus and his real father contrive to kill him and seize the sovereignty of Mycenae. (See ATREUS. ) This position he loses again by his cousin Agamemnon's return from exile; but during that hero's absence at Troy he seduces his wife Clytaemnestra, and with her help slays him treacherously on his return. In the eighth year after this deed comes young Orestes, and avenges his father's death by slaying Aegisthus. AEGYPTUS Son of Belus and twin-brother of Danaus (q.v.), who subdued the land of the Melampodes (Blackfeet), and named it after himself. Ignorant of the fate of his fifty sons, he comes to Argos and there dies of grief at their death; another account represents his only surviving son as reconciling him to his brother. AELIANUS The Tactician, a Greek writer on war, about 100 A.D., composed a work dedicated to Trajan on the Greek order of battle, with special reference to Macedonian tactics (Taktike Theoria), which is extant both in its original and in an enlarged form. The original used falsely to be attributed to Arrian. AELIANUS Claudius Aelianus, called the Sophist, a Roman of Praeneste, who wrote in Greek, lived at Rome in the 2nd century A.D. as teacher of rhetoric. His surviving works are: (1) 20 insignificant Peasants' Letters, so called because attributed to Attic peasants; (2) Variae Historiae or miscellanies, in 14 books, some preserved only in extracts, and (3) De Natura Animalium. The two last-mentioned are copious and valuable collections of all kinds of curiosities in human and animal life, mostly taken from earlier writings now lost. AELIUS Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, a Roman grammarian born at Lanuvium, about 150 B.C., an eques, and friend of the post Lucilius, to whom lie dedicated his first book of Satires: surnamed Stilo (from stilus, pencil) because he wrote speeches for public men, and Praeconinus because his father was a crier (praeco). He was so strongly attached to the party of Optimates, that in 100 B.C. be voluntarily accompanied Metellus Numidicus into exile. After his return he became the master of Varro and Cicero. Well versed in Greek and Latin literature, he applied himself chiefly to studying the oldest relics of his native tongue, commented on the Liturgies of the Salian priests and the Laws of the Twelve Tables, and earned the honour of having rescued the ancient Latin language from oblivion, and preserved some knowledge of it to posterity. Such scanty remnants of it as have come down to us in glossaries and the like seem to be taken chiefly from his writings, now all lost. AENEAS Son of Anchises and Aphrodite. Born on the mountains of Ida, he is brought up till his fifth year by his brother-in-law Alcathous, or, according to another story, by the nymphs of Ida, and after his father's misfortune becomes ruler of Dardanos. Though near of kin to the royal house of Troy, he is in no hurry to help Priam till his own cattle are carried off by Achilles. Yet he is highly esteemed at Troy for his piety, prudence, and valour; and gods come to his assistance in battle. Thus Aphrodite and Apollo shield him when his life is threatened by Diomed, and Poseidon snatches him out of the combat with Achilles. But Priam does not love him, for he and his are destined hereafter to rule the Trojans. The story of his escape at the fall of Troy is told in several ways: one is, that he bravely cut his way through the enemy to the fastnesses of Ida; another, that, like Antenor, he was spared by the Greeks because he had always counselled peace and the surrender of Helena; a third, that he made his escape in the general confusion. The older legend represents him as staying in the country, forming a new kingdom out of the wreck of the Teucrian people, and handing it down to his posterity. Indeed several townships on Ida always claimed him as their founder. The story of his emigrating, freely or under compulsion from the Greeks, and founding a new kingdom beyond seas, is clearly of post-Homeric date. In the earlier legend he is represented as settling not very far from home; then they extended his wanderings to match those of Odysseus, always pushing the limit of his voyagings farther and farther west. The poet Stesichorus (about 600 B.C.) is, so far as we know, the first who brings him to Italy. Later, in face of the fast rising power of Rome, the Greeks conceived the notion that Aeneas must have settled in Latium and become the ancestor of these Romans. This had become a settled conviction in their minds by the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., when Timaeeus, in the Roman interest, completed the Legend of Aeneas, making room in it for Latian and Roman traditions; and at Rome it was soon taken up and developed into a dogma of the state religion, representing the antagonism between Greece and Rome, the new Troy. From that time verse and prose endeavoured to bring the various places with which the name of Aeneas was connected into historic and geographic harmony, now building on a bare resemblance of names, now following kindred tables and the holy places of Aphrodite Aineias, a goddess of sea and seafaring, whose temples were generally found on the coasts. Thus by degrees the story took in the main the shape so familiar to us in Vergil's Aeneid. Aeneas flees from the flames of Troy, bearing on his shoulders the stricken Anchises with the Penates, leading his boy Ascanius and followed by his wife Creusa (who is lost on the way), till he comes to Mount Ida. There he gathers the remnant of the Trojans in twenty ships, and sails by way of Thrace and Delos to Crete, imagining that to be the destination assigned him by Apollo. But driven thence by pestilence, and warned in a dream that Italy is his goal, be is first carried out of his course to Epirus, and then makes his way to Sicily, where his father dies. He has just set out to cross to the mainland, when a hurricane raised by his enemy Juno casts him on the coast of Carthage. Here Juno and Venus have agreed that he shall marry Dido; but at Jupiter's command he secretly quits Africa, and having touched at Sicily, Cumae, and Caieta. (Gaeta), arrives, after seven years' wandering, at the Tiber's mouth. Latinus, king of Latium, gives him leave to build a town, and betroths to him his daughter Lavinia. Turnus, king of the Rutuli, to whom she had been promised before, takes up arms in alliance with Mezentius of Caere; in twenty days the war is ended by Aeneas defeating both. According to another version (not Vergil's), he disappeared after the victory on the Numicius, and was worshipped as the god Jupiter Indiges. The Roman version, in its earliest forms, as we see it in Naevius and Ennius, brought Aeneas almost into contact with the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus being regarded as children of his daughter Ilia by the god Mars. In later times, to fill up duly the space between the Fall of Troy and the Founding of Rome, the line of Alban kings, descended from Silvius, his son by Lavinia, was inserted between him and Romulus. AENEAS Aeneas, named "the Tactician," a Greek military author, wrote about 350 B.C. a book on the Art of War, of which only a small part on siege-operations, usually entitled Poliorketikon, is preserved; it is clear in exposition, and contains much valuable historical information. AEOLUS In Homer a son of Hippotes, and a favourite of the gods, whom Zeus has appointed keeper of the winds. On his Aeolian island, floating in the far west, its steep cliff encircled by a brazen wall, he lives in unbroken bliss with his wife and his six sons and six daughters, whom he has wedded to one another. He hospitably entertains Odysseus, gives him the unfavourable winds shut up in a leathern bag, and a kindly breeze to waft him on his voyage. But when the hero's comrades open the bag, the winds break out and blow him back to the Aeolian Isle; then Aeolus drives him from his door as one hateful to the gods. In the later legend he dwells on one of the Aeolian isles to the north of Sicily, Lipara, or Strongyle, where, throned on a mountain, he holds the winds imprisoned in the hollow of the same; yet he does not seem to have received real worship. He was, moreover, brought into genealogical connection with Aeolus of Thessaly, whose son Mimas begets Hippotes, and he (by Melanippe) a second Aeolus, king of Aeolis in Aetolia; this Aeolus gives his daughter Arne, the beloved of Poseidon, to a guest-friend from Metapontum in Lucania, where she has two sons by the god, the third Aeolus and Boeotus. These, adopted by the Metapontian, kill his wife Antolyte and run away, Boeotus returning with Arne to his grandfather, and Aeolus settling in the isles named after him, and founding the city of Lipara. AERARII By the constitution of Servius Tullius (see CENTURIA ), the Aerarii were citizens not settled on land of their own, and therefore not included in any one of the property-classes founded on landownership. The term was also applied to those standing outside of the tribal union, who were excluded from the right of voting and from military service, and were bound to pay a poll-tax in proportion to their means. Citizens in the classes and tribes could be expelled from their tribe by the censors in punishment for any fault, and placed among the Aerarii. But when the latter were likewise admitted into the tribes (B.C. 308), being enrolled in the city tribes (B.C. 304), which were on that account less esteemed than the country ones, a penal transfer to the Aerarii consisted in expulsion from one's proper tribe and removal to one of the city tribes till at least the next census. AERARIUM The state-treasury of Rome, into which flowed the revenues ordinary and extraordinary, and out of which the needful expenses were defrayed. It was kept in the basement of the temple of Saturn, under the charge of the gumstors. A special reserve fund was the Aerarium sanctius, in which the proceeds of receipts from the manumission-tax (one twentieth of the freed slave's value) were deposited in gold ingots. When Augustus divided the provinces into senatorial and imperatorial, there were two chief treasuries. The senatorial treasury, which was still kept in the temple of Saturn, was left under the control of the senate, but only as a matter of formal right. Practically it passed into the hands of the emperors, who also brought the management of the treasuries under their own eye by appointing, instead of the quaestors, two praefecti aerarii taken from those who had served as praetors. Besides, they diverted into their own Fiscus all the larger revenues, even those that legally belonged to the Aerarium. When in course of time the returns from all the provinces flowed into the imperial treasury, the senatorial Aerarium continued to exist as the city treasury. The Aerarium militare was a pension-fund founded by Augustus in A.D. 6, for disabled soldiers. Its management was entrusted to three praeefecti aerarii militaris. It was maintained out of the interest on a considerable fund, and the proceeds of the heritage and sale duties. AEROPE Daughter to Catreus of Crete (q.v.), who was given up by her father to Nauplius to be sold abroad. Married to Atreus (q.v.), she bore Agamemnon and Menelaus, but was thrown into the sea by her husband for her adultery with his brother Thyestes. AESACUS Son of Priam by Arisbe, who had learnt the art of interpreting dreams from his maternal grandfather Merops, and being consulted by his father as to Hecuba's bad dreams before the birth of Paris, advised him to expose a child so clearly doomed to be the destruction of Troy. In despair at having caused the death of his wife Asterope (or Hesperia) he threw himself into the sea, and was changed into a bird, the diver. AESCHINES Aeschines, the Orator, born at Athens B.C. 389, in a low station. As a youth, he assisted his father in keeping an elementary school, then acted as clerk to several inferior magistrates, was for a time an actor in third-rate parts, till an accident removed him from the stage, when he became secretary to the esteemed orators and statesmen Aristophon and Eubulus, at whose recommendation he was twice elected to a government clerkship. Having thus acquired a sound knowledge of the laws and of legal proceedings, and being gifted with considerable talent, fine elocution and a dignified manner, to which his experience on the stage had contributed, he now came forward as a public speaker, and soon became an important personage. As a member of the embassy sent to Philip of Macedon for the conclusion of peace, B.C. 347, he was won over by the king to second the plans which proved so fatal to Athens, and was therefore accused of high treason by Timarchus and Demosthenes in B.C. 345; but he managed to clear himself by a triumphant attack on the private life of Timarchus. In B.C. 342 Demosthenes, who hated him, the head of the Macedonian party, as bitterly as he was hated by him, renewed the charge in his oration On the False Embassy. Aeschines, however, met it successfully by an equally brilliant speech bearing the same title. His unpatriotic conduct occasioned the war with Philip, which led to the overthrow of the Athenians and Thebans at Chaeronea, 338, and set the seal to the Macedonian supremacy over Greece. His own fall at last was brought on by his hatred of Demosthenes. Aeschines had previously brought a charge of illegality against Ctesiphon for proposing the distinction of a golden crown for Demosthenes. The charge was repeated B.C. 330, in a brilliant oration nominally directed Against Ctesiphon, but really aimed at his old rival. He was completely crushed by Demosthenes' great speech On the Crown, and being condemned to pay a fine of 1,000 drachmas, went into voluntary exile at Rhodes, where he is said to have opened a school of oratory. Thence he removed to Samos, and died B.C. 314. Beside the three orations named (Against Timarchus, On the False Embassy, Against Ctesiphon), we have under his name a collection of twelve letters professing to be written from Rhodes, but really forged by a later hand. Among the orators of his time Aeschines ranks next to Demosthenes. His orations are elaborated with the utmost care and reflexion,they have fulness, force, smoothness, and grace; but lack the terseness, the rhythm, and the moral inspiration of those of Demosthenes. They were spoken of in antiquity as the Three Graces. AESCHINES The Socratic, son of a sausage-maker at Athens, lived in the most pinching poverty, but would not let it discourage him in his zeal for learning. Some time after the death of Socrates, to whom he had clung with faithful affection, in B.C. 399, Aeschines, probably to mend his fortunes, removed to Syracuse, and there found a patron in the younger Dionysius. On the fall of that tyrant, he returned to Athens, and supported himself by writing speeches for public men. He composed Dialogues, which were prized for their faithful descriptions of Socrates, and the elegance of their style. Three pseudo-Platonic dialogues are conjecturally ascribed to him; That Virtue can be Taught; Axiochus, or on Death, and Eryxias, or on Riches. But it is doubtful whether they are really from his hand. AESCHYLUS The earliest of the three great tragic poets of Greece, son of Euphorion. He was born at Eleusis, near Athens, B.C. 525, of an old and noble stock, fought at Marathon, Salamis and Plataeae, and in his 25th year appeared as a writer of tragedies and rival of Pratinas and Choerilus, though he did not win his first victory till 488 B.C. About 476 he lived in Sicily, at the court of Hiero of Syracuse, and composed his Aetnoeans for the consecration of the city of Aetna, founded by that king in the place of the ancient Catana. On his return to Athens he was beaten by the young Sophocles with his very first play, but vanquished him again the next year with the Tetralogy of which the Seven against Thebes formed a part. After the performance of his Oresteia, B.C. 459, he quitted home once more, perhaps in disgust at the growing power of the democracy; and after three years' residence at Gela in Sicily, was killed, says one story, by an eagle dropping a tortoise on his bare skull. The inhabitants of Gela buried his remains, and honoured them with a splendid monument. At a later time the Athenians, on the motion of the orator Lycurgus, placed a brazen statue of him, as well as of Sophocles and Euripides, in the theatre; by a decree of the people a chorus was granted for every performance of his plays, and the garland of victory voted him as though be were still living among them. His tragedies, like those of the other two, were preserved in a special standard copy, to guard them against arbitrary alterations. His son Euphorion was also an esteemed tragic poet, so was his sister's son Philocles and his descendants for several generations. (See TRAGEDY. ) The number of Aeschylus's plays is stated as 90, of which 82 are still known by title, but only 7 are preserved: (1) The Persians, performed in 473 B.C., was named from the chorus. Its subject was the same as that of Phrynichus' Phaenissae, the defeat of Xerxes at Salamis, but was differently treated. (2) The Seven against Thebes, part of a Tetralogy, embracing the cycle of Theban legend, of which Laius and OEdipus formed the first two pieces, and the satyric drama Sphinx the conclusion. (3) The Suppliants, the reception of Danaus and his daughters at Argos, evidently part of another Tetralogy, and, to judge by the simple plot and its old-fashioned treatment, one of his earliest works. (4) Prometheus Bound, part of a Trilogy, the Prometheia, whose first and last pieces were probably Prometheus the Fire-bringer and Prometheus Unbound. Lastly, the Oresteia, the one Trilogy which has survived, consisting of the three tragedies, (5) Agamemnon, the murder of that hero on his return home; (6) The Choephoroe, named from the chorus of captive Trojan women offering libations at Agamemnon's tomb, in which Orestes avenges himself on Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra; and (7) The Eumenides, in which Orestes, pursued by the Furies, is acquitted by the Areopagus at Athens. This Trilogy, composed B.C. 458, and probably the last work exhibited by Aeschylus at Athens, gives us an idea of the whole artistic conception of the poet, and must be looked upon as one of the greatest works of art ever produced. The style is marked by sublimity and majesty, qualities partly attributable to the courageous and serious temper of the time, but chiefly the offspring of the poet's individuality, which took delight in all that is great and grand, and loved to express itself in strong, sonorous words, an accumulation of epithets, and a profusion of bold metaphors and similes. His view of the universe reveals a profoundly philosophic mind, so that the ancients call him a Pythagorean; at the same time he is penetrated by a heartfelt piety, which conceives of the gods as powers working in the interest of morality. However simple the plot of his plays, they display an art finished to the minutest detail. His Trilogies either embraced one complete cycle of myths, or united separate legends according to their moral or mythical affinity; even the satyric dramas attached to the Tragedies Stand in intimate connexion with them. Aeschylus is the true creator of Tragedy, inasmuch as, by adding a second actor to the first, he originated the genuine dramatic dialogue, which he made the chief part of the play by gradually cutting down the lyrical or choral parts. Scenic apparatus he partly created and partly completed. He introduced masks for the players, and by gay and richly embroidered trailing garments, the high buskin, head-dresses, and other means, gave them a grand imposing aspect above that of common men; and he fitted up the stage with decorative painting and machinery. According to the custom of the time, he acted in his own plays, practised the chorus in their songs and dances, and himself invented new dance figures. son of Cretheus by Tyro (see AeOLUS , 1), king of Iolcos in Thessaly, was deposed by his half-brother Pelias, and killed while his son Jason was away on the Argonautic Expedition. (Comp. ARGONAUTS. AESOPUS The famous writer of fables, the first author who created an independent class of stories about animals, so that in a few generations his name and person had become typical of that entire class of literature. In course of time, thanks to his plain, popular manner, the story of his own life was enveloped in an almost inextricable tissue of tales and traditions, which represent him as an ugly hunchback and buffoon. In the Middle Ages these were woven into a kind of romance. A Phrygian by birth, and living in the time of the Seven Sages, about 600 B.C., he is said to have been at first a slave to several masters, till Iadmon of Samos set him free. That he next lived at the court of Croesus, and being sent by him on an embassy to Delphi, was murdered by the priests there, is pure fiction. Under his name were propagated in all parts of Greece, at first only by tradition in the mouth of the people, a multitude of prose tales teaching the lessons of life under the guise of fables about animals. We know how Socrates,during his last days in prison, was engaged in turning the fables of Aesop into verse, The first written collection appears to have been set on foot by Demetrius of Phalerum, B.C. 00. The collections of Aesop's Fables that have come down to us are, in part, late prose renderings of the version in choliambics by Babrius (q.v.), which still retain here and there a scrap of verse; partly products of the rhetorical schools, and therefore of very different periods and degrees of merit. AESYMNETAE A name given in some Greek cities to the ordinary magistrates and judicial functionaries. In earlier times the term was also applied to persons appointed for a definite term (or until the completion of their task) for putting an end, by legislation, to internal quarrels. Sometimes an aesymnetes was voluntarily chosen by the community for life, and entrusted with supreme and unlimited power. The office of aesymnetes may to a certain extent be compared with the Roman dictatorship, though the latter was never conferred without a strict limitation of time. AETHRA daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezen, mother of Thresus by Aegeus. or, according to another account, by Poseidon. While Homer merely mentions her as a servant of Helen at Troy, later legend adds that, when the Dioscuri took Aphidnae and set free their sister whom Theseus had carried off, they conveyed Aethra to Sparta as a slave, whence she accompanied Helen to Troy; and that on the fall of that city, they brought her grandsons Acamas and Demophoon back to Athens. AGATHIAS Of Myrina in Asia Minor, Greek poet and historian, born about 530 A.D., lived at Constantinople as a jurist,.and died about 582. By his Kyklos, a collection of his own and contemporary poems, topically arranged in eight books, he helped to originate the Greek ANTHOLOGY (q.v.), which still contains 101 epigrams by him. In his last years he wrote, in a laboured florid style, a history of Justinian in five books, treating of the years A.D. 552-8 in continuation of Procopius. AGATHODAEMON In Greek mythology a good spirit of the cornfields and vineyards, to whom libations of unmixed wine were made at meals. In works of art be is represented as a youth, holding in one hand a horn of plenty and a bowl, in the other a poppy and ears of corn. (Comp. EVENTUS. AGATHON A tragic poet of Athens, born B.C. 448, a friend of Euripides and Plato, universally celebrated for his beauty and refined culture. The banquet he gave in honour of his dramatic victory of B.C. 417 is immortalized in Plato's Symposion. He was, together with Euripides, at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, and probably died there about B.C. 402. He appears to have carried still further the rhetorical manner of Euripides, adopting entirely the views of the sophist Gorgias; and his namby-pamby style is ridiculed by Aristophanes. On the stage he introduced several innovations: he was the first to make the chorus a mere intermezzo, having nothing to do with the action, and in his tragedy of Anthos (=flower) he invented both characters and plot for himself, instead of resorting to old myths. AGENOR Son of Antenor by Theano, a priestess of Athena, and one of the bravest heroes of Troy. In Homer he leads the Trojans in storming the Greek entrenchments, rescues Hector when thrown down by Ajax, and even enters the lists with Achilles, but is saved from imminent danger by Apollo. In the post-Homeric legend he dies by the hand of Neoptolemus. AGER PUBLICUS The Latin name for the State domains, formed of territory taken from conquered states. The Romans made a practice, upon every new acquisition of land, of adding a part of it, usually a third, to the domain. So far as this land was under culture, portions of it were sometimes assigned to single citizens or newly-founded colonies in fee simple, sometimes sold by the quaestors on the condition that, though the purchaser might bequeath and alienate it, it still remained State property. In token of this it paid a substantial or merely nominal rent (vectigal), and was called ager privatus vectigalisque or quaestorius. The greater part was left to the old occupiers, yet not as free property, but as rent-paying land, and was called ager publicus stipendiarius datus assignatus; the rest remained under State management, and was let by the Censors. Of uncultivated districts, the State, by public proclamation, gave a provisional right of seisin, occupatio, with a view to cultivation, in consideration of a tithe of the com raised and a fifth of the fruit, and reserving its right of resumption. Such seisin was called possessio. It could be bequeathed or otherwise alienated, yet never became private property, but remained a rent-paying and resumable property of the State. Though the Plebeians had as good a right to occupy lands won by their aid as the Patricians, yet in the early times of the Republic this right was exercised by the latter alone, partly because they had the greater command of means and men, and partly because by the right of the stronger they excluded the Plebeians from benefiting by the Ager Publicus. Against this usurpation the Plebeians waged a bitter and unbroken warfare, claiming not only a share in newly conquered lands, but a wholesale redistribution of existing possessiones, while the Patricians strained every nerve to maintain their vested interests, and managed to thwart the execution of all the enactments passed from time to time in favour of the Plebeians. Even the law of the tribune Gaius Licinius Stolo (B.C. 377), limiting possessiones to 500 iugera (acres) per man, and ordering the distribution of the remainder, were from the first eluded by the possessores, who now included both Patricians and well-to-do Plebeians. Allpossible means were employed, as pretended deeds of gift and other similar devices. The threatened extinction of the Italian peasantry by the great wars, and the rapid growth of huge estates (latifundia) worked by slaves, occasioned the law of Tiberius Gracchus (B.C. 133), retaining the Licinian limit of 500 acres, but allowing another 250 for each son, and granting compensation for lands resumed by the State. The land thus set free, and all the Ager Publicus that had been leased, except a few domains indispensable to the State, were to be divided among poor citizens, but on the condition that each allotment paid a quit-rent, and was not to be alienated. But again, the the resistance of the nobility practically reduced this law to a dead letter; and the upshot of the whole agrarian movement stirred up by Tiberius and his brother Gaius Gracchus was, that the wealthy Romans were not only left undisturbed in their possessiones, but were released from paying rent. In the civil wars of Sulla the Ager Publicus in Italy, which had been nearly all used up in assignations, received so vast an increase by the extermination of whole townships, by proscriptions and confiscations, that even after all the soldiers had been provided for, there remained a portion undistributed. Under the Empire there was hardly any left in Italy; what there was, whether in Italy or in the provinces, came gradually under the control of the imperial exchequer. AGES The age of gold, in which Kronos or Saturnus was king. During this period mankind enjoyed perpetual youth, joy, and peace undisturbed, reaping in their fulness the fruits which the earth spontaneously brought forth. Death came upon them like a soft slumber; and after it they became good daemones, watching men like guardians in their deeds of justice and injustice, and hovering round them with gifts of wealth. AGES The golden age was succeeded by that of silver. This was inferior to the golden both in physical and mental force. The people of the silver age remained for a hundred years in the condition of children, simple and weakly. Even if they attained maturity, their folly and arrogance prevented their living long. They continued to exist after death as spirits, living beneath the earth, but not immortal. AGNATIO The Latin name for the relationship of real or adoptive descent from one father, which was necessarily expressed by identity of clan-name (see NAME , 2.) A brother and sister were agnati, but her children were no longer agnati to his. At first agnati alone were entitled to inherit property or act as guardians; it was but gradually that the cognati (q.v.) came to have a place by their side, till Justinian abolished the right of agnates, and brought that of cognates to complete recognition. AGON The Greek name for a musical (=artistic) or gymnastic contest. The umpires who conducted them, and gave away the prizes, were called Agonothetae. (On those who officiated at scenic games in Athens, see DRAMA. ) At Rome such contests modelled on those of the Greeks, became frequent before the fall of the Republic; under the Empire they came round at periods of several years, like the great Grecian games. The most famous of all, which held its ground to the end of antiquity, was the Agon Capitolinus, founded by Domitian in 86 A.D., and recurring every four years. He had an Odieum (q.v.) built for the musical performances, and a Stadion for the athletic combats, both in the Campus Martius. Another great Agon was held in 248 A.D. in honour of the city having stood for a thousand years. AGORA The Greek name for the market-place, a consecrated open space, which in coast towns usually lay on the seaside, in inland towns at the foot of the castle hill. As the centre of the city life, commercial, political, and religious, it was adorned with temples, statues, and public buildings, and planted with trees, especially planes. When newly built or rebuilt in late times, it was generally square, and surrounded by colonnades. In most towns it was the place for assemblies of the people. AGORACRITUS A Greek artist of Paros, who lived in the latter half of the 5th century B.C., and was a favourite pupil of Phidias. His noblest work was considered to be the statue of Nemesis, 40 feet in height, which some judges, on account of its excellence, took for a production of the elder artist. In any case it was said that Phidias had allowed the name of Agoracritus to be inscribed on several of his works. AGORANOMUS In many Greek towns a magistrate somewhat resembling the Roman aedile. At Athens ten agoranomi were chosen by lot every year five for the city, and five for the port of Piraeus. They looked especially after the retail trade, gave strangers leave to engage in it, tested weights and measures, as well as the quality of goods confiscating and destroying what was spoilt; they settled disputes between buyers and sellers on the spot, or, if a suit at law was necessary, presided over it [Aristotle's Const. of Athens, c. 51]. AGRICULTURE In Italy. In Italy also the existence of the community was regarded as based upon agriculture. This is proved by the practice of marking the site of the future walls of a new town by a furrow drawn with the plough. At Rome especially, the body of irremovable peasantry long formed the core of the commonwealth. In political life the free peasant was the only factor held in account, and accordingly in war the object was to increase the number of free peasants by planting them out on as much of borderland as could be wrested from the enemy. In early times agriculture was thought the only respectable calling in which a Roman citizen could engage; and manual labour on the land was held in unqualified esteem and as bringing no disgrace even upon persons in high place. Husbandry was mainly directed to the raising of grain, the ordinary cereal being at first spelt, till, in the 5th century B.C., wheat began to take a place beside it. They also cultivated barley, millet, and leguminous plants, as well as turnips, greens, and herbs for fodder. On irrigation and drainage the Italians bestowed much pains. They had no lack of grass-lands, either for pasture or haymaking; and from an early time these were artificially watered. The cultivation of the vine and olive extended as that of grains declined (see below); so did the growth of orchard-fruit, which, under the late Republic and the early Empire, received a vast expansion both from the improvement of native kinds and the introduction and naturalization of many foreign fruits. In earlier times the prime favourite among fruit trees had been, as in Greece, the nutritious fig. Agriculture proper was ruined by the acquisition of the first extra-Italian possessions, Sicily and Sardinia; for the corn supplied by the provincials as tribute in kind began to be used, not only in provisioning the armies, but in feeding the urban population. (See ANNONA. ) As the State, to humour the rabble of Rome, sold this corn at the lowest possible prices, sometimes even below its value, the growth of cereals ceased to be profitable; farmers kept it down to a minimum, and took to cattle-breeding or raising wine and oil. These branches of industry not only flourished in the face of competition, but with judicious management were highly remunerative. The death-blow was given to the Italian peasantry by the increasing employment of slaves and the absorption of small farms in large estates (see LATIFUNDIUM ). On these, besides the growth of wine, oil, and fruit, the breeding of birds, game, and cattle was carried on, as well as woodcraft, and special industries, pottery, charcoal-burning, and others. Farming implements, in addition to the plough (q.v.) usually drawn by oxen, which was much the same among Greeks and Romans, and always very imperfect, included a great variety of spades, hoes, and mattocks, and among Romans the harrow, the use of which among the Greeks is doubted. The season for sowing all cereals was usually autumn. At harvest the stalks were cut with the sickle about half-way down, and the rest left standing as stubble, to be either burnt or utilized for manure. The process of threshing (q.v.) was very defective. (For ancient works on husbandry, see GEOPONICI. ) AGRICULTURE Agriculture was in Greece a leading industry, at least as early as Homer. The soil was stubborn, fertile plains being comparatively few, and mountains and rocky ground preponderating. But, favoured by a genial climate, agriculture was carried on almost everywhere with a zeal to which the wants of a dense population added their stimulus. That it was regarded as the very groundwork of social life is shown by the fact that its guardian goddess Demeter (Lat. Ceres), presided also over wedlock and law. It was looked upon as the most legitimate way of earning a livelihood. It was carried to the highest pitch in the Peloponnesus, where every scrap of cultivable soil was made to yield its crop, as maybe seen to this day by the artificial terraces that scarp every mountain-slope. Much care was bestowed on irrigation. Scarcity of water was supplemented by artificial means; provision was made against irregular bursts of mountain torrents by embarking and regulating the natural outlets, while moist lands were channelled and stagnant waters drained. Water was distributed everywhere by ditches and canals, under the supervision of State officials; and laws of ancient date guarded against the unfair use of a water-course to a neighbour's damage. The land was mainly cultivated by slaves and serfs, though field-labour was not deemed dishonourable to the freeman, ex- cept where law and custom forbade his engaging in any sort of handicraft, as at Sparta. In some countries, especially Arcadia, the old-world plan of every man tilling his field with his own hand remained in force to the latest times; and even eminent statesmen like Philopoemen would not give it up. Four kinds of grain were chiefly grown: wheat, barley, and two kinds of spelt, to all of which the climate allowed two sowings in the year, beside millet, sesame, various leguminous plants, and several sorts of herbage for fodder. With no less diligence was Greek husbandry applied to gardening, especially to the cultivation of the vine. This, while steadily pursued on the mainland, was developed to an extraordinary extent in the islands, most of which, owing to their mountainous character, did not afford their inhabitants sufficient arable soil. In olive-culture no part of Greece competed with Attica, which also produced the best figs, the fruit most widely cultivated. Kitchen-gardening was practised on the largest scale in Boeotia. Considering the enormous consumption of flowers in wreaths, the rearing of them, especially of the rose, lily, narcissus, and violet, must have been a lucrative business, at least in the neighbourhood of great towns. Meadow-farming was of next to no importance, few districts having a soil adapted for it, and such meadows as there were being used for pasture rather than haymaking. AGRIMENSORES The Latin name for land-surveyors, otherwise called gromatici, from groma, their measuring instrument. This consisted of two dioptric rods crossing each other at right angles and fastened on an iron stand so as to turn horizontally; on the four arms stood four upright dioptrae, with threads stretched across the holes, and in taking observations the threads of two opposite dioptrae had to cover each other. The measuring was done on the same principle as the marking-out of a templum by the Augurs (q.v.), viz. by drawing in the centre of the piece of land two lines intersecting at right angles, one from north to south (cardo maximus), the other from east to west (decumanus maximus); the further division of the ground was effected by parallels to these lines (limites). It was not until the imperial period that land-surveying became a separate profession. Then surveyors were prepared in special schools and appointed by the State, both for quarter-master's duty in camp and for measurements under Government; they decided as judges in fixing boundaries, and were consulted as specialists in disputes affecting land. Thus a literature arose, half mathematical, half legal, the remains of which extend over the first six centuries A.D. The earliest of these gromatici, or writers on land-measurement, is Frontinus (q.v.), from whose work, written from 81-96 A.D. and dealing more with the legal side of the subject, extracts are preserved in the commentary of Aggenus Urbicus. Hyginus, Balbus, and probably Siculus Flaccus, flourished in the time of Trajan; later still, Nipsus, Innocentius, and Aggenus. AGRIPPA Born B.C. 63, died B.C. 12. He was the friend, son-in-law, general, and minister of Augustus. He was also a speaker and writer of some repute. Under his supervision was carried out the great survey of the Roman empire which Caesar had begun in 44 B.C. With the help of the materials thus obtained he constructed a circular Map of the World. About B.C. 7, Augustus had it engraved on a large scale in marble, and set up for public use in the colomnade built by Agrippa's sister Polla (porticus Pollae). It may be regarded as the source and model of all succeeding aids to geography, especially the Itineraries (q.v.) and the Peutinger Table. A book on the results of the survey, which Agrippa had begun writing, was continued and published, by order of Augustus, under the title of Chorographia. AIAS Son of Telamon of Salamis, and half-brother of Teucer: called the Great Aias, because he stood head and shoulders higher than the other Greek heroes. He brings twelve ships to Troy, where he proves himself second only to Achilles in strength and bravery; and while that hero holds aloof from the fight, he is the mainstay of the Achaeans, especially when the Trojans have taken their camp by storm and are pushing the battle to their ships. In the struggle over the corpse of Patroclus, he and his namesake the son of Oileus cover Menelaus and Meriones while they carry off their fallen comrade. When Thetis offered the arms and armour of Achilles as a prize for the worthiest, they were adjudged, not to Aias, but to his only competitor Odysseus. Trojan captives bore witness that the cunning of Odysseus had done them more harm than the valour of Achilles. Aias thereupon, according to the post-Homeric legend, killed himself in anger, a feeling he still cherished against Odysseus even in the lower world. The later legend relates that he was driven mad by the slight, mistook the flocks in the camp for his adversaries, and slaughtered them, and on coming to his senses again, felt so mortified that he fell on his sword, the gift of Hector after the duel between them. Out of his blood sprang the purple lily, on whose petals could be traced the first letters of his name, Ai, Ai. His monument stood on the Rhoetean promontory, where he had encamped before Troy, and upon which the waves washed the coveted arms of Achilles after the shipwreck of Odysseus. As the national hero of Salamis, he had a temple and statue there, and a yearly festival, the Aianteia; and he was worshipped at Athens, where the tribe Aiantis was named after him. He too was supposed to linger with Achilles in the island of Leuce. By Tecmessa, daughter of the Phrygian king Teuthras, whom he had captured in one of the raids from before Troy, he had a son Eurysaces, who is said to have removed from Salamis to Attica with his son or brother Phihaeus, and founded flourishing families, which produced many famous men, for instance Miltiades, Cimon, Alcibiades, and the historian Thucydides. AIAS Son of the Locrian king Oileus, hence called the Locrian or Lesser Aias in contrast to the Telamonian. In forty ships he led the Locrians to Troy, where, notwithstanding his small stature and light equipment, he distinguished himself beside his gigantic namesake, especially in the battle by the ships and that over the body of Patroclus. He was renowned for hurling the spear, and as the swiftest runner next to Achilles. On his voyage home, to appease the anger of Athena, he suffered shipwreck on the Gyraean rocks off the island of Myconos or (according to another story) on the southernmost point of Euboea. Poseidon indeed rescued him on the rocks; but when he boasted of having escaped against the will of the gods, the sea-king with his trident smote off the rock on which he sat, and he sank in the waves. Later accounts say that the goddess's anger fell upon him because, at the taking of Troy, when Cassandra had taken refuge at her altar and embraced her image, he tore her away by force, so that the statue fell. Though Agamemnon took the maiden from him, the Greeks left the outrage on the goddess unpunished, and on their way home she wreaked her wrath on the whole fleet. He, like other heroes, was said to be still living with Achilles in the island of Leuce. The Locrians worshipped him as a hero, and always left a vacant place for him in the line of battle. ALA a wing in the line of battle. Till the extension of the citizenship to the Italian allies, the wings consisted of their contingents, viz. 10,000 foot and 1,800 horse to every consular army of two legions. Thus ala came to mean the allied contingent that composed a wing (see COHORT and LEGION ). But it meant more especially, in contrast to the cohorts that made up the infantry of the allies, the cavalry of the contingent, viz. on an average 300 men (5 turmae, of 60 each). During the imperial period, when all the cavalry was raised in the provinces, the name of ala was given to a cavalry division of 500 or else 1,000 men, the one divided into 16, the other into 24 turmae. The alae were commanded by praefecti equitum. ALBUM The Latin word for a board chalked or painted white, on which matters of public interest were notified in black writing. In this way were published the yearly records of the pontifex (see ANNALES ), the edicts of praetors (q.v.), the roll of senators, the lists of jurors, etc. ALCAEUS A famous lyric poet of Mytilene in Lesbos, an elder contemporary of Sappho. Towards the end of the 7th century B.C., as the scion of a noble house, he headed the aristocratic party in their contests with the tyrants of his native town, Myrsilus, Melanchrus, and others. Banished from home, he went on romantic expeditions as far as Egypt. When the tyrants were put down, and his former comrade, the wise Pittacus, was called by the people to rule the State, he took up arms against him also as a tyrant in disguise; but attempting to force his return home, he fell into the power of his opponent, who generously forgave him. Of his further life nothing is known. His poems in the Aeolic dialect, arranged in ten books by the Alexandrians, consisted of hymns, political songs (which formed the bulk of the collection), drinking songs, and love songs, of which we have but a few miserable fragments. In the opinion of the ancients, his poems were well constructed, while their tone tallied with the lofty passion and manly vigour of his character. The alcaic strophe, so much used by his admirer and not unworthy imitator, Horace, is named after him. [For a relief representing Alcaeus and Sappho, see SAPPHO. ] ALCAMENES A Greek artist of Athens or Lemnos, and a pupil of Phidias, who flourished towards the end of the 5th century B.C. Following his master's ideal tendency, he devoted himself mainly to religious subjects, working like him in various materials, gold and ivory, bronze and marble. His statue of the winner in the Pentathlon was stamped as classic by the epithet of Enkrinomenos, as the Doryphoros of Polyclitus was by that of Kanon. About 436 B.C. he was employed with Phidias in decorating the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The marble groups of the battle of Centaurs and Lapithae in its western pediment are his work. Of these considerable remains have been brought to light by the recent German excavations. (See OLYMPIAN GAMES , fig. 2.) ALCATHOUS The son of Pelops and Hippodameia. He slew the lion of Cithaeron, which had torn to pieces Euippus, the son of Megareus. Thus he won the daughter of Megareus, Euaechma, and the sovereignty of Megara. With Apollo for his friend and helper, he rebuilt the city walls, and reared one of the two castles, Alcathoe, with temples to Artemis and Apollo. A singing stone in the castle was shown as the one on which the god laid down his lyre when at work. Alcathous' eldest son, Ischepolis, fell in the Calydonian hunt; the second, Callipolis, running in with the news to his father when sacrificing to Apollo, scattered the altar fire, and Alcathous struck him dead with a firebrand for the supposed sacrilege. By his daughters Automedusa and Periboea, the wives of Iphicles and Telamon, he was grandfather to Iolaus and Aias (Ajax). ALCIDAMAS A Greek rhetorician of Elaea in Aeo1is, pupil and successor of Gorgias, a contemporary and opponent of Isocrates. Two declamations, bearing his name, have come down to us, one an imaginary indictment of Palamedes by Odysseus, the other a speech on the Sophists; but the latter only can with any probability be attributed to him. It is a cleverly written argument, intended to show that the culmination of rhetorical training consists in the power of speaking extempore on any subject from mere notes of the arrangement; not the practice of carefully writing out speeches, and then learning them by heart for public delivery. King of the Phaeacians (q.v.), with whom Odysseus, and in later legend Jason and Medea, find shelter and aid. (See ODYSSEUS and ARGONAUTS. ALCIPHRON A Greek rhetorician of the 2nd century A.D., author of a collection of 118 fictitious Letters in three books. These, written in tolerably pure style and tasteful form, profess to be from sailors, peasants, parasites, and hetaerae. They are sketches of character, ingeniously conceived and carried out, which give us a vivid picture of the then state of culture, especially at Athens; the letters from hetaerae are particularly interesting, as their plots are taken from the New Attic Comedy, especially the lost plays of Menander. ALCMAEON of Argos. Son of Amphiaraus (q.v.) and Eriphyle. As his father, in departing on the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, has bound him and his brother Amphilochus, then mere boys, to avenge him on their faithless mother, Alcmaeon refuses to take part in the second expedition, that of the Epigoni (q.v.), till he has first fulfilled that filial duty; nevertheless his mother, bribed by Thersander with the garment of Harmonia, persuades him to go. The real leader at the siege of Thebes, he slays the Theban king, Laodamas, and is the first to enter the conquered city. On returning home, he, at the bidding of the Delphian Apollo, avenges his father by slaying his mother, with, or according to some accounts, without, his brother's help; but immediately, like Orestes; he is set upon by the Erinyes, and wanders distracted, seeking purification and a new home. Phegeus, of the Arcadian Psophis, half purifies him of his guilt, and gives him his daughter Arsinoe or Alphesiboea to wife, to whom he presents the jewels of Harmonia, which he has brought from Argos. But soon the crops fail in the land, and he falls into his distemper again, till, after many wanderings, he arrives at the mouth of the Achelous, and there, in an island that has floated up, he finds the country promised by the god, which had not existed at the time of his dying mother's curse, and so he is completely cured. He marries Achelous' daughter, Callirrhoe, by whom he has two sons, Acarnan and Amphoterus. Unable to withstand his wife's entreaties that she may have Harmonia's necklace and robe, he goes to Phegeus in Arcadia, and begs those treasures of him, pretending that he will dedicate them at Delphi for the perfect healing of his madness. He obtains them; but Phegeus, on learning the truth, sets his sons to waylay him on his road, and rob him of his treasure and his life; and then Alcmaeon's two sons avenge their father's death on these murderers. Alcmaeon, like his father, received divine honours after death; he had a sanctuary at Thebes, and at Psophis a consecrated tomb. ALCMAN The founder of Dorian lyric poetry, a Lydian of Sardes. He came to Sparta in his youth as a slave, was set free, and seems even to have received the citizenship; he flourished in the latter half of the 7th century B.C. He abandoned the old nomic or dithyrambic poetry, written in hexameters, and composed in various metres Hymns, Paeans, Prosodia, Parthenia, Scolia, and Erotics, the last of which he was supposed to have invented. His dialect was the Doric, softened by Epic and Aeolic forms. Of his six books of poems a few fragments only are preserved; one, a rather long one, was found in Egypt. ALCMENE Daughter of Electryon, wife of Amphitryon (q.v.), mother of Heracles by Zeus. On her connexion with Rhadamanthys, see RHADAMANTHYS. After her son's translation to the gods she fled from the face of Eurystheus to Athens, but went back to Thebes, and died there at a great age. She was worshipped at Thebes, and had an altar in the temple of Heracles at Athens. ALEXIS Alexis and Antiphanes were the most prolific and important writers of the Middle Attic Comedy. Alexis was born at Thurii, B.C. 392. He attained the age of 106, writing to the last, and is said to have died on the stage with the crown on his head. He was the reputed author of 245 plays, of which numerous extracts are still extant, showing considerable wit and elegance of language. He was uncle to the poet Menander. ALIMENTIRII The Latin name, during the imperial period, for children of needy but free-born parents, who, out of the in- terest of funds invested for the purpose, received monthly contributions to their support in goods or money up to a certain age (fixed in the case of boys at eighteen, in that of girls at fourteen). This scheme, the object of which was to encourage people to marry, and so to check the alarming decrease of the free population, was started by the Emperor Nerva (A.D. 96-98), and extended by Trajan to the whole of Italy. Succeeding emperors also, down to Alexander Severus (222-235), founded such bursaries; and private citizens in Italy and the provinces, as, for instance the younger Pliny, vied with them in their liberality. ALOADAE Sons of Poseidon by Iphimedeia, the wife of Aloeus, son of Canace (see Aeolos, 1) and Poseidon; their names were Ephialtes and Otus. They grew, every year an ell in breadth and a fathom in length, so that in nine years' time they were thirty-six feet broad and fifty-four feet high. Their strength was such that they chained up the god Ares and kept him in a brazen cask for thirteen months, till their stepmother Eriboea betrayed his whereabouts to Hermes, who came by stealth and dragged his disabled brother out of durance. They threatened to storm heaven itself by piling Ossa on Olympus and Pelion on Ossa, and would have done it, says Homer, had not Apollo slain them with his arrows ere their beards were grown. The later legend represents Ephialtes as in love with Hera, and Otus with Artemis. Another myth represents Artemis as slaying them by craft in the island of Naxos. She runs between them in the form of a hind; they hurl their spears, and wound each other fatally. In the later legend they expiate their sins in the lower world by being bound with snakes to a pillar, back to back, while they are incessantly tormented by the screeching of an owl. On the other hand, they were worshipped as heroes in Naxos, and in the Boeotian Ascra were regarded as founders of the city and of the worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon. ALPHESIBOEA Daughter of Phegeus and first wife of Alcmaeon, whom, though unfaithful, she continued to love, and was angry with her brothers for killing him. Her brothers shut her up in a box, and brought her to Agapenor, king of Tegea, pretending that she had killed her husband. Here she came by her end, having compassed her brothers' death by the hand of Alcmaeon's sons. ALTAR Originally a simple elevation above the ground, made of earth, fieldstones, or turf; and such altars continued to be used in the country parts of Italy. But altars for constant use, especially in temple service, were, as a rule, of stone, though in exceptional cases they might be made of other materials. Thus, several in Greece were built out of the ashes of burnt-offerings, as that of Zeus at Olympia. One at Delos was made of goats' horns. Their shape was very various, the four-cornered being the commonest, and the round less usual. A temple usually had two altars: the one used for bloodless offerings standing before the deity's image in the cella, and the other for burnt-offerings, opposite the door in front of the temple. The latter was generally a high altar, standing on a platform which is cut into steps. Being an integral part of the whole set of buildings, its shape and size were regulated by their proportions. Some few of these high altars were of enormous dimensions; the one at Olympia had a platform measuring more than 125 feet round, while the altar itself, which was ascended by steps, was nearly 25 feet high. In Italy as well as Greece, beside the altars attached to temples, there was a vast number in streets and squares, in the courts of houses (see cut), in open fields, in sacred groves, and other precincts consecrated to the gods. Some altars, like some temples, were dedicated to more than one deity; we even hear of altars dedicated to all the gods. On altars to heroes, see HEROES. AMALTHEA A figure in Greek mythology. The name was sometimes applied to a goat, which suckled the newborn Zeus in Crete, while bees brought him honey, and which was therefore set among the stars by her nursling; sometimes to a nymph who was supposed to possess a miraculous horn, a symbol of plenty, and whose descent was variously given. According to one version she is the daughter of the Cretan king Melisseus, and brings up the infant god on the milk of a goat, while her sister Melissa (a bee) offers him honey. The horn of the goat is given to her by Zeus, with the promise that she shall always find in it whatever she wishes. From her the cornucopia passed into the possession of the river-god Achelous, who was glad to exchange it for his own horn, which Heracles had broken off. It is also an attribute of Dionysus, of Plutus, and other gods of earthly felicity. AMAZONS A mythical nation of women-warriors, whose headquarters are placed by early Greek legend in Themiscyra, on the Thermodon, on the southern shore of the Euxine. In later accounts they also appear on the Caucasus and on the Don, where the nation called Sauromatae was supposed to have sprung from their union with the Scythians. They suffered no men among them; the sons born of their intercourse with neighbouring nations they either killed or sent back to their fathers; the girls they brought up to be warriors, burning the right breast off for the better handling of the bow. Their chief deities were said to be Ares and the Taurian Artemis. Even in Homer they are represented as making long marches into Asiatic territory; an army of them invading Lycia is cut to pieces by Bellerophon; Priam, then in his youth, hastens to help the Phrygians against them. They gained a firm footing in Greek song and story through Arctinus of Miletus, in whose poem their queen Penthesileia, daughter of Ares, as Priam's ally, presses hard on the Greeks, till she is slain by Achilles. After that they became a favourite subject with poets and artists, and a new crop of fable sprang up: Heracles wars against them, to win the girdle of their queen, Hippolyte; Theseus carries off her sister Antiope, they in revenge burst into Attica, encamp on the Areopagus of Athens, and are pacified by Antiope's mediation, or, according to another version, beaten in a great battle. Grave-mounds supposed to cover the bones of Amazons were shown near Megara, and in Euboea and Thessaly. In works of art the Amazons were represented as martial maids, though always with two breasts, and usually on horseback; sometimes in Scythian dress (a tight fur tunic, with a cloak of many folds over it, and a kind of Phrygian cap), sometimes in Grecian (a Dorian tunic tucked up and the right shoulder bare), armed with a half-moon shield, two-edged axe, spear, bow, and quiver, etc. The most famous statues of them in antiquity were those by Phidias, Polyclitus, and Cresilas, to one or other of which, as types, existing specimens are traceable. (See cut.) Among the surviving sculptures representing an Amazonian contest should be especially mentioned the reliefs from the frieze of Apollo's temple at Bassae in Arcadia (in the British Museum, London). AMBARVALIA The Italian festival of blessing the fields, which was kept at Rome on May 29th. The country people walked in solemn procession three times round their fields in the wake of the su-ove-taur-ilia, i.e. a hog, ram, and bull, which were sacri- ficed after a prayer originally addressed to Mars, afterwards usually to Ceres and other deities of agriculture, that the fruits of the fields might thrive. Comp. ARVAL BROTHERS. AMBITUS meant at Rome the candidature for a public office, because going round among the citizens was originally the principal means of winning their favour. When unlawful means began to be used, and bribery in every form was, organized into a system, the word came to mean obtaining of office by illegal means. To check the growing evil, laws were passed at an early period, and from time to time made more severe. The penalties, which ranged at different times from fines and inadmissibility to office to banishment for ten years and even for life, produced no lasting effect. At last a special standing criminal court was established for trying such cases, till under the Empire recourse was had to a radical change in the mode of election. AMBROSIA Anything that confers or preserves immortality: (1) the food of the gods (as nectar was their drink), which doves, according to Homer, bring daily to Zeus from the far west: (2) the anointing oil of the gods, which preserves even dead men from decay: (3) the food of the gods' horses. AMBURBIUM The Latin name for a solemn procession of the people, with the various orders of priesthood led by the pontifex three times round the boundaries of Rome. It was only resorted to at a time of great distress, and the animals destined to make atonement, viz. a hog, a ram, and a bull (the so called suovetaurilia, see AMBARVALIA AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS The last Roman historian of any importance, born at Antioch, in Syria, about 330 A.D., of noble Grecian descent. After receiving a careful education, he early entered military service, and fought under Julian against the Alemanni and Persians. In the evening of his days he retired to Rome, and about 390 began his Latin history of the emperors (Rerum Gestarum Libri), from Nerva, A.D. 96, to the death of Valens, in thirty-one books. Of these there only remain books xiv.-xxxi., including the period from 353 to 378 A.D., which he relates for the most part as an eye-witness. As his work may be regarded as a continuation of Tacitus, he seems, on the whole, to have taken that writer for his model. He resembles Tacitus in judgment, political acuteness, and love of truth. A heathen himself, he is nevertheless fair to the Christians. But he is far inferior in literary culture, though he loves to display his knowledge, especially in describing nations and countries. Latin was a foreign language to him; hence a crudeness and clumsiness of expression, which is made even more repellent by affectation, bombast, and bewildering ornamental imagery. AMMON A god native to Libya and Upper Egypt. He was represented sometimes in the shape of a ram with enormous curving horns, sometimes in that of a ram-headed man, sometimes as a perfect man standing up or sitting on a throne. On his head was the royal emblems, with two high feathers standing up, the symbols of sovereignty over the upper and under worlds; in his hands were the sceptre and the sign of life. In works of art his figure is coloured blue. Beside him stands the goddess Muth (the "mother," the "queen of darkness," as the inscriptions call her), wearing the crown of Upper Egypt or the vulture-skin (see cut). His chief temple, with a far-famed oracle, stood in an oasis of the Libyan desert, twelve days' journey from Memphis. Between this oracle and that of Zeus at Dodona a connexion is said to have existed from very ancient times, so that the Greeks early identified the Egyptian god with their own Zeus, as the Romans did afterwards withtheir Jupiter; and his worship found an entrance at several places in Greece, at Sparta, Thebes, and also Athens, whence festal embassies were regularly sent to the Libyan sanctuary (see THEORIA ). When the oracle was consulted by visitors, the god's symbol, made of emerald and other stones, was carried round by women and girls, to the sound of hymns, on a golden ship hung round with votive cups of silver. His replies were given in tremulous shocks communicated to the bearers, which were interpreted by a priest. AMPHIARAUS of Argos, the son of Oicles and Hypermnestra, great-grandson of the seer, Melampus. In Homer he is a favourite of Zeus and Apollo, alike distinguished as a seer and a hero, who takes part in the Calydonian boar-hunt, in the voyage of the Argonauts, and the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. Reconciled to Adrastus after a quarrel, and wedded to his sister Eriphyle, he agrees that any future differences between them shall be settled by her. She, bribed by Polyneices with the fatal necklace of his ancestress Harmonia, insists on her husband joining the war against Thebes, though he foresees that it will end fatally for him, and in departing charges his youthful sons Alcmaeon and Amphilochus (q.v.) to avenge his coming death. His wise warnings are unheeded by the other princes; his justice and prudence even bring him into open strife with the savage Tydeus; yet in the fatal closing contest he loyally avenges his death on the Theban Melanippus. In the flight, just as the spear of Periclymenus is descending on him, Zeus interposed to save the pious prophet and make him immortal by cleaving the earth open with his thunderbolt, and bidding it swallow up Amphiaraus, together with his trusty charioteer Baton, like himself a descendant of Melampus. From that time forth Amphiaraus was worshipped in various places as an oracular god, especially at Oropus on the frontier of Attica and Boeotia, where he had a temple and a famous oracle for the interpretation of dreams, and where games were celebrated in honour of him. AMPHITHEATRON A circular theatre, i.e. a building in which the space for spectators entirely surrounds that where the spectacle is exhibited. These buildings, designed for combats of gladiators and wild beasts (venationes), were first erected in Italy, but in Campania sooner than at Rome. The first known at Rome were temporary wooden structures, like that of Scribonius Curio, who in B.C. 50 made anamphitheatre out of two revolving theatres by joining them back to back, or that of Caesar in 46. The first stone amphitheatre, erected by Statilius Taurus in B.C.29, was burnt down in the fire of Nero, who then built a wooden one again. A second one of stone was begun by Vespasian, consecrated by Titus, A.D. 80, and finished by Domitian (all three of the Flavian gens). The ruins of this Amphitheatrum Flavium, which was 158 feet high, and accommodated 87,000 spectators, are the famous Colosseum. In the provinces too the large towns had their amphitheatres, of which the best preserved are those of Verona and Capua in Italy, Arles and Nimes in France. Of this last our first two illustrations give the elevation and the ground-plan An amphitheatre was usually an oval building, surrounding an arena of like shape, which sometimes, as at Rome and Capua, was a plank floor resting on deep underground walls, the spaces underneath containing cages and machinery for transformations. The exterior was formed of several arcades, one above the other, the lowest one admitting to a corridor, which ran round the building, and out of which staircases led up to the various rows of seats. In the Colosseum this first arcade is adorned with Doric, the second with Ionic, the third with Corinthian "engaged" columns; the fourth is a wall decorated with Corinthian pilasters, and pierced with windows (see ARCHITECTURE , figs. 8-10). Immediately round the arena ran a high, massive wall, with vaults for the animals and for other purposes. On it rested the podium, protected by its height and by special contrivances from the wild beasts when fighting; here were the seats of honour, e.g. at Rome, those of the imperial family, the officers of state, and the Vestal Virgins. Above the podium rose the seats of other spectators in concentric rows, the lowest ones being for senators and magistrates, the next for knights, and the rest for citizens. Women sat in the highest part of the building, under a colonnade, parts of which were portioned off for the common people. The whole space for seats could be sheltered from sun and rain by an awning supported on masts, which were let into corbels of stone that jutted out of the upper circumference. The arena could also be laid under water for the exhibition of sea-fights, the so-called naumachiae (q.v.). AMPHITRITE daughter of Nereus and Doris, is the wife of Poseidon and queen of the sea. Poseidon saw her dancing with the Nereids on the island of Naxos, and carried her off. According to another account she fled from him to Atlas, when the god's dolphin spied her out and brought her to him. In Homer she is not yet called Poseidon's wife, but a sea-goddess, who beats the billows against the rocks, and has the creatures of the deep in her keeping. Her son is the sea-god Triton. She had no separate worship. She is often represented with a net confining her hair, with crabs' claws on the crown of her head, being carried by Tritons, or by dolphins and other marine animals, or drawn by them in a chariot of shells. As the Romans identified Poseidon with their Neptune, so they did Amphitrite with Salacia, a goddess of the salt waves. AMPHITRYON Son of Alcaeus, grandson of Perseus, and king of Tiryns. His father's brother, Elektryon, king of Mycenae, had occasion to go out on a war of vengeance against Pterelaus, king of the Taphians and Teleboans in Acarnania and the neighbouring isles, whose sons had carried off his cattle, and have slain his own sons, all but young Licymnius. He left Amphitryon in charge of his kingdom, and betrothed to him his daughter Alcmene. On his return Amphitryon killed him, in quarrel or by accident, and, driven away by another uncle, Sthenelus, fled with his betrothed and her brother Licymnius to Creon, king of Thebes, a brother of his mother Hipponome, who purged him of blood-guilt, and promised, if he would first kill the Taumessian fox, to help him against Pterelaus; for Alcmene would not wed him till her brethren were avenged. Having rendered the fox harmless with the help of Cephalus (q.v.) he marched, accompanied by Creon, Cephalus, and other heroes, against the Teleboans, and conquered their country. Pterilaus' daughter Comaetho had first killed her father by plucking out the golden hair, to whose continual possession was attached the boon of immortality bestowed on him by Poseidon. He slew the traitress, and, handing over the Taphian kingdom to Cephalus, he returned to Thebes and married Alcmene. She gave birth to twins; Iphicles by him, and Heracles by Zeus. At last he falls in the war with Erginus (q.v.), the Minyan king of Orchomenus. AMPHORA A two-handled, big-bellied vessel, usually of clay, with a longish or shortish neck, and a mouth proportioned to the size, sometimes restingfirmly on a foot, but often ending in a blunt point, so that in the store-room it had to lean against the wall, or be sunk in sand, and when brought out for use, to be put in a basket, wine-cooler, or hollow stand. (See VESSELS , fig. 2, a and b). It served to keep oil, honey, and more especially the wine drawn off from the big fermenting vats. It was fastened with a clay stopper, plastered over with pitch, loam, or gypsum, and had a ticket stating the kind, the year, and the quantity of the wine it contained. The Greek amphoreus was a large liquid measure, holding nearly 9 gallons (see METRETES ), the Roman measure called amphora held 6 gallons and 7 pints. The Latin term for a delay of verdict pending the production of further evidence in a case not clear to the judges. Comp. COMPERENDINATIO. AMYCUS Son of Poseidon; a gigantic king of the Bebrycians on the Bithynian coast, who forced every stranger that landed there to box with him. When the Argonauts wished to draw water from a spring in his country, he forbade them, but was conquered and killed in a match with Polydeuces (Pollux). ANACREON A Greek lyric poet, born about 550 B.C. at Teos, an Ionian town of Asia, whose inhabitants, to escape the threatened yoke of Persia, migrated to Abdera in Thrace B.C. 540. From Abdera Anacreon went to the tyrant Polycrates, of Samos, after whose death (B.C. 522) he removed to Athens on the invitation of Hipparchus, and lived there, till the fall of the Peisistratidae, on friendly terms with his fellow poet Simonides and Xanthippus, the father of Pericles. He is said to have died at Abdera, in his eighty-sixth year, choked by the stone of a dried grape. A statue of him stood in the Acropolis at Athens in the guise of an aged minstrel inspired by the wine-god. For Anacreon was regarded as the type of a poet who, in spite of age, paid perpetual homage to wine and love. Love and wine and merry company formed the favourite subjects of his light, sweet, and graceful songs, which were cast in the metres of the Aeolic poets, but composed in the Ionic dialect. Beside fragments of such songs and of elegies, we have also a number of epigrams that bear his name, His songs were largely imitated, and of such imitations we have under his name a collection of about sixty love-songs and drinking-songs of very various (partly much later) dates, and of different degrees of merit. ANAXAGORAS A Greek philosopher, of Clazomenae in Asia Minor, born about 500 B.C. Sprung from a noble family, but wishing to devote himself entirely to science, he gave up his property to his kinsmen, and removed to Athens, where he lived in intimacy with the most distinguished men, above all with Pericles. Shortly before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War he was charged by the political opponents of Pericles with impiety, i.e. with denying the gods recognised by the State; and though acquitted through his friend's influence, he felt compelled to emigrate to Lampsacus, where he died soon after, aged 72. He not only had the honour of giving philosophy a home at Athens, where it went on flourishing for quite a thousand years, but he was the first philosopher who, by the side of the material principle, introduced a spiritual, which gives the other life and form. He laid down his doctrine in a work On Nature in the Ionic dialect, of which only fragments are preserved. Like Parmenides, he denied the existence of birth or death; the two processes were rather to be described as a mingling and unmingling. The ultimate elements of combination are indivisible, imperishable primordia of infinite number, and differing in shape, colour, and taste, called by himself "seeds of things," and by later writers (from an expression of Aristotle) homaeomere, i.e. particles of like kind with each other and with the whole that is made up of them. At first these lay mingled without order; but the divine spirit -- simple, pure, passionless reason -- set the unarranged matter into motion, and thereby created out of chaos an orderly world. This movement, proceeding from the centre, works on for ever, penetrating farther and farther the infinite mass. But the application of the spiritual principle was rather indicated than fully carried out by Anaxagoras; he himself commonly explains phenomena by physical causes, and only when he cannot find these, falls back on the action of divine reason. ANAXANDRIDES A Greek poet of the Middle Comedy, a Rhodian, flourished in 376 B.C. He is stated to have been the first who made love affairs the subject of comedy. His plays were characterized by brightness and humour, but only fragments of them are preserved. ANAXIMANDER A Greek philosopher of Miletus; born B.C. 611; a younger contemporary of Thales and Pherecydes. He lived at the court of Polycrates of Samos, and died B.C. 547. In his philosophy the primal essence, which he was the first to call principle, was the immortal-imperishable, all-including infinite, a kind of chaos, out of which all things proceed, and into which they return. He composed, in the Ionic dialect, a brief and somewhat poetical treatise on his doctrine, which may be regarded as the earliest prose work on philosophy; but only a few sentences out of it are preserved. The advances he had made in physics and astronomy are evidenced by his invention of the sun-dial, his construction of a celestial globe, and his first attempt at a geographical map. ANAXIMENES A Greek sophist of Lampsacus, a favourite of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. He composed orations and historical works, some treating of the actions of those two princes. Of these but little remains. On the other hand, he is the author of the Rhetoric dedicated to Alexander, the earliest extant work of this kind, which was once included among the works of Aristotle. A Greek philosopher of Miletus, a younger contemporary and pupil of Anaximander, who died about 502 B.C. He supposed air to be the fundamental principle, out of which everything arose by rarefaction and condensation. This doctrine he expounded in a work, now lost, written in the Ionian dialect. ANCHISES Son of Capys, of the royal house of Troy by both parents, ruler of Dardanus on Mount Ida. Aphrodite loved him for his beauty, and bore him a son, Aeneas. But having, in spite of her warnings, boasted of her favour, he is (according to various versions of the story) paralysed, killed; or struck blind by the lightning of Zeus. Vergil represents the disabled chief as borne out of burning Troy on his son's shoulders, and as sharing his wanderings over the sea, and aiding him with his counsel, till they reach Drepanum in Sicily, where he dies, and is buried on Mount Eryx. ANCILE The small oval sacred shield, curved inwards on either side, which was said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Numa. There being a prophecy that the stability of Rome was bound up with it, Numa had eleven others made exactly like it by a cunning workman, Mamurius Veturius, so that the right one should not be stolen. The care of these arms, which were sacred to Mars was entrusted to the Salii (q.v.), who had to carry them through the city once a year with peculiar ceremonies. At the conclusion of their songs Mamurius himself was invoked, and on March 14th they held a special feast, the Mamuralia, at which they sacrificed to him, beating on a hide with staves, probably to imitate a smith's hammering. It is likely that the name Mamurius conceals that of the god Mars (or Mamers) himself. ANDOCIDES The second in order of time in the roll of Attic orators. He was born B.C. 439, and belonged by birth to the aristocratic party, but fell out with it in 415, when he was involved in the famous trial for mutilating the statues of Hermes, and, to save his own and his kinsmen's lives, betrayed his aristocratic accomplices. Having, in spite of the immunity promised him, fallen into partial atimia (loss of civic rights), he left Athens, and carried on a profitable trade in Cyprus. After two fruitless attempts to recover his status at home, he was allowed at last, upon the fall of the Thirty and the amnesty of B.C. 403, to return to Athens, where he succeeded in repelling renewed attacks, and gaining an honourable position. Sent to Sparta in B.C. 390, during the Corinthian War, to negotiate peace, he brought back the draft of a treaty, for the ratification of which he vainly pleaded in a speech that is still extant. He is said to have been banished in consequence, and to have died in exile. Beside the above-mentioned oration, we have two delivered on his own behalf, one pleading for his recall from banishment, B.C. 410; another against the charge of unlawful participation in the mysteries, B.C. 399; a fourth, Against Alcibiades, is spurious. His oratory is plain and artless, and its expressions those of the popular language of the day. ANDROGEOS Son of Minos, king of Crete by Pasiphae. Visiting Athens at the first celebration of the Panathenaea, he won victories over all the champions, when king Aegeus, out of jealousy, sent him to fight the bull of Marathon, which killed him. According to another account he was slain in an ambush. Minos avenges his son by making the Athenians send seven youths and seven maidens every nine years as victims to his Minotaur, from which Theseus at last delivers them. Funeral games were held in the Ceramicus at Athens in honour of Androgeus under the name of Eurygyes. ANDROMACHE The daughter of Eetion, king of the Cilician Thebes, is one of the noblest female characters in Homer, distinguished alike by her ill-fortune and her true and tender love for her husband, Hector. Achilles, in taking her native town, kills her father and seven brothers; her mother, redeemed from captivity, is carried off by sickness; her husband falls by the hand of Achilles; and when Troy is taken she sees her one boy, Astyanax (or Scamander), hurled from the walls. She falls, as the prize of war, to Neoptolemus, the son of her greatest foe, who first carries her to Epirus, then surrenders her to Hector's brother, Helenus. After his death she returns to Asia with Pergamus, her son by Neoptolemus, and dies there. ANDROMEDA Daughter of the Aethiopian king Cepheus (a son of Belus) by Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia had boasted of being fairer than the Nereids, and Poseidon to punish the profanity, sent a flood and a sea-monster. As the oracle of Ammon promised a riddance of the plague should Andromeda be thrown to the monster, Cepheus was compelled to chain his daughter to a rock on the shore. At this moment of distress Perseus appears, and rescues her, her father having promised her to him in marriage. At the wedding a violent quarrel arises between the king's brother, Phineus, to whom she had been betrothed before, and Perseus, who turns his rival into stone with the Gorgon's head. Andromeda follows Perseus to Argos, and becomes ancestress of the famous line of Perseidae. Athena set her among the stars. ANDROTION A Greek historian, an Athenian, and a pupil of Isocrates, who was accused of making an illegal proposal and went into banishment at Megara. (We have the speech composed by Demosthenes for one of the accusers.) At Megara he wrote a history of Attica (see ATTHIS ) in at least 12 books, one of the best of that class of writings; but only fragments of it have survived. ANIUS Son of Apollo by Rhceo or Creusa, whose father, Staphylus of Naxos, a son of Dionysus and Ariadne, committed her to the sea in a box. She was carried to Delos, and there gave birth to her son Anius. Apollo taught him divination, and made him his priest and king of Delos. His son Thasus, like Linus and Actaeon, was torn to pieces by dogs, after which no dogs were allowed in the island. His daughters by the nymph Dorippe, being descendants of Dionysus, had the gift of turning anything they pleased into wine, corn, or oil; but when Agamemnon on his way to Troy wished to take them from their father by force, Dionysus changed them into doves. ANNA PERENNA An ancient Italian goddess, about whose exact attributes the ancients themselves were not clear. She is probably the moon-goddess of the revolving year, who every month renews her youth, and was therefore regarded as a goddess who bestowed long life and all that contributes to it. About full moon on the Ides (fifteenth) of March (then the first month of the year), in a grove of fruit trees at the first milestone on the Flaminian Way, the Romans held a merry feast under the open sky, wishing each other as many years of life as they drank cups of wine. The learned men of the Augustan age identified Anna with Dido's sister, who, on the death of that queen, had fled from Carthage to Aeneas in Italy, but, having excited Lavinia's jealousy, threw herself into the Numicius, and became the nymph of that river. ANNALISTS A series of writers on Roman history, older than those usually called the historians, beginning about 200 B.C., and covering about a century and a half. They related their country's story from its first beginnings down to their own times, treating the former briefly, the latter in full detail, and at first always in Greek, like FABIUS PICTOR With PORCIUS CATO (q.v.) commenced composition in Latin and a livelier interest in native history, which constantly stimulated new efforts to celebrate the deeds of their forefathers. Two main characteristics of these annalists are the free use they made of their predecessors, and an inclination to suppress unfavourable facts, which gradually grew into a habit of flattering the national vanity by exaggerations. ANNALS Year-books. From early times a record of all important events at Rome had been kept in chronological order by the high priest (pontifex maximus) for the time, who every year exhibited in his official residence a whited board (album), on which, after the names of the magistrates for the year, occurrences of all kinds-war, dearth, pestilence, prodigies-were set down briefly according to their dates. These annales pontificum or annales maximi (supposed to be so called after the pontifex maximus), though destroyed at the burning of Rome by the Gauls, B.C. 389, were restored as far as possible, and continued till B.C. 130. Collected afterwards in eighty books, they were at once utilized and superseded by the so-called ANNALISTS ANNONA A Latin word meaning the year's produce, especially in wheat, the staple food of the city population; it was afterwards applied to the corn provided by the State to feed that population. As Italian agriculture decayed, and the city population steadily increased, the question of its maintenance became a constant care to the State, which, on the conquest of the first two provinces, Sicily and Sardinia, at once doomed them, especially the former, to the task of victualling the armies and feeding Rome, by imposing a tithe on corn, and forbidding its exportation to any country but Italy. The tenth paid as tribute, and other corn bought up by the State, was sold by the aediles at a moderate price, usually on terms which prevented the treasury being a loser. Thus till the time of the Gracchi the cura annonae was confined to the maintenance of a moderate price; but the corn law of Gaius Gracchus, B.C. 123, laid on the State the obligation to deliver to any Roman householder on demand 6 1/4 bushels of wheat a month at a fixed price, which even in cheap times was less than half the cost price; and Clodius in B.C. 58 went further, and made the delivery entirely gratuitous. By the year B.C. 46, the number of recipients had risen to 320,000, and the yearly outlay to a sum equivalent to £650,000. Caesar then reduced the recipients to 150,000; but their number grew again, till Augustus cut it down to 200,000, whose names were inscribed on a bronze table, and who received their monthly portion on presentation of a ticket. This arrangement as a whole remained in force till about the end of the Empire, except that in the 3rd century bread was given instead of grain. And, side by side with these gratuitous doles, grain could always be bought for a moderate price at magazines filled with the supplies of the provinces, especially Egypt and Africa, and with purchases made by the State. The expenses of the annona fell mainly on the imperial treasury, but partly on that of the senate. From Augustus' time the cura annonae formed one of the highest imperial offices, its holder, the praefectus annonae, having a large staff scattered over Rome and the whole empire. The annona, like so many other things, was personified by the Romans, and became a goddess of the importation of corn, whose attributes were a bushel, ears of wheat, and a horn of plenty. ANTENOR A Trojan of high rank, husband to Athena's priestess Theano, the sister of Hecuba. When Menelaus and Odysseus, after the landing of the Greeks, came as envoys to Troy, demanding the surrender of Helen, he received them hospitably, protected them from Paris, and then as always advised peace. Because of this leaning to the Greeks, it was alleged in later times that he betrayed his native city by opening its gates to the enemy; in return for which his house, known by the panther's hide hung out of it, was spared, and he and his friends allowed to go free. One account was, that he sailed with Menelaus, was driven out of his course to Cyrene, and settled there, where his descendants the Antenoridae were worshipped as heroes. Another, which became the accepted tradition, represented him as leading the Heneti, when driven out of Paphlagonia, by way of Thrace and Illyria, to the Adriatic, and thence to the mouth of the Padus (Po), where he founded Patavium. (Padua), the city of the Veneti. A feast at Athens held in honour of Dionysus. Comp. DIONYSIA ANTHOLOGY (-garland of flowers). The Greek word anthologia means a collection of short, especially epigrammatic poems, by various authors; we still possess one such collection dating from antiquity. Collections of inscriptions in verse had more than once been set on foot in early times for antiquarian purposes. The first regular anthology, entitled Stephanos (- wreath), was attempted by Meleager of Gadara in the 1st century B.C.; it contained, beside his own compositions, poems arranged according to their initial letters, by forty-six contemporary and older authors, including Archilochus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Simonides, etc., together with a prologue still extant. This collection was enriched, about 100 A.D., by Philippus of Thessalonica, with select epigrams by about thirteen later authors. Other collections were undertaken soon after by Diogenianus of Heracleia and Straton of Sardis, and in the 6th century by Agathias of Myrina, in whose Kyklos the poems are for the first time arranged according to subjects. Out of these collections, now all lost, Constantinus Cephalas of Constantinople, in the 10th century, put together a new and comprehensive anthology, classified according to contents in fifteen sections. From this collection the monk Maximus Planudes, in the 14th century, made an extract of seven books, which was the only one known till the year 1606. In that year the French scholar Saumaise (Salmasius) discovered in the Palatine Library at Heidelberg a complete manuscript of the anthology of Constantinus Cephalas with sundry additions. This MS., with all the other treasures of the library, was carried off to Rome in 1623, whence it was taken to Paris in 1793, and back to Heidelberg in 1816. The epigrams of the Greek anthology, dating as they do from widely distant ages down to the Byzantine, and being the production of more than three hundred different authors, are of very various merit; but many of them are among the pearls of Greek poetry, and could hardly have survived unless enshrined in such a collection. Taken together with the rich store of epigrams found in inscriptions, the Anthology opens to us a view of the development of this branch of Greek literature such as we can scarcely obtain in the case of any other, besides affording valuable information on Hellenic language, history, and manners, at the most different periods. Roman literature has no really ancient collection of so comprehensive a character, the so-called Latin Anthology having been gathered by modern scholars out of the material found scattered in various MSS. Among these, it is true, Saumaise's MS. of the 7th century, now in Paris, has a collection of about 380 poems, but these, with a few exceptions, are of very late authorship. ANTIDOSIS (-exchange of properties). An arrangement; peculiar to the Athenians, by which a citizen summoned to perform one of those services to'the State named leitourgioe (q.v.), if he thought a richer than he had been passed over, could challenge him to exchange possessions, binding himself in that case to discharge the obligation. Each party could then have the other's property put in sequestration and his house sealed up; and within three days they handed in, before the proper authority and under oath, an inventory of their goods. If no amicable agreement was come to, and the judge's decision went against the plaintiff, he was bound to perform the public service; otherwise the defendant submitted either to the exchange or to the service. ANTIGONE Daughter of Aedipus and Iocasta, who accompanied her blind father into exile. After his death in Attica she returns to Thebes, and, in defiance of her uncle Creon's prohibition, performs the last honours to her brother Polyneices, fallen in single fight with Eteocles, by strewing his body with dust. For this she is entombed alive in the family vault, and there hangs herself; and her betrothed, Haemon, the son of Creon, stabs himself beside her corpse. Such is the version of Sophocles. Another tradition represents Antigone and Argeia, the widow of Polyneices, as secretly burning his body by night on the funeral pile of Eteocles. When seized by the guards, Creon hands her over to Haemon for execution; but he hides her in a shepherd's hut, and lives with her in secret wedlock. Their son, grown up and engaging in some funeral games at Thebes, is recognised by a birthmark peculiar to the family. To escape Creon's vengeance, Haemon kills both Antigone and himself. ANTILOCHUS The son of Nestor, who accompanied his father to the Trojan War, and was distinguished among the younger heroes for beauty and bravery. Homer calls him a favourite of Zeus and Poseidon. The dearest friend of Achilles next to Patroclus, he is chosen by the Greeks to break the news to him of his beloved companion's fall. When Memnon attacks the aged Nestor, Antilochus throws himself in his way, and buys his father's safety with his life. He, like Patroclus, is avenged by Achilles, in whose grave-mound the ashes of both friends are laid; even in the lower world Odysseus beholds the three pacing the asphodel meadow, and in after times the inhabitants of Ilium offered to them jointly the sacrifices due to the dead on the foreland of Sigeum. ANTIMACHUS A Greek poet and critic of Colophon, an elder contemporary of Plato, about 400 B.C. By his two principal works-the long mythical epic called Thebais and a cycle of elegies named after his loved and lost Lyde, and telling of famous lovers parted by death-he became the founder of learned poetry, precursor and prototype of the Alexandrians, who, on account of his learning, assigned him the next place to Homer amongst epic poets. In striving to impart strength and dignity to language by avoiding all that was common, his style became rigid and artificial, and naturally ran into bombast. But we possess only fragments of his works. As a scholar, he is remarkable for having set on foot a critical revision of the Homeric poems. ANTINOUS A beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia, a favourite and travelling companion of the emperor Hadrian. He drowned himself in the Nile, probably from melancholy. The emperor honoured his memory by placing him among the heroes, erecting statues and temples, and founding yearly games in his honour, while the artists of every province vied in pourtraying him under various forms, human, heroic, and divine; e.g. as Dionysus, Hermes, Apollo. Among the features common to the many surviving portraitures of Antinous are the full locks falling low down the forehead, the large, melancholy eyes, the full mouth, and the broad, swelling breast. Some of these portraits are among the finest works of ancient art, for instance, the colossal statue in the Vatican, and the half-length relief at the Villa Albani. (See cut.) There is also a fine bust in the Louvre. ANTIOPE In Homer a daughter of the Boeotian river-god Asopus, mother by Zeus of Amphion and Zethus. In later legend her father is Nycteus of Hyria or Hysiae. As he threatens to punish her for yielding to the approaches of Zeus under the form of a satyr, she flees to Epopeus of Sicyon. This king her uncle Lycus kills by order of his brother Nycteus, now dead, and leads her back in chains. Arrived on Mount Cithaeron, she gives birth to twins, Amphion by Zeus, Zethus by Epopeus, whom Lycus leaves exposed upon the mountain. After being long imprisoned and illtreated by Dirce, the wife of Lycus, she escapes to Cithaeron, and makes acquaintance with her sons, whom a shepherd has brought up. She makes them take a frightful vengeance upon Dirce (see AMPHION ), for doing which Dionysus drives her mad, and she wanders. throught Greece, till Phocus, king of Phocis, heals and marries her. ANTIOPE A sister of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons; who, according to one account, fall as a prize of war to Theseus for his share in Heracles' campaign against the Amazons, according to another, was carried off by him and his friend Pirithous. When the Amazons attacked Athens in return, she is variously represented as persuading them to peace, or falling in battle against them by the side of Theseus; or, again, as killed by Heracles, when she interrupted the marriage of her beloved Theseus with Phaedra. Her son by Theseus was Hippolytus. ANTIPHANES The most prolific and important author, with Alexis, of the Attic Middle Comedy; he came of a family which bad migrated from Larissa in Thessaly; was born B.C. 408, and died at the age of 74. He is said to have written 260 plays, of which over 200 are known to us by their titles and fragments, yet he won the prize only thirteen times. He is praised for dramatic ability, wit, and neatness of form. ANTIPHILUS A Greek painter born in Egypt in the latter half of the 4th century B.C., a contemporary and rival of Apolles; he probably spent the last part of his life at the court of the first Ptolemy. The ancients praise the lightness and dexterity with which he handled subjects of high art, as well as scenes in daily life. Two of his pictures in the latter kind were especially famous, one of a boy blowing a fire, and another of women dressing wool. From his baving painted a man named Gryllos (- pig) with playful allusions to the sitter's name, caricatures in general came to be called grylloi. [Pliny, H. N., 35. 114, 138]. ANTIPHON The earliest of the ten great Attic orators, born B.C. 480 at Rhamnus in Attica, son of the sophist Sophilus, to whom he owed his training. He was the founder of political eloquence as an art, which he taught with great applause in his own school of rhetoric; and he was the first who wrote out speeches for others to deliver in court, though he afterwards published them under his own name. He also played an active part in the politics of his time as a leading member of the oligarchical party, and the real author of the deathblow which was dealt to democracy in 411 B.C. by the establishment of the Council of Four Hundred. Then he went as ambassador to Sparta, to purchase peace at any price in the interest of the oligarchy. On the fall of the Four Hundred he was accused of high treason, and in spite of a masterly defence-the first speech he had ever made in public-was condemned to death B.C. 411. Of the sixty orations attributed to him, only fifteen are preserved, all on trials for murder; but only three of them are about real cases. The rest (named tetralogies, because every four are the first and second speeches of both plaintiff and defendant on the same subject) are mere exercises. Antiphon's speeches exhibit the art of oratory in its rudimentary stage as regards both substance and form. ANTISTHENES A Greek philosopher of Athens,born about 440 B.C., but only a half citizen, because his mother was a Thracian. He was in his youth a pupil of Gorgias, and himself taught for a time as a sophist, till, towards middle life, he attached himself to Socrates, and became his bosom friend. After the death of Socrates in B.C. 399 he established a school in the gymnasium Kynosarges, the only one open to persons of half-Athenian descent, whence his followers bore the name of Cynici (Kynikoi). He lived to the age of seventy. Like Socrates, he regarded virtue as necessary, indeed, alone sufficient for happiness, and to be a branch of knowledge that could be taught, and that once acquired could not be lost, its essence consisting in freedom from wants by the avoidance of evil, i.e. of pleasure and desire. Its acquisition needs no dialectic argumentation, only Socratic strength. His pupils, especially the famous Diogenes of Sinope, degraded his doctrine to cynicism by depreciating all knowledge and despising the current morality of the time. His philosophical and rhetorical works are lost, all but two slight declamations on the contest for the arms of Achilles, the Aias and Odysseus; and even their genuineness is disputed. ANTISTIUS LABEO A renowned jurist of Augustus' time, a man of wide scholarship and strict republican views, which lost him the emperor's favour. His writings on law amounted to 400 books, portions of which are preserved in the Pandects of Justinian's Corpus Iuris. Aiming at a progressive development of law, he became the founder of a school of lawyers named Proculians after his pupil Sempronius Proculians. See ATEIUS CAPITO . ANUBIS An Egyptian god, son of Osiris, conductor and watcher of the dead, whose deeds he and HORUS (q.v.) were supposed to weigh in the balance in presence of their father Osiris. He was represented with the head of a jackal or dog-ape. The worship of Anubis was introduced among the Greeks and Romans (who represented him in the form of a dog), together with that of Serapis and Isis; especially in the time of the emperors, as he was identified with Hermes. APAGOGE A technical term of Athenian law, meaning the production of a criminal taken in the act before the proper magistrate, who then took him into custody, or made him find bail. The name was also given to the document in which the accuser stated the charge. But if the officer was conducted to the spot where the accused was staying, the process was called ephegesis. The general feast of the PHRATRIES (q.v.) held chiefly by Greeks of the Ionian race. At Athens it lasted three days in the month of Pyanepsion (Oct.-Nov.), and was celebrated with sacrificial banquets. On the third day the fathers brought their children born since the last celebration before the members (phrators) assembled at the headquarters of each phratria, and after declaring on oath their legitimate birth, bad their names inscribed on the roll of phratores. For every child enrolled a sheep or goat was sacrificed, which went to furnish the common feast. On the same day the fathers made their children who were at school give proofs of their progress, especially by reciting passages from poets, and those who distinguished themselves were rewarded with prizes. APELLES The greatest painter of antiquity, probably born at Colophon or in the Island of Cos, who lived in the latter half of the 4th century B.C. After studying at Ephesus, and receiving theoretical instruction in his art from Pamphilus at Sicyon, he worked in different parts of the Greek world, but especially in Macedonia, at the court of Philip and that of Alexander, who would let no other artist paint him. While doing ready justice to the merits of contemporaries, especially Protogenes, he could not but recognise that no one surpassed himself in grace and balanced harmony. These qualities, together with his wonderful skill in drawing and his perfect and refined mastery of colouring (however simple his means), made his works the most perfect productions of Greek painting. Among the foremost were the Alexander with lightning in his hand, painted for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, in which the fingers appeared to stand out of the picture, and the thunderbolt to project from the panel; and the Aphrodite Anadyomene (- rising), painted for the temple of Asclepius at Cos, which Augustus brought to Rome and set up in the temple of Caesar, and which, when the lower part was damaged, no painter would attempt to restore. We owe to Lucian a description of an allegorical picture of Slander by this painter. [Pliny, H. N., 35. 79-97.] APHRODITE The Greek goddess of love. Her attributes combine, with Hellenic conceptions, a great many features of Eastern, especially Phoenician, origin, which the Greeks must have grafted on to their native notions in very old times. This double nature appears immediately in the contradictory tales of her origin. To the oldest Greeks she was the daughter of Zeus and Dione (and is sometimes called that name herself); yet from a very early time she appears as Aphro-geneia, the "foamborn" (see URANUS ), as Anadyomene, "she who rises" out of the sea, and steps ashore on Cyprus, which had been colonized by Phoenicians time out of mind; even as back as Homer she is Kypris, the Cyprian. The same transmarine and Eastern origin of her worship is evidenced by the legend of the isle of Cythera, on which she was supposed to have first landed out of a sea-shell. Again, the common conception of her as goddess of love limits her agency to the sphere of human life. But she is, at the same time, a power of nature, living and working in the three elements of air, earth, and water. As goddess of the shifting gale and changeful sky, she is Aphrodite Urania, the "heavenly," and at many placesin Greece and Asia her temples crowned the heights and headlands; witness the citadels of Thebes and Corinth, and Mount Eryx in Sicily. As goddess of storm and lightning, she was represented armed, as at Sparta and Cythera; and this perhaps explains why she was associated with Are (Mars) both in worship and in legend, and worshipped as a goddess of victory. The moral conception of Aphrodite Urania as goddess of the higher and purer love, especially wedded love and fruitfulness, as opposed to mere sensual lust, was but slowly developed in the course of ages. As goddess of the sea and maritime traffic, especially of calm seas and prosperous voyages, she was widely worshipped by sailors and fishermen at ports and on seacoasts, often as the goddess of calm, while Poseidon was the god of disturbance Next, as regards the life of the earth, she is the goddess of gardens and groves, of Spring and its bounties, especially tender plants and flowers, as the rose and myrtle; hence, as the fruitful and bountiful, she was worshipped most of all at that season of the year in which her birth from the sea was celebrated at Paphos in Cyprus (comp. cut). But to this, her time of joyful action, is opposed a season of sorrow, when her creations wither and die: a sentiment expressed in her inconsolable grief for her beloved ADONIS (q.v.), the symbol of vegetation perishing in its prime. In the life of gods and men, she shows her power as the golden, sweetly smiling godess of beauty and love, which she knows to kindle or to keep away. She outshines all the goddesses in grace and loveliness; in her girdle she wears united all the magic charms that can bewitch the wisest man and subdue the very gods. Her retinue consists of Eros (Cupid), the Hours, the Graces, Peitho (persuasion), Pothos and Himeros (personifications of longing and yearning). By uniting the generations in the bond of love, she becomes a goddess of marriage and family life, and the consequent kinship of the whole community. As such she had formerly been worshipped at Athens under the name of Pandemos (- all the people's), as being a goddess of the whole country. By a regulation of Solon, the name acquired a very different sense, branding her as goddess of prostitution; then it was that the new and higher meaning was imported into the word Urania. In later times, the worship of Aphrodite as the goddess of mere sensual love made rapid strides, and in particular districts assumed forms more and more immoral, in imitation of the services performed to love-goddesses in the East, especially at Corinth, where large bands of girls were consecrated as slaves to the service of the gods and the practice of prostitution. And later still, the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Aphrodite, performed by eunuchs, spread all over Greece. In the Greek myths Aphrodite appears occasionally as the wife of Hephaestus. Her love adventures with Ares are notorious. From these sprang Eros and Anteros, Harmonia, the wife of Cadmus, and Deimos and Phobos (fear and alarm), attendants on their father. By Anchises she was the mother of Eneas. The head-quarters of her worship were Paphos, Amathus, and Idalion (all in Cyprus), Cnidus in Dorian Asia Minor, Corinth, the island of Cythera, and Eryx in Sicily. As mother of Harmonia, she was a guardian deity of Thebes. Among plants, the myrtle, the rose, and the apple were specially sacred to her as goddess of love; amongst animals, the ram, he-goat, bare, dove, sparrow, and other creatures of amorous nature (the ram and dove being widely-current symbols of great antiquity); as sea-goddess, the swan, mussels, and dolphin; as Urania, the tortoise. In ancient art, in which Aphrodite is one of the favourite subjects, she is represented in a higher or lower aspect, according as the artist's aim was to exhibit Urania or the popular goddess of love. In the earlier works of art she usually appears clothed but in later ones more or less undraped; either as rising from the sea or leaving the bath, or (as in later times) merely as an ideal of female beauty. In the course of time the divine element disappeared, and the presentation became more and more ordinary. While the older sculptures show the sturdier forms, the taste of later times leans more and more to softer, weaker outlines. Most renowned in ancient times were the statue at Cnidus by Praxiteles (a copy of which is now at Munich, see fig. 2), and the painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene by Apelles. Of original statues preserved to us, the most famous are the Aphrodite of Melos (Milo, see fig. 3) now at Paris, and that of Capua at Naples, both of which bring out the loftier aspect of the goddess, and the Medicean Venus at Florence, the work of a late Attic sculptor, Cleomenes, in the delicate forms of face and body that pleased a younger age. On the identification of Aphrodite with the Roman goddess of love, see VENUS. APHTHONIUS A Greek rhetorician of Antioch, about 400 A.D., a pupil of Libanius, who wrote a schoolbook on the elements of rhetoric, the Progymnasmata, or "First Steps in Style," much used in schools down to the 17th century. This book is really an adaptation of the chapter so named in Hermogenes Rhetoric. A collection of forty fables by Aesop also bears his name. APICIUS A glutton, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius. He borrowed the last name from an epicure of the republican age, and wrote a book upon cookery. He poisoned himself for fear of starving, though at the time of his death he was still worth £75,000. His name became a proverb, so that we find an Apicius Caelius, author of a collection of recipes in ten books, De Re Culinaria, 3rd century A.D. APION A Greek grammarian of the 1st century A.D., a pupil of Didymus, and president of the philological school at Alexandria. He also worked for a time at Rome under Tiberius and Claudius. A vain, boastful man, he travelled about the Greek cities, giving popular lectures on Homer. Of his many writings we have only fragments left. The glosses on Homer that bear his name are of later origin; on the other hand, the Homeric lexicon of the sophist Apollonius is based on his genuine Homeric glosses. His bitter complaint, Against the Jews, addressed to Caligula at the instace of the Alexandrians, is best known from Josephus' noble reply to it. APODECTAE The Athenian name for a board of ten magistrates yearly appointed by lot, who kept accounts of the moneys coming in to the State from various sources, took possession in the council's presence of the sums raised by the proper officers, and after cancelling the entries in their register, handed the money over to the several treasuries. APOLLO Son of Zeus by Leto (Latona), who, according to the legend most widely current, bore him and his twin-sister Artemis (Diana) at the foot of Mount Cynthus in the island of Delos. Apollo appears originally as a god of light, both in its beneficent and its destructive effects; and of light in general, not of the sun only, for to the early Greeks the deity that brought daylight was Helios, with whom it was not till afterwards that Apollo was identified. While the meaning of his name Apollo is uncertain, his epithets of Phoebus and Lycius clearly mark him as the bright, the life-giving, the former also meaning the pure, holy; for, as the god of pure light, he is the enemy of darkness, with all its unclean, uncouth, unhallowed brood. Again, not only the seventh day of the month, his birthday, but the first day of each month, i.e. of each new-born moon, was sacred to him, as it was to Janus, the Roman god of light; and according to the view that prevailed in many seats of his worship, he withdrew in winter time either to sunny Lycia, or to the Hyperboreans who dwell in perpetual light in the utmost north, and returned in spring to dispel the powers of winter with his beams. When the fable relates that immediately after his birth, with the first shot from his bow he slew the dragon Python (or Delphyne), a hideous offspring of Gaea and guardian of the Delphian oracle, what seems to be denoted must be the spring-god's victory over winter, that filled the land with foul marsh and mist. As the god of light, his festivals are all in spring or summer, and many of them still plainly reveal in certain features his true and original attributes. Thus the Delphinia, held at Athens in April, commemorated the calming of the wintry sea after the equinoctial gales, and the consequent reopening of navigation. As this feast was in honour of the god of spring, so was the Thargelia, held at Athens the next month, in honour of the god of summer. That the crops might ripen, he received firstfruits of them, and at the same time propitiatory gifts to induce him to avert the parching heat, so hurtful to fruits and men. About the time of the sun's greatest altitude (July and August), when the god displays his power, now for good and now for harm, the Athenians offered him hecatombs, whence the first month of their year was named Hecatomboeon, and the Spartans held their Hyacinthia (see HYACINTHUS ). In autumn, when the god was ripening the fruit of their gardens and plantations, and preparing for departure, they celebrated the Pyanepsia (q.v.), when they presented him with the firstfruits of harvest. Apollo gives the crops prosperity, and protection not only against summer heat, but against blight, mildew, and the vermin that prey upon them, such as field-mice and grasshoppers. Hence he was known by special titles in some parts of Asia. He was also a patron of flocks and pastures, and was worshipped in many districts under a variety of names referring to the breeding of cattle. In the story of Hermes (q.v.) stealing his oxen, Apollo is himself the owner of a herd, which he gives up to his brother in exchange for the lyre invented by him. Other ancient legends speak of him as tending the flocks of Laomodon and Admetus, an act afterwards represented as a penalty for a fault. As a god of shepherds he makes love to the nymphs, to the fair Daphne (q.v.), to Coronis (see ASCLEPIUS ), and to Cyrene, the mother of Aristaeus, likewise a god of herds. Some forms of his worship and some versions of his story imply that Apollo, like his sister Artemis, was regarded as a protector of tender game and a slayer of rapacious beasts, especially of the wolf, the enemy of flocks, and himself a symbol of the god's power, that now sends mischief, and now averts it. Apollo promotes the health and well-being of man himself. As a god of prolific power, he was invoked at weddings; and as a nurse of tender manhood and trainer of manly youth, to him (as well as the fountain-nymphs) were consecrated the first offerings of the hair of the head. In gymnasia and palaestrae he was worshipped equally with Hermes and Heracles; for he gave power of endurance in boxing, with adroitness and fleetness of foot. As a warlike god and one helpful in fight, the Spartans paid him peculiar honours in their Carneia (q.v.), and in a measure the Athenians in their Boedromia. Another Athenian festival, the Metageitnia, glorified him as the author of neighbourly union. In many places, but above all at Athens, he was worshipped as Agyieus, the god of streets and highways, whose rude symbol, a conical post with a pointed ending, stood by streetdoors and in courtyards, to watch men's exit and entrance, to let in good and keep out evil, and was loaded by the inmates with gifts of honour, such as ribbons, wreaths of myrtle or bay, and the like. At sea, as well as on land, Apollo is a guide and guardian, and there, especially under the name Delphinius, taken from his friend and ally the dolphin, the symbol of the navigable sea. Under this character he was widely worshipped, for the most part with peculiar propitiatory rites, in seaports and on promontories, as that of Actium, and particularly at Athens, being also regarded as a leader of colonies. While he is Alexicacus (averter of ills) in the widest sense, he proves his power most especially in times of sickness; for, being god of the hot season, and himself the sender of most epidemics and the dreaded plague, sweeping man swiftly away with his unerring shafts, he can also lend the most effectual aid; so that he and his son Asclepius were revered as the chief gods of healing. As a saviour from epidemics mainly, but also from other evils, the paean (q.v.) was sung in his honour. In a higher sense also Apollo is a healer and saviour. From an early time a strong ethical tinge was given to his purely physical attributes, and the god of light became a god of mental and moral purity, and therefore of order, justice, and legality in human life. As such, he, on the one hand smites and spares not the insolent offender, Tityos for instance, the Aloidae, the overweening Niobe, and the Greeks before Troy; but, on the other hand, to the guilt-laden soul, that turns to him in penitence and supplication, he grants purification from the stain of committed crime (which was regarded as a disease clouding the mind and crushing the heart), and so he heals the spirit, and readmits the outcast into civic life and religious fellowship. Of this he had himself set the pattern, when, after slaying the Delphian dragon, he fled from the land, did seven years' menial service to Admetus in atonement for the murder, and when the time, of penance was past had himself purified in the sacred grove of baytrees by the Thessalian temple, and not till then did he return to Delphi and enter on his office as prophet of Zeus. Therefore he exacts from all a recognition of the atoning power of penance, in the teeth of the old law of vengeance for blood, which only bred new murders and new guilt. The atoning rites propagated by Apollo's worship, particularly from Delphi, contributed largely to the spread of milder maxims of law, affecting not only individuals, but whole towns and countries. Even without special prompting, the people felt from time to time the need of purification and expiation; hence certain expiatory rites had from of old been connected with his festivals. As the god of light who pierces through all darkness, Apollo is the god of divination, which, however, has in his case a purely ethical significance; for he, as prophet and minister of his father Zeus, makes known his will to men, and helps to further his government in the world. He always declares the truth; but the limited mind of man cannot always grasp the meaning of his sayings. He is the patron of every kind of prophecy, but most especially of that which he imparts through human instruments, chiefly women, while in a state of ecstasy. Great as was the number of his oracles in Greece and Asia, all were eclipsed in fame and importance by that of Delphi (q.v.). Apollo exercises an elevating and inspiring influence on the mind as god of Music, which, though not belonging to him alone any more than Atonement and Prophecy, was yet pre-eminently his province. In Homer he is represented only as a player on the lyre, while song is the province of the Muses; but in course of time he grows to be the god, as they are the goddesses, of song and poetry, and is therefore Musagetes Leader of the Muses) as well as master of the choric dance, which goes with music and song. And, as the friend of all that beautifies life, he is intimately associated with the Graces. Standing in these manifold relations to nature and man, Apollo at all times held a prominent position in the religion of the Greeks; and as early as Homer his name is coupled with those of Zeus and Athena, as if between them the three possessed the sum total of divine power. His worship was diffused equally over all the regions in which Greeks were settled; but from remote antiquity he bad been the chief god of the Dorians, who were also the first to raise him into a type of moral excellence. The two chief centres of his worship were the Island of Delos, his birthplace, where, at his magnificent temple standing by the sea, were held every five years the festive games called Delia, to which the Greek states sent solemn embassies; and Delphi, with its oracle and numerous festivals (see PYTHIA , THEOXENIA ). Foremost among the seats of his worship in Asia was Patara in Lycia with a famous oracle. To the Romans Apollo became known in the reign of their last king Tarquinius Superbus, the first Roman who consulted the Delphian oracle, and who also acquired the Sibylline Books (q.v.). By the influence of these writings the worship of Apollo soon became so naturalized among them, that in B.C. 431 they built a temple to him as god of healing, from which the expiatory processions (see SUPPLICATIONES ) prescribed in the Sibylline books used to set out. In the Lectisternia (q.v.), first instituted in B.C. 399, Apollo occupies the foremost place. In 212 B.C., during the agony of the Second Punic War, the Ludi Apollinares were, in obedience to an oracular response, established in honour of him. He was made one of the chief gods of Rome by Augustus, who believed himself to be under his peculiar protection, and ascribed the victory of Actium to his aid: hence he enlarged the old temple of Apollo on that promontory, and decorated it with a portion of the spoils. He also renewed the games held near it, previously every two years, afterwards every four, with gymnastic and artistic contests, and, regattas on the sea; at Rome he reared a splendid new temple to him near his own house on the Palatine, and transferred the Ludi Soeculares (q.v.) to him and Diana. The manifold symbols of Apollo correspond with the multitude of his attributes. The commonest is either the lyre or the bow, according as he was conceived as the god of song or as the far-hitting archer. The Delphian diviner, Pythian Apollo, is indicated by the Tripod, which was also the favourite offering at his altars. Among plants the bay, used for purposes of expiation, was early sacred to him (see DAPHNE ). It was planted round his temples, and plaited into garlands of victory at the Pythian games. The palm-tree was also sacred to him, for it was under a palm-tree that he was born in Delos. Among animals, the wolf, the dolphin, the snow-white and musical swan, the hawk, raven, crow, and snake were under his special protection; the last four in connexion with his prophetic functions. In ancient art he was represented as a long-haired but beardless youth, of tall yet muscular build, and handsome features. Images of him were as abundant as his worship was extensive: there was scarcely an artist of antiquity who did not try his hand upon some incident in the story of Apollo. The ideal type of this god seems to have been fixed chiefly by Praxiteles and Scopas. The most famous statue preserved of him is the Apollo Belvedere in the Vatican (fig. 1), which represents him either as fighting with the Pythian dragon, or with his aegis frightening back the foes who threaten to storm his sanctuary. Other great works, as the Apollo Musagetes in the Vatican, probably from the hand of Scopas, show him as a Citharoedus in the long Ionian robe, or nude as in fig. 2. The Apollo Sauroctonus (lizard-killer), copied from a bronze statue by Praxiteles, is especially celebrated for its beauty. It represents a delicate youthful figure leaning against a tree, dart in hand, ready to stab a lizard that is crawling up the tree. It is preserved in bronze at the Villa Albani in Rome, and in marble at Paris. APOLLODORUS A Greek grammarian and historian, of Athens, about 140 B.C., a pupil of Aristarchus and the Stoic Panaetius. He was a most prolific writer on grammar, mythology geography, and bistory. Some of his works were written in iambic senarii, e.g. a geography, and the Chronica, a condensed enumeration of the most important data in history and literature from the fall of Troy, which he places in B.C. 1183, down to his own time, undoubtedly the most important of ancient works on the subject. Besides fragments, we have under his name a book entitled Bibliotheca, a great storehouse of mythological material from the oldest theogonies down to Theseus, and, with all its faults of arrangement and treatment, a valuable aid to our knowledge of Greek mythology. Yet there are grounds for doubting whether it is from his hand at all, whether it is even an extract from his great work, On the Gods, in twenty-four books. APOLLODORUS A Greek painter of Athens, about 420 B.C., the first who graduated light and shade in his pictures, whence be received the name of Sciagraphus (shadow-painter). This invention entitled him to be regarded as the founder of a new style, which aimed at producing illusion by pictorial means, and which was carried on further by his younger contemporary Zeuxis. [Pliny, H.N., 35. 60]. APOLLODORUS A Greek architect of Damascus, who lived for a time at Rome, where amongst other things he built Trajan's Forum and Trajan's Column. He was first banished and then put to death under Hadrian, A.D. 129, having incurred that emperor's anger by the freedom of his rebukes. We have a work by him on Engines of War, addressed to Hadrian. APOLLONIUS Apollonius of Perga in Pamphylia. A Greek mathematician named " the Geometer," who lived at Pergamus and Alexandria in the 1st century B.C., and wrote a work on Conic Sections in eight books, of which we have only the first four in the original, the fifth, sixth, and seventh in an Arabic translation, and the eighth in extracts. The method he followed is that still in use. APOLLONIUS Apollonius of Tyana in Cappadocia, the most celebrated of the Neo-Pythagoreans, lived about the middle of the 1st century A.D.; by a severely ascetic life on the supposed principles of Pythagoras, and by pretended miracles, he obtained such a hold on the multitude that he was worshipped as a god, and set up as a rival to Christ. The account of his life by the elder Philostratus (q.v.) is more romance than history, and offers little to build upon. Having received his philosophical education, and lived in the temple, of Asclepius at Egae till his twentieth year, he divided his patrimony among the poor, and roamed all over the world; he was even said to have reached India and the sources of the Nile. Twice he lived at Rome; first under Nero till the expulsion of the philosophers, and again in Domitian's reign, when he had to answer a charge of conspiring against the emperor. Smuggled out of Rome during his trial, he continued his life as a wandering preacher of morals and worker of marvels for some years longer, and is said to have died at a great age, master of a school at Ephesus. Of his alleged writings, eight-five letters have alone survived. APOLLONIUS Apollonius, surnamed Dyscolus (- the surly). A Greek scholar, of Alexandria, where he had received his education, and where he ended his days a member of the Museum, after having laboured as a teacher at Rome under Antoninue Pius, about 140 A.D. He is the father of Scientific Grammar, having been the first to reduce it to systematic form. His extant works are the treatises on Pronouns, Adverbs, Conjunctions, and the Syntax of the parts of speech, in four books. He was followed especially by the Latin grammarians, above all by Priscian. His son Herodianus accomplished even more than he did. APOLLONIUS Apollonius, king of Tyre, the hero of a Greek romance (now lost), composed in Asia Minor, in the 3rd century A.D., on the model of the Ephesian History of Xenophon (q.v. 2). We have a free Latin version made by a Christian, about the 6th century, probably in Italy, which was much read in the Middle Ages, and translated into AngloSaxon, English, French, Italian, Middle Greek and German, in prose and verse. Its materials are used in the pseudo-Shakspearian drama of Pericles Prince of Tyre. APOLLONIUS the Rhodian. A Greek scholar and epic poet of the Alexandrian age, born at Alexandria about 260 B.C., a pupil of Callimachus, wrote a long epic, The Argonautica, in four books, in which, departing from his master's taste for the learned and artificial, he aimed at all the simplicity of Homer. The party of Callimachus rejected the poem, and Apollonius retired in disgust to Rhodes, where his labours as a rhetorician, and his newly revised poem, won him hearty recognition and even admission to the citizenship. Hence his surname. Afterwards, returning to Alexandria, he recited his poem once more, and this time with universal applause, so that Ptolemy Epiphanes, in B.C. 196, appointed him to succeed Eratosthenes as librarian. He probably died during the tenure of this office. His epic poem, which has survived, has a certain simplicity, though falling far short of the naturalness and beauty of Homer; its uniform mediocrity often makes it positively tedious, though it is constructed with great care, especially in its versification. By the Romans it was much prized, and more than once imitated, as by Varro of Atax and Valerius Flaccus. A valuable collection of scholia upon it testifies the esteem in which it was held by the learned of old. APOLLONIUS Apollonius of Tralles. A Greek sculptor of the school of Rhodes, and joint author with his countryman Tauriscus of the celebrated group of Dirce (q.v.). Among other artists of the name, the worthiest of mention is Apollonius of Athens, of the 1st century B.C. From his hand is the Hercules, now only a torso, preserved in the Belvedere at Rome. APOTHEOSIS The act of placing a human being among the gods, of which the Greeks have an instance as early as Homer, but only in the single case of Leucothea. The oldest notion was that of a bodily removal; then arose the idea of the mortal element being purged away by fire, as in the case of Heracles. There was a kind of deification which consisted in the decreeing of heroic honours to distinguished men after death, which was done from the time of the Peloponnesian War onwards, even in the case of living men (see HEROES ). The successors of Alexander the Great, both the Seleucidae and still more the Ptolemies, caused themselves to be worshipped as gods. Of the Romans, whose legend told of the translation of Eneas and Romulus into heaven, Caesar was the first who claimed divine honours, if not by building temples to himself, yet by setting his statue among the gods in every sanctuary at Rome and in the empire, and by having a special flamen assigned to him. The belief in his divinity was confirmed by the comet that shone several months after his death, as long as his funeral games lasted; and under the triumvirate he was formally installed among the deities of Rome, as Divus Iulius, by a decree of the senate and people. His adopted son and successor Octavian persistently declined any offer of public worship, but he accepted the title of Augustus (the consecrated), and allowed his person to be adored in the provinces. On his death the senate decreed divine honours to him under the title of Divus Augustus, the erection of a temple, the founding of special games, and the establishment of a peculiar priesthood. After this, admission to the number of the Divi, as the deified emperors were called, becomes a prerogative of the imperial dignity. It is, however, left dependent on a resolution of the senate moved in honour of the deceased emperor by his successor. Hence it is not every emperor who obtains it, nor does consecration itself always lead to a permanent worship. Empresses too were often consecrated, first Augustus' wife Livia as Diva Augusta, and even other members of the imperial house. The ceremony of Apotheosis used from the time of Augustus was the following. After the passing of the senate's decree a waxen image of the dead, whose body lay hidden below, was exhibited for seven days on an ivory bed of state in the palace, covered with gold-embroidered coverlets; then the bier was borne by knights and senators amidst a brilliant retinue down the Via Sacra to the ancient Forum, where the funeral oration was delivered, and thence to the Campus Martius, where it was deposited in the second of the four stories of a richly decorated funeral pile of pyramid shape. When the magistrates sacred and secular, the knights, lifeguard, and others concerned, had performed the last honours by processions and libations, the pile was set on fire, and as it burned up, an eagle soared from the topmost storey into the sky, a symbol of the ascending soul. APPARITOR The general name in Latin for all public servants of the magistrates. They all had to he Roman citizens, and were paid a fixed salary out of the public treasury. Though nominated by the respective officers for a year at a time, they were, usually re-appointed, so that practically their situations were secured for life, and they could even sell their places. The most important classes of these attendants were those of scribae, lictores, viatores and proecones (q.v.). These were divided into decurioe of varying strength, which enjoyed corporate rights, and chose foremen from their own body. (Comp. ACCENSI. APPELLATIO The Latin term for an appeal to a magistrate to put his veto on the decision of an equal or inferior magistrate. Thus a consul could be appealed to against his colleague and all other magistrates except the tribunes, but a tribune both against his colleagues and all magistrates whatsoever. Another thing altogether was the Provocatio (q.v.) under the Republic, an appeal from a magistrate's sentence to the People as supreme judge. During the imperial period the two processes run into one, for the emperor held united in his person both the supreme judicial function and the plenary power of all magistrates, particularly the tribunician veto, so that an appeal to him was at once an appellatio and a provocatio. This appeal, in our sense of the word, was only permitted in important cases; it had to be made within a short time after sentence was passed, and always addressed to the authority next in order, so that it only reached the emperor if no intermediate authority was competent. If the result was that the disputed verdict was neither quashed nor awarded, but confirmed, the appellant had to pay a fine. As the power of life and death rested with the emperor and senate alone, governors of provinces were bound to send up to Rome any citizen appealing on a capital charge. APPIANUS A Greek historian, of Alexandria, who lived about the middle of the 2nd century A.D. At first he pursued the calling of an advocate at Rome; in later life, on the recommendation of his friend the rhetorician Fronto, he obtained from Antoninus Pius the post of an imperial procurator in Egypt. He wrote an extensive work on the development of the Roman Empire from the earliest times down to Trajan, consisting of a number of special histories of the several periods and the several lands and peoples till the time when they fell under the Roman dominion. Of the twenty-four books of which it originally consisted, only eleven are preserved complete beside the Preface: Spain (book 6), Hannibal (7), Carthage (8), Syria (11), Mithridates (12), the Roman Civil Wars (13-17) and Illyria (23), the rest being lost altogether, or only surviving in fragments. Appian's style is plain and bald, even to dryness, and his historical point of view is purely Roman. The book is a mere compilation, and disfigured by many oversights and blunders, especially in chronology; nevertheless the use made by the writer of lost authorities lends it considerable worth, and for the history of the Civil Wars it is positively invaluable. APULEIUS Born about 130 A.D. at Madaura in Numidia, of a wealthy and honourable family; the most original Latin writer of his time. Educated at Carthage, he went to Atbens to study philosophy, especially that of Plato; then he travelled far and wide, everywhere obtaining initiation into the mysteries. For sometime he lived in Rome as an advocate. After returning to Africa, he married a lady considerably older than himself, the mother of a friend, Aemilia Pudentilla, whereupon her kinsmen charged him with having won the rich widow's hand by magic, and of having contrived the death of her son: a charge to which he replied with much wit in his oration De Magia (earlier than A.D. 161). He afterwards settled down at Carthage, and thence made excursions through Africa, delivering orations or lectures. Of the rest of his life and the year of his death nothing is known. Beside the Apologia above-mentioned, and a few rhetorical and philosophic writings, another work, his chief one, also survives, which was composed at a ripe age, with hints borrowed from a book of Lucian's. This is a satirical and fantastic moral romance, Metamorphoseon libri XI (de Asino Aureo), the adventures of one Lucius, who is transformed into an ass, and under that disguise has the amplest opportunities of observing, undetected, the preposterous doings of mankind. Then, enlightened by this experience, and with the enchantment taken off him by admission into the mysteries of Osiris, be becomes quite a new man. Of the many episodes interwoven into the story, the most interesting is the beautiful allegorical fairy tale of Cupid and Psyche, so much used by later poets and artists. Throughout the book Apuleius paints the moral and religious conditions of his time with much humour and in lifelike colours though his language, while clever, is often, affected, bombastic, and disfigured by obsolete and provincial phrases. AQUEDUCTS were not unfrequently constructed by the Greeks, who collected the spring-water of neighbouring hills, by channels cut through the rock, or by underground conduits of brick and stone work, into reservoirs, and thence distributed it by a network of rills. An admirable work of this kind is the tunnel, more than a mile in length, which was bored through the mountain now called Kastri, by the architect Eupalinus of Megara, probably under Polycrates (in the 6th century B.C.). The Roman aqueducts are among the most magnificent structures of antiquity. Some of these were likewise constructed underground; others, latterly almost all, conveyed the water, often for long distances, in covered channels of brick or stone, over lofty arcades stretching straight through hill and valley. They started from a wellhead (caput aquarum) and ended in a reservoir (castellum), out of which the water ran in Rome into three chambers, lying one above another, the lowest chamber sending it through leaden or clay pipes into the public fountains and basins, the middle one into the great bathing establishments, the uppermost into private houses. Private citizens paid a tax for the water they obtained from these public sources. Under the Republic the construction and repair of aqueducts devolved upon the censors, their management on the aediles, but from the time of Augustus on a special curator aquarum assisted by a large staff of pipe-masters, fountain-masters, inspectors, and others, taken partly from the number of the public slaves. The amount of water brought into Rome by its numerous aqueducts, the first of which, the aqua Appia, was projected B.C. 312, may be estimated from the fact that the four still in use-aqua virgo (now Acqua Vergine, built by Agrippa B.C. 20), aqua Marcia (now Acqua Pia, B.C. 144), aqua Claudia (now Acqua Felice, finished by Claudius A.D. 62), aqua Traiana (now Acqua Paola, constructed by Trajan A.D. 111) are sufficient to supply all the houses and innumerable fountains of the present city in superfluity. Among the provincial aqueducts, one is specially well preserved, that known as Pont du Gard, near Nimes, in the, south of France (see out on p. 48). ARACHNE (- spider). Daughter of the Lydian purple-dyer Idmon, challenged Athena, of whom she had learnt weaving, to a weaving match. When the offended goddess tore up Arachne's web, which represented the loves of the gods, Arachne hung herself, but Athena changed her into a spider. ARATUS A Greek poet, of Soli in Cilicia, about 270 B.C., contemporary of Callimachus and Theocritus. At the request of the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he lived as physician, he wrote, without much knowledge of the subject, but guided by the works of Eudoxus and Theophrastus, an astronomical poem, Phoenomena and Prognostica (aspects of the sky and signs of weather). Without genuine poetic inspiration, Aratus manages his intractable material with considerable tact, and dignified simplicity. The language, while not always free from stiffness, is choice, and ihe versification correct. The poem enjoyed a high repute with the general public, as well as with poets and specialists: thus the great astronomer Hipparchus wrote a commentary on it in four books. The Romans also took pleasure in reading and translating it, e.g. Cicero, Caesar Germanicus, and Avienus. ARCHEMORUS A surname given to Opheltes, the infant son of Lycurgus king of Nemea, who was killed by a snake during the march of the Seven against Thebes (q.v.). It was given him by the seer Amphiaraus, who foresaw the destruction awaiting himself and his confederates; and by it the child was invoked at the Nemean Games originally founded in memory of him. ARCHESTRATUS of Gela, in Sicily, flourished about 318 B.C., and composed the humorous didactic poem Hedypatheia (- good cheer), supposed to describe a gastronomic tour round the then known world, with playful echoes of Homer and the dogmatic philosophers. The numerous fragments display much talent and wit. ARCHILOCHUS A Greek lyric poet, especially eminent as a writer of lampoons. Born at Paros, he was the son of Telesicles by a slave-woman, but was driven by poverty to go with a colony to Thasos B.C. 720 or 708. From Thasos he was soon driven by want and by the enmities which his unrestrained passion for invective had drawn upon him. He seems to have roamed restlessly from place to place, until, on his return to Paros, lie was slain in fight by the Naxian Calondas. Long afterwards, when this man visited the Delphian temple the god is said to have driven him from his threshold as the slayer of a servant of the Muses, and refused to admit him till be bad propitiated the soul of the poet at his tomb : a story which expresses the high value set on his art by the ancients, who placed him on a level with Homer, Pindar and Sophocles. For Archilochus had an extraordinary poetical genius, which enabled him to invent a large number of new metres, and to manipulate them with the ease of a master. He brought Iambic poetry, in particular, to artistic perfection. The many misfortunes of his stormy life had bred in his irritable nature a deeply-settled indignation, which, in poems perfect in form and alive with force and fury, vented itself in bitter mockery even if his friends, and in merciless, unpardonable abuse of his foes. Such was the effect of his lampoons, that Lycambes, who had first promised and then refused him his daughter Neobule, hanged himself and his family in the despair engendered by the poet's furious attacks. Of his poems, which were written in the Old-Ionic dialect, and taken by Horace for, his model in his Epodes, only a number of short fragments are preserved. ARCHIMEDES One of the greatest mathematicians and natural philosophers of antiquity, born B.C. 287 at Syracuse. He lived at the court of his kinsman, king Hiero, and was killed (B.C. 212) by a Roman soldier at the taking of the city which he had largely aided in defending with his engines. Of his inventions and discoveries we need only say, that he ascertained the ratio of the radius to the circumference, and that of the cylinder to the sphere, and the hydrostatic law that a body dipped in water loses as much weight as that of the water displaced by it; that he invented the pulley, the endless screw, and the kind of pump called the "screw of Archimedes"; and that he constructed the so-called "sphere," a sort of orrery showing the motions of the heavenly bodies. Of his works, written in the Doric dialect, the following are preserved: On the sphere and cylinder, On the measurement of the circle, On conoids and spheroids, On spiral lines, The psammites (or sand-reckoner, for the calculation of the earth's size in grains of sand), On the equilibrium of planes and their centres of gravity, and On floating bodies. ARCHITECTURE, ORDERS OF In Greek architecture there were three orders of columns: the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. (I) Doric: Figures 1 and 2 give instances of the Doric style from the temple at Paestum and the Parthenon at Athens. The Doric column consists (a) of the shaft, which increases in diameter almost invisibly up to about one-quarter of its height, and diminishes slightly after that point. It has no base, but rests immediately on the stylobate. It is surrounded with semi-circular flutings, meeting each other at a sharp angle. These were chiselled with a cedar-wood tool after the separate drums had been put together. (b) The capital (Lat. capitulum). This consists of three parts, (a) the hypotrachelion, or neck of the column, a continuation of the shaft, but separated by an indentation from the other drums. It is wider at the top than at the bottom, and is generally ornamented with several parallel and horizontal rings. (b) The echinus, a circular moulding or cushion, which widens greatly towards the top. (c) The abax or abacus, a square slab supporting the architrave or episylion. The height of the shaft is usually 5 1/2 times, the distance between the columns 1 1/2 times the diameter of the base of the column. The architrave is a quadrangular beam of stone, reaching from pillar to pillar. On this again rests the frieze, zophoros, so called from the metopes which are adorned with sculptures in relief. These metopes are square spaces between the triglyphs: the triglyphs are surfaces out into three concave grooves, two whole grooves in the centre, and two half grooves at the sides. One is placed over each pillar, and one between each pair of pillars. The entablature is completed by a projecting cornice, a slab crowned with a simple heading-course, the lower surface of which is ornamented with sloping corbels (Gk. stagones, Lat. mutuli). (II) Ionic Columns. An instance is given in fig. 3 from the temple on the Ilissus at Athens. These are loftier than the Doric, their height being 8 1/2-9 1/2 times the diameter of the, lower part. The enlargement of the lower part is also less than in the Doric columns, the distance between each column greater (two diameters), the flutings (generally 24 in number) deeper, and separated by small flat surfaces. The Ionic column has a base consisting of a square slab (plinthos), and several cushion like supports separated by grooves. The capital, again, is more artistically developed. The neck, instead of fluting, has five leaves worked in relief. The echinus is very small and ornamented with an egg pattern. Over it, instead of the abacus, is a Four-cornered cushion ending before and behind in spiral volutes, supporting a narrow square slab, which is also adorned with an egg pattern. The architrave is divided into three bands, projecting one above the other, and upon it rises, in an uninterrupted surface, the frieze, adorned with reliefs, continuously along its whole length. Finally, the cornice is composed of different parts. (III) The Corinthian column (fig. 4, from the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens). The base and shaft are identical with the Ionic, but the capital takes the form of an open calix formed of acanthus leaves. Above this is another set of leaves, from between which grow stalks with small leaves, rounded into the form of volutes. On this rests a small abacus widening towards the top, and on this again the entablature, which is borrowed from the Ionic order. On the human figures employed instead of columns to support the entablature, see ATLAS , CANEPHORI , CARYATIDES. The Romans adopted the Greek styles of column, but not always in their pure form. They were fondest of the Corinthian, which they laboured to enrich with new and often excessive ornamentation. For instance, they crowned the Corinthian capital with the Ionic, thus forming what is called the Roman or composite capital. The style known as Tuscan is a degenerate form of the Doric. The Tuscan column has a smooth shaft, in height=7 diameters of the lower part, and tapering up to three-quarters of its lower dimensions. Its base consists of two parts, a circular plinth, and a cushion of equal height. The capital is formed of three parts of equal height. In other styles, too, the Romans sometimes adopted the smooth instead of the fluted shaft, as for instance in the Pantheon (fig. 5). Single columns were sometimes erected by the Greeks, and in imitation of them by the Romans, as memorials to distinguished persons. A good example is the Columna Rostrata, or column with its shaft adorned with the beaks of ships, in the Roman Forum. This was set up in commemoration of the naval victory of Duilius over the Carthaginians (261 B.C.). Among the columns which survive, the most magnificent is that of Trajan, erected in the Forum of Trajan 113 A.D. It rises on a quadrangular pediment to the height of 124 feet; its diameter below is about 10 feet, and a little less in the upper part. An interior spiral staircase of 185 steps leads to the summit. The shaft, formed of twenty-three drums of marble, is adorned with a series of reliefs, 3 feet 3 inches high and 200 feet long, in a series of twenty-two spirals. They represent scenes in Trajan's Dacian campaigns, and contain 2,500 human figures, with animals, engines, etc. On a cylindrical pedestal at the summit there once stood a gilded statue of the emperor, which, since the year 1587, has made way for a bronze figure of St. Peter. A similar column is that of Marcus Aurelius, 122 feet high, on the Piazza Colonna. Since 1589 the statue of St. Paul has been substituted for that of the emperor. The reliefs, in twenty spirals, represent events in the emperor's war with the Marcomanni. ARCHITECTURE: of the Greeks. Of the earliest efforts of the Greeks in architecture, we have evidence in the so-called Cyclopean Walls surrounding the castles of kings in the Heroic Age at Tiryns, Argos, Mycenae (fig. 1), and elsewhere. They are of enormous thickness, some being constructed of rude colossal blocks, whose gaps are filled up with smaller stones; while others are built of stones more or less carefully hewn, their interstices exactly fitting into each other. Gradually they begin to show an approximation to buildings with rectangular blocks. The gates let into these walls are closed at the top either by the courses of stone jutting over from each side till they touch, or by a long straight block laid over the two leaning side-posts. Of the latter kind is the famous Lion-gate at Mycenae, so-called from the group of two lions standing with their forefeet on the broad pedestal of a pillar that tapers rapidly downwards, and remarkable as the oldest specimen of Greek sculpture. The sculpture is carved on a large triangular slab that fills an opening left in the wall to lighten the weight on the lintel (fig. 2). Among the most striking relies of this primitive age are the so-called Thesauroi, or treasuries (now regarded as tombs) of ancient dynasties the most considerable being the Treasure-house of Atreus at Mycenae. Theusual form of these buildings is that of a circular chamber vaulted over by the horizontal courses approaching from all sides till they meet. Thus the vault is not a true arch (fig. 3). The interior seems originally to have been covered with metal plates, thus agreeing with Homer's descriptions of metal as a favourite ornament of princely houses. An open-air building preserved from that age is the supposed Temple of Hera on Mount Ocha (now Hagios Elias) in Euboea, a rectangle built of regular square blocks, with walls more than a yard thick, two small windows, and a door with leaning posts and a huge lintel in the southern side-wall. The sloping roof is of hewn flagstones resting on the thickness of the wall and overlapping each other; but the centre is left open as in the hypaethral temples of a later time. From the simple shape of a rectangular house shut in by blank walls we gradually advance to finer and richer forms, formed especially by the introduction of columns detached from the wall and serving to support the roof and ceiling. Even in Homer we find columns in the palaces to support the halls that surround the courtyard, and the ceiling of the banqueting-room. The construction of columns (see ARCHITECTURE , ORDERS OF ) received its artistic development first from the Dorians after their migration into the Peloponnesus about 1000 B.C., next from the Ionians, and from each in a form suitable to their several characters. If the simple serious character of the Dorians speaks in the Doric Order, no less does the lighter, nimbler, and more showy genius of the Ionian race come out in the Order named after them. By about 650 B.C. the Ionic style was flourishing aide by side with the Doric. As it was in the construction of Temples (q.v.) that architecture had developed her favourite forms, all other public buildings borrowed their artistic character from the temple. The structure and furniture of private houses (see HOUSE ), were, during the best days of Greece, kept down to the simplest forms. About 600 B.C., in the Greek islands and on the coast of Asia Minor, we come across the first architects known to us by name. It was then that Rhaecus and Theodorus of Samos, celebrated likewise as inventors of casting in bronze, built the great temple of Hera in that island, while Chersiphron of Cnosus in Crete, with his son Metagenes, began the temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the world, which was not finished till 120 years after. In Greece Proper a vast temple to Zeus was begun at Athens in the 6th century B.C. (see OLYMPIEUM ), and two more at Delphi and Olympia, one by the Corinthian Spintharus, the other by the Elean Libon. Here, and in the Western colonies the Doric style still predominated everywhere. Among the chief remains of this period, in addition to many ruined temples in Sicily (especially at Selinus and Agrigentum), should be mentioned the Temple of Poseidon. at Paestum (Poseidonia) in South Italy, one of the best preserved and most beautiful relies of antiquity (figs. 4, 5). The patriotic fervour of the Persian Wars created a general expansion of Greek life, in which Architecture and the sister art of Sculpture were not slow to take a part. In these departments, as in the whole onward movement, a central position was taken by Athens, whose leading statesmen, Cimon and Pericles, lavished the great resources of the State at once in strengthening and beautifying the city. During this period arose a group of masterpieces that still astonish us in their ruins, some in the forms of a softened Doric, others in the Ionic style, which had now found its way into Attica, and was here fostered into nobler shapes. The Doric order is represented by the Temple of Theseus (fig. 6), the Propylaea built by Mnesicles, the Parthenon, a joint production of Ictinus and Callicrates; while the Erechtheum is the most brilliant creation of the Ionic order in Attica. Of the influence of Attic Architecture on the rest of Greece we have proof, especially in the Temple of Apollo at Bassae in South-Western Arcadia, built from the design of the above-mentioned Ictinus. The progress of the Drama to its perfection in this period led to a corresponding improvement in the building of Theatres (q.v.). A stone theatre was begun at Athens even before the Persian Wars; and the Odeum of Pericles served similar purposes. How soon the highest results were achieved in this department, when once the fundamental forms had thus been laid down in outline at Athens, is shown by the theatre at Epidaurus, a work of Polyclitus, unsurpassed, as the ancients testify, by any later theatres in harmony and beauty. Another was built at Syracuse, before B.C. 420. Nor is it only in the erection of single buildings that the great advance then made by architecture shows itself. In laying out new towns, or parts of towns, men began to proceed on artistic principles, an innovation due to the sophist Hippodamus of Miletus. In the 4th century B.C., owing to the change wrought in the Greek mind by the Peloponnesian War, in place of the pure and even tone of the preceding period, a desire for effect became more and more general, both in architecture and sculpture. The sober Doric style fell into abeyance and gave way to the Ionic, by the side of which a new Order, the Corinthian, said to have been invented by the sculptor Callimachus, with its more gorgeous decorations, became increasingly fashionable. In the first half of the 4th century arose what the ancients considered the largest and grandest temple in the Peloponnesus, that of Athena at Tegea, a work of the sculptor and architect Scopas. During the middle of the century, another of the "seven wonders," the splendid tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus was constructed (see MAUSOLEUM ). Many magnificent temples arose in that time. In Asia Minor, the temple at Ephesus, burnt down by Herostratus, was rebuilt by Alexander's bold architect Deinocrates. In the islands the ruins of the temple of Athena at Priene, of Apollo at Miletus, of Dionysus at Teos, and others, even to this day offer a brilliant testimony to their former magnificence. Among Athenian buildings of that age the Monument of Lysicrates (q.v.) is conspicuous for its graceful elegance and elaborate development of the Corinthian style. In the succeeding age Greek architecture shows its finest achievements in the building of theatres, especially those of Asiatic towns, in the gorgeous palaces of newly-built royal capitals, and in general in the luxurious completeness of private buildings. As an important specimen of the last age of Attic architecture may also be mentioned the Tower of the Winds (q.v.) at Athens. ARCHITECTURE: Architecture of the Etruscans and Romans. In architecture, as well as sculpture, the Romans were long under the influence of the Etruscans, who, though denied the gift of rising to the ideal, united wonderful activity and inventiveness with a passion for covering their buildings with rich ornamental carving. None of their temples have survived, for they built all the upper parts of wood; but many proofs of their activity in building remain, surviving from various ages, in the shape of Tombs and Walls. The latter clearly show how they progressed from piling up polygonal blocks in Cyclopean style to regular courses of squared stone. Here and there a building still shows that the Etruscans originally made vaultings by letting horizontal courses jut over, as in the ancient Greek thesauroi above mentioned; on the other hand, some very old gateways, as at Volterra (fig. 7) and Perugia, exhibit the true Arch of wedge-shaped stones, the invention of which is probably due to Etruscan ingenuity, and from the introduction of which a new and magnificent development of architecture takes its rise. The most imposing monument of ancient Italian arch-building is to be seen in the sewers of Rome laid down in the 6th century B.C. (See CLOACA MAXIMA. ) When all other traces of Etruscan influence were being swept away at Rome by the intrusion of Greek forms of art, especially after the Conquest of Greece in the middle of the 2nd century B.C., the Roman architects kept alive in full vigour the Etruscan method of building the arch, which they developed and completed by the inventions of the Cross-Arch (or groined vault) and the Dome. With the Arch, which admits of a bolder and more varied management of spaces, the Romans combined, as a decorative element, the columns of the Greek Orders. Among these their growing love of pomp gave the preference more and more to the Corinthian, adding to it afterwards a still more gorgeous embellishment in what is called the Roman or Composite capital (see ARCHITECTURE , ORDERS OF ). Another service rendered by the Romans was the introduction of building in brick (see POTTERY ). A more vigorous advance in Roman architecture dates from the opening of the 3rd century B.C., when they began making great military roads and aqueducts. In the first half of the 2nd century they built, on Greek models, the first Basilica, which, besides its practical utility served to embellish the Forum. Soon after the middle of the century, appeared the first of their more ambitious temples in the Greek style. There is simple grandeur in the ruins of the Tabularium, or Record-Office, built B.C. 78 on the slope of the Capitol next the Forum. These are among the few remains of Roman republican architecture; but in the last decades of the Republic simplicity gradually disappeared, and men were eager to display a princely pomp in public and private buildings; witness the first stone theatre erected by Pompey as early as 55 B.C. Then all that went before was eclipsed by the vast works undertaken by Caesar, the Theatre, Amphitheatre, Circus, Basilica Iulia, Forum Caesaris with its Temple to Venus Genetrix. These were finished by Augustus, under whom Roman architecture seems to have reached its culminating point. Augustus, aided bu his son-in-law Agrippa, a man who understood building, not only completed his uncle's plans, but added many magnificent structures--the Forum Augusti with its Temple to Mars Ultor, the Theatre of Marcellus with its Portico of Octavia, the Mansoleum, and others. Augustus could fairly boast that" having found Rome a city of brick, he left it a city of marble." The grandest monument of that age, and one of the loftiest creations of Roman art in general, is the Pantheon (q.v.) built by Agrippa, adjacent to, but not connected with, his Thermae, the first of the many works of that kind in Rome. A still more splendid aspect was imparted to the city by the rebuilding of the Old Town burnt down in Nero's fire, and by the "Golden House" of Nero, a gorgeous pile, the like of which was never seen before, but which was destroyed on the violent death of its creator. Of the luxurious grandeur of private buildings we have ocular proof in the dwelling-houses of Pompeii, a paltry country-town in comparison with Rome. The progress made under the Flavian emperors is evidenced by Vespasian's Amphitheatre (q.v.) known as the Colosseum (figs. 8, 9, 10), the mightiest Roman ruin in the world, by the ruined Thermae, or Baths, of Titus, and by his Triumphal Arch (q.v.), the oldest specimen extant in Rome of this class of monument, itself a creation of the Roman mind (fig. 11). But all previous buildings were surpassed in size and splendour when Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damascus raised the Forum Traianum with its huge Basilica Ulpia (fig. 12) and the still surviving Column of Trajan. No less extensive were the works of Hadrian, who, besides adorning Athens with many magnificent buildings, bequeathed to Rome a Temple of Venus and Roma, the most colossal of all Roman temples (fig. 13) and his own Mausoleum (q.v.), the core of which is preserved in the Castle of St. Angelo. While the works of the Antonines already show a gradual decline in architectural feeling, the Triumphal Arch of Severus ushers in the period of decay that set in with the 3rd century. In this closing period of Roman rule the buildings grow more and more gigantic, witness the Baths of Caracalla (fig. 14), those of Diocletian, with his palace at Salona (three miles from Spalatro) in Dalmatia, and the Basilica of Constantine breathing the last feeble gasp of ancient life. But outside of Rome and Italy, in every part of the enormous empire to its utmost barbarian borders, bridges, numberless remains of roads and aqueducts and viaducts, ramparts and gateways, palaces, villas, market-places and judgment-halls, baths, theatres, amphitheatres and temples, attest the versatility, majesty, and solidity of Roman architecture, most of whose creations only the rudest shocks have hitherto been able to destroy. ARCHON (=ruler), the Athenian name for the supreme authority established on the abolition of royalty. On the death of the last king, Codrus, B.C. 1068, the headship of the state for life was bestowed on his son Medon and his descendants under the title of Archon. In 752 B.C. their term of office was cut down to ten years, in 714 their exclusive privilege was abolished, and the right to hold the office thrown open to all the nobility, while its duration was diminished to one year; finally in B.C. 683 the power was divided among nine archons. By Solon's legislation, his wealthiest class, the pentacosio-medimni, became eligible to the office; and by Aristides' arrangement after the Persian Wars it was thrown open to all the citizens, Cleisthenes having previously, in the interests of the democracy, substituted the drawing of lots for election by vote. [See Note on p. 706.] The political power of the office, having steadily decreased with time, sank to nothing when democracy was established; its holders had no longer even the right to deliberate and originate motions, their action being limited to certain priestly and judicial functions, relies of their once regal power. The titles and duties of the several Archons are as follows: (1) Their president, named emphatically Archon, or Archon Eponymos, because the civil year was named after him. He had charge of the Great Dionysia, the Thargelia, the embassies to festivals (theoriae), the nomination of choregi; also the position of guardian in chief, and the power to appoint guardians, the presidency in all suits about family rights (such as questions of divorce or inheritance), and in disputes among the choregi. (2) The Archon Basileus (king), called so because on him devolved certain sacred rites inseparably connected with the name of king. He had the care of the Eleusinian Mysteries (and was obliged therefore to be an initiated person), of the Lencae and Anthesteria, of gymnastic contests, to which he appointed a superintendent, and of a number of antiquated sacrifices, some of which fell to the share of his wife, the Basilissa (queen); and lastly, the position of president in all suits touching religious law, including those trials for murder that came within the jurisdiction of the Ephetae (q.v.). (3) The Archon Polemarchos (leader in war) was originally entrusted with the war-department, and, as late as the battle of Marathon, had the right of voting with the ten generals, and the old royal privilege of commanding the right wing. Afterwards he only had charge of the state sacrifices offered to the gods of war and to the shade of Harm6dius, the public funerals of those who fell in war and the annual feasts in honour of them; finally, the jurisdiction in all questions concerning the personal and family rights of resident aliens (metaeci) and strangers. All this rested on the old assumption that foreigner meant enemy. Each of these three superior Archons had two assessors chosen by himself, but responsible. (4) The Six Thesmothetae (literally law-givers) administered justice in all cases not pertaining to the senior Archons or some other authority, revised the laws once a year, and superintended the apportioning of public offices by lot. The several Archons exercised their jurisdiction at different spots in the city; that of the Polemarch alone lay outside the walls. Duties common to all nine were: the yearly appointment by lot of the Heliastae (q.v.), the choice of umpires in the Panathenaae, the holding of elections of the generals and other military officers, jurisdiction in the case of officials suspended or deposed by the people, and latterly even in suits which had previously been subject to the nautodicae. (See NAUTODICAe. ) If they had discharged their office without blame, they entered the Areopagus as members for life. The office of Archon lasted even under the Roman rule. AREITHOUS King of Arne in Boeotia, called the " club-swinger " because he fought with an iron mace. Irresistible in the open field, he was waylaid by king Lycurgus of Arcadia in a narrow pass where he could not swing his club, and killed. His son Menesthius fell by the hand of Paris, before Troy. AREOPAGUS An ancient criminal court at Athens, so named because it sat on Ares' Hill beside the Acropolis, where the god of war was said to have been tried for the murder of Halirrothius the son of Poseidon. (See ABES. ) Solon's legislation raised the Areopagus into one of the most powerful bodies by transferring to it the greater part of the jurisdiction of the Ephetae (q.v.), as well as the supervision of the entire public administration, the conduct of magistrates, the transactions of the popular assembly, religion, laws, morals and discipline, and giving it power to call even private people to account for offensive behaviour. The "Court of Areopagus," as its full name ran, consisted of life-members (Areopagites), who supplemented their number by the addition of such archons as had discharged their duties without reproach. Not only their age, but their sacred character tended to increase the influence of the Areopagites. They were regarded as in a measure ministers of the Erinyes or Eumenides (Furies), who under the name of Semnae (venerable) had their cave immediately beneath the Areopagus, and whose worship came under their care. The Areopagus proving too conservative for the headlong pace of the Athenian democracy, its general right of supervising the administration was taken from it by the law of Ephialtes, in 462 B.C., and transferred to a new authority, the Nomophylakes (guardians of the laws); but it recovered this right on the fall of the Thirty. Its political powers seem never to have been clearly defined; it often acted in the name of, and with full powers from, the people, which also accepted its decisions on all possible subjects. Under the Roman rule it was still regarded as the supreme authority. Then, as formerly, it exercised a most minute vigilance over foreigners. ARES The Greek name for the god of war, son of Zeus by Hera, whose quarrelsome temper Homer supposes to have passed over to son so effectively that he delighted in nothing but battle and bloodshed. His insatiable thirst for blood makes him hateful to his father and all the gods, especially Athena. His favourite haunt is the land of the wild and warlike Thracians. In form and equipment the ideal of warlike heroes, who are therefore called "Ares-like" and "darlings of Ares," he advances, according to Homer, now on foot, now in a chariot drawn by magnificent steeds, attended by his equally bloodthirsty sister Eris (strife), his sons Deimos and Phobos (fear and fright), and Enyo, the goddess of battle and waster of cities (he himself being called Enyalios), rushing in blind rage through indiscriminate slaughter. Though fighting on the Trojan side, the bloodshed only is dear to his heart. But his unbridled strength and blind valour turn to his disadvantage, and always bring about his defeat in the presence of Athena, the goddess of ordered battalions; he is also beaten by heroes fighting under her leadership, as by Heracles in the contest with Cycnus, and by Diomedes before Troy. And this view of Ares as the bloodthirsty god of battles is in the main that of later times also. As early as Homer he is the friend and lover of Aphrodite, who has borne him Eros and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, as well as Harmonia, wife of Cadmus the founder of Thebes, where both goddesses were worshipped as ancestral deities. He is not named so often as the gods of peace, but, as Ares or Enyalios, he was doubtless worshipped everywhere, notably in Sparta, in Arcadia and (as father of (Enomaus) in Elis. At Sparta young dogs were sacrified to him under the title of Theritas. At Athens the ancient site of a high court of justice, the Areopagus, was consecrated to him. There, in former days, the Olympian gods had sat in judgment on him and absolved him when he had slain Halirrhothius for offering violence to Alcippe, his daughter, by Agraulus. His symbols were the spear and the burning torch. Before the introduction of trumpets, two priests of Ares, marching in front of the armies, hurled the torch at the foe as the signal of battle. In works of art he was represented as a young and handsome man of strong sinewy frame, his hair in short curls, and a somewhat sombre look in his countenance; in the early style he is bearded and in armour, in the later beardless and with only the helmet on. He is often represented in company with Aphrodite and their boy Eros, who plays with his father's arms. One of the most famous statues extant is that in the Villa Ludovisi, which displays him in an easy resting attitude, with his arms laid aside, and Eros at his feet. (See cut.) On his identification with the Italian Mars, see MARS. ARETAEUS A Greek physician, born in Cappadocia, towards the end of the 2nd century A.D. He was the author of two valuable works (each in four books), written in the Ionic dialect, on the causes and symptoms of acute and chronic pains, and on their cure. ARETHUSA In Greece a frequent name of springs, especially of one in Elis, and one on the Island of Ortygia in the port of Syracuse, which was supposed to have a subterranean communication with the river Alpheus in Elis. The two fountains were associated by the following legend. As the nymph of Elis, tired with the chase, was bathing in the Alpheus, the river-god fell passionately in love with her; she fled from him to Ortygia, where Artemis hid her in the ground, and lot her gush out of it in the form of a fountain; but Alpheus flowed on under the sea to Ortygia, and so united himself with his beloved one. The story is explained by the likeness of name in the fountains, by the circumstance that Artemis was worshipped both in Elis and Ortygia as Alpheaea, and by the fact that in some places the Alpheus actually does ran underground. ARGEI The name of certain chapels at Rome, probably twenty-four in number, each of the four tribes of the city having six. To these chapels a procession was made on March 16 and 17, at which the wife of the Flamen Dialis walked with unkempt hair as a sign of mourning. On May 15 the Pontiffs, Vestal Virgins, Praetors, and all citizens who had a right to assist at sacrifices, marched to the wooden bridge over the Tiber (Pons Sublicius), and after sacrificing, threw into the river twenty-four men of straw, likewise named Argei, which had probably been hung up in the chapels at the first procession, and were fetched away at the second. The sacrifice was regarded as expiatory, and the puppets as substitutes for former human victims. The meaning of the name was unknown to the ancients, and so was the deity to whom the sacrifice was offered. ARGUS Son of Inachus, Agenor or Arestor; or, according to another account, an earthborn giant, who had eyes all over his body, whence be was called Panoptes, or all-seeing. Hera set him to watch 16, (q.v.) when transformed into a cow; but Hermes, at Zeus' bidding, sent all his eyes. to sleep by the magic of his wand and flute, and cut his head with a sickle-shaped sword, whence his title Argeiphontes was explained to mean " slayer of Argus." Hera set the eyes of her dead watchman in the tail of her sacred bird the peacock. ARGUS Son of Phrixus and Chalciope, the daughter of Aeetes. He is said to have come to Orchomenus, the home of his father, and to have built the Argo, which was named after him. According to another account he was shipwrecked with his brothers at the Island of Aretias on their way to Greece, and thence carried to Colchis by the Argonauts. ARGYRASPIDES In the later army of Alexander the Great, the remnant of the Macedonian heavy-armed infantry, who had crossed the Hellespont with the king, were formed into a corps of Guards in the heavy infantry of the line, and named from their shields being over-laid with Indian silver. After Alexander's death the corps was disbanded by Antigonus on account of its overweening pretensions. ARIADNE The daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, who fell in love with Theseus when he came to Crete to kill the Minotaur, and gave him a clue of yarn, to help him to find his way back to the light of day after slaying the monster in the Labyrinth. She then fled away with him. Homer represents Ariadne as slain by Artemis in the Island of Dia, close to Crete, at the request of Dionysus. But the later legend shifts the scene to the Isle of Naxos, where the slumbering Ariadne is deserted by Theseus. Waking up, she is on the brink of despair, when Dionysus comes and raises her to the dignity of a god's wife. Zeus grants her immortality, and sets her bridal gift, a crown, among the stars. She received divine honours: at Naxos her festivals were held, now with dismal rites recalling her abandonment, now with bacchanalian revelry becoming the happy bride of Dionysus. At Athens in the autumn they held a joyous festival to her and Dionysus, which Theseus was supposed to have founded on his return from Crete. In Italy, where they identified Dionysus with their wine-god Liber, they also took Ariadne for the wine-goddess Libera. ARION A Greek poet and musician, of Methymna in Lesbos, who flourished about 625 B.C. In the course of a roving life be spent a considerable time at the court of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Here he first gave the dithyramb (q.v.) an artistic form, and was therefore regarded as the inventor of that style in general. He is best known by the story of his rescue on the back of a dolphin. Returning from an artistic journey through Lower Italy and Sicily to his patron, he trusted himself to a crew of Corinthian sailors, who resolved to kill him on the open sea for the sake of his treasures. As a last favour he extorted the permission to sing his songs once more to the lyre, and then to throw himself into the sea. His strains drew a number of dolphins around him, one of which took him on its back, and carried him safe to land at the foot of the foreland of Taenarum. Thence he hastened to Corinth, and convicted the sailors, who were telling Periander they had left the minstrel safe at Tarentum. A bronze statue of a man on a dolphin, which stood on the top of Taenaron, was supposed to be his thank-offering to Poseidon. [Herodotus, i 24.] A Thanksgiving Hymn to the god of the sea, preserved under his name, belongs to a later time. ARISTAENETUS A Greek grammarian and rhetorician, of Nicaea in Bithynia, friend of Libanius, who praises him in the highest terms; he was killed in an earthquake at Nicomedia,A.D. 358. His name is erroneously attached to a collection, probably composed in the 5th or 6th century, of Erotic Epistles, feeble imitations of Alciphron, loose in tone and declamatory in style. ARISTAEUS A beneficent deity worshipped in various parts of Greece, especially in Thessaly, Boeotia, the African colony of Cyrene, and the Islands of Ceos, Corcyra, Sicily and Sardinia. He gives his blessing to herds, hunting, bee-keeping, wine, oil and every kind of husbandry. In particular he defends men, animals and plants from the destructive heat of the dog-days. According to the story most in vogue, he is the son of Apollo by the Thessalian nymph Cyrene, whom the god carried off to the country named after her. She is the daughter of Hypseus, and granddaughter (another story says daughter) of the river-god Peneus. After his birth Hermes took Aristaeus to the Hours and Gaea, the goddess of the earth, who brought him up and made him an immortal god. Sometimes he is called the son of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaea (Earth). In the Theban legend he and Autonoe the daughter of Cadmus are represented as the parents of Actaeon. He brought destruction upon the nymph Eurydice, the beloved of Orpheus; for in fleeing from his persecutions she was killed by a snake. [Vergil, Georg. iv 316-558.] ARISTARCHUS A scholar, born in Samothrace, and a pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium. He lived at Alexandria in the first half of the 2nd century B.C. as tutor to the royal princes, and keeper of the library. In the tyrannical reign of his pupil Ptolemy VII (Physcon) he fled to Cyprus, and there died of dropsy about B.C. 153, aged 72. He is the most famous of the Alexandrian Critic, and devoted his attention mainly to the Greek poets, especially Homer, to whom he rendered essential service by his critical edition of the text, which remains in substance the groundwork of our present recension. This edition had notes on the margin, indicating the verses which Aristarchus thought spurious or doubtful, and anything else worthy of remark. The meaning of the notes, and the reasons for appending them, were explained in separate commentaries and excursuses, founded on a marvellously minute acquaintance with the language and contents of the Homeric poems, and the whole of Greek literature. He was the head of the school of Aristarcheans, who continued working on classical texts in his spirit till after the beginning of the Empire. Of his numerous grammatical and exegetical works only fragments remain. An idea of his Homeric studies, and of their character, can best be gathered from the Venetian scholia to the Iliad, which are largely founded on extracts from the Aristarcheans Didymus and Aristonicus. ARISTARCHUS A mathematician and astronomer of Samos, who lived and studied at Alexandria about 270 B.C., and with his pupil Hipparchus greatly advanced the science of astronomy. He was the first who maintained the earth's motion round the sun and on its own axis. We still possess a fragment of a treatise by him on the size of the sun and moon, and their distances from the earth. ARISTIDES Aristides Quintilianus. A Greek musician, who lived probably in the 2nd century A.D., and composed an encyclopoedia of music (De Musica) in three books. The first gave a concise account of harmony, rhythm, and metre, the second dealt with the educating influence of music on the soul, and the third described, on Pythagorean principles, the doctrine of arithmetic intervals, and the harmony of the universe as resting on the same relations. Notwithstanding many defects, the work has the merit of being the completest of its kind which has come down to us from antiquity. Publius Elius Aristides, surnamed Theodorus, was a Greek rhetorician, born at Hadriani in Bithynia A.D 117 or 129. He was educated by the most celebrated rhetoricians of the time, Polemon of Pergamus, and Herodes Atticus of Athens, and made long journeys through Asia, Egypt, Greece and Italy. On his return he was seized with an illness that lasted thirteen years, but which be never allowed to interrupt his studies. His rhetoric, in which he took Demosthenes and Plato for his models, was immensely admired by his contemporaries; he also stood in high favour with the emperors, especially Marcus Aurelius, who at his appeal caused Smyrna to be rebuilt after, an earthquake in 178 A.D. The chief scenes of his activity were Athens and Smyrna, where he died about A.D. 190. Beside two treatises of rhetorical and technical import, we still possess fifty-five of his orations, which he took great pains to elaborate. They are characterized by depth and fulness of thought, and are written in powerful, concise, often difficult and obscure language. Some are eulogies on deities and cities (Rome, for instance, and Smyrna), others are declamations after ancient models, as the Panathenaicus after Isocrates, and the speech against Leptines after Demosthenes. Others treat of his, torical subjects taken from the times of Greek independence. A peculiar interest attaches to the six Sacred Orations, so named because they treat of hints given by Asclepius on the cure of his illness, which he received in a state of somnambulism, and imparted aloud to his friends. ARISTIDES of Thebes. A celebrated Greek painter, the pupil of his father or brother Nicomachus. He flourished about 350 B.C., and was distinguished for his mastery in the expression of the feelings. His most celebrated picture was that of a conquered city. Its central group represented a mother dying of a wound, and holding back her infant, who is creeping to her bosom, that it may not drink blood instead of milk. Notwithstanding the hardness of their colouring, his works commanded very high prices. Thus for one representing a scene in the Persian wars, containing 100 figures, he received 1,000 minae (about £3,333). [Pliny, N. II. xxxv 98-100.] ARISTIDES Aristides of Miletus, of the let or 2nd century B.C., was the author of a series of love-stories, called Milesiaca, from Miletus, the scene of the events. These, so far as we know, are the first examples of the prose romance. They were widely read in antiquity, especially among the Romans, for whose benefit they were translated into Latin by the historian Sisenna. Only a few fragments of them have survived. ARISTIPPUS A Greek philosopher, a native of Cyrene, and a pupil of Socrates, after whose death in B.C. 399 he travelled about the Greek cities, imparting instruction for money. He was the founder of the Cyrenaic school, or the system of Hedonism (from hedone=pleasure). His doctrine was, that as a basis for human knowledge the only things real and true are our sensations, not the external objects that produce them; that the aim of life is what all living things strive after, pleasure; and that virtue is only so far a good thing as it tends to the production of pleasure. The wise man shows his wisdom in governing his desires; mental training, indeed, being the only thing which can qualify us for real enjoyment. In pleasure there is no difference of kind, only of degree and duration. Aristippus' writings seem to have disappeared early; five letters in the Doric dialect, which have come down under his name, are undoubtedly spurious. ARISTOBULUS A Greek historian, who in his youth accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns. In his eighty-fifth year, when living at Cassandrea in Thrace, he wrote a work upon Alexander, in which he recorded his careful observations on geography, ethnography, and natural science. The book is highly praised for its trustworthiness, but only fragments of it have reached us. He and Ptolemy were the chief authorities for Arrian's Anabasis. ARISTOCLES (1) A Greek artist, and like his brother Canadchus, a sculptor in bronze at Sicyon. He flourished about 480 B.C.; and founded a school at Sicyon that lasted for a long time. (2) There was an Athenian sculptor of the same name and of the same period, author of a relief known as The Athenian Hoplite, one of our oldest monuments of Attic art. (See cut under HOPLITES ARISTOPHANES The comedian, who lived at Athens, B.C. 444-388. His father Philippus is said to have been not a native Athenian, but a settler from Rhodes or Egypt, who afterwards acquired the citizenship. However this may be, the demagogue Cleon, whose displeasure Aristophanes had incurred, tried to call in question his right to the citizenship. His first comedy came out in B.C. 427, but was not performed under his own name because of his youth; and several more of his plays were brought on the stage by Callistratus and Philonides, till in 424 he brought out the Knights in his own person. Forty-four of his plays were known in antiquity, though four of them were considered doubtful. Of these we possess eleven, the only complete Greek comedies which have survived, besides the titles, and numerous fragments, of twenty-six others. The eleven are: (1) The Acharnians, which gained him the victory over Cratinus and Eupolis B.C. 425, written during the great Peloponnesian war to induce the Athonians to make peace. (2) The Knights mentioned above, B.C. 424, also crowned with the first prize, and aimed directly against Cleon. (3) The Clouds, B.C. 423, his most famous and, in his own opinion his most successful piece, though when played it only won the third prize. We have it on] y in a second, and apparently unfinished, edition. It is directed against the pernicious influence of the Sophists, as the representative of whom Socrates is attacked. (4) The Wasps, brought out in B.C. 422 and, like the two following, rewarded with the second prize; it is a satire upon the Athenian passion for lawsuits, (5) The Peace, of the year B.C. 421, recommending the conclusion of peace. (6) The Birds, acted in B.C. 414, and exposing the romantic hopes built on the expedition to Sicily. This is unquestionably the happiest production of the poet's genius, and is marked by a careful reserve in the employment of dramatic resource. (7) The Lysistrate, B.C. 411, a Women's Conspiracy to bring about peace; the last of the strictly political plays. (8) Thesmophoriazusae, probably to be dated 410 B.C. It is written against Euripides dislike of women, for which the women who are celebrating the Thesmophoria drag him to justice. (9) The Frogs, which was acted in 405, and won the first prize. It is a piece sparkling with genius, on the Decay of Tragic Art, the blame of which is laid on Euripides, then recently deceased. (10) Ecclesiazusae, or The National Assembly of Women, B.C. 392. It is levelled against the vain attempts to restore the Athenian state by cut-and-dried constitutions. (11) Plutus, or the God of Wealth. The blind god is restored to sight, and better times are brought about. This play was acted first in 408, then in 388 in a revised form suitable to the time, and dispensing with chorus and parabasis. This play marks the transition to the Middle Comedy. In the opinion of the ancients Aristophanes holds a middle place between Cratinus and Eupolis, being neither so rough as the former nor so sweet as the latter, but combining the severity of the one with the grace of the other. What was thought of him in his own time is evident from Plato's Symposium, where be is numbered among the noblest of men; and an epigram attributed to that philosopher says that the Graces, looking for an enduring shrine, found it in the soul of Aristophanes. He unites understanding, feeling, and fancy in a degree possessed by few poets of antiquity. His keen glance penetrates the many evils of his time and their most hidden causes; his scorn for all that is base, and his patriotic spirit, burning to bring back the brave days of Marathon, urge him on, without respect of persons or regard for self, to drag the faults he sees into daylight, and lash them with stinging sarcasm; while his inexhaustible fancy invents ever new and original materials, which he manipulates with perfect mastery of language and technical skill. If his jokes are often coarse and actually indecent, the fact must be imputed to the character of the Old Comedy and the licentiousness of the Dionysiac festival, during which the plays were acted. No literature has anything to compare with these comedies. Ancient scholars, recognising their great importance, bestowed infinite pains in commenting on them, and valuable relics of their writings are enshrined in the existing collections of Scholia. ARISTOPHANES Aristophanes the Grammarian (or Scholar) of Byzantium, born about 260 B.C., went in his early youth to Alexandria, and was there a pupil of Zenodotus and Callimachus. On the death of Apollonius of Rhodes, Aristophanes, when past his sixtieth year, was appointed to be chief librarian, and died at the age of 77. His fame was eclipsed by that of his pupil Aristarchus, but he still passed for one of the ablest grammarians and critics of antiquity, distinguished by industry, learning and sound judgment. In addition to the Homeric poems, which formed his favourite study, and of which he was the first to attempt a really critical text, he devoted his labours to Hesiod, the lyric poets, especially Alcaeus and Pindar, and the tragic and comic poets, Aristophanes and Menander in particular. The received Introductions to the plays of the Tragedians and Aristophanes are in their best parts derived from him. He was also the author of a large and much quoted work of a lexicographical character, considerable fragments of which still survive. ARISTOTLE One of the two greatest philosophers of antiquity, born B.C. 384 at Stageira, a Greek colony in Thrace. He was the son of Nicomachus, who died while acting as physician in ordinary to Amyntas II at Pella in Macedonia. In B.C. 367, after the death of his parents and the completion of his seventeenth year, Axistotle betook himself to Athens, became a pupil of Plato, and remained twenty years, latterly working as a teacher of rhetoric. About his relations with Plato unfavourable rumours were current, which may have had their origin in his subsequent opposition to the Platonic doctrine of ideas. That he arrived pretty early at opposite opinions, and gave emphatic expression to them, is quite credible. This may have been the occasion of Plato's comparing him (so it is said) to a colt that kicks his mother; yet Plato is also said to have called him "the intellect" of his school, and " the reader," on account of his habit of incessant study. Comparing him with Xenocrates, he remarked, that the one wanted a spur, the other a bridle. On the other hand, Aristotle, in one of his writings, combating his former master's theory of ideas, lays down the maxim that friendship, especially among philosophers, must not be allowed to violate the sanctity of truth; and in a fragment of an elegy he calls Plato the first man who showed in word and deed how a man is to become good and happy. After Plato had handed over his school to his sister's son Speusippus, Aristotle quitted Athens, B.C. 347, and repaired to his friend Hermeias, despot of Atarneus in Mysia. When that prince had fallen a prey to Persian intrigues he withdrew, B.C. 345, with his wife Pythias, his friend's sister, to Mitylene in Lesbos; and two years later accepted an invitation to Macedonia to be tutor to Alexander, then thirteen years old. He lived at the court eight years, though his tenure of office seems to have lasted barely half that time. Both Philip and his son esteemed him highly, and most liberally seconded his studies in natural science, for which he inherited his father's predilection. Alexander continued till his death to respect and love him, though the affair of Callisthenes (q.v.) occasioned some coolness between them. When the king undertook his expedition in Asia, Aristotle betook himself once more to Athens, and taught for thirteen years in the Gymnasium called the Lyceum. In the mornings he conversed with his maturer pupils on the higher problems of philosophy, walking up and down the shady avenues, from which practice the school received the name of Peripatetics. In the evenings he delivered courses of lectures on philosophy and rhetoric to a larger audience. After Alexander's death, when all adherents of the Macedonian supremacy were persecuted at Athens, a certain Demophilus brought against him a charge of impiety, where upon Aristotle, "to save the Athenians from sinning a second time against philosophy" so he is reported to have said, alluding to the fate of Socrates retired to Chalcis in Eubcaea. There he died late in the summer of the next year, B.C. 322. Of the very numerous writings of Aristotle, some were composed in a popular, others in a scientific form. A considerable number of the latter kind have come down to us, but of the former, which were written in the form of dialogues, only a few fragments. The strictly scientific works may be classed according to their contents, as they treat of Logic, Metaphysics, Natural Science or Ethics. (1) Those on LOGIC were comprehended by the later Aristotelians under the name of Organon ("instrument"), because they treat of Method, the instrument of research. They in clude the Categories, on the fundamental forms of ideas : the De Interpretatifte, on the doctrine of the judgment and on the proposition, important as an authority on philosophical terminology; the Analytica Priora and Posteriora, each in two books, the former on the syllogism, the latter on demonstration, definition, and distribution; the Topica in eight books, on dialectic inferences (those of probability); on Sophisms, the fallacies of sophists, and their solution. (2) The METAPHYSICS as they were called by late writers, in fourteen books, consist of one connected treatise and several shorter essays on what Aristotle himself calls " first philosophy," the doctrine of Being in itself and the ultimate grounds of Being; a work left unfinished by Aristotle and supplemented by foreign ingredients. The works on NATURAL SCIENCE are headed by the Physics in eight books, treating of the most general bases and relations of nature as a whole. This is followed up by four books on the Heavens or Universe, two on Beginning to be and Perishing, and the Meteorologica in four books, on the phenomena of the air. A short treaties On the Cosmos is spurious: that on the Directions and Names of Winds is a fragment of a larger work on the signs of storms; and the Problems (physical) is a collection gradually formed out of Aristotelian extracts. Of mathematical import are the Mechanical Problems (on the lever and balance) and the book about Indivisible Lines. Natural history is handled in the ten books of Animal History, and in four books on the Parts, five on the Generation, and one on the mode of Progression of Animals. The work on The Motion of Animals is probably spurious, certainly so the one on Plants in two books. Aristotle's treatise on this subject is lost. Turning to Psychology, we have the three books On the Soul and a number of smaller treatises (on the Senses and the Objects of Perception; on Memory and Recollection; on Sleep and Waking; on Dreams; on Divination by Sleep; on the Length and Shortness of Life; on Youth and Age, Life and Death; on Breathing; on Sound and Voice, etc.; that on Physiognomy is probably spurious). (4) Of the three general works on ETHICS, the Nicomachean Ethics in ten books, the Eudemian Ethics in seven, and the so-called Magna Moralia in two, the first alone, addressed to his son Nicomachus, and of marked excellence in matter and manner, is by Aristotle himself. The second is by his pupil Eudemus of Rhodes, and the third a mere abstract of the other two, especially of the second. The essay on Virtues and Vices is spurious. Closely connected with the Ethics is the Politics in eight books, a masterly work in spite of its incompleteness, treating of the aim and elements of a State, the various forms of Government, the ideal of a State and of Education. A valuable work on the Constitution of 158 states is lost, all but a few fragments.1 Of the two books on Aeconomics the first is spurious. Corresponding partly with the Logic, and partly with the Ethics, is the Rhetoric in three books,2 and the Poetics, a work of inestimable worth, not withstanding the ruinous condition in which its text has come clown to us. [The Rhetoric is a masterly treatise on oratory, regarded as an instrument for working upon the various passions and feelings of humanity.] Sundry other prose writings are preserved under Aristotle's name, e.g., that on Colours; the so-called Mirabiles Auscultationes, a collection of memoranda on all sorts of strange phenomena and occurrences, mostly bearing on natural science; on Melissus, Zeno, and Gorgias; six Letters which however are not regarded as genuine, any more than the 63 epigrams out of supposed mythological miscellany entitled Peplos. But we may safely assign to him he beautiful Scolion, or impromptu song, on his friend Hermeias, which takes the form of a Hymn to Virtue. A story dating from antiquity informs us that Aristotle bequeathed his own writings and his very considerable library to his pupil and successor in the office of teacher, Theophrastus, who again made them over to his pupil Mileus, of Scepsis in the Troad. After his death his relations are said to have buried them in a cellar, to guard them against the mania for collecting books which characterized the Pergamene princes. At last they were unearthed by Apellieon of Teos, a rich bibliophile, who brought them to Athens about 100 B.C., and tried to restore them from the wretched state into which they had fallen through the neglect of 130 years. Soon after, at the taking of Athens by the Romans, they fell into Sulla's hands, who brought them to Rome. Here the grammarian Tyrannion took copies of them, and on this basis the Peripatetic Andronicus of Rhodes prepared an edition of Aristotle's works. This would indeed partly account for the wretched condition in which some of them are preserved. At the same time it can be proved that the principal works were known during the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., 80 that the story affects only the author's original MSS., among which a number of works till then unpublished may have come to light. Though the writings preserved form rather less than half of the number which he actually wrote, there is quite enough to show the universality of Aristotle's intellect, which sought with equal ardour and acumen to explore and subdue the entire domain of research. He was the originator of many lines of study unknown before him,-Logic, Grammar, Rhetoric in its scientific aspect, Literary Criticism, Natural History, Physiology, Psychology; he was the first to attempt a History of Philosophy and of the forms of government then existing. His method, of which he must be considered the creator, is critical and empirical at once. In all cases he starts from facts, which he collects, sifts and groups as completely as he can, so as to get some general leading points of view, and with the help of these to arrive at a systematic arrangement of the subject, and a knowledge of its in most being, its cause. For to him the Cause is the essential part of knowledge, and the philosophy that searches into ultimate causes for the mere sake of knowing is the best and freest science. The form of Aristotle's works is by no means equal to their contents. Of the beautiful harmony between style and subject, that so charms us in Plato, there is not a trace in Aristotle; his manner of expression, though scientifically exact, lacks flavour, art, and elegance. But of exact scientific terminology he is the true founder. When the ancients celebrate the "golden stream" of his writing, the opinion can only refer to his lost popular works. Aristotle's personality is one of those which have affected the history of the world. His writings, Us those of Plato, were to the Christian centuries of antiquity a most stimulating incentive to scientific inquiry; in the Middle Ages they were for the Christian nations of the West and the Arabs the chief guide to philosophical method; and in the province of logic his authority remains unshaken to this day. ARISTOXENUS A Greek philosopher and musician, a native of Tarentum, and a pupil of Aristotle, lived about 330 B.C., and was a prolific writer on various subjects, but most particularly on Music. In contrast with the Pythagoreans, who referred everything to the relations of numbers, he regarded music as founded on the difference of tones as perceived by the ear. Of his Elements of Harmony, three books are preserved, but they are neither complete, nor in their original shape. Only a part of his Elements of Rhythm has survived. ARNOBIUS An African, who won a high reputation as a master of rhetoric at Sicca in Numidia, in the reign of Diocletian. He was at first a heathen and an assailant of Christianity; but on becoming a Christian, to prove the sincerity of his conversion, he wrote (about 295 A.D.) the extant work Adversus Gentes. This is a superficial and rhetorical defence of Christianity and attack on Polytheism, but it is full of instruction with regard to the contemporary heathenism and its various worships. ARRHEPHORIA The Athenian term for a mystic festival in honour of Athena as goddess of the fertilizing nightdew, held in the mouth of Scirophorion (June-July), in connection with the Scirophoria. It was named after the Hersphoroi = dew-bearers, four maidens between seven and eleven years of age, who were chosen yearly from the houses of noble citizens, and had to spend several months at the temple of Athena in the Acropolis, and take part in its services. Two of them had the task of commencing the cloak or shawl which the women of Athens wove and presented to the goddess at the Panathensea. The other two, on the night of the festival, received from the priestess of Athena certain coffers, with unknown contents, which they carried in procession on their heads to a natural grotto beside the temple of " Aphrodite in the gardens," and delivering them there, received something equally mysterious in exchange, which they carried to the temple on the Acropolis. With this ceremony their office expired. ARRIANUS A Greek author, who wrote chiefly on philosophy and history, born at Nicomedae in Bithynia towards the end of the 1st century A.D., and a pupil of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus. He lived under the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Plus and Marcus Aurelius, enjoying a high reputation for culture and ability, which procured him the citizenship of Rome and Athens, and high offices of state, such as the governorship of Cappadocia under Hadrian, A.D. 136, and the consulship under Antoninus. His last years were spent in his native town, where he filled the office of priest to Demeter, and died at an advanced age. From the likeness of his character to that of the famous Athenian, he was nicknamed "Xenophon Junior." Of his philosophical works we have still the first half (four books) of the Discourses of Epictetus, a leading authority for the tenets of that philosopher and the Stoical ethics; and the hand-book called the Encheiridion of Epictetus, a short manual of morality, which on account of its pithy and practical precepts became a great favourite with Pagans and Christians, bad a commentary written on it by Simplicius in the 6th century, and after the revival of learning was long used as a schoolbook. Of his numerous historical writings we possess the chief one, the Anabasis of Alexander in seven book. This is a complete history of that conqueror from his accession to his death, drawn from the best sources, especially Ptolemy and Aristobulus, and modelled on Xenophon, of whom we are reminded by the very title and the number of books, though it has none of Xenophon's charm. It is the best work on Alexander that has survived from antiquity. To this we should add the Indica, a short work on India, written in the Ionic dialect, and especially valuable for its abstract of Nearchus' report of his voyage from the mouth of the Indus to the Persian Gulf; also the description of another coasting voyage, the Periplus Ponti Euxini, and a trifling treatise on hunting, the Cynegeticus. A work on tactics wrongly ascribed to him is probably from the hand of Aelian the Tactician. Of his other Histories, e.g. of the Successors of Alexander, of Trajan's battles with the Parthians, of his own native country till its absorption in the Empire, and the campaign against the Alani during his command in Cappadocia, we have only abstracts or fragments. ARTEMIDORUS Artemidorits the Dream-Interpreter, born at Ephesus at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., surnamed "the Daldian from his mother's birthplace, Daldis in Lydia, wrote a work on the Interpretation of Dreams, the Oneirueritica, in four books. He had gathered his materials from the works of earlier authors, and by oral inquiries during his travels in Asia, Italy and Greece. The book is an acute exposition of the theory of interpreting dreams, and its practical application to examples systemstically arranged according to the several stages of human life. An appendix, counted as a fifth book, gives a collection of dreams that have come true. For the light thrown on the mental condition of antiquity, especially in the 2nd century after Christ, and for many items of information on religious rites and myths relating to dreams, these writings are of value. ARTEMIDORUS The Geographer, of Ephesus, who travelled about 100 B.C. through the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and part of the Atlantic coast, and wrote a long work on his researches, the Geographumena in eleven books, as well as an abstract of the same. Of both works, which were much consulted by later geographers, we have only fragments. ARTEMIS The virgin daughter of Zeus and Leto (Latona), by the common account born a twin-sister of Apollo, and just before him, at Delos. The Ortygia (see ASTERIA ) named in another tradition as her birthplace, was interpreted to mean Delos, though several other places where the worship of Artemis had long prevailed put forward pretensions to that name and its mythological renown, especially the well-known island of Ortygia off Syracuse. She, as well as her mother, was worshipped jointly with her brother at Delos, Delphi and all the most venerable spots where Apollo was honoured. She is armed, as he is, with bow and arrow, which, like him, and often together with him, she wields against monsters and giants; hence the paean was chanted to her as well as to him. Like those of Apollo, the shafts of Artemis were regarded as the cause of sudden death, especially to maidens and wives. But she was also a beneficent and helpful deity. As Apollo is the luminous god of day, she with her torch is a goddess of light by night, and in course of time becomes identified with all possible goddesses of moon and night. (See SELENE , HECATE , BENDIS , BRITOMARTIS. ) Her proper domain is that of Nature, with its hills and valleys, woods, meadows, rivers and fountains ; there amid her nymphs, herself the fairest and tallest, she is a mighty huntress, sometimes chasing wild animals, sometimes dancing, playing, or bathing with her companions. Her favourite haunt was thought to be the mountains and forest of Arcadia, where, in many spots, she had sanctuaries, consecrated hunting-grounds, and sacred animals. To her, as goddess of the forest and the chase, all beasts of the woods and fields, in fact all game, were dear and sacred; but her favourite animal was held all over Greece to be the hind. From this sacred animal and the hunting of it, the month which the other Greeks called Artemision or Artemisios (March-April) was named by the Athenians Elaphe-bolion (deer-shooting), and her festival as goddess of game and hunting, at which deer or cakes in the shape of deer were offered up, Elaphebolia. As goddess of the chase, she had also some influence in war, and the Spartans before battle sought her favour by the gift of a she-goat. Miltiades too, before the battle of Marathon, had vowed to her as many goats as there should be enemies fallen on the field; but the number proving so great that the vow could not be kept, 500 goats were sacrificed at each anniversary of the victory in the month of Boedromion. Again she was much worshipped as a goddess of the Moon. At Amarynthus in Eubaea, the whole island kept holiday to her with processions and prize-fights. At Munychia in Attica, at full moon in the month of Munychion (April-May), large round loaves or cakes, decked all round with lights as a symbol of her own luminary, were borne in procession and presented to her; and at the same time was solemnized the festival of the victory of Salamis in Cyprus, because on that occasion the goddess had shone in her full glory on the Greeks. An ancient shrine of the Moon-goddess at Brauron in Attica was held in such veneration, that the Brauronia, originally a merely local festival, was afterwards made a public ceremony, to which Athens itself sent deputies every five years, and a precinct was dedicated to " Artemis of Brauron" on the Acropolis itself. (See plan of ACROPOLIS. ) At this feast the girls between five and ten years of age, clad in saffron-coloured garments, were conducted by their mothers in procession to the goddess, and commended to her care. For Artemis is also a protectress of youth, especially those of her own sex. As such she patronized a Nurses' festival at Sparta in a temple outside the town, to which little boys were brought by their nurses; while the Ionians at their Apaturia presented her with the hair of boys. Almost everywhere young girls revered the virgin goddess as the guardian of their maiden years, and before marriage they offered up to her a lock of their hair, their girdle, and their maiden garment. She was also worshipped in many parts as the goddess of Good Repute, especially in youths and maidens, and was regarded as an enemy of all disorderly doings. With her attributes as the goddess of the moon, and as the promoter of healthy development, especially in the female frame, is connected the notion of her assisting in childbirth (see EILEITHYLA ). in early times human sacrifices had been offered to Artemis. A relic of this was the yearly custom observed at Sparta, of flogging the boys till they bled, at the altar of deity not unknown elsewhere and named Artemis Orthia (the upright) probably from her stiff posture in the antiquated wooden image. At Sparta, as in other places, the ancient image was looked upon as the same which Iphigenia and Orestes brought away from Tauris (the Crimea), viz., that of the Tauric Artemis; a Scythian deity who was identified with Artemis because of the human sacrifices common in her worship. The Artemis of Ephesus, too, so greatly honoured by all the Ionians of Asia [Acts xix 28] is no Greek divinity, but Asiatic. This is sufficiently shown by the fact that eunuchs were employed in her worship; a practice quite foreign to Greek ideas. The Greek colonists identified her with their own Artemis, because she was goddess of the moon and a power of nature, present in mountains, woods and marshy places, nourishing life in plants, animals and men. But, unlike Artemis, she was not regarded as a virgin, but as a mother and foster-mother, as is clearly shown by the multitude of breasts in the rude effigy. Her worship, frantic and fanatical after the manner of Asia, was traced back to the Amazons. A number of other deities native to Asia was also worshipped by the Greeks under the name of Artemis. Artemis appears in works of art as the ideal of austere maiden beauty, tall of stature, with bow and quiver on her shoulder, or torch in her hand, and generally leading or carrying a hinds, or riding in a chariot drawn by hinds. Her commonest character is that of a huntress. In earlier times the figure is fuller and stronger, and the clothing more complete; in later works she is represented as more slender and lighter of foot, the hair loose, the dress girt up high, the feet protected by the Cretan shoe. The most celebrated of her existing statues is the Diana of Versailles (see cut). On the identification of Artemis with the Italian Diana, see DIANA ARTILLERY The machines used for sending large missiles to a great distance were supposed to have been invented in the East, and appear in Greece since 400 B.C. or thereabouts. They attained their highest perfection in the age of the Diadochi, and were adopted by the Romans after the Punic wars. There were two chief varieties, both imitations of the crossbow; but the elasticity of the bow is exchanged for elasticity in the twist of the cord. Consequently all pieces of heavy artillery were called by the Romans tormenta. The machine consisted of three parts: the stand, the groove for the shot, and the apparatus representing the bow. This consisted of a frame in three divisions, through the midmost of which passed the groove for the shot (fig. 1). In each of the lateral divisions was stretched, in a vertical direction, a set of strong elastic cords, made of the sinews of animals, or the long hair of animals or of women. These were stretched tight, and between each of them was fixed a straight unelastic arm of wood. The arms were joined by a cord, which was pulled back by a winch applied at the end of the groove. On letting this go, the arms, and with them the string and the object in front of it, were driven forward by the twisting of the vertical cords. The effectiveness of the engine thus depended on the power and twist of the cords, which may be said roughly to express its calibre. The engines were divided into two kinds. (1) Catapultae, or scorpions (fig. 2). In these the groove for the shot was horizontal; and they projected missiles of length and thickness varying according to the calibre. (2) Ballistae(fig.3), which shot stones, beams, or balls up to 162 lbs. weight, at an angle of 50 degrees. The calibre of the ballista was at least three times as great as that of the catapult. The average range of the catapult was about 383 yards, that of the ballista from about 295 to 503 yards. ARVAL BROTHERS The Latin name for a college of priests consisting of twelve life-members, who performed the worship of Dea Dia, a goddess not otherwise mentioned, but probably identical with the old Roman goddess of cornfields, Acca Larentia (q.v.), who also is said to have founded this fraternity. Our more accurate knowledge of it we owe to its annual reports inscribed on the marble tablets, ninety-six in number, which have been dug up (1570-1869) on the site of its meeting-place, a grove at the fifth milestone from Rome, and which extend from A.D. 14-241. About its condition under the Republic we have no information; but under the Empire its members were persons of the highest rank. The emperors themselves belonged to it, either as ordinary members, or, if the numbers were filled up, as extraordinary. The election was by co-optation on the motion of the president (magister), who himself, together with a flamen, was elected for one year; their badge was a white fillet and a wreath of ears of corn. The Arvales held their chief festival on three days in May, on the 1st and 3rd in Rome, on the 2nd in the grove, with a highly complicated ceremonial, including a dance in the temple of the goddess, to which they sang the written text of a hymn so antiquated that its meaning could scarcely be understood. This Arval Hymn, in which the Lares and Mars are invoked, is one of the oldest monuments we possess of the Latin tongue. Amongst other duties of this priesthood should especially be mentioned the expiatory sacrifices in the grove. These had to be offered if any damage had been done to it through the breaking of a bough, the stroke of lightning, or other such causes; or again if any labour had been performed in it, though ever so necessary, especially if iron tools had been used. The Arval brothers had also to offer solemn vows on behalf of the Imperial House, both statedly on January 3rd, and on extraordinary occasions, and were bound to fulfil them. AS In Latin, signifies any unit, which determines the value of fractional quantities in coins, weights and measures, or interest, inheritance and the like. The as was divided duodecimally into unciae. The names of its parts are: deunae 11/12, dex tans 5/6, dodrans 3/4, bes 2/3, septunae 7/12, semis ½, quincunae 6/12, triens 1/3, quadrans 1/4, sextans 1/6, sescuncia 1/8, uncia 1/12. In questions of inheritance, a sole heir was entitled heres ex asse, an heir to half the estate, heres ex semisse, and so on. As a coin, the copper as weighed a Roman pound (nominally 12, but practically only 10 unciae), and was worth, previously to B.C. 269, nearly 6d. In the year 217 it was reduced to 1 uncia, and in later times to ½ and ¼ uncia. In Cicero's time the as was = rather less than a halfpenny. Comp. COINAGE ASCANIUS The son of Aeneas and Creusa. According to the ordinary account, he accompanied his father to Italy and, thirty years after the building of Lavinium, founded Alba Longa, where, after his death, his stepbrother Silvius reigned. To him, by his name of Iulus, the gens Iulia. traced its origin. ASCLEPLUS The Greek god of Medicine, according to the common account a son of the healing god Apollo by Coronis, daughter of a Thessalian prince Phlegyas. Coronis was killed by Artemis for unfaithfulness, and her body was about to be burnt on the pyre, when Apollo snatched the boy out of the flames, and handed him over to the wise centaur Chiron, who instructed him in the cure of all diseases. According to the local legend of Epidaurus, Coronis, having accompanied her father on a campaign to the Peloponnesus, is secretly delivered of the child, and exposes it on a mountain near that town, where it is nourished by a herd of goats. Such was the skill of Asclepius that he brought even dead men to life; so that Zeus, either for fear of his setting men altogether free from death, or at the complaint of Hades, killed him with his thunderbolt. Apollo in revenge slew all the Cyclopes who forged the thunderbolts, as a punishment for which he had to serve Admetus for a time. In Homer and Pindar, Asclepius is still but a hero, a cunning leech, and father of two heroes fighting before Troy, Machaon and Podaleirius. But he was afterwards universally worshipped as the god of healing, in groves, beside medicinal springs, and on mountains. The seats of his worship served also as laces of cure, where patients left thank-offerings and votive tablets describing their complaint and the manner of its cure. Often the cure was effected by the dreams of the patients, who were required to sleep in the sacred building, in which there sometimes stood, as might be expected, a statue of Sleep or Dreaming. His worship extended all over Greece with its islands and colonies; his temples were especially numerous in the Peloponnesus, the most famous being that of Epidaurus, where a great festival with processions and combats was held in his honour every five years. Next in estimation stood the temple at Pergamus, a colony from Epidanrus; that of Tricca in Thessaly enjoyed a reputation of long standing, and in the islands that Cos, the birthplace of the physician Hippocrates. At Rome, the worship of the deity there called Aesculapius was introduced by order of the Sibylline books, on occasion of the plague of 293 B.C., and the god was brought from Epidaurus in the shape of a snake. For in the form of a snake, the symbol of rejuvenescence and of prophecy, he was wont to reveal himself, and snakes were accordingly kept in his temples. He had a sanctuary and a much frequented sanatorium on the island in the Tiber. With him were worshipped his wife Epione ( = soother), his two sons mentioned above, and several daughters, especially Hygieia,(q.v.); also Telesphoros ( = fulness-bringer) the deity of Recovery, who was pictured as a boy. In later times Asclepius was often confounded with the Egyptian Serapis. He is among the most favourite subjects of ancient art; at several places where he was worshipped he had statues of gold and ivory. He is commonly represented with a beard, and resembling Zeus, but with a milder aspect, sometimes with Telesphoros, in a thick veil, or little Hygieia, at his side; his usual attribute is a staff with a serpent coiled round it. The cock was sacrificed to him. ASCONIUS PEDIANUS a Roman grammarian and historian, probably born at Patavium about the year 3 A.D. He lived latterly at Rome, where he enjoyed the favour of men in high place. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero, having carefully studied the literature of the Ciceronian age, and availing himself of state-papers then existing, he composed for the use of his own sons his valuable historical Commentaries on Cicero's Orations, of which only those on five orations (In Pisonem, Pro Scauro, Pro Milone, Pro Cornelio, In toga candida) are preserved, unfortunately in a very fragmentary condition. The commentaries on the Verrine Orations, which bear his name, belong probably to the 4th century A.D. They treat chiefly of grammatical points. No other works by Asconius have survived. He died, after twelve years' blindness, about 88 A.D. ASINIUS POLLIO A celebrated Roman poet, orator, and historian. He was born B.C. 75, and made his first public appearance by bringing an impeachment in B.C. 54; in the Civil Wars he fought on Caesar's side at Pharsalus and in Africa and Spain. After the murder of Caesar he at first inclined to the Republicans, but in B.C. 43 joined Antony, and on the break-up of the Triumvirate obtained Gallia Transpadana for his province. In the redistribution of lands there he saved the poet Vergil's paternal estate for him. After negotiating the Peace of Brundisium between Antony and Octavian, B.C. 41, he became consul in 40, conquered the Parthini in Dalmatia in 39, and celebrated a triumph. He then retired from political life, and devoted himself to the advancement of learning. He served the cause of literature not only by his own writings, but by setting up the first public library at Rome, and by introducing the custom of reading new works aloud to a circle of experts, before publication. (See RECITATIO .) He was himself a stern critic of others, as we see by his strictures on Cicero, Sallust and Livy, though it was remarked that he was not always so severe upon himself. He was especially celebrated as an orator; yet his speeches, in spite of careful preparation, were devoid of elegance, and, as Quintilian remarks, might be supposed to have been written a century earlier than Cicero's. He wrote tragedies also, in which the same stiffness and dryness are complained of. And he composed a history of the Civil Waxs in seventeen books, from the first Triumvirate to the battle of Philippi, which seems not to have been published in a complete form till after his death. Not one of his works has survived. [The history of Caesar's African campaign, Bellum Africum, has recently been attributed to him, but on insufficient grounds.] He died 80 years old, A.D. 4. The Latin term for the assignment of public lands to single citizens or to colonies. See COLONIES and AGER PUBLICUS ASTERIA daughter of the Titan Coeus and the Titanid Phoebe; sister of Leto, and mother of Hecate by Perses, son of the Titan Crius. She is said to have turned into an ortyx (=quail) and plunged into the sea to escape the love of Zeus. After her the Island of Delos was named Asteria, and then Ortygia, till it received its ordinary name. ASTRAEA was daughter of Astraeus and Eos, or, according to another account, of Zeus and Themis, and as such was identified with Dike. (See HOURS .) She lived among men in the golden age, and in the brazen age was the last of the gods to withdraw into the sky, where she shines as the constellation of the Virgin with her scales and starry crown. ASTROLOGY in the narrower sense of the word, meaning prediction on the faith of signs given by the stars, was an invention of the Chaldaeans. All but unknown to the Greeks in their best days, it did not come into vogue until after the time of Alexander the Great. In Rome the professional astrologers were called Chaldoei or Mathematici, the latter name referring to the astronomical calculations which they made. In the republican period they were known, but held in utter contempt. In 139 B.C. their unpopularity was so great that they were expelled from Rome and Italy. But in the turbulent times of the civil wars their reputation rose considerably, and still more under the Empire, when the most extensive demands were made upon their science. They were, indeed, repeatedly driven out of Italy and involved in trials for treason (maiestas); but this only enhanced the consideration in which they were held, the more so as they were frequently taken into counsel by the emperors and the members of the imperial family. In later times, all that the Chaldaeeans were forbidden to do was to consult the stars on questions referring to the emperor's life. This was a criminal offence. The Christian emperors (but none before them) issued repeated prohibitions against all consultation of astrologers whatever. In the practice of their art they used calendars written on tablets, in which were set down, for every day, the motion and relative distances of the stars, whether lucky or unlucky. With the help of another set of tablets they proceeded to make their calculations for every hour in detail. They would, for instance, note the hour of a person's birth, ascertaining the relative position of the constellation dominant at the time. According to this they determined the fortunes of the individual who was born at the hour in question. In the same way they ascertained the time favourable to any given undertaking. Among the lucky stars we may mention Venus, Jupiter, and Luna; Saturn and Mars were unlucky; Mercury was lucky or unlucky according to the other circumstances of the case. ASTROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY were at first synonymous expressions among the ancients, both signifying "the science of the stars." But afterwards Astrology came to mean that part of the science which deals with the supposed influence of the stars on the destinies of men. Among the Greeks, Astronomy, the origin of which they themselves ascribed to the Assyrians, Babylonians and Egyptians, was for centuries the subject of' philosophical speculation without a sufficient groundwork in observation, because mathematics and mechanics had not reached the requisite degree of perfection. The list of observing astronomers opens with Eudoxus of Cnidus in the first half of the 4th century, B.C., who assumed that the earth was spherical, and tried to explain the phenomena of the heavens by a complicated theory of concentric spheres. Aristotle too maintained and proved the spherical form of the earth, which, he took to be the immovable centre of the universe. Astronomy was first raised into a real science after B.C. 300 at Rhodes and Alexandria, in the Museum of which town the first observatory was built, and Aristyllus and Timochares determined the places of the fixed stars with comparative accuracy, though as yet with very rude apparatus. A great step in advance was taken by Aristarchus of Samos, who observed the summer solstice at Alexandria in B.C. 279, maintained the earth's rotation on her axis and revolution round the sun, and made an attempt, by no means contemptible, to ascertain the size and distance of the sun and moon. His successor Eratosthenes also rendered essential service to the progress of the science; thus he came very near to determining the exact obliquity of the ecliptic. The true founder of scientific Astronomy, and the greatest independent observer of antiquity, was Hipparchus of Nicaea(in the 2nd century B.C.), who discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and determined the length of the solar year (at 365 days 5 hours 55' 12") as well as the time of the moon's revolution, and the magnitude and distances of the heavenly bodies. The last important astronomer of antiquity, and the greatest after Hipparchus, is Claudius Ptolemoeus (in the 2nd century A.D.). In his chief work, commonly known by its Arabic name of Almagest, he digested the discoveries of his predecessors, especially Hipparchus, and his own, into a formal system, which passed current all through the Middle Ages. According to it the earth is a sphere resting motionless in the middle of the equally spherical universe, while the sun, moon, planets and fixed stars roll at various distances around her. The Romans regarded Astronomy as an idle speculation, and gave little attention to it. When Caesar reformed the Roman Calendar, he had to bring an astronomer from Alexandria, Sosigenes, to help him. ASTYDAMAS A Greek tragedian, son of Morsimus. (See PHILOCLES. ) His first appearance was in 399 B.C., and he won the prize fifteen times. He wrote 240 pieces, but a few titles are all that remains of them. His sons Astydamas and Philocles were also tragic poets. Wife of Acastus of Iolcos. Peleus had rejected her advances, and Astydameia accordingly slandered him to Acastus, who made an attempt on the life of Peleus, to her own destruction and that of her husband. (See ACASTUS and PELEUS ASTYNOMI The title of ten functionaries at Athens, drawn annually by lot from the ten tribes, five for the city and five for Piraeus. They were a kind of city police, responsible for keeping the streets clean, for decency and quiet among the public, and probably for the protection of buildings. They had such powers of jurisdiction as were necessary to enforce their authority. Flute-girls and female performers on the harp or cithara, were subject to their control. [Arist., Const. of Athens, c.50.] ASYLUM A Greek word meaning an inviolable refuge for persons fleeing from pursuit. Among the Greeks all holy shrines were Asylums, and any pursuer who should remove a suppliant by force was regarded as a transgressor against the gods. The term asylum was especially applied to such shrines as secured to the suppliants absolute security within their limits, which were often considerable. The priests and the community in each case watched jealously over this right. The sanctuary of Zeus Lycaeus in Arcadia, of Poseidon in the island of Calauria, and of Apollo in Delos, are excellent examples of such asylums. These sanctuaries were exceptionally numerous in Asia. In Rome there was an asylum of great antiquity, said to have been founded by Romulus, in a grove of oaks on the Capitoline Hill. (See VEIOVIS .) The erection of buildings in its neighbourhood gradually rendered it inaccessible. During the Roman period the right of asylum attaching to Greek sanctuaries was, at first, maintained and even confirmed by Roman commanders. But its abuse led to a considerable reduction of the number of asylums under Tiberius. The right of asylum was now confined to such shrines as could found their claims upon ancient tradition. During the imperial period, however, the custom arose of making the statues of the emperors refuges against momentary acts of violence. Armies in the field used the eagles of the legions for the same purpose. ATALANTE Greek heroine of the type of Artemis. There were two slightly different versions of her story, one current in Arcadia and the other in Boeotia. (1) The Arcadian version. Atalante, daughter of Zeus and Clymene, was exposed by her father, who had desired male offspring only. She was suckled by a bear, until she was found and brought up by a party of hunters. Under their care she grew up to be a huntress, keen, swift and beautiful. She took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt, was the first who struck the boar, and received from Meleager the head and skin of the beast as the prize of victory. (See MELEAGER .) She is also associated with the voyage of the Argonauts. She turned a deaf ear to the entreaties of her numerous suitors; but at last she propitiated the wrath of Aphrodite by returning the faithful love of the beautiful Millanion, who had followed her persistently, and suffered and struggled for her. Their son was Parthenopaeeus, one of the Seven against Thebes. (See SEVEN AGAINST THEBES .) (2) The Boetian version. Atalante was the daughter of Schoeneus, son of Athamas, and distinguished for beauty and swiftness of foot. An oracle warns her against marriage, and she accordingly lives a lonely life in the forest. She meets the addresses of her suitors by challenging them to race with her, overtaking them in the race and spearing them in the back. She is at length beaten by Hippomenes, who during the race drops on the ground three golden apples given him by Aphrodite. Atalante stoops down to pick up the apples, and thus loses the race. Hippomenes forgets to render thanks to Aphrodite, and the goddess in anger causes the pair to wander into a sanctuary of Cybele, where they are changed into lions. ATE According to Homer, the daughter of Zeus; according to Hesiod, of Eris or Strife. She personifies infatuation ; the infatuation being generally held to imply guilt as its cause and evil as its consequence. At first she dwelt on Olympus; but after she had entrapped Zeus himself into his rash oath on the occasion of the birth of Heracles (see HERACLES ), he hurled her down to earth. Here she pursues her mission of evil, walking lightly over men's heads, but never touching the ground. Behind her go the Litai ("Prayers"), the lame, wrinkled, squinting daughters of Zeus. The Litai, if called upon, heal the hurts inflicted by Ate; but they bring fresh evil upon the stubborn. In later times Ate is transformed into an avenger of unrighteousness, like Dike, Erinys and Nemesis. ATEIUS CAPITO A Roman jurist of the age of Augustus and Tiberius, who was born about 30 B.C., and died about 22 A.D. Unlike his contemporary Antistius Labeo (q.v.), he recommended himself to the ruling powers by his submissive attitude. He was rewarded by many tokens of distinction; among others, by the consulship, to which he was elected in 5 A.D., before attaining the legal age. As a jurist (again unlike Antistius) he represented the conservative tendency, and so became the founder of a special school called the Sabiniani, after his pupil Masurius Sabinus. ATELLANA [A farce or comedy, which the ancients supposed was originally acted or invented at the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. Modern scholars incline to the opinion that it was a species of Latin drama representing scenes at Atella, or scenes of country-town life.Its characteristics were (1) that it was performed by free-born youths, not by professional actors; (2) that certain conventional characters, as Bucco ("Fatchaps"), Dossennus ("The Glutton"), Pappus ("The old father"), Maccus ("The fool") always occurred in it; (3) that it contained puzzles to explain, either in the plot or in single lines.] The Atellance came into fashion at Rome as after-pieces (exodia) about the end of the 3rd century B.C., displacing the saturoe. (See SATURA ). Till the beginning of the last century of the Republic the Atellana was probably an improvisation; but, in the hands of Pomponius of Bononia and Novius, it was raised to the position of a regular comedy on the Greek model. From about the middle of the 1st century B.C., the Atellana went out of fashion in favour of the mimus, but was revived, probably in the reign of Tiberius, by a certain Mummius. It lived on for some time under the Empire, till at last it became undistinguishable from the mimus. ATHAMAS Son of Aeolus, king of Thessaly, and Enarete; brother of Cretheus, Sisyphus, and Salmoneus; king of the Minyae in the Boeotian Orchomenus. He was the husband of the cloud-goddess Nephele, mother of Phrixus and Helle, who left him on his union with a mortal, Ino the daughter of Cadmus. Nephele, in anger visited the land with a drought, upon which Ino endeavoured, by means of a pretended oracle, to have her stepson Phrixus sacrificed on the altar of Zeus Laphystius. But Nephele conveyed the children away through the air on a golden-fleeced ram. During the passage Helle fell into the sea, which was afterwards, from her name, called the Hellespontus. But her brother arrived safely at the palace of Aeetes, king of Aea, who gave him his daughter Chalciope in marriage. Afterwards Athamas was himself about to be sacrificed by his peogle to Zeus Laphystius; but he was save by the appearance of Phrixus' son Cytissorus, who brought the news that Phrixus was still alive. His escape, however, only brought down the wrath of the god upon his descendants. The first-born of his race was ever afterwards liable to be sacrificed to Zeus Laphystius, if he entered the council-chamber and did not get out of the way in time. Later on Athamas was visited with madness by Hera, because Ino brought up her nephew Dionysus, the son of her sister Semele. In his frenzy he killed his son Learchus, and persecuted Ino, who with her other son Melicertes leaped into the sea. Here she became the sea-goddess Leucothea, and her son the sea-god Palaemon. On recovering from his madness, Athamas was commanded by an oracle to settle in a place where he should be hospitably treated by wild beasts. In the part of Thessaly which was named, after him, the Athamanian plain, he came upon some wolves, who fled from him, and left him the sheep-bones on which they were feeding. He settled here, and wedded Themisto. (See THEMISTO .) The story is no doubt founded upon the old custom which the Minyae had of offering the first-born of the race of Athamas to Zeus Laphystius, in case he failed to make good his escape as Phrixus did. ATHENAEUM The name of the first public educational institution at Rome, built by Hadrian about 135 A.D. The building was in the form of a theatre, and brilliantly fitted up. There rhetoricians and poets held their recitations, and salaried professors gave their lectures in the various branches of general liberal education, philosophy and rhetorie, as well as grammar and jurisprudence. This continued until late in the imperial age. ATHENAEUS The Greek scholar, a native of Naueratis in Egypt. He was educated at Alexandria, where he lived about 170-230 A.D. After this he lived at Rome, and there wrote his Deipnosophistoe (or "Doctors at Dinner "), in fifteen books. Of these the first, second, and part of the third, are only preserved in a selection made in the 11th century; the rest survive in a tolerably complete state. The work shows astonishing learning, and contains a number of notices of ancient life which would otherwise have been lost. The author gives us collections and extracts from more than 1,500 works (now mostly lost), by more than 700 writers. His book is thrown into the form of a conversation held in the year 228 A.D. at a dinner given by Larensius, a rich and accomplished Roman, and a descendant of the great antiquarian Varro. Among the guests are the most learned men of the time, including Galen the physician and Ulpian the jurist. The conversation ranges over numberless subjects connected with domestic and social life, manners and customs, trade, art, and science. Among the most valuable things in the book are the numerous passages from prose-writers and poets, especially from the masters of the Middle Comedy. ATHENE A Greek goddess, identified with the Roman Minerva. According to the story most generally current, she was the daughter of Zeus, who had swallowed his first wife Metis (" Counsel "), the daughter of Oceanus, in fear that she would bring forth a son stronger than himself. Hephaeestus (or, according to another version, Prometheus) clave open the head of Zeus with an axe, on which Athene sprang forth in full armour, the goddess of eternal virginity. But her ancient epithet Tritogeneia ("born of Triton," or the roaring flood) points to water (that is, to Oceanus); as the source of her being. Oceanus was, according to Homer, the origin of all things and of all deities. The worship of Athene, and the story of her birth, were accordingly connected with many brooks and lakes in various regions, especially in Boeotia, Thessalia, and Libya, to which the name Triton was attached. From the first, Athene takes a very prominent place in the Greek popular religion. The Homeric hymns represent her as the favourite of her father, who refuses her nothing. When solemn oaths were to be taken, they joined her name with those of Zeus and Apollo, in a way which shows that the three deities represent the embodiment of all divine authority. With the exception of the two gods just mentioned, there is no other deity whose original character as a power of nature underwent so remarkable an ethical development. Both conceptions of Athene, the natural and the ethical, were intimately connected in the religion of Attica, whose capital, Athens, was named after Athene, and was the most important seat of her worship. Athens was originally the maiden daughter of the god of heaven; the clear, transparent aether, whose purity is always breaking forth in unveiled brilliancy through the clouds that surround it. As a deity of the sky she, with Zeus, is the mistress of thunder and lightning. Like Zeus, she carries the aegis with the Gorgon's head, the symbol of the tempest and its terrors. In many statues, accordingly, she is represented as hurling the thunder-bolt. But she also sends down, from sky to earth, light and warmth and fruitful dew, and with them prosperity to fields and plants. A whole series of fables and usages, belonging especially to the Athenian religion, represents her as the helper and protector of agriculture. The two deities Erechtheus and Erichthonius, honoured in Attica as powers of the fruitful soil, are her foster-children. She was worshipped with Erechtheus in the temple named after him (the Erechtheum), the oldest sanctuary on the Athenian Acropolis. The names of her earliest priestesses, the daughters of Cecrops, Aglaurus, Pandrosus, and Herse, signify the bright air, the dew, and the rain, and are mere personifications of their qualities, of such value to the Athenian territory. The sowing season was opened in Attica by three sacred services of ploughing. Of these, two were in honour of Athene as inventress of the plough, while the third took place in honour of Demeter. It was Athens, also, who had taught men how to attach oxen to the yoke; above all, she had given them the olive-tree, the treasure of Attica. This tree she had made to grow out of the rock of the citadel, when disputing the possession of the land with Poseidon. Several festivals, having reference to these functions of the goddess, were celebrated in Attica; the Callynteria and Plynteria, the Scirophoria, the Arrhephoria or Hersephoria, and the Oschophoria, which were common to Athens with Dionysus. (See DIONYSIA .) Even her chief feast, the Panathenoea, was originally a harvest festival. It is significant that the presentation of the peplos or mantle, the chief offering at the celebration, took place in the sowing season. But afterwards more was made of the intellectual gifts bestowed by the goddess. Athens was very generally regarded as the goddess of war; an iaea which in ancient times was the prevailing one. It was connected with the fact that, like her father Zeus, she was supposed to be able to send storms and bad weather. In this capacity she appears in story as the true friend of all bold warriors, such as Perseus, Bellerophon, Jason, Heracles, Diomedes and Odysseus. But her courage is a wise courage, not a blind rashness like that of Ares; and she is always represented, accordingly, as getting the better of him. In this connection she was honoured in Athenian worship mainly as a protector and defender; thus (to take a striking example) she was worshipped on the citadel of Athens under the name of Promachos ("champion," "12 protector.") But she was also a goddess of victory. As the personification of victory (Athene Nike) she had a second and especial temple on the Athenian Acropolis. (See Plan of ACROPOLIS .) And the great statues in the temples represented her, like Zeus, with Nike in her outstretched hand. The occupations of peace, however, formed the main sphere of her activity. Like all the other deities who were supposed to dispense the blessings of nature, she is the protectress of growing children; and as the goddess of the clear sky and of pure air, she bestows health and keeps off sickness. Further, she is (with Zeus) the patroness of the Athenian Phratrioe, or unions of kinsfolk. At Athens and Sparta she protects the popular and deliberative assemblies; in many places, and especially at Athens, the whole state is under her care (Athene Polias, Poliachus). Elsewhere she presides over the larger unions of kindred peoples. The festival of Athene Itonia at Coronea was a confederate festival of all Boeotia. Under the title of Panachais she was worshipped as the goddess of the Achaean League. Speaking broadly, Athene represents human wit and cleverness, and presides over the whole moral and intellectual side of human life. From her are derived all the productions of wisdom and understanding, every art and science, whether of war or of peace. A crowd of discoveries, of the most various kinds, is ascribed to her. It has been already mentioned that she was credited with the invention of the plough and the yoke. She was often associated with Poseidon as the inventress of horse-taming and ship-building. In the Athenian story she teaches Erichthonius to fasten his horses to the chariot. In the Corinthian story she teaches Bellerophon to subdue Pegasus. At Lindus in Rhodes she was worshipped as the goddess who helped Danaus to build the first fifty-oared ship. In the fable of the Argonauts it is she who instructs the builders of the first ship, the Argo. Even in Homer all the productions of women's art, as of spinning and weaving, are characterized as "works of Athene." Many a Palladion or statue of Pallas bore a spindle and distaff in its left hand. As the mistress and protectress of arts and handiwork, she was worshipped at the Chalkeia (or Feast of Smiths) under the title of Ergane. Under this name she is mentioned in several inscriptions found on the Acropolis. Her genius covers the field of music and dancing. She is inventor of the flute and the trumpet, as well as of the Pyrrhic war-dance, in which she was said to have been the earliest performer, at the celebration of the victory of the Gods over the Giants. It was Phidias who finally fixed the typical representation of Athens in works of art. Among his numerous statues of her, three, the most celebrated, were set up on the acropolis of Athens. These were (1) The colossal statue of Athene Parthenos, wrought in ivory and gold, thirty feet in height (with the pedestal), and standing in the Parthenon. (See PARTHENON .) The goddess was represented wearing a long robe falling down to the feet, and on her breast was the aegis with the Gorgon's head. A helmet was on her head; in one hand she bore a Victory, six feet in height, in the other a lance, which leaned against a shield adorned with scenes from the battles of the Amazons with the Giants. (2) The bronze statue of Athene Promachos, erected from the proceeds of the spoils taken at Marathon, and standing between the Propylaea and the Erechthteum. The proportions of this statue were so gigantic, that the gleaming point of the lance and the crest of the helmet were visible to seamen, on approaching the Piraeus from Sunium. (3) The Lemnian Pallas, so named because it had been dedicated by the Athenian Cleruchi in Lemnos. The attractions of this statue won for it the name of "the Beautiful." Like the second, it was of bronze; as a representation of Athene as the goddess of peace, it was without a helmet. Throughout the numerous and varying representations of her, Athene has an imposing stature, suggesting a masculine rather than a feminine form; an oval face, with a brow of great clearness and purity; thoughtful eyes, compressed lips, firm chin, and hair carelessly thrown back. (See cut.) Her ordinary attributes are the helmet, the aegis covering the breast or serving as a shield for the arm, the lance, the round shield with the Gorgon's head, the olive branch, and the owl. (On her identification with Minerva, see</italics MINERVA ATHLETAE This was the name given by the Greeks to the professional competitors for the prizes in gymnastic contests, such as boxing and the pancration, a combination of boxing with wrestling. The athletoe practised gymnastics as a means of livelihood, whereas in general Greek society it was regarded as a liberal art, useful for the harmonious development of the body, and as a training for military service. The professional athletes adopted a special regimen, which produced an exceptional development of bodily strength and muscle, but unfitted them for any other kind of life or pursuit. The profession of athlete was accordingly adopted mainly by men of low birth, and was more popular with the multitude than with persons of intelligence and education. Greek athletes did not make their appearance in Rome before 186 B.C. In the republican age they were not regarded with great favour; but under Augustus their contests became quite popular. No social stigma attached to them, as to actors and gladiators, and under the Empire they formed themselves into regular societies, each with its own president, travelling from place to place at the festivals, at which they would appear in pairs, arranged by lot, for a high remuneration. In 86 A.D. Domitian established a contest on the Capitol for musicians and athletes, to recur every four years; and erected a special race-course for the athletes on the Campus Martius. The Capitoline contest survived during the whole of antiquity. ATIMIA This Greek word does not imply dishonour in the modern sense, but deprivation of civil rights, whether partial, complete, temporary, or perpetual. Partial atimia at Athens might consist, for instance, in depriving a citizen of the right to appear again as prosecutor, in case he had, in this capacity, failed to obtain a fifth part of the votes; or of the right to propose a law again to the assembly, if he had been three times condemned for making illegal propositions. In cases of complete atimia, a person was excluded from taking part in any public proceeding whatever. He was forbidden access to the agora and the public sanctuaries; he was incapacitated from appearing in court as a prosecutor. In case of very serious offences the atimia might be followed by confiscation of property, and might even be extended to a man's children. Atimia might also be inflicted on debtors to the State, if the debt was not paid within the appointed time. It was then accompanied with a fine equivalent to the amount already owed. The payment of the debt brought the atimia to an end. But where it was inflicted for other offences, it was seldom removed, and then only after a vote of at least six thousand citizens. In Sparta complete atimia was mostly inflicted on persons who had been guilty of cowardice in war. The offender was not only cut off from all civil rights, and from the common meals and exercises, but had to submit to every kind of insult. At the public festivals he had to take a low place. He was obliged to wear a patchwork cloak, to have his hair cut on one side; to give way in the street to every one, even to young men; no one would give him light for his fire, marry his daughter, or give him his daughter to wife. [Plutarch, Agesilaus 30.] Bachelors were also subject to a kind of atimia. They were not allowed to be present at certain festivals, and had no claim to the marks of respect which the young, in other cases, were expected to show. The full possession of civic rights and privileges was called epitimia. (See INFAMIA .) ATLAS The son of the Titan Iapetus and Clymene (or, according to anotlier account, Asia), brother of Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. In Homer [Od. i. 52] he is called "the thinker of mischief," who knows the depths of the whole sea, and has under his care the pillars which hold heaven and earth asunder. In Hesiod [Theog. 517] he stands at the western end of the earth, near where the Hesperides dwell, holding the broad heaven on his head and unwearied hands. To this condition he is forced by Zeus, according to a later version as a punishment for the part which he took in the battle with the Titans. By the Ocean nymph Pleione he is father of the Pleiades, by Aethra of the Hyades. In Homer the nymph Calypso is also his daughter, who dwells on the island Ogygia, the navel of the sea. Later authors make him the father of the Hesperides, by Hesperis. It is to him that Amphitrite flies when pursued by Poseidon. As their knowledge of the West extended the Greeks transferred the abode of Atlas to the African mountain of the same name. Local stories of a mountain which supported the heaven would, no doubt, encourage the identification. In later times Atlas was represented as a wealthy king, and owner of the garden of the Hesperides. Perseus, with his head of Medusa, turned him into a rocky mountain for his inhospitality. In works of art he is represented as carrying the heaven; or (after the earth was discovered to be spherical), the terrestrial globe. Among the statues of Atlas the Farnese, in the Museum at Naples, is the best known. (See also OLYMPIC GAMES , fig. 3.) In Greek architecture, the term Atlantes was employed to denote the colossal male statues sometimes used in great buildings instead of columns to support an entablature or a projecting roof. ATREUS Son of Pelops and Hippodamia, grandson of Tantalus. (See PELOPS .) With the help of his brother Thyestes he murdered his step-brother Chrysippus. To escape the wrath of their father, the pair of brothers took refuge with their brother-in-law Sthenelus, king of Mycenae, who gave them Media to live in. Eurystheus, the brother of their protector, was killed in battle with the Heracleidae. Atreus kept possession of the kingdom of Mycenae, which had been given him in charge by Eurystheus, and maintained it in virtue of possessing a golden lamb, which had been given him by Hermes for the purpose of exciting discord in the house of Pelops and avenging the death of his son Myrtilus. Thyestes debauched his brother's wife Aerope, daughter of the king of Crete, and with her aid got possession of the golden lamb and the kingdom. But, as a sign that right and wrong had been confounded, Zeus turned the sun and the moon back in their course. Atreus accordingly recovered the kingdom and expelled Thyestes. To revenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes, a son of Atreus whom he had brought up as his own, to Mycenae to murder Atreus. But Atreus slew Pleisthenes, not knowing that he was his son. Atreus replied by bringing back Thyestes and his family from exile, and serving up to Thyestes at table the limbs of his own sons. Thyestes fled away; the land was visited with barrenness and famine. In obedience to an oracle, Atreus goes forth to seek him, but only finds his daughter Pelopia, whom he takes to wife. Egisthus, her son by her father Thyestes, who is destined to avenge him, Atreus adopts and rears as his own child. Thyestes is afterwards found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, who bring him to Mycenae. He is imprisoned, and Aegisthus ordered to murder him. By the sword which Aegisthus carries Thyestes recognises him as his son, and proposes to him to slay Atreus. Meanwhile Pelopia, in horror at the discovery of her son's incestuous origin, drives the sword into her own breast. Aegisthus takes the bloody sword to Atreus as a proof that he has executed his commission, and afterwards falls upon him with Thyestes, while he is engaged in making a thank-offering on the sea-shore. Thyestes and Aegisthus thereupon seize the government of Mycenae, and drive Agamemnon and Menelaus out of the country. The older story knows nothing of these horrors. In Homer Pelops receives the sceptre from Zeus by the ministration of Hermes; he leaves it to Atreus, and Atreus to Thyestes, who hands it down to Agamemnon. Hesiod alludes to the wealth of the Pelopidae, but is silent as to the rest. ATRIUM The original name for a Roman house, the interior of which consisted of a single chamber open at the front. Afterwards the term was applied to the large hall which extended along the whole breadth of the house, and was lighted by an opening in the roof. The atrium was entered by the floor of the house, and the other chambers were attached to it. (See HOUSE .) Other buildings, sacred or profane, possessing halls of this kind with dwelling-rooms attached, were known by the name of atria, from the resemblance of their form to that of an ordinary house. The Atrium Vestoe, or abode of the Vestal Virgins, is an example of a consecrated atrium. The Atrium Libertatis was secular. This was the official residence of the censor, and it was here that Asinius Pollio established the first public library known to have existed at Rome. Auction-rooms were also called atria, and halls of this description were often attached to temples, and used for the meetings and festivals of societies. ATTA A Roman dramatic poet, author of togatoe (see COMEDY ), who died B.C. 77, and was a contemporary of Afranius. He was celebrated for his power of drawing character, especially in conversational scenes in which women were introduced. Of his comedies only twelve titles remain, with a few insignificant fragments. ATTHIS A chronicle of Attic history, in which special attention was paid to occurrences of political and religious significance. After the last half of the 4th century A.D., chronicles of this kind were composed by a number of writers (Atthidographi), among whom Androtion and Philochorus (q.v.) deserve special mention. These writings were much quoted by the grammarians. ATTICUS T. Pomponius. A Roman of an old and wealthy equestrian family, born 109 B.C. He received a good education in boyhood and youth, and went in the year 88 B.C. to Athens, where he lived until 65, devoting himself entirely to study, and much respected by the citizens for his generosity and cultivated refinement. In 65 he returned to Rome, to take possession of the inheritance left him by his uncle and adoptive father, Q. Caecilius. He now became Q. Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time onward he lived on terms of intimacy with men like Cicero, Hortensius, and Cornelius Nepos, who wrote a life of him which we still possess. He avoided public life and the strife of parties. This fact, in addition to his general amiability and good nature, enabled him during the civil wars to keep on the best of terms with the leaders of the conflicting parties, Cicero, Brutus, and Antonius. He died after a painful illness, of voluntary starvation, in the year 32 B.C. Atticus was the author of several works, the most considerable of which was a history (liber annalis) dedicated to Cicero. This gave a short epitome of the bare events of Roman history down to B.C. 54, arranged according to the series of consuls and other magistrates, with contemporaneous notices. But his most important contribution to Latin literature was his edition of the letters which he had received from Cicero. He also did great service by setting his numerous slaves to work at copying the writings of his contemporaries. ATTIS A mythical personage in the worship of the Phrygian goddess Cybele-Agdistis. The son of this goddess, so ran the story, had been mutilated by the gods in terror at his gigantic strength, and from his blood sprang the almond-tree. After eating its fruit, Nana, daughter of the river Sangarius, brought forth a boy, whom she exposed. He was brought up first among the wild goats of the forests, and afterwards by some shepherds, and grew up so beautiful that Agdistis fell in love with him. Wishing to wed the daughter of the king of Pessinus in Phrygia, he was driven to madness by the goddess. He then fled to the mountains, and destroyed his manhood at the foot of a pine-tree, which received his spirit, while from his blood sprang violets to garland the tree. Agdistis besought Zeus that the body of her beloved one might know no corruption. Her prayer was heard; a tomb to Attis was raised on Mount Dindymus in the sanctuary of Cybele, the priests of which had to undergo emasculation for Attis' sake. A festival of several days was held in honour of Attis and Cybele in the beginning of spring. A pine-tree, felled in the forest, was covered with violets, and carried to the shrine of Cybele, as a symbol of the departed Attis. Then, amid tumultuous music, and rites of wildest sorrow, they sought and mourned for Attis on the mountains. On the third day he was found again, the image of the goddess was purified from the contagion of death, and a feast of joy was celebrated, as wild as had been the days of sorrow. AUCYRANUM MONUMENTUM The monument of Ancyra (now Angora), a marble slab, of which the greater part is preserved. It belonged to the temple of Augustus at Ancyra, and contained the Latin text of a Greek translation of the report drawn up by that emperor himself on the actions of his reign (Index Rerum a se Gestarum). By the terms of his will this report, engraved in bronze, was set up in front of his mausoleum at Rome, and copies were made of it for other temples of Augustus in the provinces. AUGEAS OR AUGIAS Son of Helios, or, according to another account, of Phorbas, and Hermione. He was king of the Epeians in Elis, and one of the Argonauts. Besides his other possessions, for which Agamemnon and Trophonius built him a treasure-house, he was the owner of an enormous flock of sheep and oxen, among which were twelve white bulls, consecrated to the Sun. When Heracles, at the command of Eurystheus, came to cleanse his farmyard, Augeas promised him the tenth part of his flock. But, the task completed, he refused the reward, on the ground that the work had been done in the service of Eurystheus. Heracles replied by sending an army against him, which was defeated in the passes of Elis by Eurytus and Cteatus, sons of Molione. But Heracles appeared on the scene, and slew the Molionidae, and with them their uncle Augeas and his sons. (See MOLIONIDAe .) AUGURES [not probably, from avis, a bird, but from a lost word, aug-o, to tell; so "declarers" or "tellers"]. A priestly collegium at Rome, the establishment of which was traditionally ascribed to Romulus. Its members were in possession of the knowledge necessary to make the arrangements for taking the auspices, and for their interpretation when taken. Their assistance was called in on all those occasions on which the State had to assure itself, through auspices, of the approval of the gods. The collegium originally consisted of three Patricians, of whom the king was one. During the regal period the number was doubled; in B.C. 300 it was raised to nine (four Patricians and five Plebeians); and in the last century of the Republic, under Sulla, to fifteen, and finally by Julius Caesar to sixteen, a number which continued unaltered under the Empire. It can be shown that the college of augurs continued to exist until the end of the 4th century A.D. The office was, on account of its political importance, much sought after, and only filled by persons of high birth and distinguished merit. It was held for life, an augur not being precluded from holding other temporal or spiritual dignities. Vacancies in the collegium were originally filled up by cooptation; but after 104 B.C. the office was elective, the tribes choosing one of the candidates previously nominated. An augurium had to be taken before the augur entered upon his duties. In all probability the augurs ranked according to seniority, and the senior augur presided over the business of the collegium. The insignia of the office were the trabea, a state dress with a purple border, and the lituus, a staff without knots and curved at the top. The science of Roman augury was based chiefly on written tradition. This was contained partly in the Libri Augurales, the oldest manual of technical practice, partly in the Commentarii Augurales, a collection of answers given in certain cases to the enquiries of the senate. In ancient times the chief duty of the augurs was to observe, when commissioned by a magistrate do so, the omens given by birds, and to mark out the templum or consecrated space within which the observation took place. The proceeding was as follows. Immediately after midnight, or at the dawn of the day on which the official act was to take place, the augur, in the presence of the magistrate, selected an elevated spot with as wide a view as was obtainable. Taking his station here, he drew with his staff two straight lines cutting one another, the one from north to south, the other from east to west. Then to each of these straight lines he drew two parallel lines, thus forming a rectangular figure, which he consecrated according to a prescribed form of words. This space, as well as the space corresponding to it in the sky, was called a templum. At the point of intersection in the centre of the rectangle, was erected the tabernaculum. This was a square tent, with its entrance looking south. Here the augur sat down, asked the gods for a sign according to a prescribed formula, and waited for the answer. Complete quiet, a clear sky, and an absence of wind were necessary conditions of the observation. The least noise was sufficient to disturb it, unless indeed the noise was occasioned by omens of terror (diroe), supposing the augur to have observed them or to intend doing so. As he looked south, the augur had the east on his left, the west on his right. Accordingly, the Romans regarded signs on the left side as of prosperous omen, signs on the right side as unlucky; the east being deemed the region of light, the west that of darkness. The reverse was the case in ancient Greece, where the observer looked northwards. In his observation of birds, the augur did not confine himself to noticing their flight. The birds were distinguished as alites and oscines. The alites included birds like eagles and vultures, which gave signs by their manner of flying. The oscines were birds which gave signs by their cry as well as their flight, such as ravens, owls, and crows. There were also birds which were held sacred to particular gods, and the mere appearance of which was an omen of good or evil. The augur's report was expressed in the words aves admittunt, "the birds allow it"; or alio die, "on another day," i.e. "the augury is postponed." The magistrate was bound by this report. The science of augury included other kinds of auspices besides the observation of birds, a cumbrous process which had dropped out of use in the Ciceronian age. (See AUSPICIA .) The augurs always continued in possession of important functions. In certain places in the city, for instance on the arx, and at the meeting place of the comitia, there were permanent posts of observation for taking the regular auspices. These places were put under the care of the augurs. Their boundaries might not be altered, nor the view which they commanded interfered with. The augurs had authority to prevent the erection of buildings which would do this. They had also the power of consecrating priests, as well as of inaugurating a part of the localities intended for religious purposes, and the places where public business was carried on. They were always present at the comitia, and were authorized, if the signs which they saw or which were reported to them justified the proceeding, to announce the fact and postpone the business. If the constitutional character of a public act was called in question, the college of augurs had the exclusive power of deciding whether there was a flaw (vitium) in it, or not. If there were, the act was necessarily annulled. By the end of the republican period the augurs, and the whole business of the auspices, had ceased to be regarded as deserving serious attention. A religious association at Rome, formed for the maintenance of the worship paid to the deified Caesars. (See MUNICIPIUM and SODALITAS AUGUSTINUS The greatest of the Latin Christian fathers. He was born 354 A.D. at Tagaste in Numidia. His father was a pagan, his mother, Monica, a zealous Christian. After a wild life as a young man, he became professor of rhetoric in Tagaste, Carthage, Rome, and Milan, where he was converted to Christianity through the influence of Ambrose, and baptized in 387. He returned to Africa, and was ordained presbyter in 391, and bishop of Hippo in Numidia in 396. He died there in 430, after doing much good in the city during its siege by the Vandals. His literary activity was extraordinary. Four years before his death he reckons up the number of his works, exclusive of letters and sermons, as 93, making up 233 books. Among them are six books De Musica, and essays on rhetoric, dialectic, and grammar. These productions, which testify to his interest in learning, were installments of an encyclopaedic work on the seven liberal arts, modelled upon the Disciplinoe of Varro. Among his other writings two attracted especial notice on account of the extra-ordinary effect which they produced in after times. These are The Confessions, a history of his inner life in thirteen books, written in the form of a confession to the Almighty; and the De Civitate Dei, a work in twenty-two books, demonstrating the providential action of God in the development of human history. AURELIANUS A Latin writer on medicine, a native of Sicca in Numidia, who flourished in the 5th century A.D. He was the author of two works on Acute and Chronic Diseases, the first in three, the second in five books. These are translations, fairly literal, but abridged, of works by the Greek physician Soranus, who lived in the last half of the 2nd century A.D. Caelius also wrote a compendium of the whole science of medicine, in the form of a catechism (Medicinales Responsiones). Of this considerable fragments remain. AURELIUS VICTOR A Roman historian, born in Africa. He was probably governor of Pannonia under Julian in 361 A.D., and in 389 prefect of Rome. There is a history of the Caesars from Julius to Constantine, written about 360 A.D., which bears his name. This appears, however, to be no more than an extract from a more comprehensive work. The same is the case with an Epitome, continued down to the death of Theodosius. There is also a short but not altogether worthless book, entitled De Viris Illustribus Urbis Romoe, which is attributed to Aurelius Victor. It begins with the Alban king Procas, and comes down to Cleopatra. It is not by Aurelius Victor, nor again is a little book which has been attributed to him, called Origo Gentis Romance. This is full of forged quotations, and belongs to a much later period. AUSONIUS The most remarkable Latin poet of the 4th century A.D.; born about 310 at Burdigala (Bordeaux). He was son of the private physician of Valentinian I, and afterwards prefect of Illyria. Educated thoroughly in grammar, rhetoric, and law, he practised as an advocate in his native city, where he afterwards became professor of grammar and rhetoric. He was then invited by Valentinian to undertake the education of his son Gratian, who, after he had ascended the throne, conferred upon him the consulship and other distinctions. After the assassination of Gratian he retired to his estate near Burdigala, where he continued to reside, in full literary activity, till 390. He became a Christian, probably on accepting the office of tutor to the prince. Besides composing a turgid address of thanks to Gratian, delivered at Treves, Ausonius wrote a series of poems, including verses in memory of deceased relatives (Parentalia), verses commemorating his colleagues (Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium), Epitaphia, Eclogoe, Epistuloe, Epigrammata, and a number of miscellaneous pieces, one of which (Mosella), is the narrative of a tour from Bingen on the Rhine to Berncastel (Tabernoe) on the Moselle and then up the Moselle past Neumagen (Noviomagum) to Treves. Its subject has secured the poem some renown. Ausonius is not a real poet; but he tries to make up for lack of genius by dexterity in metre and the manipulation of words, and by ornaments of learning and rhetoric. The consequence is, that his style is generally neither Simple nor natural. AUSPICIA In its proper sense the word means the watching of signs given by birds. But it was also applied to other signs, the observation of which was not intended to obtain answers about future events, but only to ascertain whether a particular proceeding was or was not acceptable to the deity concerned. It must be remembered that, according to Roman ideas, Jupiter gave men signs of his approval or disapproval in every undertaking; signs which qualified persons could read and understand. Any private individual was free to ask for, and to interpret, such signs for his own needs. But to ask for signs on behalf of the State was only allowed to the representatives of the community. The auspicia publica populi Romani, or system of public auspicia, were under the superintendence of the college of augurs. (See AUGUR .) This body alone possessed the traditional knowledge of the ceremonial, and held the key to the correct interpretation of the signs. The signs from heaven might be asked for, or they might present themselves unasked. They fell into five classes: (1) Signs given by birds (signa ex avibus). These, as the name auspicia shows, were originally the commonest sort, but had become obsolete as early as the 1st century B.C. (For the ceremonial connected with them, see AUGUR .) (2) Signs in the sky (ex coelo). The most important and decisive were thunder and lightning. Lightning was a favourable omen if it appeared to the left of the augur, and flashed to the right; unfavourable, if it flashed from right to left. (See AUGUR .) In certain cases, as, for example, that of the assembling of the comitia, a storm was taken as an absolute prohibition of the meeting. (3) Signs from the behaviour of chickens while eating. It was a good omen if the chicken rushed eagerly out of its cage at its food and dropped a bit out of its beak; an unfavourable omen if it was unwilling, or refused altogether, to leave its cage, or flew away, or declined its food. This clear and simple method of getting omens was generally adopted by armies in the field, the chickens being taken about in charge of a special functionary (pullarius). (4) Signs given by the cries or motion of animals, as reptiles and quadrupeds, in their course over a given piece of ground (signa pedestria or ex quadrupedibus). (5) Signs given by phenomena of terror (signa ex diris). These might consist in disturbances of the act of auspicatio, such as the falling of an object, a noise, a stumble, a slip in the recitation of the formula; or a disturbance occurring in the course of public business, such as, for instance, an epileptic seizure taking place in the public assembly; an event which broke up the meeting. The two last-mentioned classes of signs were generally not asked for, because the former were usually, the latter always, unlucky. If they made their appearance unasked, they could not be passed over, if the observer saw them or wished to see them. Every official was expected to take auspices on entering upon his office, and on every occasion of performing an official act. Thus the words imperium and auspicium were often virtually synonymous. The auspicia were further divided, according to the dignity of the magistrate, into maxima ("greatest") and minora ("less"). The greatest auspicia were those which weretaken by the king, dictator, consuls, praetors, and censors; the lesser were taken by aediles and quaestors. If two magistrates, though collegoe (colleagues) were of unequal dignity-supposing, for instance, that a consul and praetor were in the same camp-the higher officer alone had the right of taking the auspices. If the collegoe were equal, the auspices passed from one to the other at stated times. No public act, whether of peace or war (crossing a river, for instance, or fighting a battle), could be undertaken without auspices. They were specially necessary at the election of all officials, the entry upon all offices, at all comitia, and at the departure of a general for war. They had, further, to be taken on the actual day and at the actual place of the given undertaking. The whole proceeding was so abused that in time it sank into a mere form. This remark applies even to the auspices taken from lightning, the most important sign of all. For the flash of lightning, which was in later times regularly supposed to appear when a magistrate entered upon office, was always (after the necessary formalities) set down as appearing on the left side. Moreover, the mere assertion of a magistrate who, had the right of auspicium that he had taken observations on a particular day, and seen a flash of lightning, was constitutionally unassailable; and was consequently often used to put off a meeting of the comitia fixed for the clay in question. Augustus, it is true, tried to rehabilitate, the auspicia, but their supposed religious foundation had been so thoroughly shaken, that they had lost all serious significance. AUTOLYCUS Son of Hermes and Chione, or (according to another account) Philonis, father of Anticleia, the mother of Odysseus. In Greek mythology he figured as the prince of thieves. From his father he inherited the gift of making himself and all his stolen goods invisible, or changing them so as to preclude the possibility of recognition. He was an accomplished wrestler, and was said to have given Heracles instruction in the art. AUTONINUS Marcus Aurelius, surnamed Philosophus, born at Rome A.D. 121. His real name was M. Annius Verus; at the desire of the emperor Hadrian he was adopted by his successor T. Aurelius Antoninus Pius, married his daughter Faustina, and became emperor in A.D. 161. During his benevolent reign the empire had to face dire distresses, famine, pestilence, and constant wars with the Parthians in the east, and the Marcomanni and other Germans in the north, during which he proved himself a prudent and active sovereign. In the midst of a new war with the already vanquished Marcomanni he died in A.D. 180, probably at Sirmium in Pannonia. In his youth he was a pupil of the orator Fronto, and loved him warmly to the last, even after giving up rhetoric and devoting himself to the Stoic philosophy. The gentleness and amiability of his nature comes out both in his letters to FRONTO (q.v.) and in his Self-contemplations, which are the moral reflections of a Stoic in clumsy, over-concise, and often obscure Greek. AUTONINUS Antoninus Liberalis, a Greek grammarian of about 150 A.D., perhaps a freedman of Antoninus Pius; he wrote a collection, called Metamorphoses, of forty-one myths dealing with transformations, most of which is based on ancient authorities now lost, and is therefore valuable as a source of mythological knowledge. AUXILIA This name was given in the Roman army to the foreign troops serving with the legions, and to the contingents of Italian allies. In some cases, especially that of the slingers and archers, they were raised by free recruiting, in others by a levy in the provinces; in others they were sent as contingents by kings or communities in alliance with Rome. Under the Empire the term auxilia was extended to all the corps stationed in the provinces and not included in the legions; as, for example, the divisions of veterans called vexillarii, and the cohorts called Italian, formed originally of free Italian volunteers. It was, however, employed especially of the corps levied in the provinces, which furnished the material not only of the whole cavalry of the Roman army, but of a number of infantry detachments (cohortes auxiliarioe). Of these, some were armed and trained in Roman fashion, others retained their national equipment. Consequently, a striking variety of troops might be observed in the provincial armies of Rome. (See ALA and COHORS AVIANUS A Latin writer of fables. We have a collection of forty-two fables in elegiac metre, written by him, it may be conjectured, in the 4th century A.D. The work is dedicated to a certain Theodosius, with compliments on his acquaintance with Latin literature. He is perhaps to be identified with the well-known scholar Theodosius Macrobius. The dedication is in prose, and states that the author's models were Phaedrus and Babrius. The book was largely used in schools, and consequently was much enlarged, paraphrased, and imitated in the Middle Ages. The result may be seen in the Novus Avianus of Alexander Neckam, written in the 13th century. AVIENUS A Latin poet, native of Volsinii in Etruria, pro-consul of Africa in 366 and of Achaia in 372 A.D. He was the author of a tasteful and scholarly translation, in hexameters, of the Phoenomena of Aratus, and of the Geography of Dionysius Periegetes (Descriptio Orbis Terrarum); as well as of a piece called Ora maritima, or a description of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas. This was based on very ancient authorities, and written in iambics. Only a fragment of the first book remains, describing the Mediterranean coast from the Atlantic as far as Marseilles.	i don't know
Which golfer won the U.S. Masters in 2014?	Ranking the Top 25 Golfers Heading into 2014 \| Bleacher Report Ranking the Top 25 Golfers Heading into 2014 Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse the slideshow Stephen Dunn/Getty Images 21 Comments With an albeit slight measure of debate toward the back end of the list, the identity of the golfers included among our current top 25 is a relatively clear picture as we head into a new year and a restart of sorts on the PGA Tour, which somehow already began its 2014 season a couple months ago. The larger and more interesting question, however, is where we place those stars along the pecking order of the best of the best. By looking back in order to judge the present, we analyze players' major performances, strength of game and their quality of victories. Likewise, we look ahead to determine each golfer’s potential to hold steady, move forward or regrettably slide backward as the 2014 season plays out. In shaping the list we've identified five tiers that naturally group golfers based on their standing, talents, challenges and even their origins. Bottom line, there’s no science to this latest list of the 25 best or how they are grouped. It's just opinion fueled by evaluation, observation and an appropriate measure of anticipation. That said, here are those top 25 golfers as we reignite what should be a compelling and entertaining 2014 PGA Tour season. 25 to 21: Restless but Ready Jamie Squire/Getty Images Given the impressive depth of young and veteran talent on the PGA Tour, there's no shame in being ranked just outside the top 20. That said, this ensemble of established veterans and rising stars are eager to show they belong much higher in this ranking. Whether it's major winners looking to add to past glory or rising stars striving for the first shot at it, these golfers have proven their worth and are looking to rise up the ranks in 2014. Rankings aside, each of these gifted golfers have the skill to win at any time and more than enough game to make that next triumph a major championship. It's all about capitalizing on opportunity when it presents itself. 25. Webb Simpson Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: A four-time PGA Tour winner, the 2012 U.S. Open champion already has a pair of top 10s in the 2014 season, including a victory at the Shriners Hospital for Children Open back in October. That strong form provides hope for a rebound from an uneven 2013 campaign in which Simpson failed to win a single event but did post five top 10s along the way. The Downside: His strong start to the 2014 season notwithstanding, Simpson’s 2013 goose egg can’t be ignored. In fact, the American has won just once since his Open victory, and has failed to post even one top 10 in any subsequent major while missing two out of five cuts. 2014 Outlook: It’s not uncommon for a talented golfer to struggle after winning a first career major, and Simpson is no different. Yet if his play in the Presidents Cup, where he earned multiple points for the American team, and his solid start to the 2014 season is any indication, things are certainly looking up. 24. Jordan Spieth Andrew Redington/Getty Images The Upside: When 2013 began, Spieth didn't even have a PGA Tour card; by the time it ended, he was the hottest young golfer on tour with a history-making victory in his possession. Indeed, the 20-year-old showed so much talent and potential last season that this ranking is likely far too low related to what he could accomplish in 2014. In his rookie season, the former University of Texas standout posted nine top-10 finishes , and become the youngest golfer to win on tour in 82 years when he captured the John Deere Classic in early July. The Downside: The only reason to doubt further success and a continued climb up the world rankings for Spieth is the dreaded sophomore slump that has a knack of derailing even the most talented players as the strenuous nature of life on the PGA Tour takes root. 2014 Outlook: We’re eschewing talk of a second-year dip, and expect Spieth to put together another strong season that will include a second career victory at the very least. 23. Bubba Watson Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: Two years ago, Watson claimed his first major title at the Masters, and in the process announced himself as one of the top young golfers in the game. While he's failed to win another tournament since that breakthrough, he remains one of the most dynamic and powerful golfers on the PGA Tour. The world’s 28th-ranked golfer already has a top 10 in the brief 2014 season and finished a solid third against a terrific field at the unofficial Northwestern Mutual World Challenge in early December. The Downside: Despite a wealth of talent, Watson's career has stalled in large part because he tends to make the big mistake at the wrong time. Likewise, the four-time PGA Tour winner needs to improve his short game if he’s going to take full advantage of his awesome length. In 2013, Watson ranked only 119th in strokes gained-putting, 116th in total putting and only 150th in scrambling. 2014 Outlook: Both at the close of the 2013 campaign and the onset of the 2014 season, Watson has shown solid form both in his swing and his mental approach to the game. A slump following such an emotional and meaningful Masters victory is understandable, and it seems as if the Floridian is refocused and re-energized for a strong showing next year. 22. Hunter Mahan Sam Greenwood/Getty Images The Upside: Mahan impressively played his way into the Sunday final pairing at both the U.S. Open and Open Championship in 2013, proving he's more than capable of claiming one of golf's signature events. While he still seeks that elusive major, the Texan owns five PGA Tour titles and has recorded 46 top-10 finishes during only one decade on tour. The Downside: Due in part to his lack of power, which can limit scoring opportunities, Mahan often struggles to put four consistent rounds together in signature events. His standing in the low 70s in driving distance notwithstanding, the American really doesn't have a major hole in his game. That said, he hasn't won since the 2012 Shell Houston Open, and his world ranking rests outside the top 30 heading into 2014. 2014 Outlook: Ten of Mahan’s final 16 rounds in 2013 were shot in the 60s, and his tie for fourth at the BMW Championship lifted him to 20th in the final FedEx Cup standings. That strong season-ending form, coupled with his top 10s at the U.S. Open and British Open, promise even better things for the world’s 31st-ranked player in 2014. 21. Jim Furyk Scott Halleran/Getty Images The Upside: Anyone thinking Furyk’s days of winning PGA Tour events or challenging in major championships are behind him should review the tape of the 59 he crafted at the BMW Championship this past fall. The American’s historic second round at Conway Farms was just the sixth 59 ever shot on the PGA Tour and fully demonstrated that the 43-year-old has plenty of game left in his bag. In fact, in 22 starts this year, Furyk posted seven top-10 finishes, highlighted by his runner-up showing to Jason Dufner at the PGA Championship in August. The Downside: His multiple top 10s in 2013 notwithstanding, Furyk hasn't won a golf tournament since the 2010 Tour Championship and has slipped to No. 19 in the world along the way. Though accurate as the day is long, Furyk ranked just 169th in driving distance last season, a real disadvantage compared to the long-hitting golfers at the top of this ranking. 2014 Outlook: Furyk finished among the top 10 in five of his final seven events after missing the cut at the British Open in mid-July. Provided that form carries over into 2014, it's a good bet that Furyk will end his PGA Tour victory drought and challenge for a spot on the U.S. Ryder Cup team along the way. 20. Lee Westwood Andrew Redington/Getty Images The Upside: Westwood posted a pair of top-10 finishes in majors last season, and held a two-shot lead with 18 holes to play at The Open Championship before fading into a tie for third. Those performances, coupled with a tie for eighth at The Players Championship in May, demonstrate the Englishman remains a significant threat despite the absence of recent victories. The Downside: Despite a focused effort to improve his short game during the past two years, the results simply aren't rewarding the commitment. In 2013, Westwood ranked a disappointing 168th in strokes gained-putting and 166th overall on the greens. His inability to make crucial putts hurt him at the British Open this past July, and has certainly hampered his performance on the PGA Tour, where he hasn't won since June 2010. 2014 Outlook: Westwood had his chances in 2013, but it wasn't meant to be. Now without a PGA Tour victory in more than three years, it’s starting to look less and less likely that a resurgence is forthcoming for the two-time PGA Tour winner. 19. Luke Donald Stuart Franklin/Getty Images The Upside: Two years ago, Donald was the top-ranked golfer in the world, and the one most expected to win a breakthrough first major title. While things haven’t quite worked that way for the Englishman, he still has plenty of talent to ultimately reach those expectations. Indeed, Donald is among the most accurate off the tee and has an all-around solid short game when dialed in and focused. Those attributes allowed the five-time PGA Tour winner to post five top-10 finishes in only 17 starts last season, and just under $2 million in prize money. The Downside: Donald’s lack of length is only being magnified by a two-year downturn in iron play that has crippled his opportunities to claim a breakthrough title. In 2011, the Brit ranked a decent 41st in greens in regulation. Yet in 2012 that number dipped to 100th, and then spiraled downward to 156th this past season. 2014 Outlook: After a tie for eighth at the 2013 U.S. Open, Donald missed the cut in three of his final eight events, including ugly showings at the British Open and PGA Championship. Those performances engender little confidence that a rebound is forthcoming, especially in the major championships where he has flat-out struggled of late. 18. Sergio Garcia Stuart Franklin/Getty Images The Upside: If not for the damage that followed his feud with Tiger Woods , 2013 might have been the breakout year the enigmatic golfer has long sought. In his first eight starts of the season, Garcia posted five top-15 finishes, with four of those in the top 10. After a mid-summer slump following his unfortunate "fried chicken" comment, Sergio finished the season as strong as he started it. In fact, his mid-December victory at the Thailand Golf Championship was his first in a year, and vaulted the Spaniard to No. 10 in the world rankings. The Downside: Garcia has had stretches during his decade-and-a-half on tour when he’s looked like a top-10 golfer. Problem is those runs have typically ended under the weight of confidence issues that have plagued the Spaniard for almost the entirety of his career. Indeed, Sergio has suffered through a career of putting woes, major championship collapses and unfulfilled expectations that have left significant scars. 2014 Outlook: Not only did Sergio finish 2013 on a strong note with his Thailand victory, he’s already captured a top 10 in the 2014 PGA Tour season with his fourth-place showing at the WGC-HSBC Champions event in early November. Those strong performances suggest a breakthrough 2014 could be coming. 17. Charl Schwartzel Stuart Franklin/Getty Images The Upside: Schwartzel's 2011 Masters triumph has served as a springboard for the talented golfer, who has knocked on the door multiple other times during the past couple years, albeit without reward. A terrific shot-maker, the South African posted five top 10s in 19 starts last season, including a pair of third-place finishes. The Downside: Despite the multiple strengths of his game, Schwartzel's accuracy problems are concerning considering there’s been a downward slide of control since his Augusta National triumph. In 2011, he ranked 95th in driving accuracy and 79th in greens in regulation. The following year the iron accuracy ranking dropped to 153rd. This past season , his greens in regulation numbers rebounded back into the 70s, but he dipped to 110th in finding fairways. 2014 Outlook: Schwartzel notched a pair of top 15s at the U.S. Open and British Open in 2013 and had a tie for eighth at the BMW Championship late in the season. Along the way, he notched two more top 10s as compared to 2012, and nearly doubled his earnings to $2.2 million. If that form continues, expect a victory or two next year. 16. Ian Poulter Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: While the 2013 PGA Tour season was a huge disappointment for Poulter, it's far more likely his struggles were a blip on the screen rather than the beginning of the new normal for golf's social media star. Not only does he own two World Golf Championship titles, Poulter was the unquestioned leader of the Ryder Cup for the Europeans in 2012, and posted three top 10s in majors during that same season. In 2013 , the Englishman claimed four top 10s, highlighted by a third-place showing at the Open Championship back in July. The Downside: The flamboyant golfer hasn't won a PGA Tour event since the 2012 WGC-HSBC Champions and posted just one top five in a stroke play event last season. By and large, it’s been Poulter’s lack of power that is ultimately his biggest disadvantage to the game's top stars. The Brit ranked 136th in length of the tee last year, which is sadly an improvement over 2012 in which he was 145th in distance. 2014 Outlook: The two-time PGA Tour winner finished second at the WGC-HSBC Champions event back in November, his best showing on tour since his victory in the same event a year earlier. That performance, coupled with a solid finish in the Northwestern Mutual World Challenge, provides reason to believe Poulter is prepared to rebound from his shaky 2013. 15. Dustin Johnson Lintao Zhang/Getty Images The Upside: While the 2013 season didn't end the way Johnson would have liked, his 2014 campaign is already off to a successful and promising start. The long-hitting American captured the WGC-HSBC Champions event in early November, guaranteeing him an impressive seventh straight campaign with at least one victory, and in the process demonstrated a renewed focused for the eight-time PGA Tour winner. The Downside: Johnson’s talent is undeniable; so is his penchant for imploding at the absolute worst time. Indeed, if not for a mixture of poor judgment and really bad fortune, Johnson might well be a major champion two times over. Instead, the game’s 16th-ranked golfer is among the best four or five Yanks without one of golf’s most important prizes, and the pressure is undoubtedly mounting on him to change that status. 2014 Outlook: With a win already in his pocket, the pressure has eased a bit on Johnson and he can focus on simply playing his game and making smarter decisions on the golf course. If he does that, more victories will come next year. 14. Steve Stricker Kevin C. Cox/Getty Images The Upside: Due in large part to his incredible putting, there’s no more consistent golfer on the PGA Tour than Steve Stricker. Despite making only 13 starts last season, the 23-year veteran notched eight top 10s , including four runner-up finishes, and was in contention late for a FedEx Cup title. The Downside: Stricker turned pro way back in 1990, and given his reduced schedule one has to wonder just how much remains in the tank for a golfer who turned pro so long ago. The 46-year-old's lack of distance has been an issue since he first arrived on tour, so that’s nothing new to deal with. His desire to chase the elusive first major title and continue to compete against golfers a decade or two his junior, however, remains to be seen. 2014 Outlook: Stricker hasn't won a PGA Tour event since the opening tournament of 2012, and wasn't much of a factor in major championships during that same 24-month stretch. Given what we expect to be a light schedule in 2014, Stricker will have to make the most of his opportunities if he’s going to climb in these rankings, much less hold his ground. 13. Jason Dufner Matt Sullivan/Getty Images The Upside: Five months ago, Dufner was better known as a social media icon than the talented golfer he absolutely is. That all changed this past August when the former Auburn University standout won his first major title at the PGA Championship. The victory, which included a rare 63 in the second round, cemented Dufner’s place among the game’s top stars, and should serve as a springboard to even greater things in his future. The Downside: Last season, the former Byron Nelson and Zurich Classic champion ranked just 107th in driving distance and an even-more-alarming 142nd in strokes gained-putting and 146th in total putting. There’s not much the 36-year-old can do about his lack of power, but he needs to improve on the greens if he’s going to take advantage of his strong iron play and overall solid accuracy. 2014 Outlook: It’s not uncommon for first-time major winners to go into a bit of a slump following a breakthrough victory. Dufner, however, managed to maintain top form in the latter parts of the 2013 season with two top 10s in the FedEx Cup playoffs and a solid performance at the Presidents Cup. There’s at least one tour victory in him this season and potentially a couple challenges in golf’s signature events as well. 12. Zach Johnson Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: After a slow start to his season, no other golfer this side of Henrik Stenson had a better close to 2013 than Johnson. Not only did the veteran win the BMW Championship back in October, he recently rallied past Tiger to claim the Northeastern Mutual World Challenge. The American also posted seven other top 10s to go along with his triumph at Conway Farms. The Downside: In addition to Johnson’s distance disadvantage, his putter can at times betray him, evidenced by the fact he ranked only 79th in total putting last season. As a result, Johnson was only 63rd in birdie average despite his spectacular game from 150 yards and in. Likewise, due to his limited power supply he was only 77th in eagles. 2014 Outlook: After missing the cut at the U.S. Open, Johnson finished among the top 10 in seven of his final nine starts, a run that included a tie for sixth at the British Open and a share of eighth at the PGA Championship. Given that stellar form, there’s no reason to believe Johnson won’t begin 2014 the same way he closed last season. 11. Keegan Bradley Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: Bradley already owns the major championship that proves his mettle; now he's out to show there are more such victories inside him. The 2011 PGA champion managed seven top 10s , including a pair of runner-up finishes in 2013 and ranked 11th in driving distance, second in total driving and 10th in overall scoring average. The Downside: Given his average putting stats with the use of an anchored putter, there’s reason to be concerned about Bradley’s mindset on the greens when its use is banned in 2016 . Last season, the game’s 20th-ranked golfer was 44th in total putting, a performance that was good enough to keep him in contention several times but couldn't lift him over the top. In 24 months, Bradley is among a host of tour stars that lose the ability to anchor the long putter to his belly, an unwelcome change that will be a challenge to overcome. 2014 Outlook: Bradley slipped in the world rankings last year and hasn't won a PGA Tour event since the 2012 WGC-Bridgestone Invitational . That said, he already has two top-11 finishes in the 2014 season, indicating 27-year-old will end his relatively modest victory drought this year. 10 to 6: Knocking on the Door Jeff Gross/Getty Images The next five golfers in this ranking might not top anyone’s “best of” list, but they’re absolutely among the sport’s elite, with more than enough talent to rise further up the ladder in the next couple years. A strong mix of International stars, these golfers rest just outside the top five in the world, and each have plenty of game to make the leap into it. Together they have more than 20 career PGA Tour wins, and given their stellar form of late, it’s a safe bet that even more triumphs are forthcoming sooner rather than later. 10. Justin Rose Stuart Franklin/Getty Images The Upside: After years of falling short of great expectations, Rose finally broke through with that elusive first major victory at the 2013 U.S. Open. In the process, the career-defining triumph elevated the Englishman from great potential to one of the top golfers in the world. A five-time PGA Tour winner, Rose seems to have added improved confidence and the right mental approach to a game that has always been rich in talent. In addition to his victory at Merion Golf Club, Rose had six other top 10s , including a pair of second-place finishes, in just 17 starts. The Downside: One has to wonder just how great a season Rose could have had if he only putted better during key stretches of 2013. While the flat stick came through for Rose at the U.S. Open, it hindered him at times to the tune of 133rd in strokes gained-putting and 99th in overall putting. 2014 Outlook: After a mild slump following his U.S. Open victory, the five-time PGA Tour winner rebounded late in the season with a pair of top 10s in the FedEx Cup playoffs, including a runner-up finish at The Barclays. That strong performance, coupled with a fifth-place showing at the WGC-HSBC Champions event back in November, promises another strong year ahead for the British star. 9. Graeme McDowell Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: McDowell managed a U.S./Euro double-dip last spring by winning the RBC Heritage on Hilton Head Island in April and then the Volvo World Match Play Championship in Bulgaria just a month later. He then followed those triumphs by capturing the French Open in early July. Those three victories reinforced the 2010 U.S. Open champion's place among the game's elite, and his status as one of the game's global stars. McDowell also managed three additional top 10s on the PGA Tour, including a tie for third at the Cadillac Championship, a World Golf Championship event. The Downside: McDowell ranked just 161st in driving distance last season, an issue made all the more challenging by his 144th standing in greens in regulation and 104th showing in total putting. As a result, the Irishman missed the cut in a number of significant events, including the Masters, U.S. Open and the Players Championship. 2014 Outlook: Statistics don’t tell an entire tale, and there is certainly something to be said for McDowell’s experience and accomplishments over the past several years. That said, numbers don’t lie either, and his poor performance in so many critical areas warrants significant concern as to McDowell’s ability to rebound with a more consistent 2014. 8. Brandt Snedeker Andrew Redington/Getty Images The Upside: Snedeker posted nine top 10s in 23 starts last season, highlighted by victories at the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro Am and the RBC Canadian Open. That performance followed a 2012 campaign in which the former Vanderbilt star won twice, finished in the top 10 seven times and captured the FedEx Cup title. The Downside: Snedeker suffered a leg injury getting off of a Segway in China this past November, sidelining him for an extended period of time and casting doubt as to how prepared he will be for a fast start next year. It’s the second straight season in which the sport’s 13th-ranked golfer has missed time due to injury. After a torrid start on the West Coast last winter, the American missed several weeks of competition with bad ribs , and it took him several weeks to shake off the rust upon his return. 2014 Outlook: Snedeker struggled down the stretch after his July victory at the Canadian Open, posting just one top 10 against two missed cuts in his final seven events. Now with his injury factored in, it’s not a stretch to suggest a slow start to this year could be forthcoming. 7. Jason Day Mark Metcalfe/Getty Images The Upside: It’s hard to fathom how a talent like Day has only one PGA Tour victory to his credit. That said, it's an easy prediction that win total will grow sooner rather than later. Though just 26 years old, the Australian has challenged for multiple majors, including three top-10 finishes in golf's biggest events last season. All told, Day tallied seven top 10s in 2013 and didn't miss a cut in any of his 21 starts. The Downside: Day was in contention late at both the Masters and U.S. Open last season, only to watch other first-time major winners celebrate victory. Likewise, Day has failed to consistently challenge on the PGA Tour, notching only three runner-up finishes since his lone PGA Tour victory at the 2010 Byron Nelson Classic . Until he can win at a more consistent clip, there will be doubts as to the Aussie's ability to close. 2014 Outlook: Provided Day improves his driving accuracy and remains solid with his short game, he's simply too talented to keep out of the winner’s circle. Expect a complete breakout when that next victory happens, especially if it takes place in one of golf’s four signature events. 6. Matt Kuchar Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: In a robust 2013 , Kuchar won his first career World Golf Championship event at the Accenture Match Play in February and then the prestigious Memorial Tournament back in June. Those victories were just the highlights of a campaign in which the former Georgia Tech standout notched six additional top 10s, including a pair of second-place finishes. The Downside: The six-time PGA Tour winner has never been considered among the game’s power brokers off the tee, so his ranking of 116th in distance is forgivable. The same cannot be said, however, about Kuchar’s driving accuracy position of 124th, which certainly helped lead to his equally disappointing 73rd in greens in regulation. 2014 Outlook: With his tie for seventh at the McGladrey Classic, the world's seventh-ranked golfer already has his 2014 season off to a solid start. That showing, coupled with his strong performance while paired with Tiger at the Presidents Cup this past fall, provides good reason for optimism moving forward. 5 to 2: The Tiger Hunters Stuart Franklin/Getty Images If not for the existence of the one overwhelming presence in golf, each of these next four golfers could make a case for being the top player in the game. As it is, they are certainly hot on the trail of the man who currently carries that mantle. Albeit at different stages of their careers, each member of this foursome has world-class talent and a litany of accomplishments that warrant such high esteem. In addition to the man they are tracking, these stars are the golfers to watch this season as they look to build on already impressive resumes, and distinguish themselves from the rest of the hunting pack in the process. 5. Rory McIlroy Mark Metcalfe/Getty Images The Upside: After going winless for the majority of 2013, struggling in majors and losing significant confidence along the way, McIlroy appears determined and poised to regain his status as the once-presumed heir apparent to Tiger’s throne. The Irishman won the Australian Open in December, his first victory since the 2012 PGA Championship. Not only did the victory silence many critics, it shows Rory is growing more confident with his Nike clubs, and is poised to return to the form that earned him two major titles before the age of 24 . The Downside: In 2013, McIlroy ranked just 140th in driving accuracy and 86th in greens in regulation. Despite a quartet of victories, those respective rankings were similarly low in 2012. Such directional issues were certainly on full display in the 2013 majors, where Rory missed the cut badly at the British Open and managed just a single top 10 in the four tournaments altogether. 2014 Outlook: By coming from behind to defeat Adam Scott in Australia, the former world No. 1 removed a significant monkey off his back, and can enter 2014 refocused and determined to fully rebound from his awful 2013. 4. Phil Mickelson Andrew Redington/Getty Images The Upside: Mickelson's stunning five-shot Sunday rally at this year's British Open not only delivered his first Claret Jug, it left him just a U.S. Open victory short of a historic career grand slam. In addition to that victory, Lefty posted seven top 10s, including a win in the Waste Management Phoenix Open, and earned more than $5.4 million along the way. The Downside: As often is the case with Mickelson, accuracy off the tee was a barrier to even greater things in 2013. The 42-time PGA Tour winner ranked just 149th in driving accuracy last season, which surprisingly was an improvement of 24 spots compared to his 2012 showing. In 2014, the five-time major champion would do well to ease his stress on the golf course by finding more fairways than he has during the past several years. 2014 Outlook: There’s no doubt all eyes will be on Mickelson’s effort to complete the career grand slam with a U.S. Open victory at Pinehurst No. 2 this summer. Given what we saw from him in 2013, it's safe to say he'll contend at the Donald Ross masterpiece in June, and in several other significant events throughout the year. 3. Henrik Stenson Stuart Franklin/Getty Images The Upside: Not only did Stenson win the FedEx Cup playoffs, he added the Race to Dubai to become the first golfer to win both the PGA and European tours’ season-ending playoffs in the same year. That spectacular finish to a breakout season followed top-three finishes at both the British Open and PGA Championship and a pair of PGA Tour titles. The Downside: For significant stretches of his career, the 37-year-old has struggled with his putter. In 2013, Stenson ranked just 95th in total putting, but he was solid on the greens in the majors and in the FedEx Cup playoffs, making the crucial putts when he needed to. Much of that success was due to the former Players champion's precision with his irons, so there’s still doubt as to whether his stroke will hold up enough over the long term to build off his amazing 2013 campaign. 2014 Outlook: While matching his breakout season with a similar effort in 2014 may be a little much to ask, there’s little reason to believe Stenson won’t enjoy another strong campaign. Not only was he completely dialed in through the end of the Race to Dubai, his dogged accuracy and re-energized putter will keep him in the hunt in most tournaments he plays. 2. Adam Scott Mark Metcalfe/Getty Images The Upside: Not only did Scott's electrifying Masters victory get the major monkey off his back, it made the sweet-swinging golfer an absolute hero to an entire continent as the first Australian to ever don a green jacket. The triumph also provided enough evidence that the 33-year-old is indeed the biggest threat to Tiger's No. 1 ranking. Scott followed that Masters victory with a third-place showing at the British Open and a tie for fifth at the PGA Championship. All told, the Aussie posted six top 10s, including his second victory of the season at The Barclays, and didn't miss a cut in 16 starts. The Downside: Due in large part to his erratic putter, it took Scott 13 years to win his first major title despite his wealth of talent and confidence. Last year's success notwithstanding, Scott ranked only 102nd in strokes gained-putting and 62nd overall with the flat stick. Like Bradley, Scott is faced with the prospect of losing his anchored putting style in 2016, which could cause those stats to weaken further down the line. 2014 Outlook: Scott’s Masters victory removed a significant amount of pressure from his shoulders, and he played like it the rest of the year, especially in the final two majors of the season. With his confidence at an all-time high, and if his putter remains an asset and not a hindrance, there’s no doubt the Australian will continue his fine play in 2014, and perhaps capture that No. 1 ranking. 1. Tiger Woods: The Hunted Stephen Dunn/Getty Images The Upside: Who else other than Tiger could possibly be at the top of these rankings? The 14-time major champion captured five tournaments in 2013, including a pair of World Golf Championship events and the prestigious Players Championship, giving him eight victories in the past two seasons. In addition to his five titles last season, the 79-time PGA Tour winner enjoyed three additional top-10 showings, including a second-place finish at The Barclays. Tiger also managed top 10s at both The Masters and the Open Championship and captured the top ranking from McIlroy along the way. The Downside: Yes, Tiger rang the bell five times on the PGA Tour last season, but he also missed time with an injury, uncharacteristically ran afoul of the rules multiple times and continued his struggles in the majors for the fifth straight year. Indeed, there were times in 2013, and most notably during the signature events, when Tiger’s judgment, putter and even his body betrayed him. The end result was a roller-coaster season and the continued stagnation of his pursuit of Jack Nicklaus’ record 18 career majors. 2014 Outlook: Like it or not, success or failure for Woods in 2014 rests largely with his performance in the major championships. Win one, and the march to history is back on. Suffer another goose egg and the whispers from the doubters will grow to a dull roar. Given that reality, it’s fortunate then for Tiger that his year’s lineup of major championship venues couldn't be kinder to him. In fact, Woods has captured a major championship at three of them —Augusta National, Royal Liverpool and Valhalla—and finished among the top three the two times he contested a U.S. Open at Pinehurst No. 2.	Bubba Watson
Who wrote the plays The Rose Tattoo' and The Night of The Iguana'?	Jordan who? Five golfers to watch on the 2014 PGA Tour - CNN.com Jordan who? Five golfers to watch on the 2014 PGA Tour By Paul Gittings, CNN Updated 1505 GMT (2305 HKT) January 7, 2014 Chat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds. Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Incredible rise – Jordan Spieth was mixing it in illustrious company when he gained a captain's pick for the 2013 Presidents Cup in his rookie season. Hide Caption 1 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Early winner – Spieth wasted little time in getting his hands on a trophy as a PGA Tour rookie, winning the John Deere Classic back in July. Hide Caption 2 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Tiger trophy haul – Tiger Woods secured five victories on the PGA Tour last year to win back the top ranking in the world heading into 2014. Hide Caption 3 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Superstar couple – Woods has been spending his time off the course to support his girlfriend Lindsey Vonn, whose bid for Olympic gold at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi has been ended by a knee injury. Hide Caption 4 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Great Scott – Adam Scott acknowledges the galleries at the Tournament of Champions in Hawaii, which kicked off 2014 on the PGA Tour. Hide Caption 5 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Masters champion – Bubba Watson helps Scott don the green jacket at the 2013 Masters after the Australian won his first major after a playoff with Angel Cabrera. Hide Caption 6 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Rory roars back – Rory McIlroy salvaged a disappointing 2013 with a superb victory in the Australian Open in Sydney in December. Hide Caption 7 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Love match – Rory McIlroy and Caroline Wozniacki cemented their relationship by getting engaged on New Year's Eve and will hope it will signal a return to form on the sporting front in 2014. Hide Caption 8 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Rise of Asia – Asia-Pacific Amateur winner Lee Chang-woo is headed for the 2014 Masters, with Japan's runner-up Hideki Matsuyama joining him in final qualifying for the British Open. Hide Caption 9 of 10 Photos: Five golfers to watch in 2014 Future star? – Lee battled to a three-shot win in the Asia-Pacific Amateur Championship against a high-quality field to serve notice of his promise. Hide Caption Jordan Spieth is considered brightest young prospect on PGA Tour He opens 2014 by finishing second to Zach Johnson in Hawaii Tiger Woods goes into the New Year chasing elusive 15th major Rory McIlroy looking recover his form after difficult 2013 Remember the name: Jordan Spieth is only 20 years of age, but the golfer is already being mentioned in the same breath as Tiger Woods after a whirlwind start to his PGA Tour career. Spieth, like Woods, was a multiple U.S. Junior Amateur champion before dominating college golf in his freshman year. Quickly turning professional, he became the first teenage winner on the PGA Tour in 82 years, and at this week's traditional curtain raiser to 2014 he finished second to veteran Zach Johnson at the Tournament of Champions in Hawaii . Johnson, the 2007 Masters champion, carded four birdies in seven holes to pip joint third-round leader Spieth by a shot on Monday. The 37-year-old tweeted after his win: "I love underdog stories" -- a recognition of the youngster's growing reputation. Spieth is one of CNN Living Golf's "Five players to watch" in 2014, as he seeks to add to last year's maiden victory. JUST WATCHED MUST WATCH Nicklaus: Tiger will break my record 00:50 Along with three of the biggest names in the sport -- who enjoyed wildly varying fortunes last season --we have also cast our net in the direction of Asia, where the emerging prodigies seem to get ever younger and ever more a threat to the established order on the PGA Tour. Jordan Spieth Starting 2013 ranked 810th in the world and having turned professional halfway through his sophomore year at the University of Texas, Spieth ended it as the PGA Tour's Rookie of the Year and with a place on the winning U.S. Presidents Cup team. So highly-rated was Spieth, that his first victory on the PGA Tour at the John Deere Classic in July was hardly considered a surprise. He won a three-way playoff against defending champion Johnson and David Hearn after spectacularly holing from a greenside bunker on the final hole of regulation play to force the shootout. Spieth then lost in a playoff for the Wyndham Championship to another promising young golfer, 23-year-old Patrick Reed and charged to fourth in the Deutsche Bank Championship with a last-round 62. He ended the year just outside the world's top 20, earning the nod from Fred Couples as a captain's pick in the Presidents Cup. Read: Why U.S. golf has such a healthy future Woods was a teammate in the comfortable victory over the Internationals, and when asked about Spieth the world No. 1 gave the following verdict: "He's earned his way on here and he's played exceptional golf and his talent is going to take him a long way over the years." JUST WATCHED Golf: The success stories of 2013 05:22 Tiger Woods Woods may have ended 2013 as the PGA Tour's Golfer of the Year, but will want to finally lose the tag of "14-time major winner" and close on Jack Nicklaus's all-time record of 18. Woods has been stuck on 14 since winning the U.S. Open in June 2008 with an injured knee which required surgery and a lengthy recuperation. His well-chronicled personal problems also clearly impacted on his career and it was only last year which saw the re-emergence of a golfer resembling the former all-conquering Tiger. Five wins on the PGA Tour were ample evidence, but in the majors his best was tied fourth at the Masters and he will be focused on changing that stat. Read: Woods clinches U.S. win over Internationals With youngsters like Spieth emerging and veterans like arch-rival Phil Mickelson showing no signs of fading away, Woods, who has just turned 38, knows this is a big year -- and the choice of venues for the majors could be in his favor. "I'm really excited about the major championships next year. I've won at three of the four venues -- Augusta National, Valhalla Golf Club and Royal Liverpool -- and on Pinehurst No. 2 (U.S. Open), I'm trending the right way, having finished third and second," he told his own website. Woods skipped the opening tournament of the year in Hawaii to spend time with his girlfriend Lindsey Vonn -- who will miss the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi due to her own knee problem -- before beginning his own buildup to the Masters in April. JUST WATCHED MUST WATCH Henrik Stenson claims $10 million prize 02:06 He still holds the record low total at Augusta of 270 back in 1997 when he announced himself to the wider sporting public with a stunning victory. Rory McIlroy McIlroy started 2013 as the world's top-ranked golfer and ended it as the sixth best after a series of on and off-course problems. With a new management team and a new fiancee -- he announced his engagement to Danish tennis star Caroline Wozniacki on New Year's Eve on Twitter -- the popular 24-year-old from Northern Ireland can enter 2014 with optimism. Buoyed by an end-of-year victory at the Australian Open, McIlroy has renewed confidence in himself and his Nike equipment after a big-money switch to the sportswear manufacturer at the start of 2012 that some linked to his poor form on the course. Read: It's official. Rory and Caroline get engaged "I'm confident with my game and confident where it's going," McIlroy told reporters. "I won a major in 2011 and 2012 but not in 2013, so I'll try to make up for that with two this year." A bold prediction, but McIlroy clearly has the talent to back up his words and has been practicing hard in Dubai ahead of his opening tournament of the season at the Abu Dhabi Championship starting on January 16. He will lock horns with Woods for the first time in 2014 at the Dubai Desert Classic a fortnight later -- an early marker for the rest of the year. Adam Scott Scott was denied the "triple crown" back in his home country in December by McIlroy, who mounted a final round charge to win at Royal Sydney. Following wins at the Australian PGA and Masters events, it would have capped a triumphant 2013 for the 33-year-old from Adelaide, who won his first major at Augusta. JUST WATCHED MUST WATCH 14 year old golfer makes Masters history 01:27 Scott also paired with Jason Day to win the World Cup for Australia and, combined with an impressive victory at The Barclays, the first event of the PGA Tour's FedEx Cup playoffs, it left him second in the world rankings behind Woods at year's end. Read: Scott wins PGA Grand Slam of Golf with course record Many believe Scott will reach top spot in 2014 and add to his majors haul, having shrugged off the disappointment of letting a four-shot lead slip to hand Ernie Els the 2012 British Open crown. A dramatic playoff win over Angel Cabrera of Argentina at Augusta sealed his place in golfing history and he was also in contention at the British Open and U.S. PGA Championships. Scott performed strongly at Kapalua in the Tournament of Champions, tying for sixth, to serve notice he will again be a force in 2014. Lee Chang-Woo Both the PGA Tour, and in particular the women's LPGA Tour, are becoming accustomed to precocious teenagers from Asia turning up in the United States and making their mark. Last year it was China's 14-year-old Guan Tianglang who had greats like Gary Player singing his praises with his performances at Augusta -- where he made the cut -- and subsequent PGA Tour events. In 2014, South Korean Lee Chang-Woo has the same opportunity after emulating Guan and winning the Asia-Pacific Amateur Championship. That booked a place for the 19-year-year-old at the Masters and also a spot at final qualifying for the British Open. Read: 10 things South Korea does better than anywhere else He is likely to grab the opportunities with both hands, having already mixed it with established professionals while still in the unpaid ranks. Seoul-born Lee tied for second with McIlroy at the Korea Open, the week before his Asia-Pacific win, and claimed victory in an earlier Korean Tour event. "Playing in the Masters has been my dream since I started playing golf," he said. "This is a great honor, I have never been so excited." Guan could not repeat his heroics of 2012 and finished back in eighth, but Lee was initially challenged in the final round by another young Chinese star, Dou Zecheng, before the 16-year-old fell away on the back nine. The pedigree of the Asia-Pacific Amateur winners is also strong. Since 2009, all but one winner has made the cut at the Masters. Read: Matsuyama makes cut at Masters Japan's Hideki Matsuyama, a previous qualifier by this route, achieved the feat twice and finished third in the Frys.com Open last October, the opening event on the 2013-14 PGA Tour calendar. Lee will be hoping to make a similar impression to earn sponsor invites for PGA events after the Masters, while Matsuyama has already proved he can mix it with the best while still in the amateur ranks.	i don't know
What name is given to the point in a planet’s orbit when it is closest to the Earth?	NASA - What is orbit? What is orbit? 09.10.03 Diagram of the planets and other heavenly bodies. Orbit is a word we hear quite often. Every time the Space Shuttle lifts off the launch pad, we hear it. Every time the Space Shuttle meets up with the International Space Station (ISS), we hear it. And every time a rocket launches a payload, we hear the word "orbit." It's a widely used term, but do you know what an orbit really is? An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another one. An object in an orbit is called a satellite. A satellite can be natural, like the Earth or the Moon. It can also be man-made, like the Space Shuttle or the ISS. In our solar system, the Earth and the eight other planets orbit the Sun. Most of the objects orbiting the Sun move along or close to an imaginary flat surface. This imaginary surface is called the ecliptic plane. Many planets also have moons. These moons orbit around them. Orbits are elliptical in shape, this means they are similar to an oval. For the planets, the orbits are almost round. The orbits of comets have a different shape. They are highly eccentric or "squashed." Satellites that orbit the Earth are not always the same distance from the Earth. Sometimes they are closer, and at other times they are farther away. The closest point a satellite comes to the Earth is called its perigee. The farthest point is the apogee. The time it takes a satellite to make one full orbit is called its period. The inclination is the angle the orbital plane makes when compared with the Earth's equator. The space station Skylab orbiting the Earth. An object in motion will stay in motion unless something pushes or pulls on it. This is Isaac Newton's First Law of Motion. Without gravity, an Earth-orbiting satellite would go off into space along a straight line. With gravity, it is pulled back toward the Earth. There is a constant tug-of-war between the satellites tendency to move in a straight line, or momentum, and the tug of gravity pulling it back. An object's momentum and the force of gravity have to be balanced for an orbit to happen. If the forward momentum of one object is too great, it will speed past the other one and not enter into orbit. If momentum is too small, the object will be pulled into the other one and crash. When these forces are balanced, the object is always falling into the planet, but because it's moving sideways fast enough, it never hits the planet. Escape velocity is the speed an object must go to break free from a planet's gravity and enter into orbit. Escape velocity depends on the mass of the planet. Each planet has a different escape velocity. The object's distance from the planet's center is also important. The escape velocity from the Earth is about 11.3 kilometers (7 miles) per second. Orbital velocity is the speed needed to stay in orbit. At an altitude of 242 kilometers (150 miles), this is about 17,000 miles per hour. This is just a little less than full escape velocity. The Space Shuttle in Low-Earth Orbit. Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) is restricted to the first 100 to 200 miles of space. LEO is the easiest orbit to get to and stay in. This is where the Shuttle and ISS conduct their operations. One complete orbit in LEO takes about 90 minutes. Satellites that seem to be attached to some location on Earth are in Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). These satellites orbit about 23,000 miles above the equator and complete one revolution around the Earth precisely every 24 hours. Satellites headed for GEO first go to an elliptical orbit with an apogee about 23,000 miles. Firing the rocket engines at apogee then makes the orbit round. Geosynchronous orbits are also called geostationary. Any satellite with an orbital path going over or near the poles maintains a polar orbit. Polar orbits are usually in low-Earth orbit. They remain in place while the Earth passes under. This means that eventually, the entire Earth's surface passes under a satellite in polar orbit. When a meteorite enters our atmosphere and becomes a "shooting star," it is no longer in an orbit. Some space probes, like Voyager, have reached escape velocity and broken away from the pull of the Sun's gravity. These probes are leaving the solar system. They are not in orbit around a planet or the Sun. Courtesy of NASA's Human Exploration and Development of Space Enterprise Published by NASAexplores: October 25, 2001	Apsis
What did the Daily Worker newspaper change its name to in 1966?	What is the Closest Planet to Earth? - Universe Today Universe Today What is the Closest Planet to Earth? Article Updated: 23 Dec , 2016 by Matt Williams A common question when looking at the Solar System and Earth’s place in the grand scheme of it is “which planet is closest to Earth?” Aside from satisfying a person’s general curiosity, this question is also of great importance when it comes to space exploration. And as humanity contemplates mounting manned missions to neighboring planets, it also becomes one of immense practicality. If, someday, we hope to explore, settle, and colonize other worlds, which would make for the shortest trip? Invariable, the answer is Venus . Often referred to as “ Earth’s Twin “, Venus has many similarities to Earth. It is a terrestrial planet, it orbits within the Sun’s habitable zone, and it has an atmosphere that is believed to have once been like Earth’s. Combined with its proximity to us, its little wonder we consider it our twin. Venus’ Orbit: Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance (semi-major axis) of 108,208,000 km (0.723 AUs), ranging between 107,477,000 km (0.718 AU) at perihelion and 108,939,000 km (0.728 AU) at aphelion. This makes Venus’ orbit the least eccentric of all the planets in the Solar System. In fact, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01, its orbit is almost circular. Earth and Venus’ orbit compared. Credit: Sky and Telescope When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun, it experiences what is known as an inferior conjunction. It is at this point that it makes its closest approach to Earth (and that of any planet) with an average distance of 41 million km (25,476,219 mi). On average, Venus achieves an inferior conjunction with Earth every 584 days. And because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth’s orbit, the minimum distances will become greater over the next tens of thousands of years. So not only is it Earth’s closest neighbor (when it makes its closest approach), but it will continue to get cozier with us as time goes on! Venus vs. Mars: As Earth’s other neighbor, Mars also has a “close” relationship with Earth. Orbiting our Sun at an average distance of 227,939,200 km (1.52 AU), Mars’ highly eccentric orbit (0.0934) takes it from a distance of 206,700,000 km (1.38 AU) at perihelion to 249,200,000 km (1.666 AU) at aphelion. This makes its orbit one of the more eccentric in our Solar System, second only to Mercury For Earth and Mars to be at their closest, both planets needs to be on the same side of the Sun, Mars needs to be at its closest distance from the Sun (perihelion), and Earth needs to be at its farthest (aphelion). This is known as opposition, a time when Mars appears as one of the brightest objects in the sky (as a red star), rivaling that of Venus or Jupiter. The eccentricity in Mars’ orbit means that it is . Credit: NASA But even at this point, the distance between Mars and Earth ranges considerably. The closest approach to take place occurred back in 2003, when Earth and Mars were only 56 million km (3,4796,787 mi) apart. And this was the closest they’d been in 50,000 years. The next closest approach will take place on July 27th, 20178, when Earth and Mars will be at a distance of 57.6 million km (35.8 mi) from each other. It has also been estimated that the closest theoretical approach would take place at a distance of 54.6 million km (33.9 million mi). However, no such approach has been documented in all of recorded history. One would be forced to wonder then why so much of humanity’s exploration efforts (past, present and future) are aimed at Mars. But when one considers just how horrible Venus’ environment is in comparison, the answer becomes clear. Exploration Efforts: The study and exploration of Venus has been difficult over the years, owing to the combination of its dense atmosphere and harsh surface environment. Its surface has been imaged only in recent history, thanks to the development of radar imaging. However, many robotic spacecraft and even a few landers have made the journey and discovered much about Earth’s closest neighbor. The first attempts were made by the Soviets in the 1960s through the Venera Program . Whereas the first mission ( Venera-1 ) failed due to loss of contact, the second ( Venera-3 ) became the first man-made object to enter the atmosphere and strike the surface of another planet (on March 1st, 1966). This was followed by the Venera-4 spacecraft, which launched on June 12th, 1967, and reached the planet roughly four months later (on October 18th). The first color pictures taken of the surface of Venus by the Venera-13 space probe. Credit: NASA NASA conducted similar missions under the Mariner program. The Mariner 2 mission, which launched on December 14th, 1962, became the first successful interplanetary mission and passed within 34,833 km (21,644 mi) of Venus’ surface. Between the late 60s and mid 70s, NASA conducted several more flybys using Mariner probes – such as the Mariner 5 mission on Oct. 19th, 1967 and the Mariner 10 mission on Feb. 5th, 1974. The Soviets launched six more Venera probes between the late 60s and 1975, and four additional missions between the late 70s and early 80s. Venera-5 , Venera-6 , and Venera-7 all entered Venus’ atmosphere and returned critical data to Earth. Venera 11 and Venera 12 detected Venusian electrical storms; and Venera 13 and Venera 14 landed on the planet and took the first color photographs of the surface. The program came to a close in October 1983, when Venera 15 and Venera 16 were placed in orbit to conduct mapping of the Venusian terrain with synthetic aperture radar. By the late seventies, NASA commenced the Pioneer Venus Project , which consisted of two separate missions. The first was the Pioneer Venus Orbiter , which inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus (Dec. 4th, 1978) to study its atmosphere and map the surface. The second, the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe , released four probes which entered the atmosphere on Dec. 9th, 1978, returning data on its composition, winds and heat fluxes. Artist’s impression of NASA’s Pioneer Venus Orbiter in orbit around Venus. Credit: NASA In 1985, the Soviets participated in a collaborative venture with several European states to launch the Vega Program . This two-spacecraft initiative was intended to take advantage of the appearance of Halley’s Comet in the inner Solar System, and combine a mission to it with a flyby of Venus. While en route to Halley on June 11th and 15th, the two Vega spacecraft dropped Venera-style probes into Venus’ atmosphere to map its weather. NASA’s Magellan spacecraft was launched on May 4th, 1989, with a mission to map the surface of Venus with radar. In the course of its four and a half year mission, Magellan provided the most high-resolution images to date of the planet, was able to map 98% of the surface and 95% of its gravity field. In 1994, at the end of its mission, Magellan was sent to its destruction into the atmosphere of Venus to quantify its density. Venus was observed by the Galileo and Cassini spacecraft during flybys on their respective missions to the outer planets, but Magellan was the last dedicated mission to Venus for over a decade. It was not until October of 2006 and June of 2007 that the MESSENGER probe would conduct a flyby of Venus (and collect data) in order to slow its trajectory for an eventual orbital insertion of Mercury. The Venus Express , a probe designed and built by the European Space Agency, successfully assumed polar orbit around Venus on April 11th, 2006. This probe conducted a detailed study of the Venusian atmosphere and clouds, and discovered an ozone layer and a swirling double-vortex at the south pole before concluding its mission in December of 2014 . Since December 7th, 2015, Japan’s Akatsuki has been in a highly elliptical Venusian orbit. Because of its hostile surface and atmospheric conditions, Venus has proven to be a tough nut to crack, despite its proximity to Earth. In spite of that, NASA, Roscosmos, and India’s ISRO all have plans for sending additional missions to Venus in the coming years to learn more about our twin planet. And as the century progresses, and if certain people get their way, we may even attempt to send human colonists there ! If you’d like more info on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth . And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory . Astronomy Cast also has an interesting episode on the subject. Listen here, Episode 50: Venus . Share this: If Venus once had an atmosphere similar to Earth, what happened? I understand the average temperature on Venus now exceeds a uniform 900 degrees Fahrenheit over the entire planet! Helio George	i don't know
Which motorway connects London to Oxford?	M40. London - Oxford - Birmingham M40. London - Oxford - Birmingham + Share \| Print page M40. London - Oxford - Birmingham The road from Oxford to London has been an important highway for over 300 years. It was made a turnpike in 1718 and over the years the volume of traffic has continually increased. Improvements to the A40 east of Oxford were made in 1957 and 1964 when dual carriageways were built between the Oxford Ring Road and Waterstock Crossroads. This motorway connects the eastern end of this dual carriageway with the existing M40 at Stokenchurch, being the final section of a 50km length of the M40 and completing the provision of a dual carriageway road from London to Oxford. The M40 up to Oxford was planned with its extension in mind. In the late 1960's, the Ministry of Transport carried out a feasibility study on a new route between Oxford and Birmingham while it was considering the development of a strategic motorway network for the country. It was to provide a direct link from the Midlands and North West to the South coast ports and an added route to London and the South East as an alternative to the M1. In 1972 it was added to the trunk road programme. The public and representative groups were involved in route planning from the early stages. One of the stretches through which the motorway was likely to pass but which called for sensitive treatment was the section in the Cherwell Valley south of Banbury. Ministers decided to broaden the consultative process on this stretch and in May 1973 the public were invited to comment on three alternative routes. This was the first public consultation ever held on a road scheme and was a great success, generating considerable interest. Public consultation procedures are now a standard part of the development of major new road schemes. The public Inquiry into the section of M40 between Warwick and the M42 and the linked M42 proposals around the south of Birmingham lasted from June 1973 to January 1974. The Secretary of State announced his decision on the line of the route in 1976. That decision was challenged in the High Court (which quashed the decision) the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords; the final judgement, in the Department's favour, was not reached until 1980. Even then, the decision was taken that this section would not be built until the Secretary of State had approved a bypass of Banbury. The Department published a draft line for the full length from Warwick to Waterstock in 1981 and The Public Inquiry to consider objections to the line convened in Banbury in September 1982 and closed, after 117 sitting days in June 1983. After further legal processes the line from Warwick to Wendlebury was finally approved and was able to move forward into detailed design and the remaining statutory procedures. The final approvals for these and the statutory procedures for the section from Waterstock to Wendlebury were not fully received until March 1989.	M40
What did the English dancer Margaret Kelly found in 1932?	7 Hotels near Oxford Services M40, Waterstock, UK. Book your hotel now! - Booking.com More properties near Oxford Services M40 We've negotiated with thousands of hotels to get the very best deals. We call them Secret Deals and they only last for a limited time. You can get these deals for free by subscribing to our newsletters. You can even choose your favourite destinations to receive personalised deals. Get started now by entering your email address. We'll instantly send you a link to our Deal Finder! Don't worry – your email address is safe with us. We'll never share your private information and you can unsubscribe at any time. Sign up for our newsletter and get the first pick on discounts of 20% or more! Please enter a working email address Sorry, it seems as though you’ve subscribed several times already. This may be a glitch, so please try again later. Sorry, we’ve encountered an error. Please try again later. My first name is	i don't know
Which former Middle East hostage co-wrote the book 'Some Other Rainbow'?	BBC News \| UK \| Former hostage McCarthy weds in private Monday, April 19, 1999 Published at 15:43 GMT 16:43 UK UK Former hostage McCarthy weds in private John McCarthy at RAF Lyneham after his 1991 release Former hostage John McCarthy has married his girlfriend Anna Ottewill in a private ceremony. Guests at the service at St Mary's Church in Bepton, West Sussex, included Mr McCarthy's fellow Beirut captives Terry Waite, Brian Keenan, Terry Anderson and their wives. Jill Morrell, Mr McCarthy's former girlfriend who campaigned for his release throughout the five-year ordeal, was not present. News of the wedding, which took place last Friday, emerged on Monday. Terry Waite: 'Perfect day' Mr Waite said: "It was a perfect day - a marvellous day, just as the couple wanted it to be. It really was a very small occasion, as they deliberately wanted it, quiet and private." Mr McCarthy, 43, met Ms Ottewill, 32, a BBC Publications editor who comes from the Bepton area, when they worked on the book of the television series Island Race. Mr McCarthy starred in the series with comedienne Sandi Toksvig. The journalist was taken hostage in Lebanon in April 1986, and eventually freed in August in 1991. He was the youngest of the Beirut hostages and had spent only five weeks in Lebanon before he disappeared. He was standing in for the bureau chief of Worldwide Television News, his first foreign assignment. Betrayed	John McCarthy
Which acid is known as Aqua Fortis?	HOSTAGES - John McCarthy Firth, Colin Firth in Hostages. Page updated October 2000 Colin Firth as captive John McCarthy in the drama-documentary Hostages. Captive audience /.../ McCarthy has condemned the film on the basis he has no wish to see himself portrayed as "a character dreamt up by a scriptwriter". Research began on the film over a year before McCarthy was freed, initially with the support of many of the hostage's friends and relatives, including Jill Morrell. Ironically, if McCarthy was still incarcerated in a Beirut cell, the film would probably be acclaimed as a campaigning effort to draw attention to the hostages' plight. Instead. the end of the hostage ordeal and the non-coorperation of the British hostages has called into question the veracity of the drama-doc and the justification for making it. There's a whiff of exploitation, of turning trauma into entertainment. Colin Firth, who plays McCarthy, is uneasy about the documentary tag. "this is not a documentary at all" he insists. "It's drama based on events". Firth even asked if the characters names could be changed. Unlike Falklands casualty Robert Lawrence, whom Firth befriended when he portrayed him in Tumbledown, McCarthy isn't real to Firth. "This was a man who only exists on the evidence of Alasdair's (Palmer, associate producer) research and what I've seen on television and the newspapers. I had to think 'I'm playing a fictional character who exists in this script'. It's this grey area between fact and fiction that is the film's fatal flaw. Drama documentary is only effective as a device to clarify facts - it doesn't have an imaginative life of its own. Granada TV used the technique powerfully in investigative films like Why Lockerbie and Who bombed Birmingham? but Hostages is drama-led and weighted down by the demands of documentary. When Bernard MacLaverty's script strays away from the hard facts into the cell or behind the scenes at home with Jill Morrell (Natter Richardson) or Peggy Say (Kathy Bates) the effect is jarring and intrusive. The resilience of the human spirit, the source of fascination, is never really tackled. "We don't have a problem with a documentary that tells the truth or a drama that doesn't purport to tell the truth but tries to get to the core of the issues", explains Mark Lucas, agent of both John McCarthy and Terry Waite. "Nobody's denying the public's right to know." McCarthy has sent a letter of support to David Pugh, producer of Frank McGuinness's play Someone Who'll Watch Over Me, currently in the West End and loosely based on Brian Keenan's experiences. Hors La Vie, about French hostage Roger Auque, also told a powerful story of human fortitude. Sadly, not even expensive production values and an excellent cast can elevate Hostages above and beyond its constraints. In its efforts to be truthful, the film seems less than honest. [Article by Elaine Paterson] No longer a hostage to the past Interview with John McCarthy in The London Time, October 19, 2000. John McCarthy was in a taxi when a colleague asked how long he had been back. "Back? Back from where?" answered McCarthy. It took several seconds for him to realise that the person was referring to the five years he spent as a political hostage, chained to a radiator in a filthy Beirut cellar. "For a minute I didn't know what he meant," he says cheerfully. "Then he was saying to me 'Is it two years now?' and I was thinking 'Or is it five?' and I couldn't remember. You do completely forget about it." McCarthy has, in fact, been free for nine years and relates the anecdote to illustrate how much he has managed to consign that dark, terrifying period to his past. It was a crystallising moment which proved that he had evolved from "John McCarthy, former hostage", to John McCarthy, 43, husband, journalist, who doesn't go to the gym as often as he should. McCarthy's recovery from 1,943 days of being shackled, blindfolded and beaten appears to have been little short of miraculous. He is well-adjusted, urbane, and, most impressively, is able to see a funny side to his ordeal. But surely he must still think about it every day, even if only for a second? "About being locked up? No, no, not at all," he replies. "I don't have nightmares about it either but if I'm very busy at work and there are deadlines looming I might have a dream that is capture related. It's because the sub-conscious looks for something stressful to focus on." Incredibly, when he was first kidnapped and placed in solitary confinement he had a recurring dream about re-doing his A Levels. "At one point I remember saying to to myself, 'Look, this is ridiculous: you've got A Levels, you've got a degree, you've got a job and you've been kidnapped by a bunch of people in the Middle East, now try and focus on that," he says with laugh. McCarthy's public relations assistant had warned that he would not want to talk about the past. In fact, the opposite turned out to be true; it is his present that he is reluctant to discuss. Any inquiry about his domestic situation, such as plans that he may have with his new wife, Anna Ottewill, makes him visibly uncomfortable. After years of being denied any privacy or the freedom to assert the slightest control over his life, it is crucial to him now. There is, of course, another reason why he is so guarded about his private life. His previous relationship, with Jill Morrell, his girlfriend at the time of capture and the nation's sweetheart who campaigned relentlessly for his release, was placed under a global magnifying glass. Everybody wanted John and Jill to get back together after his release. They did. Then they wanted them to get married. They didn't. The relationship was tracked until it ended in a short statement issued by McCarthy in 1995. Friends said that they had been denied the chance to be an ordinary couple because of the pressure of producing a perfect ending. Equally significantly perhaps, medical experts who examined McCarthy said that, despite appearing more happy-go-lucky than the more complex, cerebral Brian Keenan, the hostage with whom he spent most of his captivity, he was the most traumatised. McCarthy stresses that while he and Jill are still good friends, he has learnt lessons from the way they handled the public gaze. He was determined from the outset that the media would stay out of his new relationship with Ottewill, a former BBC books editor who has given up work to spend more time with him. "We agreed the wedding would be a private affair," he says. "When I came home from Lebanon it was a massive shock to see how famous (Jill and I) were, but we soon realised that if you didn't give interviews all the time about the latest stage of development it didn't matter a damn and you could get on with your life." His relationship with Ottewill is strong, he says, because from the outset she saw him not as a former hostage but as simply John McCarthy. "She helped me to move on. I suppose it's in giving one a sense of normality and building a new home and a new future and doing it within a partnership. My idea of hell is letting the cameras into my house, like Through the Keyhole," he says. "There is a danger when you start living your private life in public. In modern times being in the public eye can be seen as the be all and end all. It's easy to read the Hello! magazines and the tabloid gossip pages or whatever and think 'goodness, how fascinating', but then you take a step back and think, surely that's not the right thing to do?" McCarthy is aware of the paradox here. He wrote a book with Jill, Some Other Rainbow, which was marketed as a love story: the account of a relationship that endured despite forcible separation. It was a bestseller and it was natural that its readers would continue to be interested in what they did next. "There is a part of your life that you've written about and it is public property. And it's a privilege to work in the public domain but you must be wary of living like that because you put an inbalance on a real existence. My private life is ultimately most important, and that's the bit I think's just for me and the intimates around me." One of those intimates continues to be Keenan. While chained together they fantasised about trekking through the wide open spaces of Chile. Years after their release they managed it, and together wrote a humorous, inspiring travel book, Between Extremes, which is now available in paperback (Between Extremesby John McCarthy and Brian KeenanBantam, £6.99). "This book says we've both gone on, we've had this great adventure together which was born of that time . . . but now we can carry on and be separate and be like any other couple of mates." The book illustrates the difference between the two men's attitudes to their private lives. McCarthy scarcely mentions Anna or explains who she is, save for writing that she packed some blue cycling shorts into his rucksack for the trip. Keenan is more relaxed about revealing his emotions, and publishes his personal faxes home, always beginning each one "Hello Sweetheart". McCarthy would rather talk about issues, such as the Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture, for which he still works and to whom he donated his £80,000 fee when he appeared in a commercial for One 2 One mobile phones. "Working with the Foundation gave a valid purpose to my experience, it made sense of it. When I came out people lauded me, celebrated me, but there are people who had suffered far worse and lost much more than I did." "These were not people who were chained up for years and occasionally got beaten, they were appallingly tortured. A lot of them are having the final humiliation of being driven out of their countries. They lost career and status. They deserve a bit of the welcoming and warmth Brian and I had." McCarthy's own career continues to be a priority for him. He wants to be taken seriously as a journalist in his own right rather than as a "celebrity" writer "The experience, " he says has changed him. "I'm not such a time waster now. I take the view that life is for living but also to be fulfilling. It seems to be much more purposeful these days. I'm not so much of a lad.. I've realised there's a lot more to life than just to party." Yet McCarthy can never forgive his captors for the fact that his mother Sheila died while he was still a captive, not knowing whether he was alive or dead. "I can never forget the times of horror that I and my friends and family went through. My mother being very ill and dying without a cast iron reassurance that I was even there . . . ", he tails off, but recovers. "But I've learned to grieve now. My father then died but I've got my brother. That's great, but you can't say it's all for the good. There have been some very bad times." McCarthy once famously described himself as "uptight". Has he learnt to show his emotions more now? "I wouldn't now call myself uptight but I don't cry a lot. The last time I was close to tears was over the story of the Siamese twins. It was a desperate situation for the parents, and for the judges having to make a terrible decision. I found it incredibly moving." McCarthy mentions twice that Keenan now has a young family. Might he and Anna have a family? There is a long silence before he says: "I really don't want to get into all that." He looks distractedly around the room before adding "I'm sure I would like to at some point." The subject is closed and McCarthy wraps his blanket of privacy around him once again. He wants to get on with his life, and it is probably time that we let him. [Article by Carol Midgley]	i don't know
Which horse won the Epsom Derby in June 2014?	Epsom Derby 2014 Results: Winner, Payouts and Order of Finish \| Bleacher Report Epsom Derby 2014 Results: Winner, Payouts and Order of Finish By Matt Jones , Featured Columnist Jun 7, 2014 Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse more stories Alan Crowhurst/Getty Images 1 Comment The pre-race favourite, Australia, romped home to win the 235th Derby at Epsom on Saturday. Joseph O'Brien was the winning jockey, and he was able to steer the horse home by a length, with Kingston Hill and Romsdal finishing in second and third place respectively over the 12-furlong course. Here's the result confirmed by Coral: Australia wins the 2014 @EpsomRacecourse Derby! pic.twitter.com/YODTgrHRq4 — Coral (@Coral) June 7, 2014 It was a momentous day for trainer Aiden O'Brien, who became the first trainer in history to train three consecutive winners of the legendary race. Here's how all 16 horses fared in the blue ribbon event of the flat racing calendar: Epsom Derby 2014 A P O'Brien Racing Post The Derby remains one of the most hotly anticipated races on the planet, and Her Majesty The Queen was in attendance at Epsom to take in the spectacle, as noted here by Hanleyontheball: HM The Queen at Epsom. Bit cheeky to ask for a thumbs up so a silent brief. pic.twitter.com/mIl1ATGC1N — John (@Hanleyontheball) June 7, 2014 A heavy downpour early in the morning looked as though things would become a lot more difficult for Australia—a horse who prepares good ground—but that ceased after just half an hour. The ground was declared as good ahead of the race, and as the 4 p.m. start time edged closer, Epsom was basking in the glow of glorious sunshine. The money ahead of the race was naturally coming in for Australia, with legendary trainer O’Brien chasing a trio of consecutive wins in the showpiece after victories for Camelot and Ruler Of The World in 2012 and 2013 respectively. Despite the calibre of horses that had come through his Ballydoyle stable down the years, trainer O’Brien said of Australia that they've “never had a horse like this,” per Sky Sports , and in the parade ring ahead of the race, he looked imperious, as can be seen here courtesy of Champion Series: AUSTRALIA and KINGSTON HILL in the parade ring here at #Epsom . Fancy these two for the Derby? pic.twitter.com/zVcNzRsGZi — Champions Series (@ChampionsSeries) June 7, 2014 All 16 horses made their way into the stalls fine, and they began the race along the initial uphill phase of the course in a tight cluster. The race continued at a blistering pace throughout the middle sector, with Australia around about fifth place but loitering with intent. As the horses made their way round the last bend, his quality showed. Jockey O'Brien had positioned Australia in a wonderful position with space to move into, and he glided up the outside to overhaul Kingston Hull and take the victory. The horse became the 18th Irish winner of the Derby and the 12th of those to come from the famous Ballydoyle stable. The winning jockey was quick to pay tribute to Australia, as noted here by Channel 4 Racing: Winning jockey Joseph O'Brien: "I was cantering all the way; I got there too soon. He's the best." #Derby #Australia — Channel 4 Racing (@Channel4Racing) June 7, 2014 In typical fashion, the winning trainer was quick to acknowledge the work done by all but himself, but he too emphasised the quality of the horse, again, courtesy of Channel 4 Racing: Winning trainer Aidan O'Brien: "We said what we thought, and we always thought that #Australia was very special." — Channel 4 Racing (@Channel4Racing) June 7, 2014 Australia eventually came home at a price of 11/8, with Kingston Hill at 15/2 and Romsdal at 20/1, per BBC Sport . The next step for this remarkable horse could be the Irish Derby, which O'Brien has never won. But after establishing his pedigree in the 2,000 Guineas at Newmarket last month and being tailored for the longer Derby distance this weekend, the horse has showcased not only his pace, but his ability to adapt to any distance one mile and upwards. He'll have plenty of options going forward.	Australia
Who played the diver Mike Nelson in the T.V. series 'Sea Hunt’?	Epsom Derby 2014: TV Schedule, Post Positions, Odds, Runners and More \| Bleacher Report Epsom Derby 2014: TV Schedule, Post Positions, Odds, Runners and More By Rob Blanchette , Featured Columnist Jun 6, 2014 Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse more stories Alan Crowhurst/Getty Images 0 Comments The world's most famous horse race takes place on Saturday as the Derby is chased at its traditional home of Epsom. The Group 1 flat gathering is the richest race in Britain and the most prestigious meeting of all the British racing classics. Three-year-old Australia is the current favourite with Oddschecker.com pricing in and around the 13-8 mark. Here is how you can watch the greatest race on the planet, with race times, post positions, the runners, odds and more: Where: Epsom Downs Racecourse, Epsom, Surrey When: Saturday, June 7, 2014. Post Time: 4 p.m BST/11 a.m. ET Watch: Channel 4 Distance: 1 mile, 4 furlongs and 10 yards (2,423 m) Purse: £1,250,000 Epsom Derby Post Positions, Runners and Odds Post Position Australia, The Punters Favourite Alan Crowhurst/Getty Images Aiden O'Brien attempts to become the first trainer in history to win the Epsom Derby for three straight years with his magnificent beast, Australia. The horse will be ridden by O'Brien's son, Joseph O'Brien, and has been backed heavily to deliver the famous prize, and huge winner's cheque, to the family. Trainer O'Brien also has three other animals in the race. The fancied Geoffrey Chaucer is currently 19-2 and shortening, Orchestra is a good price at 16-1 and the little-fancied Kingfisher completes the set, riding at a huge 132-1. But it is Australia who holds the cards for O'Brien, with the horse being bred especially for the one-and-a-half mile course. Tweet He came in third recently in the 2000 Guineas at Newmarket, per BBC Sport , and is the son of 2001 Derby winner Galileo and 2004 Oaks champion Ouija Board. Galileo was also the father of the legendary horse Frankel. Coolmore Stud director David O'Loughlin, whose company now looks after Galileo, paid the 2014 Derby bookies favourite the ultimate complement. He said, per BBC Sport : "Frankel was a great son of Galileo's. Hopefully Australia might go some way to being as good or nearly as good as Frankel." O'Brien has claimed that Australia is the best he has ever trained, and a victory would be the trainer's fourth triumph at the classic overall. O'Brien said of Australia, per BBC Sport : "He's a Derby horse like we've never had before, that's the reality." Kieren Fallon Aims to Roll Back the Clock: Alex Livesey/Getty Images He is a three-time winner of the Derby and now 49 years old, but Kieren Fallon has a real shot at glory on the much-fancied True Story on Saturday. The horse is being backed in from 12-1, and those odds could be much shorter in the hours before the race. Fallon is now riding for new employer Sheikh Mohammed's global Godolphin racing operation and has experienced a renaissance in his career. Fallon said, per BBC Sport : "Towards the back end, I found it hard to get rides, and basically by going to Dubai and getting the opportunity to ride for Godolphin and trainer Saeed bin Suroor, things picked up from there." Alan Crowhurst/Getty Images If the jockey completes his comeback with a victory on True Story, it will be one of racing's great stories. Will Kieren Fallon win his fourth Epsom Derby? Yes Submit Vote vote to see results Will Kieren Fallon win his fourth Epsom Derby? Yes 37.5% Total votes: 8 If the ground remains favourable for True Story and does not become too soft, the horse can push Australia all of the way to the finish line. It will be a fascinating race with a strong field, and Fallon can prove that there is life in the old dog yet. But Australia is rightfully the horse that race fans are putting their money on at the moment. He has been created to run in races of this magnitude, and it will be more of a shock if he loses in the Epsom Derby rather than if he steams home for the victory.	i don't know
On maps of the London Underground what colour is the Circle Line?	London Underground Tube Map - Circle Line Map London Underground Tube Map Home > Maps of England > Circle Line Map The Circle line, coloured yellow on the tube map, is the eighth busiest line on the London Underground. It forms a loop line around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames. Platforms are 120 metres long in the south and 130 metres long on the part of the track shared with the Metropolitan line.	Yellow
For which film did screen tough-guy Lee Marvin win a Best Actor award at the 1966 Oscars?	Circle Line \| London Tube Map London Tube Map Bayswater The London Tube's Circle Line appears on the London Tube Map as a yellow line and loops around London north of the Thames. It was originally created in 1853 when the Metropolitan Railway opened a line between Paddington and Farringdon Street. Work on the line stalled for various reasons before its completion in 1884. Despite originally being operated using steam trains, electrification was introduced and took over completely in 1905. Image from the Circle Line Article on Wikipedia. The line took over from many parts of the Metropolitan line, and the success of the circular route led to the construction of further such routes within London: Middle Circle (Aldgate to Mansion House via Kensington Olympia) Outer Circle (Broad St to Mansion House via Willesden Junction) Super Outer Circle (St. Pancras to Earl's Court via Cricklewood/Sth. Acton) Despite the success of the original circle, these extra routes did not perform as well and all three were eventually ended, though other services still continue on those lines today.	i don't know
Which T.V competition was won in 2014 by Collabro?	Collabro Classical Boy Band Wins Britain's Got Talent 2014 TV News & Celebrity Gossip Collabro, a new classical boy band, has won Britain’s Got Talent 2014. They seized the $250,000 grand prize and a place in the Queen’s Royal Variety Performance. It lookls El Devo has some new competition! I went to El Devo’s most recent concert in Texas and was fully entertained by their renditions of Hollywood musical hits. Will Collabro be as successful as El Divo? That waits to be seen. An operatic boy band have been crowned the winners of this year’s Britain’s Got Talent (BGT). Collabro, a classical singing group, impressed the judges and the voting public with their performance of Stars from Les Miserables. The ITV talent show drew its lowest ever audience for a season finale, with Saturday’s programme averaging 10.7m viewers compared to 11.1m last year. However, the show still attracted more than half of all available viewers. An ITV spokeswoman said the 51% share of total viewers in Britain at the time was on par with last season’s final. When the show launched in 2007, more than 11 million watched opera singer Paul Potts crowned its first winner. An audience of 16.4 million saw Diversity dance their way to success in 2009, with 18.29 million tuning in for the separate results show. Last weekend, the show had its lowest-rated live episode ever, with an average of 7.75 million viewers. Opera singer Lucy Kay was runner-up in the competition, which saw 11 acts vying for BGT glory – while bookies’ favourite, teenage rap duo Bars and Melody, finished third. ‘Focused winners’ Collabro won £250,000 and a slot performing at the Royal Variety Performance. Finish this article at: http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-27753449 Collabro has won Britain’s Got Talent 2014 and will appear at the Queen’s Royal Variety Performance. The band is made up of Richard Hadfield and Matt Pagan, Michael Auger, Thomas Redgrave and Jamie Lambert – all in their early 20s – formed a month before their first audition for the show. Share this post to your friends!	Britain's Got Talent
Concerning the condition of a stamp what do the letters O.G. mean to a philatelist?	Collabro sing Stars from Les Misérables \| Britain's Got Talent 2014 - YouTube Collabro sing Stars from Les Misérables \| Britain's Got Talent 2014 Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Apr 12, 2014 See more from Britain's Got Talent at http://itv.com/talent Looking like a standard boyband, Collabro had a trick or two up their sleeve. Have a look at how they surprised us all. Comments are disabled for this video. Advertisement When autoplay is enabled, a suggested video will automatically play next. Up next Play now Mix - Collabro sing Stars from Les Misérables \| Britain's Got Talent 2014YouTube Susan Boyle - Britains Got Talent 2009 Episode 1 - Saturday 11th April \| HD High Quality - Duration: 5:50. Davy Leyland 203,947,283 views 5:50 Richard and Adam singing 'The Impossible Dream' - Week 2 Auditions \| Britain's Got Talent 2013 - Duration: 3:15. Britain's Got Talent 10,798,438 views 3:15 Only Boys Aloud - The Welsh choir's Britain's Got Talent 2012 audition - UK version - Duration: 6:59. Britain's Got Talent 20,413,095 views 6:59	i don't know
Which is the westernmost of the six African countries on the equator?	Which African Countries are Located on the Equator? Which African Countries are Located on the Equator? Crossing the Equator, Gabon. Tim Makins/ Lonely Planet Images/ Getty Images By Anouk Zijlma Updated November 21, 2016. The equator is the imaginary line that separates the northern hemisphere from the southern hemisphere and runs across the center of the Earth at a latitude of exactly zero degrees. In Africa, the equator runs for almost 2,500 miles/ 4,020 kilometers through seven West , Central and East African countries just south of the Sahara Desert. Ironically, the list of African countries bisected by the equator does not include Equatorial Guinea . Instead, they are as follows: São Tomé and Príncipe, Gabon , Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Uganda , Kenya and Somalia. Experiencing the Equator In the past, it was possible for intrepid travelers to follow the equator on its journey through Africa. However, the route is no longer safe, with several of the countries along the equatorial line plagued by civil war, terrorism, crippling poverty and piracy. The imaginary line also traverses some of the most extreme environments on Earth - including the remote jungles of the Congo, the mist-soaked mountains of Uganda and the deep waters of the largest lake in Africa , Lake Victoria. continue reading below our video Tipping Etiquette Around the World However, while traveling the length of the equator is no longer advisable, visiting it at least once is an unmissable African experience. The equator's position is directly related to that of the Earth's rotating axis, which moves slightly throughout the course of the year. Therefore, the equator isn't static - which means that the line drawn on the ground at some equatorial markers is not always entirely accurate. However, this is a technical detail, and these markers are still the closest that you can get to the center of the Earth. Pay any one of them a visit, and you'll be able to say that you've straddled the equator with one foot in each hemisphere. Africa's Equatorial Markers Often, the African equator is marked without much fanfare. Usually, a sign at the side of the road is the only indication that you'll have of your momentous location - so it's important to research where the line is in advance so that you can keep a watchful eye out for it. In Kenya, there are signs announcing the equator in the rural towns of Nanyuki and Siriba, while similar signs exist on the Masala- Kampala road in Uganda, and the Libreville -Lambaréné road in Gabon. One of Africa's most beautiful equatorial markers belongs to its second smallest country, São Tomé and Príncipe. The island nation celebrates its equatorial location with a stone monument and a frieze of the world map located on tiny Rolas Island . The imaginary line also runs through Kenya's Meru National Park , and while there's no marker, there's a certain novelty to game-viewing directly on top of the equator. At luxury hotel Fairmont Mount Kenya Safari Club Resort , you can cross the equator just by walking from your room to the restaurant. Equatorial Phenomena If you do find yourself on the equator, take a moment to test a few of the bizarre facts and theories connected with standing on the line between both hemispheres. The force of the planet's rotation causes a bulge in the Earth's surface at the equator, which means that you're further from the Earth's center here than anywhere else on the planet. Gravity therefore exerts less of a pull on your body, so that at the equator, you weigh approximately 0.5% less than you would at the Poles. Some also believe that the rotation of the Earth has an affect on the direction in which draining water flows - so that a toilet flushes clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. This phenomenon is known as the Coriolis Effect and should dictate that at the equator, water flows straight down the drain. Most scientists agree that due to a high number of external factors, this can't be proven with any real accuracy - but it's still fun to check it out for yourself. This article was updated and re-written in part by Jessica Macdonald on November 21st 2016.	Gabon
In which capital city are the headquarters of the International Monetary Fund?	Project MUSE - Africa A to Z: Continental and Country Profiles Africa A to Z: Continental and Country Profiles Third Edition Pieter Esterhuysen Publication Year: 2013 The popularity of the first two editions of this book necessitated a third revised and updated version to record the many challenges in Africa since the first edition appeared in 1998. Africa is a vast and fascinating continent whose population has exceeded the one billion mark. Africa A-Z attempts to provide, in a concise manner, the facts for an elementary understanding of the continent and its complex problems. The book falls into two main sections; the five chapters on the first main section focus on the continent as a whole, dealing with its physical and human diversity, its eventful history and Africansí struggle for economic survival. The second main section contains profiles of 58 independent countries, ranging from Algeria to Zimbabwe. Presentation of the profiles is uniform, in that the same themes are covered in each profile. The data panels with the profiles contain data not provided in the text. The maps, appearing throughout the text were produced by AISAís cartography department. Download PDF pp. v-vi The popularity of the first two editions of this book, necessitated a third, revised and updated version to record the many changes in Africa since the second edition appeared in 2008. Africa is a vast and fascinating continent whose population exeeds one billion. Africa also has more politically independent states than any other continent... Part 1: Continental Profile Download PDF pp. 3-22 Extending over an area of more than 30 million km2, Africa is the world’s second largest continent. The equator bisects the continent, the two halves stretching almost equally far north and south to more or less the latitudes 37° N and 35° S. Longitudinally, it lies astride the 20° E meridian, the bulge of West Africa reaching about 15° W and, to the east, the Horn of Africa (Somalia) stretching to about 52° E... 2. Peoples and Origins Download PDF pp. 23-44 Recording Africa’s history has occupied the attention of historians since the rise of the early civilisations around the Mediterranean Sea. Until the enormous expansion of source materials brought about by the information explosion of the 20th century, historians relied on the written accounts of travellers, traders, scribes, administrators and students of indigenous African societies, such as the preachers of the Christian and Islamic faiths... 3. Colonial to Present Times Download PDF pp. 45-62 It was during the period of colonial rule that modern Africa took on many of its most familiar characteristics. The imposition of alien overlordship, the colonial experience and the African reaction to these were by no means uniform, but throughout Africa the impact of these events was revolutionary, whether measured in political, economic or social terms... 4. Developing Economies pp. 63-78 Notwithstanding their great diversity, the economies of Africa have many features in common. African economies are comparatively small and heavily dependent on the production of a few agricultural or mineral products that are exported to the industrial countries of the northern hemisphere, mostly in unprocessed form and subject to the vagaries of international demand... 5. Regional Economic Groupings Download PDF pp. 79-90 The size of most African economies – per capita income – is commonly seen as a major obstacle to their development. Since the early 1960s, therefore, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (Uneca) has encouraged member states to combine their economies into sub-regional markets that would ultimately form one Africa-wide economic union... Part 2: Country Profiles A-Z Contents Download PDF pp. 94-97 Algeria, with land measuring 2 381 741 km2 and a population of 37,367,226 as of July 2012, is currently the largest country in Africa after Sudan split into Northern Sudan and Southern Sudan in 2011. As about 85% of the country consists of Sahara desert, almost the entire population is concentrated in the well-watered coastal zone between the Atlas mountain range and the Mediterranean Sea. Only 3% of the country is suitable for crop cultivation... Angola Download PDF pp. 98-102 Angola fronts on the Atlantic Ocean and is the largest country in the southern African region. It had an estimated population of about 13 million in 2010, the bulk of whom are concentrated in the western third of the country that includes the Angolan highlands running parallel with the coast. About one quarter of the total population lives in Luanda, the largest seaport and urban area. The city is also the national capital. The small Angolan province of Cabinda is separated from the rest of the country by the Congo River estuary... Benin Download PDF pp. 103-106 Benin is a narrow sliver of land in West Africa sharing common borders with Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso and Togo. The country extends from its narrow coastline on the Gulf of Guinea as far as the Niger River, a distance of about 650 km... Botswana Download PDF pp. 107-111 Botswana is a large, landlocked country, located in the heart of the Southern African region. Its borders (with Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe) stretch over vast distances. As much of Botwana lies in the dry Kalahari (Kgalagadi) Basin, the climate is semi-arid. River courses are dry most of the time, except in the northwest where the perennial Okavango and Linyanti-Chobe... Burkina Faso Download PDF pp. 112-115 Formerly known as Upper Volta, the country lies in the heart of Western Africa, to the south of the middle section of the great Niger River. The country lies across the upper reaches of the Volta River system and is the smallest of three landlocked countries in this part of Africa... Burundi Download PDF pp. 116-119 Bordering on the northeastern end of Lake Tanganyika, Burundi is one of Africa’s smaller countries. It is enclosed on all sides by the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and by Tanzania, except in the north where it borders on Rwanda, which is largely similar to Burundi in size and complexion... Cameroon Download PDF pp. 120-124 Triangular-shaped Cameroon is wedged between Western and Central Africa. The country forms a bridge between moist and arid Africa, between Christians and Muslims, between English and French-speakers and between Bantu-speaking and other African linguistic groups. There are great physical differences between Cameroon’s north, south, east and west... Cape Verde Download PDF pp. 125-128 Lying about 500 km west of Dakar (in Senegal), the Atlantic Ocean state of Cape Verde comprises several islands, of which nine are inhabited, and a number of islets. Six of the islands lie to the north, in a group called the Windward Islands... Central African Republic (CAR) Download PDF pp. 129-134 This large landlocked country lies almost exactly in the middle of the African continent. It is one of the remotest places in Africa, being far from the sea and regular transport routes. Much of the Central African Republic (CAR) is gently undulating plateau, forming a watershed between rivers fl owing southward into the great Congo Basin or northward to Lake Chad... Ceuta and Melilla Download PDF pp. 135-136 Ceuta and Melilla are tiny Spanish exclaves situated on Morocco’s Mediterranean coast; they are sometimes collectively referred to as Spanish North Africa, the sole foreign-ruled territory in the African continent (see map of Morocco, p244)... Chad Download PDF pp. 137-141 Chad occupies a central and strategic position north of the equator. Its capital, N’Djamena, located some 1 500 km from the nearest seaport, is among the most remote of African cities. From its southern savanna zone Chad stretches over a distance of nearly 2 000 km to its northern border (with Libya)... Comoros Download PDF pp. 142-146 The Comoros archipelago consists of four main islands spread across the northern end of the Mozambique Channel between Africa and Madagascar. Three of the islands, Grand Comoro (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani) and Moheli (Mwali) constitute the Union of Comoros, an independent federal republic with a total area of 1 862 km2 and a combined population of about 600 000... Congo, Republic (Brazzaville) Download PDF pp. 147-151 Congo Brazzaville lies in the Congo basin, on the western side of the lower stretch of the great Congo River. On the river’s eastern side lies the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The equator cuts through the northern part of Congo Brazzaville which is covered by dense evergreen rainforest, while the southern half is made up of low bush-covered plateaus, separated from the Atlantic coast by the Mayombe escarpment... Côte d’Ivoire Download PDF pp. 152-158 Offi cially known as Côte d’Ivoire in all languages, this square-shaped country is one of a dozen Western African countries fronting on the Atlantic Ocean’s Gulf of Guinea. It is a low-lying area (on average less than 500 m above sea level) with a wet and humid equatorial climate over the southern half; ... Democratic Republic of Congo(DRC) Download PDF pp. 159-163 The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is the third largest country in Africa (2 344 885 km2) after Sudan and Algeria, and is almost twice the size of South Africa. It borders on nine countries. The DRC lies in the Congo River Basin, which includes Congo Brazzaville, southern Cameroon and the southeastern parts of the Central African Republic... Djibouti Download PDF pp. 164-167 In area, Djibouti is one of Africa’s smallest mainland countries, larger only than Swaziland and The Gambia. The country is adjacent to the Horn of Africa on the African side of the Gulf of Aden, at the southern end of the Red Sea. From the Gulf of Aden another stretch of sea, the Gulf of Tadjoura, juts deep into Djibouti... Egypt Download PDF pp. 168-174 Egypt is strategically located at the junction of Africa and Asia, fronting on both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea; the 165 km Suez Canal to the northeast links the two seas. The Suez Canal and the Gulf of Suez, extending from the Red Sea, separates the arid Sinai Peninsula from the rest of Egypt, which is dominated by the trough-like... Equatorial Guinea Download PDF pp. 175-179 Equatorial Guinea consists of a chunk of African mainland, wedged between Cameroon and Gabon, and several islands of which Bioko Island in the Gulf of Guinea is the largest. The square-shaped mainland area has a 300 km coastline and extends about 200 km inland, with a surface area of some... Eritrea Download PDF pp. 180-184 Eritrea is one of Africa and the world’s newest states, having seceded from Ethiopia in 1993. A prominent natural feature of Eritrea is the high escarpment overlooking the Red Sea to the east. The country’s major towns, including the national capital, Asmara, are located in the highlands on the western side of the escarpment... Ethiopia Download PDF pp. 185-192 This large country, extending over more than one million km2, forms the heartland of the Horn of Africa region. With much of its territory lying above 2 000 m, Ethiopia is one of Africa’s most mountainous regions; the national capital of Addis Ababa is situated more or less in the middle of the country, about 2 450 m above sea level... Gabon Download PDF pp. 193-197 Gabon is a medium-sized, sparsely populated country located on the Atlantic side of the vast Congo River basin. The equator runs just south of the great Gabon Estuary, near the country’s northern border with Equatorial Guinea... The Gambia Download PDF pp. 198-202 The Gambia is enclosed by Senegal in Western Africa and is the smallest state on the African continent. The country is a sliver of land along the lower reaches of the river with the same name. The River Gambia is one of Africa’s finest waterways, owing to its great depth and navigability by ocean-going vessels... Ghana Download PDF pp. 203-209 Ghana is a medium-sized country, located between Togo and Côte d’Ivoire in Western Africa. Ghana has a seafront on the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean). The coastline is rather straight, lacking natural harbours. There are two artificial harbours (built along breakwaters jutting into the sea): the largest is Tema, near Accra, the national capital; ... Guinea Download PDF pp. 210-215 Fronting on the Atlantic Ocean, this kidney-shaped country borders on six other Western African countries. The coastline is marked by numerous estuaries and mangrove swamps. The largest city and national capital, Conakry, is situated on the rocky Kaloum peninsula, jutting out to a small group of islets, the Los Islands... Guinea-Bissau Download PDF pp. 216-220 To distinguish it from Guinea, its southern neighbour, the name Bissau was added to the name of Guinea-Bissau at independence. Bissau is the country’s only city, main seaport and the national capital. Guinea-Bissau is one of Africa’s smaller countries and lies wedged between Senegal and Guinea on Western Africa’s Atlantic coast... Kenya Download PDF pp. 221-225 Kenya has a population of over 30 million and is almost equal in size to Botswana or Madagascar. The northern parts of the country border on Ethiopia and the remainder forms part of the Great Rift Valley, with escarpments and highlands on both sides of the valley... Lesotho Download PDF pp. 226-230 The Kingdom of Lesotho is one of the smallest African countries with rugged mountains, heavy rainfall, winter snow and a bracing climate. Entirely surrounded by South Africa, it borders on the Free State Province to the north, west and southwest; ... Liberia Download PDF pp. 231-236 Liberia lies on Western Africa’s Atlantic coast, between Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone. Its coastline of some 600 km is fairly straight with shallow mangrove-fringed lagoons and no natural harbours. From the broad coastal plain the land rises to a plateau with low hills and mountain ranges... Libya Download PDF pp. 237-243 Libya is one of five northern African countries fronting on the Mediterranean sea. It is the second largest (after Algeria) of the five countries, constituting Northern Africa. Libya’s vast area of nearly two million km2 is mostly Sahara desert, dotted by numerous oases... Madagascar Download PDF pp. 244-250 Madagascar is the world’s fourth largest island, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo – nearly twice the size of the British Isles. It lies across the Mozambique Channel, about 400 km from Africa’s southeast coast. The Tropic of Capricorn runs through the island’s southern portion. Madagascar measures about 1 570 km from north to south and about 570 km from east to west, through its broadest part... Malawi Download PDF pp. 251-255 Landlocked Malawi is a long and narrow stretch of land located on the western and southern side of Lake Malawi. Malawi shares borders with Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique. Compared with its neighbours, Malawi is a small country. A large part (24 400 km2) is covered by water (Lake Malawi and smaller lakes such as Malombe, Chiula and Chilwa)... Mali Download PDF pp. 256-262 Mali forms a link in a chain of enormous countries, extending across the Sahara Desert, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. In landlocked Mali most places are remote from the nearest foreign seaport. The country is shaped like butterfly wings with one wing larger than the other; this northern ‘wing’ consists almost entirely of Sahara sands... Mauritania Download PDF pp. 263-269 Mauritania is a very large, sparsely populated country on the western bulge of Africa where it fronts on the Atlantic Ocean. It forms a geographical and cultural bridge between Northern and Western Africa. Much of the country is real desert but the southern portion falls within the semi-arid Sahel zone that extends across the continent. The land rises from fl at coastal plains in the west to low plateau in the rest of the country that reaches heights of more than 500 m above sea level only in a few places... Mauritius Download PDF pp. 270-274 Mauritius is a small island in the Indian Ocean, with a total area of 1 860 km2 (about 58 km by 47 km) and an estimated population of 1.2 million. Mauritius lies 800 km east of Madagascar and 2 400 km from Durban in South Africa... Mayotte Download PDF pp. 275-277 The island of Mayotte (or Maore) is geographically part of the Comoros Archipelago but is French territory remaining politically separate from the independent island state comprising Mayotte’s three sister islands (see Comoros Profile)... Morocco Download PDF pp. 278-285 Morocco is one of only three monarchies remaining in Africa, the others being Lesotho and Swaziland in Southern Africa. The Kingdom of Morocco is located in the northwestern corner of Africa, in the part of Africa nearest to Europe, and which is also the westernmost outpost of the Arab-Muslim world... Mozambique Download PDF pp. 286-290 Mozambique is a long strip of land, stretching from the south (bordering South Africa) far to the north (bordering Tanzania). The country’s coastline extends over nearly 2 500 km. Most of the country is made up of coastal plains and low-lying lands with a total area of 799 380 km2... Namibia Download PDF pp. 291-297 Namibia’s large territory lies to the south of Angola on the west coast of the Southern African subcontinent; other neighbours are Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa. The country’s 1 500 km coastline stretches from the Orange (Gariep) River, in the south, to the Kunene River in the north, all of it consisting of the Namib Desert whose desolate northern section is known as the Skeleton Coast... Niger Download PDF pp. 298-303 Enormous Niger lies in the middle of five similarly large countries extending across the Sahara Desert and its Sahel borderlands (the others being Mauritania, Mali, Chad and Sudan). Niger is the largest country in Western Africa, stretching from the Niger River, running through its southwestern corner, to the Djado Plateau on Niger’s northern borders with Algeria and Libya... Nigeria Download PDF pp. 304-312 Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country and the continent’s leading oil producer. Physically, it is the largest of the Western African countries fronting on the Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria’s most prominent natural feature is the Y-shaped river system formed by the Niger River and its main tributary, the Benue... Réunion Download PDF pp. 313-315 Réunion is not an independent state; the island is an integral part of France with the status of a French Overseas Department. It is the largest island in the Mascarene group of islands, located in the Indian Ocean, about 650 km east of Madagascar... Rwanda Download PDF pp. 316-321 One of Africa’s smaller countries, Rwanda borders on Lake Kivu, between Uganda and Burundi. Rwanda is slightly smaller than Burundi, its southern neighbour, and it shares many other similarities with Burundi, so that the two of them are often spoken of as twin countries... São Tomé and Príncipe Download PDF pp. 322-326 São Tomé and Príncipe is an island state, comprising a larger main island, another smaller island and a number of rocky islets, about 300 km off the coast of Gabon. São Tomé, located on the equator, is the larger island whose central peak rises to over 2 000 m above sea-level... Senegal Download PDF pp. 327-333 Senegal is the western-most country in Africa. Its capital, Dakar, lies on the Cape Verde Peninsula, the continent’s most westerly point. The entire country is low, fl at plateau, except in the southeast where the land rises to Guinea’s Futa Jallon Highlands... Seychelles Download PDF pp. 334-338 The Seychelles island state comprises some 115 islands and islets, lying scattered over a marine area of some 1.3 million km2 in the Indian Ocean, just south of the equator (between 0 °S and 10 °S) and about 1 600 km east of the African ports of Mombasa and Dar es Salaam... Sierra Leone Download PDF pp. 339-344 Sierra Leone takes its name from the mountainous peninsula jutting into the sea next to an enormous river estuary. It is a conspicious landmark on the rather monotonous West African coastline. The capital, Freetown, lies on this peninsula, overlooking the estuary of what is called the Sierra Leone River... Somalia Download PDF pp. 345-351 Extending over 3 000 km, Somalia’s barren coastline is longer than that of any other African country. On the map the coastline resembles a rhino horn, hence the designation Horn of Africa for this part of the continent. The Ras Hafun Peninsula, just south of Cape Guardafui (Ras Asir) at the Horn’s tip, is Africa’s most easterly point... South Africa Download PDF pp. 352-359 The Republic of South Africa occupies the larger part of Africa south of the Tropic of Capricorn which traverses South Africa’s Limpopo Province. Independent Lesotho is enclosed by South African territory and independent Swaziland nearly so... South Sudan Download PDF pp. 360-363 South Sudan, a landlocked country of about 644 000 sq km, lies in the northeastern part of Africa. It is bordered by the Central African Republic to the west, by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south-west, by Uganda and Kenya to the south, by Ethiopia to the west and by the Republic of Sudan to the north... Sudan Download PDF pp. 364-372 Until July 2011, Sudan was the largest country in Africa. The secession of South Sudan left the North a much smaller territory. Now with a significantly reduced population and diminished resources, Sudan is the third largest country in Africa... Swaziland Download PDF pp. 373-377 Swaziland is the second smallest country in the African continent (only The Gambia is smaller). It is landlocked, being enclosed by South Africa (on the north, west and south) and by Mozambique (on the east). Swaziland lies between South Africa’s Drakensberg range and the Lebombo Mountains that demarcate the Mozambique border... Tanzania Download PDF pp. 378-382 Tanzania covers about 945 000 km2, with a population estimated at 35 million including about 900 000 people in Zanzibar. Its surface area includes the southern half of Lake Victoria, eastern half of Lake Tanganyika and the other smaller lakes in the country. Tanzania borders on Lake Malawi in the far south... Togo Download PDF pp. 383-389 Togo is a small elongated country on the West African coast. It covers about 57 000 km2, extending 540 km inland from a 56 km coastline on the Gulf of Guinea. It lies, on average, 500 m above sea level, except in the mountain ranges of the southwest (Togo Mountains) and northeast (Atakora Mountains) where the mountains reach heights of over 900 m... Tunisia Download PDF pp. 390-395 Located on the western side of the great Gulf of Sirte in the Mediterranean Sea, Tunisia is the smallest independent country in Northern Africa. However, its proportion of arable land is among the largest in Africa. The northern fifth of the country is an extension of the Algerian Tell zone that enjoys a temperate Mediterranean cimate with winter rainfall... Uganda Download PDF pp. 396-400 Uganda is a landlocked country located in East Africa bordering Sudan on the north, Kenya on the east and Tanzania and Rwanda on the south. The Democratic Republic of Congo lies to the west. Uganda is much smaller than its neighbours; with a population of about 23 million and a surface area of 241 000 km2, which includes some 44 000 km2 of inland water, including much of Lake Victoria... Western Sahara Download PDF pp. 401-404 Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) is a disputed territory that has been administered by the Kingdom of Morocco since 1976. It fronts on Africa’s north Atlantic coast, where the Sahara Desert meets the ocean. The territory’s coastline extends over 1 100 km between Morocco and Mauritania. In the northeast, Western Sahara has a short common border with Algeria... Zambia Download PDF pp. 405-409 Zambia is a landlocked state in southern Africa with a total area of 752 614 km2 and an estimated population of 9.7 million. About half the population is urbanised with the majority of the urban population living in the capital Lusaka and in the Copperbelt towns on the northern border... Zimbabwe Download PDF pp. 410-414 Zimbabwe lies on the central Southern African plateau and is landlocked. About 8% of the land area is used for crop cultivation. Towards the northeast is Harare, the largest urban centre (pop over 2 million) and national capital. Bulawayo (pop about 1 million) some 440 km southwest from Harare, is the second largest city... Select reading list	i don't know
Which two word Latin phrase means 'Seize the Day?	20 Latin Phrases You Should Be Using \| Mental Floss 20 Latin Phrases You Should Be Using istock Like us on Facebook You’d probably be surprised by how much Latin you actually already know. Hundreds of words—like memo, alibi, agenda, census, veto, alias, via, alumni, affidavit and versus—are all used in everyday English, as are abbreviations like i.e. (id est, "that is") and etc. (et cetera, "and the rest"). Even some entire Latin phrases have become so naturalized in English that we use them, in full, without a second thought—like bona fide (literally "in good faith"), alter ego ("other self"), persona non grata ("unwelcome person"), vice versa ("position turned"), carpe diem ("seize the day"), cum laude ("with praise"), alma mater ("nourishing mother"), and quid pro quo ("something for something," "this for that"). Besides fairly commonplace examples like these, however, English has adopted a number of much less familiar Latin phrases and expressions that go criminally underused—20 examples of which are listed here. So next time you spot a misbehaving child, or you want to seize the night rather than the day, you’ll have the perfect phrase at hand. 1. AURIBUS TENEO LUPUM It might seem odd to say that you’re "holding a wolf by the ears," but auribus teneo lupum—a line taken from Phormio (c.161BC), a work by the Roman playwright Terence—was once a popular proverb in Ancient Rome. Like "holding a tiger by the tail," it is used to describe an unsustainable situation, and in particular one in which both doing nothing and doing something to resolve it are equally risky. 2. BARBA TENUS SAPIENTES A man described as barba tenus sapientes is literally said to be "wise as far as his beard"—or, in other words, he might look intelligent but he’s actually far from it. This is just one of a number of phrases that show how the Romans associated beards with intelligence, alongside barba non facit philosophum, "a beard does not make a philosopher," and barba crescit caput nescit, meaning "the beard grows, but the head doesn’t grow wiser." 3. BRUTUM FULMEN Apparently coined by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder, a brutum fulmen is a harmless or empty threat. It literally means "senseless thunderbolt." 4. CAESAR NON SUPRA GRAMMATICOS In a speech to the Council of Constance in 1414, the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg happened to use the Latin word schisma, meaning "schism." Unfortunately for him, he muddled up its gender—schisma should be a neuter word, but he used it as if it were feminine. When the error was pointed out to him, Sigismund angrily proclaimed that because he was Emperor, even if the word was neuter (which it was) it would be feminine from now on, at which point one member of the Council supposedly stood and replied, "Caesar non supra grammaticos"—or "the Emperor is not above the grammarians." The phrase quickly became a popular proverbial defence of the importance of good grammar and spelling. 5. CARPE NOCTEM Carpe noctem is essentially the nocturnal equivalent of carpe diem and so literally means "seize the night." It too is used to encourage someone to make the most of their time, often in the sense of working into the early hours of the morning to get something finished, or else enjoying themselves in the evening once a hard day’s work is done. 6. CARTHAGO DELENDA EST At the height of the Punic Wars, fought between Rome and Carthage from 264-146BC, a Roman statesman named Cato the Elder had a habit of ending all of his speeches to the Senate with the motto "Carthago delenda est," or "Carthage must be destroyed." His words quickly became a popular and rousing motto in Ancient Rome, and nowadays can be used figuratively to express your absolute support for an idea or course of action. 7. CASTIGAT RIDENDO MORES Literally meaning "laughing corrects morals," the Latin motto castigat ridendo mores was coined by the French poet Jean de Santeul (1630-97), who intended it to show how useful satirical writing is in affecting social change: the best way to change the rules is by pointing out how absurd they are. 8. CORVUS OCULUM CORVI NON ERUIT Picture a politician sticking up for a colleague even in the face of widespread criticism—that’s a fine example of the old Latin saying corvus oculum corvi non eruit, meaning "a crow will not pull out the eye of another crow." It’s essentially the same as "honor amongst thieves," and refers to complete solidarity amongst a group of likeminded people regardless of the consequences or condemnation. 9. CUI BONO? Literally meaning "who benefits?," cui bono? is a rhetorical Latin legal phrase used to imply that whoever appears to have the most to gain from a crime is probably the culprit. More generally, it’s used in English to question the meaningfulness or advantages of carrying something out. 10. ET IN ARCADIA EGO Arcadia was a rural region of Ancient Greece, whose inhabitants—chiefly shepherds and farmers—were seen as living a quiet, idyllic life away from the hustle and bustle of nearby Athens. The Latin motto et in Arcadia ego, "even in Arcadia, here I am," comes from the title of a painting by the French Baroque artist Nicholas Poussin (1594-1665) that depicted four Arcadian shepherds attending the tomb of a local man. Although precisely what Poussin meant the title to imply is hotly debated, but it’s often interpreted as a reminder that no matter how good someone else’s life appears to be compared to your own, we all eventually suffer the same fate—the "I" in question is Death. 11. EX NIHILO NIHIL FIT Supposedly a quote by the Roman philosopher Lucretius, the Latin motto ex nihilo nihil fit means "nothing comes from nothing," and is used as a reminder that hard work is always required in order to achieve something. 12. FELIX CULPA Originally a religious term referring to consequences of the Biblical Fall of Man and the sins of Adam and Eve, a felix culpa is literally a "happy fault"—an apparent mistake or disaster that actually ends up having surprisingly beneficial consequences. 13. HANNIBAL AD PORTAS Wikimedia Commons // Public Domain Hannibal was a Carthaginian military commander during the Punic Wars who, in the early 2nd century BC, led numerous devastating attacks against the Roman Empire. To the people of Rome, the threat of an attack from Hannibal soon made him something of a bogeyman, and as a result Roman parents would often tell their unruly children that Hanniabl ad portas—"Hannibal is at the gates"—in order to scare them into behaving properly. 14. HIC MANEBIMUS OPTIME When the Gauls invaded Rome in 390BC, the Senate met to discuss whether or not to abandon the city and flee to the relative safety of nearby Veii. According to the Roman historian Livy, a centurion named Marcus Furius Camillus stood to address the Senate and exclaimed, "hic manebimus optime!"—or "here we will stay, most excellently!" His words soon came to be used figuratively of anyone’s unfaltering and dedicated intention to remain in place despite adverse circumstances. 15. HOMO SUM HUMANI A ME NIHIL ALIENUM PUTO Homo sum humani a me nihil alienum puto is another line lifted from one of the works of the Roman dramatist Terence, in this case his play Heauton Timorumenos, or The Self-Tormentor. Originally in the play the line was merely one character’s response to being told to mind his own business, but given its literal meaning—"I am a human being, so nothing human is strange to me"—it has since come to be used as a motto advocating respect for people and cultures that appear different from your own. 16. IGNOTUM PER IGNOTIUS Also known as obscurum per obscurius ("the obscure by the more obscure"), the phrase ignotum per ignotius ("the unknown by the more unknown") refers to an unhelpful explanation that is just as (or even more) confusing than that which it is attempting to explain—for instance, imagine someone asking you what obscurum per obscurius meant, and you telling them that it means the same as ignotum per ignotius. 17. IMPERIUM IN IMPERIO Meaning "an empire within an empire," the Latin phrase imperium in imperio can be used literally to refer to a self-governing state confined within a larger one; or to a rebellious state fighting for independence from another; or, more figuratively, to a department or a group of workers in an organization who, despite appearing to work for themselves, are still answerable to an even larger corporation. 18. PANEM ET CIRCENSES Panem et circenses, meaning "bread and circuses," refers to the basic needs and desires—i.e., food and entertainment—required to keep a person happy. It is taken from the Satires, a collection of satirical poems by the Roman poet Juvenal written in the 1st-2nd century AD. 19. VELOCIUS QUAM ASPARAGI COQUANTUR According to the Romans, when something happens quickly it happens velocius quam asparagi conquantur —or "faster than you can cook asparagus." Some sources attribute this phrase to the Roman Emperor Augustus, but there’s sadly little proof that that’s the case. 20. VOX NIHILI While vox populi is "the voice of the people," vox nihili is literally "the voice of nothing." It describes an utterly pointless or meaningless statement, but can also be used for the kind of spelling mistake or textual error in which one word is mistakenly substituted for another—like an Autocorrect mistake. All images courtesy of iStock unless otherwise noted	Carpe diem
Later used to advertise Nimble bread which group's most successful single was 'I Can't Let Maggie Go'?	Latin Sayings List: Latin Sayings List: Posted in Page 1 "Exegi monumentum aere perennius." (I have erected a monument more lasting than bronze. (Horace)) "nonne amicus certus in re incerta cernitur?" (a friend in need is a friend in deed (our equivalent)) "Sine labore nihil" (Nothing without work) "Conlige suspectos semper habitos" (Round up the usual suspects) "Veni, Vidi, Dormivi" (I came, I saw, I slept) "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered. (Caesar)) "Te Amo" (I Love You) "Corripe Cervisiam" (Seize the beer!) "Carpe Diem!" (Seize the day (Horace)) "Ante bellum" (Before the war) "Caveat emptor" (Let the buyer beware.) "Merda taurorum animas conturbit" (Bullshit baffles brains) "Homo praesumitur bonus donec probetur malus" (One is innocent until proven guilty.) "Mors ultima linea rerum est" (Death is everything's final limit) "Cogita ante salis." (Think before you leap (or roughly - Look before you leap.) ) "Terra firma" (Solid ground) "Habeas corpus" (You should have the body (You have the undeniable right)) Ridentem dicere verum quid vetat.(Horace, Satires) What prevents me from speaking the truth with a smile? Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur. It is a wise man who speaks little. "Cogito Ergo Sum." (I think Therefore I am.) Non Gradus Anus Rodentum! Not Worth A Rats Ass! Si hoc signum legere potes, operis boni in rebus Latinis alacribus et fructuosis potiri potes! If you can read this sign, you can get a good job in the fast-paced, high-paying world of Latin!) Sona si Latine loqueris. (Honk if you speak Latin.) Re vera, potas bene. (Say, you sure are drinking a lot.) Romani quidem artem amatoriam invenerunt. (You know, the Romans invented the art of love.) Mellita, domi adsum. (Honey, I'm home.) Magister Mundi sum! (I am the Master of the Universe!) Estne volumen in toga, an solum tibi libet me videre? (Is that a scroll in your toga, or are you just happy to see me?) Vescere bracis meis. (Eat my shorts.) "illegitimi non carborundum" ((Check out this Wikipedia page for the history of the phrase.) Roughly Translated: Don't let the bastards grind you down.) Da mihi sis cerevisiam dilutam. (I'll have a light beer.)	i don't know
What name is given to a pavilion or seat fixed on an elephant's back?	Internet History Sourcebooks Project Field Marshal Lord Roberts: When Queen Victoria Became Empress of India, 1877 [Tappan Introduction] THE PRINCE OF WALES, afterwards King Edward VII, paid a visit to India as a mark of honor to the native princes who had aided the English in their efforts to govern the land. This visit was followed by Queen Victoria's assumption of the title of Empress of India. IN the autumn of 1876 preparations were commenced for the "Imperial Assemblage," which it was announced by the Viceroy would be held at Delhi on the first day of January, 1877, for the purpose of proclaiming to the Queen's subjects throughout India the assumption by Her Majesty of the title of "Empress of India." To this assemblage Lord Lytton further announced that he proposed "to invite the governors, lieutenant-governors, and heads of administration from all parts of the Queen's Indian dominions, as well as the princes, chiefs, and nobles in whose persons the antiquity of the past is associated with the prosperity of the present, and who so worthily contribute to the splendor and stability of this great empire." Delhi was selected as the place where the meeting between the Queen's representative and the great nobles of India could most appropriately be held, and a committee was appointed to make the necessary arrangements. As a member of the committee I was deputed to proceed to Delhi, settle about the sites for the camps, and carry out all details in communication with the local authorities. The Viceroy impressed upon me that the assemblage was intended to emphasize the Proclamation Lord Canning issued eighteen years before, by which the Queen assumed the direct sovereignty of her Eastern possessions, and that he wished no trouble or expense to be spared in making the ceremony altogether worthy of such a great historical event. I returned to Simla in October, when my wife and I accompanied the commander-in-chief on a very delightful march over the Jalauri Pass through the Kulu Valley to Chamba and Dalhousie. Our party consisted of the chief, his doctor (Bradshaw), Persian interpreter (Moore), General and Mrs. Lumsden, and ourselves. The first slight shower of snow had just fallen on the Jalauri Pass, and as we crossed over we disturbed a number of beautiful snow-pheasants and minals busily engaged in scratching it away to get at their food. The scenery on this march is very fine and varied; for the most part the timber and foliage are superb, and the valleys are very fertile and pretty, lying close under the snow-capped mountains. Having inspected the "Hill stations," we proceeded to Peshawar, where the Viceroy had arranged to hold a conference with the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab and the commissioner of Peshawar about frontier affairs. Early in December I was back again at Delhi, where I found the arrangements for the several camps progressing most satisfactorily, and canvas cities rising up in every direction. I had previously chosen the site of the old cantonment for the camps of the Viceroy, the commander-in-chief, and the principal officials, while for the assemblage itself I had selected ground about three miles off. The chiefs and princes were all settled in their several camps ready to meet the Viceroy, who, on his arrival, in a few graceful words welcomed them to Delhi, and thanked them for responding to his invitation. He then mounted with Lady Lytton, on a state elephant, and a procession was formed, which, I fancy, was about the most gorgeous and picturesque which has ever been seen, even in the East. The magnificence of the native princes' retinues can hardly be described; their elephant-housings were of cloth of gold, or scarlet-and-blue cloths embroidered in gold and silver. The howdahs were veritable thrones of the precious metals, shaded by the most brilliant canopies, and the war-elephants belonging to some of the Central India and Rajputana chiefs formed a very curious and interesting feature. Their tusks were tipped with steel; they wore shields on their foreheads, and breastplates of flashing steel; chain-mail armor hung down over their trunks and covered their backs and sides; and they were mounted by warriors clad in chainmail, and armed to the teeth. Delhi must have witnessed many splendid pageants, when the Rajput, the Moghul, and the Mahratta dynasties, each in its turn, was at the height of its glory; but never before had princes and chiefs of every race and creed come from all parts of Hindustan, vying with each other as to the magificence of their entourage, and met together with the same object, that of acknowledging and doing homage to one supreme ruler. The next few days were spent by Lord Lytton in receiving the sixty-three ruling princes of India according to the strictest etiquette. Each prince, with his suite, was met at the entrance to the camp, and conducted up the street to the durbar tent by mounted officers, the salute to which he was entitled being fired while the procession moved on. He was then presented by the Foreign Secretary to the Viceroy, who placed him on a chair on his right, immediately below a full-length portrait of Her Majesty. A satin banner, richly embroidered with the chief's armorial bearings surmounted by the imperial crown, was next brought in by Highland soldiers and planted in front of the throne, when the Viceroy, leading the particular chief towards it, thus addressed him: "I present Your Highness with this banner as a personal gift from Her Majesty the Queen, in commemoration of her assumption of the title of Empress of India. Her Majesty trusts that it may never be unfurled without reminding you not only of the close union between the throne of England and your loyal and princely house, but also of the earnest desire of the paramount power to see your dynasty strong, prosperous, and permanent." His Excellency then placed round the chief's neck a crimson ribbon, to which was attached a very handsome gold medal with the Queen's head engraved on it, adding: "I further decorate you, by command of Her Majesty. May this medal be long worn by yourself and long kept as an heirloom in your family in remembrance of the auspicious date it bears." The first of January, 1877, saw the Queen proclaimed Empress of India. The ceremony was most imposing, and in every way successful. Three tented pavilions had been constructed on an open plain. The throne-pavilion in the center was a very graceful erection, brilliant in hangings and banners of red, blue, and white satin magnificently embroidered in gold with appropriate emblems. It was hexagonal in shape, and rather more than two hundred feet in circumference. In front of this was the pavilion for the ruling chiefs and high European officials, in the form of a semicircle eight hundred feet long. The canopy was of Star of India blue-and-white satin embroidered in gold, each pillar being surmounted by an imperial crown. Behind the throne was the stand for the spectators, also in the form of a semicircle divided in the middle, and likewise canopied in brilliant colors. Between these twoblocks was the entrance to the area. Each chief and high official sat beneath his own banner, which was planted immediately behind his chair, and they were all mixed up as much as possible to avoid questions of precedence, the result being the most wonderful mass of color, produced from the intermingling of British uniforms and plumes with gorgeous Eastern costumes, set off by a blaze of diamonds and other precious stones. All the British troops brought to Delhi for the occasion were paraded to the north, and the troops and retainers belonging to the native chiefs to the south, of the pavilion. Guards of honor were drawn up on either side of the throne, and at each opening by which the ruling chiefs were to enter the pavilion. The guests being all seated, a flourish of trumpets by the heralds exactly at noon announced the arrival of the Viceroy. The military bands played a march, and Lord Lytton, accompanied by Lady Lytton, their daughters, and his staff, proceeded to the pavilion. His Excellency took his seat upon the throne, arrayed in his robes as Grand Master of the Star of India, the National Anthem was played, the guards of honor presented arms while the whole of the vast assemblage rose as one man. The chief herald was then commanded to read the proclamation. A flourish of trumpets was again sounded, and Her Majesty was proclaimed Empress of India. When the chief herald had ceased reading, the royal standard was hoisted, and a salute of one hundred and one salvos of artillery was fired, with a feu-de-joie from the long line of troops. This was too much for the elephants. As the feu-de-joie approached nearer and nearer to them, they became more and more alarmed, and at last scampered off, dispersing the crowd in every direction. When it ceased, they were quieted and brought back by their mahouts, only to start off again when the firing recommenced; but, as it was a perfectly bare plain, without anything for the great creatures to come in contact with, there was no hatm done beyond a severe shaking to their riders. As the sound of the last salvo died away, the Viceroy addressed the assemblage. When he had ceased speaking, the assembly again rose en masse and joined the troops in giving several ringing cheers. His Highness the Maharaja Sindhia then spoke as follows: "Shah in Shah Padishah. May God bless you. The princes of India bless you, and pray that your sovereignty and power may remain steadfast forever " Sir Salar Jung rose in behalf of the boy Nizam and said: "I am desired by His Highness the Nizam to request Your Excellency to convey to Her Majesty, on the part of himself and the chiefs of India, the expression of their hearty congratulations on the assumption of the title of Empress of India, and to assure the Queen that they pray for her, and for the enduring prosperity of her Empire, both in India and England." The Maharajas of Udaipur and Jaipur, in the name of the United Chiefs of Rajputana, begged that a telegram might be sent to the Queen, conveying their dutiful and loyal congratulations; and the Maharaja of Kashmir expressed his gratification at the tenor of the Viceroy's speech, and declared that he should henceforth consider himself secure under the shadow of Her Majesty's protecting care. It is difficult to overrate the political importance of this great gathering. It was looked upon by most of the ruling chiefs as the result of the Prince of Wales's visit, and rejoiced in as an evidence of Her Majesty's increased interest in, and appreciation of, the vast Empire of India with its many different races and peoples. Source: From: Eva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), Vol. II: India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, pp. 184-190. Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Cal. State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Prof. Arkenberg. This text is part of the Internet Indian History Sourcebook . The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history. Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying, distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook. © Paul Halsall November1998	Howdah
What was author Lewis Carroll's real surname?	Internet History Sourcebooks Project Field Marshal Lord Roberts: When Queen Victoria Became Empress of India, 1877 [Tappan Introduction] THE PRINCE OF WALES, afterwards King Edward VII, paid a visit to India as a mark of honor to the native princes who had aided the English in their efforts to govern the land. This visit was followed by Queen Victoria's assumption of the title of Empress of India. IN the autumn of 1876 preparations were commenced for the "Imperial Assemblage," which it was announced by the Viceroy would be held at Delhi on the first day of January, 1877, for the purpose of proclaiming to the Queen's subjects throughout India the assumption by Her Majesty of the title of "Empress of India." To this assemblage Lord Lytton further announced that he proposed "to invite the governors, lieutenant-governors, and heads of administration from all parts of the Queen's Indian dominions, as well as the princes, chiefs, and nobles in whose persons the antiquity of the past is associated with the prosperity of the present, and who so worthily contribute to the splendor and stability of this great empire." Delhi was selected as the place where the meeting between the Queen's representative and the great nobles of India could most appropriately be held, and a committee was appointed to make the necessary arrangements. As a member of the committee I was deputed to proceed to Delhi, settle about the sites for the camps, and carry out all details in communication with the local authorities. The Viceroy impressed upon me that the assemblage was intended to emphasize the Proclamation Lord Canning issued eighteen years before, by which the Queen assumed the direct sovereignty of her Eastern possessions, and that he wished no trouble or expense to be spared in making the ceremony altogether worthy of such a great historical event. I returned to Simla in October, when my wife and I accompanied the commander-in-chief on a very delightful march over the Jalauri Pass through the Kulu Valley to Chamba and Dalhousie. Our party consisted of the chief, his doctor (Bradshaw), Persian interpreter (Moore), General and Mrs. Lumsden, and ourselves. The first slight shower of snow had just fallen on the Jalauri Pass, and as we crossed over we disturbed a number of beautiful snow-pheasants and minals busily engaged in scratching it away to get at their food. The scenery on this march is very fine and varied; for the most part the timber and foliage are superb, and the valleys are very fertile and pretty, lying close under the snow-capped mountains. Having inspected the "Hill stations," we proceeded to Peshawar, where the Viceroy had arranged to hold a conference with the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab and the commissioner of Peshawar about frontier affairs. Early in December I was back again at Delhi, where I found the arrangements for the several camps progressing most satisfactorily, and canvas cities rising up in every direction. I had previously chosen the site of the old cantonment for the camps of the Viceroy, the commander-in-chief, and the principal officials, while for the assemblage itself I had selected ground about three miles off. The chiefs and princes were all settled in their several camps ready to meet the Viceroy, who, on his arrival, in a few graceful words welcomed them to Delhi, and thanked them for responding to his invitation. He then mounted with Lady Lytton, on a state elephant, and a procession was formed, which, I fancy, was about the most gorgeous and picturesque which has ever been seen, even in the East. The magnificence of the native princes' retinues can hardly be described; their elephant-housings were of cloth of gold, or scarlet-and-blue cloths embroidered in gold and silver. The howdahs were veritable thrones of the precious metals, shaded by the most brilliant canopies, and the war-elephants belonging to some of the Central India and Rajputana chiefs formed a very curious and interesting feature. Their tusks were tipped with steel; they wore shields on their foreheads, and breastplates of flashing steel; chain-mail armor hung down over their trunks and covered their backs and sides; and they were mounted by warriors clad in chainmail, and armed to the teeth. Delhi must have witnessed many splendid pageants, when the Rajput, the Moghul, and the Mahratta dynasties, each in its turn, was at the height of its glory; but never before had princes and chiefs of every race and creed come from all parts of Hindustan, vying with each other as to the magificence of their entourage, and met together with the same object, that of acknowledging and doing homage to one supreme ruler. The next few days were spent by Lord Lytton in receiving the sixty-three ruling princes of India according to the strictest etiquette. Each prince, with his suite, was met at the entrance to the camp, and conducted up the street to the durbar tent by mounted officers, the salute to which he was entitled being fired while the procession moved on. He was then presented by the Foreign Secretary to the Viceroy, who placed him on a chair on his right, immediately below a full-length portrait of Her Majesty. A satin banner, richly embroidered with the chief's armorial bearings surmounted by the imperial crown, was next brought in by Highland soldiers and planted in front of the throne, when the Viceroy, leading the particular chief towards it, thus addressed him: "I present Your Highness with this banner as a personal gift from Her Majesty the Queen, in commemoration of her assumption of the title of Empress of India. Her Majesty trusts that it may never be unfurled without reminding you not only of the close union between the throne of England and your loyal and princely house, but also of the earnest desire of the paramount power to see your dynasty strong, prosperous, and permanent." His Excellency then placed round the chief's neck a crimson ribbon, to which was attached a very handsome gold medal with the Queen's head engraved on it, adding: "I further decorate you, by command of Her Majesty. May this medal be long worn by yourself and long kept as an heirloom in your family in remembrance of the auspicious date it bears." The first of January, 1877, saw the Queen proclaimed Empress of India. The ceremony was most imposing, and in every way successful. Three tented pavilions had been constructed on an open plain. The throne-pavilion in the center was a very graceful erection, brilliant in hangings and banners of red, blue, and white satin magnificently embroidered in gold with appropriate emblems. It was hexagonal in shape, and rather more than two hundred feet in circumference. In front of this was the pavilion for the ruling chiefs and high European officials, in the form of a semicircle eight hundred feet long. The canopy was of Star of India blue-and-white satin embroidered in gold, each pillar being surmounted by an imperial crown. Behind the throne was the stand for the spectators, also in the form of a semicircle divided in the middle, and likewise canopied in brilliant colors. Between these twoblocks was the entrance to the area. Each chief and high official sat beneath his own banner, which was planted immediately behind his chair, and they were all mixed up as much as possible to avoid questions of precedence, the result being the most wonderful mass of color, produced from the intermingling of British uniforms and plumes with gorgeous Eastern costumes, set off by a blaze of diamonds and other precious stones. All the British troops brought to Delhi for the occasion were paraded to the north, and the troops and retainers belonging to the native chiefs to the south, of the pavilion. Guards of honor were drawn up on either side of the throne, and at each opening by which the ruling chiefs were to enter the pavilion. The guests being all seated, a flourish of trumpets by the heralds exactly at noon announced the arrival of the Viceroy. The military bands played a march, and Lord Lytton, accompanied by Lady Lytton, their daughters, and his staff, proceeded to the pavilion. His Excellency took his seat upon the throne, arrayed in his robes as Grand Master of the Star of India, the National Anthem was played, the guards of honor presented arms while the whole of the vast assemblage rose as one man. The chief herald was then commanded to read the proclamation. A flourish of trumpets was again sounded, and Her Majesty was proclaimed Empress of India. When the chief herald had ceased reading, the royal standard was hoisted, and a salute of one hundred and one salvos of artillery was fired, with a feu-de-joie from the long line of troops. This was too much for the elephants. As the feu-de-joie approached nearer and nearer to them, they became more and more alarmed, and at last scampered off, dispersing the crowd in every direction. When it ceased, they were quieted and brought back by their mahouts, only to start off again when the firing recommenced; but, as it was a perfectly bare plain, without anything for the great creatures to come in contact with, there was no hatm done beyond a severe shaking to their riders. As the sound of the last salvo died away, the Viceroy addressed the assemblage. When he had ceased speaking, the assembly again rose en masse and joined the troops in giving several ringing cheers. His Highness the Maharaja Sindhia then spoke as follows: "Shah in Shah Padishah. May God bless you. The princes of India bless you, and pray that your sovereignty and power may remain steadfast forever " Sir Salar Jung rose in behalf of the boy Nizam and said: "I am desired by His Highness the Nizam to request Your Excellency to convey to Her Majesty, on the part of himself and the chiefs of India, the expression of their hearty congratulations on the assumption of the title of Empress of India, and to assure the Queen that they pray for her, and for the enduring prosperity of her Empire, both in India and England." The Maharajas of Udaipur and Jaipur, in the name of the United Chiefs of Rajputana, begged that a telegram might be sent to the Queen, conveying their dutiful and loyal congratulations; and the Maharaja of Kashmir expressed his gratification at the tenor of the Viceroy's speech, and declared that he should henceforth consider himself secure under the shadow of Her Majesty's protecting care. It is difficult to overrate the political importance of this great gathering. It was looked upon by most of the ruling chiefs as the result of the Prince of Wales's visit, and rejoiced in as an evidence of Her Majesty's increased interest in, and appreciation of, the vast Empire of India with its many different races and peoples. Source: From: Eva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), Vol. II: India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, pp. 184-190. Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Cal. State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Prof. Arkenberg. This text is part of the Internet Indian History Sourcebook . The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history. Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying, distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook. © Paul Halsall November1998	i don't know
Who wrote the plays 'Biloxi Blues' and The Sunshine Boys'?	Neil Simon Biography (Playwright/Screenwriter) Birthplace: The Bronx, New York Best known as: The guy who wrote The Odd Couple and Biloxi Blues Name at birth: Marvin Neil Simon The author of The Odd Couple, Neil Simon is a playwright whose Broadway plays and Hollywood movie adaptations have made him one of the most financially successful comedy writers in history. Neil Simon began his career as a TV writer for Sid Caesar and Phil Silvers in the 1950s. His 1961 play Come Blow Your Horn was a hit, and during the 1960s Broadway was dominated by Neil Simon comedies, middlebrow gagfests flavored by his New York Jewish upbringing. During the 1960s and '70s, Simon was a hit-making machine, writing successful plays for Broadway and then adapting them for the Hollywood screen. A Tony winner for The Odd Couple (1965), Biloxi Blues (1985) and Lost in Yonkers (1991), Simon is also a four-time Oscar nominee, for The Odd Couple (1968), The Sunshine Boys (1975), The Goodbye Girl (1977) and California Suite (1978). He also won a Pulitzer Prize in 1991 for the play Lost in Yonkers. Awards aside, Neil Simon's real accomplishment is as a ticket seller and not as a critics' darling. For three decades he was a guaranteed box office name on Broadway and in Hollywood. During the 1990s a little of the shine wore off and his plays became Off-Broadway. Likewise, Hollywood's enthusiasm for Simon's Borscht-belt comedy waned. In recent years most productions of his work have been stage revivals or TV movies. His work includes the movie The Heartbreak Kid (1972) and the plays Brighton Beach Memoirs (1983) and Biloxi Blues (1985, both breakout stage roles for young Matthew Broderick as Eugene Jerome, an autobiographical stand-in for Neil Simon). Extra credit: Neil Simon’s fellow writers for Sid Caesar included Neil’s older brother, Danny Simon, as well as Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks … Simon’s second wife was actress Marsha Mason, star of the 1977 movie The Goodbye Girl. Copyright © 1998-2017 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved.	Neil Simon
Which type of pastry takes its name from the Greek word for 'leaf?	Upcoming Events ‹ Simon’s “The Sunshine Boys” comes to DCA ‹ Hugh Gregory Gallagher Theatre TACL welcomes HGGT to their monthly meeting » The Dorchester Center for the Arts and Hugh Gregory Gallagher Theatre partner for comedy, presenting Neil Simon’s “The Sunshine Boys” on Friday, October 9 at 7pm and Sunday, the 11 at 2pm. Simon’s comedic play features aging Al Lewis and Willie Clark, a one-time vaudevillian team known as “Lewis and Clark” who, not only grew to hate each other but never spoke to each other off-stage their final year together. The obstinate Clark, who was not ready for retirement, resented the shrewder Lewis for breaking up the act when he opted to leave show business. Hilarity ensues when there is an effort to reunite the two for a TV special on the history of comedy. This reluctant reunion brings the two back together, along with a flood of memories, miseries and laughs. Neil Simon authored Barefoot in the Park, The Odd Couple, Biloxi Blues, Brighton Beach Memoirs, Chapter Two, and numerous other plays and film adaptations. Simon received a Tony Award nomination for Best Play for The Sunshine Boys. Director, Ed Langrell provides a talented cast to perform the hysterics, Craig Brittingham is Al Lewis and Brian McGunigle as Willie Clark . Erik Murray is Willie Clark’s nephew, Ben Silverman. John Norton portrays Eddie, the TV assistant. Sharon Gilroy and Nicole Millette appear as the nurses. Performances the Dorchester Center for the Arts on 321 High Street, Cambridge, MD are Friday and Sunday, October 9 and 11. Tickets are $10 for members $12.00 for non-members. Call (410) 228-7782 or visit www.dorchesterartscenter.org to order your tickets for a night of hilarity.	i don't know
Which number on the Beaufort scale is used to indicate a storm?	Beaufort wind scales Beaufort wind scales The best known scale for wind speed is that of Sir Francis Beaufort (1774–1857), a captain in the British Admiralty who drew up the first version in 1806 for his own use. Ordered lists of wind names have been made for millenia (everyone knows a hurricane is stronger than a breeze, for example). Quantifying wind velocity was a later development. Smeaton One of the first to do so was the English engineer John Smeaton, who was interested in windmills¹ and built a device for measuring the effectiveness of windmill sails at different wind velocities. His wind scale ran from 1 to 8, describing each force by what he observed at a particular windmill, the Austhorpe Mill near his home. For example, number 2, Breeze, was "Sufficient to move the branches of trees, and Mill from 6 to 9 turns" per minute, while at number 5, Very Fresh, "Wind growing noisy, and considerable agitation of Trees, Mill 18 [turns per minute] to ¾ Cloth." Smeaton's scale caught the attention of the Hydrographer to the British Admiralty, Alexander Dalrymple. The Hydrographer was the person in charge of gathering data and issuing charts, and a convenient, consistent way of noting wind speed would be invaluable to the navy. Dalrymple changed the scale to 0 to 12, from Smeaton's 1 to 8, and changed the wind names to those usually used in ships' logs. And he brought his scale to the attention of Captain Beaufort, who had distinguished himself by producing meticulous records. The genius of Beaufort's addition to the scale was that he defined each name and number by a description of the maximum amount of sail a man-of-war could carry under those wind conditions. Force Hurricane Or that which no canvas could withstand. Notice that this scale depends on observation of a ship of a particular class sailing into the wind (“clean full”), and. for force numbers 5 through 9, on such a ship being in pursuit of an enemy vessel.3 This specificity was not much of a problem. Men-of-war were fairly standardized; any sailor familiar with them (and most were) could observe sails and assign a Beaufort number, and conversely, given a Beaufort force number, a sailor could picture wind conditions. Blair Kinsman suggests that one value of the scale to the Admiralty was that it facilitated courts-martial of captains who failed to pursue with all possible vigor. In 1829 Beaufort was promoted to Hydrographer. According to Scott Huler , the first official use of the Beaufort scale occurred in 1831 when Beaufort directed it be used on the second voyage of the Beagle, the expedition that took Charles Darwin to the Galapagos (Beaufort had recommended him for the job). On 28 December 1838, the Admiralty formally adopted Beaufort's scale for “all Her Majesty's Ships and Vessels of War.” In August 1853, representatives of ten nations met in Brussels (the First International Meteorological Conference). One of their goals was to agree upon a standard format for the weather observations in ships' logbooks; the scale they adopted for the wind was Beaufort's. In 1862, the British Board of Trade adopted the scale for commercial vessels. When the International Meteorological Organization was formed (Vienna, 1873), it continued its predecessor's use of the Beaufort scale. Beaufort wind scale on land In the last quarter of the 19th century numerous investigations were made with the goal of assigning a range of wind speeds to each of Beaufort's numbers. The British Meteorological Office was active in this work and in 1906 published a report with wind speed ranges. This report also introduced descriptions of what would be observed on land at each Beaufort number. Huler has made a fairly convincing case that the principal author of the Land Criteria was the “North Shields observer,” one George Clark, head clerk at the North Shields Post Office. Force Wind speed changes with height. In June, 1939 the International Meteorological Committee adopted a correlation with wind speeds measured at a height of 6 meters. Great Britain and the United States, however, had already standardized on measuring the wind speed at 11 meters above ground level, which is shown in column 2 below, in miles per hour. Beaufort wind scale for the open sea The replacement of sailing vessels by steam- and petroleum-powered engines made Beaufort's descriptions of sails obsolete. Instead of observing sails, sailors turned to observing the sea itself: waves, spray, froth, white caps, and so forth. Here it is necessary to distinguish between what sailors call the "sea" and swells. Swells are disturbances of the sea surface due to wind that blew many miles away, sometimes thousands of miles away. Swells have rounded crests. "Sea" is the effect of local wind. In 1927 P. Petersen, a German sea captain, published a scale5 from 0 to 12 for the state-of-the-sea. In this he drew upon earlier shipboard measurements6 with anemometers. Today's state-of-the-sea descriptions remain largely translations from Petersen's German, and the scale is sometimes called the Petersen state-of-the-sea scale. The scale, however, remains Beaufort's, in the sense that the numbers and correlated wind speeds remain the same. A version currently used by mariners is shown below. Please refer to the warnings following the table. Column 2 is the range of wind speeds in knots, measured at a height of 33 feet above sea level. Column 5 is the probable height of waves in feet in the open sea, remote from land. In enclosed waters, or when near land with an offshore wind, wave heights will be smaller and the waves steeper. Column 6 is the probable maximum wave height in feet in the open sea (the caveats for column 5 apply here as well) Force Estimating wind force by the sea criteria is difficult at night. An increase of wind does not immediately produce an increase of sea. Fetch, depth, swell, heavy rain, floating ice and tide effects should be considered when estimating the wind force from the appearance of the sea. WARNING: For a given wind force, sea conditions can be more dangerous near land than in the open sea. In many tidal waters wave heights are liable to increase considerably in a matter of minutes. In presenting a very similar table, the World Meterological Organization warns: “This table is only intended as a guide to show roughly what may be expected in the open sea, remote from land. It should never be used in the reverse way, i.e., for logging or reporting the state of the sea.”7 1. John Smeaton. Experimental Enquiry concerning the Natural Powers of Wind and Water to Turn Mills and Other Machines Depending on a Circular Motion. And An experimental examination of the quantity and proportion of mechanic power necessary to be employed in giving different degrees of velocity to heavy bodies from a state of rest. Also new fundamental experiments upon the collision of bodies. With five plates of machines. London: Printed for I. and J. Taylor, 1794. The first edition was published in 1760. Smeaton also included a table relating wind names to velocities in miles per hour and feet per second,and force on a foot-square board. Smeaton attributed the table to his friend Thomas Rouse, an amateur scientist. Austhorpe Mill, near Leeds, "was situated in Austhorpe Lane, at the top of what was known as Appleyard's Hill. A brick-built tower, it is remembered as just a ruined shell in 1928. The site is now the school playground of Austhorpe Primary School." (www.hjsmith.clara.co.uk/0107.htm, accessed 17 Sept 2006) 2. Alexander Dalrymple. Never published. Two printer's proofs exist. 3. This paragraph is greatly indebted to two articles by Blair Kinsman. Historical Notes on the Original Beaufort Scale. The Marine Observer, vol. 39, pages 116-124. (1969) Another article by Professor Kinsman covers much of the same ground in a more popular style: Who Put the Wind Speeds in Admiral Beaufort's Force Scale? Oceans, vol. 2 no. 2. He is also the author of the following, which we have not seen. An exploration of the origin and persistence of the Beaufort wind force scale. Technical Report, Chesapeake Bay Institute #39. Annapolis : Chesapeake Bay Institute, 1968. 4. Sir William Napier Shaw and Sir George Clarke Simpson. The Beaufort Scale of Wind-Force. Report of the Director of the Meteorological Office (W. N. Shaw) upon an inquiry into the relation between the estimates of wind-force according to Admiral Beaufort's scale and the velocities recorded by anemometers belonging to the Office, with a report upon certain points in connection with the inquiry by G. C. Simpson ... and notes by Sir G. H. Darwin...W. H. Dines and Commander Campbell Mepworth. Official Publication No. 180. London: The Meteorological Office, 1906. 5. P. Petersen. Zur Bestimmung der Windstärke auf See. Für Segler, Dampfer und Luftfahrzeige. Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteorologie. March 1927, pages 69-72. 6. Prager. Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteorologie. 1905, pages 1-. 7. World Meteorological Organization. Manual on Codes. International Codes. Vol. I.1 (Annex II to WMO Technical Regulations). WMO-No.306. Defining the Wind. The Beaufort Scale, and How a Nineteenth-Century Admiral Turned Science into Poetry. New York: Crown, 2004. A writer with a passionate interest in Beaufort's scale details his research into its origins. Includes an extensive bibliography. A number of maritime nations issue illustrated state-of-the-sea guides, such as: State of Sea Booklet. Bracknell, England: National Meteorological Library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Guide to Sea State, Wind and Clouds. Washington (?). No date or publication information in the publication, but circa 1995. SuDoc Number is C55.8:SE 1 W. T. R. Allen. Wind and sea: State of sea photographs for the Beaufort wind scale. Environment Canada, Atmospheric Environment Service, 1983.	eleven
Which motorway connects London to Brighton?	Beaufort Scales (Wind Speed) Beaufort Scales (Wind Speed) Smoke drifts and leaves rustle. 2 Small wavelets (0.2 m). Crests have a glassy appearance. Wind felt on face. Large wavelets (0.6 m), crests begin to break. Flags extended, leaves move. Small waves (1 m), some whitecaps. Dust and small branches move. 5 Moderate waves (1.8 m), many whitecaps. Small trees begin to sway. 6 Large waves (3 m), probably some spray. Large branches move, wires whistle, umbrellas are difficult to control. 7 Mounting sea (4 m) with foam blown in streaks downwind. Whole trees in motion, inconvenience in walking. 8 Moderately high waves (5.5 m), crests break into spindrift. Difficult to walk against wind. Twigs and small branches blown off trees. 9 High waves (7 m), dense foam, visibility affected. Minor structural damage may occur (shingles blown off roofs). 10 Very high waves (9 m), heavy sea roll, visibility impaired. Surface generally white. Trees uprooted, structural damage likely. 11 Exceptionally high waves (11 m), visibility poor. Widespread damage to structures. 14 m waves, air filled with foam and spray, visibility bad. Severe structural damage to buildings, wide spread devastation. Note: wave heights apply to the open sea; waves in sheltered waters will be lower and steeper. As sailors know, other factors such as swell and depth can also modify wave heights. Return to the Dictionary Contents page . You are welcome to email the author ([email protected]) with comments and suggestions. All material in this folder is copyright &COPY; 2001 by Russ Rowlett and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Permission is granted for personal use and for use by individual teachers in conducting their own classes. All other rights reserved. You are welcome to make links to this page, but please do not copy the contents of any page in this folder to another site. The material at this site will be updated from time to time. May 31, 2001	i don't know
How many players are there on a hurling team?	Hurling: A traditional Irish Sport Hurling: A traditional Irish Sport Share: Comments \| Image Credits A uniquely Irish game, Hurling is one of the world’s oldest field sports and has been played in some form in Ireland for more than 800 years. It is often compared to hockey but other than the fact that both games involve a stick and a ball there is no similarity. Some people have called it a mixture of hockey and war! The curved wooden stick with a flat end is known as a hurl or hurley, or in Irish a camán [say:come-awn], and is made from a single piece of wood, traditionally Ash. The lower end, or blade, is flat on both sides. metal bands are often used around the blades, as on the left, to stop the wood from splitting. Main image: Cork vs Offaly by Kman999 The ball, or sliothar [say: shlit-her] is about the size of a tennis ball and is leather covered with raised ridges where the leather is stitched. Hurling is an amateur game and is played only by men (or boys). A similar game, Camogie, is played only by women. How Hurling is Played Games are played by two opposing teams of 15 players each. The object is to get the sliothar into the opponent’s goalpost. The goalpost is H shaped, with a net under the cross post. If the sliothar goes over the post, a point is scored, if it goes under the post and into the net a goal, which is worth three points, is scored. Players are allowed to strike the ball in the air, even above head height, as well as on the ground. When the ball is on the ground it cannot be handled but it can be lifted from the ground using the hurley, to be either caught in the hand or struck. Once caught in the hand a player can carry the ball for no more than three paces, but is allowed to balance it on the blade of the hurley while running. As well as striking the ball with the hurley, players can kick the ball or strike it with their hand. An impressive hurling skill is the ability to bounce or balance the ball on the hurl while running at full speed before finally flipping it high into the air and whacking it over or under the cross bar. Tackling is allowed and although it is not permitted to hit another player with the hurley it can happen in the heat of play and protective helmets are now commonly worn. When first seeing a hurling match, the impression is of great speed and on closer observation of remarkable skill and dexterity – it is truly not easy to catch and control a small hard ball travelling at up to 150km/hr (about 90 mph)! Play moves rapidly up and down the pitch since it is possible for a good player to send the ball over 80 metres (about 260 feet) with a single strike. Scoring tends to be frequent, especially of points. The game’s speed and skill come from the ability required to catch andcontrol the hard ball. It can travel at up to 150 km/hour (93 miles perhour), and a good strike of the hurley can propel the ball over 80metres (262 feet). Where to See Hurling Played While it’s a wonderful game to watch live, the ball is so small and the pace so fast that unless you’re familiar with the game it’s sometimes difficult to follow on a small screen. Still, this video will give you a feel for the game. Hurling is played in most Irish counties, though the strongest teams tend to come from Kilkenny, Tipperary, Wexford, Cork, Clare, Offaly, Limerick and Galway. Every year the counties compete over the Summer month in the All Ireland Championship , the winner of which receives the MacCarthy Cup. Matches in the Championship series attract huge crowds, with over 70,000 typically attending the final each September in Croke Park in Dublin. At local level there are many leagues and championships for adult and youth players and in the counties mentioned above especially there will be no problem finding a game to attend any weekend. Ask locally, or check the GAA website . For a real experience of Irish life, call into a GAA club on an evening when there is training in progress. You will be welcomed, someone will be happy to explain what is going on and will get a real grasp of how the game works by watching teams and individuals learn their skills. There are GAA clubs in pretty much every parish in Ireland, so just ask a local. Hurling in the US Army No, seriously! Here’s the story of a group of US soldiers who saw a game of hurling in the television while on a stopover in Shannon, loved it and began to play: Hurling in the News The GAA - Latest Hurling News Latest Hurling news supplied by GAA.ie	15
Which country churchyard in Buckinghamshire inspired Thomas Grey to write his well- known Elegy?	Irish Hurling -- A True Amateur Game Features > Irish Hurling Irish Hurling -- A True Amateur Game The game of hurling is more than just a game -- it is Ireland's national passion. But to appreciate hurling, one must look beyond the mere fact that it is a sport, because it is much more. Countering the trend towards big-money professional athletics, hurling has remained strictly amateur. It is a game played purely for the fun and history of it. It is a game woven deeply into the social fabric of the Irish people. Which is amazing when one considers just how extraordinarily dangerous the game is. First, the basics. Hurling is best compared to lacrosse. Hurling is an outdoor ball-and-stick game played with fifteen players on a field larger than a soccer pitch. Whereas lacrosse is played with netted sticks, hurling is a played with a flat wooden club, and the ball is struck by swinging the stick vice flinging it as in lacrosse. Hurling players can catch and carry the ball in the hand, but can only pass it by hitting it with the stick, kicking it, or slapping it by the hand. As you can surmise from the first photo, the object is to drive the ball either into a soccer-sized goal or 'over the bar'. A goal is worth three, over the bar is worth one. The common tactic is to accumulate single points, chasing goals only when a clear opportunity presents. An average senior-league score would be about 22-18, with three-to-five goals averaged per game. There's little equipment involved. The second photo shows me holding a hurley and the ball. The ball is fairly soft, even softer than a softball, which is good because the ball is sometimes traveling at pretty high speed among the players. Helmets are commonplace, but not required, and many players didn't wear them until the last decade. Although the risk of injury is great (imagine getting smacked full force by one of these sticks!), they aren't as common as you think. Of course, when they happen, they can be pretty nasty -- missing front teeth are common among players. The reason they aren't common is because the game is played honorably, and this is where the game's amateur status is very important. The players play for pride, not money. They play the game hard, but fairly, and they are careful with their sticks (but not at the expense of the play). The referees are strict and respected. And when the game is over, any bad blood is left on the pitch, and the players exchange their uniforms for factory clothes and return to work the next morning. And when their playing days are over, they merely hang up their hurley and continue their working lives unless they elect to become the team manager. Amateurism keeps the game within reach of the average fan. Most games are free or minimal admission and played on the local radio station. Games are played at the local sports club (I recall once watching a game where they had to move the cows off the pitch and off to the nearby pasture). Each borough, town, or collection of towns has a club, and club leagues are run at the county level. The third photo shows an example of a club match between the lads from Portlaw (in blue) playing a neighboring town Colligan. Games are almost always held on a Sunday afternoon over the spring and summer, and normally played on only certain weekends. That's because players not only represent their home towns in the local leagues, the best compete for a spot on the county team that plays a concurrent season. These county teams play against other counties within the province. The four provinces of Leinster, Munster, Ulster, and Connaught stage their own league. The winners square off in the All-Ireland championships. One can liken this system to that of European soccer leagues, where the national leagues play on some weekends, while other weekends are reserved for international matches only involving some of the players. The total number of matches is small. County leagues only have about a ten-game season, followed by championship tournaments. Yes, this means every game counts -- not like individual baseball or basketball games in the US, whose leagues play inflated schedules in order to pay for their players' salaries. But that's not to say the All-Ireland championships aren't big business. The 2002 championships will be played in the newly-constructed Croke Park facility in Dublin. This stadium seats 86,000, and will be filled to capacity, with tickets going for 35 Euro and up. National coverage of the championship rounds utterly dwarfs any other sports coverage in the country. Still, I would adjudge the coverage to be very low-key. The images of the lads from Waterford, Clare, Offaly, and Limerick are very boy-next-doorish. Their words are carefully measured -- there is no expression, not even a hint, of ego involved. This is hardly packaging. As my relatives and me wandered around a parade in downtown Waterford, we encountered a couple of Waterford's key players. They were just faces in the crowd enjoying the parade like the thousands around them. No posse, no sunglasses, no attitude, just good honest lads that you'd want to raise a pint on any given night. There are two other noteworthy aspects of hurling that add to its character. First is the fact that the equipment is manufactured the old-fashioned way -- by hand, and by small hometown operations. The fourth photo was taken from a hurling ball factory in Portlaw, one of only a handful in the country. This factory is only a four-man operation, occupying a crammed room in an old schoolhouse. Leather, cork, elastic strand, and thread are brought in and manipulated using simple machinery. There is no assembly line. This means the products are both high quality and largely unchanged from years past -- no 'souping up' like with modern baseballs. The other aspect is in the youth leagues, who do not play a watered down version of the game. The fifth and final photo shows an under-14 game being played, and leagues are played as young as under-10. Apart from changes in the size of the field and equipment, the game is played exactly the same way, baseball swings and everything. To Americans who have generated watered-down versions of sports for application in youth clubs, this might seem horribly perverse. Yet, safety and respect for the opponent is bred into these lads at a very young age. This leads to greater respect for the game at later ages. Oh by the way, hurling is also played by women (and girls). The ladies' variant of hurling is called camogie, but the only real differences in the game concern the size and weight of the equipment. Camogie is every bit as rough as hurling. Budding fashion models need not apply. Hurling is a great game, not just because it is a great game by itself, but because it seems to illustrate the best of Irish culture -- its folksy character, its work-hard and play-hard virtues, and its community-based values. Given a choice between two national pastimes -- baseball and hurling, I'll take me pint of stout and curl up pitchside for a game of hurling any day. Perhaps soon, enough Americans will agree after all those work stoppages, drug charges, fan abuse, and spitting at umpires. (c) 2002 Tom Galvin	i don't know
What was the name of the wise owl in the children's T.V. Programme The Herbs'	The Herbs - Childrens TV \| Jedi's Paradise The Herbs The Herbs is a 60’s Children’s TV animated show. It was designed for pre-school children, but I think it appeals to all ages and was one of the new colour 'Watch with Mother' titles. The Herbs was created by Michael Bond and animated by Ivor Wood at Filmfair (who were responsible for Paddington and The Wombles). The first episode was transmitted on 12th February 1968. Only 13 episodes were made of this delightful programme, but that isn't the end of this story. Parsley the Lion had become quite popular with the children that watched, so it was decided to give him his own show - Parsley the Lion and Friends. It was supposed to centre on Parsley more, but I think the original Herbs did that anyway. The new programme also included all the characters that we met in The Herbs. Story Each episode began with the narrator (Gordon Rollings) talking about herbs in the garden, and each time he mentioned a different one, then the herb (plant) would appear. This was a magic herb garden, that you could only get access to by saying the magic word - Herbidacious. The door of the garden would swing open and in we would all be let in. The garden was owned by Sir Basil and Lady Rosemary, where each week a new adventure would take place. It seems that all the animals in the Herb garden (Parsley, Dill, Sage) could see us watching, but none of the people (Sir Basil, Lady Rosemary etc.) could, which would really confuse Bayleaf as he wanted to know what Parsley was waving at. Each of the characters were named after a herb and they all had a song to sing us, see below for more details. The Herbs Characters Parsley the Lion "I'm a very friendly Lion called Parsley" Parsley is a lovable Green Lion, whose mane and tail are made out of the herb parsley (hence the name). He is the one that shows us around the garden and loves waving to the viewers. He's not a brave lion and hides whenever there is trouble/danger around or when strangers appear. He was once called Doctor Parsley when he combined herbs with the jumpers Aunt Mint knitted for the chives, and it cured their colds. Parsley also doesn't like to get his tail wet or climb, as he found out when climbing the Tarragon Plant. He pretended to climb it the first time, but only snuck across to the neighbouring tree and back down it again. Shame he got caught and had to climb it for real. But he did have fun playing in the clouds. He made Sir Basil suffer when he shot his tail off, as he pretended to be dead. Poor Sir Basil didn't know what to do, so as usual shouted for Lady Rosemary, who saw Parsley was faking it. His best friend is Dill the dog and both of them seem to get themselves into trouble. But once in a while Parsley does come up with a good idea, such as the time he persuaded Pashana Bedhi to use his snake charming skills to float Sage and his nest back in the tree. "I'm a very friendly Lion called Parsley with a tail for doing jobs of every kind but I mustn't treat it roughly or too harshly for it's such a useful thing to have behind" His songs are: "I'm a very friendly Lion called Parsley I am always very glad to see you wave but please don't shout or speak to me too harshly because I'm not particularly brave" "I'm a very friendly Lion called Parsley I really don't like climbing things at all so please don't shout or speak to me too harshly I am sure you wouldn't want to see me fall" "I'm a very friendly Lion called Parsley I'm supposed to pull this rope and ring the bell though I try to pull it gently never harshly I'm afraid that I'm not doing very well" "For today I'm known as Doctor Parsley because the Chives have aches and pains and chills if I treat them very gently never harshly they will very soon be cured of all their ills" "If you take advice from Doctor Parsley you take camomile for colds and tooth ache too if you find your skin is itching rather harshly then some marigolds the very thing for you" "I'm a very friendly Lion called <sniff> <sniff> but sometimes I feel very very <sniff> so please don't shout or speak to me too <sniff> <sniff> for I'm sure you wouldn't want to see me <sniff>" Dill the Dog "I'm Dill the dog, I'm a dog called Dill" Dill as a rather scruffy little dog. He never seems to be tired (a bit hyperactive) and is always running around, most of the time in circles trying to catch his tail. His owner is Sir Basil and he lives in a kennel in the garden. Both him and Parsley are always getting in trouble. Parsley is his best friend, oh and bones. His songs are: "I'm Dill the dog, I'm a dog called Dill I'm rather small and furry and I'm often in a hurry" "I'm Dill the dog, I'm a dog called Dill Though my tail I'd love to get I have never caught it yet" Sir Basil "I am Sir Basil, the King of the Herbs, and I'm very often in trouble" Sir Basil owns the estate that herb garden is in (together with Lady Rosemary). He likes to hunt, shoot or fish, so is mostly seen about with a shotgun or a fishing rod. But he doesn't always notice what's going on around him and things 'happen to him'. Such as the time he got in trouble for accidentally shooting Parsley's tail off. Also it is very easy to play tricks on him. If something happens to someone else, then he isn't the right person to be around, as he is the most unsympathetic person - 'You've only got yourself to blame' he keeps saying. Also he likes everyone else to do his work for him. His songs are: "I am Sir Basil, the King of the Herbs and I'm very often in trouble I'm not very good at sorting things out and often I get in a muddle" "I am Sir Basil, the King of the Herbs and I'm Hunting and Shooting and Fishing But when there is any hard work to be done You'll notice I'm generally missing" Lady Rosemary "My name is Lady Rosemary" She is Sir Basil's wife and is a bit of a busy-body and is the one in the driving seat in their marriage. If Sir Basil is in trouble, he goes straight to Lady Rosemary for help and she takes control of the situation. She is always ordering everybody around and I'm surprised if she has many friends. She seems to have the herb rosemary in her hat (then again, it could be flowers). "My name is Lady Rosemary you will find you can't fool me I have eyes both sharp and quick to help me see through every trick" "My name is Lady Rosemary I am tall and willowy Though my manner may seem cold I really have a heart of gold" Bayleaf "I'm Bayleaf the Gardener" Bayleaf is the gardener hired by Sir Basil and Lady Rosemary to look after the garden. He is a fountain of all knowledge concerning herbs. If he is cornered to do something he doesn't want to do, then he will always suggest someone else (and nearly everyone agrees on the person he picks!). He is never around when Sir Basil wants him and always seems to enjoy any misfortune that Sir Basil get in (as he always seems to make some sarcastic comment that no one else picks up on). He even dropped a rock on Sir Basil's toes by accident (or was it?). He also speaks with a strong English country accent and wears a Bay Leaf in his hat. "I'm Bayleaf the Gardener I work from early dawn you'll find me sweeping up the leaves and tidying the lawn" Constable Knapweed "I am Constable Knapweed and I keep Law and Order" Constable Knapweed is a policeman, who always seems to be patrolling the Herb Garden. Why he patrols this all the time, I don't know. Maybe he's been employed by Sir Basil and Lady Rosemary (sounds like he's on the take to me). He seems to want to arrest people all the time even when they are obviously innocent and makes up lots of stupid rules to book people (he gives the police a bad name). His songs are: "I am Constable Knapweed and I keep Law and Order I watch to see that all is well along the garden border" Sage "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage" Sage is a rather grumpy owl. He doesn't do much, apart from sleep in his nest. No wonder he is grumpy, as he was forced by Sir Basil / Lady Rosemary / Bayleaf to hatch an egg (which gave him cramp). Also he lost his nest when Sir Basil shot it out of the tree, so you can tell that they get on. Well, they did try to get Sage and his nest back in the tree, but no one thought of climbing up the tree and putting them back, Oh, no. Instead they tried to shoot him up there with a see-saw (very sensible). Eventually Pashana Bedhi used his snake charming skills to get them back up the tree! Sage doesn't own much, apart from an Umbrella to keep him dry, as he hates the rain, and a case (for what, I don't know). His songs are: "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage I'm not at all happy in fact in a rage It's bad enough having ones home all upset But to make matters worse all my feathers are wet" "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage Let me tell you I've never set foot in a cage To be truthful I've not got the slightest desire To be covered in wood, held together by wire" "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage Let me tell you I've never yet earned any wage and truthfully I've always found it was best to sit up this tree in my second hand nest" "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage I've had to sit still for simply an age to be truthful I'm not fond of hatching out eggs there is so little room I get cramp in my legs" Pashana Bedhi "I am Pashana Bedhi, very good snake charmer" Pashana Bedhi is an Indian snake charmer. He wears traditional Indian clothes, which is surprising as the weather in Britain is a bit too cold (but then again, it is a magic garden). He wears a turban and sleeps on a bed of nails. He left his Magic Whistle Pipe lying around and Parsley got revenge of Sir Basil / Lady Rosemary / Bayleaf and whistled them into a nearby tree. Mr Onion Mr Onion is the father of the chives. He has so many children, that he has decided to teach them all himself. He speaks to his children like a Sergeant Major - barking out orders!! (bossy devil!). Mrs Onion Mrs Onion is the mother of the chives. The always seems to be crying, mostly because she is an Onion (the smell makes her cry!!). The Chives "Because there are so many chives all looking like each other" The Chives are ordered around like soldiers by Mr Onion. They have a unique way of counting, by standing up and lying down when they add and subtract. Their songs are: "Because there are so many chives all looking like each other it makes it even hard to tell a sister from a brother" Tarragon "I'm Tarragon the Dragon, I'd better make it clear" Tarragon is a dragon, who appeared when Bayleaf spilled plant food on the Tarragon Plant, which grew to the size of a beanstalk. At the top of the enormous Tarragon Plant was an egg in a nest (found by Parsley). Sage was forced to sit on the egg and Tarragon the Dragon hatched from it. Tarragon likes to set things on fire. He burnt Constable Knapweed's notebook, Sage's Umbrella and Sir Basil's Shotgun handle. But again Parsley came to the rescue and brought out Belladonna's Broomstick. Try as he might, Tarragon couldn't set fire to the broomstick and he got so upset about this, that he cried and put his own fire out. Lady Rosemary and Sir Basil decided to give him a home and he lives in a box in their house. His songs are: "I'm Tarragon the Dragon, I'd better make it clear that nothings safe when I'm about things seem to disappear" Belladonna "Belladonna is my name, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha" Belladonna is an evil witch, who is also known as Deadly Nightshade and she is very poisonous. She appears in a flash that sends the sky dark for a moment. She does look like your typical witch - Black Hat, Hook Nose, Cauldron She tried to change everyone in the herb garden to weeds, by getting them all to drink her homemade wine. Parsley knew it wasn't good stuff and tried to make sure the others didn't drink any, but she turned him into a weed. Also Lady Rosemary and Sir Basil drank the wine and turned into weeds. But Dill could smell a witch and could see through her disguise, as the herb Dill is used to ward off witches. Belladonna was scared of Dill and tried to make an escape on her broomstick. But she doesn't know the difference between a normal broom and a witches broomstick and boy, did she crash! After all this excitement, Bayleaf accidentally used the broom to turn the others back into their old selves. Her songs are: "Belladonna is my name, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha I'm the deadly nightshade flower I shall never be content, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha till all the herbs are in my power, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha Miss Jessop "I'm a very neat herb and my name is Miss Jessop" This is a herb, that you don't want to be around. She is so bossy and complains about everything. She even complains that there is dust on the flowers! She upset so many people that Bayleaf grew her a husband to get rid of her. Good King Henry "Good King Henry stands before you, such a Royal and Regal figure" Good King Henry was grown by Bayleaf to be the husband that Miss Jessop could boss around (poor man!). Bayleaf put too much plant food on the plant, so he grew too fat in the greenhouse and couldn't get out. So Parsley made the greenhouse into a carriage and wheeled him to Miss Jessop (thanks to Belladonna's magic). Signor Solidago "My name, we say is Signor Solidago" He is an Italian singer, that gives singing lessons. But he doesn't seem to do very well when teaching Sage and Parsley! Aunt Mint "My name is Aunty Mint" Aunt Mint is famous for her knitting skills and given half a chance she would try to knit your anything. It takes her no time at all to make something, she volunteered to knit all the Chives a jumper when they caught a cold. The trouble is she fell asleep and Dill played with the balls of wool and when she woke up she found she was wrapped up in the wool (naughty dog!). But she blamed Parsley who was walking by at the time. Her songs are: "My name is Aunty Mint if you should see me sitting they'll think I'm doing nothing for I'm busy with my knitting" "My name is Aunty Mint I fear that I'm in trouble for someone's messed up all my wool and got it in a muddle" "My name is Aunty Mint I'm always very busy I often have so much to knit it makes me feel quite dizzy" The Herbs Images (click to enlarge) The Herbs T-Shirts - NONE The Herbs DVDs Region 2 (Europe) - The Herbs DVDs Region 1 (USA) - NONE The Herbs Episodes Series 1 (1968) 1. Parsley's Tail 2. Sage's Nest Blows Down 3. Belladonna the Witch 4. Tarragon and the Eggs 5. The Chives Catch Colds 6. Pashana Bedhi the Snake Charmer 7. Miss Jessop Tidies Up 8. Parsley and the Circus Lion 9. Sage's Singing Lesson 10. Strawberry Picking 11. Sir Basil's Fishing Expedition 12. The Show 13. Parsley's Birthday Party The Herbs Video Intro	Sage
Which Cornish cheese uses nettles as an ingredient?	The Herbs,Parsley the Lion characters The Herbs and The Adventures of Parsley Classic BBC kid's animation by Michael Bond On this page ..... All appeared in The Herbs,& most in the sequel. ( NOTE- the differences between the 2 series are detailed here ) PASHANA BEDHI Conspiracy theory No.1,231,764..........Pashana Bedhi is quite possibly the reason The Herbs will never appear again on the BBC. Discuss. Whilst it's obviously true that all the human characters are accentuated charicatures,the race issue seems to put Pashana into a different ballpark. A human version of Sir Basil would probably find his boozey,airhead counterpart quite amusing.But I'm not so sure Pashana would evoke the same response,with his obligatory "goodness gracious me" comedy accent,bed of nails,and a penchant for snake charming and a good curry. And it's hard to see what else is preventing the Beeb from showing re-runs,because the show's characters and setting are timeless.As are Michael Bond's scripts -the quality of which would also put most modern kids' shows to shame. But,with Pashana in it,maybe that's a bit like trying to sell someone a bucket with "only one hole" Yes,they were shown on C4 as recently as the late 90's.(Even though you could probably get away with anything at 7am on a Sunday morning.) And,yes,they may well pop up on satellite or cable stations (same proviso) But I can't help feeling they're in a dusty box at Broadcasting House marked "too sensitive".Probably rubbing shoulders with the likes of "It Ain't Half Hot Mum",and Spike Milligan's "Q8" amongst others. So.........theory No.1,231,764 may well be a load of old tosh.But I doubt too many people would be surprised if it wasn't. 1) "I am Peshana Bedhi,very good at snake charming. Snakes that have by me been charmed,will not anyone be harming." 2) "I am Peshana Bedhi,very good at cooking nicely. All that has by me been cooked,surely will be hot and spicey" PARSLEY In "The Herbs",he's a friendly,but timid lion,who doesn't speak and can't even really be described as the main character.But in the sequel he's given a voice and is totally transformed into an intelligent,thoughtful and laidback counterbalance to Dill's "act now,think later" shenanigans.And,unlike The Herbs,they completely take centre stage. In the sequel,he's a watcher rather than a "do-er" and he's given a nice sardonic turn of phrase and plenty of acerbic lines. And the Tony Hancock-style delivery has striking similarities with Dougal,of Magic Roundabout fame. But whilst Eric Thompson also voiced Dougal to sound like Hancock too,Parsley is given a more upper class voice,which is actually very reminiscent of another laconic and famous man of the time,Patrick Cargill,of " Father, Dear Father " tv fame. It's no surprise that someone so urbane can also read and write (with pen in mouth).And he's often seen consulting "my book" (pic 2) -an encyclopedia that magically appears to the accompaniment of a flash of light and a "ting" sound when he raises and lowers a paw - and a very handy and well-used narrative device it is too. Here's his main song,plus a slight variation that was also used. (Note - character songs were dropped for the sequel. And all the differences between the 2 series are detailed on this page ) 1) "I'm a very friendly lion called Parsley,I am always very glad to see you wave. But please don't shout or speak to me too harshly, because I'm not particularly brave." 2) "I'm a very friendly lion called Parsley,with a tail for doing jobs of every kind. But I mustn't treat it roughly or too harshly,for it's such a useful thing to have behind." DILL Merely a friend to Parsley in "The Herbs",he morphs into a full-blown sidekick and confidante in the sequel. In both series he provides a real burst of childlike energy and enthusiasm that many of those watching can relate to.And his sheer zest for life means he invariably throws himself into things without thinking them through.Something that's used to good comedic effect of course. But it's the sequel where he really comes into his own,when he's given a voice to replace the yapping and panting heard in The Herbs.He provides much of the narrative impetus,and is the main source of Parsley's observational dry humour. He's far more than an Ernie Wise though,and gets plenty of good lines himself.And whilst he may be impetuous he's certainly not stupid and is more than capable of holding his own in a verbal joust. Moments of quiet reflection and insight also act as a nice counterweight to all his scurrying about.And he's given a gentle child-like voice and is animated in a very sympathetic and playful way.So he actually comes across as extremely disarming rather than annoying. The Herb Garden's very own naughty-but-nice child. 1) "I'm Dill the dog,I'm a dog called Dill. Though my tail I'd love to get,I've never caught it yet !" 2) "I'm Dill the dog,I'm a dog called Dill. I'm rather small and furry,and often in a hurry." 3) "I'm Dill the dog,I'm a dog called Dill. On bones I love to chew,I can eat up quite a few." SAGE Completeing the main trio of animals,Sage is the wonderfully surreal looking owl who always gets out of the nest the wrong side.He puts up with numerous interruptions to his generally sedentary life style.Interruptions he could well do without and which are usually accompanied by some irritated squawks and wing flapping. Flapping,but never any flying (too time-consuming to animate) Although you get the feeling he really couldn't be bothered to make the effort anyway.Or if he could,he'd probably clear off permanently to somewhere far more peaceful ! As with his fellow animal characters,he's only given a speaking voice in the sequel- a wonderfully idiosyncratic and suitably crotchety one which fits him perfectly (a running theme with all the voices you'll note). That said,he doesn't actually say a great deal and is a relatively peripheral figure in both series.So it's a testimony to his impact that he's so well-remembered.Cuddly in his own strange way,but with that extra bit of edge and attitude.A sort of ornithological Victor Meldrew and generally not as well recognised in kids' animation history as he should be. Although that's maybe because his demeanour strikes more of a chord with adults than kids I'd imagine. 1) "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage,let me tell you I've never been set foot in a cage. To be truthful I've not felt the slightest desire,to be covered in wood held together by wire." 2) "I'm a rather fat feathery owl called Sage,I'm not at all happy,in fact in a rage. It's bad enough having ones' home all upset,but to make matters worse,all my feathers are wet." (all ended with a disgruntled squawk !) SIR BASIL & LADY ROSEMARY This husband and wife duo are the owners of the estate in which the garden sits and presumably live in the big house-although we never get to see it. They're far more prominent in the original series,but do still pop up from time-to-time in the sequel. Sir Basil is the bumbling Lord of the Manor.Hopelessly dim,but harmless enough when he doesn't have a gun in his hands. In fact,a very likeable fool really and more than happy to let Lady R wear the trousers.Which is appropriate because you get the feeling that by the time he'd figured out which way round they should go,she'd have had a pair specially made in the colonies,shipped over and fitted...and all before breakfast.Or,at least,made damn sure someone else did ! Without her around you'd imagine the whole garden would quickly descend into chaos.And to go with her decision-making and organisational skills,she's also blessed with more grey matter than Basil,Bayleaf and Knapweed put together -which admittedly isn't saying a great deal. 2 classic stereotypes of the British aristocracy.And so acutely well observed in their appearance,that if you only saw a picture of them without hearing them speak,you'd pretty much know what to expect.......and you'd be right. Their songs are a particularly good appraisal of their characters too....... 1) "I am Sir Basil,King of all the herbs,I like huntin',shootin' & fishin'. But if there's any hard work to be done,you'll notice I'm generally missin'." 2) "I am Sir Basil,King of all the herbs,I'm very often in trouble. I'm not very good at sortin' things out,and often I get in a muddle." 1) "My name is Lady Rosemary,you'll find you cannot fool me. I have eyes both sharp and quick,to help me see through every trick." 2) "My name is Lady Rosemary,I am tall and willowy. Though my manner may seem cold,I really have a heart of gold." BAYLEAF The resident gardener charged with keeping everything looking good. Think of an exaggerated version of The Wurzels (as if that were possible !),and substitute a combined harvester for a wheelbarrow and you've got yer man. He's not the brightest bloom in the flower bed and his ramblings are often cut short by an impatient Lady Rosemary.But he's a decent enough sort,and a hard worker who only tolerates the antics of Parsley and Dill because he has to.( "If you ask me, there's some of us would be better employed using their paws helpin' in the garrrrden !") In fact,he's never far away from a moan or a reminisce about the "old days" but remains totally likeable throughout.And,like Constable Knapweed,he's got the dual attraction of being a good straightman and amusing in his own right.Which makes them very valuable members of both series. "I'm Bayleaf I'm the gardener,I work from early dawn. You find me sweeping up the leaves,and tidying the lawn." (an affirming "arrrr" to end) CONSTABLE KNAPWEED Very much a by-the-book kind of guy,he's supposedly there to see order is maintained. But despite his endless note-taking and posturing,an awful lot still goes on regardless.And he's clearly no better at prevention than he is at detection. Fortunately,like any pompous authority figure he's perfectly set up for providing laughs at his own expense.And the thick Yorkshire accent and Victorian-style whiskers and uniform set it all off beautifully.Like many of the human participants he's a timeless characature classic.And a bonus mark goes to anyone who remembered he was a redhead ?! "I am Constable Knapweed,and I keep law and order. I watch to see that all is well,along the garden border." AUNT MINT She spends all her time frantically knitting whilst sitting in a rocking chair that conveniently moves around the garden as and when she's required for a scene.Which usually means when she's required to knit something to order,like a balaclava hat for Sage's birthday present etc.(well,if he can get away with wearing a pithe helmet,why not ?!) I'm not sure she ever really hit the mark actually and perhaps could have been used to better effect as a more cuddly confidante to all and sundry.As opposed to the rather angular looking and detached character we actually get. These days,I'm struck by her resemblance to Postman Pat ! And no coincidence that Ivor Woods was responsible for both. 1) "My name is Auntie Mint.If you should see me sitting don't think I'm doing nothing,for I'm busy with my knitting. 2) "My name is Aunt Mint,I'm always very busy, I often have so much to knit,it makes me feel quite dizzy." MR. & MRS. ONION and THE CHIVES The Onions are the Chives' parents and Mr.Onion takes it upon himself to be their school teacher as well -an open air classroom in the garden,with a suitably old-fashioned mix of wooden desks, blackboard on an easel,and satchels on their backs. His wife spends most of her time as an onlooker and usually in tears-just to cement the onion analogy.But fear not, because it's explained that "the happier she is,the more she cries" -which is handy. The 12 chives don't have mouths and consequently never speak.Although we do hear collective off screen cheers and background noise from them when the need arises.They're also identical as near as damn it.And whilst that saved the animators a lot of time worrying about continuity issues it didn't help to make them particularly memorable. So,the undeniable star of this little grouping is Mr.O,as he appears the most and has a memorable authoritarian drill-sargeant delivery -as witnessed by this lovely bit of dialogue from the Birthday Party episode :-"a good time will be 'ad by all.No stuffing yourselves with cakes iced,buns currant or trifles cream!" Notice the silent "h" ,as in "'orrible" and you should be able to put a voice to 'im without the need for the hearing thereof (although don't be tempted to lapse into cockney) But it's actually only the chives who get a song,athough they're clearly in most need of a bit of lyrical clarification.And they're actually done no favours by being modelled closest to the plants they're supposed to represent. But with the onset of GM crops,perhaps all our onions will end up looking like that. "Because there are so many herbs,all looking like each other. It makes it even hard to tell,a sister from a brother." (animator's in-joke) Mrs Onion is the least aesthetically pleasing of all the models and with the least personality.So it's little wonder she's always crying. The chives may be upside down botanically speaking,but the roots provide a funky hairstyle.Although the whole family would clearly benefit from getting some sun! TARRAGON THE DRAGON In the original series,Bayleaf accidentally tips a pile of plant food onto a tarragon seed and it grows into a beanstalk with a giant egg on top.And in the absence of Jack,this is duely recovered by Parsley (lion's are good climbers),hatched by Sage (fair enough) and the resultant young dragon then finds a home with Sir Basil and Lady Rosemary (slightly less explainable). Being a dragon,he does have that rather unfortunate habit of torching things at random.Although we only ever see white smoke coming out of his nostrils as flames are notoriously difficult to represent using stop-motion animation. But,fortunately,kids of a nervous disposition are regularly reminded that he's only a small,young dragon.And he's also given a softly spoken voice complete with a very disarming lisp to make him even more palatable.And he makes a couple of appearances in the sequel as well. Trivia- he predates The Clangers Soup Dragon (below,right) by a year and isn't totally dissimilar in appearance- coincidence ? "I'm Tarragon the dragon,I'd better make it clear,that nothing's safe when I'm about,things seem to disappear." BELLADONNA THE WITCH Unlike Tarragon,Michael Bond went for it big time with Belladonna-the full scarey witch bit -stooping gait,maniacal cackle.beady eyes,huge grotesque nose and "deary"-type old lady voice.Her "magic changes" are accompanied by a thunderclap and flashes of light and darkness,and her aim is garden domination.Why ? Because she's "the deadly nightshade flower" In short,a truely nasty piece of work,but sadly a bit too much for the Beeb who quickly requested she was dropped.So she never saw the end of The Herbs series nevermind the follow-up. Fortunately,in the episode she does appear,she mistakenly flies off on Bayleaf's broom and crashes,leaving her own magic broomstick behind.And very useful it is too,because each twig represents one magic power.Something which Michael Bond makes full use of whenever there's a plot difficulty.And one he's only too happy to acknowledge with this line ....... "Of course ! Bayleaf's magic broom.I don't know what they'd do without it sometimes !" -er,quite Michael.And just as well it was a nice bushy one,because it turns up in the sequel as well. "Belladonna is my name,I'm the deadly nightshade flower. I shall never be content,'till all the herbs are in my power." "She's done one of her magic changes.Even her best friend wouldn't recognise her.If she had a best friend -which I doubt." A lovely bit of writing.But you'd imagine it'd take a bit more than a change of clothing with a hooter like that. And you've got to respect Signor Solidgo if he can play the joanna with fingers like that. But why risk any disrespect when he looks like he might know some people who could slip a horse's head under your duvet. MISS JESSOP As a character who comes to stay with Sir B and Lady R.,we're told that ....... "She's very nice really,but she does like things to be neat and tidy.Not just ordinary tidy,but clean and tidy. She won't like the Herb garden if it looks untidy like this one." And indeed she doesn't ! A neatly dressed spinster,with a touch of the Edwardian governess. An O.C.D sufferer before it was even invented,she dusts plants with a pink feather duster and upsets everyone by being hyper-critical. And Bayleaf decides she needs a husband to sort her out (very 'new age' our Bayleaf !) So he takes matters into his own hands and .......... "I'm a very neat herb and my name is Miss Jessop,I like everything tidy and shining and clean. But all of the other herbs make such a mess-up,that sometimes the garden's not fit to be seen." ...........and GOOD KING HENRY is the result,as Bayleaf grows him from seed in his greenhouse. But he's too big to get out & they have to use the magic broom to turn the greenhouse into a carriage fit for a king so he doesn't have to.And whilst he may be minus a greenhouse,at least Bayleaf gets his cross-pollination right because Miss J and the King do indeed marry.And,apart from cameos in the Birthday Party episode,they ride off into tv oblivion. All in all,a little bit of a strange diversion really,and with Lady Rosemary so firmly in charge there was only ever going to be one winner and 2 losers. And it's no coincidence that I've put these 2 at the bottom of the cast list to round off procedings.	i don't know
The Wind of Change speech in 1960 by Harold Macmillan was made to the parliament of which country?	BBC ON THIS DAY \| 3 \| 1960: Macmillan speaks of 'wind of change' in Africa About This Site \| Text Only 1960: Macmillan speaks of 'wind of change' in Africa The Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, has had a frosty reception from politicians in South Africa after speaking frankly against the country's system of apartheid. In a speech to MPs in the Houses of Parliament in Cape Town, Mr Macmillan spoke of the "wind of change" blowing through the continent of Africa, as more and more majority black populations in the colonies claim the right to rule themselves. "Whether we like it or not," he said, "this growth of national consciousness is a political fact." The government's aim, he said, was to "create a society which respects the rights of individuals - a society in which individual merit, and individual merit alone, is the criterion for a man's advancement, whether political or economic." To do justice in Africa means not only being just to the black man of Africa, but also to the white man of Africa South African Prime Minister, Dr Verwoerd Nationalist Party politicians listened to him in silence, and a number refused to applaud when he had finished. Dr Verwoerd, the South African Prime Minister and the architect of the apartheid system, thanked Mr Macmillan for his speech, but said he could not agree. "We are the people who brought civilisation to Africa," he said. "To do justice in Africa means not only being just to the black man of Africa, but also to the white man of Africa." Mr Macmillan's speech is the first time a senior international figure has given voice to the growing protest against South Africa's laws of strict racial segregation. The speech was widely anticipated throughout the country, as Mr Macmillan had already said he would take the chance to say what he thought about the situation in South Africa. Even so, the plain-speaking nature of the speech took many in Cape Town by surprise. Mr Macmillan is in South Africa at the end of a month-long tour of the African continent, in which he has travelled about 17,000 miles. His visit was always controversial, and many accused him of giving the Nationalist Party credibility by allowing himself to be a guest of the South African government. His speech today is likely to lay those criticisms to rest.	South Africa
The flag of Cornwall is a white cross on a background of what colour?	BBC - Archive - Apartheid in South Africa - Tour of South Africa \| Rt Hon Macmillan Apartheid in South Africa \| Living under racial segregation and discrimination Tour of South Africa \| Rt Hon Macmillan Harold Macmillan delivers his 'wind of change' speech at the Cape Town Parliament. DURATION \| 58 minutes 5 seconds RECORDED 1960 Synopsis In this historic speech, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan spoke of the 'wind of change' blowing through Africa and the right of black majority populations to rule themselves. He explicitly criticised the system of apartheid. In a frosty response, South African Prime Minister Dr Hendrik Verwoerd outlines why he disagrees with Macmillan. Did you know? The 'wind of change' speech is a historical landmark. Macmillan was aware of the speech's significance and was so nervous that he was violently sick before he delivered it. He had been criticised by opponents of apartheid for agreeing to visit South Africa, but arguably this speech countered such criticism. Contributors	i don't know
What is the meaning of the Latin word diluvium as used in the word antediluvian?	Antediluvian \| Definition of Antediluvian by Merriam-Webster Examples of antediluvian in a sentence He has antediluvian notions about the role of women in the workplace. <found evidence in the Middle East of an antediluvian people previously unknown to history> Did You Know? Before there was "antediluvian," there were the Latin words ante (meaning "before") and "diluvium" (meaning "flood"). As long ago as 1646, English speakers were using "antediluvian" to describe conditions they believed existed before the great flood described in the biblical account of Noah and the ark. By the early 1700s, the word had come to be used as both an adjective and a noun referring to anything or anyone prodigiously old. Charles Darwin used it to characterize the mighty "antediluvian trees" some prehistoric mammals might have used as a food source, and in his American Notes, Charles Dickens described an elderly lady who informed him, "It is an extremely proud and pleasant thing . . . to be an antediluvian." Origin and Etymology of antediluvian ante- + Latin diluvium flood — more at deluge First Known Use: 1646	Genesis flood narrative
In which Dutch city did the 2015 Tour de France start?	Definition of diluvium - definitionfinder.com definitionfinder.com Heteroclitous : - Heteroclitic. Divisible : - A divisible substance. Anchor : - A metal tie holding adjoining parts of a building together. Easting : - The distance measured toward the east between two meridians drawn through the extremities of a course; distance of departure eastward made by a vessel. Collision : - The act of striking together; a striking together, as of two hard bodies; a violent meeting, as of railroad trains; a clashing. Eulogistical : - Of or pertaining to eulogy; characterized by eulogy; bestowing praise; panegyrical; commendatory; laudatory; as, eulogistic speech or discourse. Faction : - One of the divisions or parties of charioteers (distinguished by their colors) in the games of the circus. Complacency : - The cause of pleasure or joy. Areng : - Alt. of Arenga Browbeat : - To depress or bear down with haughty, stern looks, or with arrogant speech and dogmatic assertions; to abash or disconcert by impudent or abusive words or looks; to bully; as, to browbeat witnesses. Certes : - Certainly; in truth; verily. Alevin : - Young fish; fry. Drove : - A narrow drain or channel used in the irrigation of land. General : - The chief of an order of monks, or of all the houses or congregations under the same rule. Careenage : - A place for careening. Alleviating : - of Alleviate Ethnically : - In an ethnical manner. Bescreen : - To cover with a screen, or as with a screen; to shelter; to conceal. Display : - To unfold; to spread wide; to expand; to stretch out; to spread. Drudge : - To perform menial work; to labor in mean or unpleasant offices with toil and fatigue. Girdler : - One who girdles. Bastardism : - The state of being a bastard; bastardy. Frowning : - of Frown Armgaunt : - With gaunt or slender legs. (?) Cinchonism : - A condition produced by the excessive or long-continued use of quinine, and marked by deafness, roaring in the ears, vertigo, etc. Today Sunday, January 1 Definition Finder helps find more definition of word with permutation and combination which is include such as scrabble,puzzles,start with,end with,dictionary. Definition of diluvium 1 : A deposit of superficial loam, sand, gravel, stones, etc., caused by former action of flowing waters, or the melting of glacial ice. 2 : of Diluvium 2 words is found which contain diluvium word in database Words with defination found in database when searching for diluvium. Diluvium n. A deposit of superficial loam, sand, gravel, stones, etc., caused by former action of flowing waters, or the melting of glacial ice. The word diluvium uses 8 total characters with white space The word diluvium uses 8 total characters with white out space The word diluvium uses 6 unique characters: D I L M U V Number of all permutations npr for diluvium 720 Number of all combination ncr for diluvium 720 Similar matching soundex word for diluvium Delphian Delphin Delphine Delphinic Delphinine Delphinoid Delphinoidea Delphinus Delving Diluvian Diluvium Diluviums Dolphin Dolphinet Dolven 2 same character containing word for diluvium DI DL DU DV DI DU DM ID LD UD VD ID UD MD IL IU IV II IU IM LI UI VI II UI MI LU LV LI LU LM UL VL IL UL ML UV UI UU UM VU IU UU MU VI VU VM IV UV MV IU IM UI MI UM MU 3 same character containing word For diluvium 4 same character containing word For diluvium All permutations word for diluvium DIILMUUV DIILMUVU DIILMVUU DIILUMUV DIILUMVU DIILUUMV DIILUUVM DIILUVMU DIILUVUM DIILVMUU DIILVUMU DIILVUUM DIIMLUUV DIIMLUVU DIIMLVUU DIIMULUV DIIMULVU DIIMUULV DIIMUUVL DIIMUVLU DIIMUVUL DIIMVLUU DIIMVULU DIIMVUUL DIIULMUV DIIULMVU DIIULUMV DIIULUVM DIIULVMU DIIULVUM DIIUMLUV DIIUMLVU DIIUMULV DIIUMUVL DIIUMVLU DIIUMVUL DIIUULMV DIIUULVM DIIUUMLV DIIUUMVL DIIUUVLM DIIUUVML DIIUVLMU DIIUVLUM DIIUVMLU DIIUVMUL DIIUVULM DIIUVUML DIIVLMUU DIIVLUMU DIIVLUUM DIIVMLUU DIIVMULU DIIVMUUL DIIVULMU DIIVULUM DIIVUMLU DIIVUMUL DIIVUULM DIIVUUML DILIMUUV DILIMUVU DILIMVUU DILIUMUV DILIUMVU DILIUUMV DILIUUVM DILIUVMU DILIUVUM DILIVMUU DILIVUMU DILIVUUM DILMIUUV DILMIUVU DILMIVUU DILMUIUV DILMUIVU DILMUUIV DILMUUVI DILMUVIU DILMUVUI DILMVIUU DILMVUIU DILMVUUI DILUIMUV DILUIMVU DILUIUMV DILUIUVM DILUIVMU DILUIVUM DILUMIUV DILUMIVU DILUMUIV DILUMUVI DILUMVIU DILUMVUI DILUUIMV DILUUIVM DILUUMIV DILUUMVI All combinations word for diluvium D I L U V I U M DI DL DU DV DI DU DM IL IU IV II IU IM LU LV LI LU LM UV UI UU UM VI VU VM IU IM UM DIL DIU DIV DII DIU DIM DLU DLV DLI DLU DLM DUV DUI DUU DUM DVI DVU DVM DIU DIM DUM ILU ILV ILI ILU ILM IUV IUI IUU IUM IVI IVU IVM IIU IIM IUM LUV LUI LUU LUM LVI LVU LVM LIU LIM LUM UVI UVU UVM UIU UIM UUM VIU VIM VUM IUM DILU DILV DILI DILU DILM DIUV DIUI DIUU DIUM DIVI DIVU DIVM DIIU DIIM DIUM DLUV DLUI DLUU DLUM DLVI DLVU DLVM DLIU DLIM DLUM DUVI DUVU DUVM DUIU DUIM DUUM DVIU DVIM DVUM DIUM ILUV ILUI ILUU ILUM ILVI ILVU ILVM ILIU ILIM ILUM IUVI IUVU IUVM IUIU IUIM IUUM IVIU IVIM IVUM IIUM LUVI LUVU LUVM LUIU LUIM LUUM LVIU LVIM LVUM LIUM UVIU UVIM UVUM UIUM VIUM All similar letter combinations related to diluvium Diluvial terraces on Katun River Altai Scabland, Altai Republic Giant current ripples in the Kuray Basin, Altai, Russia Historically, Diluvium was a term in geology for superficial deposits formed by flood-like operations of water, and so contrasted with alluvium or alluvial deposits formed by slow and steady aqueous agencies. The term was formerly given to the boulder clay deposits, supposed to have been caused by the Noachian deluge.[1] Diluvial terraces in Central Altay Mountains, Katun River, Little Yaloman Village. July 2011 In the late 20th century Russian geologist Alexei Rudoy proposed the term "diluvium" for description of deposits created as a result of catastrophic outbursts of Pleistocene giant glacier-dammed lakes in intermontane basins of the Altai.[2] The largest of these lakes, Chuya and Kuray, had volumes of water in hundreds of cubic kilometers, and their discharge in peak hydrograph flow rate exceeded the maximum rates of the well-known Pleistocene Lake Missoula floods in North America. The term "diluvium" in the meaning of A. N. Rudoy has become accepted, and the process of diluvial morpholithogenesis can be found in modern textbooks. ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Diluvium". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 273.	i don't know
Who wrote the song Mr Tambourine Man which reached Number One for The Byrds in 1965?	The Byrds - Mr. Tambourine Man - YouTube The Byrds - Mr. Tambourine Man Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Jul 12, 2010 The Byrds - Mr. Tambourine Man 1965 "Mr. Tambourine Man" is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan, which was released on his 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home (see 1965 in music). The Byrds also recorded a version of the song that was released as their first single on Columbia Records and which reached #1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the UK Singles Chart. The Byrds' version was also the title track of their first album, Mr. Tambourine Man. The Byrds had access to an early version of the song recorded by Dylan and Ramblin' Jack Elliott during the session for the 1964 album Another Side of Bob Dylan. Because of their early access to the song, The Byrds were able to release their version just two weeks after Dylan's. The Byrds' recording of the song was influential in initiating the musical subgenre of folk rock, leading many contemporary bands to mimic its fusion of jangly guitars and intellectual lyrics in the wake of the single's success. This song has been covered by many artists, including Judy Collins, Odetta, Melanie, and William Shatner. The song's popularity led to Dylan recording it live many times, and it has been included in multiple Dylan and Byrds compilation albums. It has been translated into several languages, and has also been used in television shows and films, and referenced in several books. The song has a bright, expansive melody and has become famous in particular for its surrealistic imagery, influenced by artists as diverse as French poet Arthur Rimbaud and Italian filmmaker Federico Fellini. The lyrics call on the title character to play a song and the narrator will follow. Interpretations of the lyrics have included a paean to drugs such as LSD, a call to the singer's muse, a reflection of the audience's demands on the singer, and religious interpretations. Dylan sings the song in four verses, but only one of these was recorded by The Byrds. Dylan's and The Byrds' versions have appeared on various lists ranking the greatest songs of all time, including an appearance by both on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 best songs ever. Both versions also received Grammy Hall of Fame Awards. In other news, I have added the lyrics to this song so you can sing along, or perhaps learn the song! This is how I learned my first Byrds song! Enjoy :) Category	Bob Dylan
What is the family name of Dmitri, Ivan and Alexei in an 1880 novel by Fyodor Dostoyevsky?	The Byrds - Mr. Tambourine Man Lyrics \| SongMeanings The Byrds 20 Essential Tracks from the Boxed Set: 1965-90 Original Singles, Vol. 1 (1965-1967) The Byrds' Greatest Hits The Byrds' Greatest Hits [Expanded] Mr. Tambourine Man Play the Songs of Bob Dylan [European Import] Greatest Number 1's Ever Mojo Presents... An Introduction to the Byrds The Collection [Sony] The Essential Byrds [3 CD] America's Great National Treasure Very Best of the Byrds [2006] Mr. Tambourine Man [Bonus Tracks] 36 All-Time Favorites Live at Royal Albert Hall 1971 Very Best of the Byrds [UK] The Byrds Play Dylan: Collections Expanded Edition Album Sampler, Vol. 2 Playlist: The Very Best of the Byrds Mr. Tambourine Man/Turn! Turn! Turn!/Fifth Dimension/Younger Than Yesterday/The Notorio X2: Mr. Tambourine Man/Sweetheart of the Rodeo Definitive Collection: Best of the Best Gold Definitive Collection [2002] Doin' All Right for Old People The Very Best of the Byrds [US] Eight Miles High: The Best Of The Byrds America's Musical Landscape The Essential Byrds [Limited Edition 3.0] Untitled/Unissued Hey, Mr. Tambourine man, play a song for me I'm not sleepy and there ain't no place I'm going to Hey, Mr. Tambourine man, play a song for me In the jingle jangle morning, I'll come followin' you Take me for a trip upon your magic swirling ship All my senses have been stripped And my hands can't feel to grip and my toes too numb to step Wait only for my boot heels to be wandering I'm ready to go anywhere, I'm ready for to fade Into my own parade Cast your dancing spell my way I promise to go under it Hey, Mr. Tambourine man, play a song for me I'm not sleepy and there ain't no place I'm going to Hey, Mr. Tambourine man, play a song for me In the jingle jangle morning, I'll come followin' you	i don't know
Who was the female star of the Alfred Hitchcock directed films The Birds and Mamie?	The Birds (1963) - News NEWS 14 December 2016 2:10 PM, PST \| Rollingstone.com \| See recent Rolling Stone news » The Breakfast Club, Rushmore, The Princess Bride and legendary punk documentary The Decline of Western Civilization are among the 25 films that have been inducted into the National Film Registry, the Library of Congress announced Wednesday. Disney's The Lion King , Who Framed Roger Rabbit ? and Alfred Hitchcock 's The Birds are also in the Class of 2016's inductees in the registry, which showcases "the range and diversity of American film heritage to increase awareness for its preservation." The oldest film to be inducted in the Class of 2016 is 1903's Life of an American Fireman , » 14 December 2016 12:01 AM, PST \| Variety - Film News \| See recent Variety - Film News news » With the addition of 25 new films — including “ The Birds ,” “ The Lion King ,” “ The Breakfast Club ” and “ Thelma & Louise ” — the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress now includes 700 films that span more than a century. The 2016 inductees into the registry include movies long considered classics, obscure documentaries and films once too racy or avant-garde to be accepted by the mainstream. Librarian of Congress Carla Hayden made the selections after consulting with a panel of experts who make up the National Film Preservation Board. Congress established the registry in 1988 with the National Film Preservation Act of 1988 — requiring the Library of Congress to designate and preserve films that are “culturally, historically or aesthetically” significant. Films must be at least 10 years old to be chosen. Director Ridley Scott said he was “honored and proud” to have the 1991 feminist empowerment ode, “Thelma & Louise,” selected, noting it joined another of his films on the list. » - James Rainey 28 November 2016 6:59 PM, PST \| TVLine.com \| See recent TVLine.com news » It’s fall finale time for Jane the Virgin , which means no new episodes until January. (Can’t Rogelio release a Christmas album or something to help get us through this drought?) But Monday’s finale gave us plenty of plot twists to chew on during the long break… including a huge revelation for Rafael. Jane’s baby daddy starts out the episode by objecting to Jane taking Mateo to church. It seems like just another co-parenting tiff for these two… until Rafael flashes back to a traumatic childhood memory in a church. Meanwhile, Michael’s investigation into Mutter turns » 18 November 2016 8:12 AM, PST \| Indiewire \| See recent Indiewire news » Noel Marshall ’s legendarily wild and totally bonkers movie “ Roar ” has long been billed as one of the most dangerous movies ever made (if not the most dangerous), thanks to its use of a multitude of wild big cats, many of which have been blamed for harming scads of cast and crew. Marshall and his then-wife Tippi Hedren made the film back in the late seventies, casting their own family, including Hedren’s daughter Melanie Griffith and Marshall’s sons Jerry and John, as a clan terrorized by a pack of seemingly domesticated lions and tigers, oh my. (And the big cats? Those were theirs, too.) For years, rumors have persisted that 70 people were injured during the film’s spectacularly ill-fated shoot — when Drafthouse re-released the film in 2015, they used that number to frame up their catchy tagline: “No animals were harmed in the making of this movie. 70 members of the cast and crew were. » - Kate Erbland 17 November 2016 7:17 AM, PST \| Indiewire \| See recent Indiewire news » Actress Tippi Hedren ’s new memoir “Tippi” openly discusses her break with filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock , who cast her in his films “ The Birds ” and “ Marnie .” She explains his obsession with her and the sexual abuse she experienced while making the films. After a falling out with the director, her career faced a major setback and she was forced to rebuild. In a new interview with Variety, Hedren discusses the abuse and why she went public with the story in the first place. Read More: Tippi Hedren Confirms Alfred Hitchcock Sexually Assaulted Her, Details Secret Door Connecting His Office to Her Dressing Room “This is legion all over the world. There’s nothing unique about it,” says Hedren in regards to why she came forward with the abuse allegations. “Women complain all the time about somebody trying to make a pass at them or have a relationship in which they are not interested. » - Vikram Murthi Tippi Hedren shot to fame as one of Alfred Hitchcock ’s classic blonde heroines, turning heads in “ The Birds ” and “ Marnie .” Like Grace Kelly before her, Hedren seemed destined to be a huge star, as an impossibly cool and elegant screen goddess. But a falling out with the director put her career in a tailspin and she struggled to build on that early promise. In her new memoir, “Tippi,” Hedren opens up about her break with the legendary filmmaker. Her account of his dangerous obsession and the sexual abuse she was forced to endure while making the film has made headlines and even resulted in some blowback from the director’s loyalists. Hedren tells Variety that she decided to share her story in the hopes of encouraging other women to stand up for themselves. Though Hedren may not have maintained a spot on the A-list, she found her life’s » - Brent Lang 11 November 2016 6:56 AM, PST \| Cinemaretro.com \| See recent CinemaRetro news » This Post Has Been Updated On November 11, 2016 Tippi Hedren was a model with no acting experience when director Alfred Hitchcock cast her as the female lead in his 1963 classic " The Birds ". The announcement surprised the entertainment industry, given Hitchcock's penchant for casting well-known actresses in his films. He saw Hedren by chance in a TV commercial and immediately set his sights on the beautiful blonde. Hedren was recently divorced at the time and in need of a new career in order to care for her young daughter, future actress Melaine Griffith. In her just-published autobiography "Tippi: A Memoir", the 86 year-old actress says that Hitchcock manipulated her when she was vulnerable by signing her into an exclusive contract that gave him dictatorial power over her career. He promised he would cast her in high profile films that would establish her as a major star. However, her dreams were shattered when Hitchcock » - [email protected] (Cinema Retro) 5 November 2016 5:05 PM, PDT \| The Guardian - Film News \| See recent The Guardian - Film News news » Actress says she repelled advances on The Birds set but film crew dispute story Cinema historians, former cast and crew and Alfred Hitchcock ’s official biographer have rushed to the defence of the director after claims that he sexually harassed and bullied actress Tippi Hedren during the filming of The Birds in the 1960s. In her new book, Tippi: A Memoir, published on 17 November, Hedren alleges that the director made sexual approaches to her and regarded her as his personal property. In one passage she also describes her genuine horror during the filming of the attic scene in The Birds when she was attacked by real birds. “It was ugly, brutal and relentless,” she writes, adding that Cary Grant , visiting the set that week, had told her how brave she was. Continue reading » 1 November 2016 5:39 PM, PDT \| PEOPLE.com \| See recent PEOPLE.com news » It is now no secret that Tippi Hedren ‘s relationship with Alfred Hitchcock was intense and potentially abusive. In her new memoir, Tippi, the legendary actress and Hitchcock muse recounts several stressful and haunting encounters with the director: allegations of sexual assault during filming of The Birds and Marnie and the inhumane conditions Hedren endured (upon which Hitchcock insisted) while filming the climactic scene in the 1963 horror-thriller. “Everything was building toward the famous ‘bedroom scene,'” Hedren writes of the scene in which her character Melanie suffers a vicious on-camera attack by the birds. Up until the day of filming, » - Kara Warner 1 November 2016 2:16 PM, PDT \| Entertainment Tonight \| See recent Entertainment Tonight news » Three generations of Hollywood has never looked so good. Legendary actress Tippi Hedren recently sat down with both her daughter, Melanie Griffith , and her granddaughter, Dakota Johnson , for an incredible family portrait for Vanity Fair. Hedren, 86, looks regal as ever in an embroidered nude gown, as 27-year-old Johnson embraces her in a demure, blush pink dress. Meanwhile, 59-year-old Griffith holds her mother's hand in a one-shoulder red gown. Coliena Rentmeester exclusively for Vanity Fair Pics: She Gets It From Her Mama -- Celebrity Mother/Daughter Doppelgangers The ladies clearly had fun on the photo shoot, sharing some laughs while posing together. The pics mark the first time the three ladies have ever been photographed together for publication. "The three generations just made me think about Mom, born in 1930, and me, in the '50s, and Dakota, in the '80s," Griffith tells the magazine about coming together to celebrate Hedren's new memoir, Tippi, in which » 31 October 2016 6:26 AM, PDT \| avclub.com \| See recent The AV Club news » In her new memoir, actress Tippi Hedren alleges that Alfred Hitchcock sexually assaulted her on the sets of some of their films. The star of The Birds and Marnie has spoken up about the director’s controlling behavior in the past, which was dramatized for the HBO film, The Girl. But in her book, Tippi, Hedren claims that Hitchcock’s obsession with her culminated in sexual assault. The New York Post is reporting from excerpts of the book, which details Hitchcock’s alleged shift from starmaker to harasser—according to Hedren, he watched her every move, limited her contact with the other actors, and had her handwriting analyzed. The actress also writes of a brief struggle with Hitchcock in the back of a limo, where he asked her to “touch him” and tried to kiss her. Things got worse on the set of Marnie , as Hedren says the director installed » - Danette Chavez 31 October 2016 4:42 AM, PDT \| The Guardian - Film News \| See recent The Guardian - Film News news » Star of The Birds and Marnie says director grabbed her, attempted to kiss her and had a secret door installed between his office and her dressing room Tippi Hedren has revealed how Alfred Hitchcock allegedly sexually assaulted her while they were working on the films The Birds and Marnie . The actor has spoken in the past about the director’s treatment of her, much of which was portrayed in the 2012 HBO movie The Girl, but she goes into fresh detail in a new autobiography, Tippi: A Memoir. Continue reading » 30 October 2016 10:49 AM, PDT \| The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News \| See recent The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News news » Tippi Hedren , star of Alfred Hitchcock 's 1963 avian horror classic The Birds , alleges in her new memoir, Tippi, that the late Oscar-nominated director sexually assaulted her, according to excerpts obtained by the New York Post. On one particular occasion, Hedren claims, Hitchcock came into her dressing room on the set of Marnie and "put his hands on me. It was sexual, it was perverse. The harder I fought him, the more aggressive he became.” Hedren, a 31-year-old actress living in New York, was recently divorced from adman Peter Griffith at the time Hitchcock saw her in read more 30 October 2016 10:13 AM, PDT \| Variety - Film News \| See recent Variety - Film News news » Tippi Hedren , who starred in Alfred Hitchcock ’s “ The Birds ” and “ Marnie ,” claims the director stalked and sexually assaulted and harassed her when she worked with him in the 1960s. In an excerpt from her new memoir “Tippi,” obtained by the New York Post, Hedren details her relationship with Hitchcock in the ’60s, after she moved from New York City to Los Angeles following her divorce from Peter Griffith . Hitchcock, who died in 1980, tracked her down after seeing her in a commercial for meal replacement shakes, and signed her to a five-year movie contract. After that, Hedren alleges, Hitchcock developed an unhealthy relationship with the actress. While working on 1963’s “ The Birds ,” the role that shot Hedren to stardom, Hedren claims that he was extremely possessive of her, warning her castmates, including co-star Rod Taylor , not to “touch her.” She claims that if Hitchcock even saw her talking to another man, » - Alex Stedman 30 October 2016 9:29 AM, PDT \| Indiewire \| See recent Indiewire news » Alfred Hitchcock ’s relationships with his leading ladies have long been the source of controversy. Tippi Hedren , who was discovered by the filmmaker in a commercial and went on to star in his “ The Birds ” and “ Marnie ,” has written in her upcoming book “Tippi: A Memoir” that Hitchcock repeatedly sexually harassed her during her six months making “ The Birds ,” reports the New York Post. Read More: ‘Welcome to Hitchcock’ Anthology Series Announced by the Alfred Hitchcock Estate In “Tippi,” which is being released on Tuesday, the actress states that castmates were told not to socialize with her or “touch The Girl”; whenever Hitchcock caught sight of her laughing or even talking with a man, he would become “petulant” and “icy” and look at her with an “expressionless, unwavering stare…even if he was talking to a group of people on the other side of the soundstage.” Once, she writes, he » Tippi Hedren claims she was sexually assaulted by director Alfred Hitchcock while working on his films The Birds and Marnie . In her upcoming memoir, Tippi, the legendary actress and Hitchcock muse, 86, says that celebrated director would have his driver drive past her home, and also asked her to “touch him” while they were working on The Birds , according to excerpts featured by The New York Post. She also says Hitchcock once tried to force her to kiss him in the back of a limo. “It was an awful, awful moment,” she writes in the book. However, she didn’t tell » - gabrielleolya1 28 October 2016 12:40 PM, PDT \| Entertainment Tonight \| See recent Entertainment Tonight news » The Lou Pearlman television series has found its leading man, Et confirms exclusively. Golden Globe and Emmy-nominated actor Toby Jones has signed on to star as the late boy band producer in a limited TV series that stems from the New Yorker article titled "We Live in a Pop-Culture World that Lou Pearlman Created," which tells of Pearlman's rise from struggling business owner to music mogul, as well as his fall to fraud. Watch: Justin Timberlake Reacts to Lou Pearlman 's Death -- 'I Hope He Found Some Peace' This isn't the first time Jones -- perhaps best known for his roles in The Hunger Games and Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy -- will portray a real-life person in the entertainment industry. In 2012, he took on the role of Alfred Hitchcock in the HBO TV movie, The Girl , alongside Sienna Miller as The Birds star, Tippi Hedren . "We’re beyond excited to have someone of Toby's caliber on board » 5 October 2016 10:00 AM, PDT \| Variety - TV News \| See recent Variety - TV News news » Fox has added two pivotal cast members to “24: Legacy,” Variety has learned exclusively. Veronica Cartwright (“ Alien ,” “ The Birds ”) and Laith Nakli (“ The Visitor ”) have both been cast in the “24” revival, which debuts midseason on Fox. Cartwright has joined as a series regular. She will play Margaret Donovan , Senator John Donovan ’s ( Jimmy Smits ) mother. Described as well-heeled and connected, the character is formidable in business and politics and has lost very few battles in her life. Nakli, in a recurring role, will portray one of the series’ bad guys. His character Kusuma is a battle-hardened jihadist and fighter. Both new cast members join series star Corey Hawkins , who takes on the central role of Eric Carter in the reboot of the beloved action series, which is based on the original “24” that starred Kiefer Sutherland (who is an executive producer, but is not in the show, as he’s currently starring on ABC’s “ Designated Survivor ”). Miranda Otto » - Elizabeth Wagmeister 5 October 2016 9:01 AM, PDT \| Cineplex \| See recent Cineplex news » Godzilla, Batman , and Benedict Cumberbatch top the list of Cineplex Events in OctoberGodzilla, Batman , and Benedict Cumberbatch top the list of Cineplex Events in OctoberJenny Bullough10/5/2016 11:01:00 Am From Frankenstein ’s monster to Godzilla and more, there’s a lot going on in Cineplex Events this month! Here are some highlights of what’s onscreen in October besides great new movies. October 10 – Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders Inspired by the comics of the 1960s, Batman and Robin spring into action when Gotham City is threatened by a quartet of Batman ’s most fiendish foes – Penguin, The Joker, Riddler and Catwoman. Pop culture icons from the TV series Adam West , Burt Ward , and Julie Newmar return to voice Batman , Robin, and Catwoman! Stay until the end to see a special featurette! Watch the trailer then click here for more information including tickets and showtimes: October 12 – Shin Godzilla (aka Godzilla Resurgence » - Jenny Bullough	Tippi Hedren
Tritium is an isotope of which element?	Alfred Hitchcock - Profile of the Famous British Film Director Alfred Hitchcock Alfred Hitchcock British Film Director Known for Suspense Studio headshot portrait of British film director Alfred Hitchcock. (Circa 1963). (Photo by Gene Lester/Getty Images) By Shelly Schwartz, Contributing History Writer Updated July 01, 2016. Who Was Alfred Hitchcock? Known as the “Master of Suspense,” Alfred Hitchcock was one of the most famous film directors of the 20th century. He directed more than 50 feature-length films from the 1920s into the 1970s . Hitchcock’s image, seen during Hitchcock’s frequent cameos in his own films and before each episode of the hit TV show Alfred Hitchcock Presents, has become synonymous with suspense. Dates: August 13, 1899 – April 29, 1980 Also Known As: Alfred Joseph Hitchcock , Hitch, Master of Suspense, Sir Alfred Hitchcock Growing Up With a Fear of Authority Alfred Joseph Hitchcock was born on August 13, 1899, in Leytonstone in the East End of London. His parents were Emma Jane Hitchcock (neé Whelan), who was known to be stubborn, and William Hitchcock, a grocer, who was known to be stern. Alfred had two older siblings: a brother, William (born 1890) and a sister, Eileen (born 1892). When Hitchcock was just five years old, his strict, Catholic father gave him quite a fright. continue reading below our video Profile of Alfred Hitchcock Attempting to teach Hitchcock a valuable lesson, Hitchcock’s father sent him to the local police station with a note. Once the police officer on duty read the note, the officer locked young Hitchcock in a cell for several minutes. The effect was devastating. Although his father was trying to teach him a lesson about what happened to people who did bad things, the experience left Hitchcock shaken to the core. As a result, Hitchcock was forever fearful of the police. A bit of a loner, Hitchcock liked to draw and invent games on maps in his spare time. He attended St. Ignatius College boarding school where he stayed out of trouble, fearful of the strict Jesuits and their public canings of boys who misbehaved. Hitchcock learned draftsmanship at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar from 1913 to 1915. Hitchcock’s First Job After graduating, Hitchcock got his first job in 1915 as an estimator for W.T. Henley Telegraph Company, a manufacturer of electric cable. Bored by his job, he regularly attended the cinema by himself in the evenings, read the cinema trade papers, and took drawing classes at London University. Hitchcock gained confidence and began to show a dry, witty side at work. He drew caricatures of his colleagues and wrote short stories with twist endings, to which he signed the name “Hitch.” Henley’s Social Club magazine, The Henley, began publishing Hitchcock’s drawings and stories. As a result, Hitchcock was promoted to Henley’s advertising department, where he was much happier as a creative advertising illustrator. Hitchcock Gets Into Filmmaking In 1919, Hitchcock saw an ad in one of the cinema trade papers that a Hollywood company named Famous Players-Lasky (which later became Paramount) was building a studio in Islington, a neighborhood in Greater London. At the time, American filmmakers were considered superior to their British counterparts and thus Hitchcock was extremely excited about them opening up a studio locally. Hoping to impress those in charge of the new studio, Hitchcock discovered the subject of what was to be their first motion picture, bought the book it was based on, and read it. Hitchcock then drew up mock title cards (graphic cards inserted into silent movies to show dialogue or explain action). He took his title cards to the studio, only to find that they had decided to film a different movie. Undaunted, Hitchcock quickly read the new book, drew up new title cards, and again took them to the studio. Impressed by his graphics as well as his determination, Islington Studio hired him to moonlight as their title-card designer. Within a few months, the studio offered 20-year-old Hitchcock a full-time job. Hitchcock accepted the position and left his steady job at Henley to enter the unsteady world of filmmaking. With calm confidence and a desire to make movies, Hitchcock began to help out as a screenwriter, assistant director, and set designer. Here, Hitchcock met Alma Reville, who was in charge of film editing and continuity. When the director fell ill while filming the comedy, Always Tell Your Wife (1923), Hitchcock stepped in and finished the film. He was then offered the opportunity to direct Number Thirteen (never completed). Due to a lack of funds, the motion picture abruptly stopped filming after a few scenes were shot and the entire studio shut down. When Balcon-Saville-Freedman took over the studio, Hitchcock was one of just a few people asked to stay on. Hitchcock became the assistant director and screenwriter for Woman to Woman (1923). Hitchcock hired Alma Reville back for continuity and editing. The picture was a box-office success; however, the studio’s next picture, The White Shadow (1924), failed at the box-office and again the studio shut down. This time, Gainsborough Pictures took over the studio and Hitchcock was again asked to stay. Hitchcock Becomes a Director In 1924, Hitchcock was the assistant director for The Blackguard (1925), a film shot in Berlin. This was a co-production deal between Gainsborough Pictures and UFA Studios in Berlin. Not only did Hitchcock take advantage of the Germans’ extraordinary sets, he also observed the German filmmakers using sophisticated camera pans, tilts, zooms, and tricks for forced perspective in set design. Known as German Expressionism, the Germans used dark, moody thought-provoking topics such as madness and betrayal rather than adventure, comedy, and romance. The German filmmakers were equally happy to learn an American technique from Hitchcock whereby scenery was painted onto the camera lens as a foreground. In 1925, Hitchcock got his directorial debut for The Pleasure Garden (1926), which was filmed in both Germany and Italy. Again Hitchcock chose Alma to work with him; this time as his assistant director for the silent film. During filming, a budding romance between Hitchcock and Alma began. The film itself is remembered for the myriad of troubles the crew ran into during filming, including having customs confiscate all of their unexposed film as they crossed the international border. Hitchcock Gets “Hitched” and Directs a Hit Hitchcock and Alma married on February 12, 1926; she would become his chief collaborator on all his films. Also in 1926, Hitchcock directed The Lodger, a suspense movie filmed in Britain about a “wrongly accused man.” Hitchcock had chosen the story, used fewer title cards than usual, and tossed in bits of humor. Due to a shortage of extras, he had made a cameo appearance in the film. The distributor didn’t like it and shelved it. Stunned, Hitchcock felt like a failure. He was so despondent that he even contemplated a career change. Luckily, the film was released a few months later by the distributor, who had been running short on films. The Lodger (1927) became a huge hit with the public. Britain’s Best Director in the 1930s The Hitchcocks became very busy with filmmaking. They lived in a country house (named Shamley Green) on the weekends and lived in a London flat during the week. In 1928, Alma delivered a baby girl, Patricia – the couple’s only child. Hitchcock’s next big hit was Blackmail (1929), the first British talkie (film with sound). During the 1930s, Hitchcock made picture after picture and invented the term “MacGuffin” to illustrate that the object the villains were after needed no explanation; it was just something used to drive the story. Hitchcock felt he didn’t need to bore the audience with details; it didn’t matter where the MacGuffin came from, just who was after it. The term is still used in contemporary filmmaking. Having made several box-office flops in the early 1930s, Hitchcock then made The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934). The film was a British and American success, as were his next five films: The 39 Steps (1935), Secret Agent (1936), Sabotage (1936), Young and Innocent (1937), and The Lady Vanishes (1938). The latter won the New York Critics’ Award for Best Film of 1938. Hitchcock caught the attention of David O. Selznick, an American film producer and owner of Selznick Studios in Hollywood. In 1939, Hitchcock, the number one British director at the time, accepted a contract from Selznick and moved his family to Hollywood. Hollywood Hitchcock While Alma and Patricia loved the weather in Southern California , Hitchcock was not fond of it. He continued to wear his dark English suits no matter how hot the weather. In the studio, he worked diligently on his first American film, Rebecca (1940), a psychological thriller. After the small budgets he had worked with in England, Hitchcock delighted in the large Hollywood resources he could use to build elaborate sets. Rebecca won the Oscar for Best Picture in 1940. Hitchcock was up for Best Director, but lost to John Ford for The Grapes of Wrath. Memorable Scenes Fearing suspense in real life (Hitchcock didn’t even like driving a car), he did enjoy capturing suspense on screen in memorable scenes, which often included monuments and famous landmarks. Hitchcock planned every shot for his motion pictures beforehand to such an extent that filming was said to be the boring part to him. Hitchcock took his audiences to the domed roof of the British Museum for a chase scene in Blackmail (1929), to the Statue of Liberty for a free fall in Saboteur (1942), to the streets of Monte Carlo for a wild drive in To Catch a Thief (1955), to the Royal Albert Hall for an assassination misfire in The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956),underneath the Golden Gate Bridge for a suicide attempt in Vertigo (1958), and to Mt. Rushmore for a chase scene in North by Northwest (1959). Other Hitchcock memorable scenes include a glowing poisoned glass of milk in Suspicion (1941), a man chased by a crop duster in North by Northwest (1959), a stabbing scene in the shower to shrieking violins in Psycho (1960), and killer birds gathering in a schoolyard in The Birds (1963). Hitchcock and Cool Blondes Hitchcock was known for engaging the audience with suspense, accusing the wrong man of something, and portraying a fear of authority. He also threw in comic relief, portrayed villains as charming, used unusual camera angles, and preferred classic blondes for his leading ladies. His leads (both male and female) portrayed poise, intelligence, underlying passion, and glamour. Hitchcock said audiences found classic blonde females to be innocent looking and an escape for the bored housewife. He didn’t think a woman should wash the dishes and go see a movie about a woman washing the dishes. Hitchcock’s leading ladies also had a cool, icy attitude for added suspense -- never warm and bubbly. Hitchcock’s leading ladies included Ingrid Bergman , Grace Kelly , Kim Novak , Eva Marie Saint, and Tippi Hedron. Hitchcock’s TV Show In 1955, Hitchcock started Shamley Productions, named after his country home back in England, and produced Alfred Hitchcock Presents, which turned into the Alfred Hitchcock Hour. This successful TV show aired from 1955 to 1965. The show was Hitchcock’s way of featuring mystery dramas written by various writers, mostly directed by directors other than himself. Before each episode, Hitchcock presented a monologue to set up the drama, beginning with “Good Evening.” He came back at the end of each episode to tie up any loose ends about the culprit being caught. Hitchcock’s popular horror movie, Psycho (1960) , was filmed inexpensively by his Shamley Productions TV crew. In 1956, Hitchcock became a U.S. citizen, but remained a British subject. Awards, Knighthood, and Death of Hitchcock Despite being nominated five times for Best Director, Hitchcock never won the Oscar. While accepting the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award at the 1967 Oscars, he simply said, “Thank you.” In 1979, the American Film Institute presented Hitchcock with its Life Achievement Award at a ceremony at the Beverly Hilton Hotel. He joked that he must be about to die soon. In 1980, Queen Elizabeth I I knighted Hitchcock. Three months later Sir Alfred Hitchcock died of kidney failure at the age of 80 in his home in Bel Air. His remains were cremated and scattered over the Pacific Ocean.	i don't know
Who is the US Attorney General, appointed in April this year?	Office of the Attorney General \| Department of Justice Office of the Attorney General Office of the Attorney General Office of the Attorney General Meet the Director Loretta E. Lynch Attorney General of the United States Loretta E. Lynch was sworn in as the 83rd Attorney General of the United States by Vice President Joe Biden on April 27, 2015. President Barack Obama announced his intention to nominate Ms. Lynch on November 8, 2014. January 18, 2017 Press Release January 15, 2017 Speech January 13, 2017 Speech January 13, 2017 Press Release The Way Forward in Reentry As law enforcement agencies and community organizations team up across the country to reduce crime, expand opportunity and revitalize our neighborhoods, it is increasingly clear that a crucial part of that work is helping people returning from our prisons and jails make a successful transition back to their families and communities. With more than 600,000 individuals leaving state and federal prisons each year and more than 11 million cycling through local jails, reentry is a process with enormous implications for communities across the United States and for all of us who care about making sure that we create opportunity for everyone who is able to contribute. If handled the right way, reentry policy can lead to lower crime, stronger families and more prosperous communities. If handled poorly – or if ignored altogether – a failure to ensure successful reentry can deepen the cycles of poverty, criminality and incarceration that prevent too many of our neighborhoods from reaching their full potential. Wednesday, April 27, 2016 Remove Roadblocks Faced by Former Prisoners Re-entering Society Every year, more than 600,000 people return to our communities after serving time in federal and state prisons, and another 11.4 million cycle though local jails. Research shows that economic opportunity, education, strong family bonds and civic engagement are the pillars of a successful return from prison. And in turn, successful re-entries reduce recidivism, improve the safety of our neighborhoods and provide economic benefits for our communities and our country. Friday, April 22, 2016 U.S. Attorney General Lynch took her Community Policing Tour to Indianapolis, Indiana, on April 13, to meet with a class of recruits and recognize the merits of the Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department’s (IMPD) Officer Wellness and Safety Program (OWSP). Monday, March 28, 2016 Department of Justice Celebrates Women’s History Month Last month, as part of my ongoing community policing tour , I traveled to Miami and Doral, Florida, to learn about some of the innovative work underway there to build trust and strengthen ties between police officers and the residents they serve. But in addition to the opportunity to meet with local law enforcement, civic leaders, and students, my trip to south Florida gave me a chance to visit with Janet Reno, the first woman to lead the Department of Justice and the second-longest serving Attorney General in American history. Monday, March 21, 2016	Loretta Lynch
In 1774 who named Norfolk Island after Mary Howard Duchess of Norfolk?	Obama to nominate US Attorney Loretta Lynch to replace Holder as AG \| Fox News Obama to nominate US Attorney Loretta Lynch to replace Holder as AG Published November 08, 2014 Facebook 0 Twitter 0 livefyre Email Print In this June 17, 2013 file photo, Loretta Lynch, U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of New York, speaks during a news conference in Brooklyn. (AP) WASHINGTON – President Obama has chosen Loretta Lynch, the U.S. attorney in Brooklyn, N.Y., as his nominee to replace outgoing Attorney General Eric Holder -- ending widespread speculation over who might fill Holder's shoes and teeing up a nomination debate potentially during the lame-duck session. Though several Republicans had wanted to wait to consider any successor until the new Congress is seated, the president plans to announce his pick on Saturday. "Ms. Lynch is a strong, independent prosecutor who has twice led one of the most important U.S. Attorney's offices in the country," White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest said in a statement. "She will succeed Eric Holder, whose tenure has been marked by historic gains in the areas of criminal justice reform and civil rights enforcement." Lynch, 55, is a Harvard Law School graduate and popular prosecutor who is currently serving her second stint as U.S. attorney for Eastern New York, which covers Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island and Long Island. She was appointed by Obama in 2010. If confirmed to fill Holder's post, she would be the first black female attorney general. It was unclear how the nomination will be greeted by Republicans on Capitol Hill, who were often at odds with Holder over the course of his tenure. The party won a majority in the Senate on Tuesday, but will not take control until January. It was also unclear if the Senate might wait on a vote until then. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, R-Ky., who presumably will become the majority leader in the next session, issued a statement Friday night urging the Senate to wait until January to vote on the nomination. "Ms. Lynch will receive fair consideration by the Senate," he said. "And her nomination should be considered in the new Congress through regular order." Annmarie McAvoy, an attorney and former federal prosecutor who worked directly under Lynch during her first tenure as U.S. Attorney from 1999-2001, said, “She’s got a good reputation …she’s done some great work in her office. She’s not one to put her head in the sand. She’s hasn’t been afraid to go after corruption, things like that, against Republicans and Democrats.” She described Lynch as well liked, respected and not likely to cause a stir politically. “I have not heard anything controversial about her – at all,” McAvoy told Foxnews.com. “When you meet her she is very sweet and she is very personable, she is very bright. She handles herself beautifully, but she doesn’t shy away from controversy.” Lynch grew up in Durham, North Carolina, the middle of three children. Her mother was a school librarian, her father a Baptist minister. After Harvard, Lynch served as a federal prosecutor in New York’s Eastern District, receiving several key promotions over eight years until President Clinton nominated her as U.S. Attorney in 1998. After leaving that office in 2001, Lynch went into private practice specializing in commercial litigation, white collar criminal defense and corporate compliance issues before Obama appointed her in 2010 to return to her current post. “President Barack Obama has chosen a great New Yorker as the country’s highest-ranking law enforcement official,” New York Mayor Bill de Blasio tweeted Friday after news of the nomination. In her time as U.S. Attorney, Lynch has made a name for herself in a number of high-profile convictions, including a thwarted Al Qaeda-sanctioned plot to attack the New York subway system, and pursuing the head of a Mexican drug cartel for 12 murders. She also heads the government’s prosecution of Rep. Michael Grimm, R-N.Y., who has been charged with tax evasion but won re-election Tuesday night. There have been no indications thus far if Lynch’s nomination will be as dramatic as other Obama picks. Sen. Charles Grassley, R-Iowa, who is currently the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee -- which must approve Obama’s nominee -- appeared welcoming in his comments Friday night. “Being selected to serve as our nation’s top law enforcement officer is both a tremendous honor and responsibility. As we move forward with the confirmation process, I have every confidence that Ms. Lynch will receive a very fair, but thorough, vetting by the Judiciary Committee,” he said in a statement.“I look forward to learning more about her, how she will interact with Congress, and how she proposes to lead the department.” Reports throughout the week suggested that Lynch was not an Obama insider so she doesn’t bring the baggage carried by other potential administration nominees. “Unlike Eric Holder, who was very close to the president – in a way, too close – she doesn’t really have any relationship with President Obama,” said Fox News contributor Kirsten Powers. “I think that bodes well for her.” Lynch is reportedly close to Holder, however, having served on his Attorney General’s Advisory Committee of U.S. Attorneys (AGAC), a 20-member body that provides counsel to Holder on policy. Sen. Ted Cruz, R-Texas, who sits on the Judiciary Committee, has already indicated that he is unhappy Obama is making the nomination now, instead of during the new session, when Republicans will have the majority in both chambers. “Democrat senators who just lost their seats shouldn't confirm (a) new Attorney General,” he tweeted on Friday. “(They) should be vetted by (the) new Congress.” The Associated Press contributed to this report.	i don't know
"At the recent Tony Awards who won the award for Best Actress in a Play for her performance as Queen Elizabeth II in the play ""The Audience"" by Peter Morgan?"	"Fun Home" Wins Best New Musical, Best Actor Tony Awards - Bloomberg Bloomberg the Company & Its Products Bloomberg Anywhere Remote LoginBloomberg Anywhere Login Bloomberg Terminal Demo Request Bloomberg Connecting decision makers to a dynamic network of information, people and ideas, Bloomberg quickly and accurately delivers business and financial information, news and insight around the world. Customer Support Advertising Bloomberg Connecting decision makers to a dynamic network of information, people and ideas, Bloomberg quickly and accurately delivers business and financial information, news and insight around the world. Customer Support "Fun Home" Wins Best New Musical, Best Actor Tony Awards Mary Romano “Fun Home” a musical about a young lesbian cartoonist grappling with the death of her father, was named the best new Broadway musical at the Tony Awards and “The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time” won for best new play. “Fun Home” took five trophies including awards to Michael Cerveris for his role as the tortured father, Lisa Kron for the book and Kron and Jeanine Tesori for best original score, the first time an all-woman team won for the category. “People take chances on men based on their potential, and they take chances on women based on their accomplishments,” Kron said in the press room after her win Sunday at Radio City Music Hall in New York. “I hope this award will make them look at women based on their accomplishments.” “Fun Home” beat the favorite to win, “An American in Paris,” an old-fashioned musical about a young American soldier who falls for a French woman just after World War II. The show, which incorporates ballet, won awards for choreography, lighting design, scenic design and orchestrations. Lincoln Center Theater’s production of “The King and I” won for best musical revival. Kelli O’Hara, who plays a British 1860s schoolteacher to the King of Siam’s children in the production, won best lead actress in a musical. “I’ll be back, maybe not here but on the theater stage,” O’Hara joked while accepting her award, her first in six nominations. Chenoweth Bested She beat Tony co-host Kristin Chenoweth, nominated for her role in “On the Twentieth Century,” in what was considered one of the hotly contested categories. Helen Mirren took the honor for lead actress in a play for her performance as Queen Elizabeth II in Peter Morgan’s drama “The Audience.” “The foundation of this award is an elegant and fleet play by Peter Morgan,” Mirren said on stage. “This is an unbelievable honor.” Alex Sharp won best lead actor in “Curious Incident,” a coming-of-age drama transfered from London’s National Theatre. David Hare’s 1996 work “Skylight,” starring Bill Nighy and Carey Mulligan, took the trophy for revival of a Broadway play. The 69th annual ceremony, broadcast on CBS, was hosted by Chenoweth and Alan Cumming, who had starred in the recent revival of “Cabaret” on Broadway. After Cumming described Mirren as the “fiercest queen on Broadway,” Chenoweth got huge laughs with her riposte: “Careful, you’re messing with our core audience.” ‘Something Rotten’ The evening’s opening number was “ A Musical” from “Something Rotten” that referenced other famous Broadway shows. Other women nominees also had a good night, with Marianne Elliott winning for direction of a play with “Curious Incident.” Another London import, the Royal Shakespeare Company’s “Wolf Hall Parts 1 & 2,” based on Hilary Mantel’s books “Wolf Hall” and “Bring Up the Bodies,” which centered on the court of King Henry VIII, won an award for costume. The slapstick Elizabethan musical comedy, “Something Rotten,” won featured actor in a musical for Christian Borle, who plays William Shakespeare as a self-absorbed rock star with six-pack abs. Annaleigh Ashford won for featured actress in a play for “You Can’t Take It With You.” Tommy Tune was given a lifetime achievement award for his body of work as a dancer, choreographer, director and nine-time Tony winner. More than 800 people involved in the theater business -- including producers, directors, actors and tour presenters -- select the winners. The Tonys are a joint venture of the Broadway League and the American Theatre Wing. Sales and attendance for the 2014-2015 Broadway season hit records, to $1.37 billion and 13 million patrons, up 7.6 percent and 7.3 percent, respectively, from the prior year, according to the Broadway League, a trade group. Before it's here, it's on the Bloomberg Terminal.	Helen Mirren
The musical Cabaret is set in which Berlin nightclub?	Tonys: Can Helen Mirren Win Another Award for Playing the Queen? \| Hollywood Reporter 8:49am PT by Scott Feinberg Tonys: Can Helen Mirren Win Another Award for Playing the Queen? The 69-year-old, who won the best actress Oscar eight years ago for 'The Queen,' is now in the running for the best actress in a play Tony for 'The Audience.' The countdown to the coronation is already underway: Dame Helen Mirren, who won the best actress Oscar for playing Queen Elizabeth II in the 2006 film The Queen, is now the clear frontrunner to win the best actress in a play Tony for her portrayal of the same monarch in this year's acclaimed Broadway production The Audience. Which begs the question: how many people have previously won an Oscar and a Tony for performances as the same character/person? The answer is nine. In the order of which they completed the double, they are: Jose Ferrer as Cyrano de Bergerac in Cyrano de Bergerac (Tony in 1948, Oscar in 1951) Shirley Booth as Lola Delaney in Come Back, Little Sheba (Tony in 1950, Oscar in 1953) Yul Brynner as King Mongkut of Siam in The King and I (Tony in 1952, Oscar in 1957) Anne Bancroft as Annie Sullivan in The Miracle Worker (Tony in 1960, Oscar in 1963) Rex Harrison as Prof. Henry Higgins in My Fair Lady (Tony in 1957, Oscar in 1965) Paul Scofield as Thomas More in A Man for All Seasons (Tony in 1962, Oscar in 1967) Jack Albertson as John Cleary in The Subject Was Roses (Tony in 1965, Oscar in 1969) Joel Grey as the Master of Ceremonies in Cabaret (Tony in 1967, Oscar in 1973) Lila Kedrova as Madame Hortense in Zorba the Greek (Oscar in 1965) and Zorba (Tony in 1984) It makes sense that Mirren, 69, would become No. 10: She is as associated with the role of the Queen as the aforementioned individuals will forever be with the aforementioned roles. As you can see, though, only one of those people — Kedrova — won the Oscar before the Tony, as would be the case with Mirren, too. They would also be the only people on the list to win for playing the same people in different properties. (In Mirren's case, The Queen focused on her response to Princess Diana's death, while The Audience is about her interactions with Britain's prime ministers throughout her reign. Both were written by Peter Morgan.) It seems unlikely that Mirren will be "penalized" for having previously played the Queen on the big screen, since that was a one-time performance. However, for many years, and perhaps even to this day, people who performed a role onstage and then on film (the much more common path) were dismissed by many — including the Hollywood trade papers — as being unworthy of Oscar recognition because, those people felt, they'd had an opportunity to perfect their portrayal over the course of many previous performances, unlike their competition. More often than not, it never even came to that sort of a debate, because the Broadway performer was replaced by a "bigger name" Hollywood star when a show was adapted into a film. (The most famous example, perhaps, is Julie Andrews being replaced by Audrey Hepburn in My Fair Lady. Ethel Merman, Kim Stanley, Carol Channing, Angela Lansbury and Chita Rivera also lost major film roles in this manner.)	i don't know
What type of cars compete in the FIA WTCC as indicated by the T in the name?	Honda expands factory WTCC effort to four cars - automobilsport.com WTCC NÜRBURGRING Races 2015 photos by Marc HILGER automobilsport.com Honda expands factory WTCC effort to four cars 22.07.2016: Ryo Michigami to make FIA WTCC debut in Japan Long-term Honda driver gets fourth factory Civic at Motegi Ryo Michigami to make FIA WTCC debut in Japan Long-term Honda driver gets fourth factory Civic at Motegi Increased factory presence underlines Honda’s WTCC commitment Honda will increase its factory attack on the FIA World Touring Car Championship to four cars when Japanese driver Ryo Michigami joins its line-up for WTCC JVCKENWOOD Race of Japan from 2-4 September. Michigami has been part of the Honda Racing family since 1998, while his career highlights include 11 wins, 51 podiums and 11 pole positions in major categories such as the Japanese Touring Car Championship, Super Formula and Super GT. In 2014, the 43-year-old established his own team, DRAGO CORSE, which competes in Super Formula and Super GT. To date, the squad has nine podiums to its name. The WTCC races at Twin Ring Motegi, which is located 145 kilometres north of the Japanese capital Tokyo, will mark Michigami’s debut in the series and will make him the first driver from his homeland to race a TC1 World Touring Car. He will join Rob Huff, Norbert Michelisz and Tiago Monteiro in driving a factory Honda Civic WTCC at Motegi following a test in one of the Honda Racing Team JAS-run cars at Circuit de Catalunya near Barcelona recently. Fittingly, Twin Ring Motegi is owned by Honda and houses the famous Honda Collection Hall, which contains a number of classic race- and road-going Honda cars and motorbikes. “After giving independent champion Norbert Michelisz his dream factory drive in the WTCC, Honda is now handing a local hero in Ryo Michigami the chance to make his World Touring Car Championship debut, which not only underlines Honda’s commitment to the WTCC but will also generate even more interest in the event among Japanese fans,” said François Ribeiro, Head of Eurosport Events, the WTCC promoter. “Ryo has developed a strong reputation from his exploits racing in Japan and is an important part of the Honda Racing family, so it’s a real honour to welcome him to the WTCC at his and Honda’s home event.” Michigami, who has also raced in the Le Mans 24 Hours, said: “I had a chance to test the Civic WTCC at Barcelona last week and was hoping for an opportunity to race it, so I’m very excited that I’ll be able to do this so soon. I was involved in the development of the Civic Type R, which was released last year, and had been watching the Civic WTCC closely as well. I will be racing with my heart and soul at Motegi and putting all my experience to best use. Honda and JAS Motorsport have given me a wonderful opportunity; the car felt consistently fast in Spain and I’ll definitely be well-prepared for the races in Japan.” Daisuke Horiuchi, Large Project Leader WTCC Development, Honda R&D, added: “I’m excited to have a Japanese driver competing for us at our home race. Ryo has been racing with Honda for a long time, so he immediately grasped the characteristics of the Civic WTCC at Barcelona. There isn’t much time between now and Motegi, but we’ll be working our hardest with JAS to provide the support he needs. We’re looking forward to Ryo racing fast in front of the Japanese fans.” Confirmation of Michigami’s participation at WTCC Race of Japan follows yesterday’s (Wednesday) announcement that Esteban Guerrieri will compete at WTCC Race of Argentina next month in a Campos Racing Chevrolet RML Cruze TC1. Honda announces Ryo Michigami as wild-card entry for Japanese WTCC event 21.07.2016 • Ryo Michigami to compete for Honda Racing Team JAS as fourth factory driver at WTCC Round 9, Japan Honda is delighted to announce that Ryo Michigami will compete in the FIA World Touring Car Championship’s Race of Japan as a wild- weiter >> Argentinean Esteban Guerrieri gets dream WTCC chance 20.07.2016 FIA WTCC Race of Argentina outing awaits home hopefulAfter López raised world stage aspirations, ex-single-seater racer wants WTCC futureDrive in second Campos Chevrolet brings Termas de Río Hondo entry to 19 cars weiter >> ETCC Magny-Cours race winners quotes 10.07.2016 FIA ETCC Race of Magny-Cours, rounds 9 and 10 of 12, 8-10 JulyPetr Fulín (Super 2000 Cup winner, Race 1): “I have to thank my team because, as usual, they did a good job all weekend. I was not able to weiter >> Fulin and Richard equal on points for ETCC showdown 10.07.2016 FIA ETCC Race of Magny-Cours, rounds 9 and 10 of 12, 8-10 JulyTitle rivals take a victory apiece at Magny-Cours live on EurosportWorld Touring Car Championship prize drive awaits the winnerETCC teams unite to repair Ric weiter >> High speed crash can't keep Keith Richard off first ETCC pole 10.07.2016 FIA ETCC Race of Magny-Cours, rounds 9 and 10 of 12, 8-10 JulySaturday, July 9th 2016Swiss racer takes top spot and three points but car damage is a downerTitle rival Fulín second as local hero Chaumat takes third on ETCC debut weiter >> WTCC Champion José Maria Lopez switch to Citroen family for Formula E 07.07.2016 FROM PRINCE OF TOURING CARS IN ARGENTINA TO WORLD TOURING CAR KING, WHAT A JOURNEY FOR WTCC CHAMPION LÓPEZ! Inspirational Argentine to remain in the Citroën family for Formula E weiter >> FIA ETCC Race of Magny-Cours preview 02.07.2016 RACE PREVIEW: 1 July 2016FIA ETCC Race of Magny-Cours, rounds 9/10 of 12, 8-10 JulyRichard and Fulín in thrilling battle for ETCC Super 2000 titleMackschin can clinch S1600 crown with strong Magny-Cours resultsEurospor weiter >> Victoire brillante et chargée en émotion pour Tiago Monteiro à Vila Real 28.06.2016 Tiago Monteiro a certainement remporté la victoire la plus savoureuse de sa carrière en Championnat du Monde des Voitures de Tourisme FIA WTCC, aujourd'hui sur le circuit de Vila Real, à une centaine de kilomètres de sa ville natale, Porto. weiter >> Tom Coronel takes magnificent win in seventh FIA WTCC race weekend in Portugal! 27.06.2016 • Clever qualifying strategy brings DHL pole position and second win• Tom Coronel scores well in final European FIA WTCC meetingCircuito Internacional de Vila Real, the over 4.7 kilo weiter >> ETCC Vila Real race winner quotes 26.06.2016 FIA ETCC Race of Vila Real, rounds 7 and 8 of 12, 24-26 JuneManuel Fernandes (Super 2000 Cup winner, Race 1): “I didn't get a very good start, I was expecting to go to first place immediately but of course it’s not easy and Nagy I th weiter >> Fernandes completes dream debut with ETCC Vila Real win 26.06.2016 FIA ETCC Race of Vila Real, rounds 7 and 8 of 12, 24-26 JuneRace 2 success for Richard hands young Swiss joint title leadMackshin takes a S1600 Cup double to edge closer to crownLegendary Vila Real street track del weiter >> Monteiro claims emotional home win in Portugal for Honda 26.06.2016 FIA World Touring Car Championship 2016 - Round 13 & 14 - Portugal - RacesHonda were streets ahead at the FIA World Touring Car Championship’s Race of Portugal as Tiago Monteiro claimed a commanding victory in Vila Real. After taking pole weiter >> Citroen widens the gap 26.06.2016 The Citroën C-Elysée WTCCs rounded off the European portion of the FIA WTCC season with a handy collection of points finishes in the streets of Vila Real. Runner-up spots for Yvan Muller and Tom Chilton mean Citroën has furthe weiter >> WTCC Portugal winner quotes 26.06.2016 FIA WTCC Race of Portugal, Vila RealSunday, June 26th 2016Tom Coronel (Opening Race winner): “I knew I had good chance here because I always said Morocco, Vila Real and Japan should be good to me. Until now everything came out so I’m weiter >> Tiago Monteiro takes home WTCC win 26.06.2016 WTCC Race of Portugal, Vila Real, 24-26 JuneFIA World Touring Car Championship 2016: Rounds 13 and 14 of 24Thousands roar Monteiro to emotional victory on the streets of Vila RealCoronel beats Chilton to Opening Race glory as priva weiter >> Lord March announced Goodwood WTCC Art Cars prize 26.06.2016 Honda blends art and motorsport in style with inaugural Goodwood WTCC Art Cars PrizeFictional racer Michel Vaillant the inspiration behind striking designWinner announced by Lord March at the Goodwood Festival of SpeedFans vote online and in p weiter >> WTCC Race of Portugal Main Race result 26.06.2016 FIA WTCC Race of Portugal , Vila RealSunday, June 26th 20161 Tiago Monteiro PRT Honda Civic WTCC 14 - - 144.5 1:59.180 82 Yvan Muller FRA Citroën C-Elysée WTCC 14 0.821 0.821 144.4 1:59.214 33 Norbert weiter >> WTCC Race of Portugal Opening Race result 26.06.2016 FIA WTCC Race of Portugal , Vila RealSunday, June 26th 20161 Tom Coronel NED T Chevrolet RML Cruze TC1 13 - - 142.8 2:00.548 102 Tom Chilton GBR T Citroën C-Elysée WTCC 13 0.597 0.597 142.8 2:00.564 12 weiter >> Monteiro takes WTCC home pole position for Honda 26.06.2016 FIA World Touring Car Championship 2016 - Round 13 & 14 - Portugal - QualifyingHome hero Tiago Monteiro gave Honda pole position for the FIA World Touring Car Championship’s Race of Portugal in a dramatic qualifying session on the streets of Vila Rea weiter >> Yvan Muller makes the front row, Citroen win MAC3 in Portugal 26.06.2016 In a closely contested day of FIA WTCC qualifying at Vila Real, Yvan Muller produced a solid display. The four-time World Champion’s second-place finish puts him in contention for a win tomorrow. A great team effort from Muller, Chilton an weiter >> ETCC Qualifying: Nagy nets debut pole in Portugal 25.06.2016 FIA ETCC Race of Vila Real, rounds 7 and 8 of 12, 24-26 JuneSaturday, June 25th, 2016Hungarian rising star causes a stir on the streets of Vila RealMixed fortunes for home heroes: Fernandes second but Mota crashesMackschin cont weiter >> Citroen charges to WTCC MAC3 victory 25.06.2016 FIA World Touring Car Championship 2016: Rounds 13 and 14 of 24WTCC Race of Portugal, Vila Real, 24-26 JuneLópez recovery drive secures a 0.283s winning marginCitroën earns 10 points in WTCC Manufacturers’ championship battle weiter >> Tiago Monteiro lands Portugal WTCC pole 25.06.2016 FIA World Touring Car Championship 2016: Rounds 13 and 14 of 24WTCC Race of Portugal, Vila Real, 24-26 JuneHonda’s home hero edges world champion Muller by 0.109s in dramatic shootoutLópez moment adds to the drama on the streets weiter >> Race of Portugal combined qualifying result 25.06.2016 FIA WTCC Race of PortugalVila Real CircuitSaturday, June 25th 20161 Tiago Monteiro PRT Honda Civic WTCC 1:57.488 1:57.136 1:56.633 1:56.6332 Yvan Muller FRA Citroën C-Elysée WTCC 1:56.900 1:56.428 1:56.742 1:56.742 weiter >> MAC3 WTCC Portugal provisional result 25.06.2016 FIA WTCC Race of PortugalVila Real CircuitSaturday, June 25th 20161 AUTOMOBILES CITROEN 3:57.425 - - 145.5 102 HONDA MOTOR CO. LTD 3:57.708 0.283 0.283 145.0 83 LADA SPORT 4:05.746 8.321 8.038 140.9 6 weiter >> Goodwood WTCC Art Cars revealed - get voting 24.06.2016 Honda’s creation inspired by fictional racing driver Michel VaillantSwedish Prince Car Philip produces design for Polestar*Street artist Jim Vision behind TAG Heuer car liveryVoting is open for the weiter >> WTCC Race of Portugal: Pre-event press conference 23.06.2016 FIA World Touring Car Championship 2016: Rounds 13 and 14 of 24WTCC Race of Portugal, Circuito Internacional de Vila Real, 24-26 JuneMedia Centre, Circuito Internacional de Vila Real, 14h00, 23 JunePresent: Robert D weiter >> Gagner à Vila Real, le rêve de Tiago Monteiro 23.06.2016 Les 25 et 26 juin, le Championnat du Monde des Voitures de Tourisme FIA WTCC pose ses valises au Portugal pour la 7ème des 10 étapes de la saison 2016. L'épreuve tient particulièrement à cœur à Tiago Monteiro. weiter >> Honda street fighters ready for WTCC challenge of Portugal 21.06.2016 FIA World Touring Car Championship 2016 - round 13 & 14 - Portugal - Preview Honda heads to the streets of Vila Real in Portugal this weekend ready to battle for more victories at the seventh round of the FIA World Touring Car weiter >>	Touring car racing
Les Gray was the vocalist with which glam-rock band?	TinTop Guru: Tourings Cars: FIA TCN-1 or TCR... You Choose... My views and memories of the Touring Car World...Past, Present and Future... Sunday, 21 December 2014 Tourings Cars: FIA TCN-1 or TCR... You Choose... The World of Touring Car racing faces an interesting choice of regulations from 2015 thanks to some recent changes and news over the past few weeks... So I've decided to compare the two different types of Touring Car regulations on offer, known as the TCR International series and the Dunlop MSA British Touring Car Championship's NGTC regulations, now known as FIA TCN-1... Earlier this year Marcello Lotti, who ran the FIA World Touring Car Championship for 9 years, announced he was setting up a new International Touring Car championship that would take place in 2015 with a flagship International series, using a model that is based on the successful GT3 form of motorsport that would be transferred to Touring Car racing along with elements and ideas that he used in the WTCC as well. He named originally named this the "TC3 International Series" however recently that changed to the "TCR International Series" for reasons that I will explain later. Now with his experience of building up the WTCC from a successful three year stint running it as the FIA European Touring Car Championship between 2002 & 2004, to it becoming the FIA World Touring Car Championship and running until the end of 2013, Lotti knows what works and also has his race format already set out as well as the technical regulations for the series. Now so far the TCR regulations have proven a popular option for different markets to choose to run in either 2015 or in 2016. Domestic TCR Series or Promotional Classes have been announced in Portugal, Italy, the USA and the BeNeLux region along with the already confirmed International Series and the Asian series as well. So TCR looks quite healthy so far. There are benefits to having different series around the world running to the same regulations that remind me of the old SuperTouring Days. With cars being built to the TCR regulations, it will open up a market for these cars to be sold on as different and new teams around the world look to either build cars or buy cars to compete in TCR. Already I can feel a tinge of excitement as I recall the height of the SuperTouring Days when the FIA ran three consecutive World Cup events between 1993 and 1995 with almost 40+ drivers from around the world competing in near equal tintop machines. This is something that could end up happening if TCR takes off in the manner it promises to, but the idea of a TCR World Cup is wild speculation at the moment. I can even feel a tear in the eye... Anyway... There is another form of Touring Car racing already in use that could rival TCR and also has the backing of the FIA: The Dunlop MSA British Touring Car Championship's "Next Generation Touring Car" regulations... At the recent December meeting of the FIA World MotorSport Council, the decision was taken by the FIA to endorse and support the use of two types of Touring Car Regulations for other countries to adopt and use in an attempt to reduce costs for teams and drivers to take part in and for organisers to run those series. The FIA chose the NGTC regulations from the BTCC and decided to rename them as "FIA TCN-1" or Touring Car National - 1. The second set of regulations to be endorsed and promoted are the more Production based Argentine Touring Car Championship regulations or now known as FIA TCN-2 for domestic championships looking for a cheaper alternative. The FIA also reclassified the structure of its Touring Car hierarchy to clear up any confusion about what tintops are eligible where. The FIA WTCC uses TC1 regulation cars exclusively from 2015. The European Touring Car Cup will use TC2T ( 1.6 litre Turbocharged S2000 cars) and also TC2 (2 Litre Normally Aspirated S2000 cars) alongside the other classes. Now with the FIA endorsing the new TC3 concept, a name change was needed to avoid confusion that the TC3 series could be part of the hierarchy. So the name was changed to TCR. So the FIA Touring Car Comission now has its progression system in place, something that Alan Gow and Jonathan Ashman have wanted for a long time as heads of the FIA Touring Car Commission, allowing drivers and teams in national TCN-1 or TCN-2 national championships to compete with a common set of regulations and have a clear view of progression up the ladder to the ETCC and later the WTCC. This is something that has been missing in Touring Cars for many years since the demise of SuperTouring and the change from Super 2000 to TC1 in the WTCC whilst Single seaters and Rallying have had a clear progression in place for a long time. Now effectively there are two lots of regulations that are on offer for the different countries/markets to use. The benefits of NGTC are something I've written about before, but in a nutshell, you have one company producing spec parts for the car such as Gearbox, Rollcage, ECU, Aero and other parts whilst a spec engine is also on sale to competitors who cant build their own power units. This then allows one supplier for spares etc and help keeps the cost down. The teams are responsible for choosing the shell and model of the car they wish to race and building the shell. The BTCC has seen the benefits of this since Series Boss Alan Gow's introduction of the NGTC regulations back in 2011 when just five full NGTC cars were raced whereas as this year a full 31 car grid of full NGTC cars competed as most rounds. Again in a recall back to the SuperTouring days, if different countries adopt these regulations, it opens up a market for ex BTCC cars to be sold on whilst new cars are built by suppliers to teams wishing to enter the new domestic FIA TCN-1 championships. Now currently there are no new FIA TCN-1 championships announced, but give this some time. The FIA only just gave this the green light so it could be that over the next 12 months we could see new championships appearing in Europe or Scandinavia. History has shown for example that the Swedish Touring Car scene has often followed the BTCC in its regulations and it spent between 2011 and 2013 deciding if NGTC was the way to go, causing a split in the tintop scene and the creation of the TTA series that has gone on to become the Scandinavian Touring Car Championship, using the TTA regulations. As far as race formats go, both the TCR and NGTC sporting regulations offer variety. TCR has announced a format of 2 60km races in duration whilst the BTCC holds 3 races on raceday of around 40 minutes in duration. However there is nothing to say that other markets will enforce these and only time will tell if they do. As far as the cars and equipment being used, there are similarities. Both regulations support 2 litre Turbocharged Petrol engines, whilst TCR also offers the chance for 2 litre Turbo-Diesels to be used as well. Aerodynamic packages are provided by the organisers, keeping the advantage to a minimum whilst only the bodyshell of the model being used would be different. Both series offer spec parts or specify production parts only to be used and both series have a balance of performance system in place using weight to penalise a winning car and allow a close form of exciting racing where no one model of car dominates. So, as you can see, there isn't much to choose from in the differences between TCR and FIA TCN-1, apart from the fact that the TCN-1 regulations have been in use since 2011 and quite successfully too. What Touring Car racing has needed to do for some time is to reduce costs and bring back the teams and drivers to the tintop arena. TCN-1 has succeeded in doing this in the UK whilst TCR looks just as promising with its wide European prescence for 2015 and 2016. Theres one final point I want to make as I know my readers in the UK will ask this question: Can TCR work in the UK? My answer to this is No. The BTCC has re-established itself as one of Europes strongest series again, thanks to the success of the NGTC/FIA TCN-1 regulations. Thats also the reason as to why there is no UK round of the FIA World Touring Car Championship or the FIA European Touring Car Cup. Such a strong domestic series can often deter a World/European championship event from needing to take place, often because there is less popularity or knowledge for an FIA event than there is for the BTCC. Another reason as to why there is no UK round in the WTCC is because the manufacturers who compete have no interest in the UK car market and for them racing Touring Cars that win means they need to race where the car markets offer the best sales and thats a trend thats been in force for many years now. As for TCR, it just can't compete right now and it wouldn't survive against the BTCC. But thats why the FIA chose the NGTC regs to promote as one of two sets of dedicated tintop regulations to be adopted from now on. If it works, don't fix it... Promote it so it can work just as well elsewhere and become more popular and even stronger. Either way my final thought on the debate of TCR or TCN-1 is this. Pretty soon almost every country that holds a Touring Car Championship (Except Australia's V8 Supercars and Germany's DTM) will be exclusively running either a TCR Series, FIA TCN-1 or TCN-2 Championship and with so many Championships running in common, that can only be good for Touring Cars for the future. As to the most popular set of regulations... Well we'll find that out over the next few years. Thank you for reading.	i don't know
"What term do we use for the style of art known in German as ""Jugendstil""?"	Art Nouveau Movement, Artists and Major Works \| The Art Story Web Services & Hosting by The Computer Studio \| Designed by DesArtLab Art Deco Art Deco Art Deco was an eclectic style that flourished in the 1920s and '30s and influenced art, architecture and design. It blended a love of modernity - expressed through geometric shapes and streamlined forms - with references to the classical past and to exotic locations. Modernism and Modern Art Modernism and Modern Art For all its complexities, Modernism is a term applied to late-nineteenth century and twentieth-century movements - including art, literature, architecture, philosophy, etc. - that promote and postulate the new, free from derivation and historical references. And for the new to be possible, old movements must be altogether abandoned, or in the case of Picasso's Cubism, deconstructed. In these paintings, for example, familair subject matter is taken apart, laid out, and thus seen from an entirely new perspective. Bauhaus Bauhaus Bauhaus is a style associated with the Bauhaus school, an extremely influential art and design school in Weimar Germany that emphasized functionality and efficiency of design. Its famous faculty - including Joseph Albers and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - generally rejected distinctions between the fine and applied arts, and encouraged major advances in industrial design. Arts and Crafts Movement Arts and Crafts Movement The Arts and Crafts Movement was an international design movement that originated in England. It advocated truth to materials and traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. It also proposed economic and social reform and has been seen as essentially anti-industrial. Gustav Klimt Gustav Klimt Austrian painter Gustav Klimt was the most renowned advocator of Art Nouveau in Vienna, and is remembered as one of the greatest decorative painters of the twentieth century. He also produced one of the century's most significant bodies of erotic art. Emile Galle Emile Galle Emile Galle was a French Art Nouveau artist and one of the preeminent glassmakers during this time. Galle's technique involved using opaque glass with etched with floral and plant motifs. Galle is celebrated for reviving a luxury form of glass art known as cameo glass, involving the careful carving and layering of glass and color. James Whistler James Whistler James Whistler was a nineteenth-century American expatriate artist. Educated in France and later based in London, Whistler was a famous proponent of art-for-art's-sake, and an esteemed practictioner of tonal harmony in his canvases, often characterized by his masterful use of blacks and greys, as seen in his most famous work, Whistler's Mother (1871). Whistler was also known as an American Impressionist, and in 1874 he famously turned down an invitation from Degas to exhibit his work with the French Impressionists. Vincent van Gogh Vincent van Gogh Vincent van Gogh was a Dutch painter, commonly associated with the Post-Impressionist period. As one of the most prolific and experimental artists of his time, van Gogh was a spontaneous painter and a master of color and perspective. Troubled by personal demons all his life, many historians speculate that van Gogh suffered from a Bipolar disorder. Paul Gauguin Paul Gauguin Paul Gauguin was a French Post-Impressionist artist who employed color fields and painterly strokes in his work. He is best known for his primitivist depictions of native life in Tahiti and Polynesia. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec was a Post-Impressionist artist who depicted the dancers, prostitutes, drinkers, and other characters of fin-de-siecle Paris. He is known for his paintings, his caricatures of friends, and his well-designed posters for Parisian dance halls. Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo was a late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century English architect, furniture maker and interior designer whose work was influential to the Arts & Crafts Movement. Mackmurdo enjoyed success at an early age, opening his own architecture practice in London at age 28, and was involved in the craft guild The Century Guild of Artist, which encouraged members to participate in the production as well as design of homes, furnishings and other projects. Otto Wagner Otto Wagner Otto Wagner was an Austrian architect and urban planner. His appraoch is considered part of the Art Nouveau, or Jugendstil, style of architecture, characterized by clean lines and ornate decoration. In 1897 Wagner became one of the founding members of the Vienna Secession. Josef Hoffmann Josef Hoffmann Josef Hoffmann was an Austrian architect, designer, and one of the founders of Weiner Werkstatte, a production company of visual artists. Arguably Hoffmann's most famous work was his Art Deco Palais Stoclet, a private home in Brussels, for which Gustav Klimt provided some of the wall decorations. Vienna Secession Vienna Secession The Vienna Secession (also known as the Union of Austrian Artists) was a group of Austrian painters, sculptors and architects, who in 1897 resigned from the Association of Austrian Artists, and founded a group with the mission of bringing modern European art to a culturally-insulated Austria, and exposing their countrymen to the work of great Europeans, such as the French Impressionists. Among the Secession's founding members were Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann and Joseph Maria Olbrich. Arthur Liberty Arthur Liberty Sir Arthur Lasenby Liberty was an English merchant and the founder of London's Liberty & Co, a store that sold ornaments, fabrics and various art objects from the Far East. Liberty's store became a popular destination for artists and designers working in the Art Nouveau style during the turn of the twentieth century. In fact, Liberty & Co's reputation grew to the point where in some circles, particularly among Italian practitioners of the style, Art Nouveau became known as Stile Liberty. Aubrey Beardsley Aubrey Beardsley Aubrey Beardsley was a nineteenth-century English illustrator and author. IN black ink he created highly erotic, grotesque and decadant drawings, much in the style of Japanese woodcuts. Beardsley's work was part of the Aesthetic movement, and was highly influential to the subsequent Art Nouveau movement of the early-twentieth century. Japonisme Japonisme Japonisme describes the influence of Japanese art, especially woodblock prints, on French artists in the second half of the nineteenth century. Many Post-Impressionists were influenced by the flat blocks of color, the emphasis on design, and the simple, everyday subject matter. Beaux Arts Beaux Arts Beaux Arts is a term typically applied to a neoclassical style of architecture that was popularized at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts school in Paris in the nineteenth century. The style is characterized by decorative yet modern lines, flat roofs, Baroque- and Rococo-inspired motifs, arched windows, and other flourishes that by contemporary standards are considered both classic and academic, if not a bit fussy. Early-twentieth-century American architecture was highly influenced by the Beaux Arts style before Art Deco became the prevailing style of its time.	Art Nouveau
In which year was the Mutiny on the Bounty?	art nouveau to art deco Orchid desk mahogany, gilded bronze, and glass. Similarly, French designer Hector Guimard designed entrances for the Metro stations in Paris (1898-1901) using simple metal and glass forms decorated with curvilinear wrought iron. These are especially memorable examples of art nouveau's delightfully curving naturalistic forms. An interest in organic forms is also found in the work of French glass designer ï¿½mile Gallï¿½. Working from his hometown of Nancy, Gallï¿½ produced a variety of glassware decorated with leaves, vines, and flowers. He fused layers of different coloured glass and then cut designs into the glass to reveal the colour he wanted, a technique that also added greater depth to the design. IV. Germany and Austria Art nouveau took hold in a number of German-speaking cities, the most prominent of which were Munich, Darmstadt, and Weimar in Germany, and Vienna in Austria. Known as Jugendstil (German for ï¿½youth styleï¿½), art nouveau was promoted in Munich through periodicals such as Die Jugend (The Youth). Vilmos Zsolnay. Vase, 1899, earthenware with metallic luster glaze The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Gift of the Norwest Corporation. At the head of Munich's Jugendstil movement was Hermann Obrist, a Swiss designer who created a sensation with an exhibition of his embroidery in 1896. Not only did this exhibit challenge the separation between fine and applied arts, but it also introduced the Munich public to the lively organic forms of art nouveau. Obrist's designs, although based on natural forms, often evolved into mysterious shapes that suggest a fantasy world. The work of German architect August Endell shares this visionary quality. Endell sought to create intense, dynamic forms that would evoke a strong response in the viewer. His plaster relief sculpture for the exterior of Munich's Elvira Photo Studio (1896-1897) does just that. Part dragon, part flying sea creature, part tidal wave, the theatrical relief expands the organic forms of art nouveau into the realm of visionary fantasy. Stylistic trends in Vienna took a significantly different direction. Led by Austrian artist Gustav Klimt, young artists and architects formed a group called the Wiener Sezession, or Vienna Secession, in protest against the entrenched conservatism of the art establishment in Vienna. As did their counterparts elsewhere in Europe, Secession designers rejected historical styles; but in Vienna they expressed this through an increasing simplification of form. Rather than embracing the writhing organic forms of Endell or Obrist in Munich, Viennese artists moved towards the restrained geometric designs exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh. V. Spain The art nouveau movement in Spain is best exemplified in the work of Barcelona architect Antoni Gaudï¿½ y Cornet, whose designs represent a highly personal response to the art nouveau ideas of his time. Gaudï¿½ created one of his most eccentric works in the Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia (Church of the Holy Family, begun in 1883, construction ongoing) in Barcelona. Dominated by four disproportionately tall spires, the church appears to be a fantastical outgrowth of the earth. Floral designs cover the building faï¿½ade, and broken tiles glitter on the rippling surface of the towers. In his Casa Milï¿½ apartment complex (1905-1907, Barcelona), Gaudï¿½ created the illusion of a limestone reef hollowed out by centuries of seawater. Although the entire complex was executed in cut stone, there is not one straight line in the faï¿½ade. VI. United States In the United States, art nouveau evolved naturally from the craft tradition of the early 19th century. American furniture, glass, metalwork, and jewellery had long been adapted from European models. Travel between the United States and Europe fostered a continuous exchange of ideas, and by the 1890s American designers were making significant contributions to art nouveau ceramics, glassware, and architecture. International expositions in the United States not only highlighted American products but also attracted European visitors who were curious about design trends emerging in this new marketplace. Foremost among American art nouveau innovators were Rookwood Pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, and Tiffany Studios of New York City. Rookwood was well established by the 1890s, producing a wide range of elegant pottery decorated with softly coloured natural forms. The glassware of Louis Comfort Tiffany probably constitutes the best-known American examples of art nouveau design. Using his patented Favrile glass (iridescent glass produced by exposing hot glass to metallic fumes), Tiffany designed stained glass windows, lamps, and a variety of other glass objects. The intense colour, fluid organic forms, and innovative techniques incorporated in his designs positioned Tiffany as a leader in international art nouveau design. Tiffany Studios American A scene of cultured decadence pochier print, based on watercolour of 1924 Art deco was also a product of the fertile artistic exchange between Paris, France, and New York City that occurred after World War I (1914-1918). American artists, writers, and musicians flocked to Paris after the war and brought with them a fresh approach to creative work. The French, who grounded their art in a firm grasp of tradition, absorbed something of the American spirit of improvisation. Later, American architects who had trained at Paris's ï¿½cole des Beaux Arts (School of Fine Arts) brought European influence to the design of New York's many art deco skyscrapers. I. Bauhaus Bauhaus the famous German school of design that had inestimable influence on modern architecture, the industrial and graphic arts, and theatre design. It was founded in 1919 by the architect Walter Gropius in Weimar as a merger of an art academy and an arts and crafts school. The Bauhaus was based on the principles of the 19th-century English designer William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement that art should meet the needs of society and that no distinction should be made between fine arts and practical crafts. It also depended on the more forward-looking principles that modern art and architecture must be responsive to the needs and influences of the modern industrial world and that good designs must pass the test of both aesthetic standards and sound engineering. Thus, classes were offered in crafts, typography, and commercial and industrial design, as well as in sculpture, painting, and architecture. The Bauhaus style, later also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornament and ostentatious facades and by harmony between function and the artistic and technical means employed. In 1930 the Bauhaus came under the direction of the architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who moved it to Berlin in 1932. By 1933, when the school was closed by the Nazis, its principles and work were known worldwide. Many of its faculty immigrated to the United States, where the Bauhaus teachings came to dominate art and architecture for decades. II. Decorative Arts The first designers to contribute to the creation of art deco were French fashion designer Paul Poiret and French jewelry and glass designer Renï¿½ Lalique. Echoing the experimental glass of American designer Louis Comfort Tiffany, Lalique's glass designs of the 1910s featured continuous, flowing lines and subtle, unusual colours. The colorful and original designs created by artists Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso for the Ballets Russes dance company in Paris were an additional influence on the emerging art deco style. Art deco designers also admired and borrowed from ancient art that was being unearthed by archaeologists at the time, especially the treasures of the ancient Egyptian king Tutankhamun (exhibited in Paris in 1922) and Maya and other Mesoamerican art. The Aristocrats (1920s) Professor Otto Poertzel. This is one of the best examples of Art Deco sculpture and conjures up the archetypal woman of the period, tall, slender and extremely chic. At the 1925 exposition several French masters unveiled work that created an international stir. Elegant inlaid wood furniture by Jacques ï¿½mile Ruhlmann, functional lacquerwork by Jean Dunand, silver jewellery by Jean Puiforcat, and glass vases by Lalique were hailed for their modernity and original lines. Ruhlmann designed a series of rooms for the exposition that had a far-reaching effect on American and European taste. Lalique later created a similarly streamlined decorative scheme for the luxurious French ocean liner Normandie. Both designs displayed clean abstract lines in metal, porcelain, enamel, and exotic woods, evoking what was viewed at the time as the speed and grace of machinery in motion. III. Architecture In architecture, the crowning achievements of art deco occurred not in Europe but in the United States. A trio of New York City skyscraper specialists set the stage for an explosion of creative activity during the 1920s and early 1930s. Architects Raymond M. Hood, Ralph Walker, and Ely Jacques Kahn produced many of the city's landmark tall buildings and inspired other designers with their innovations in form, materials, and decoration. A major influence on their work was a never-executed design by Finnish-born American architect Eliel Saarinen that he entered in the 1922 Chicago Tribune Building competition. Although his proposal did not win, it helped popularise the use of setbacks, the stepped building profile that became associated with so many art deco skyscrapers. New York's 1916 building and zoning ordinances also encouraged the use of setbacks in tall buildings to enable sunlight to penetrate to the canyonlike streets of the city. The Impact of Art Deco As the 1930s progressed, American art deco became increasingly identified with the imagery of technology and speed: It emphasized the use of modern glossy materials, smooth seamless surfaces, and aerodynamic horizontal lines. This sleeker version of art deco, known as streamlined moderne, supplanted the detailed geometric patterns of early art deco. Silver tea & Coffee service (1934-39) H.G.Murphy American designer Donald Deskey created interior furnishings and fixtures using new materials such as Bakelite (a type of plastic), chrome-plated metal, linoleum, and glass bricks. American designer Raymond Loewy brought art deco into people's homes with his streamlined design for the Coldspot refrigerator. Hollywood added to the style's popularity by featuring glamorous moderne interiors in motion pictures of the 1930s. The art deco style remained influential well into the 1940s. Like many design styles that are now considered classic, art deco reflected a key moment in modern cultural historyï¿½the age of jazz, streamlined cars, elegant costumes, and those classic early skyscrapers. Yet the greatest evidence of the enduring fascination with Art Deco resides in the influence the movement has had upon contemporary artists, designers and architects. A classic example of Art Deco revivalism can be seen in the M16 headquarters Building in London. With itï¿½s slick, decorative and highly detailed faï¿½ade it rises from the river Thames like the fantasy stage set to a 1930s Hollywood spectacular. This paean to the decadence and romance of the Deco period provides evidence of the endurance and popularity of the style that was Art Deco.	i don't know
A station on line 1 of the Paris Metro and a luxury hotel on an avenue of the same name are named in honour of which British king?	Paris travel guide - Wikitravel 52 59 Being located in Western Europe, Paris has a maritime climate with cool winters and warm summers. The moderating effect of the Atlantic Ocean helps to temper temperature extremes in much of western Europe, including France. Even in January, the coldest month, temperatures nearly always exceed the freezing point with an average high of 6°C (43°F). Snow is not common in Paris, although it will fall a few times a year. Most of Paris' precipitation comes in the form of light rain year-round. Summers in Paris are warm and pleasant, with an average high of 25°C (77°F) during the mid-summer months. Spring and fall are normally cool and wet. With the weather being so pleasant in the summer, it's a great time to visit. By plane[ edit ] Paris is served by three international airports - for more information, including arrival/departure times, check the official sites. Charles de Gaulle International Airport (Roissy)[ edit ] IATA : CDG. The major hub airport to the north-east of the city. It's notoriously confusing, so allow plenty of time for transfers. There are three terminals: Terminal 1, Terminal 2 (which is huge and subdivided into 2A through 2G), and Terminal 3 (formerly T9). The newest exception is terminal 2G which is a separate building and is only reachable via navette/bus in 10-15min (bus leaves every 20min) so allow extra time. The free CDGVAL shuttle train connects the terminals together. When you arrive at CDG, you should note what terminal you arrived at (2A, 2D, etc.), because when you come back to the airport to depart at the end of your trip, the RER subway train makes two stops at CDG to cover the three terminals, but there are few indications of which airlines are at which terminals. Have a close look at your air ticket to figure out which terminal you are departing from. Air France and associates leave from Terminal 2. The RER B has the airlines serviced by each terminal on a not so obvious chart posted by the door of the train. Terminal 1[ edit ] Say that again, please? The RER B station named "Aeroport Charles de Gaulle 1" is a misnomer - it actually serves Terminal 3, not Terminal 1. However, the CDGVAL train (free of charge) links Terminals 1, 2, and 3. There are quite a few points with power outlets specifically for charging passengers' laptops/mobiles, both down by the food court and by some of the gates. Terminal 2E[ edit ] VAT Tax refund: First, have your tax refund papers stamped at the tax refund counter in the main terminal area, before you check in with your airline. Although displaying purchase is officially mandatory, it's usually only required for high priced items. To locate the tax refund counter in the terminal, look for the signs or ask any airline employee for directions. Don't be confused by a single queue splitting between currency exchange and tax refund office: choose tax refund if you prefer euros--while currency exchange refunds only in USD or your national currency, both buy at a robbery rate (and with no rollback to the refund window after you realize the rate). The line can take a long time, expect several minutes per customer. At either office, you can also receive refund for your spouse if you have their passport and refund forms. Duty-free shopping: There are no shops before security check zone. When you shop in post-security check zone, it's not genuinely taxfree, as you can receive a tax refund for those purchases as well. Contrary to what one may expect, there is no L'Occitane; cheese is limited to soft sorts (and there are no ripe varieties); wines starts at €11 and some popular sorts like Chinon can't be found; the sausage selection is extremely limited. There are no mid-range clothes or shoes stores, only luxury brands. Airport transfers[ edit ] For getting to or from Paris, the RER commuter train, line B, has stations in T3 (from where you can take the free CDGVAL shuttle train to T1) and T2. Trains to Paris leave every 7-8 minutes and stop at Gare du Nord, Châtelet-Les Halles, Saint-Michel Notre-Dame, Luxembourg, Port-Royal, Denfert-Rochereau and Cité Universitaire. Adult tickets cost €10 (February 2015), and for children between 4-10 the fare is €6.65 each; day tickets are not valid for travel to and from the airport. The train takes around 35 minutes to Gare du Nord and 45min to Denfert-Rochereau, making this the fastest way to get to the city. Tickets can be purchased either through green (sometimes blue) automated ticket vending machines ("Billetterie Ile-de-France") or through the ticket office serviced by transport authority personnel. Engineering works near CDG Terminal-1 and Aulnay-Sois-Bois stations are conducted between 11pm and midnight every day, so you must take a coach (bus) from Terminal 3 to the station where you can take the RER B train to Paris. The fare is included in the train ticket you purchase. Trains for Paris usually leave from platforms 11 and 12. Look for signs saying "RER B" or "All trains go to Paris". When using the ticket from and to the airport (as with tickets for the RER commuter trains in general) you have to use it to enter and to exit the train. Always keep the ticket handy as the SNCF officials sometimes check for tickets, and if you are without one you may be fined €40. This means that after you put the ticket into the entry gate and are cleared to pass, you must retrieve the ticket from the machine and keep it with you until you leave the train system including any connections. Circulate throught Paris and use transports is very hard with luggage, particulary at rush hours. Eelway society is specialized in luggage transfert, from or to Paris and everywhere in the city. Be extra vigilant when using the RER B. Gangs target travelers with pick-pocketing especially as the train gets absolutely packed around the center. They also operate forceful snatch-and-run operations. For comfort and safety, especially with multiple people and/or multiple luggages, consider taking the bus or a car There is also a TGV station in T2 for high-speed connections, mostly towards Lille and Brussels , but there are also some trains that head west to eg. Rennes and Nantes , bypassing Paris. BY ROAD Taxis are regulated by flat flare of 55 EUR into the city. Uber are also common (and active as of Dec 2016), and operate for slightly less. Allow extra time due to distance and congestions are to be expected. Alternatively, the Roissybus service (€11) connects all terminals directly to Opéra Garnier in central Paris, but it's subject to traffic jams and rush hour, so it averages 60-90 minutes even on a good day. 350 and 351 require three t+ tickets per passenger (about €5.10 or €5.70 if tickets are purchased on the bus). The tickets can be purchased at newspaper stands, at ticket machines, or from the driver for a higher price and they need to be validated with a device next to the driver's seat. Night bus services are available on Noctilien lines N140 (1-4am on the hour, 1½ hours) and N143 (midnight-5am on the half-hour, 55 minutes) to/from Gare de l'Est for €8, which can be purchased from the driver. BE CAREFUL when using buses to get to CDG. There are frequent traffic jams on the motorways leading to the airport - the Air France bus normally may need 50 minutes to get to CDG, but it may take 1½ hours as well. Your best bet for arriving on time with the buses is to take them very early in the morning or during other times when there isn't much traffic. Air France buses offer two stops in Paris (Porte Maillot, Montparnasse) from CDG for a 50-minute ride. To reach a specific address into the city, this shared shuttle service costs €19 per person. Non-shared (limo service) transfers are also available and can be booked on-line: T2 Transfer offers CDG airport transfers to Paris city centre for up to 4 people for €60. Top Paris Transfer offers CDG transfers to Paris city centre for up to 4 people for €60. Blacklane offers airport transfers in Mercedes E-Class, BMW 5 Series or similar, for three people to/from CDG or Orly to/from central Paris for around €60 and €70. Cab Service Prestige offers a Mercedes E transfer for up to 4 people for €150 from CDG to the city Easy Private Taxi offers a sedan from CDG to the city up to 2 people for €60, up 4 people for €70 and up to 8 people for €90 LeCab offers a sedan to and from CDG for up to 4 people for €48, and to and from Orly for up to 4 people for €37 Paris airport shuttle offers a cdg to and from CDG for up to 4 people for €48, and to and from Orly for up to 4 people for €37 Private Car Service Paris offers luxury Mercedes Class E and S airport pickups from CDG and Orly to the city or Hotel for €120 and private chauffeur services for €70. TaxiLeader.net offers CDG to and from Paris for €48 1-3 people, Orly to and from Paris €55 1-3 people AbiTransport offers for group and family, CDG to and from Paris from €70 (1-4 people) to 90€ (8 peoples) , DisneyLand paris to and from CDG from €69 (1-4 people) to 93€ (8 peoples) Do not get into a taxi which is not clearly marked "taxi." Taxi services between CDG and Paris should not exceed €150; scammers will try to charge you €225 or more. Contact[ edit ] A post office only exists in B and D terminals. However, you can send postcards buying post stamps in a newspaper stand, and dropping them into a postbox (both exist in every terminal). Orly International Airport [ edit ] IATA : ORY. This airport is southwest of the city, and served by a southern branch of the RER-B line that heads in the direction of Saint-Rémy-les-Chevreuse (not Robinson). This older international airport is used mainly by Air France for domestic departures, and international departures by European carriers. Orly is roughly 30 min from Paris via the OrlyBus, which departs from Métro Denfert-Rochereau (ligne 4, 6); the price is €7.70. There are buses every 10 minutes from the Orly Sud (Platform 4) and it stops at Orly Ouest on its way to the city. Tickets can be bought at a counter near the baggage claim area or directly at the counter in Platform 4. The tickets need to be validated once on the bus. Another option is to take Metro 7 to Villejuif-Louis Aragon then Tram T7 (bound for Athis-Mons, Porte de l'Essonne) to Aéroport d'Orly (not Cœur d'Orly); you need 2 tickets as there is no free transfer between the Metro and the tram, but it is considerably less expensive than the RER B and Orlyval. The tram is slow but nice, opened in 2013. Perhaps the cheapest option from the airport is the 183 bus, which picks up in front of Terminal Sud. It takes 50 minutes, costs two euros, and drops you off at Porte de Choisy station in Zone 1, a decent starting point for a walk through Paris. The Orlyval light rail connects the two terminals to each other and to the RER B line at Antony. It runs every 4-7min and cost €10.75 for transfer to Paris, including connections to central area metro stations. The RER B from Antony runs through Paris to Aéroport Charles de Gaulle. Airline Shuttles[ edit ] In addition to public transport, Air France operates shuttles (Les Cars Air France) between Charles de Gaulle and Paris (€17), Orly and Paris (€12) and between the two airports (€20). Discounts apply for young/group travellers and online booking. Note that if you have connecting Air France flights that land and depart from different airports, you would still generally need to collect your luggage after landing, catch either the Air France shuttle or a taxi (readily available at all airports) to the other airport and check-in again. This altogether could take up to 2 hours particularly if traffic is at its worst. It is also common to lose time during disembarking, as passengers often need to get off at the tarmac and get on buses which will bring them to the terminal building. Be sure to have sufficient time between flights to catch your connection. Note that check-in desks usually close 30min before the flight departs, longer if flights are international carriers. You can buy Les Cars Air France tickets online (note: don't worry about barcodes not showing up on your tickets, although the website mentions them - the driver didn't care - 2014), on the bus, or at the automated machines in their waiting area at CDG. There is a designated, well-labelled stopping spot for each shuttle line, so make sure you're in the right place. Someone will take your luggage, ask you where you're going, and put it in the appropriate compartment. Then, at the destination, a porter will take out all the luggage destined for that stop. If you want to take RER B and catch an early flight, make sure you bring enough change, because you can only buy tickets at the coins-only machines before the counter opens. If you arrive to CDG Airport at night you'll need a Noctilien bus to get to the city centre. The bus stops in all three terminals (in terminal 2F it will be the second level in departure section - it is very difficult to find, but it really exists). The bus leaves every 30min after 12:30 (see timetable ). The buses you'll need are N121 and N120; the price is €7. By train[ edit ] Paris is well connected to the rest of Europe by train. There is no central station serving Paris and the six different stations are not connected to each other. You will probably want to know in advance at which station your train is arriving, so as to better choose a hotel and plan for transport within the city. Gare du Nord, ( 10th ), Métro: Gare du Nord - TGV trains to and from Belgium , the Netherlands , and Cologne , Germany (Thalys), and the United Kingdom (Eurostar) and regular trains from Northern Europe. Passengers coming in by train from Charles de Gaulle Airport can also get off here. Gare d'Austerlitz, ( 13th ), Métro: Gare d'Austerlitz - regular trains to and from the centre and southwest of France ( Orléans , Limoges , Toulouse the long way), Spain and Portugal and arrival of majority of the night trains. Gare de Lyon, ( 12th ), Métro: Gare de Lyon - regular and TGV trains to and from Southern and eastern France: French Alps , Marseille , Lyon , Dijon , Switzerland (by TGV Lyria ): Geneva , Lausanne , Neuchatel - Bern - Interlaken , Basel - Zurich , and Italy . Gare de Bercy, ( 12th ), Métro: Bercy. Overnight trains from and to Italy and regular trains to Auvergne . Gare St Lazare, ( 8th ) Métro: St-Lazare - trains to and from Basse-Normandie , Haute-Normandie . Gare Montparnasse, ( 15th ), Métro: Montparnasse-Bienvenüe - TGV and regular trains to and from the west and south-west of France ( Brest , Rennes , Nantes , Bordeaux , Toulouse the fastest way and Spain ). The SNCF (French national railways) operates practically all trains within France excluding the Eurostar to St Pancras, London and the Thalys to Brussels and onward to the Netherlands and Germany . TGV Lyria is a joint service offered by the French and Swiss railways (SBB-CFF-FFS - Swiss Federal Railways) for TGV Lyria trains running between Paris and Switzerland . There are also a few local lines of high touristic interest which are privately owned. All SNCF, Eurostar and Thalys tickets can be bought in railway stations, city offices and travel agencies (no surcharge). The SNCF website allows to book and buy tickets up to two months in advance. There are significant discounts if you book weeks ahead. Reduced ticket prices are different for each day and each train and can be used only on the train the reservation is for. Surprisingly, round trip tickets (aller-retour) with a stay over Saturday night can be cheaper than a single one-way ticket (aller simple). A very limited selection of last minute trips are published on the SNCF website every Tuesday, with discounts of more than 50%. There are a number of different kinds of high speed and normal trains: TER: The regional trains (Train Express Régionale); cheapest tickets, though prices are variable on the time of day of departure (and the day of departure as well). TER are slower, stopping at almost all stations. Intercités: A bundling of the former Intercités, Téoz, and Lunéa train categories. There are two kinds: the regular trains, which are priced the same as the TER and the trains you'll find yourself on if you have a Eurail or InterRail pass and don't want to pay extra for reservations, and the trains à réservation obligatoire, which require a reservation and are priced differently from the regular Intercités trains. TGV: The world-famous French high-speed trains (Trains à Grande Vitesse) run very frequently to the Southeast Nice (5-6h), Marseille (3h) and Avignon (2.5h), the East ( by TGV Lyria ) to Geneva (3h), Lausanne (3h40), Neuchatel (4h) - Bern (4h30) - Interlaken (5h45), Basel (3h) - Zurich (4h) in Switzerland and Dijon (1h15), the Southwest Bordeaux (3h), the West Rennes (2-2.5h) and the North Lille (less than 1h). Eurostar to London (2h15) and Thalys to Brussels (1h20) use almost identical trains. Reservations are obligatory. Thalys A high-speed train service running daily to/from the Netherlands , Belgium and Germany . It can be a bit expensive compared to normal trains, but cheap enough if you buy in advance. Intercity: Intercity trains leave for all parts of Europe , including overnight trains to San Sebastian in Spain , Porto and Lisbon in Portugal . Eurostar: The Eurostar service connects Paris with London St. Pancras directly and Brussels indirectly, as well many other destinations indirectly through the various west European rail services. Travel time between Paris Gare du Nord and London St Pancras International currently averages at 2h15min, following the opening of a new rail link in late 2007. Eurail and InterRail passes are not valid for this train, though passholders can benefit from a reduced price. You must arrive at the station 30 minutes before the departure of the train to complete security and passport controls. CNL : The overnight services (City Night Line) by the German operator Deutsche Bahn which have sleeping berths in addition to the regular coach cars. These are not particularly speedy. They are designed to leave Paris in the late evening and arrive at their destinations at a reasonable morning hour. While the trains themselves are covered by the rail passes, the sleeping accommodation supplements are not, and need to be booked separately, but what you get is a moving bed which transports you to another city, saving on hotel bills in the process. Paris has 3 departures nightly, all from the Gare de l'Est - to Munich , Berlin and Hamburg . Transfer between train stations[ edit ] From Gare du Nord[ edit ] Gare du Nord - Gare de l'Est (8min): Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans. By foot, it is also about 8 minutes, but you will have to descend a set of stairs. Gare du Nord - Gare de Lyon (20min): RER D direction Melun/Malesherbes; alternatively, if the RER D is not operational, RER B direction Robinson/Saint-Rémy-les-Chevreuse to Châtelet Les Halles and then RER A direction Marne-la-Vallée/Boissy-Saint-Léger to Gare de Lyon (this change only involves getting off the RER B train and getting on the RER A train on the other side of the same platform) Gare du Nord - Gare Montparnasse (30min): Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans Gare du Nord - Gare de Bercy (25min): Follow the directions for Gare de Lyon, then switch to Métro line 14 direction Olympiades to Bercy. From Gare de l'Est[ edit ] Gare de l'Est - Gare du Nord (8min) : Metro line 5 direction Bobigny. By foot, it is also about 8 minutes, but you will have to climb set of stairs. Gare de l'Est - Gare de Lyon (20min) : Metro line 5 direction Place d'Italie, stop at Quai de la Rapee and follow pedestrian signs to Gare de Lyon. Alternatively, Métro line 5 in the same direction to Bastille and then Metro line 1 direction Château de Vincennes to Gare de Lyon. Gare de l'Est - Gare Montparnasse (30min): Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans. Gare de l'Est - Gare de Bercy (25min) : Metro line 5 direction Place d'Italie, stop at Bastille and switch to Metro line 1 direction Château de Vincennes to Gare de Lyon, then switch to Metro line 14 direction Olympiades to Bercy. Alternatively, Metro line 5 to Place d'Italie and then Metro line 6 direction Nation to Bercy. From Gare de Lyon[ edit ] Gare de Lyon - Gare du Nord (20min): RER D direction Orry-la-Ville; if the RER D is not working, take RER A direction Saint-Germain-en-Laye/Cergy Le Haut/Poissy to Châtelet Les Halles and then RER B direction Aéroport Charles de Gaulle/Mitry Claye to Gare du Nord. Gare de Lyon - Gare de I'Est (25min): Metro line 14 to Chatelet, direction St. Lazzare followed by Metro line 4 direction Porte de Clignancourt. Gare de Lyon - Gare Montparnasse (30min): Metro line 14 to Chatelet, direction St. Lazzare followed by Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans. Gare de Lyon - Gare de Bercy (15min): A free shuttle runs between the two every half hour. Alternatively, Metro line 14 direction Olympiades to Bercy. From Gare Montparnasse[ edit ] Gare Montparnasse - Gare du Nord OR Gare de I'Est (30min): Metro line 4 direction Porte de Clignancourt Gare Montparnasse - Gare de Lyon (30min): Metro line 4 to Chatelet, direction Porte de Clignancourt followed by Metro line 14 direction Olympiades From Gare de Bercy[ edit ] For all train stations, either take the free shuttle to Gare de Lyon or Metro line 14 to the same and follow the directions given from Gare de Lyon. By bus[ edit ] Eurolines, [1] . A trans-European bus company that offers trips from across Europe and Morocco to Paris. Generally offers prices significantly cheaper than the train at the cost of much longer journeys. The Parisian office is located at Bagnolet, adjacent to the Gallieni metro station. edit Megabus, [2] . A British low-cost bus company that offers fares to Paris from London , Amsterdam , and Brussels . Seats start at €1.00, with through fares available from points on the domestic UK network. Free Wi-Fi is available when the bus is travelling through the United Kingdom. The Parisian terminus is at the Porte Maillot Metro station, next to the Palais des Congrès in the 17th . edit iDBUS, [3] . The luxury bus arm of SNCF, introduced in summer 2012. It offers routes to Paris from various destinations in Belgium , France , Italy , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . Free Wi-Fi is available throughout the journey. The Parisian terminus is at the Gare de Bercy. edit FlixBus, [4] . German company, offering routes from Paris since summer 2015 from the station Paris Porte Maillot. edit Starshipper, [5] . Company offering national routes toward Brest, Nantes, Rennes and Lyon. The station is located at Paris Porte Maillot. edit By car[ edit ] Several autoroutes (expresswas/motorways) link Paris with the rest of France: A1 and A3 to the north, A5 and A6 to the south, A4 to the east and A13 and A10 to the west. Not surprisingly, traffic jams are significantly worse during French school holidays. The multi-lane highway around Paris, called the Périphérique (BP), is probably preferable to driving through the centre. Another ring road nearing completion; L'A86 (also A186 and A286) loops around Paris about 10km further out from the Périphérique. A third, incomplete ring road is much further out and called La Francilienne (N104). It's advisable not to drive in the Paris Metro Area. It's better to drive to a suburban train station with a parking lot and then use the train to continue your trip throughout Paris. Most of Paris' roads were created long before the invention of cars. Traffic inside the city tends to be heavy, especially at rush hour; driving, however, may be rather easy and efficient in the evening. Parking is also difficult. Furthermore, the medieval nature of parts of the city's street system makes it very confusing, and traffic will almost never allow one to stop or slow down to get one's bearings. If you are unfamiliar with the streets and still insist on driving in the city, make sure you have a navigator in the passenger seat with you. Paris is currently investing in the systemic removal of existing parking spaces to encourage people to use its available and vast public transportation system. Get around[ edit ] The best and cheapest way to get around Paris is on foot, and secondly, using the Métro. On foot[ edit ] Walking in Paris is one of the great pleasures of visiting the City of Light. It is possible to cross the entire city in only a few hours (only if you can somehow keep yourself from stopping at numerous cafés and shops). Paris walking 101 To get a great orientation of the city on foot while seeing many of Paris' major sights, you can do a West to East walk from the Arc de Triomphe to Ile de la Cite (Notre Dame). This walk takes about 1-2 hours without any stops. Start at the top of the Champs Elysees (at the Arc de Triomphe) and begin walking down the Champs Elysees towards Place ('square') de la Concorde. On the way towards the obelisk on the square, you'll see the major stores and restaurants of Paris' most famous avenue. Once you've passed the main shopping area, you'll see the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais to your right. At Place de la Concorde, you'll be able to see many of Paris' major monuments around you. In front of you is the Tuileries, behind you is the Champs-Elysees and Arc de Triomphe, behind you to your right is the Tour Eiffel and Musee d'Orsay, and finally, to your left is the Madeleine. Continue straight ahead and enter the Tuileries Gardens passing by fountains, flowers, and lovers in the park. As you continue straight ahead, and out of the garden, you'll see the pyramid entrance to the Louvre directly in front of you. With the pyramid directly in front of you, and the Tuileries directly behind you, turn to your right and walk towards the Seine. Now you can walk along the Seine (eastwards) until you reach Pont Neuf. Cross Pont Neuf and walk through the Latin Quarter, cross the river again to reach Notre Dame cathedral on Ile de la Cité. The smartest travellers take advantage of the walkability of this city and stay above ground as much as possible. A metro ride of less than 2 stops is best avoided since walking will take about the same amount of time and you'll be able to see more of the city. That said, pay attention to the Métro stations that you may pass by on your journey; the Métro network is very dense within the city and the lines are virtually always located directly underneath major boulevards, so if you become lost it is easy to regain your bearings by walking along a major boulevard until you find a Métro station. Despite fines as high as €180 and extensive street cleaning operations, dog droppings persist across the city, so walk with caution. It's always fun to experience the city by foot, and there are numerous walking tours around Paris, whether self guided (with the help of a guidebook or on-line guide) or with a touring guide (booked through your travel agency or hotel). The city is best explored by foot, and some of the most marvellous memories you will have of Paris is walking through secret found places. By Métro[ edit ] Keep your ticket or pass with you at all times as you may be checked. Strangely, there's no sign, audio or message written on the tickets or stations to inform you that's obligatory keep the ticket until you go out the metro. You will be cited and forced to pay on the spot (between 35-50 euros, depending on the officer will, they accept credit card and usually don't speak a english) if you do not have a ticket. The most likely spots for being checked are just behind the turnstiles at big Métro stations or during Métro line changes (correspondances). RATP agents may be present in the Métro stations even on Sunday nights. Besides that, Paris has an excellent underground train system, known as the Métro (short for Chemin de fer métropolitain, Metropolitan Railway). Although you will probably take the RER train from the airport (CDG) to Paris, don't be confused: RER is a French-language acronym that translates to "Regional Express Network," and is mostly used by commuters. Look for the Métro stations, marked either with a large "M" sign or by one of Hector Guimard's remarkable Art Nouveau station entrances. However, crossing Paris can be much faster by RER than by Métro, and within the city of Paris, there is little functional difference between the RER and Métro (there are numerous transfers between the two networks, and a ticket for the Métro is also valid for the RER within the city limits - see below). There are 16 Métro lines (lignes) (1-14, 3bis, and 7bis) on which trains travel all day at intervals of a few minutes 05:00-00:30 (Saturday night/Sunday morning: 01:30), stopping at all stations on the line. Times for trains can be seen on an electronic scrollboard above the platform. Line 14, which is fully automated, is called the Méteor. Scheduled times for first and last trains are posted in each station on the centre sign. Generally, except for early and late hours, travellers should not worry about specific Metro train times; just get to your station and take the next train. Trains usually come 2-3 minutes apart during rush hour and 5-10 minutes apart during other times, depending on the line. Visitors with heavy luggage or handicap should find out in-advance about the facilities at each station to be used. (Specific on-line information about elevators and escalators is hard to find. You may have ask at ticket counters at major stations, perhaps tourist information kiosks.) Getting to boarding platforms from street level, or going between platforms to change lines can be difficult even at major intersecting stations at most times, and everywhere during rush hours. It usually involves walking up and down multiple flights of busy stairs. Elevators are seldom seen, many aren't working, and in major outlying stations any escalator will likely support only exiting to the street level. If you have any lingering concern about station facilities, check bus routes and timings to find convenient bus service instead; failing that, use a taxi. Many Metro trains do not carry destination binders. All lines on the Paris metro run end-to-end with some trains terminating at certain stations. This practice is common only in peak hours and if you are on a metro train that terminates before the last station, the driver will make an announcement (in French). Listen carefully for signs that the train is terminating before the end of the line. The lines are named according to the names of their terminal stations (the end of the line). If you ask the locals about directions, they will answer something like : take line number n toward "end station 1", change at "station", take the line nn toward "end station 2" etc. The lines are also colour-coded. In addition, there are five commuter train lines: RER A, B, C, D, and E. RER trains run at intervals of about 6-7min, and stop at every RER station within Paris; RER stations are equipped with electronic boards or monitors which display the station stops each train makes outside the city limits. Although a regular subway ticket can be used within Paris (Zone 1), it is necessary to pass the ticket through the turnstile when passing between the subway and the RER lines, as the two systems are separate networks. This ticket is necessary to enter and exit the RER networks, as the RER trains travel on to the Parisian suburbs, outside the zone where a regular subway ticket can be used. Travel outside the city centre without a valid RER ticket will get you fined, and the packs of inspectors who roam the system show no mercy to tourists pleading ignorance. In particular, Charles de Gaulle airport is not within the city; you must purchase an RER ticket to get there (see Get in ). The Métro and RER move staggering numbers of people into, out of, and around Paris (6.75 million people per day on average), and most of the time in reasonable comfort. Certain lines, however, are operating at or near capacity, sometimes being so full that you'll have to let one or two trains pass before being able to board. If you can help it, avoid Métro lines 1, 4, 9, & 13 and RER lines A & B during rush hours as these are the most congested lines in the system. In addition to RER, there are many suburban train lines (Transilien) departing from the main train stations. One line of interest is the one from Gare Montparnasse to Versailles-Chantiers, a quick way to go to Versailles castle (covered by a ticket for at least Zones 1-4). The alternative is to use RER C to Versailles Rive Gauche (this station is the closest to the castle). Do not use RER C8 to Versailles Chantiers; this will do a very long loop in the southern suburbs before reaching Versailles. For travel outside of the Paris zone, the train arrival times are shown on a monitor hanging from the ceiling inside the RER station above the platform. Information about the stops to be made by the next incoming train is presented on a separate board also hanging from the ceiling. It is important to check this board before boarding the train, as not all trains make stops at all stations on a given line. Four letter codes (KRIN, DIPA, TORE, etc.) are used for the RER and Transilien trains. On RER A, B and C the first letter indicates the destination of the train, the second the branch or service type, and the last two are to make the name easier to memorize; on RER D and E, the first letter is destination, the second letter is service type, the third letter is branch, and the fourth letter is direction; on Transilien lines, it's usually one name for every service type. You can look up what these codes mean on information panels in the station, but the easiest and fastest way is often to check the information screens along the platforms. RATP is responsible for public transport including metro, buses, and some of the high speed inter-urban trains (RER). The rest of the RER is operated by SNCF. However, both companies take the same tickets, so the difference is of little interest for most people except in case of strikes (RATP may strike without SNCF doing so or the other way round). Current fares can be found at their website. Basically, as you move farther from Paris (into higher zones), tickets get more expensive. For the subway, a single ticket (ticket t+) costs €1.90, or a "carnet" of ten tickets can be bought for €14.50 at any station. Tickets named tarif réduit may be purchased for children under the age of 10 but only in a carnet of 10 for €7.25. (Prices from 1 August 2016) Both tickets are valid for unlimited metro and RER or bus and tram transfers during two hours for RER and metro, and 1 hour 30 between the first and the last punch for bus and tram. RER + Métro and Bus + Tram are two separate systems, but they use the same tickets. This means you have to use a new ticket if you transfer from bus to metro or from metro to bus. Tickets do not expire. A one-day ticket, a weekly pass, and a monthly pass are also available. The price varies according to the zones for which the ticket can be used. The cheapest 1-day ticket called Mobilis , is valid for zones 1-2, with a price of €6.60. Once bought, it is necessary to write in the spaces provided on the ticket the date the ticket is being used in European notation of day/month/year (valable le), the last name (nom), and the first name (prénom). Unfortunately, this ticket is not valid for use for travel to/from Charles de Gaulle airport. If you make only a few trips in one day, the carnet of ten tickets (for €1.33 per trip) can be more economical than a one-day ticket. Remember to consider the price for all members of your group/family, including children, which days you are travelling on, and in which zones you will be travelling. For travellers under the age of 26, there is a special ticket (Jeunes 26) that you can purchase for use on the weekends or holidays. The price varies depending on the number of zones you wish to cover (Zones 1-3 is €3.85 and Zones 1-5 is €8.35; there are other zone combinations available as well) and the ticket is good for one day of unlimited usage of the metro, RER, bus, and trams. If you are staying a bit longer, the weekly and monthly passes are called Navigo Découverte (1 week pass, €19.15 for zones 1-2) and the monthly Navigo Mensuel (one-month pass, €62.90 for zones 1-2). Note that an Découverte (DAY-koo-VERT) starts on Mondays and a Mensuel on the first of the month. The Navigo pass is non-transferrable and requires the user to provide information on the pass after the sale. The pass is sold for €5. You must write your last name (nom) and your first name (prénom) and stick your photo on the nominative card. After, you have to refill your pass with a recharge hébdomadaire (one-week refill), or a recharge mensuelle (one-month refill). You have to choose at least two of the contiguous "zones": Paris is the first zone, La Défense is in the third zone, and Versailles in the fourth. Everything related to a "Navigo" pass is in purple (like the target for the pass in the turnstiles). Although not as good a deal for adults in most cases as the Mobilis or Navigo, there are also one-to-five-day tourist passes, called Paris Visite , available, which are a bargain for kids of ages 4-11, starting at €6.10 per day for travel within zones 1-3. Métro stations have both ticket windows and automatic vending machines. The majority of machines do not take notes, only coins or European credit cards with a pin-encoded chip on the front. Therefore, to use either euro bills or a non-European credit card with a magnetic stripe, it is necessary to make the purchase from the ticket window. Be advised that some ticket vending machines do not give change, so use exact change or go to the ticket window. If you look at the vending machines closely, you may find one in the group that takes euro bills and will give change; these machines can be found at major or touristy stations such as Tuileries, Gare de Lyon or La Défense-Grande Arche. Some larger stations have secondary entrances, where there is no ticket booth. These are labelled voyageurs avec billets (passengers with tickets). Be aware of ticket touts who used to stay near single vending machines, which have much higher rates for tickets, eg. €7 for a single ride ticket! Avoid suburban charges If you have any tickets or Navigo passes for zone 1-2 (inside the Paris area, the lower rate) and want go to La Défense from Châtelet, you have to take the Métro (Line 1). You can take the RER A (and save a few minutes), but you have to pay an additional fare, because even though you arrive at the same station, the RER exit is supposed to be outside of Paris! On the other hand, Métro fares are the same, even in the suburbs. So be careful as there are usually a lot of ticket examiners present when you get off the RER A. Each station displays a detailed map of the surrounding area with a street list and the location of buildings (monuments, schools, places of worship, etc,) as well as exits for that particular metro. Maps are located on the platform if the station has several exits or near the exit if there is only one exit. Except for trains on lines 1, 2, 4, 5, and 14, the doors will not open automatically. In such a case, there are handles or buttons located both inside and outside the train that you have to push or unlatch in order to open the door. Strikes are a regular occurrence on the Paris public transit system. Generally during a strike, there will be reduced or no service on certain lines but parts of the network will continue to operate; however, in some cases the entire network may shut down completely. Visit the RATP and SNCF websites for information on which routes are affected by a strike. Generally, the automated Métro lines 1 and 14 will be running during a strike because they operate without human drivers - if you are caught by a strike, it is best to use it whenever possible. By bicycle[ edit ] Renting a bike is a very good alternative over driving or using public transport and an excellent way to see the sights. Riding a bike anywhere in the city is far safer for the moderately experienced cyclists than most towns or cities in other countries. The French are very cognisant of cyclists, almost to a point of reverence. A few years ago Paris wasn't the easiest place to get around by bike but that has changed dramatically in recent years. The city government has taken a number of steps in strong support of improving the safety and efficiency of the urban cyclist as well as establishing some separated bike lanes but, even more importantly, instituted a policy of allowing cyclists to share the ample bus lanes on most major boulevards. Paris also has many riversides which are perfect for cycling. The Paris bike network now counts over 150km of either unique or shared lanes for the cyclist. In addition, the narrower, medieval side streets of the central arrondissements make for rather scenic and leisurely cycling, especially during off-peak hours of the day when traffic is lighter. Do remember to bring a good map, since there is no grid plan to speak of and almost all of the smaller streets are one-way. Bike rentals[ edit ] There are a few different bike rental programs in Paris: Vélib ☎ +33 1 30 79 79 30 In July 2007 the municipality of Paris introduced the Vélib program (vélo Liberté or Freedom Bikes) making it possible to rent a bike for a very modest price. Numerous stations are found around the city (at major landmarks and metro stations, basically every 300 m). With a credit card with a "puce" smart-chip, you can subscribe for 1 day (€1.70) or 7 days (€8) with a security deposit of €150 & then get a bike. If your card doesn't work in the machines, you can pay on-line for your 1 or 7 day ticket and will be given an ID number to use at the kiosk. The first 30min are free, the following 30min costs €1, following 30min costs €2, etc. to avoid long rentals... so the game is to get to another station in 25min and get another bicycle. This rental system has been designed to allow you to "pick & drop" a bike, not rent the same one all day long. Try it! If your card works in the machines it's a great way to get around! The bicycles are wonderful cruiser bikes, with a front basket to put a purse or bag. The system is very popular with tourists and Parisians alike; the drivers appear to be very tolerant towards cyclists. If the saddle is turned around, it most probably means the bike is out of order (it's a convention among Velib users, so do the same if you notice your Velib has problems). Also be sure to check your lock before leaving as many of them do not function (and you do not want to get stuck with a bike locked to a fence post that you cannot unlock). Also be sure to budget some time for parking your bike in case you need to get back for a flight. Especially during lunch hour, many of the return stations get full quite readily. US Visa and MasterCards without chips do not work - however, American Express cards should work even though they don't have a chip). A full day rental that you can reserve on-line is definitely your best option in case your credit card does not have a smart chip (eg: it's US). How it works: After registering on-line (or at the terminal) for €1.70, you will get a code that you plug in at any Velib station and is good for 24h. You will also get to choose a PIN as your password. You will enter your code, then your pin, then choose an available bike. The system will prompt you to press the button on the station next to the bike to release the bike - and you're ready to go. You can return the bike at any station any time and get a new bike with this same code. To return the bike, simply slide it into the locking mechanism and wait for the light to turn from orange to green - sometimes the lock is broken, sometimes the station's network connection is down and the lights will be red - you must ensure the light turns green. As of August 2014 you don't need to interact with the terminal when returning the bike, even though the prompts tell you to confirm your return when you take out a bike. In addition to operating a number of bike rental buses, the RATP has some permanent locations, including: Roue Libre, Les Halles, 1 passage Mondétour (facing 120 rue Rambuteau, Métro: Les Halles), ☎ +33 1 04 41 53 49. Bikes can be rented for one weekend (€25), M-F (€20), a working day (€9), or one day on the weekend (€14). Roue Libre also has a location at the Bastille which is open during the summer months edit Baja Bikes Paris Daily guided bike tours in Paris for only €25. You can find here a map for a 12km route along the Seine using velibs. Cycling and Traffic[ edit ] While the streets of Paris are generally fairly easy on novice cyclists, there are some streets in the city that should be avoided by those who do not have experience cycling in traffic and the proper mentality for dealing with it. In particular, 'Rue de Rivoli,' 'Boulevard de Sébastopol/Strasbourg,' 'Boulevard Saint-Germain,' 'Avenue de Flandre,' and most of the Quais that run along the river are especially bad during rush hours, but are at least somewhat busy at all times. While most of these do have cycle lanes, "sharrows," or other such accommodations, the sheer volume of traffic means that it may be a better idea to take an alternate route through the side streets. Traffic will also be particularly thick on the peripheral 'Boulevards des Maréchaux' (not the Boulevard Périphérique, which lies to the outside; more on this anon), and on main roads that lead to a 'Porte' at the edge of the city (eg: 'Boulevard de la Chapelle' and 'Avenue de la Grande-Armée'). If you find yourself on one of these routes, stick to the bike lanes whenever possible. There is also a great deal of congestion around the main train stations, particularly around Gare du Nord/Gare de l'Est in the 10th, Gare de Lyon in the 12th, and Gare Montparnasse in the 14th. Bus and taxi traffic will be particularly thick in these areas and certain streets may be reserved just for them, so stay alert. There are a few portions of the city that you probably should not cycle unless you are very confident in your abilities to ride in an urban environment. The 'Avenue des Champs-Elysés' and the 'Boulevard Magenta/Boulevard Barbès' axes can be especially hairy, though the latter more because of some inopportunely-placed interruptions in the bike lanes and other non-vehicular obstacles. The area around 'Place de la Bataille de Stalingrad' is well-provisioned with bike lanes, but they are somewhat haphazardly laid out and traffic is very heavy. Also, the city has a number of large roundabouts which, while quite logical once you've got the idea of priorité à droite, are not at all a good idea for the timid or inexperienced. 'Place de l'Etoile' is the most well-known of these, but also be wary around 'Place de la Nation,' 'Place de la Bastille,' and 'Place d'Italie.' If possible, look for an alternate route - in particular, Place de l'Etoile and Place de la Nation have ring roads running around the outside which make for a good bypass route. Finally, there are a few roads in Paris which are entirely forbidden to cyclists, in particular the 'Voie Georges Pompidou' (the high-speed express lanes running along the Seine), the tunnels underneath Les Halles, the Boulevard Périphérique beltway, and certain other ramps, tunnels, and underpasses. These will all be marked with a sign showing a bicycle on a white background, surrounded by a red circle. You can find an excellent map of the bike network called Plan des Itinéraires cyclables at the information centre in the Hôtel de Ville. By bus[ edit ] Since the Métro is primarily structured around a hub-and-spoke model, there are some journeys for which it can be quite inefficient, and in these cases, it is worth seeing if a direct bus route exists, despite the complexity of the bus network. A bus ride is also interesting if you want to see more of the city. The Parisian bus system is quite tourist-friendly. It uses the same single-ride Ticket t+ and Navigo fare system as the Métro, and electronic displays inside each bus tell riders its current position and what stops remain, eliminating a lot of confusion. These same payment devices are also valid in the Noctilien, the night bus. Noctilien route numbers are prefaced with an N on the bus stop signage. Night buses run regularly through the central hub at Chatelet and from the mainline train stations to outlying areas of greater Paris. There is also a circle line connecting the main train stations. It pays to know your Noctilien route ahead of time in case you miss the last Métro home. Women travellers should probably avoid taking the Noctilien on their own to destinations outside Paris. When boarding the bus, you'll have to validate your ticket. If you have a Navigo pass, simply hold it up to one of the purple scanners (usually on a pole near the door) and wait for the tone and the green light. If you're using a single-ride ticket, look for the ticket validating machine, a roughly shoebox-sized device with a few lights on top and a slit for the ticket at the bottom. Insert your ticket in the slot, and wait for it to stamp it and spit it back out. Check for the time stamp, in case the printer is out of ink. As on the Métro, your ticket is proof of payment, so hold on to it until you arrive at your destination lest the transit police fine you for not paying your fare. All-day tickets only need to be validated once. If you don't have any tickets (and there's not a Métro station or Tabac nearby that sells them), you can buy a "ticket de dépannage" directly from the driver; these cost €2 and must be validated immediately. Be aware that you cannot transfer between the Métro and the Bus with a single-ride Ticket t+. However, you can transfer from bus to bus, or between the bus and the tram, within 90 minutes of validating the ticket. The "ticket de dépannage" sold on the bus does not let you make a transfer to another line. Unlike the RER, you do not need special tickets to take the bus outside of the city (for example, line 350 to CDG airport), but you may need to validate several tickets rather than just one (for example, you'll need three t+ tickets to travel between the city and the airport). Another option for travellers who want to see the sights of Paris without a stop on every street corner is the Paris L'Opentour Bus, an open-topped double decker bus that supplies headsets with the most up to date information on the attractions in Paris. Your ticket is good for four routes ranging in time from 1-2h. Get off when you want, stay as long as you need, get back on the bus and head for another site. You can purchase tickets at the bus stop. A one-day pass is €31 for adults and €16 for children. A two-day pass is €36 for adults or €19 for children. With children[ edit ] Metro and bus. The metro and buses are free for children under the age of 4. Older kids (4-9) can buy a carnet (a collection of 10 tickets) at half-price for discounted travel. Other passes, including the Paris-Vistes pass for unlimited travel over 1 to 5 days are also available at half-price for children below 9 years of age. Taxis. Parisian taxis tend to be standard cars (sedans or minivans) so almost all strollers will need to be folded and placed in trunk. Be aware that taxi drivers are proud of their cars and keep them very clean and are not big fans of messy kids. By taxi[ edit ] Taxis are cheaper at night when there are no traffic jams to be expected. There are not as many taxi cabs as one would expect, and sometimes finding a taxi can be challenging. In the daytime, it is not always a good idea to take a taxi, as walking or taking the metro (See: Métro) will be cheaper and, depending on traffic, faster. If you know you will need one to get to the airport, or to a meeting, it is wise to book ahead by phone (see below). Remember if a taxi is near a taxi stand, they're not supposed to pick you up except at the stand where there may be other people in line ahead of you. Taxi stands are usually near train stations, big hotels, hospitals, major intersections, and other points of interest, and are marked with a blue and white "TAXI" sign. To stop a taxi ... watch the sign on the roof: if the white sign is lit, the taxi is on duty and available, if the white sign is off and a coloured light is lit under it (blue, orange), it's on duty and busy, if the white sign is off and no coloured light is on, the taxi is off duty. Same thing with the coloured signs (the two systems exist in Paris, but it tells nothing about the company): if the wide sign is green, the cab is available, if it is red, the taxi is busy, if it is off, the taxi is off There are a number of services by which you can call for taxis or make a reservation in advance. The two largest are Taxis G7 and Taxis Bleus: Transport Parisien (transfert roissy), ☎ +33 6 61 57 43 53, [6] . * Taxis aéroport de Paris (airport transfer), ☎ +33 6 58 79 38 87, [7] . edit edit Taxi Paris (taxi roissy), ☎ +33(0)658793887, [8] . edit Taxis net Paris, ☎ +33 6 24 14 15 69, [9] . edit Taxis G7, ☎ +33 1 47 39 47 39, [10] . edit Taxis Bleus, ☎ +33 8 91 70 10 10, [11] . edit Taxis de France, [12] . edit Taxi-Paris, ☎ +33 1 41 27 66 99, [13] . edit Shuttle Taxi (navette roissy), ☎ +33 1 39 94 96 89, [14] . edit Taxis aéroport Roissy (taxi roissy), ☎ +33 6 61 57 43 53, [15] . edit As in many other cities a taxi can be difficult to stop; you may have to try several times. When you do get a taxi to stop, the driver will usually roll down his window to ask you where you want to go. If the driver can't (or doesn't want to) go where you want, he might tell you that he's near the end of his work day and can't possibly get you where you want before he has to go off-duty. There is a €6.50 minimum on all taxi journeys mandated by city law, but the meter does not show this amount, which can result in being asked to pay more than the metered amount on short rides. Frequently the taxi driver will not want to drive you all the way to the doorstep, but will prefer to let you out a block or so away if there are one or more one-way streets to contend with. Try to look at this as a cost-savings rather than an inconvenience. You should pay while still seated in the cab as in New York and not through the front window London style. The driver will not let you sit in the front seat (unless there are 3 or 4 of you, which is a rare case usually expedited by more money). Taxi-drivers come in all types, some nice, some rude, some wanting to chat, some not. Smoking in taxis is generally not allowed, however it might be that the taxi driver himself wants a cigarette in which case the rule might become flexible. To avoid bad surprises, make sure you download Taxibeat, a taxi hailing app available for iOS and Android that enables you to choose your taxi driver based on user ratings. Unlike radio taxis, the service comes at no extra cost for passengers - but be aware of the approach fare, and drivers associated with Taxibeat tend to offer better value service. (Most speak fluent English, offer free Wi-Fi on board, etc). Many drivers prefer that you avoid using your mobile phone during the journey; if you do have to, make an apologizing gesture and sound, and do make a short call. A tip is included in the fare price; If you're especially satisfied with the service, you can give something (basically 10%), but you don't have to. There is an extra charge for baggage handling. If for any reason you wish to file a complaint about a Paris taxi, take note of the taxi's number on the sticker on the lefthand back seat window. Also if you take a taxi to the Charles de Gaulle airport be prepared to pay €70 or more because there is often heavy traffic. If there isn't traffic it will be less expensive, but that is rare. The RER B or a bus is cheaper. UBER is very easy to hail in Paris and cheaper than local taxis. Beware of illegal taxis (see the 'Stay Safe' section). Livery or Black Car or Limos- Known as car services or livery cabs, these cars may only be called by phone, are flat rate rather than metered (ask for the fare before getting in), and are not allowed to cruise the street or airports for fares. There are two types of licence: the "Grande Remise" that allows the car & driver to pick-up & drop-off passengers anywhere in France, and the "carte verte" that allows pick-up and drop-off in the department or region where the company is based. The Grande Remise cars have a GR on their front plate. They provide more service than a normal cab. By boat[ edit ] There are several excellent boat services which make use of the Seine. As well as providing easy, cheap transport to much of central Paris, excellent photo opportunities abound. You can buy a day or 3 day ticket and hop on and off the boat as needed. The boats take a circular route from the Eiffel Tower, down past the Louvre, Notre Dame, botanical gardens then back up the other bank past Musee D'orsay. Batobus offers a regular shuttle service between the main touristic sights (closed in January); other companies such as the famous Bateaux Mouches offer sightseeing cruises. By taking one of these popular tours, you can also enjoy a romantic evening dinner on the Seine . It is a unique chance to enjoy the night sightseeing, with the lights of the Eiffel Tower and other monuments of Paris. By car[ edit ] In a word: don't. It's generally a very bad idea to rent a car to visit Paris. Traffic is very dense during the day, and finding street parking is exceedingly difficult in all but the most peripheral neighbourhoods of the city. This is especially true in areas surrounding points of interest for visitors, since many of these are in areas designed long before cars existed. A majority of Parisian households do not own cars, and many people who move to the city find themselves selling their cars within a month or two. That said, driving may be an option for going to some sights in the suburbs such as Vaux-le-Vicomte castle or the town and chateau of Fontainebleau , or for travelling to other places in France. You may prefer to rent from a location not situated in Paris proper. Traffic rules in Paris are basically the same as elsewhere in France, with the exception of having to yield to incoming traffic on roundabouts. However, driving in dense traffic in Paris and suburbs during commute times, can be especially strenuous. Be prepared for traffic jams, cars changing lanes at short notice, and so on. Another issue is pedestrians, who tend to fearlessly jaywalk more in Paris than in other French cities. Be prepared for pedestrians crossing the street on red, and expect similar adventurous behaviour from cyclists. Remember that even if a pedestrian or cyclist crossed on red, if you hit him, you (in fact, your insurance) will have to bear civil responsibility for the damages, and possibly prosecution for failing to control your vehicle. Paris has several ring road systems. There is a series of boulevards named after Napoleonic-era generals (Boulevard Masséna, Boulevard Ney, and so forth), and collectively referred to as boulevard des maréchaux. These are normal wide avenues, with traffic lights. Somewhat outside of this boulevard is the boulevard périphérique, a motorway-style ring road. The périphérique intérieur is the inner lanes (going clockwise), the périphérique extérieur the outer lanes (going counter-clockwise). Note that, despite the looks, the périphérique is not an autoroute: the speed limit is 80km/h and, very unusually, incoming traffic has the right of way, at least theoretically (presumably because, otherwise, nobody would be able to enter during rush hour). Directions If you find yourself lost in the streets, a good idea is to find the nearest Hotel and ask the concierge for directions. Unlike the majority of Parisians, most concierges speak English well. A simple "Bonjour Monsieur, parlez-vous anglais?" should suffice. By scooter or motorbike[ edit ] Paris is an incredibly open city, with its many 'grande boulevards' and monuments with large open spaces around them. This makes for a city perfect to be explored and viewed from on a scooter. A lot of people think it is a dangerous city to ride a scooter or motorbike and, when you're sitting in a corner café watching, it may look that way but, in reality, it is actually quite a safe city because the drivers are very conscious of one another, a trait that drivers certainly do not have in some other countries of the world! There are so many scooters in Paris, for so long, that when people learn to drive here they learn to drive amongst the scooters. The French do drive quite fast, but they respect one another and it is rare that a driver will suddenly changes lanes or swing to the other side of the road without signalling. When you're driving a scooter or motorbike in Paris you can expect to be able to 'lane-split' between the rows of cars waiting in traffic and go straight to the front of the lights. For parking, there are plenty of 'Deux Roues' (two wheel) parking all over the city. Do be careful parking on the footpath though, especially on shopping streets or around smonument. A few well-known Vespa Tour company propose scooter rentals and tours of Paris. It can be a good way to get a vision of the city in a day. Great thing to do if you just stay a few days in Paris: Paris by Scooter, Scooter always delivered to your hotel (Paris), ☎ +33 6 28 35 39 30 ( [email protected] ), [16] . 08:00-21:00. This Vespa Tour Company proposes several Tours of Paris (half day and full day) and also a scooter rental service with GPS an option. French, Parisian and friendly guides. Tours in English. 50cc and 125cc available. From €60. edit Left Bank Scooters, Scooter always delivered to your hotel (Paris), ☎ +33 6 78 12 04 24, [17] . 08:00-20:00. Scooter rental that is delivered to, and picked up from, your hotel in Paris. All scooter are Vespas, 50cc or 125cc available. Must have a car license to rent the 50cc, and a motorcycle license to rent the 125cc. From €60. edit Ride'n'Smile, Scooter always delivered to your hotel (Paris), ☎ +33 6 64 30 80 12 ( [email protected] ), [18] . 09:00-21:00. Private & guided tours of Paris (Day & night) by 50cc Vespa scooters. French & english speaking guides. From 39€/Pers. edit On skates[ edit ] Paris is one of the best cities for skating. This is due to the large, smooth surfaces offered by both the pavements and the roads. Skating on the pavement is legal all around Central Paris (zone 1) and its suburbs (zones 2+). See our Do section below for more information. Talk[ edit ] First and foremost, French (le français) is of course the country's official language. Any native French person will speak French and it helps if you can speak a bit of it. In the parts of the city that tourists frequent the most (Tour Eiffel, Le Louvre, Champs-Elysées), the shopkeepers, information booth attendants, and other workers are likely to answer you in English, even if your French is advanced. These workers tend to deal with thousands of foreign tourists, and responding in English is often faster than repeating themselves in French. This is not the case for the rest of the city. Reading up Before you leave you may want to read a book like French or Foe by Polly Platt or Almost French by Sarah Turnbull — interesting, well written records from English speaking persons who live in France. For most Parisians, English is something they had to study in school, and thus seems a bit of a chore. People helping you out in English are making an extra effort, sometimes a considerable one. Parisians younger than 40 are more likely to be competent in English. Immigrants, often working in service jobs, are less likely (often, still struggling to learn French.) If it's your first time in France you will have some problems understanding what people are saying (even with prior education in French). Unlike most language education tapes, French people often speak fast, use slang and swallow some letters. When attempting to speak French, do not be offended if people ask you to repeat, or seem not to understand you, as they are not acting out of snobbery. Keep your sense of humour, and if necessary, write down phrases or place names. And remember to speak slowly and clearly. Unless you have an advanced level and can at least sort of understand French movies, you should also assume that it will be difficult for people to understand what you are saying (imagine someone speaking English to you in an indiscernible accent, it's all the same). When in need of directions what you should do is this: find a younger person or someone reading a book or magazine in English, who is obviously not in a hurry; say "hello" or "bonjour" (bon-zhor); start by asking if the person speaks English, "Parlez-vous anglais?" (Par-LAY voo on-glay?) even if the person can read something in English, speak slowly and clearly; write down place names if necessary. Smile a lot. Also, carry a map (preferably Paris par Arrondissement); given the complexity of Paris streets it is difficult to explain how to find any particular address in any language, no matter how well you speak it. If anything, the person may have an idea as to the place you are looking for, but may not know exactly where it may be, so the map always helps. On the other hand you will probably get the cold shoulder if you stop someone in the métro (such as a middle-aged hurried person who has a train to catch), fail to greet them and simply say "where is place X or street Y". If you speak French, remember two magic phrases : "Excusez-moi de vous déranger" [ex-kuh-zay mwuh duh voo day-rawn-ZHAY] ("Sorry to bother you") and "Pourriez-vous m'aider?" [por-EE-AY voo may-DAY] ("Could you help me?") especially in shops; politeness will work wonders. The Pont des Arts (bridge of arts) and just behind, the pont Neuf (new bridge) and the île de la Cité. See[ edit ][ add listing ] One of the best value and most convenient ways to see the sights of Paris is with the Paris Museum Pass , a pre-paid entry card that allows entry into over 70 museums and monuments around Paris (and the Palace of Versailles) and comes in 2-day (€48), 4-day (€62) and 6-day (€74) denominations. Note these are 'consecutive' days. The card allows you to jump lengthy queues, a big plus during tourist season when line can be extensive, and is available from participating museums, tourist offices, Fnac branches and all the main Métro and RER train stations. You will still need to pay to enter most special exhibitions. To avoid waiting in the first long queue to purchase the Museum Pass, stop to purchase your pass a day or more in advance after mid-day. The pass does not become active until your first museum or site visit when you write your start date. After that, the days covered are consecutive . Do not write your start date until you are certain you will use the pass that day and be careful to use the usual European date style as indicated on the card: day/month/year. Also consider ParisPass a pre-paid entry card + queue jumping to 60 attractions including The Louvre, The Arc de Triomphe, as well as a river cruise and allowing free metro and public transport travel. "Paris ComboPass®" a cheaper alternative which comes in Lite, Premium and a Suburban version dedicated to visitors residing at Disneyland® Paris. Planning your visits: Several sites have "choke points" that restrict the number of visitors that can flow through. These include: The Eiffel Tower, Sainte-Chapelle,The Catacombs and the steps to climb to the top of the Notre Dame Cathedral. To avoid queues, you should start your day by arriving at one of these sites at least 30 minutes before opening time. Otherwise, expect a wait of at least an hour. Most museums and galleries are closed on either Monday or Tuesday. Examples: The Louvre museum is closed on Tuesdays while the Orsay museum is closed on Mondays. Be sure to check museum closing dates to avoid disappointment. Also, most ticket counters close 30-45min before final closing. All national museums are open free of charge on the first Sunday of the month. However, that this may mean long queues and crowded exhibits. Keep away from Paris during Easter week due to crowding. People have to queue up at the Eiffel Tower for several hours even early in the morning. However, this wait can be greatly reduced, if fit, by walking the first two levels, then buying an elevator ticket to the top. Entry to the permanent exhibitions at city-run museums is free at all times (admission is charged for temporary exhibitions). These listings are just some highlights of things that you really should see if you can during your visit to Paris. The complete listings are found on each individual district page (follow the link in parenthesis). Good listings of current cultural events in Paris can be found in 'Pariscope' or 'Officiel des spectacles', weekly magazines listing all concerts, art exhibitions, films, stage plays and museums. Available from all kiosks. Adria Airways, 94 r Saint Lazare, [33] . M-F 09:00-13:00 & 14:00-17:00, Sa 09:00-12:00. edit Air France, 30 av Léon Gaumont, [34] . edit Air India, 49 Avenue des Champs Élysées, ☎ +33 1 44 55 39 90. 09:30-17:30. edit ´ Air Tahiti Nui, 28 bd St Germain, ☎ 0825 02 42 02. edit Croatia Airlines, Roissypôle Le Dôme Bât1 r de la Haye Tremblay en France BP 18913 95731 ROISSY CH DE GAULLE CEDEX, ☎ 01 48 16 40 00, [35] . edit Delta Air Lines, 2 r Robert Esnault Pelterie, ☎ 0892 702 609, [36] . edit Egypt Air, 49 Rue de Ponthieu, ☎ +33 1 44 94 85 00, [37] . edit Finnair (Compagnie Aérienne de Finlande), Roissy Terminal 2D, ☎ 0821 025 111, [38] . edit LOT Polish Airlines, 27 r Quatre Septembre, ☎ 0800 10 12 24. M-Su. edit Qatar Airways, 7 r Vignon, ☎ +33 1 55 27 80 80. edit Royal Jordanian airlines, 38 avenue des Champs Elysees, ☎ 01 ( [email protected] , fax: +33 1 42 65 99 02), [39] . edit Royal Air Maroc, 38 av Opéra, ☎ 0820 821 821. edit Royal Brunei Airlines, 4 r Fbg Montmartre, ☎ 0826 95 31 21. edit ´ Saudi Arabian Airlines (Lignes Aériennes de l'Arabie Saoudite), 34 av George V, ☎ 0820 20 05 05. edit Srilankan Airlines, 113 r Réaumur, ☎ +33 1 42 97 43 44. edit Syrian Arab Airlines, 1 r Auber, ☎ +33 1 47 42 11 06. edit TAM Airlines, 50 Ter r Malte, ☎ +33 1 53 75 20 00. edit TAP Portugal, ☎ 0820 319 320, [40] . edit Turkish Airlines, 8 Place de l’Opera, ☎ +33 1 56 69 44 90 ( [email protected] , fax: +33 1 45 63 10 80), [41] . 09:30-17:30. edit ´	George V
Method acting is based on the theories of which Russian actor and theatre director?	Paris travel guide - Wikitravel 52 59 Being located in Western Europe, Paris has a maritime climate with cool winters and warm summers. The moderating effect of the Atlantic Ocean helps to temper temperature extremes in much of western Europe, including France. Even in January, the coldest month, temperatures nearly always exceed the freezing point with an average high of 6°C (43°F). Snow is not common in Paris, although it will fall a few times a year. Most of Paris' precipitation comes in the form of light rain year-round. Summers in Paris are warm and pleasant, with an average high of 25°C (77°F) during the mid-summer months. Spring and fall are normally cool and wet. With the weather being so pleasant in the summer, it's a great time to visit. By plane[ edit ] Paris is served by three international airports - for more information, including arrival/departure times, check the official sites. Charles de Gaulle International Airport (Roissy)[ edit ] IATA : CDG. The major hub airport to the north-east of the city. It's notoriously confusing, so allow plenty of time for transfers. There are three terminals: Terminal 1, Terminal 2 (which is huge and subdivided into 2A through 2G), and Terminal 3 (formerly T9). The newest exception is terminal 2G which is a separate building and is only reachable via navette/bus in 10-15min (bus leaves every 20min) so allow extra time. The free CDGVAL shuttle train connects the terminals together. When you arrive at CDG, you should note what terminal you arrived at (2A, 2D, etc.), because when you come back to the airport to depart at the end of your trip, the RER subway train makes two stops at CDG to cover the three terminals, but there are few indications of which airlines are at which terminals. Have a close look at your air ticket to figure out which terminal you are departing from. Air France and associates leave from Terminal 2. The RER B has the airlines serviced by each terminal on a not so obvious chart posted by the door of the train. Terminal 1[ edit ] Say that again, please? The RER B station named "Aeroport Charles de Gaulle 1" is a misnomer - it actually serves Terminal 3, not Terminal 1. However, the CDGVAL train (free of charge) links Terminals 1, 2, and 3. There are quite a few points with power outlets specifically for charging passengers' laptops/mobiles, both down by the food court and by some of the gates. Terminal 2E[ edit ] VAT Tax refund: First, have your tax refund papers stamped at the tax refund counter in the main terminal area, before you check in with your airline. Although displaying purchase is officially mandatory, it's usually only required for high priced items. To locate the tax refund counter in the terminal, look for the signs or ask any airline employee for directions. Don't be confused by a single queue splitting between currency exchange and tax refund office: choose tax refund if you prefer euros--while currency exchange refunds only in USD or your national currency, both buy at a robbery rate (and with no rollback to the refund window after you realize the rate). The line can take a long time, expect several minutes per customer. At either office, you can also receive refund for your spouse if you have their passport and refund forms. Duty-free shopping: There are no shops before security check zone. When you shop in post-security check zone, it's not genuinely taxfree, as you can receive a tax refund for those purchases as well. Contrary to what one may expect, there is no L'Occitane; cheese is limited to soft sorts (and there are no ripe varieties); wines starts at €11 and some popular sorts like Chinon can't be found; the sausage selection is extremely limited. There are no mid-range clothes or shoes stores, only luxury brands. Airport transfers[ edit ] For getting to or from Paris, the RER commuter train, line B, has stations in T3 (from where you can take the free CDGVAL shuttle train to T1) and T2. Trains to Paris leave every 7-8 minutes and stop at Gare du Nord, Châtelet-Les Halles, Saint-Michel Notre-Dame, Luxembourg, Port-Royal, Denfert-Rochereau and Cité Universitaire. Adult tickets cost €10 (February 2015), and for children between 4-10 the fare is €6.65 each; day tickets are not valid for travel to and from the airport. The train takes around 35 minutes to Gare du Nord and 45min to Denfert-Rochereau, making this the fastest way to get to the city. Tickets can be purchased either through green (sometimes blue) automated ticket vending machines ("Billetterie Ile-de-France") or through the ticket office serviced by transport authority personnel. Engineering works near CDG Terminal-1 and Aulnay-Sois-Bois stations are conducted between 11pm and midnight every day, so you must take a coach (bus) from Terminal 3 to the station where you can take the RER B train to Paris. The fare is included in the train ticket you purchase. Trains for Paris usually leave from platforms 11 and 12. Look for signs saying "RER B" or "All trains go to Paris". When using the ticket from and to the airport (as with tickets for the RER commuter trains in general) you have to use it to enter and to exit the train. Always keep the ticket handy as the SNCF officials sometimes check for tickets, and if you are without one you may be fined €40. This means that after you put the ticket into the entry gate and are cleared to pass, you must retrieve the ticket from the machine and keep it with you until you leave the train system including any connections. Circulate throught Paris and use transports is very hard with luggage, particulary at rush hours. Eelway society is specialized in luggage transfert, from or to Paris and everywhere in the city. Be extra vigilant when using the RER B. Gangs target travelers with pick-pocketing especially as the train gets absolutely packed around the center. They also operate forceful snatch-and-run operations. For comfort and safety, especially with multiple people and/or multiple luggages, consider taking the bus or a car There is also a TGV station in T2 for high-speed connections, mostly towards Lille and Brussels , but there are also some trains that head west to eg. Rennes and Nantes , bypassing Paris. BY ROAD Taxis are regulated by flat flare of 55 EUR into the city. Uber are also common (and active as of Dec 2016), and operate for slightly less. Allow extra time due to distance and congestions are to be expected. Alternatively, the Roissybus service (€11) connects all terminals directly to Opéra Garnier in central Paris, but it's subject to traffic jams and rush hour, so it averages 60-90 minutes even on a good day. 350 and 351 require three t+ tickets per passenger (about €5.10 or €5.70 if tickets are purchased on the bus). The tickets can be purchased at newspaper stands, at ticket machines, or from the driver for a higher price and they need to be validated with a device next to the driver's seat. Night bus services are available on Noctilien lines N140 (1-4am on the hour, 1½ hours) and N143 (midnight-5am on the half-hour, 55 minutes) to/from Gare de l'Est for €8, which can be purchased from the driver. BE CAREFUL when using buses to get to CDG. There are frequent traffic jams on the motorways leading to the airport - the Air France bus normally may need 50 minutes to get to CDG, but it may take 1½ hours as well. Your best bet for arriving on time with the buses is to take them very early in the morning or during other times when there isn't much traffic. Air France buses offer two stops in Paris (Porte Maillot, Montparnasse) from CDG for a 50-minute ride. To reach a specific address into the city, this shared shuttle service costs €19 per person. Non-shared (limo service) transfers are also available and can be booked on-line: T2 Transfer offers CDG airport transfers to Paris city centre for up to 4 people for €60. Top Paris Transfer offers CDG transfers to Paris city centre for up to 4 people for €60. Blacklane offers airport transfers in Mercedes E-Class, BMW 5 Series or similar, for three people to/from CDG or Orly to/from central Paris for around €60 and €70. Cab Service Prestige offers a Mercedes E transfer for up to 4 people for €150 from CDG to the city Easy Private Taxi offers a sedan from CDG to the city up to 2 people for €60, up 4 people for €70 and up to 8 people for €90 LeCab offers a sedan to and from CDG for up to 4 people for €48, and to and from Orly for up to 4 people for €37 Paris airport shuttle offers a cdg to and from CDG for up to 4 people for €48, and to and from Orly for up to 4 people for €37 Private Car Service Paris offers luxury Mercedes Class E and S airport pickups from CDG and Orly to the city or Hotel for €120 and private chauffeur services for €70. TaxiLeader.net offers CDG to and from Paris for €48 1-3 people, Orly to and from Paris €55 1-3 people AbiTransport offers for group and family, CDG to and from Paris from €70 (1-4 people) to 90€ (8 peoples) , DisneyLand paris to and from CDG from €69 (1-4 people) to 93€ (8 peoples) Do not get into a taxi which is not clearly marked "taxi." Taxi services between CDG and Paris should not exceed €150; scammers will try to charge you €225 or more. Contact[ edit ] A post office only exists in B and D terminals. However, you can send postcards buying post stamps in a newspaper stand, and dropping them into a postbox (both exist in every terminal). Orly International Airport [ edit ] IATA : ORY. This airport is southwest of the city, and served by a southern branch of the RER-B line that heads in the direction of Saint-Rémy-les-Chevreuse (not Robinson). This older international airport is used mainly by Air France for domestic departures, and international departures by European carriers. Orly is roughly 30 min from Paris via the OrlyBus, which departs from Métro Denfert-Rochereau (ligne 4, 6); the price is €7.70. There are buses every 10 minutes from the Orly Sud (Platform 4) and it stops at Orly Ouest on its way to the city. Tickets can be bought at a counter near the baggage claim area or directly at the counter in Platform 4. The tickets need to be validated once on the bus. Another option is to take Metro 7 to Villejuif-Louis Aragon then Tram T7 (bound for Athis-Mons, Porte de l'Essonne) to Aéroport d'Orly (not Cœur d'Orly); you need 2 tickets as there is no free transfer between the Metro and the tram, but it is considerably less expensive than the RER B and Orlyval. The tram is slow but nice, opened in 2013. Perhaps the cheapest option from the airport is the 183 bus, which picks up in front of Terminal Sud. It takes 50 minutes, costs two euros, and drops you off at Porte de Choisy station in Zone 1, a decent starting point for a walk through Paris. The Orlyval light rail connects the two terminals to each other and to the RER B line at Antony. It runs every 4-7min and cost €10.75 for transfer to Paris, including connections to central area metro stations. The RER B from Antony runs through Paris to Aéroport Charles de Gaulle. Airline Shuttles[ edit ] In addition to public transport, Air France operates shuttles (Les Cars Air France) between Charles de Gaulle and Paris (€17), Orly and Paris (€12) and between the two airports (€20). Discounts apply for young/group travellers and online booking. Note that if you have connecting Air France flights that land and depart from different airports, you would still generally need to collect your luggage after landing, catch either the Air France shuttle or a taxi (readily available at all airports) to the other airport and check-in again. This altogether could take up to 2 hours particularly if traffic is at its worst. It is also common to lose time during disembarking, as passengers often need to get off at the tarmac and get on buses which will bring them to the terminal building. Be sure to have sufficient time between flights to catch your connection. Note that check-in desks usually close 30min before the flight departs, longer if flights are international carriers. You can buy Les Cars Air France tickets online (note: don't worry about barcodes not showing up on your tickets, although the website mentions them - the driver didn't care - 2014), on the bus, or at the automated machines in their waiting area at CDG. There is a designated, well-labelled stopping spot for each shuttle line, so make sure you're in the right place. Someone will take your luggage, ask you where you're going, and put it in the appropriate compartment. Then, at the destination, a porter will take out all the luggage destined for that stop. If you want to take RER B and catch an early flight, make sure you bring enough change, because you can only buy tickets at the coins-only machines before the counter opens. If you arrive to CDG Airport at night you'll need a Noctilien bus to get to the city centre. The bus stops in all three terminals (in terminal 2F it will be the second level in departure section - it is very difficult to find, but it really exists). The bus leaves every 30min after 12:30 (see timetable ). The buses you'll need are N121 and N120; the price is €7. By train[ edit ] Paris is well connected to the rest of Europe by train. There is no central station serving Paris and the six different stations are not connected to each other. You will probably want to know in advance at which station your train is arriving, so as to better choose a hotel and plan for transport within the city. Gare du Nord, ( 10th ), Métro: Gare du Nord - TGV trains to and from Belgium , the Netherlands , and Cologne , Germany (Thalys), and the United Kingdom (Eurostar) and regular trains from Northern Europe. Passengers coming in by train from Charles de Gaulle Airport can also get off here. Gare d'Austerlitz, ( 13th ), Métro: Gare d'Austerlitz - regular trains to and from the centre and southwest of France ( Orléans , Limoges , Toulouse the long way), Spain and Portugal and arrival of majority of the night trains. Gare de Lyon, ( 12th ), Métro: Gare de Lyon - regular and TGV trains to and from Southern and eastern France: French Alps , Marseille , Lyon , Dijon , Switzerland (by TGV Lyria ): Geneva , Lausanne , Neuchatel - Bern - Interlaken , Basel - Zurich , and Italy . Gare de Bercy, ( 12th ), Métro: Bercy. Overnight trains from and to Italy and regular trains to Auvergne . Gare St Lazare, ( 8th ) Métro: St-Lazare - trains to and from Basse-Normandie , Haute-Normandie . Gare Montparnasse, ( 15th ), Métro: Montparnasse-Bienvenüe - TGV and regular trains to and from the west and south-west of France ( Brest , Rennes , Nantes , Bordeaux , Toulouse the fastest way and Spain ). The SNCF (French national railways) operates practically all trains within France excluding the Eurostar to St Pancras, London and the Thalys to Brussels and onward to the Netherlands and Germany . TGV Lyria is a joint service offered by the French and Swiss railways (SBB-CFF-FFS - Swiss Federal Railways) for TGV Lyria trains running between Paris and Switzerland . There are also a few local lines of high touristic interest which are privately owned. All SNCF, Eurostar and Thalys tickets can be bought in railway stations, city offices and travel agencies (no surcharge). The SNCF website allows to book and buy tickets up to two months in advance. There are significant discounts if you book weeks ahead. Reduced ticket prices are different for each day and each train and can be used only on the train the reservation is for. Surprisingly, round trip tickets (aller-retour) with a stay over Saturday night can be cheaper than a single one-way ticket (aller simple). A very limited selection of last minute trips are published on the SNCF website every Tuesday, with discounts of more than 50%. There are a number of different kinds of high speed and normal trains: TER: The regional trains (Train Express Régionale); cheapest tickets, though prices are variable on the time of day of departure (and the day of departure as well). TER are slower, stopping at almost all stations. Intercités: A bundling of the former Intercités, Téoz, and Lunéa train categories. There are two kinds: the regular trains, which are priced the same as the TER and the trains you'll find yourself on if you have a Eurail or InterRail pass and don't want to pay extra for reservations, and the trains à réservation obligatoire, which require a reservation and are priced differently from the regular Intercités trains. TGV: The world-famous French high-speed trains (Trains à Grande Vitesse) run very frequently to the Southeast Nice (5-6h), Marseille (3h) and Avignon (2.5h), the East ( by TGV Lyria ) to Geneva (3h), Lausanne (3h40), Neuchatel (4h) - Bern (4h30) - Interlaken (5h45), Basel (3h) - Zurich (4h) in Switzerland and Dijon (1h15), the Southwest Bordeaux (3h), the West Rennes (2-2.5h) and the North Lille (less than 1h). Eurostar to London (2h15) and Thalys to Brussels (1h20) use almost identical trains. Reservations are obligatory. Thalys A high-speed train service running daily to/from the Netherlands , Belgium and Germany . It can be a bit expensive compared to normal trains, but cheap enough if you buy in advance. Intercity: Intercity trains leave for all parts of Europe , including overnight trains to San Sebastian in Spain , Porto and Lisbon in Portugal . Eurostar: The Eurostar service connects Paris with London St. Pancras directly and Brussels indirectly, as well many other destinations indirectly through the various west European rail services. Travel time between Paris Gare du Nord and London St Pancras International currently averages at 2h15min, following the opening of a new rail link in late 2007. Eurail and InterRail passes are not valid for this train, though passholders can benefit from a reduced price. You must arrive at the station 30 minutes before the departure of the train to complete security and passport controls. CNL : The overnight services (City Night Line) by the German operator Deutsche Bahn which have sleeping berths in addition to the regular coach cars. These are not particularly speedy. They are designed to leave Paris in the late evening and arrive at their destinations at a reasonable morning hour. While the trains themselves are covered by the rail passes, the sleeping accommodation supplements are not, and need to be booked separately, but what you get is a moving bed which transports you to another city, saving on hotel bills in the process. Paris has 3 departures nightly, all from the Gare de l'Est - to Munich , Berlin and Hamburg . Transfer between train stations[ edit ] From Gare du Nord[ edit ] Gare du Nord - Gare de l'Est (8min): Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans. By foot, it is also about 8 minutes, but you will have to descend a set of stairs. Gare du Nord - Gare de Lyon (20min): RER D direction Melun/Malesherbes; alternatively, if the RER D is not operational, RER B direction Robinson/Saint-Rémy-les-Chevreuse to Châtelet Les Halles and then RER A direction Marne-la-Vallée/Boissy-Saint-Léger to Gare de Lyon (this change only involves getting off the RER B train and getting on the RER A train on the other side of the same platform) Gare du Nord - Gare Montparnasse (30min): Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans Gare du Nord - Gare de Bercy (25min): Follow the directions for Gare de Lyon, then switch to Métro line 14 direction Olympiades to Bercy. From Gare de l'Est[ edit ] Gare de l'Est - Gare du Nord (8min) : Metro line 5 direction Bobigny. By foot, it is also about 8 minutes, but you will have to climb set of stairs. Gare de l'Est - Gare de Lyon (20min) : Metro line 5 direction Place d'Italie, stop at Quai de la Rapee and follow pedestrian signs to Gare de Lyon. Alternatively, Métro line 5 in the same direction to Bastille and then Metro line 1 direction Château de Vincennes to Gare de Lyon. Gare de l'Est - Gare Montparnasse (30min): Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans. Gare de l'Est - Gare de Bercy (25min) : Metro line 5 direction Place d'Italie, stop at Bastille and switch to Metro line 1 direction Château de Vincennes to Gare de Lyon, then switch to Metro line 14 direction Olympiades to Bercy. Alternatively, Metro line 5 to Place d'Italie and then Metro line 6 direction Nation to Bercy. From Gare de Lyon[ edit ] Gare de Lyon - Gare du Nord (20min): RER D direction Orry-la-Ville; if the RER D is not working, take RER A direction Saint-Germain-en-Laye/Cergy Le Haut/Poissy to Châtelet Les Halles and then RER B direction Aéroport Charles de Gaulle/Mitry Claye to Gare du Nord. Gare de Lyon - Gare de I'Est (25min): Metro line 14 to Chatelet, direction St. Lazzare followed by Metro line 4 direction Porte de Clignancourt. Gare de Lyon - Gare Montparnasse (30min): Metro line 14 to Chatelet, direction St. Lazzare followed by Metro line 4 direction Porte d'Orleans. Gare de Lyon - Gare de Bercy (15min): A free shuttle runs between the two every half hour. Alternatively, Metro line 14 direction Olympiades to Bercy. From Gare Montparnasse[ edit ] Gare Montparnasse - Gare du Nord OR Gare de I'Est (30min): Metro line 4 direction Porte de Clignancourt Gare Montparnasse - Gare de Lyon (30min): Metro line 4 to Chatelet, direction Porte de Clignancourt followed by Metro line 14 direction Olympiades From Gare de Bercy[ edit ] For all train stations, either take the free shuttle to Gare de Lyon or Metro line 14 to the same and follow the directions given from Gare de Lyon. By bus[ edit ] Eurolines, [1] . A trans-European bus company that offers trips from across Europe and Morocco to Paris. Generally offers prices significantly cheaper than the train at the cost of much longer journeys. The Parisian office is located at Bagnolet, adjacent to the Gallieni metro station. edit Megabus, [2] . A British low-cost bus company that offers fares to Paris from London , Amsterdam , and Brussels . Seats start at €1.00, with through fares available from points on the domestic UK network. Free Wi-Fi is available when the bus is travelling through the United Kingdom. The Parisian terminus is at the Porte Maillot Metro station, next to the Palais des Congrès in the 17th . edit iDBUS, [3] . The luxury bus arm of SNCF, introduced in summer 2012. It offers routes to Paris from various destinations in Belgium , France , Italy , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . Free Wi-Fi is available throughout the journey. The Parisian terminus is at the Gare de Bercy. edit FlixBus, [4] . German company, offering routes from Paris since summer 2015 from the station Paris Porte Maillot. edit Starshipper, [5] . Company offering national routes toward Brest, Nantes, Rennes and Lyon. The station is located at Paris Porte Maillot. edit By car[ edit ] Several autoroutes (expresswas/motorways) link Paris with the rest of France: A1 and A3 to the north, A5 and A6 to the south, A4 to the east and A13 and A10 to the west. Not surprisingly, traffic jams are significantly worse during French school holidays. The multi-lane highway around Paris, called the Périphérique (BP), is probably preferable to driving through the centre. Another ring road nearing completion; L'A86 (also A186 and A286) loops around Paris about 10km further out from the Périphérique. A third, incomplete ring road is much further out and called La Francilienne (N104). It's advisable not to drive in the Paris Metro Area. It's better to drive to a suburban train station with a parking lot and then use the train to continue your trip throughout Paris. Most of Paris' roads were created long before the invention of cars. Traffic inside the city tends to be heavy, especially at rush hour; driving, however, may be rather easy and efficient in the evening. Parking is also difficult. Furthermore, the medieval nature of parts of the city's street system makes it very confusing, and traffic will almost never allow one to stop or slow down to get one's bearings. If you are unfamiliar with the streets and still insist on driving in the city, make sure you have a navigator in the passenger seat with you. Paris is currently investing in the systemic removal of existing parking spaces to encourage people to use its available and vast public transportation system. Get around[ edit ] The best and cheapest way to get around Paris is on foot, and secondly, using the Métro. On foot[ edit ] Walking in Paris is one of the great pleasures of visiting the City of Light. It is possible to cross the entire city in only a few hours (only if you can somehow keep yourself from stopping at numerous cafés and shops). Paris walking 101 To get a great orientation of the city on foot while seeing many of Paris' major sights, you can do a West to East walk from the Arc de Triomphe to Ile de la Cite (Notre Dame). This walk takes about 1-2 hours without any stops. Start at the top of the Champs Elysees (at the Arc de Triomphe) and begin walking down the Champs Elysees towards Place ('square') de la Concorde. On the way towards the obelisk on the square, you'll see the major stores and restaurants of Paris' most famous avenue. Once you've passed the main shopping area, you'll see the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais to your right. At Place de la Concorde, you'll be able to see many of Paris' major monuments around you. In front of you is the Tuileries, behind you is the Champs-Elysees and Arc de Triomphe, behind you to your right is the Tour Eiffel and Musee d'Orsay, and finally, to your left is the Madeleine. Continue straight ahead and enter the Tuileries Gardens passing by fountains, flowers, and lovers in the park. As you continue straight ahead, and out of the garden, you'll see the pyramid entrance to the Louvre directly in front of you. With the pyramid directly in front of you, and the Tuileries directly behind you, turn to your right and walk towards the Seine. Now you can walk along the Seine (eastwards) until you reach Pont Neuf. Cross Pont Neuf and walk through the Latin Quarter, cross the river again to reach Notre Dame cathedral on Ile de la Cité. The smartest travellers take advantage of the walkability of this city and stay above ground as much as possible. A metro ride of less than 2 stops is best avoided since walking will take about the same amount of time and you'll be able to see more of the city. That said, pay attention to the Métro stations that you may pass by on your journey; the Métro network is very dense within the city and the lines are virtually always located directly underneath major boulevards, so if you become lost it is easy to regain your bearings by walking along a major boulevard until you find a Métro station. Despite fines as high as €180 and extensive street cleaning operations, dog droppings persist across the city, so walk with caution. It's always fun to experience the city by foot, and there are numerous walking tours around Paris, whether self guided (with the help of a guidebook or on-line guide) or with a touring guide (booked through your travel agency or hotel). The city is best explored by foot, and some of the most marvellous memories you will have of Paris is walking through secret found places. By Métro[ edit ] Keep your ticket or pass with you at all times as you may be checked. Strangely, there's no sign, audio or message written on the tickets or stations to inform you that's obligatory keep the ticket until you go out the metro. You will be cited and forced to pay on the spot (between 35-50 euros, depending on the officer will, they accept credit card and usually don't speak a english) if you do not have a ticket. The most likely spots for being checked are just behind the turnstiles at big Métro stations or during Métro line changes (correspondances). RATP agents may be present in the Métro stations even on Sunday nights. Besides that, Paris has an excellent underground train system, known as the Métro (short for Chemin de fer métropolitain, Metropolitan Railway). Although you will probably take the RER train from the airport (CDG) to Paris, don't be confused: RER is a French-language acronym that translates to "Regional Express Network," and is mostly used by commuters. Look for the Métro stations, marked either with a large "M" sign or by one of Hector Guimard's remarkable Art Nouveau station entrances. However, crossing Paris can be much faster by RER than by Métro, and within the city of Paris, there is little functional difference between the RER and Métro (there are numerous transfers between the two networks, and a ticket for the Métro is also valid for the RER within the city limits - see below). There are 16 Métro lines (lignes) (1-14, 3bis, and 7bis) on which trains travel all day at intervals of a few minutes 05:00-00:30 (Saturday night/Sunday morning: 01:30), stopping at all stations on the line. Times for trains can be seen on an electronic scrollboard above the platform. Line 14, which is fully automated, is called the Méteor. Scheduled times for first and last trains are posted in each station on the centre sign. Generally, except for early and late hours, travellers should not worry about specific Metro train times; just get to your station and take the next train. Trains usually come 2-3 minutes apart during rush hour and 5-10 minutes apart during other times, depending on the line. Visitors with heavy luggage or handicap should find out in-advance about the facilities at each station to be used. (Specific on-line information about elevators and escalators is hard to find. You may have ask at ticket counters at major stations, perhaps tourist information kiosks.) Getting to boarding platforms from street level, or going between platforms to change lines can be difficult even at major intersecting stations at most times, and everywhere during rush hours. It usually involves walking up and down multiple flights of busy stairs. Elevators are seldom seen, many aren't working, and in major outlying stations any escalator will likely support only exiting to the street level. If you have any lingering concern about station facilities, check bus routes and timings to find convenient bus service instead; failing that, use a taxi. Many Metro trains do not carry destination binders. All lines on the Paris metro run end-to-end with some trains terminating at certain stations. This practice is common only in peak hours and if you are on a metro train that terminates before the last station, the driver will make an announcement (in French). Listen carefully for signs that the train is terminating before the end of the line. The lines are named according to the names of their terminal stations (the end of the line). If you ask the locals about directions, they will answer something like : take line number n toward "end station 1", change at "station", take the line nn toward "end station 2" etc. The lines are also colour-coded. In addition, there are five commuter train lines: RER A, B, C, D, and E. RER trains run at intervals of about 6-7min, and stop at every RER station within Paris; RER stations are equipped with electronic boards or monitors which display the station stops each train makes outside the city limits. Although a regular subway ticket can be used within Paris (Zone 1), it is necessary to pass the ticket through the turnstile when passing between the subway and the RER lines, as the two systems are separate networks. This ticket is necessary to enter and exit the RER networks, as the RER trains travel on to the Parisian suburbs, outside the zone where a regular subway ticket can be used. Travel outside the city centre without a valid RER ticket will get you fined, and the packs of inspectors who roam the system show no mercy to tourists pleading ignorance. In particular, Charles de Gaulle airport is not within the city; you must purchase an RER ticket to get there (see Get in ). The Métro and RER move staggering numbers of people into, out of, and around Paris (6.75 million people per day on average), and most of the time in reasonable comfort. Certain lines, however, are operating at or near capacity, sometimes being so full that you'll have to let one or two trains pass before being able to board. If you can help it, avoid Métro lines 1, 4, 9, & 13 and RER lines A & B during rush hours as these are the most congested lines in the system. In addition to RER, there are many suburban train lines (Transilien) departing from the main train stations. One line of interest is the one from Gare Montparnasse to Versailles-Chantiers, a quick way to go to Versailles castle (covered by a ticket for at least Zones 1-4). The alternative is to use RER C to Versailles Rive Gauche (this station is the closest to the castle). Do not use RER C8 to Versailles Chantiers; this will do a very long loop in the southern suburbs before reaching Versailles. For travel outside of the Paris zone, the train arrival times are shown on a monitor hanging from the ceiling inside the RER station above the platform. Information about the stops to be made by the next incoming train is presented on a separate board also hanging from the ceiling. It is important to check this board before boarding the train, as not all trains make stops at all stations on a given line. Four letter codes (KRIN, DIPA, TORE, etc.) are used for the RER and Transilien trains. On RER A, B and C the first letter indicates the destination of the train, the second the branch or service type, and the last two are to make the name easier to memorize; on RER D and E, the first letter is destination, the second letter is service type, the third letter is branch, and the fourth letter is direction; on Transilien lines, it's usually one name for every service type. You can look up what these codes mean on information panels in the station, but the easiest and fastest way is often to check the information screens along the platforms. RATP is responsible for public transport including metro, buses, and some of the high speed inter-urban trains (RER). The rest of the RER is operated by SNCF. However, both companies take the same tickets, so the difference is of little interest for most people except in case of strikes (RATP may strike without SNCF doing so or the other way round). Current fares can be found at their website. Basically, as you move farther from Paris (into higher zones), tickets get more expensive. For the subway, a single ticket (ticket t+) costs €1.90, or a "carnet" of ten tickets can be bought for €14.50 at any station. Tickets named tarif réduit may be purchased for children under the age of 10 but only in a carnet of 10 for €7.25. (Prices from 1 August 2016) Both tickets are valid for unlimited metro and RER or bus and tram transfers during two hours for RER and metro, and 1 hour 30 between the first and the last punch for bus and tram. RER + Métro and Bus + Tram are two separate systems, but they use the same tickets. This means you have to use a new ticket if you transfer from bus to metro or from metro to bus. Tickets do not expire. A one-day ticket, a weekly pass, and a monthly pass are also available. The price varies according to the zones for which the ticket can be used. The cheapest 1-day ticket called Mobilis , is valid for zones 1-2, with a price of €6.60. Once bought, it is necessary to write in the spaces provided on the ticket the date the ticket is being used in European notation of day/month/year (valable le), the last name (nom), and the first name (prénom). Unfortunately, this ticket is not valid for use for travel to/from Charles de Gaulle airport. If you make only a few trips in one day, the carnet of ten tickets (for €1.33 per trip) can be more economical than a one-day ticket. Remember to consider the price for all members of your group/family, including children, which days you are travelling on, and in which zones you will be travelling. For travellers under the age of 26, there is a special ticket (Jeunes 26) that you can purchase for use on the weekends or holidays. The price varies depending on the number of zones you wish to cover (Zones 1-3 is €3.85 and Zones 1-5 is €8.35; there are other zone combinations available as well) and the ticket is good for one day of unlimited usage of the metro, RER, bus, and trams. If you are staying a bit longer, the weekly and monthly passes are called Navigo Découverte (1 week pass, €19.15 for zones 1-2) and the monthly Navigo Mensuel (one-month pass, €62.90 for zones 1-2). Note that an Découverte (DAY-koo-VERT) starts on Mondays and a Mensuel on the first of the month. The Navigo pass is non-transferrable and requires the user to provide information on the pass after the sale. The pass is sold for €5. You must write your last name (nom) and your first name (prénom) and stick your photo on the nominative card. After, you have to refill your pass with a recharge hébdomadaire (one-week refill), or a recharge mensuelle (one-month refill). You have to choose at least two of the contiguous "zones": Paris is the first zone, La Défense is in the third zone, and Versailles in the fourth. Everything related to a "Navigo" pass is in purple (like the target for the pass in the turnstiles). Although not as good a deal for adults in most cases as the Mobilis or Navigo, there are also one-to-five-day tourist passes, called Paris Visite , available, which are a bargain for kids of ages 4-11, starting at €6.10 per day for travel within zones 1-3. Métro stations have both ticket windows and automatic vending machines. The majority of machines do not take notes, only coins or European credit cards with a pin-encoded chip on the front. Therefore, to use either euro bills or a non-European credit card with a magnetic stripe, it is necessary to make the purchase from the ticket window. Be advised that some ticket vending machines do not give change, so use exact change or go to the ticket window. If you look at the vending machines closely, you may find one in the group that takes euro bills and will give change; these machines can be found at major or touristy stations such as Tuileries, Gare de Lyon or La Défense-Grande Arche. Some larger stations have secondary entrances, where there is no ticket booth. These are labelled voyageurs avec billets (passengers with tickets). Be aware of ticket touts who used to stay near single vending machines, which have much higher rates for tickets, eg. €7 for a single ride ticket! Avoid suburban charges If you have any tickets or Navigo passes for zone 1-2 (inside the Paris area, the lower rate) and want go to La Défense from Châtelet, you have to take the Métro (Line 1). You can take the RER A (and save a few minutes), but you have to pay an additional fare, because even though you arrive at the same station, the RER exit is supposed to be outside of Paris! On the other hand, Métro fares are the same, even in the suburbs. So be careful as there are usually a lot of ticket examiners present when you get off the RER A. Each station displays a detailed map of the surrounding area with a street list and the location of buildings (monuments, schools, places of worship, etc,) as well as exits for that particular metro. Maps are located on the platform if the station has several exits or near the exit if there is only one exit. Except for trains on lines 1, 2, 4, 5, and 14, the doors will not open automatically. In such a case, there are handles or buttons located both inside and outside the train that you have to push or unlatch in order to open the door. Strikes are a regular occurrence on the Paris public transit system. Generally during a strike, there will be reduced or no service on certain lines but parts of the network will continue to operate; however, in some cases the entire network may shut down completely. Visit the RATP and SNCF websites for information on which routes are affected by a strike. Generally, the automated Métro lines 1 and 14 will be running during a strike because they operate without human drivers - if you are caught by a strike, it is best to use it whenever possible. By bicycle[ edit ] Renting a bike is a very good alternative over driving or using public transport and an excellent way to see the sights. Riding a bike anywhere in the city is far safer for the moderately experienced cyclists than most towns or cities in other countries. The French are very cognisant of cyclists, almost to a point of reverence. A few years ago Paris wasn't the easiest place to get around by bike but that has changed dramatically in recent years. The city government has taken a number of steps in strong support of improving the safety and efficiency of the urban cyclist as well as establishing some separated bike lanes but, even more importantly, instituted a policy of allowing cyclists to share the ample bus lanes on most major boulevards. Paris also has many riversides which are perfect for cycling. The Paris bike network now counts over 150km of either unique or shared lanes for the cyclist. In addition, the narrower, medieval side streets of the central arrondissements make for rather scenic and leisurely cycling, especially during off-peak hours of the day when traffic is lighter. Do remember to bring a good map, since there is no grid plan to speak of and almost all of the smaller streets are one-way. Bike rentals[ edit ] There are a few different bike rental programs in Paris: Vélib ☎ +33 1 30 79 79 30 In July 2007 the municipality of Paris introduced the Vélib program (vélo Liberté or Freedom Bikes) making it possible to rent a bike for a very modest price. Numerous stations are found around the city (at major landmarks and metro stations, basically every 300 m). With a credit card with a "puce" smart-chip, you can subscribe for 1 day (€1.70) or 7 days (€8) with a security deposit of €150 & then get a bike. If your card doesn't work in the machines, you can pay on-line for your 1 or 7 day ticket and will be given an ID number to use at the kiosk. The first 30min are free, the following 30min costs €1, following 30min costs €2, etc. to avoid long rentals... so the game is to get to another station in 25min and get another bicycle. This rental system has been designed to allow you to "pick & drop" a bike, not rent the same one all day long. Try it! If your card works in the machines it's a great way to get around! The bicycles are wonderful cruiser bikes, with a front basket to put a purse or bag. The system is very popular with tourists and Parisians alike; the drivers appear to be very tolerant towards cyclists. If the saddle is turned around, it most probably means the bike is out of order (it's a convention among Velib users, so do the same if you notice your Velib has problems). Also be sure to check your lock before leaving as many of them do not function (and you do not want to get stuck with a bike locked to a fence post that you cannot unlock). Also be sure to budget some time for parking your bike in case you need to get back for a flight. Especially during lunch hour, many of the return stations get full quite readily. US Visa and MasterCards without chips do not work - however, American Express cards should work even though they don't have a chip). A full day rental that you can reserve on-line is definitely your best option in case your credit card does not have a smart chip (eg: it's US). How it works: After registering on-line (or at the terminal) for €1.70, you will get a code that you plug in at any Velib station and is good for 24h. You will also get to choose a PIN as your password. You will enter your code, then your pin, then choose an available bike. The system will prompt you to press the button on the station next to the bike to release the bike - and you're ready to go. You can return the bike at any station any time and get a new bike with this same code. To return the bike, simply slide it into the locking mechanism and wait for the light to turn from orange to green - sometimes the lock is broken, sometimes the station's network connection is down and the lights will be red - you must ensure the light turns green. As of August 2014 you don't need to interact with the terminal when returning the bike, even though the prompts tell you to confirm your return when you take out a bike. In addition to operating a number of bike rental buses, the RATP has some permanent locations, including: Roue Libre, Les Halles, 1 passage Mondétour (facing 120 rue Rambuteau, Métro: Les Halles), ☎ +33 1 04 41 53 49. Bikes can be rented for one weekend (€25), M-F (€20), a working day (€9), or one day on the weekend (€14). Roue Libre also has a location at the Bastille which is open during the summer months edit Baja Bikes Paris Daily guided bike tours in Paris for only €25. You can find here a map for a 12km route along the Seine using velibs. Cycling and Traffic[ edit ] While the streets of Paris are generally fairly easy on novice cyclists, there are some streets in the city that should be avoided by those who do not have experience cycling in traffic and the proper mentality for dealing with it. In particular, 'Rue de Rivoli,' 'Boulevard de Sébastopol/Strasbourg,' 'Boulevard Saint-Germain,' 'Avenue de Flandre,' and most of the Quais that run along the river are especially bad during rush hours, but are at least somewhat busy at all times. While most of these do have cycle lanes, "sharrows," or other such accommodations, the sheer volume of traffic means that it may be a better idea to take an alternate route through the side streets. Traffic will also be particularly thick on the peripheral 'Boulevards des Maréchaux' (not the Boulevard Périphérique, which lies to the outside; more on this anon), and on main roads that lead to a 'Porte' at the edge of the city (eg: 'Boulevard de la Chapelle' and 'Avenue de la Grande-Armée'). If you find yourself on one of these routes, stick to the bike lanes whenever possible. There is also a great deal of congestion around the main train stations, particularly around Gare du Nord/Gare de l'Est in the 10th, Gare de Lyon in the 12th, and Gare Montparnasse in the 14th. Bus and taxi traffic will be particularly thick in these areas and certain streets may be reserved just for them, so stay alert. There are a few portions of the city that you probably should not cycle unless you are very confident in your abilities to ride in an urban environment. The 'Avenue des Champs-Elysés' and the 'Boulevard Magenta/Boulevard Barbès' axes can be especially hairy, though the latter more because of some inopportunely-placed interruptions in the bike lanes and other non-vehicular obstacles. The area around 'Place de la Bataille de Stalingrad' is well-provisioned with bike lanes, but they are somewhat haphazardly laid out and traffic is very heavy. Also, the city has a number of large roundabouts which, while quite logical once you've got the idea of priorité à droite, are not at all a good idea for the timid or inexperienced. 'Place de l'Etoile' is the most well-known of these, but also be wary around 'Place de la Nation,' 'Place de la Bastille,' and 'Place d'Italie.' If possible, look for an alternate route - in particular, Place de l'Etoile and Place de la Nation have ring roads running around the outside which make for a good bypass route. Finally, there are a few roads in Paris which are entirely forbidden to cyclists, in particular the 'Voie Georges Pompidou' (the high-speed express lanes running along the Seine), the tunnels underneath Les Halles, the Boulevard Périphérique beltway, and certain other ramps, tunnels, and underpasses. These will all be marked with a sign showing a bicycle on a white background, surrounded by a red circle. You can find an excellent map of the bike network called Plan des Itinéraires cyclables at the information centre in the Hôtel de Ville. By bus[ edit ] Since the Métro is primarily structured around a hub-and-spoke model, there are some journeys for which it can be quite inefficient, and in these cases, it is worth seeing if a direct bus route exists, despite the complexity of the bus network. A bus ride is also interesting if you want to see more of the city. The Parisian bus system is quite tourist-friendly. It uses the same single-ride Ticket t+ and Navigo fare system as the Métro, and electronic displays inside each bus tell riders its current position and what stops remain, eliminating a lot of confusion. These same payment devices are also valid in the Noctilien, the night bus. Noctilien route numbers are prefaced with an N on the bus stop signage. Night buses run regularly through the central hub at Chatelet and from the mainline train stations to outlying areas of greater Paris. There is also a circle line connecting the main train stations. It pays to know your Noctilien route ahead of time in case you miss the last Métro home. Women travellers should probably avoid taking the Noctilien on their own to destinations outside Paris. When boarding the bus, you'll have to validate your ticket. If you have a Navigo pass, simply hold it up to one of the purple scanners (usually on a pole near the door) and wait for the tone and the green light. If you're using a single-ride ticket, look for the ticket validating machine, a roughly shoebox-sized device with a few lights on top and a slit for the ticket at the bottom. Insert your ticket in the slot, and wait for it to stamp it and spit it back out. Check for the time stamp, in case the printer is out of ink. As on the Métro, your ticket is proof of payment, so hold on to it until you arrive at your destination lest the transit police fine you for not paying your fare. All-day tickets only need to be validated once. If you don't have any tickets (and there's not a Métro station or Tabac nearby that sells them), you can buy a "ticket de dépannage" directly from the driver; these cost €2 and must be validated immediately. Be aware that you cannot transfer between the Métro and the Bus with a single-ride Ticket t+. However, you can transfer from bus to bus, or between the bus and the tram, within 90 minutes of validating the ticket. The "ticket de dépannage" sold on the bus does not let you make a transfer to another line. Unlike the RER, you do not need special tickets to take the bus outside of the city (for example, line 350 to CDG airport), but you may need to validate several tickets rather than just one (for example, you'll need three t+ tickets to travel between the city and the airport). Another option for travellers who want to see the sights of Paris without a stop on every street corner is the Paris L'Opentour Bus, an open-topped double decker bus that supplies headsets with the most up to date information on the attractions in Paris. Your ticket is good for four routes ranging in time from 1-2h. Get off when you want, stay as long as you need, get back on the bus and head for another site. You can purchase tickets at the bus stop. A one-day pass is €31 for adults and €16 for children. A two-day pass is €36 for adults or €19 for children. With children[ edit ] Metro and bus. The metro and buses are free for children under the age of 4. Older kids (4-9) can buy a carnet (a collection of 10 tickets) at half-price for discounted travel. Other passes, including the Paris-Vistes pass for unlimited travel over 1 to 5 days are also available at half-price for children below 9 years of age. Taxis. Parisian taxis tend to be standard cars (sedans or minivans) so almost all strollers will need to be folded and placed in trunk. Be aware that taxi drivers are proud of their cars and keep them very clean and are not big fans of messy kids. By taxi[ edit ] Taxis are cheaper at night when there are no traffic jams to be expected. There are not as many taxi cabs as one would expect, and sometimes finding a taxi can be challenging. In the daytime, it is not always a good idea to take a taxi, as walking or taking the metro (See: Métro) will be cheaper and, depending on traffic, faster. If you know you will need one to get to the airport, or to a meeting, it is wise to book ahead by phone (see below). Remember if a taxi is near a taxi stand, they're not supposed to pick you up except at the stand where there may be other people in line ahead of you. Taxi stands are usually near train stations, big hotels, hospitals, major intersections, and other points of interest, and are marked with a blue and white "TAXI" sign. To stop a taxi ... watch the sign on the roof: if the white sign is lit, the taxi is on duty and available, if the white sign is off and a coloured light is lit under it (blue, orange), it's on duty and busy, if the white sign is off and no coloured light is on, the taxi is off duty. Same thing with the coloured signs (the two systems exist in Paris, but it tells nothing about the company): if the wide sign is green, the cab is available, if it is red, the taxi is busy, if it is off, the taxi is off There are a number of services by which you can call for taxis or make a reservation in advance. The two largest are Taxis G7 and Taxis Bleus: Transport Parisien (transfert roissy), ☎ +33 6 61 57 43 53, [6] . * Taxis aéroport de Paris (airport transfer), ☎ +33 6 58 79 38 87, [7] . edit edit Taxi Paris (taxi roissy), ☎ +33(0)658793887, [8] . edit Taxis net Paris, ☎ +33 6 24 14 15 69, [9] . edit Taxis G7, ☎ +33 1 47 39 47 39, [10] . edit Taxis Bleus, ☎ +33 8 91 70 10 10, [11] . edit Taxis de France, [12] . edit Taxi-Paris, ☎ +33 1 41 27 66 99, [13] . edit Shuttle Taxi (navette roissy), ☎ +33 1 39 94 96 89, [14] . edit Taxis aéroport Roissy (taxi roissy), ☎ +33 6 61 57 43 53, [15] . edit As in many other cities a taxi can be difficult to stop; you may have to try several times. When you do get a taxi to stop, the driver will usually roll down his window to ask you where you want to go. If the driver can't (or doesn't want to) go where you want, he might tell you that he's near the end of his work day and can't possibly get you where you want before he has to go off-duty. There is a €6.50 minimum on all taxi journeys mandated by city law, but the meter does not show this amount, which can result in being asked to pay more than the metered amount on short rides. Frequently the taxi driver will not want to drive you all the way to the doorstep, but will prefer to let you out a block or so away if there are one or more one-way streets to contend with. Try to look at this as a cost-savings rather than an inconvenience. You should pay while still seated in the cab as in New York and not through the front window London style. The driver will not let you sit in the front seat (unless there are 3 or 4 of you, which is a rare case usually expedited by more money). Taxi-drivers come in all types, some nice, some rude, some wanting to chat, some not. Smoking in taxis is generally not allowed, however it might be that the taxi driver himself wants a cigarette in which case the rule might become flexible. To avoid bad surprises, make sure you download Taxibeat, a taxi hailing app available for iOS and Android that enables you to choose your taxi driver based on user ratings. Unlike radio taxis, the service comes at no extra cost for passengers - but be aware of the approach fare, and drivers associated with Taxibeat tend to offer better value service. (Most speak fluent English, offer free Wi-Fi on board, etc). Many drivers prefer that you avoid using your mobile phone during the journey; if you do have to, make an apologizing gesture and sound, and do make a short call. A tip is included in the fare price; If you're especially satisfied with the service, you can give something (basically 10%), but you don't have to. There is an extra charge for baggage handling. If for any reason you wish to file a complaint about a Paris taxi, take note of the taxi's number on the sticker on the lefthand back seat window. Also if you take a taxi to the Charles de Gaulle airport be prepared to pay €70 or more because there is often heavy traffic. If there isn't traffic it will be less expensive, but that is rare. The RER B or a bus is cheaper. UBER is very easy to hail in Paris and cheaper than local taxis. Beware of illegal taxis (see the 'Stay Safe' section). Livery or Black Car or Limos- Known as car services or livery cabs, these cars may only be called by phone, are flat rate rather than metered (ask for the fare before getting in), and are not allowed to cruise the street or airports for fares. There are two types of licence: the "Grande Remise" that allows the car & driver to pick-up & drop-off passengers anywhere in France, and the "carte verte" that allows pick-up and drop-off in the department or region where the company is based. The Grande Remise cars have a GR on their front plate. They provide more service than a normal cab. By boat[ edit ] There are several excellent boat services which make use of the Seine. As well as providing easy, cheap transport to much of central Paris, excellent photo opportunities abound. You can buy a day or 3 day ticket and hop on and off the boat as needed. The boats take a circular route from the Eiffel Tower, down past the Louvre, Notre Dame, botanical gardens then back up the other bank past Musee D'orsay. Batobus offers a regular shuttle service between the main touristic sights (closed in January); other companies such as the famous Bateaux Mouches offer sightseeing cruises. By taking one of these popular tours, you can also enjoy a romantic evening dinner on the Seine . It is a unique chance to enjoy the night sightseeing, with the lights of the Eiffel Tower and other monuments of Paris. By car[ edit ] In a word: don't. It's generally a very bad idea to rent a car to visit Paris. Traffic is very dense during the day, and finding street parking is exceedingly difficult in all but the most peripheral neighbourhoods of the city. This is especially true in areas surrounding points of interest for visitors, since many of these are in areas designed long before cars existed. A majority of Parisian households do not own cars, and many people who move to the city find themselves selling their cars within a month or two. That said, driving may be an option for going to some sights in the suburbs such as Vaux-le-Vicomte castle or the town and chateau of Fontainebleau , or for travelling to other places in France. You may prefer to rent from a location not situated in Paris proper. Traffic rules in Paris are basically the same as elsewhere in France, with the exception of having to yield to incoming traffic on roundabouts. However, driving in dense traffic in Paris and suburbs during commute times, can be especially strenuous. Be prepared for traffic jams, cars changing lanes at short notice, and so on. Another issue is pedestrians, who tend to fearlessly jaywalk more in Paris than in other French cities. Be prepared for pedestrians crossing the street on red, and expect similar adventurous behaviour from cyclists. Remember that even if a pedestrian or cyclist crossed on red, if you hit him, you (in fact, your insurance) will have to bear civil responsibility for the damages, and possibly prosecution for failing to control your vehicle. Paris has several ring road systems. There is a series of boulevards named after Napoleonic-era generals (Boulevard Masséna, Boulevard Ney, and so forth), and collectively referred to as boulevard des maréchaux. These are normal wide avenues, with traffic lights. Somewhat outside of this boulevard is the boulevard périphérique, a motorway-style ring road. The périphérique intérieur is the inner lanes (going clockwise), the périphérique extérieur the outer lanes (going counter-clockwise). Note that, despite the looks, the périphérique is not an autoroute: the speed limit is 80km/h and, very unusually, incoming traffic has the right of way, at least theoretically (presumably because, otherwise, nobody would be able to enter during rush hour). Directions If you find yourself lost in the streets, a good idea is to find the nearest Hotel and ask the concierge for directions. Unlike the majority of Parisians, most concierges speak English well. A simple "Bonjour Monsieur, parlez-vous anglais?" should suffice. By scooter or motorbike[ edit ] Paris is an incredibly open city, with its many 'grande boulevards' and monuments with large open spaces around them. This makes for a city perfect to be explored and viewed from on a scooter. A lot of people think it is a dangerous city to ride a scooter or motorbike and, when you're sitting in a corner café watching, it may look that way but, in reality, it is actually quite a safe city because the drivers are very conscious of one another, a trait that drivers certainly do not have in some other countries of the world! There are so many scooters in Paris, for so long, that when people learn to drive here they learn to drive amongst the scooters. The French do drive quite fast, but they respect one another and it is rare that a driver will suddenly changes lanes or swing to the other side of the road without signalling. When you're driving a scooter or motorbike in Paris you can expect to be able to 'lane-split' between the rows of cars waiting in traffic and go straight to the front of the lights. For parking, there are plenty of 'Deux Roues' (two wheel) parking all over the city. Do be careful parking on the footpath though, especially on shopping streets or around smonument. A few well-known Vespa Tour company propose scooter rentals and tours of Paris. It can be a good way to get a vision of the city in a day. Great thing to do if you just stay a few days in Paris: Paris by Scooter, Scooter always delivered to your hotel (Paris), ☎ +33 6 28 35 39 30 ( [email protected] ), [16] . 08:00-21:00. This Vespa Tour Company proposes several Tours of Paris (half day and full day) and also a scooter rental service with GPS an option. French, Parisian and friendly guides. Tours in English. 50cc and 125cc available. From €60. edit Left Bank Scooters, Scooter always delivered to your hotel (Paris), ☎ +33 6 78 12 04 24, [17] . 08:00-20:00. Scooter rental that is delivered to, and picked up from, your hotel in Paris. All scooter are Vespas, 50cc or 125cc available. Must have a car license to rent the 50cc, and a motorcycle license to rent the 125cc. From €60. edit Ride'n'Smile, Scooter always delivered to your hotel (Paris), ☎ +33 6 64 30 80 12 ( [email protected] ), [18] . 09:00-21:00. Private & guided tours of Paris (Day & night) by 50cc Vespa scooters. French & english speaking guides. From 39€/Pers. edit On skates[ edit ] Paris is one of the best cities for skating. This is due to the large, smooth surfaces offered by both the pavements and the roads. Skating on the pavement is legal all around Central Paris (zone 1) and its suburbs (zones 2+). See our Do section below for more information. Talk[ edit ] First and foremost, French (le français) is of course the country's official language. Any native French person will speak French and it helps if you can speak a bit of it. In the parts of the city that tourists frequent the most (Tour Eiffel, Le Louvre, Champs-Elysées), the shopkeepers, information booth attendants, and other workers are likely to answer you in English, even if your French is advanced. These workers tend to deal with thousands of foreign tourists, and responding in English is often faster than repeating themselves in French. This is not the case for the rest of the city. Reading up Before you leave you may want to read a book like French or Foe by Polly Platt or Almost French by Sarah Turnbull — interesting, well written records from English speaking persons who live in France. For most Parisians, English is something they had to study in school, and thus seems a bit of a chore. People helping you out in English are making an extra effort, sometimes a considerable one. Parisians younger than 40 are more likely to be competent in English. Immigrants, often working in service jobs, are less likely (often, still struggling to learn French.) If it's your first time in France you will have some problems understanding what people are saying (even with prior education in French). Unlike most language education tapes, French people often speak fast, use slang and swallow some letters. When attempting to speak French, do not be offended if people ask you to repeat, or seem not to understand you, as they are not acting out of snobbery. Keep your sense of humour, and if necessary, write down phrases or place names. And remember to speak slowly and clearly. Unless you have an advanced level and can at least sort of understand French movies, you should also assume that it will be difficult for people to understand what you are saying (imagine someone speaking English to you in an indiscernible accent, it's all the same). When in need of directions what you should do is this: find a younger person or someone reading a book or magazine in English, who is obviously not in a hurry; say "hello" or "bonjour" (bon-zhor); start by asking if the person speaks English, "Parlez-vous anglais?" (Par-LAY voo on-glay?) even if the person can read something in English, speak slowly and clearly; write down place names if necessary. Smile a lot. Also, carry a map (preferably Paris par Arrondissement); given the complexity of Paris streets it is difficult to explain how to find any particular address in any language, no matter how well you speak it. If anything, the person may have an idea as to the place you are looking for, but may not know exactly where it may be, so the map always helps. On the other hand you will probably get the cold shoulder if you stop someone in the métro (such as a middle-aged hurried person who has a train to catch), fail to greet them and simply say "where is place X or street Y". If you speak French, remember two magic phrases : "Excusez-moi de vous déranger" [ex-kuh-zay mwuh duh voo day-rawn-ZHAY] ("Sorry to bother you") and "Pourriez-vous m'aider?" [por-EE-AY voo may-DAY] ("Could you help me?") especially in shops; politeness will work wonders. The Pont des Arts (bridge of arts) and just behind, the pont Neuf (new bridge) and the île de la Cité. See[ edit ][ add listing ] One of the best value and most convenient ways to see the sights of Paris is with the Paris Museum Pass , a pre-paid entry card that allows entry into over 70 museums and monuments around Paris (and the Palace of Versailles) and comes in 2-day (€48), 4-day (€62) and 6-day (€74) denominations. Note these are 'consecutive' days. The card allows you to jump lengthy queues, a big plus during tourist season when line can be extensive, and is available from participating museums, tourist offices, Fnac branches and all the main Métro and RER train stations. You will still need to pay to enter most special exhibitions. To avoid waiting in the first long queue to purchase the Museum Pass, stop to purchase your pass a day or more in advance after mid-day. The pass does not become active until your first museum or site visit when you write your start date. After that, the days covered are consecutive . Do not write your start date until you are certain you will use the pass that day and be careful to use the usual European date style as indicated on the card: day/month/year. Also consider ParisPass a pre-paid entry card + queue jumping to 60 attractions including The Louvre, The Arc de Triomphe, as well as a river cruise and allowing free metro and public transport travel. "Paris ComboPass®" a cheaper alternative which comes in Lite, Premium and a Suburban version dedicated to visitors residing at Disneyland® Paris. Planning your visits: Several sites have "choke points" that restrict the number of visitors that can flow through. These include: The Eiffel Tower, Sainte-Chapelle,The Catacombs and the steps to climb to the top of the Notre Dame Cathedral. To avoid queues, you should start your day by arriving at one of these sites at least 30 minutes before opening time. Otherwise, expect a wait of at least an hour. Most museums and galleries are closed on either Monday or Tuesday. Examples: The Louvre museum is closed on Tuesdays while the Orsay museum is closed on Mondays. Be sure to check museum closing dates to avoid disappointment. Also, most ticket counters close 30-45min before final closing. All national museums are open free of charge on the first Sunday of the month. However, that this may mean long queues and crowded exhibits. Keep away from Paris during Easter week due to crowding. People have to queue up at the Eiffel Tower for several hours even early in the morning. However, this wait can be greatly reduced, if fit, by walking the first two levels, then buying an elevator ticket to the top. Entry to the permanent exhibitions at city-run museums is free at all times (admission is charged for temporary exhibitions). These listings are just some highlights of things that you really should see if you can during your visit to Paris. The complete listings are found on each individual district page (follow the link in parenthesis). Good listings of current cultural events in Paris can be found in 'Pariscope' or 'Officiel des spectacles', weekly magazines listing all concerts, art exhibitions, films, stage plays and museums. Available from all kiosks. Adria Airways, 94 r Saint Lazare, [33] . M-F 09:00-13:00 & 14:00-17:00, Sa 09:00-12:00. edit Air France, 30 av Léon Gaumont, [34] . edit Air India, 49 Avenue des Champs Élysées, ☎ +33 1 44 55 39 90. 09:30-17:30. edit ´ Air Tahiti Nui, 28 bd St Germain, ☎ 0825 02 42 02. edit Croatia Airlines, Roissypôle Le Dôme Bât1 r de la Haye Tremblay en France BP 18913 95731 ROISSY CH DE GAULLE CEDEX, ☎ 01 48 16 40 00, [35] . edit Delta Air Lines, 2 r Robert Esnault Pelterie, ☎ 0892 702 609, [36] . edit Egypt Air, 49 Rue de Ponthieu, ☎ +33 1 44 94 85 00, [37] . edit Finnair (Compagnie Aérienne de Finlande), Roissy Terminal 2D, ☎ 0821 025 111, [38] . edit LOT Polish Airlines, 27 r Quatre Septembre, ☎ 0800 10 12 24. M-Su. edit Qatar Airways, 7 r Vignon, ☎ +33 1 55 27 80 80. edit Royal Jordanian airlines, 38 avenue des Champs Elysees, ☎ 01 ( [email protected] , fax: +33 1 42 65 99 02), [39] . edit Royal Air Maroc, 38 av Opéra, ☎ 0820 821 821. edit Royal Brunei Airlines, 4 r Fbg Montmartre, ☎ 0826 95 31 21. edit ´ Saudi Arabian Airlines (Lignes Aériennes de l'Arabie Saoudite), 34 av George V, ☎ 0820 20 05 05. edit Srilankan Airlines, 113 r Réaumur, ☎ +33 1 42 97 43 44. edit Syrian Arab Airlines, 1 r Auber, ☎ +33 1 47 42 11 06. edit TAM Airlines, 50 Ter r Malte, ☎ +33 1 53 75 20 00. edit TAP Portugal, ☎ 0820 319 320, [40] . edit Turkish Airlines, 8 Place de l’Opera, ☎ +33 1 56 69 44 90 ( [email protected] , fax: +33 1 45 63 10 80), [41] . 09:30-17:30. edit ´	i don't know
In the sitcom Porridge what was the middle name of Norman Fletcher, played by Ronnie Barker?	Porridge characters - British Comedy Guide Fletcher AKA: Norman Stanley Fletcher. Played by: Ronnie Barker Forty-two year old Fletcher is a former Teddy Boy and native of North London's Muswell Hill. An "habitual criminal", Fletch has spent many a year behind bars in the past, largely missing out on his three children growing up - the 14-year old Raymond, 19-year old Marion, and 24-year old Ingrid. Long wise to the ways of the system and how to get by inside, Fletch copes by scoring "little victories" over the warders, be it an illicit spot of gambling or wangling himself a cushy job. However, now forced to share a room with young Lennie Godber, Fletch seems to have discovered his true calling, quickly becoming a loving father figure to the young lad. Godber AKA: Leonard Arthur Godber; Gober; Len; Lennie. Played by: Richard Beckinsale 22 years old and engaged to Denise, whom he met in Birmingham's Bull Ring shopping centre, Godber's a somewhat naive and nervous first-time resident of the prison system. A petty criminal who simply never had the chances to make anything of himself and fell into criminality, he's determined not to become a repeat resident of Her Majesty's Pleasure like Fletch. Godber initially struggles to cope with life inside, but is soon soothed by Fletcher's hard-learnt methods for whiling away the hours, keeping busy and keeping his nose clean. Mr. Mackay Senior Prison Officer. Played by: Fulton Mackay A former Drill Sergeant in the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders 1st Battalion, Mr Mackay continues to exercise military precision and discipline on the landings of Slade Prison. With his distinctive dulcet tones and sideways nod of the head, MacKay firmly believes in treating all prisoners equally - after all, each man is as despicable as the next! Mr. Barrowclough AKA: Henry Barrowclough. Prison Officer. Played by: Brian Wilde Mackay's polar opposite on Slade's landings, Mr Barrowclough's relaxed approach to prison discipline reflects his belief that Slade's inmates are there to be rehabilitated and eventually sent on their way as useful members of society. Consequently, his easygoing manner is often taken advantage of by prisoners determined to see their latest illicit scheme through to its conclusion. His relaxed approach extends to his marriage, which not even Fletcher's counsel can offer much hope for!	Stanley
Which musical note is equal to one-eighth of a semibreve?	Ronnie Barker - a tribute to the late great actor who starred in Porridge and Going Straight Ronnie Barker Ronnie Barker OBE was born on 25 September 1929. Before Porridge hit the screens, Ronnie Barker was best known for his comedy series alongside Ronnie Corbett, The Two Ronnies. This highly successful series ran from 1971 until 1987, a year before Barker's retirement from show-business. The collaboration of Ronnie Barker and Ronnie Corbett dates back to the 1960s in comedy shows such as "The Frost Report". This show also starred other great British comedy stars early in their career such as John Cleese. In 1971 Barker and Corbett teamed up for their own hit show which lasted for 16 years finishing a year before Barker's retirement. It was always a greatly loved show in Britain with the Christmas shows almost as popular as those of the legendary Morecambe & Wise. Ronnie's other successful sitcom was Open All Hours in which he starred alongside David Jason playing the unforgettable Arkwright. In 1988 Ronnie played a short-sighted removals man in a comedy set in the 1930s called Clarence. This is a personal favourite of mine that was full of laugh out loud moments (all too rare in sitcoms). However, perhaps because the humour mainly came from the character's near-sightedness it never caught on and has rarely been repeated since its first run in the late 1980s. This is a shame because the show is hilarious and is also the last work Ronnie Barker did before he decided to retire. Barker's retirement in 1988 left a big hole in British entertainment. It is good that he ended his career on a high as that is how he will always be remembered. However, I somehow feel that his brilliance would never have gone stale. He did come out of retirement for a small role in "The Gathering Storm" about Winston Churchill as well as appearing in the TV Movie "My House in Umbria". He even made one last appearance as Fletch in "Life Beyond the Box - Norman Stanley Fletcher" in 2003. This had apparently given him the taste for more TV work but sadly, it was not to be. Ronnie Barker has been seen on our screens from time to time at awards ceremonies and the like. However, to enjoy his entertainment we must rely on repeats and videos of comic classics such as Open All Hours, the under-rated Clarence and, of course, Porridge. Sadly, Ronnie Barker passed away on 3 October 2005 after a long illness. Rest in peace Ronnie, you will be sorely missed. Ronnie Barker's Character was Norman Stanley Fletcher born on 2 February 1932. A hopeless recidivist, he had been sentenced to five years in prison for stealing a lorry. The brilliance of the writing along with Ronnie Barker's acting abilities allowed the viewer to sympathise with the character of Fletch despite his criminal ways. Clement and La Frenais were not scared to show the harsh realities of incarceration and punishment. A brave move for a comedy. But it worked, and then some! Ronnie Barker is now as much a part of British History as the legendary Oozalum bird! Porridge and Going Straight copyright belongs to the BBC and others. No copyright infringement is intended. Besides, if you think about it I am promoting your product for you. Any problems with copyright then please email me. [email protected] .	i don't know
Who led a rebellion from Kent against the government of England in 1450?	Cade's Rebellion \| English history [1450] \| Britannica.com English history [1450] Shays’s Rebellion Cade’s Rebellion, (1450) Uprising against the government of Henry VI of England . Jack Cade , an Irishman of uncertain occupation living in Kent, organized a rebellion among local small property holders angered by high taxes and prices. He took the name John Mortimer, identifying himself with the family of Henry’s rival, the duke of York. Cade and his followers defeated a royal army in Kent and entered London, where they executed the lord treasurer. They were soon driven out of the city; Cade’s followers dispersed on being offered a pardon, and Cade was mortally wounded in Sussex. His rebellion contributed to the breakdown of royal authority that led to the Wars of the Roses . Learn More in these related articles: Henry VI (king of England) Dec. 6, 1421 Windsor, Berkshire, Eng. May 21/22, 1471 London king of England from 1422 to 1461 and from 1470 to 1471, a pious and studious recluse whose incapacity for government was one of the causes of the Wars of the Roses. Jack Cade Ireland July 12, 1450 Heathfield, Sussex, Eng. leader of a major rebellion (1450) against the government of King Henry VI of England; although the uprising was suppressed, it contributed to the breakdown of royal authority that led to the Wars of the Roses (1455–85) between the houses of... Wars of the Roses (1455–85), in English history, the series of dynastic civil wars whose violence and civil strife preceded the strong government of the Tudors. Fought between the Houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne, the wars were named many years afterward from the supposed badges of the... More about Cade’s Rebellion 1 Reference found in Britannica Articles Assorted Reference reign of Henry VI (in United Kingdom: Cade’s rebellion ) External Links Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: May 11, 2016 URL: https://www.britannica.com/event/Cades-Rebellion Access Date: January 19, 2017 Share	Jack Cade
"""Baronet with Sam Chifhey Up"" is a painting by which artist born in Liverpool in 1724?"	Jack Cade's Rebellion of 1450 - Oxford Scholarship Jack Cade's Rebellion of 1450 I. M. W. Harvey Abstract Jack Cade's rebellion of 1450 was one of the most important popular uprisings to take place in England during the Middle Ages. It began as an orchestrated demonstration of political protest by the inhabitants of south-eastern England against the corruption, mismanagement, and oppression of Henry VI's government. When no assurance of any remedy came from the king, the rising soon collapsed into violence. This is the first full-length study of Cade's revolt to be published this century. The book charts the course of the rebellion and its associated troubles during the early 1450s, and explores t ... More Jack Cade's rebellion of 1450 was one of the most important popular uprisings to take place in England during the Middle Ages. It began as an orchestrated demonstration of political protest by the inhabitants of south-eastern England against the corruption, mismanagement, and oppression of Henry VI's government. When no assurance of any remedy came from the king, the rising soon collapsed into violence. This is the first full-length study of Cade's revolt to be published this century. The book charts the course of the rebellion and its associated troubles during the early 1450s, and explores the nature of the society which gave rise to these upheavals. It makes use of the available contemporary evidence, as well as the work of subsequent historians, in order to uncover the identities of the rebels, explain their actions, assess their relations with the magnates, and to examine their achievements. The book's analysis of Jack Cade's rebellion helps make intelligible the eventual collapse of Henry VI's reign into the Wars of the Roses.	i don't know
Which paper size measures 210 mm by 297 mm?	A Paper Sizes - A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, A9, A10 A Paper Sizes Dimensions Of A Series Paper Sizes A Paper Sizes - Quick Lookup Size in is The dimensions of the A series paper sizes, as defined by the ISO 216 standard, are given in the table below the diagram in both millimetres and inches (cm measurements can be obtained by dividing mm value by 10). The A Series paper size chart, below left, gives a visual representation of how the sizes relate to each other - for example A5 is half of A4 size paper and A2 is half of A1 size paper. A Series Paper Sizes Chart. Image courtesy of Office 365 . Table of Paper Sizes From 4A0 to A10 Size 26 x 37 mm 1.0 x 1.5 in To obtain paper sizes in centimetres, convert mm values to cm by dividing by 10 and in feet by dividing inch values by 12. More units here and sizes in pixels here . 4A0 & 2A0 - The DIN 476 Oversize Formats The paper sizes bigger than A0, 4A0 & 2A0, aren't formally defined by ISO 216 but are commonly used for oversized paper. The origin of these formats is in the German DIN 476 standard, that was the original base document from which ISO 216 was derived. 2A0 is sometimes described as A00, however this naming convention is not used for 4A0. A Series Paper Size Tolerances ISO 216 specifies tolerances for the production of A series paper sizes as follows: ±1.5 mm (0.06 in) for dimensions up to 150 mm (5.9 in) ±2 mm (0.08 in) for lengths in the range 150 to 600 mm (5.9 to 23.6 in) ±3 mm (0.12 in) for any dimension above 600 mm (23.6 in) A Series Paper Sizes Defined The A series paper sizes are defined in ISO 216 by the following requirements: The length divided by the width is 1.4142 The A0 size has an area of 1 square metre. Each subsequent size A(n) is defined as A(n-1) cut in half parallel to its shorter sides. The standard length and width of each size is rounded to the nearest millimetre. Note: For reference the last item is there because the root 2 aspect ratio doesn't always give a whole number. For more information about A paper size areas and areas of sizes other than A0 in square metres and square feet click here . International Usage The A series paper sizes are now in common use throughout the world apart from in the US, Canada and parts of Mexico . The A4 size has become the standard business letter size in English speaking countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the UK, that formerly used British Imperial sizes . In Europe the A paper sizes were adopted as the formal standard in the mid 20th century and from there they spread across the globe. RA & SRA Untrimmed Sizes RA & SRA sizes define untrimmed paper for commercial printing. These formats are designed to allow for ink bleed during the printing process so that the paper can then be trimmed to one of the A series sizes. Click here for more on RA & SRA sizes . A3+ (Super A3) A3 Plus, or Super A3 as it is sometimes known, is not an ISO 216 paper size. It has dimensions of 329mm x 483mm (13" x 19"). This gives it an aspect ratio of 1:1.468 rather than the 1:root 2 aspect ratio of the ISO series paper sizes. In actuality the A3+/Super A3 name is quite misleading as this paper size is known as B+ or Super B in the United States and is ANSI B with a 1" margin for print bleed.	A4
At which battle of May 1455 was King Henry VI captured, leading to Richard Duke of York being declared Lord Protector?	Paper Paper Printable area Note: Since the quality of any particular brand or type of paper may be changed by the manufacturer at any time, EPSON cannot attest to the quality of any non-EPSON brand or type of paper. Always test samples of paper stock before purchasing large quantities or printing large jobs. Paper specifications Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) A3 (297 mm x 420 mm) US B (279 mm x 432 mm) A4 (210 mm x 297 mm) A5 (148 mm x 210 mm) Letter (216 mm x 279 mm) Half letter (139.7 mm x 215.9 mm) Legal (216 mm x 356 mm) Executive (184.2 mm x 266.7 mm) 100 mm x 150 mm 11 x 14" (279 mm x 356 mm) 8 x 10" (203 mm x 254 mm) 5 x 7" (127 mm x 178 mm) 3.5 x 5" (89 mm x 127 mm) Paper types Plain bond paper, special paper distributed by EPSON Thickness 0.08 mm to 0.11 mm (0.003 to 0.004 inch) Weight 64 g/m2 (17 lb) to 90 g/m2 (24 lb) Envelopes: No. 10 (104.8 mm x 241.3 mm) DL (110 mm x 220 mm) C6 (114 mm x 162 mm) 132 mm x 220 mm Paper types Plain bond paper, air mail Thickness 0.16 mm to 0.52 mm (0.006 to 0.02 inch) Weight 45 g/m2 (12 lb) to 75 g/m2 (20 lb) Premium Semigloss Photo Paper: Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) Letter (216 mm x 279 mm) A3 (297 mm x 420 mm) A4 (210 mm x 297 mm) 100 mm x 8 M 329 mm x 10 M 210 mm x 10 M Paper types Special paper distributed by EPSON Enhanced Matte Paper: Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) A3 (297 mm x 420 mm) Letter (216 mm x 279 mm) A4 (210 mm x 297 mm) 100 mm x 8 M Paper types Special paper distributed by EPSON Watercolor Paper - Radiant White: Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) Paper types Special paper distributed by EPSON Premium Luster Photo Paper: Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) A3 (297 mm x 420 mm) Letter (216 mm x 279 mm) 329 mm x 10 M 210 mm x 10 M Paper types Special paper distributed by EPSON Velvet Fine Art Paper: Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) Letter (216 mm x 279 mm) Paper types Special paper distributed by EPSON Premium Glossy Photo Paper: Super A3/B (329 mm x 483 mm) A3 (297 mm x 420 mm) Letter (216 mm x 279 mm) A4 (210 mm x 297 mm) 5 x 7" (127 mm x 178 mm) 8 x 10" (203 mm x 254 mm) 11 x 14" (279 mm x 356 mm) 100 mm x 8 M 210 mm x 10 M 329 mm x 10 M Note: Poor quality paper may reduce print quality and cause paper jams or other problems. If you encounter problems, switch to a higher grade of paper. Do not load curled or folded paper. Use paper under normal conditions: Temperature 15 to 25°C (59 to 77°F) Humidity 40 to 60% RH The minimum top margin is 3.0 mm (0.12"). B-L: The minimum left margin is 3.0 mm (0.12"). B-R: The minimum right margin is 3.0 mm (0.12"). C: The minimum setting of the bottom margin is 14.0 mm (0.55"). When printing near the minimum bottom margin, some colors may not be printed properly. If this occurs, try increasing the bottom margin. : You can extend the minimum bottom margin to 3 mm by selecting Maximum as the Printable Area setting on the printer software's Paper menu (Windows) or in the Page Setup dialog box (Macintosh). However, print quality may decline in the expanded area. Before printing large jobs using this setting, print a single sheet to confirm printout quality. : When printing with the Borderlessfeature, print quality may decline in the top and bottom areas of the printout, or the area may be smeared. Note: Always load paper into the sheet feeder short edge first. Load envelopes flap edge first with the flap side down.	i don't know
What is the name of the bridge with shops on both sides that crosses the River Avon in Bath?	River Avon: Facts and Information \| Primary Facts River Avon: Facts and Information Posted on Here are some facts about the River Avon. The River Avon is the UK’s 19th longest river, at just over 120 km. It flows from its source near Chipping Sodbury in the Cotswolds, to the Severn estuary. The River Avon Trail stretches for almost 40 km from Bath to Pill in north Somerset. The trail can be walked or cycled and some sections allow horse riding. The River Avon flows through Gloucestershire, Wiltshire and Somerset. There are several other rivers with the same name in the UK, as well as several in Australia and New Zealand. Bradford on Avon is about 12 km southeast of Bath. The town’s Norman bridge has a small round building on it, once used as the town prison. Changes from low to high tide can raise the river’s level in Bristol by up to 10 metres. The expression ‘ship shape and Bristol fashion’ comes from ships navigating the river at low tide. The Avon flows through Bath, one of England’s most beautiful and historic cities. The 45 metre long Pulteney Bridge is one of few in the world that has shops along both sides. The 18th century Dundas Aqueduct crosses the River Avon near Limpley Stoke. It carries one of the last remaining sections of the Kennet and Avon Canal. The river is an important area for several breeds of dragonflies. One of these is the scarce chaser dragonfly which is found in only a few other areas in England. The Avon Gorge has become a symbol of Bristol and is one of the most spectacular stretches of the river. The gorge stretches for over 2km and is over 90 metres deep in places. The Clifton Suspension Bridge over the gorge was the site of one of the first modern bungee jumps, in 1979. What next? Discover some facts about other famous rivers .	Pulteney
The painting And When Did You Last See Your Father? by William Frederick Yeames is set in the middle of which century?	Pulteney Bridge Pulteney Bridge Pulteney Bridge is one of the most admired buildings in a beautiful city. Pulteney Bridge is one of only four bridges lined with shops in the world, but Robert Adam's creation has more than novelty value. His graceful composition is one of the unqualified successes of English Palladianism and provides the perfect integrating link between two halves of a Palladian city. Across the River Avon from Bath lay the 600 acre estate of Bathwick. This was entirely rural when it was inherited by Frances Pulteney in October 1767, but its potential was obvious. No other English spa could rival Bath in this period and the city was in the midst of a building boom. Frances was married to an Edinburgh lawyer, William Johnstone Pulteney, and this energetic and frugal Scot immediately began to make plans to develop his wife's estate. His first problem was that the only direct route from Bath to Bathwick was by ferry. By February 1768, he was conferring with Bath City Council about a new bridge. At first Pulteney contemplated just a simple, functional bridge, designed by a local architect, but by the summer of 1770 the brothers Adam were involved and the plans had undergone a dramatic change. Pulteney had approached the Adams with his new town in Bathwick in mind. We may guess that Robert Adam then suggested putting shops on the bridge. He had visited both Florence and Venice, where he would have seen the ancient Ponte Vecchio and the striking Ponte di Rialto . But the most direct influence on Adam was clearly Andrea Palladio's rejected design for the Rialto. Stripped of its heavier ornamentation, this tribute to ancient Rome emerged from Adam's hands as the coolest of English understatements. England also had housed bridges of medieval origin, but by the 18th century these were being seen as impediments to traffic. Adam's designs therefore caused some consternation in Bath. The Corporation, who had not been consulted, wrote to Pulteney in protest. They evidently thought it perverse that after London and Bristol had cleared their bridges of houses, he was proposing to bring this outdated phenomenon to Bath. But Pulteney remained adamant. Perhaps the prospect of the bridge paying for itself through shop rents appealed to his love of economy. Adam planned a row of eleven small shops on each side, with staircases to attics above. Lofty Venetian windows formed the centrepiece of his design for the river faï¿½ades, while matching Venetian doors faced the street. These were echoed in a pattern of recessed, columned windows, creating an interesting play of light and shadow for passers-by. Malton's aquatint gives us our only view of these lovely street faï¿½ades, subsequently much altered. Pulteney Bridge was complete and ready for occupation in late 1773, but tenants were slow to come forward. The shock of the American War of Independence had fallen like an axe on Bath's development. The plans for Bathwick were shelved and for many years, Adam's elegant and urbane bridge led out onto meadows, rather than a Palladian townscape. When building eventually began in March 1788, it was Thomas Baldwin, a Bath architect, who provided the detailed plans. Pulteney Bridge was left as Adam's only work in Bath. Pulteney at least had the tact to see Adam to his grave before desecrating his handiwork. On 26 March 1792, less than a month after Adam's death, a lease of most of the bridge was granted, with Baldwin's plans for conversion to larger shops. The roof was raised and the windows transformed into bays. No doubt it all made sound commercial sense, but Adam's street elevations were utterly ruined. This was just the first of many distortions of Adam's original vision. Disaster struck in September 1799, when a pier gave way after high floods. The remaining pier collapsed when the river rose in a great storm in November 1800. The houses on the north side were so badly damaged that Pulteney seriously considered dismantling the whole structure and building a single-span iron bridge, designed by his protï¿½gï¿½ Thomas Telford. But in the end only the north side was rebuilt. Adam's pavilions were reduced to token pediments, but at least the design had unity. It was not to last. 19th-century shopkeepers altered windows, or cantilevered out over the river as the fancy took them. By 1948, the buildings had become pathetic travesties of the original design , as Walter Ison sadly noted. But the tide was already on the turn. Bath City Council showed concern to retain the Adam features of the bridge as early as 1903, when the south-west pavilion had to be moved. In January 1936, Pulteney Bridge was scheduled as a national monument. The Council already owned a few of the shops on it; now they bought the rest and the following year the City Surveyor carefully traced Adam's own plans and designed a restored faï¿½ade. But war intervened. The restoration was finally executed in time for the Festival of Britain in 1951. Then in 1975 the Georgian Group partially restored the southern street facade to mark European Architectural Heritage Year. Now the restored bridge is a delight to photographers and one of the enduring images of Bath that visitors take away with them. First published in vol. 38 (1995), also published as Pulteney Bridge (Bath Preservation Trust 1995) and reprinted in Ted Ruddock (ed.), Masonry Bridges, Viaducts and Aqueducts (2000).	i don't know
For what is the C series of paper sizes used?	Paper Drafting Sizes - ISO 216 series A, B and C Paper Drafting Sizes - ISO 216 series A, B and C The ISO 216 A, B and C drawing series - dimensions of regular, oversized and envelope sheets Sponsored Links ISO 216 "Writing paper and certain classes of printed matter; Trimmed sizes; A and B series" specifies international standard (ISO) paper sizes, used in most countries in the world today with three series of paper sizes: A, B and C. Series C is primarily used for envelopes. ISO A Series The ISO A series of sheet sizes is based on a constant width to length ratio of 1:√2 (rounded to the nearest millimeter). The A0 size is defined as having an area of one square meter (1 m2). Paper weights is expressed in grams per square meter. Each smaller sheet size is exactly half the area of the previous size. ISO A Series A12 13 x 18 ISO 216 does not define sizes larger than A0 or B0. With the German standard DIN 476 "Trimmed sizes of paper" the sizes can be expanded by using a factor in front of the size: 2A0 is twice the size of A0 4A0 is four time the size of A0 Oversized ISO A Sheets Oversized sheets are used when it is desirable to give extra protection to the drawing sheets by providing a binding or trimming margin. ISO A Series	Envelope
The Mystical Boudoir of Nurse Gladys Emmanuel was the final regular episode of which sitcom?	Guide to International Paper Sizes Guide to International Paper Sizes Concise Tables of Measurements To ensure accurate, economical printing when publications designed or typeset in one country are printed in a second country, it is necessary to know the standard paper sizes used in the second country. Because designers and publishers often do not have ready access to this information, EDS Inc., Editorial & Design Services, has published this concise guide, consisting of the four tables listed below. For additional sizes and complete inch-metric equivalents, see Expanded Tables of North American and UK/EU Paper Sizes and Japanese Papers for Printing . For office and business papers, see Desktop/Office Printer, Business & Imposetter/Large-Format Papers . See International Paper Sizes for additional information of interest to transnational publishers. Listed by Country Feedback and experience suggest that ISO (International Organization for Standardization) paper sizes--based on the earlier DIN (Deutsche Industrie Norm) sizes--are commonly used everywhere in the world except Canada and the United States. For an admirable explanation and summary of ISO paper-size standards, see Markus Kuhn's International Standard Paper Sizes Web page. Japan has developed its own standards for paper sizes. While the JIS (Japan Industrial Standard) A series of sizes is identical to the ISO/DIN A series of sizes, the JIS B series is not identical to the ISO B series; and Japan has no series of envelope sizes comparable to the ISO/DIN C series. In addition to ISO/DIN paper sizes, metricated traditional paper sizes are commonly used in some countries (e.g., Japan) and regions (e.g., the European Union). ISO and JIS Standard Paper Sizes Trim sizes in mm; Width precedes height; Press-sheet sizes accommodate 3 mm head, foot, and fore-edge trim margins; To convert to approximate decimal inches, divide measures by 25.4, or see	i don't know
"At the recent Tony Awards The King and I won the Best Revival of a Musical. Which word completes the title of the novel on which it is based – ""Anna and the King of ……..""?"	THE KING AND I :: Rodgers & Hammerstein :: Show Details Like this page on facebook. THE KING AND I Music by Rodgers, Richard \| Book by Oscar Hammerstein II \| Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II \| Based on Anna and the King by Margaret Landon \| Original Choreography by Jerome Robbins East versus West makes for a dramatic, richly textured and ultimately uplifting tale of enormous fascination. It is 1862 in Siam when an English widow, Anna Leonowens, and her young son arrive at the Royal Palace in Bangkok, having been summoned by the King to serve as tutor to his many children and wives. The King is largely considered to be a barbarian by those in the West, and he seeks Anna's assistance in changing his image, if not his ways. With both keeping a firm grip on their respective traditions and values, Anna and the King grow to understand and, eventually, respect one another, in a truly unique love story. Along with the dazzling score, the incomparable Jerome Robbins ballet, 'The Small House of Uncle Thomas,' is one of the all-time marvels of the musical stage. The King and I Synopsis THE KING AND I is based on a 1944 novel by Margaret Landon, Anna and the King of Siam which, in turn, was adapted from the real life reminiscences of Anna Leonowens as recounted in her own books The English Governess at the Siamese Court and The Romance of the Harem. The time is the early 1860s. The place, the royal capital city of Bangkok in the kingdom of Siam. Anna Leonowens, an attractive English widow, arrives in Bangkok with her son Louis. She has been engaged by The King of Siam to teach English and other Western ideas and philosophies to members of the royal family, including the King’s many wives and many more children. Escorted ashore by the King’s Prime Minister, The Kralahome, Anna is at first unsure that she and Louis have made the right decision by coming to Siam. In the King’s court, attempts toward implementing Western values clash with old fashioned customs and traditions. Even as the King is proclaiming his belief in the ideals of the West, he accepts a gift from the King of Burma – a peace offering, a slave. The King admires the young girl, Tupim, not suspecting her lack of interest in him nor the fact that her true love in Lun Tha, the young Burmese who has escorted her to Bangkok. Anna is finally presented to The King, and her doubts turn to indignant anger when it seems that His Majesty has a cavalier way of forgetting issues that do not interest him – such as Anna’s salary, her days off and the issue of a brick house that was supposed to be built for her adjacent to the Royal Palace. But, on the verge of storming out, Anna is coxed into meeting the Royal Children. She is introduced to the King’s first wife, Lady Thiang, and in turn to the King’s children. That settles it. She stays to teach. In the classroom Anna instructs the Royal Children, the King’s wives and sometimes the King himself. They learn of a great outside world where there exists such strange and unheard wonders as snow, ice, and freedom of the individual. When the King learns that a British diplomat, Sire Edward Ramsay, is on his way from Singapore to Bangkok ostensibly to pay his compliments to the King but also to assess the monarch’s hold on his own thrown, Anna cleverly finds a way to help the King convince Sir Edward that is a sophisticated and commanding leader. Anna suggests that the King host a dinner for Sir Edward in the European style, with his wives dressed in the latest European style, and with an entertainment provided by the quick and intelligent slave girl Tuptim. The King is so happy with the thought of this forthcoming dinner, and recognizing the friendship that is growing between himself and the equally strong-willed “Mrs. Anna,” he now promises Anna that she will get her brick house, according to their agreement. The dinner proves a great success, despite the discomfort and anger that arises from the King during Tuptim’s presentation of “The Small House of Uncle Thomas,” in which Harriet Beecher Stowe’s passionate denunciation of bigotry in American has been transformed into a Siamese ballet. Nevertheless, the troubled mood of the moment is quickly forgotten in the warm and encouraging endorsement of his regime that the king receives from Sir Edward. The plan has worked. Alone in the ballroom now, congratulating each other on the evening and reliving its finest moments, Anna and the King bask in their friendship. He recalls, from earlier in the evening, the strange Occidental custom of a man dancing with his arm around a woman’s waist. The King persuades Anna to teach him the English dance and it becomes apparent, as they dance the polka, that there exists a strong attraction between them. The mood is shattered by the startling news that Tuptim and Lun Tha have escaped together from the Royal Palace. They are discovered by the King’s secret police; Lun Tha is killed, and Tuptim is captured and returned to the palace. Outraged, his pride wounded, the King is prepared to punish her himself; his arm upraised, the whip in his hand, he is ready to lash punishment across her back when Anna intervenes. Defiantly she tells him that this regression to savagery and barbarianism undermines all that he has strived for since she came to Siam. The King realizes that Anna is right, but with that realization his power as an absolute monarch is gone also, and putting down the whip, the King flees from the room, a broken man, a confused and unsteady leader. Anna realizes that she has humiliated the King that she can no longer remain in Siam. Her belongings are packed and placed aboard a ship. As she is about to embark, she receives a note from the King, who is dying. The note expresses his gratitude for all that she has done for him. Tearfully Anna returns to the Palace to see the King. Lying near death, the King is surrounded by his wives and his children. When they see Anna, the children embrace her and beg her not to leave them. Anna is deeply moved and now realizes how much she loves them and how much they need her. Dying, the King directs Anna to take notes from Chululongkorn, the new King. The Prince, who has learned his lessons well from Anna, regally announces that henceforth there will be no servile bowing and scraping before him. As the King dies, Anna, the Kralahome, the wives and children sink to the floor in a low curtsey and bow, in final obeisance to the dead King, and with a respect for the new one. The King And I - Background Rodgers & Hammerstein's first musical play based on a true story was also the first project brought to them by a star who wanted to play the leading role. The star was Gertrude Lawrence, and her idea for a musical came from the highly popular novel, Anna and the King of Siam by Margaret Landon which, in turn, was based on the memoirs of Anna Leonowens, a 19th century Englishwoman who became governess to the children of the King of Siam. Coincidentally, a few years before Miss Lawrence approached Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, they had already had the idea pitched to them by their wives. Both Dorothy Rodgers and Dorothy Hammerstein had read the Landon book, but it wasn't until Rodgers and Hammerstein viewed a screening of the 1946 film version of the Landon novel that they came around. The film, starring Rex Harrison as the King and Irene Dunne as Anna, provided Rodgers and Hammerstein with the clue they were looking for: yes, the history was fascinating, and yes the exotic themes and settings were ideal for musical pageantry and spectacle; but a good musical also needs story and conflict and here—in the multiple themes of East versus West, "civilization" versus "barbarism," despotism versus democracy and man versus woman—Rodgers and Hammerstein found plenty to write about. Casting Gertrude Lawrence as Anna was the easy part. As for the King, Noel Coward, Rex Harrison and Alfred Drake, among others, were offered the role and all, for various reasons, turned it down. It was at an open audition that a young dancer whom Mary Martin had recommended walked out onto the stage of the James Theatre, sat cross-legged on the floor and, in Richard Rodgers' words, "plunked one whacking chord on his guitar and began to howl in a strange language that no one could understand...We had our king." He was, of course, Yul Brynner. THE KING AND I was readied for Broadway with a budget of $360,000—making it the most expensive Rodgers & Hammerstein musical to date, and one of the most lavish in Broadway history. John van Druten was the director; Jerome Robbins served as choreographer, giving his unique touch to such memorable moments as "Shall We Dance?" and the Siamese treatment of Uncle Tom's Cabin, "The Small House of Uncle Thomas." Jo Mielziner designed the sets, and Irene Sharaff the costumes. With a supporting cast that included Doretta Morrow as Tuptim, Dorothy Sarnoff as Lady Thiang, and Larry Douglas as Lun Tha, THE KING AND I began its trek to Broadway in the late winter of 1951. The musical was greeted enthusiastically in New Haven where changes were made nevertheless. Searching for an Act I song for Anna to brighten her character, Rodgers and Hammerstein were stumped until Mary Martin, visiting from New York, reminded them of an upbeat soft-shoe discarded from SOUTH PACIFIC. A few changes in the music and a brand new lyric, and "Suddenly Lucky" was metamorphosed into "Getting To Know You." THE KING AND I opened on Broadway on March 29, 1951, where it proceeded to run for three years, racking up 1,246 performances. It received five Tony Awards, including Best Musical, and honors for both of its stars. Very quickly the allure of THE KING AND I began to spread worldwide. Valerie Hobson and Herbert Lom starred in the original London production, and the musical scored great successes in Australia, Japan, and throughout Europe—from LE ROI ET MOI in Brussels to DER KONIG UND ICH in Berlin. In 1956 Twentieth Century Fox—which had presented the 1946 version starring Harrison and Dunne—released the motion picture version of THE KING AND I under the careful eye of studio chief Darryl F. Zanuck. "More than your eyes have ever seen," promised the posters—"More than your heart has ever known!" THE KING AND I starred Deborah Kerr as Anna (with her musical voice provided by Marni Nixon) and Yul Brynner recreating his role as The King. An immediate success, THE KING AND I became the second-highest grossing film of the year and was also critically acclaimed; nominated for nine Academy Awards, it received five, including the Best Actor Award to Brynner. Yul Brynner's relationship to THE KING AND I is unique in the annals of theatre. Over the course of 34 years he played The King more than 4,600 times, first on stage, then on the big screen and then on television (co-starring with Samantha Eggar in the short-lived series, ANNA AND THE KING in the early '70s.) He brought THE KING AND I back to Broadway for two separate, triumphant engagements; the latter, the culmination of his farewell tour as The King, was presented in 1985, the final year of his life. At the conclusion of that run Mr. Brynner received a special Tony Award for his achievements. Ultimately, the musical that was conceived by one star, and made a star out of another, has transcended its star vehicle status to live on as a classic in its own right with two starring roles. In addition to the legendary Gertrude Lawrence and Yul Brynner, a host of great names have played these star parts over the years. The honor roll includes, as Anna: Susan Hampshire, Angela Lansbury, Barbara Cook, Jan Clayton, Jeannette MacDonald, Betsy Palmer, Eileen Brennan, Betty White, Virginia McKenna and Florence Henderson. The King, meanwhile, has been played by, among others, Darren McGavin, Alfred Drake, Cameron Mitchell, Farley Granger, Ricardo Montalban, Pernell Roberts, Theodore Bikel, Stacey Keach, and Rudolf Nureyev. In 1992 Philips Classics released a studio cast recording of THE KING AND I. Under the direction of John Mauceri and featuring the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, the all-star recording was led by Julie Andrews (Anna) and Ben Kingsley (The King), with Lea Salonga (Tuptim), Peabo Bryson (Lun Tha), Marilyn Horne (Lady Thiang) and cameo appearances by Martin Sheen and Roger Moore. Earlier that season, a new production of THE KING AND I starring Hayley Mills began touring Australia. The director was Christopher Renshaw, the designers were Brian Thomson for sets and Roger Kirk for costumes, and the producer was John Frost of the Gordon/Frost Organisation. Distinctive and unusual, this production caught the eye of composer Rodgers' daughter Mary, who declared it the best KING AND I she had ever seen. Within a short time the wheels were set in motion to bring this production 10,000 miles up to Broadway. It arrived four years later, opening at the Neil Simon Theatre on April 11, 1996, starring Tony Award winner Donna Murphy as Anna and film star Lou Diamond Phillips as The King. Renshaw, Thomson and Kirk repeated their assignments, and Frost's primary co-producers were Dodger Productions. Hailed by the critics and public alike, THE KING AND I swept the triple crown of Broadway honors that spring, winning the Tony Award, Drama Desk Award and Outer Critics' Circle Awards for Best Musical Revival; Murphy received her second Tony, and both set and costume designers won Tony Awards as well. During its second year on Broadway the leads were replaced by Faith Prince and Kevin Gray. Prince herself had been replaced by Marie Osmond (in her Broadway debut) by the time THE KING AND I closed on Broadway in February,1998; its tally of 807 performances made it the longest-running R&H revival in Broadway history. A U.S. National Tour, starring Hayley Mills for its first year, opened in Minneapolis in April of 1997; the following year Ms. Mills was replaced, first by Marie Osmond and finally Maureen McGovern. A London version of this production, starring Elaine Paige, opened at the legendary Palladium in May of 2000, where it played for nearly two years before embarking on a U.K. National Tour into 2002. Today, THE KING AND I still reigns, its majesty still shines. With its legacy assured, we leave the final word to Oscar Hammerstein II. In 1956 he wrote to his partner, Richard Rodgers: I am convinced that this is our best work. I have a kind of humble feeling of not knowing how we did it. It has more wisdom as well as heart than any other musical play by anybody. It will remain 'modern' long after any of our other plays. Block, Geoffrey. The Richard Rodgers Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Ewen, David. Richard Rodgers. New York: Holt, 1957. Ewen, David. With a Song in His Heart (Richard Rodgers). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. Fordin, Hugh. Getting To Know Him: The Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. New York: Random House, 1977; Decapo Press, 1995. Green, Stanley. The Rodgers and Hammerstein Story. New York: John Day, 1963; Decapo Press (Paperback), 1980. Hammerstein II, Oscar. Lyrics. Introduction by the author, Preface by Stephen Sondheim. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 1985. Landon, Margaret. Anna and the King of Siam. New York: The John Day Company, 1944. Leonowens, Anna. The English Governess at the Siamese Court. Singapore, Oxford University Press, 1988. Leonowens, Anna. The Romance of the Harem. Edited by Susan Moran. University Press of Virginia, 1991. Mordden, Ethan. Rodgers & Hammerstein. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1992. Nolan, Frederick. The Sound of Their Music. New York: Walker, 1978; Applause Books, 2002. Rodgers, Richard. Musical Stages: An Autobiography. New York: Random House, 1975; New York: Jove Paperback, 1978; DeCapo Press, 1995; (Revised Edition, 2002). Smith, Leslie Dow. Anna Leonowens: A Life Beyond THE KING AND I. Nova Scotia: Pottersfield, 1991. Taylor, Deems. Some Enchanted Evenings. New York: Harper, 1953. Outer Critics Circle Awards The Sound of Music Notes on the Original Broadway Production These notes were culled from conversations with Gemze de Lappe, a performer in both the original Broadway cast and the 1956 20th Century Fox film version of THE KING AND I. Ms. de Lappe also assisted Jerome Robbins in mounting subsequent productions of THE KING AND I, including the original West End production in London in 1953. 1. CHARACTERS THE KING: The character of the King is that of a man who is secure in his power. He is serious and intellectual and anxious to bring Western knowledge to Siam. He is not a man of anger or petulance. Because he has never known anything but absolute and unquestioned authority there is little reason for him to need to resort to bombastic behavior. This changes only as Anna begins to challenge him and he is forced to pit his vision of a civilized Siam against his own ego. When the King is first revealed (in Act One, Scene Three) the mood surrounding him is one of serenity and decorum. The court dancers and music should provide an effect akin to classical music being played softly in the background. He sits on a dais which places him physically and spiritually above everyone else in the room. His subjects do not look directly at him. In his presence their hands are kept in praying position. The court’s behavior in front of the King is always one of utmost respect. ANNA: Anna is in many ways a very modern woman. To her, business is business. She is confident, she understands the job she has been hired to do, and is she is willing to stand up for what she believes is correct. Her flaw is her temperament. Without this flaw she could be mistakenly perceived as merely a colonialist, which misses the point of the story. LOUISLouis is about eight. He has been brought up in the middle class of the Victorian era. He is polite to and respectful of those around him, but sincerely so. He should appear to be a couple of years younger than Chulalongkorn. CHULALONGKORN: Chulalongkorn is about ten. He looks to be a couple of years older than Louis. As the Crown Prince he is given deferential treatment by the entire court. Only his father outranks him. His manner can seem rigid and his bearing militaristic as he tries to walk in his father’s footsteps, on his way to becoming the king his parents and his country need him to be. TUPTIM: Tuptim should not show herself as a victim at the start of the play (“My Lord and Master”). She becomes a victim as the play progresses. She arrives at the Siamese court not only angry and indignant at being made a gift but consternated that she is not allowed to communicate with Lun Tha, her lover. Eventually her love for Lun Tha gets the best of her, and she reveals herself to disastrous results for both of them. AMAZONS: These women guards should be in every scene in which the Wives appear. They are strong, strapping women whose demeanor tells us they are willing and able to protect the Wives, who have been placed in their care. 2. MAKE-UP The King’s Court is made up as naturally as possible, except for the Royal Dancers in #38 “The Small House of Uncle Thomas” Ballet. These characters make up with white faces and red lips as well as darker eyebrows and eyeliner. The Court Dancers in #6. Vignettes and Dance and the Schoolroom Dancer in #16. “Getting To Know You” are made up naturally, with a little exaggeration of the eyes. 3. ATTITUDES & FACES The Royal Dancers in the Ballet do not look up or out, but keep their eyes averted down. The exception is the expression of fear which is accompanied by an exaggerated opening of the eyes. 4. BASIC VOCABULARY OF THE BOWS Throughout the play the members of the court perform different kinds of ceremonial bows to the King and to each other. These are specified as: [A] Prostrate (Kneeling, sitting on heels, body bent forward with forearms, palms and forehead on the floor) [B] On One Knee [C] Standing (Hands in prayer position, bending from the upper back) [D] Kneeling (Sitting on heels) [E] Kneeling High (Straight from the knees up) When leaving the presence of the King all member of his court back away from him respectfully, leaning forward with hands in prayer position. At a certain point they may turn and exit the stage quickly. These bows are demonstrated in the choreographic video. 5. CHOREOGRAPHIC NOTES #6. Vignettes and Dance In the original production the dancers being made up in the corridor were not the same dancers who were preset in the King’s library and were dancing for him as he was revealed in act one, scene three. The dance being performed for the King should set a mood of dignity and intellectual sophistication. The mood of the musical underscore and the dancing should be one of soft murmurs – beautiful, gentle, lovely movement, slightly sensuous and serene. This dance is demonstrated in the choreographic video. #11. The March of Siamese Children This is the introduction of the King’s Children, who enter from upstage right, one by one, bow before the King, cross down to Anna, and touch her hands to their foreheads. They then back up to take kneeling positions stage right, having been guided into place by their mothers. 1st CHILD (Girl) holding a doll in her arms, is carried on by one of the Amazons, who sets her down at the bottom of the steps. She gives the doll to the Amazon before bowing to the King. She then goes to Anna and is guided back into position by her mother. The Amazon backs off right. 2nd CHILD (Boy) is carried on by an Amazon, bows to the King, goes to Anna and is then guided back into position by his mother. The Amazon exits right. 3rd & 4th CHILDREN (Twins) walk on together holding hands, do their bows together and are guided back into position by their mother. 5th CHILD (Boy) walks on, does bow to King, is about to touch Anna’s hands, looks at his own hands, realizes they are dirty, rubs his hands on the seat of his trousers, then does his bow to Anna and is guided back into position by his mother. 6th CHILD (Girl) walks on, stares at Anna all through her bow to the King, fascinated, then crosses down to Anna, does a normal bow to her, then makes a grab at Anna’s skirt, lifting it and looking beneath it. The Kings steps forward, angrily claps his hands, and she is shamefacedly guided back into position by her mother. 7th CHILD (Prince Chulalongkorn) At bar 53 of the music Chulalongkorn strides on proudly, stopping at center and facing front on the 13th beat (the downbeat of bar 59.) On the 1st beat of bar 61 he comes down center, turning on the 5th beat (downbeat of bar 62) to face his father on the 9th beat (downbeat of bar 65.) On the 13th beat (downbeat of bar 67) he drops to his knees. On the 15th beat (downbeat of bar 68) he prostrates himself to his father. On the 1st beat of the next bar (downbeat of bar 69) he straightens up. On the 3rd beat (downbeat of bar 70) he stands. On the 5th beat (downbeat of bar 71) the King returns his bow. On the 9th beat (downbeat of bar 73) Chulalongkorn moves to Anna. They regard each other, and at bar 77 she slowly curtseys to him, deeply and respectfully. At bar 79 he responds with the same bow he exchanged with his father. At bar 81 he backs up and is received by Lady Thiang, who guides him to his place as the next child enters (bar 83.) All of Chulalonghorn’s moves should be made with military precision and bespeak his regal bearing. He is his father’s son. 8th CHILD (Boy) performs a straightforward bow to the King and a curtsey to Mrs. Anna. 9th CHILD (Girl) After her bows to the King and Anna she turns and starts to walk into position right. Her mother points to her and indicates that she has forgotten something and that she should turn back. Realizing her mistake, she turns to Anna, takes a red rose from the hair and offers it to Anna. Then she backs into position assisted by her mother. 10th CHILD (Princess Ying Yaowlak) enters smiling and starts to mount the dais to embrace her father. He hastily pushes her away, she bows. Going to Anna she is crestfallen, but as she retreats from Anna the King smiles at her and she smiles back at him joyously. 11th CHILD (Boy) performs a straightforward bow to the King and a curtsey to Mrs. Anna. 12th CHILD (Smallest Boy) is carried on by an Amazon, who sets him down and exits right. The child crosses to the King, who is looking in another direction, and tugs at his penuang. Receiving the King’s attention he bows and then bows to Anna and backs into position. On the final beat of music all Wives and Children prostrate themselves to the King and Anna. #31. “Western People Funny” The staging needs to be simple and believable. The comedy derives from the Wives reaction to wearing Western clothing and especially Western shoes for the first time. Western clothes are very restrictive to these women. They can’t move in them the way they are used to moving in their own clothes. They find themselves, some with one shoe off and one shoe on, having trouble sitting down and maneuvering past each other. If the actors believe in the situation the audience will accept it. The joke as Hammerstein has written it is not on the Siamese but on the Westerners who sentimentalize them. (“They think they civilize us whenever they advise us to learn to make the same mistake that they are making too.”) #38. “The Small House of Uncle Thomas” (Ballet) The dancers never look directly out at the audience, as they would always avert their eyes from the King. One of the small children (but not the smallest) should portray Buddha. The bows that the six principals take at the end of the ballet are demonstrated in the choreographic video. [NOTE: Gemze de Lappe (the original King Simon of Legree) points out that during the rehearsals of the original production she watched Yul Brynner to help her create her own King character. Since the ballet is Tuptim’s invention she has created the character of King Simon of Legree with her anger toward the King of Siam in mind.] #49. EXIT MUSIC (Bows at end of Show) Corps Dancers and SingersChildren Supporting Roles (Sir Edward, Phra Alak, Captain Orton)Solo DancersPrincipal Roles ENCORES Although the encores for both “Hello, Young Lovers” and “Getting To Know You” have been retained in the piano vocal score and instrumental parts, this has been done for historical purposes only. Encores were often called for in an era when it was not unusual for a star of Gertrude Lawrence’s magnitude to provide them. This was especially the case as the songs were being introduced for the first time. However, keeping in mind that the running time of the original Broadway production was three hours and two minutes, these encores should not be included in contemporary productions of THE KING AND I unless the audience demands them. About The King and I, The New York Times Written By: Rodgers and Hammerstein 'Anna and the King of Siam,' being itself a biography based on an actual diary, demanded much more fidelity than would a satire, a fairy tale, or a revue. Dealing with a governess who went to the court of Siam in 1861 to teach English to the royal children, the quality of the original book was its authentic feeling, its simple statement of facts and occurrences, which were fantastic enough to need no embellishment. Our basic problem was how far we could capture this remote reality and still give our production the lift and glow that all musical plays must have. Obviously THE KING AND I is not an example of stark realism in the theatre, or a documentary work on the Orient in the middle of the nineteenth century. We have not been slavishly literal in following the book, nor completely conscientious historically. But in spite of whatever factual compromises we have seen fit to make, we have tried very hard, within our own romantic medium, to present the King and Anna as the genuine and fascinating man and woman we believe they were. The strength of their story lies in the violent changes they wrought in each other. Yet their life together bears unmistakable implications of deep mutual attraction$mdash;a man and woman relationship so strong and real and well founded that it seems in some ways more than a love affair, more than a marriage. The intangibility of their strange union was a challenge to us as librettist and composer. In dealing with them musically we could not write songs which said 'I love you' or even 'I love him' or ' I love her.' We were dealing with two characters who could indulge themselves only in oblique expressions of their feelings for each other, since they themselves did not realize exactly what those feelings were.	Siam (disambiguation)
"What is the surname of former rally driver Roger Albert after whom the RAC Rally which began in 2004 is named - it follows a route based on the ""classic"" RAC Rally first organised by the Royal Automobile Club in 1932?"	The King and I : definition of The King and I and synonyms of The King and I (English) 1996 Tony Award for Best Revival The King and I is a stage musical , the fifth by the team of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II . The work is based on the 1944 novel Anna and the King of Siam by Margaret Landon and derives from the memoirs of Anna Leonowens , who became governess to the children of King Mongkut of Siam in the early 1860s. The story deals with the experiences of the British schoolteacher, who is hired as part of the King's drive to modernize his country. The relationship between the King and Anna is marked by conflict through much of the play, as well as by a love that neither is able to express. The musical premiered on March 29, 1951 at Broadway 's St. James Theatre , closed on March 20, 1954 and has received tours and revivals. In 1950, theatrical attorney Fanny Holtzmann was looking for a part for her client, veteran leading lady Gertrude Lawrence . Holtzmann realized that Landon's book would be an ideal vehicle and contacted Rodgers and Hammerstein , who were initially reluctant, but who agreed to write the musical. The pair initially sought Rex Harrison to play the supporting part of the King—he had played the role in the 1946 movie made from Landon's book—but Harrison was unavailable. They settled on Russian-American actor Yul Brynner . The musical was an immediate hit, winning Tony Awards for Best Musical , Best Actress (for Lawrence) and Best Featured Actor (for Brynner). Lawrence died unexpectedly of cancer a year and a half after the opening, and the role of Anna was played by other actresses during the remainder of the Broadway run of three years (1,246 performances). A national tour and a hit London run followed, together with a 1956 film for which Brynner won an Academy Award . More successful revivals were mounted. In the early 1980s, Brynner starred in an extended national tour of the musical, culminating with a 1985 Broadway run, shortly before his death. Later major revivals of The King and I included productions on Broadway in 1996 and in the West End in 2000. Contents Historical background King Mongkut with his heir: Prince Chulalongkorn , both in naval uniforms. In 1861, Mongkut , King of Siam, wrote to his Singapore agent, Tan Kim Ching , asking him to find a British lady to be governess to the royal children. At the time, the British community in Singapore was small, and the choice fell on a recent arrival there, Anna Leonowens , who was running a small nursery school in the colony. [1] Leonowens was the Eurasian daughter of an Indian Army soldier and widow of a clerk and hotel keeper—she had arrived in Singapore two years previously, claiming to be the genteel widow of an officer and explaining her dark appearance by stating she was Welsh by birth. Her imposture was not detected in her lifetime. [2] Leonowens sent her daughter, Avis, off to school in England, in the hope that her daughter would become the lady her mother pretended to be, and embarked for Bangkok with her five-year-old son, Louis, aboard the Chao Prya, commanded by Captain Orton. [1] King Mongkut had sought an English lady to teach his children after he had tried local missionaries , who used the opportunity to proselytize. Leonowens initially asked for $150 in Singapore currency per month. Another request by Leonowens, that she live in or near the missionary community for Western company, aroused suspicion in Mongkut, who noted in a letter, "we need not have teacher of Christianity as they are abundant here". [3] King Mongkut and Leonowens came to an agreement—$100 per month and a residence near the royal palace. At a time when the streets of Bangkok were canals , Mongkut did not wish to have to arrange for the teacher's transport every day. [3] The Leonowens family temporarily lived as guests of Mongkut's prime minister, and after the first house offered was found to be unsuitable, the family moved into a brick residence (wooden structures decayed quickly in Bangkok's climate) on the same side of the river as the palace, and within walking distance. [3] King Mongkut himself was aged about 57 in 1861. He had lived half his life as a Buddhist monk and had proved an able scholar, founding a new order of Buddhism and a temple in Bangkok (paid for by his half-brother, King Jessadabodindra ). When Jessadabodindra died in 1850, Mongkut became king. Through his decades of devotion, Mongkut had acquired an ascetic lifestyle and a firm grasp of Western languages. Mongkut came to the throne at a time when various European countries, as well as American traders, were striving for dominance in Southeast Asia, and his plans (ultimately successful) to keep Siam an independent nation involved familiarizing his heirs and harem with Western ways. [4] Inception Oscar Hammerstein II In 1950, Gertrude Lawrence 's business manager and attorney, Fanny Holtzmann , was looking for a new property for her client, when the 1944 Margaret Landon book Anna and the King of Siam (a fictionalized version of Leonowens' experiences) was sent to her by Landon's William Morris agent. [5] According to Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest, Holtzmann was worried that Lawrence's career was fading. [6] In any case, Lawrence had appeared in plays rather than musicals since Lady in the Dark closed in 1943. [7] Holtzmann agreed that a musical based on Anna and the King of Siam would be ideal for Lawrence. [5] Lawrence purchased the rights to adapt the book for the stage. [8] Holtzmann initially wanted Cole Porter to write the score , but he refused. Holtzmann was going to approach Noël Coward next, but happened to meet Dorothy Hammerstein (Oscar's wife) in Manhattan. Holtzmann told Dorothy Hammerstein that she wanted Rodgers and Hammerstein to do a show for Lawrence, and to see that her husband read a book that Holtzmann would send over. Both Dorothy Rodgers and Dorothy Hammerstein were under instructions to pass along all such messages to their husbands, and Dorothy Hammerstein did so. In fact, both wives had read the book in 1944, and had urged their husbands to consider it as a possible subject for a musical. [5] Rodgers and Hammerstein had disliked Landon's book as a basis for a musical when it was published, and their views still held. Landon's book consists of episodes, showing vignettes of life at the Siamese court, along with descriptions of historical events. [9] The episodes in the book are unconnected, except that the King creates most of the difficulties featured in the vignettes, and Anna tries to resolve them. [10] They could see no coherent story from which a musical could be made. [9] Their view changed when they saw the 1946 film adaptation , starring Irene Dunne and Rex Harrison , and saw how the screenplay had united the episodes in the book. They became more interested in the idea of writing a musical adaptation. [9] However, the pair was concerned about Lawrence herself. They had rarely used theatrical stars in their joint works; they preferred to make stars rather than hire them, and hiring the legendary Gertrude Lawrence would be expensive. Another concern was Lawrence's voice: she had never had a great vocal range, and it was diminishing with the years. Becoming more pronounced, on the other hand, was a tendency to sing flat. Lawrence's temperament was another concern: though she could not sing like one, the star was fully capable of diva -like behavior. [11] However, they admired her acting and stage presence—what Hammerstein called her "magic light", causing her to be a compelling force onstage, and they agreed to write the show. [12] For her part, Lawrence agreed to remain in the show until June 1, 1953, and waived the star's usual veto rights over cast and director, leaving control in the hands of the two authors. [13] Hammerstein found his "door in" to the play in Landon's account of a slave in Siam writing about Abraham Lincoln. This would eventually become the narrated dance, "The Small House of Uncle Thomas". Since any romantic feelings between the King and Anna could not be acknowledged in song, Hammerstein built up the secondary couple, Lun Tha and Tuptim. In the Landon book, the relationship is between Tuptim and a priest, and is not romantic. The most radical change from the book was to have the King die at the end of the play, [14] although in a pre-rehearsal script, Hammerstein makes it unclear whether or not the King dies. [15] In an interview for The New York Times , Hammerstein indicated that he had written the first scene before leaving for London and the West End production of Carousel in mid-1950; a second scene had been written in the British capital. [16] Hammerstein originally had a very different conception of the "Shall We Dance?" scene, though still touching on the unspoken love between the King and Anna, according to an early script: Anna tries to explain the Western idea of the love of one man for one woman. It will introduce a new song, which will be Anna's attempt to describe a romantic love totally foreign to the King's idea of relations between man and woman. In his part of the song[,] his logical arguments against sentimental monogamy must be a difficult one for Anna to answer. She can only fall back on the fact that in the Western world, this thing which seems so foolish and impossible to him is happening every hour of the day, every day, and a man and a girl are falling in love, believing that they are the only people in the world for each other. At the end of the song, while he does not admit that he is convinced to any degree, it is apparent that he has found her very attractive and somehow can feel this illogical impulse himself, however vaguely. [17] Both men had to overcome problems with how to properly represent Thai speech or music. Rodgers, who had experimented with Asian music in his short-lived 1928 musical with Lorenz Hart , Chee-chee, [18] did not wish to use actual Thai music, which the audience might not like. Instead, he gave his music an exotic tone while avoiding authentic Asian melodies. [19] Rodgers and Hammerstein needed to decide how to represent Thai language speech. They decided that when the characters were to speak in Thai, that speech would be conveyed by musical sounds, made by the orchestra. For the speech of the King, Hammerstein developed an abrupt, emphatic way of talking, which was free of articles, as are many Oriental languages. The forcefulness of the King's speech reflected his personality. [19] The manner of speech was maintained even when the King sang, especially in his one solo number, "A Puzzlement". [20] With Rodgers laid up with back trouble, Hammerstein completed most of the book before many songs were set to music. [21] Hammerstein immediately contacted set designer Jo Mielziner and costume designer Irene Sharaff and asked them to begin work in coordination with each other. Sharaff communicated with Jim Thompson , an American who had revived the Thai silk industry after World War II . Thompson sent Sharaff samples of silk cloth from Thailand and pictures of local dress from the mid-19th century. [22] One such picture, of a Thai woman in western dress, inspired the song "Western People Funny", sung by the King's chief wife, Lady Thiang, while dressed in western garb. [23] Producer Leland Hayward , who had worked with the duo on South Pacific , approached choreographer Jerome Robbins to arrange "The Small House of Uncle Thomas". Robbins was very enthusiastic about the project, and asked to choreograph the other musical numbers as well, which Rodgers and Hammerstein had thought unnecessary, as no other significant dancing was planned. Once hired, Robbins arranged "The Small House of Uncle Thomas" as an intimate performance, rather than a large production number. [23] His choreography for the parade of the King's children to meet their teacher ("March of the Royal Siamese Children") drew great acclaim. [24] Robert Russell Bennett provided the orchestrations, and Trude Rittman arranged the ballet music. [25] The pair had contemplated an Act 1 musical scene involving Anna and the King's wives. The song to put in that scene proved to be very difficult to write for Hammerstein. He felt Anna would tell the wives something about her past, and wrote such lyrics as "I was dazzled by the splendor/Of Calcutta and Bombay" and "The celebrities were many/And the parties very gay/(I recall a curry dinner/And a certain Major Grey)." [26] Eventually, Hammerstein decided to write about how Anna felt, a song which would, in addition to explaining her past, serve as a bond with Tuptim and lay the groundwork for the conflict which eventually devastates her relationship with the King. [26] "Hello, Young Lovers", the resultant song, was the work of five exhausting weeks for Hammerstein. He finally sent the lyric to Rodgers by messenger and awaited his reaction. No word came. Hammerstein considered the song his best work, and was anxious to hear what Rodgers thought of it, but still no comment came from Rodgers. Pride kept Hammerstein from asking. Finally, after four days, the two happened to be talking on the phone about other matters, and at the end of the conversation, Rodgers stated, very briefly, that the lyric was fine. Hammerstein's friend Josh Logan , who had worked with him on South Pacific, found the usually unflappable Hammerstein extremely upset, and the lyricist poured out his feelings to Logan, before suddenly stopping, one of the few times that Hammerstein and Rodgers did not display a united front. [27] Casting and tryouts Yul Brynner , in costume in The Ten Commandments Although the part of the King was only a supporting role to Lawrence's Anna, Hammerstein and Rodgers thought it essential that a well-known theatrical actor play the role. The obvious choice was Rex Harrison, who had played the King in the movie, but he was booked, as was Noël Coward . Alfred Drake , the original Curly in Oklahoma! , made contractual demands which were too high. With time running short before rehearsals, finding an actor to play the King became a major concern. Mary Martin , the original Nellie Forbush in South Pacific , suggested that her co-star in a 1946 production of Lute Song try for the role. [28] Rodgers later recalled the audition of the Russian-American performer, Yul Brynner : They told us the name of the first man and out he came with a bald head and sat cross-legged on the stage. He had a guitar and he hit his guitar one whack and gave out with this unearthly yell and sang some heathenish sort of thing, and Oscar and I looked at each other and said, "Well, that's it." [29] Brynner, however, later termed Rodgers's account "very picturesque, but totally inaccurate". He related that as an established television director, he was reluctant to go back on the stage. Mary Martin, his wife and his agent finally convinced him to read Hammerstein's working script, and once he did, he was fascinated by the character of the King and was eager to do the project. [30] Pre-rehearsal preparations began in the autumn of 1950. Hammerstein had wanted Logan to direct and co-write the book, as he had for South Pacific, but when Logan declined, Hammerstein decided to write the entire book himself. Instead of Logan, the duo hired John van Druten , who had worked with Lawrence years earlier, to direct. Sharaff was quoted as saying, "The first-act finale of The King and I will feature Miss Lawrence, Mr. Brynner, and a pink satin ball gown." [31] Mielziner's set plan was the simplest of the four Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals he had worked on, with one main set (the throne room), a number of front-stage drops (for the ship and Anna's room, for example) and the entire stage cleared for "The Small House of Uncle Thomas". [32] The show was budgeted at $250,000 (US$2,240,000 in 2012 dollars) making it the most expensive Rodgers and Hammerstein production to that point, and prompting some mocking that it exceeded even their expensive flop Allegro . [33] Additional investors included Josh Logan, Mary Martin, Billy Rose and Leland Hayward . [34] The children who were cast as the young princes and princesses were from a wide range of ethnic backgrounds, though none were Thai. Some of the young performers who were hired during the show's run were Puerto Rican or Italian. [35] Johnny Stewart was the original Prince Chulalongkorn but left the cast after only three months, replaced by Ronnie Lee. Sandy Kennedy was Louis, and Larry Douglas played Lun Tha. [36] [37] Shortly before rehearsals began in January 1951, Rodgers had the first Tuptim, Doretta Morrow , sing the entire score to Lawrence, including Lawrence's own songs. Lawrence listened calmly; however, when meeting Rodgers and Hammerstein the following day, she greeted the lyricist warmly but treated Rodgers coldly, apparently seeing the composer's actions as flaunting her vocal deficiencies. [38] Nevertheless, Hammerstein and Rodgers's doubts about whether Lawrence could handle the part were assuaged by the sheer force of her acting. James Poling, a writer for Collier's who was allowed to attend the rehearsals, wrote of Lawrence practicing "Shall I Tell You What I Think of You?": She took the center of the barren stage wearing, for practice, a dirty muslin hoop over her slacks, with an old jacket thrown over her shoulders for warmth. She began rather quietly on the note, "Your servant! Your servant! Indeed I'm not your servant!" Then she gradually built the scene, slowly but powerfully, until, in a great crescendo, she ended prone on the floor, pounding in fury, and screaming, "Toads! Toads! Toads! All of your people are toads." When she finished, the handful of professionals in the theatre burst into admiring applause. [18] At his first meeting with Sharaff, Brynner, who had only a fringe of hair, asked what he was to do about it. When told he was to shave it, Brynner was horror-struck and refused, convinced he would look terrible. He finally gave in during tryouts, and put dark makeup on his shaved head. The effect was so well-received that it became Brynner's trademark. [39] Lawrence's health caused her to miss several rehearsals, though no one seemed certain what was wrong with her. [38] When the tryout opened in New Haven, Connecticut on February 27, 1951, the show was nearly four hours long. Lawrence, suffering from laryngitis , had missed the dress rehearsal , but managed to make it through the first public performance. The Variety critic noted that despite her recent illness she "slinks, acts, cavorts, and in general exhibits exceedingly well her several facets for entertaining", but the Philadelphia Bulletin review observed her "already thin voice is now starting to wear a great deal thinner". [40] Leland Hayward came to see the show in New Haven and shocked Rodgers by advising him to close it before it went any further. Rodgers did not take Hayward's advice, but when the show left New Haven for Boston for more tryout performances it was at least 45 minutes too long. [41] Gemze de Lappe , who was one of the dancers, recalled one scene that she regretted was cut: They took out a wonderful scene. Mrs. Anna's first entrance into the palace comes with a song in which she sings, "Over half a year I have been waiting, waiting, waiting, waiting, waiting, waiting outside your door." At the end she points her umbrella at him, or something like that, and the King says "Off with her head" or words to that effect, and the eunuchs pick her up and carry her off. The King says "Who, who, who?" with great satisfaction, and finds out that he has just thrown out the English schoolteacher. So he says, "Bring her back!" and she is ushered in ... we all loved it. [42] The cut song, "Waiting", was a trio for Anna, the King, and the Kralahome. The Kralahome also lost his only solo, "Who Can Refuse?" Left without a note to sing, Mervyn Vye abandoned the show and was replaced by John Juliano. "Now You Leave", a song for Lady Thiang (played by Dorothy Sarnoff in the original production), was also cut. [36] [41] After the cuts, Rodgers and Hammerstein felt that the first act was lacking something. Lawrence suggested that they write a song for her and the children. Mary Martin reminded them of a song that had been cut from South Pacific, "Suddenly Lovely". Hammerstein wrote a new lyric for the melody, and the resulting song became "Getting to Know You". "Western People Funny" and "I Have Dreamed" were also added in Boston. [24] Plot Act 1 In Bangkok, Siam (later known as Thailand) in 1862, a strong-willed, widowed schoolteacher, Anna Leonowens, arrives at the request of the King of Siam to tutor his many children. Anna's young son, Louis, fears the severe countenance of the King’s “Prime Minister” the Kralahome, but Anna refuses to be intimidated ("I Whistle A Happy Tune"). The Kralahome has come to escort them to the palace, where they are expected to live—a violation of Anna's contract, which calls for them to live in a separate house. She considers returning to Singapore aboard the vessel that brought them here, but leaves with her son and the Kralahome. Several weeks pass, during which Anna and Louis are confined to their palace rooms. The King receives a gift from the king of Burma, a lovely slave girl named Tuptim, to be one of his many wives. She has been brought by Lun Tha, here to copy a design for a temple, and the two are deeply in love. Tuptim, left alone, declares that the King may own her, but he does not own her heart ("My Lord and Master"). The King gives Anna her first audience with him. The schoolteacher is a part of his plan for the modernization of Siam; he is impressed when she already knows this. She raises the issue of the house with him, he dismisses her protests and orders her to talk with his wives. They are interested in her, and she mentions her late husband, Tom ("Hello, Young Lovers"). The King presents her new pupils—Anna is to teach several dozen of his children whose mothers are in favor with the King. The princes and princesses enter in procession ("March of the Royal Siamese Children"). Anna is charmed by the children, and formality breaks down after the ceremony as they crowd around her. Anna has not given up on the house, and teaches the children proverbs and songs extolling the virtues of the home life, to the King's irritation. The King has enough worries on his mind without the battle with the schoolteacher, and wonders why the world has become so complicated ("A Puzzlement"). The children and wives are hard at work learning English ("The Royal Bangkok Academy"). The children are surprised by a map showing how small Siam is compared with the rest of the world (" Getting to Know You "). There is disorder as the crown prince , Chulalongkorn, refuses to believe the map, and the King enters a chaotic schoolroom. He orders the pupils to believe the teacher but complains to Anna about her lessons about "home". Anna stands her ground and insists on the letter of her contract, threatening to leave Siam, much to the dismay of wives and children. The King orders her to obey as "my servant"; she repudiates the term and hurries away. The King dismisses school, uncertain of his next action, then also leaves. Lun Tha comes upon Tuptim, and they muse on the impossibility of their love ("We Kiss in a Shadow"). In her room, Anna replays the confrontation in her mind, her anger building ("Shall I Tell You What I Think of You?"). Lady Thiang, the King's head wife, tells Anna that the King is troubled by news that he is being portrayed as a barbarian to the British, who are being urged to take over Siam as a protectorate . Anna is shocked by the accusations—the King is a polygamist, but he is no barbarian—but she is reluctant to see him after their argument. Lady Thiang convinces her that the King is deserving of support ("Something Wonderful"). Anna goes to him and finds him anxious for reconciliation, to which she reluctantly agrees. The King tells her of the allegations and that the British are sending an envoy to Bangkok to evaluate the situation. Anna "guesses"—the only guise in which the King will accept advice—that the King will receive the envoy in European style, and that the wives will be dressed in Western fashion. Tuptim has been writing a play based on Uncle Tom's Cabin , that can be presented to the guests. The British are coming much sooner than thought, and so Anna and the wives stay up all night so everything is done on time. The King assembles his family for a Buddhist prayer for the success of the venture and acknowledges before Buddha that Anna will receive her own house. Act 2 The wives, awaiting the British envoy, are dressed in European gowns, which they find confining ("Western People Funny"). In the rush to prepare, the question of undergarments has been overlooked, and the wives have practically nothing on underneath their gowns. When the British envoy, Sir Edward Ramsay, arrives and gazes at them through a monocle, they are panicked by the "evil eye" and lift their skirts over their heads as they flee. Sir Edward is diplomatic about the incident. When the King is called away, it develops that Sir Edward is an old flame of Anna's, and they dance in remembrance of old times, as Edward urges her to return to British society. The King returns and irritably reminds them that dancing is for after dinner. As final preparations for the play are made, Tuptim steals a moment to meet with Lun Tha. He tells her he has an escape plan, and she should be ready to leave after the play ("I Have Dreamed"). Anna encounters them, and they confide in her ("Hello, Young Lovers", reprise). The play ("Small House of Uncle Thomas") is presented as a traditional-appearing Siamese dance. Tuptim is the narrator, and dramatizes the evil of King Simon of Legree and the efforts of the slave Eliza to gain her freedom from him. Eliza is saved by Buddha, who, after she has crossed miraculous ice pursued by King Simon, causes the ice to melt, drowning the slaveholding King. The anti-slavery message is clear. After the play, Sir Edward reveals that the British threat has receded. The King, however, is distracted by the play and his displeasure at Tuptim. Sir Edward leaves, and Anna and the King express their delight at how well the evening went. He presents her with a ring. Secret police report that Tuptim is missing. The King realizes Anna knows something of this; she parries his inquiry by asking why he should care: Tuptim is just another woman to him. He is delighted; she is at last understanding the Siamese perspective. Anna tries to explain to him the Western way of courtship, and tells him of what it is like for a woman at a formal dance ("Shall We Dance?"). He demands that she teach the dance to him, and their dancing is interrupted by the Kralahome. Tuptim has been captured, and a search is on for Lun Tha. The King is determined to question and punish Tuptim, though she denies she and Lun Tha were lovers. Anna tries to dissuade him, but he takes the whip to prove his domination over Anna's influence. Under her gaze, however, he is unable to swing the whip. Lun Tha has been found dead, and Tuptim is dragged off swearing to join him in death. Anna returns the ring to the Kralahome as both she and the King express their wish that Anna had never come to Siam. Several months pass no contact between Anna and the King. Anna is packed and ready to board a ship leaving Siam. Chulalongkorn arrives with a letter from the King, who has been unable to resolve the conflicts within himself and is dying of heart failure. Anna hurries to the King's bedside and forgives him. The King persuades her to accept the ring and persuades her to stay to assist the next king, Chulalongkorn. The King tells Anna to take dictation from the prince, and tells the boy to give orders as if he were King. The prince orders the end of the custom of kowtowing , to which Anna has objected. The King grudgingly accepts this decision. As Chulalongkorn continues, prescribing a less arduous bow to show respect for the king, his father quietly dies. Anna kneels by the late King, holding his hand and kissing it, as the wives and children bow or curtsey, a gesture of respect to old king and new. Principal roles and notable performers Character Productions Original productions The King and I opened on Broadway on March 29, 1951, with a wide expectation of a hit. Both Hammerstein and Rodgers professed to be worried. The composer complained that most people were not concerned about whether the show was good, but whether it was better than South Pacific. Even the weather cooperated—heavy rain in New York stopped a few minutes before curtain, allowing the royalty of Broadway to arrive dry at the St. James Theatre . [44] Margaret Landon, author of the book on which the musical was based, was not invited to opening night. [45] Brynner turned in an outstanding performance that night, nearly stealing the show. Lawrence knew that the company was nervous about her performance because of her illnesses. As Van Druten described her opening night performance, however: "She came on the stage with a new and dazzling quality, as if an extra power had been granted to the brilliance of her stage light. She was radiant and wonderful." [46] The rave reviews lifted Lawrence's spirits, and she expected a lengthy run as Anna, first on Broadway, then in the West End , and finally on film. [47] Lawrence won a Tony Award for her leading role, while Brynner won the award for best featured (that is, supporting) actor. [17] The production itself won the Tony for best musical, and designers Mielziner and Sharaff received Tony Awards. [48] De Lappe remembered the contrast between Lawrence's indifferent singing voice and the force of her performance: I used to listen to Gertrude Lawrence on the public address system every night in our dressing rooms, and she'd get onto a note and sag down off of it. The night after I left the show to go into Paint Your Wagon , Yul Brynner gave me house seats and I saw her from the front and I was so taken by her. She had such a star quality, you didn't care if she sang off-key. She more than dominated the stage. Boy, was that a lesson to me. [18] Lawrence had not yet discovered that she was dying from liver cancer , and her weakened condition was exacerbated by the demands of her role. At the age of 52, she was required to wear dresses weighing 75 pounds (34 kg) while walking or dancing a total of 4 miles (6.4 km) during a 3½ hour performance eight times a week. Lawrence found it hard to bear the heat in the theater during the summer months. Understudy Constance Carpenter began replacing her in matinee performances. In the fall, Lawrence's strength returned, and she resumed her full schedule, but by Christmas she was battling pleurisy and suffering from exhaustion. She entered the hospital for a full week of tests. Just nine months before her death, the cancer still was not detected. In February 1952, bronchitis felled her for another week, and Lawrence's husband Richard Aldrich asked Rodgers and Hammerstein if they would consider closing the show Easter week to allow her an opportunity to recover fully. They denied his request, but agreed to replace her with the original Ado Annie from Oklahoma!, Celeste Holm , for six weeks during the summer. For three months in 1952, Alfred Drake replaced Brynner. [49] Meanwhile, Lawrence's performances were deteriorating, prompting audiences to become audibly restive. Rodgers and Hammerstein prepared a letter, never delivered, advising her that "eight times a week you are losing the respect of 1,500 people". [50] In late August, Lawrence fainted following a matinee and was admitted to New York Hospital , where doctors diagnosed her as suffering from hepatitis . Her former son-in-law, Dr. Bill Cahan, suspected liver cancer might be a more accurate diagnosis, and early on the morning of September 6, doctors performed a biopsy of her liver. Lawrence slipped into a coma and died later that day, aged 54. The autopsy revealed Cahan's suggestion of cancer had been correct. On the day of her funeral, The King and I cancelled its performance. [51] The lights of Broadway and the West End were dimmed; she was buried in the ball gown she wore during Act 2. [52] Carpenter assumed the role of Anna and went on to play it for 620 performances. [53] Other Annas during the 1,246–performance run included Holm, Annamary Dickey and Patricia Morison . [54] One young actor, Sal Mineo , began as an extra, then became an understudy for a younger prince, then an understudy and later a replacement for Crown Prince Chulalongkorn. [55] Mineo began a close friendship and working relationship with Brynner which would last over a decade. [56] The final performance of The King and I on Broadway was on March 20, 1954. A U.S. national tour began on March 22, 1954 at the Community Theatre, Hershey, Pennsylvania , with Yul Brynner and Patricia Morison. The tour lasted 42 weeks and played in 30 cities, closing on December 17, 1955 at the Shubert Theatre, Philadelphia. [57] [58] Although Brynner boasted of never missing a show, he actually missed several, once when stagehands at the St. James Theatre accidentally struck him in the nose with a piece of scenery, another time due to appendicitis. [59] The original London production opened on October 8, 1953 at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and was warmly received by both audiences and critics; [60] it ran for 946 performances. [61] The show was restaged by Jerome Whyte. [49] The cast featured Valerie Hobson , in her last role, as Anna; [62] Herbert Lom as the King; and Muriel Smith as Lady Thiang. [61] Martin Benson played the Kralahome, [49] a role he reprised in the 1956 film. [61] Eve Lister was a replacement for Hobson, and George Pastell replaced Lom during the long run. [49] Early revivals The first revival of The King and I in New York was presented by the New York City Center Light Opera Company in April and May 1956 for three weeks, starring Jan Clayton and Zachary Scott , directed by John Fearnley, with the Jerome Robbins choreography restaged by June Graham. [63] Muriel Smith reprised her London role of Lady Thiang, and Patrick Adiarte repeated his film role, Chulalongkorn. [64] This company presented the musical again in May 1960 with Barbara Cook and Farley Granger , again directed by John Fearnley, in a three week engagement (which had been extended from the original two weeks). [65] Joy Clements played Tuptim, and Anita Darian was Lady Thiang. [66] City Center again presented the show in June 1963 with Eileen Brennan and Manolo Fabregas, directed by Fearnley. [61] [67] Clements and Darian reprised Tuptim and Thiang. [68] Michael Kermoyan played the King with Constance Towers in the last City Center Light Opera production for three weeks in May 1968. [69] Anita Darian again played Lady Thiang. [70] For all of these productions, Robbins' choreography was reproduced by Yuriko , who had played the role of Eliza in the original Broadway production and reprised the role in the City Center productions. [71] [72] The Music Theatre of Lincoln Center , with Rodgers as producer, presented the musical in July 1964 at the New York State Theatre , starring Risë Stevens and Darren McGavin , with Michael Kermoyan as the Kralahome. Tuptim and Thiang were played by Lee Venora and Patricia Neway . [72] Costumes were by Irene Sharaff, who had designed the costumes for the original productions and the film adaptation. [73] The director was Edward Greenberg, with the Robbins choreography again reproduced by Yuriko. [72] This was the first production of Music Theatre, with a limited engagement of five weeks. [74] The King and I was revived at London's Adelphi Theatre on October 10, 1973, running for 260 performances with Sally Ann Howes as Anna and Peter Wyngarde as the King. Roger Redfarn directed, and Sheila O'Neill choreographed. [49] The production began in June 1973 with a tour of the English provinces. [75] It earned mixed to warm reviews and closed on May 25, 1974. [76] Brynner reprises the role In early 1976, Brynner received an offer from Broadway impresarios Lee Gruber and Shelly Gross to star in a revival of The King and I. Brynner reached terms with them and spent much of early 1976 preparing for the role he had originated. The U.S. national tour of The King and I opened in Los Angeles on July 26, 1976, with Constance Towers reprising the role of Anna. On opening night, Brynner suffered so badly from laryngitis that he lip-synched, with his son Rock singing and speaking the role from the orchestra pit. The production traveled across the United States, selling out every city it appeared in, and finally opening in New York at the Uris Theatre (today the Gershwin Theatre) on May 2, 1977. [77] [78] The production featured Martin Vidnovic as Lun Tha, and Susan Kikuchi danced the part of Eliza, recreating the role her mother, Yuriko, had originated. [78] June Angela was Tuptim. [79] Yuriko both directed the production and recreated the Robbins choreography. Michael Kermoyan reprised the role of the Kralahome, and Rebecca West danced the role of Simon of Legree. Sharaff again designed costumes. [80] Angela Lansbury replaced Towers, and Kermoyan replaced Brynner, for three weeks during the run, which lasted 696 performances, almost two years. [61] Brynner insisted on renovations to the Uris Theatre before he would play there, stating that before the work was done, the Uris resembled "a public toilet". [81] Brynner, who was required to spend a good part of his time at the theatre, insisted that dressing rooms be to his satisfaction. According to his biographer Michelangelo Capua, for years afterwards, performers thanked Brynner for having backstage facilities across the country cleaned up. [81] The tour was extended in 1979, after the New York run, with Towers as Anna. The production then opened in the West End , at the London Palladium , on June 12, 1979 and was reported to be sold out until October on the largest advance sale in English history. Brynner stated, "It is not a play, it is a happening." [82] Virginia McKenna starred in London as Anna, [82] winning an Olivier Award for her performance. [83] June Angela again played Tuptim, and John Bennett was the Kralahome. [84] It ran until September 27, 1980. [85] Brynner took only a few months off, after the London run concluded, returning to the role in early 1981, in an extended U.S. tour, of the same production, that was eventually to end on Broadway. [15] The Tour featured Mary Beth Peil as Anna, Patricia Welch as Tuptim and Irma-Estel LaGuerre as Lady Thiang. [86] On September 13, 1983 in Los Angeles, Brynner celebrated his 4,000th performance in his role as the King; on the same day he was privately diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. The tour reached Broadway in January 1985, running for 191 performances at the Broadway Theatre , with Peil as Anna, Welch as Tuptim [15] and LaGuerre as Thiang, [79] before concluding with a special Sunday night show in honor of Brynner on June 30, 1985. Through Brynner's final run, the part of Eliza was played by his fourth wife, Kathy Lee Brynner. [87] Mitch Leigh directed, and Robbins' choreography was reproduced by Rebecca West, who also danced the role of Simon of Legree, as she had at the Uris in 1977. [88] Brynner received a special Tony Award for his role as the King. [15] According to Theodore Chapin, president of the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, which licenses the pair's plays, "By the time Brynner gave his 4,625th and final performance in New York, the actress playing Mrs. Anna was neither mentioned nor pictured on the marquee of the theater." [17] Chapin also notes that Piel was nominated merely for a featured actress Tony as Anna, so much had Brynner made the play his own. [17] Brynner died less than four months after the end of the run, on October 10, 1985. [15] 1991 to 2001 The first major production to break away from the original staging and interpretation was director Christopher Renshaw 's Australian production, starring Hayley Mills as Anna in 1991. The production had a more sinister Siamese setting, a less elegant but more forceful Anna, and a younger King (Tony Marinyo). [61] The attraction between Anna and the King was made explicit. [89] Renshaw also focused on the spiritual elements of the piece, asking choreographers Lar Lubovitch and Jerome Robbins to create a "spiritual" ballet, for the King's entrance in Act 1, and a procession with a white elephant in Act II. Renshaw has said that he intended to update the way the musical views the East, because in the 1950s, "Orientalism was used as an exoticism rather than a real understanding of the particular culture. ... Since then, there's been a gradual growth of understanding and respect." [90] The production moved to Broadway, where it ran for 781 performances. [61] It opened on April 11, 1996 at the Neil Simon Theatre , starring Lou Diamond Phillips as the King and Donna Murphy as Anna (who won a Tony Award for her performance), [48] with Randall Duk Kim as the Kralaholme, Jose Llana as Lun Tha, Joohee Choi as Tuptim and Taewon Kim as Lady Thiang. The production won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical and was nominated for eight Tony Awards , winning best revival and four others. [48] [91] Both the book and score were revised and adapted. [92] The production was praised for "lavish ... sumptuous" designs by Roger Kirk (costumes) and Brian Thomson (sets), who both won Tony [48] and Drama Desk Awards [91] for the show. [93] According to Renshaw, "The reds and golds were very much inspired by what we saw at the royal palace" in Bangkok. The stage was framed by columns of elephants, and a large copy of the emerald Buddha dominated Act I. Renshaw also asked the design team to weave hundreds of elephant figures into their work. He noted, "The elephant is regarded as a very holy creature. In Thailand, they believe the spirit of Buddha often resides in the form of the elephant." [90] Marie Osmond played the role of Anna later in the run, as did Faith Prince . The production then toured in the U.S. with Osmond and Victor Talmadge. Other Annas on this tour included Mills, Sandy Duncan and Stefanie Powers . Maureen McGovern ended the tour in Chicago in June 1998. [94] [95] A production based on the 1996 Broadway revival opened on May 3, 2000 at the London Palladium, also directed by Renshaw, with choreography by Lubovitch and the Kirk and Thomson designs. [96] The production reportedly took in £8 million in advance ticket sales. [97] The cast included Elaine Paige as Anna and Jason Scott Lee as the King, with Sean Ghazi as Luan Tha and Saeed Jaffrey as the Kralahome. [98] Lady Thiang was, again, Taewon Kim, of whom The Observer wrote, "Her 'Something Wonderful' was just that." [96] Later in the run, Lee was replaced as the King by Paul Nakauchi . [99] In May 2001, Josie Lawrence took over the role of Anna. [100] The show closed on January 5, 2002. [101] 2004 to present There was another U.S. national tour beginning in 2004, directed by Baayork Lee (who appeared in the original production at age 5), with choreography by Susan Kikuchi, reproducing the Robbins original. Sandy Duncan again starred as Anna, while Martin Vidnovic played the King. He had played Lun Tha in the 1977 Broadway production and voiced the King in the 1999 animated film. Stefanie Powers took over for Duncan throughout 2005. [102] [103] Jeremy Sams directed, and Susan Kikuchi choreographed, a limited engagement of the musical in June 2009 at Royal Albert Hall in London. It starred Maria Friedman and Daniel Dae Kim . [104] A U.K. national tour stars Ramon Tikaram as the King and Josefina Gabrielle as Anna, and is directed by Paul Kerryson, with choreography by David Needham. It opened on December 17, 2011 at Festival Theatre, Edinburgh , and is scheduled to continue through May 2012. [105] [106] The King and I continues to be a popular choice for productions by community theatres, school and university groups, summer camps and regional theatre companies. [61] Film versions Main articles: The King and I (1956 film) and The King and I (1999 film) The musical was filmed in 1956 with Brynner re-creating his role opposite Deborah Kerr . The film won 5 Academy Awards and was nominated for four more. Brynner won an Oscar as Best Actor for his portrayal, and Kerr was nominated as Best Actress . [107] Sharaff won for best costume design. [108] The film was directed by Walter Lang (who was also nominated for an Oscar) and choreographed by Robbins. Marni Nixon dubbed the singing voice of Anna, Rita Moreno played Tuptim, and other notable performers included Adiarte as Chulalongkorn and Benson as the Kralahome, reprising their stage roles, as did dancers Yuriko and de Lappe. Alan Mowbray appeared in the new role of the British Ambassador, while Sir Edward Ramsey (demoted to the Ambassador's aide) was played by Geoffrey Toone . [109] [110] The movie was faithful to the stage version, and although it cut a few songs, reviews were enthusiastic. Thomas Hischak, in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, states: "It is generally agreed that the [movie] is the finest film adaptation of any R & H musical". [109] [111] RichCrest Animation Studios and Morgan Creek Productions released an animated adaptation of the musical in 1999. However, except for using some of the songs and characters, the story is unrelated to the Rodgers and Hammerstein version.[ citation needed ] Geared towards children, the adaptation includes cuddly animals, including a dragon. Voices were provided by Miranda Richardson , Christiane Noll (Anna speaking and singing), Martin Vidnovic as the King, Ian Richardson as the Kralahome and Adam Wylie as Louis. Hischak dislikes the film but praises the vocals, noting that one compensation of the film is hearing Barbra Streisand sing "Something Wonderful" and two other songs. He states, "it is more surprising to think that the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization allowed it to be made" and "children have enjoyed The King and I for five decades without relying on dancing dragons". [109] Music and recordings Musical treatment Richard Rodgers In his music, Rodgers sought to give some of the songs an Asian flavor. This is exhibited in the piercing seconds that frame "A Puzzlement", the flute melody which frames "We Kiss in a Shadow", and the exotic 6/2 chords which shape "My Lord and Master". Much of the Asian flavoring was left for the incidental music. [112] The music for "The Small House of Uncle Thomas" was for the most part not written by Rodgers, but by dance music arranger Trude Rittmann, though "Hello, Young Lovers" and a snatch of "A Puzzlement" are quoted within it. [113] Before Rodgers and Hammerstein, the AABA form for songs had become standard; however, many of the songs in The King and I vary from it. "I Have Dreamed" is an almost continuous repetition of variations on the same theme, until the ending, when it is capped by another melody. The first five notes (a triplet and two quarter notes) of "Getting To Know You" also carry the melody all the way through the refrain. According to Mordden, this refusal to accept conventional forms "is one reason why their frequently heard scores never lose their appeal. They attend to situation and they unveil character, but also, they surprise you." [113] According to Rodgers biographer William Hyland, the score for The King and I is much more closely tied to the action than that of South Pacific, "which had its share of purely entertaining songs". [114] For example, the opening song, "I Whistle a Happy Tune", establishes Anna's fear on entering a strange land with her small son, but the merry melody also expresses her determination to keep a stiff upper lip. [114] Hyland calls "Hello, Young Lovers" an archetypical Rodgers ballad: simple, with only two chords in the first eight bars, but moving in its directness. [114] Recordings The original cast recording was released by Decca Records . While John Kenrick admires it for the performances of the secondary couple, Larry Douglas and Doretta Morrow , and for the warmth of Lawrence's performance, he notes that "Shall We Dance" was abridged, and there are no children's voices—the chorus in "Getting to Know You" is made up of adults. [115] Hischak comments that in the London cast album, Valerie Hobson 's vocals were no stronger than Lawrence's and that the highlight is Muriel Smith 's "Something Wonderful" in a disc with too many cuts. He calls Anna's songs "well served" by Marni Nixon 's singing in the 1956 film soundtrack and judges the recording as vocally satisfying; [116] Kenrick describes it as a "mixed bag" that includes several songs which were omitted from the film. He praises Nixon but dislikes the supporting cast and suggests watching the movie instead for its visual splendor. [115] Kenrick recommends the 1964 Lincoln Center cast recording—the first time "The Small House of Uncle Thomas" was recorded—noting the performances of Risë Stevens as Anna and Patricia Neway as Lady Thiang. [115] Such an inclusion was especially notable, as LP technology limited a single-disc album to about fifty minutes, and thus inclusion of the ballet required the exclusion of some of the other numbers. [117] Kenrick likes the 1977 Broadway revival recording even more, judging it to be Brynner's best performance, calling Towers "great" and Martin Vidnovic, June Angela and the rest of the supporting cast "fabulous", though lamenting the omission of the ballet. He finds it "[e]asily the most satisfying King & I on CD". Hischak says that some might prefer Brynner in his earlier recordings, when he was "more vibrant". [116] Kenrick recommends the 1992 Angel studio recording for its casting of Julie Andrews , who he says is "pure magic" in a role she never played on stage. [115] The 1996 Broadway revival recording was applauded by Kenrick for the performance of both stars, calling Lou Diamond Phillips "that rarity, a King who can stand free of Brynner's shadow". [115] Hischak finds the soundtrack to the 1999 animated film with Christiane Noll as Anna and Martin Vidnovic as the King, as well as Barbra Streisand singing some tracks, more enjoyable than the movie itself, [116] while Kenrick's sole use for that CD is as a coaster. [115] Critical reception The opening night brought warm reviews of the musical. Richard Watts in the New York Post termed it "[a]nother triumph for the masters". [54] Critic John Mason Brown stated, "They have done it again." [46] The New York Times drama critic, Brooks Atkinson wrote, "This time Messrs. Rodgers and Hammerstein are not breaking any fresh trails, but they are accomplished artists of song and words in the theater; and The King and I is a beautiful and lovable musical play." [118] Less enthusiastic was John Lardner in The New Yorker , who wrote, "Even those of us who find [the Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals] a little too unremittingly wholesome are bound to take pleasure in the high spirits and technical skill that their authors, and producers, have put into them." [89] Otis Guernsey wrote for the New York Herald Tribune , "Musicals and leading men will never be the same after last night ... Brynner set an example that will be hard to follow ... Probably the best show of the decade. [119] The balance of opinion among the London critics was generally favorable, with a few reservations. In The Observer , Ivor Brown predicted that the piece would "settle down for some years at Drury Lane." [120] The anonymous critic of The Times compared the work to Gilbert and Sullivan: "Mr. Rodgers charmingly echoes Sullivan in the king's more topsy-turvy moments; and Mr. Hammerstein attends very skilfully to the lurking Gilbertian humour." [121] Less favorably, in The Daily Express , John Barber called the work "this treacle-bin Mikado ", and declared that only one of the cast, Muriel Smith, could really sing. [122] When Atkinson saw the London production, after Lister and Pastell had taken over the leading roles, he termed the cast commonplace, except for Muriel Smith whose singing he admired, but stated that the fact that the performance was lackluster proved that this musical "has artistic vitality of its own". [123] Times reviewer Clive Barnes said of the 1977 revival, "The cast is a good one. Mr. Brynner grinning fire and snorting charm is as near to the original as makes little difference." [78] and called Constance Towers as Anna "piquantly ladylike and sweet without being dangerously saccharine". [78] However, fellow Times critic Mel Gussow warned during the run that "to a certain extent he was coasting on his charisma". [124] After viewing the show on the Los Angeles run during the tour, Los Angeles Times critic Sylvie Drake noted that although the audience waited in anticipation for every move Brynner would make, it "is sure to be the same move he has been making all these years". [86] Her New York Times counterpart Frank Rich said of the 1985 return, "[Brynner's] high points included his fond, paternalistic joshing with his brood in The March of the Siamese Children, his dumb-show antics while attempting to force the English schoolteacher Anna to bow, and, of course, the death scene ... The star aside, such showmanship is too often lacking in this King and I. The production has declined steeply since its last, elegant New York outing in 1977 ... Act I seems almost painfully sluggish, and, if Act II picks up, that's mainly because Mr. Brynner has more to do in it." [125] The 1996 Broadway production received mixed reviews. Critic Vincent Canby of The New York Times disliked the new production. "This latest King and I might look like a million dollars as a regional production; on Broadway ... it's a disappointment. The score remains enchanting but, somewhere along the line, there has been a serious failure of the theatrical imagination." [126] However, Liz Smith wrote, "The King and I is perfect"; and the Houston Chronicle wrote of the subsequent tour, "The King and I is the essence of musical theater, an occasion when drama, music, dance and decor combine to take the audience on an unforgettable journey. [127] When the tour reached the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago, critic Richard Christiansen wrote in the Chicago Tribune , "Written in a more leisurely and innocent and less politically correct period, [The King and I] cannot escape the 1990s onus of its condescending attitude toward the pidgin English monarch and his people. And its story moves at a pace that's a mite too slow for this more hurried day and age." [128] When the production reached London in 2000, it received positive reviews. The Financial Times called it "a handsome, spectacular, strongly performed introductions to one of the truly great musicals". [101] The Daily Mirror said of it "Shall we dance? Most certainly. The King and I waltzed back to the West End in triumph last night." [101] The Daily Express noted, "Love it or loathe it, The King and I is an unstoppable smash." [101] Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest summed up the musical: The King and I is really a celebration of love in all its guises, from the love of Anna for her dead husband; the love of the King's official wife, Lady Thiang, for a man she knows is flawed and also unfaithful; the desperation of forbidden love; and a love that is barely recognized and can never be acted upon. [129] Awards and nominations	i don't know
What number isotope of carbon is used in radiocarbon dating, a method invented by Willard Libby in the 1940s?	Radiocarbon Dating Key Concepts - Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating: An Introduction Willard Libby developed radiocarbon dating as a method to measure radioactivity. Carbon-14 is a weakly radioactive isotope of Carbon; also known as radiocarbon, it is an isotopic chronometer. Radiocarbon dating is only applicable to organic and some inorganic materials (not applicable to metals). Gas proportional counting, liquid scintillation counting, and accelerator mass spectrometry are the three principal radiocarbon dating methods. Radiocarbon dating labs use Oxalic Acid I and Oxalic Acid II as modern standards. Radiocarbon measurements are reported as Conventional Radiocarbon Age. The impact of the radiocarbon dating technique on modern man has made it one of the most significant discoveries of the 20th century. No other scientific method has managed to revolutionize man’s understanding not only of his present but also of events that already happened thousands of years ago. Archaeology and other human sciences use radiocarbon dating to prove or disprove theories. Over the years, carbon 14 dating has also found applications in geology, hydrology, geophysics, atmospheric science, oceanography, paleoclimatology, and even biomedicine. Radiocarbon Dating Pioneer American physical chemist Willard Libby led a team of scientists in the post World War II era to develop a method that measures radiocarbon activity. He is credited to be the first scientist to suggest that the unstable carbon isotope called radiocarbon or carbon 14 might exist in living matter. Mr. Libby and his team of scientists were able to publish a paper summarizing the first detection of radiocarbon in an organic sample. It was also Mr. Libby who first measured radiocarbon’s rate of decay and established 5568 years ± 30 years as the half-life. In 1960, Mr. Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in recognition of his efforts to develop radiocarbon dating. Basic Principles of Carbon Dating Radiocarbon, or carbon 14, is an isotope of the element carbon that is unstable and weakly radioactive. The stable isotopes are carbon 12 and carbon 13. Carbon 14 is continually being formed in the upper atmosphere by the effect of cosmic ray neutrons on nitrogen 14 atoms. It is rapidly oxidized in air to form carbon dioxide and enters the global carbon cycle. Plants and animals assimilate carbon 14 from carbon dioxide throughout their lifetimes. When they die, they stop exchanging carbon with the biosphere and their carbon 14 content then starts to decrease at a rate determined by the law of radioactive decay. Radiocarbon dating is essentially a method designed to measure residual radioactivity. By knowing how much carbon 14 is left in a sample, the age of the organism when it died can be known. It must be noted though that radiocarbon dating results indicate when the organism was alive but not when a material from that organism was used. Radiocarbon Datable Materials Not all materials can be radiocarbon dated. Most, if not all, organic compounds can be dated. Some inorganic matter, like a shell’s aragonite component, can also be dated as long as the mineral’s formation involved assimilation of carbon 14 in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Samples that have been radiocarbon dated since the inception of the method include charcoal , wood , twigs, seeds , bones , shells , leather, peat , lake mud, soil , hair, pottery , pollen , wall paintings, corals, blood residues, fabrics , paper or parchment, resins, and water , among others. Physical and chemical pretreatments are done on these materials to remove possible contaminants before they are analyzed for their radiocarbon content. Principal Methods of Measuring Radiocarbon There are three principal techniques used to measure carbon 14 content of any given sample— gas proportional counting, liquid scintillation counting, and accelerator mass spectrometry . Gas proportional counting is a conventional radiometric dating technique that counts the beta particles emitted by a given sample. Beta particles are products of radiocarbon decay. In this method, the carbon sample is first converted to carbon dioxide gas before measurement in gas proportional counters takes place. Liquid scintillation counting is another radiocarbon dating technique that was popular in the 1960s. In this method, the sample is in liquid form and a scintillator is added. This scintillator produces a flash of light when it interacts with a beta particle. A vial with a sample is passed between two photomultipliers, and only when both devices register the flash of light that a count is made. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) is a modern radiocarbon dating method that is considered to be the more efficient way to measure radiocarbon content of a sample. In this method, the carbon 14 content is directly measured relative to the carbon 12 and carbon 13 present. The method does not count beta particles but the number of carbon atoms present in the sample and the proportion of the isotopes. Radiocarbon Dating Standards The radiocarbon age of a certain sample of unknown age can be determined by measuring its carbon 14 content and comparing the result to the carbon 14 activity in modern and background samples. The principal modern standard used by radiocarbon dating labs was the Oxalic Acid I obtained from the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Maryland. This oxalic acid came from sugar beets in 1955. Around 95% of the radiocarbon activity of Oxalic Acid I is equal to the measured radiocarbon activity of the absolute radiocarbon standard—a wood in 1890 unaffected by fossil fuel effects. When the stocks of Oxalic Acid I were almost fully consumed, another standard was made from a crop of 1977 French beet molasses. The new standard, Oxalic Acid II, was proven to have only a slight difference with Oxalic Acid I in terms of radiocarbon content. Over the years, other secondary radiocarbon standards have been made. Radiocarbon activity of materials in the background is also determined to remove its contribution from results obtained during a sample analysis. Background radiocarbon activity is measured, and the values obtained are deducted from the sample’s radiocarbon dating results. Background samples analyzed are usually geological in origin of infinite age such as coal, lignite, and limestone. Radiocarbon Dating Measurements A radiocarbon measurement is termed a conventional radiocarbon age (CRA). The CRA conventions include (a) usage of the Libby half-life, (b) usage of Oxalic Acid I or II or any appropriate secondary standard as the modern radiocarbon standard, (c) correction for sample isotopic fractionation to a normalized or base value of -25.0 per mille relative to the ratio of carbon 12/carbon 13 in the carbonate standard VPDB – Cretaceous belemnite formation at Peedee in South Carolina, (d) zero BP (Before Present) is defined as AD 1950, and (e) the assumption that global radiocarbon levels are constant. Standard errors are also reported in a radiocarbon dating result , hence the “±” values. These values have been derived through statistical means.	fourteen
Who was appointed as Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor after the recent General Election?	NSF-Arizona AMS Facility :: Education :: Basic Principles of Radiocarbon Dating :: History History of Radiocarbon Dating The first use of radiocarbon dating was the work of Libby and his co-workers [Anderson et al. 1947]. Libby's original measurements on 14C were done by counting the decays of 14C, using samples of several grams of carbon-black powder. Unfortunately, in the 1950's, due to atmospheric nuclear testing, this method was subject to errors due to the absorption of nuclear contaminant. More accurate methods were developed using gas-proportional counters and liquid-scintillation counters. These methods relied on the observation of a decay of the radioactive carbon atoms. When a 14C atom decays, it emits a beta-particle, which can be counted in a gas by the electrical pulse it generates. In a liquid-scintillation counter, the beta-particle excites the emission of light from a complex organic molecule or "scintillant". Because only about 13.5 decays per minute occur in one gram of modern carbon, it was necessary to use fairy large samples of several grams of carbon. It was recognized that direct measurement of the number of 14C atoms in the sample would greatly enhance the sensitivity, and some unsuccessful attempts were made in this direction using conventional mass spectrometry. In 1977, two papers [Nelson et al. 1977; Bennett et al. 1977] were published simultaneously in Science, reporting on a development which added a particle accelerator into a mass spectrometer to produce an accelerator mass spectrometer ( AMS ). This technique has allowed the measurement of radiocarbon in samples of much less than a milligram, or over a thousand times less material than is needed from the older counting methods.	i don't know
In which country are Milford Sound and Doubtful Sound?	Queenstown, Milford Sound, Doubtful Sound, Te Anau, Stewart Island - Tours & Activities Remarkable Experiences. Amazing Destinations Doubtful Sound At Real Journeys we offer a variety of experiences in some of the most beautiful places on earth - from stunning Milford Sound to spectacular Queenstown through to the unspoilt magic of Stewart Island. Come join us and discover for yourself what makes New Zealand so inspirational. Featured Experiences	New Zealand
Which film director is the uncle of actor Jason Schwartzman?	Fiordland & Milford Sound Cruises, Sailing & Water Tours \| Viator Fiordland & Milford Sound Cruises, Sailing & Water Tours Your Doubtful Sound adventure begins as you cruise the crystal clear waters of Lake Manapouri. Then it's over Wilmot Pass, stopping along the way to ... Read more Location: Te Anau, New Zealand Duration: 9 hours Experience the majesty of Milford Sound on a boat cruise that stops at the Milford Sound Discovery Center and Underwater Observatory. The smaller boat travels ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: Varies Join this tour for an uncrowded boutique small boat cruise on Milford Sound. With limited passenger numbers, comfortable luxury lounge style seating and superb ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 105 minutes See Milford Sound by air and water on a half-day tour from Queenstown that includes a round-trip flight and a boat tour through the sound. Save time and enjoy ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 4 hours 30 minutes From USD $365.13 An extended and leisurely cruise of Milford Sound to the Tasman Sea on the Milford Mariner or Milford Wanderer designed for the free, independent traveler. ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 2 hours Towering peaks and cascading waterfalls - this has to be the spectacular Milford Sound. Described as the 'Eighth Natural Wonder of the World', this cruise ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 1 hour and 45 minutes From USD $45.37 Enjoy a two hour cruise traversing the deep waters of Milford Sound, located in Fiordland. Your cruise will take you past St Anne’s lighthouse and out into the ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 2 hours Immerse yourself in the breathtaking beauty of Milford Sound during a boat cruise led by a naturalist guide. On board a smaller-sized vessel than typical ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 2 hours 15 minutes From USD $65.12 An overnight cruise amidst spectacular Milford Sound, is a once in a lifetime experience. While on board the Milford Mariner you will cruise the full length ... Read more Location: Milford Sound, New Zealand Duration: 2 days Discover Milford Sound on a full-day excursion that takes you to popular scenic spots around Fiordland National Park before the crowds arrive. Travel to ... Read more Location: Te Anau, New Zealand Duration: 8 hours An overnight cruise amidst spectacular Milford Sound, is a once in a lifetime experience. While on board the Milford Mariner you will cruise the full length ... Read more Location: Te Anau, New Zealand Duration: 2 days Experience the natural beauty of Doubtful Sound on an overnight cruise departing from Manapouri on New Zealand’s South Island. Cruise on a traditional ... Read more Location: Queenstown, New Zealand Admire the spectacular sights of Milford Sound on a scenic cruise! As you marvel at one of the world’s most incredible natural wonders, see dolphins, ... Read more Location: Queenstown, New Zealand Subscribe to our email newsletter Sign up Some content licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. © 1997–2017 Viator, Inc. CUR015 - 330210 All rights reserved. Viator is a registered trademark of Viator, Inc. is a Service Mark of Viator, Inc. Travel with an Insider is a Service Mark of Viator, Inc. Use of this website constitutes acceptance of Viator's Terms & Conditions . Viator uses cookies to improve your experience on our website. Learn more about how we use cookies and how to change your cookie settings \| Close message	i don't know
"The French call this art style ""nature morte"". What do we call it?"	I Photo Central \| Photography News \| Photography Books: Josephson's Conceptualism, Sternberger's Pathognomicism, Katsiff's Nature Morte Photography Books: Josephson's Conceptualism, Sternberger's Pathognomicism, Katsiff's Nature Morte By Matt Damsker THE LIGHT OF COINCIDENCE: THE PHOTOGRAPHS OF KENNETH JOSEPHSON. University of Texas Press. Hardbound; 265 pgs.; 254 duotone and color photos. ISBN No. 978-1-4773-0938-4. Information: http://www.utexaspress.com . This impressive volume spans the career of Kenneth Josephson, whose vast body of conceptual photography has made its way into most major museums since he made his mark in the 1960s and '70s, but has seldom been published in book form. "The Light of Coincidence" makes that right with a superb retrospective, featuring gorgeous reproductions of Josephson's bold and sensual duotones along with a variety of images that define this still-vital artist. The inclusion of essays by curators/critics Gerry Badger and Lynne Warren (a former student of Josephson who brought his work to light in 1983 via a mid-career survey) result in sharp-eyed focus on the art. Warren notes that the Detroit-born Josephson, who is now 84, was mentored by the likes of Harry Callahan and cut his teeth, aesthetically, with images of Chicago's urban environment. But it was the rise of conceptual art that helped set him apart. "Josephson had very different influences from those of the emerging conceptual artists in Europe and New York," writes Warren. "He had been moved by the example of painter Rene Magritte, among others, and by his own experimental film 33rd and LaSalle from 1960-62, which shows a building that sported billboards advertising [movies] in the process of being demolished. It was these things that pushed him to explore ideas about photographic representation in the form of 'images within images.' " By now, of course, such conceptual strategy may not seem unusual, especially given that photographers from Walker Evans onward have produced famous images that contain other photographic images. However, Josephson broke the illusory plane with a 1967 photo, "Drottingholm, Sweden," in which we see his outthrust arm in the foreground, holding a postcard image of the same Swedish building he's capturing with his lens, in what becomes a kind of backgrounded foreground. This wry yet elegantly wrought statement of photography's ubiquity and the challenge of originality is fully in step with the aesthetic impulses of '60s pop art and the conceptualism that would soon flower in all media. The outthrust, arm-held image would become a Josephson trademark well into the 1980s, with increasingly subtle results, especially when he would hold, for example, a square with a cut-out center to frame a sight or figure in the middle distance. But the technique would amount to gimmickry if it were all Josephson offered. His many female nudes and restless formal experiments–with shapes, patterns, focus, and contrast–are consistently startling and disciplined. A seemingly straightforward shot of four old men seated round a table in Rochester, NY, in 1957 is made glorious by a flood of sunlight from the facing door and windows. There are countless such treasures in this volume, and we're lucky to have them collected in one accessible place–finally. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PORTRAIT: MARCEL STERNBERGER'S REVELATIONS IN PHOTOGRAPHY. By Jacob Loewentheil. Skira Rizzoli Publications. Hardbound; 210 pgs.; 206 portrait photographs. ISBN No. 978-0-8478-4831-7. Information: http://www.rizzoliusa.com . This brilliant monograph by art scholar Jacob Loewentheil is a welcome appreciation and analysis of the work of the great portrait photographer Marcel Sternberger, who died in a 1956 car crash while on his way to visit his legendary friends (and his camera's great subjects) Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. Indeed, many of Sternberger's portraits have become part of our global sensibility–the famed, darkly backgrounded images of Sigmund Freud, Albert Einstein, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, George Bernard Shaw, Kahlo and Rivera, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi and countless other European, Asian and American luminaries, who literally shaped their times. In his foreword to Loewentheil's scholarship, no less a luminary than Philip Prodger, head of photographs at London's National Portrait Gallery, notes that few photographers "matched Sternberger's determination to create what we might in retrospect call pathognomic portraits. Between the lively expressions he captured and the minimalist lighting he used to reveal them, one might argue that there is hardly a more recognizable portraitist in the history of photography." Whether we term them "pathognomic" or simply psychological, Sternberger's portraiture reached for a depth beyond the tenets associated with celebrity photographs. Where Yousuf Karsh or Cecil Beaton sought to immortalize the public face of their world-famous sitters, Sternberger's masterly use of deep shadow and darkness combined with an eye for the subtlest expression of his sitters–bemused, amused, lost in deep thought. The greatest of the photos convey a profound sense of their sitters' inner lives. Loewentheil chronicles the master's time and technique with great care and clarity. The result is a portrait of the portraitist that is as free of ponderousness as Sternberger's own work. NATURE MORTE: PHOTOGRAPHS BY BRUCE KATSIFF. Catalogue accompanying an exhibition at the Delaware Art Museum. Hardbound; 80 pgs.; 29 four-color plates. ISBN No. 978-0-996676-0-7. Information: http://www.brucekatsiff.com ; http://www.delart.org . The striking and richly toned still lifes of Pennsylvania-based photographer Bruce Katsiff were given a deserved showing more than a year ago at the Delaware Art Museum, and this fine book makes for a worthy memento. Indeed, the French term for still life–"nature morte," or dead nature–becomes a neat visual pun in Katsiff's case, since his staged assemblages of animal skulls, mammalian and avian carcasses are totemic evidence of nature's deathly cruelty. But all the same, they are celebrations of visual splendor and organic form. As Philadelphia Museum of Art photography curator Peter Barberie notes in his foreward, Katsiff's artistry evokes an early American forerunner, the painter Charles Willson Peale, who famously displayed stuffed animals in his Philadelphia museum. "Like Peale, he embraces art's fundamental task to show us things in the world but also its mysterious potential to transport us into imaginative realms," writes Barberie. In her more detailed catalogue essay, Delaware Art Museum curator Heather Campbell Coyle connects Katsiff's work to the vegetative assemblages of Joel-Peter Witkin, and notes that Katsiff's "staged narratives and constructed sets" emphasize his embrace of a "directorial mode," as if he were coaxing life from his decidedly dead subjects. And so Katsiff does in his highly controlled way, animating–or visually re-animating–his still lifes with meticulous lighting and fascinating arrangement, boxing, splaying, mounting, and decorating his objects to bring out fresh geometries and spiritual depths. Matt Damsker is an author and critic, who has written about photography and the arts for the Los Angeles Times, Hartford Courant, Philadelphia Bulletin, Rolling Stone magazine and other publications. His book, "Rock Voices", was published in 1981 by St. Martin's Press. His essay in the book, "Marcus Doyle: Night Vision" was published in the fall of 2005. He currently reviews books for U.S.A. Today. (Book publishers, authors and photography galleries/dealers may send review copies to us at: I Photo Central, 258 Inverness Circle, Chalfont, PA 18914. We do not guarantee that we will review all books or catalogues that we receive. Books must be aimed at photography collecting, not how-to books for photographers.)	Still Life (disambiguation)
Where was the Marquis de Sade imprisoned after the Chateau de Vincennes closed in 1784, until he was transferred to an asylum on July 4th 1789?	I Photo Central \| Photography News \| Photography Books: Josephson's Conceptualism, Sternberger's Pathognomicism, Katsiff's Nature Morte Photography Books: Josephson's Conceptualism, Sternberger's Pathognomicism, Katsiff's Nature Morte By Matt Damsker THE LIGHT OF COINCIDENCE: THE PHOTOGRAPHS OF KENNETH JOSEPHSON. University of Texas Press. Hardbound; 265 pgs.; 254 duotone and color photos. ISBN No. 978-1-4773-0938-4. Information: http://www.utexaspress.com . This impressive volume spans the career of Kenneth Josephson, whose vast body of conceptual photography has made its way into most major museums since he made his mark in the 1960s and '70s, but has seldom been published in book form. "The Light of Coincidence" makes that right with a superb retrospective, featuring gorgeous reproductions of Josephson's bold and sensual duotones along with a variety of images that define this still-vital artist. The inclusion of essays by curators/critics Gerry Badger and Lynne Warren (a former student of Josephson who brought his work to light in 1983 via a mid-career survey) result in sharp-eyed focus on the art. Warren notes that the Detroit-born Josephson, who is now 84, was mentored by the likes of Harry Callahan and cut his teeth, aesthetically, with images of Chicago's urban environment. But it was the rise of conceptual art that helped set him apart. "Josephson had very different influences from those of the emerging conceptual artists in Europe and New York," writes Warren. "He had been moved by the example of painter Rene Magritte, among others, and by his own experimental film 33rd and LaSalle from 1960-62, which shows a building that sported billboards advertising [movies] in the process of being demolished. It was these things that pushed him to explore ideas about photographic representation in the form of 'images within images.' " By now, of course, such conceptual strategy may not seem unusual, especially given that photographers from Walker Evans onward have produced famous images that contain other photographic images. However, Josephson broke the illusory plane with a 1967 photo, "Drottingholm, Sweden," in which we see his outthrust arm in the foreground, holding a postcard image of the same Swedish building he's capturing with his lens, in what becomes a kind of backgrounded foreground. This wry yet elegantly wrought statement of photography's ubiquity and the challenge of originality is fully in step with the aesthetic impulses of '60s pop art and the conceptualism that would soon flower in all media. The outthrust, arm-held image would become a Josephson trademark well into the 1980s, with increasingly subtle results, especially when he would hold, for example, a square with a cut-out center to frame a sight or figure in the middle distance. But the technique would amount to gimmickry if it were all Josephson offered. His many female nudes and restless formal experiments–with shapes, patterns, focus, and contrast–are consistently startling and disciplined. A seemingly straightforward shot of four old men seated round a table in Rochester, NY, in 1957 is made glorious by a flood of sunlight from the facing door and windows. There are countless such treasures in this volume, and we're lucky to have them collected in one accessible place–finally. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PORTRAIT: MARCEL STERNBERGER'S REVELATIONS IN PHOTOGRAPHY. By Jacob Loewentheil. Skira Rizzoli Publications. Hardbound; 210 pgs.; 206 portrait photographs. ISBN No. 978-0-8478-4831-7. Information: http://www.rizzoliusa.com . This brilliant monograph by art scholar Jacob Loewentheil is a welcome appreciation and analysis of the work of the great portrait photographer Marcel Sternberger, who died in a 1956 car crash while on his way to visit his legendary friends (and his camera's great subjects) Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. Indeed, many of Sternberger's portraits have become part of our global sensibility–the famed, darkly backgrounded images of Sigmund Freud, Albert Einstein, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, George Bernard Shaw, Kahlo and Rivera, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi and countless other European, Asian and American luminaries, who literally shaped their times. In his foreword to Loewentheil's scholarship, no less a luminary than Philip Prodger, head of photographs at London's National Portrait Gallery, notes that few photographers "matched Sternberger's determination to create what we might in retrospect call pathognomic portraits. Between the lively expressions he captured and the minimalist lighting he used to reveal them, one might argue that there is hardly a more recognizable portraitist in the history of photography." Whether we term them "pathognomic" or simply psychological, Sternberger's portraiture reached for a depth beyond the tenets associated with celebrity photographs. Where Yousuf Karsh or Cecil Beaton sought to immortalize the public face of their world-famous sitters, Sternberger's masterly use of deep shadow and darkness combined with an eye for the subtlest expression of his sitters–bemused, amused, lost in deep thought. The greatest of the photos convey a profound sense of their sitters' inner lives. Loewentheil chronicles the master's time and technique with great care and clarity. The result is a portrait of the portraitist that is as free of ponderousness as Sternberger's own work. NATURE MORTE: PHOTOGRAPHS BY BRUCE KATSIFF. Catalogue accompanying an exhibition at the Delaware Art Museum. Hardbound; 80 pgs.; 29 four-color plates. ISBN No. 978-0-996676-0-7. Information: http://www.brucekatsiff.com ; http://www.delart.org . The striking and richly toned still lifes of Pennsylvania-based photographer Bruce Katsiff were given a deserved showing more than a year ago at the Delaware Art Museum, and this fine book makes for a worthy memento. Indeed, the French term for still life–"nature morte," or dead nature–becomes a neat visual pun in Katsiff's case, since his staged assemblages of animal skulls, mammalian and avian carcasses are totemic evidence of nature's deathly cruelty. But all the same, they are celebrations of visual splendor and organic form. As Philadelphia Museum of Art photography curator Peter Barberie notes in his foreward, Katsiff's artistry evokes an early American forerunner, the painter Charles Willson Peale, who famously displayed stuffed animals in his Philadelphia museum. "Like Peale, he embraces art's fundamental task to show us things in the world but also its mysterious potential to transport us into imaginative realms," writes Barberie. In her more detailed catalogue essay, Delaware Art Museum curator Heather Campbell Coyle connects Katsiff's work to the vegetative assemblages of Joel-Peter Witkin, and notes that Katsiff's "staged narratives and constructed sets" emphasize his embrace of a "directorial mode," as if he were coaxing life from his decidedly dead subjects. And so Katsiff does in his highly controlled way, animating–or visually re-animating–his still lifes with meticulous lighting and fascinating arrangement, boxing, splaying, mounting, and decorating his objects to bring out fresh geometries and spiritual depths. Matt Damsker is an author and critic, who has written about photography and the arts for the Los Angeles Times, Hartford Courant, Philadelphia Bulletin, Rolling Stone magazine and other publications. His book, "Rock Voices", was published in 1981 by St. Martin's Press. His essay in the book, "Marcus Doyle: Night Vision" was published in the fall of 2005. He currently reviews books for U.S.A. Today. (Book publishers, authors and photography galleries/dealers may send review copies to us at: I Photo Central, 258 Inverness Circle, Chalfont, PA 18914. We do not guarantee that we will review all books or catalogues that we receive. Books must be aimed at photography collecting, not how-to books for photographers.)	i don't know
Gary Player is one of three golfers to win both the Open and the Senior Open. New Zealander Bob Charles and which American, a five-time Open winner in the 1970s and 1980s are the others?	Top 10 Greatest Golfers of All Time - Toptenz.net Toptenz.net Posted by Jeff Kelly on May 10, 2012 in Sports \| 72,940 Views \| 93 Responses Over the last century, golf has emerged as one of the biggest and most widely played sports in the world. The rise of golf, both in America and around the world, has brought fame and riches to many, many men, and today it could be argued that professional golf has never been more popular. But today’s players owe an awful lot to those who came before them, as some of the greatest golfers of all time paved the way for today’s young stars and brought popularity to the sport. Here are the ten of the greatest and most influential golfers of all time. 10. Byron Nelson It’s really kind of amazing to think about, but three of the greatest golfers in history (Sam Snead, Ben Hogan, and Byron Nelson), were all born within seven months of each other in 1912. A native of Waxahachie, Texas, Nelson played professionally between 1935-1946 and won 52 times, including five major championships. He was a two-time winner of both the Masters and the PGA Championship, and only the absence of an Open Championship kept him from completing the career grand slam. Nicknamed Lord Byron, his legacy has remained intact thanks in large part to the Byron Nelson Championship, played annually in Dallas . Up until his death in 2006, he was present at his namesake tournament virtually every year. The Nelson Championship is far from the most important event on the PGA calendar, but all you need to know about how the man is viewed by today’s professionals is the fact that the vast majority always make it a point to compete out of respect. 9. Tom Watson When thinking of the greatest golfers of all-time, you’d probably jump immediately to some of the other guys on this list, like (SPOILER ALERT) Tiger, Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus. One name you probably didn’t immediately think of, but absolutely should have, is Tom Watson . The native of Kansas City was one of the most dominant players in the world in the 1970’s and 1980’s, winning eight majors, including five Open Championships, and coming up just short of the career grand slam, having never finished higher than second in the PGA Championship. What a slacker. Watson was also aided in his ascendance to the top of the golfing world by a familiar name: Byron Nelson. Nelson took an interest in a young Watson in 1974, and became his mentor. It was under Nelson’s tutelage that Watson’s career took off, winning his first career major within a year of working together. 8. Arnold Palmer Now, some of you might have expected to find Arnie a little higher on this list, because when you start naming some of the most famous golfers who ever played, after Tiger and Jack, Arnie is likely the next guy you’re going to go to. And rightfully so, as this working-class guy with the ugly swing would ultimately become one of the greatest and most popular golfers of all-time, with Arnie’s Army following him around every course on which he played. Arnie won seven majors, including four Masters titles, but what keeps us from bumping him a little higher on this list is the fact that he never won the PGA Championship, leaving his career grand slam incomplete. But hey, at least he’s got a tasty drink named after him, so he’s got that going for him. Which is nice. 7. Bobby Jones Now, unlike the other guys on this list, there’s something very unique about Bobby Jones, and that’s the fact that he never turned pro. Jones competed for his entire career as an amateur , and was insanely successful, bringing home four US Opens and three Open Championships in a seven-year span. He was also a five-time US Amateur champion and even won the British Amateur in 1930. And then, at the age of 28, he gave up competitive golf. His influence on golf didn’t stop there, however, as he helped design a little golf course you might have heard of: Augusta National. And upon completion of the club, Jones co-founded the Masters. He came out of retirement to compete in the Masters, but only on an exhibition basis, and played until 1948 before hanging up his clubs once and for all due to his failing health. 6. Sam Snead Nicknamed Slammin’ Sammy, Sam Snead managed “only” seven majors over his long and illustrious career, but has another pretty impressive record to his name: most career PGA victories, with 82. In between his numerous golfing victories, Snead also served in World War II, presumably clubbing Nazis with a four-iron all across Europe. During his career he won the Masters Tournament three times, the PGA Championship three times, the Open Championship once and finished as the runner-up four times in the U.S. Open. Snead can also distinguish himself from any other male golfer in history thanks to a little achievement he pulled off in 1962, when he entered a field of 15 players and won the Royal Poinciana Plaza Invitational. What was so special about that particular win? It was an LPGA event, and Snead was the only man in the field, making him the first and only man to ever claim victory in a women’s tournament. We’d like to believe he competed in drag , but sadly photographic evidence suggests this was not the case. 5. Gary Player This South African golfer nicknamed the Black Knight , due to the fact that he typically wears all black on the course, is arguably the most successful and famous non-American golfer in history, and in his heyday he was a contemporary and rival of both Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus. The three waged legendary battles on the course, and Player finished his career with nine major victories, including three Masters titles and three Open Championships. He’s also the only non-American to have ever completed the career grand slam, and has racked up 165 victories on six continents over the past six decades. Player has also designed more than 300 courses and written several books, and owns the Gary Player Stud Farm, which sadly does not teach you how to score with the ladies, but is a top thoroughbred race horse farm. 4. Walter Hagen One of the greatest golfers of the first half of the 20th century, Walter Hagen won 11 major championships over the course of his career, good for third on the all-time list behind Jack Nicklaus and Tiger Woods. A native New York state resident, Hagen became something of a national hero when he became the first American to ever bring home a British Open Championship, and he would go on to win four Open titles in all. After turning pro at the age of 20,Hagen came up just short of winning a career grand slam, with only a Masters title missing from his resume. His story is really pretty similar to that of Frances Ouimet, made famous in the movie The Greatest Game Ever Played, in that Hagen was from a working class family and started out as a caddy before making a splash in the professional ranks. At the time, pro golfers weren’t exactly well regarded at the private country clubs, and Hagen himself was refused entry to the clubhouse at the Open Championship of 1920. Hagen was instrumental in helping to end the class division in the world of golf, and he had the good fortune of not being played by Shia LeBeouf in a movie. 3. Ben Hogan It’s tough to top Walter Hagen for the third spot on our list, but Ben Hogan gets the nod not only because of his incredible talent and success, but because he is often thought of as having the most perfect golf swing in the history of the sport. No one practiced or prepared more than Ben Hogan, and no one spent as much time working on swing mechanics and technique than anyone who came before him; this has led to people often referring to him as the greatest striker of a golf ball in history. In 1953, Hogan also put together one of the most memorable single years in PGA history, completing what is now referred to as the “Hogan Slam,” which, believe it or not, does not involve Hulkamania . That year Hogan won five of the six tournaments he entered, including three major championships. He ended his career with nine major championships, even overcoming a head-on collision with a Greyhound bus that not only could have killed his career, but the man himself. 2. Tiger Woods Now we’re going to go ahead and bet you didn’t see this coming. Arguing between Tiger and our number one pick, which shouldn’t be a secret at this point, is kind of like trying to decide whether it would be better to hook up with Kate Upton or Sofia Vergara. Tiger lands at number two, however, for reasons that should be pretty obvious. Had his career trajectory continued on the same path up until that fateful November night when his life fell completely apart, he’d likely be our number one selection. As it stands, it’s hard to fathom he will ever be able to catch Jack Nicklaus for the most majors ever won, which only a few years ago seemed to be a mortal lock. Still, Tiger is truly a once-in-a-generation talent who transcends the game and brings in casual viewers like no one before him. 1. Jack Nicklaus And now that we’ve gotten Tiger out of the way, we can move on to the man he has been chasing his entire life, Jack Nicklaus. The Golden Bear is, quite simply, the greatest golfer of all-time now that Tiger’s career has been derailed. Nicklaus is second on the all-time wins list, having racked up 73 victories in his career, including a staggering 18 major championships. He’s won the Masters six times, with his first and last victories coming an incredible 23 years apart, and has completed the career grand slam four freaking times. To put in perspective just how dominant the Golden Bear was over his career, he can legitimately say he “only” won the Open Championship three times, since he hasn’t won any other major fewer than four times. We’re going to go ahead and chalk that up as complete and utter domination, and give the Golden Bear his rightful place as the greatest golfer of all-time. Written By Jeff Kelly \| Permalink Well after several weeks have passed (actually several months) it seems that some of the hopes that Tiger Woods would win again have fallen to the wayside with the likes of many young golfers coming into the game and winning. Seems more young golfers are grabbing the gold ring week after week. Tiger may have played this past Masters ‘just because’ and not because he could really win it. But that doesn’t matter. He can play any tournament he wants, it’s his right. I’m falling in with many others here and believing that Tiger Woods may never win another major tournament or at least not before he turns to the senior tour which is a different animal in its self. Doc like many others may just be passionate about golfers of his time. But I’m no mind reader, I just believe time has taken its toll on Tiger Woods and he’s a great golfer of ‘the past’. Much like many here referred to the great golfers of the 40’s-1980’s. We’ll see, the year is young. Kurt \| Permalink I just spend about an hour reading posts here. It seems like a lot of people get or got real angry and got real far off this posts original intent. The guy Doc seems to not particularly like Tiger as a person but I don’t see anything he has said about Tigers golf not being up there with the very very best. Then it seems some people posting to Doc and others get very critical towards Doc because he voices an opinion regarding his feelings towards the game. So I did some research. He said something about ethics being the center post or the biggest ingredient in golf according to the PGA pros. I spent a lot of time looking into that online and he is correct. When asked, ethics is number one on the PGA players list as to what golf is all about. I know ethics means nothing to a bunch of you folks, it is just winning and losing. Understood. So whether he or Mike or Steve or ????? is right in the end why can’t we just say for now, Tiger is really really good, is number one in the hearts of many, and may be number on on this blog one day, maybe soon, and leave it at that with all the ‘comments’ left at the curb? We’re in America, like it or not, and people can have opinions without being put down about them. Any one of you could be verbally chastised for something or another, but over who’s number one in golf, really, that’s the best we have here in the Good old US of A? I like the guy, Tiger, would be proud to play a round with him but it would never happen. Whether or not Tiger wins any more is up in the air. The field has so much talent and so many new guys coming in to play that it gets harder and harder every year. But lets be civil and just see? Great blog, lots of meanness, good opinions, and a great topic. \| Permalink Well you may be a younger person and never really got to see the ‘old pros’ at work. Back when Jack, Lee, Chi Chi, Arnie and the others were playing professional golf there were only a hand full of them that actually made a living at golf full time from day one to end of career. I think Jacks first paycheck was $33 or something insane like that. Like I sad they didn’t make a living at this game, they played it because they loved it. The money came in their winter years when they were leaving the game and heading into the seniors PGA. I’m not knocking Tiger, he’s a great golfer but longevity is what it takes for a person to be thought of as number one otherwise one game, one week, one month, one year could be the only factor to consider? That would be wrong. In the end, if Tiger breaks Jacks record then he’ll be number one and there won’t be any question to it. But if tiger never beat Jacks record he’ll always be number two at best and even then someone can catch either of them. They aren’t Gods. They are golfers. If you had the time to research golf and the players from the early days of the PGA up to today, you’d see many amazing things that were done with a simple wooden headed golf club and a rubber band wound ball. You’d be really amazed I do think. That doesn’t take anything away from today’s technology that makes hitting great shots much much easier. That’s the equipment of today and everyone uses it. But I have to say that if every one played with the equipment from the 50-60-70’s, there would not be the scores turned in that we see from the current list of pros on the PGA. And if the old timers had the advantage of today’s technological equipment they may have set many many more records than they did. Just a theory, nothing else. Lets let history decide who is the best and enjoy our seats on the sidelines. \| Permalink How can Tiger be #2 when he has the most records in Junior golf, the most records in Amateur golf (without being a lifetime amateur as was Jones), and the most unbreakable records in PGA golf? Tiger won 14 Majors in 12 years by age 32. Jack won 18 Majors in 25 seasons by age 46. PGA venues were driven to slow Tiger down by Tiger Proofing golf courses. There were never any speed bumps on Jack’s road to 18 Majors. Why is the sports media waiting for Tiger to catch Jack’s Major wins record when Jack never held any of Tiger’s Junior, Amateur and PGA records and accomplishments. Tiger may catch Jack’s 18, but Jack will obviously never catch any of the many Tiger records. Tiger has the most golfing records in history at all competition levels. Tiger is the only golfer in history to win 6 Junior World Championships, 3 consecutive US Junior Amateur Championships, followed immediately by 3 consecutive US Amateur Championships (for 6 USGA Amateur Majors in a row). Tiger is also the only pro to win 4 professional Majors in a row and he did that over a 10 month period which is a lot harder (staying hot) than doing it over a 5 month calendar year period. Tiger also won 7 of 11 Majors (1999-02) which is a 63% win rate over 3 years; and he later won 6 of 14 Majors (2005-08) for a 43% win rate. Jack was never able to play this well. Why is it that Jack, famous for consistency and longevity, could win the most career Majors to-date, but is only 3rd behind a still active Tiger and Sam Snead for most total career wins. If Jack could win the hardest events (Majors) why couldn’t he do as well in the easier non Major tournaments??? Tiger’s the GOAT! We’ll be hearing about Tiger woods records forever, whether he gets to 18 or not. \| Permalink Lets calm it down a bit and just let time tell the story, okay? I don’t believe anyone here hates anyone else, so these are opinions and I really enjoy reading them but not the hidden anger in some of them. If Tiger wins more than Jack, then Tiger will be without doubt listed as such, if he doesn’t then he won’t. As they said, they play against the golf courses, not each other so this is really an individual sport, lets let them be individuals. As for modern day equipment being used by Tiger, I’m lost here. So what? That’s what’s available. You make it sound like Tiger has picked up some cross to bear by using modern technology. He hasn’t. He actually has an advantage by using today’s modern technology, something golfers back in the 40’s-80’s did not have. I think I saw an interview with Brent Sneedeker (spelling?) after he went out and used the old school wooded headed drivers/woods and old school irons and balls from 40 years ago. His comment was something like “wow I don’t see how they hit the ball like they did back then, I’ll never try this again”. I think he shot in the low/mid 80’s. You gotta give some creds to those that used ‘old stuff’ and were winners nonetheless. That may need to be taken into consideration, not for voting purposes, but to understand how much easier technology has made striking the golf ball today. And even with that said I think the longest on record during a tournament drive is by : Sept. 25, 1974, Mike Austin rocketed a drive 515 yards while competing in the U.S. National Senior Open Championship at Desert Rose, Las Vegas. This guy was a Senior PGA golfer, not a young dude like Jack or Tiger was in their prime, he was 60 something! So lets enjoy history and history being made? Kurt \| Permalink did anyone catch the nonsense in Jeff Kelly’s column about Jack winning the Career Grand Slam 4 times? Jack and Tiger are TIED with 3 CGSs. Also, Tiger may be only 4 Majors short of Jack, but Tiger’s holds the record for the Lowest Career Scoring Average, the record for the Highest Career Winning %, and the record for the most total Wins at 79 by age 37 and still playing. Sam Snead won 77 PGA tournaments by himself by age 52. Sam mysteriously gets credit for 5 TEAM wins for a false total of 82. Tiger has several team wins with Stricker, Kucher and Duval, but none of Tiger’s team wins are counted. Apples vs Oranges favor Sam. Also, Tiger holds the most Junior golfing records (6 Junior Worlds including 4 in a row; and 3 USGA US Junior Amateur Championships in a Row; the most Amateur Golf records (only golfer to win 3 USGA US Amateurs in a Row) and the most PGA pro golfing records. Tiger may not catch Jack’s 18 Majors, but Jack never held the many golfing records that Tiger still holds. Of the top 10 Golfers of all time, Tiger is #1 and still active. He’s the only one using modern equipment. No other golfer using modern equipment is in the top 10. Therefore, saying Tiger had an advantage over Jack because of modern equipment doesn’t hold water. Also, the quality of Competition argument that Jack had the tougher rivals is nonsenses. All golfers competed against GOLF COURSES, not players. Jack had a better career stroke average than his rivals, and Tiger has the best CSA of all time. Even Jack said many times that he never competed against other players because he competed against golf courses. Golfers and their caddies don’t scout other golfers. They scout and measure out golf courses. \| Permalink I’m not certain if people are bashing Tiger because of his morality or not. I’m not in their heads. Some people have different attitudes towards different things and that’s okay, we are all different. I really don’t believe he had any real competition during his first 13 or so years. Maybe 2 to 3 competitors that were good but not his caliber. He was just great back then. Now, the field is crowded with a dozen or two brilliant players that are all his equal in terms of ‘can they win today’. Tiger created the stir in golf and now nearly 20 years later those that got into the game because of him are now beating him. There may not have been as many ‘great’ player in this sport ever, in the history of the game as there is now and that is due to Tigers great playing in his early years. That is a big reason why him beating Jacks record is not likely in my opinion. \| Permalink Some people are bashing Tiger for his morality. Now, being a South African, I can tell you Gary Player is definitely not treated as a demigod here. He had come out in full support of the apartheid government and this loomed over his head his entire career. People like Ernie Els, Louis Oosthuizen and Charles Schwartzel are far more popular here. Yet, if it is golfing greatness that is being debated here, we have to get to the point. Gary Player makes every top 5 or 10 top golfers of all time list and probably the highest ranked non American. So if you’re not bashing him up, why bash Tiger? \| Permalink Wow, there are more whiny babies on this blog than in a room full of women on the rag. What in the world created such a stir between you dudes? Tiger is/was a great golfer. No one can dispute that. But no, he most likely will not achieve the number of wins that Nicholas did. And whether or not anyone wants to consider it, the poster above opened my eyes when he noted Nicholas won majors (plural) after age 50. Tiger will be pressed to win any tournament after age 50, except MAYBE a seniors tournament. I’m not a Tiger basher but if Nicholas did all those things, does anyone here really believe Tiger or for that matter ANYONE match what Nicholas did in terms of wins and wins as a sr. playing in non sr. tournaments. That blew me away when I read it. Kurt \| Permalink Determining “the greatest” has little meaning in sports, basically because you can’t compare athletes over different eras. Thus ultimately, everyone’s “greatest” list will converge to each individual’s “favorite” list. But if one cares to insist on “the greatest,” I believe the closest measure is to judge on who played the best golf for the longest, thus to a good degree negating the elements of eras and time. The golfer who most closely meets my criterion is Sam Snead. He “played golf longer, better than anyone else in the history of the game,” said Bob Toski. If in future I should see any golfer threatening to win PGA tournaments as he nears 70 (which Snead did at the Quad Cities Open c. 1979, and I believe that included asking this 67-year-old man to walk the course for 36 holes the final day due to a rainout), then I may have to reevaluate my choice. During that tournament, by the way, he reportedly became the first PGA pro in a tournament to shoot his age (67; then 66). \| Permalink Great comments regarding ‘great golfers’ since simply playing the sport does not make one great. I read somewhere, please understand I may have the number or the person wrong, but, I read somewhere that Sam Snead (I believe) had somewhere @ 286 top ten finishes in his lifetime playing golf professionally. I could be wrong, but if it’s correct or even nearly correct, or if the person I remember reading this about is someone else, then that person was indeed a ‘great golfer’. I understand this may be rebuked by others and expect that. I’m only posting what I remember reading to the best of my recall. I’m old. Sorry for that. \| Permalink TOP 10 GOLFERS OF ALL TIME AS OF JULY 22 2013: 1. BOBBY JONES – Won 13 of 20 majors entered; he was an amateur so we must count amateur titles which meant so much more years ago when pro golf didn’t pay much. He is officially credited with 7 majors, and he only played 7 years, quitting golf at age 28! He decided to win the grand slam in 1930, and he did! He also won 50% of all the tournaments he entered! All this while earning a law degree at Harvard! 2. BEN HOGAN – Won 9 majors. But in 1942 the Hale American Open took the place of the U.S. Open due to the war. He also served almost 3 years in the Army during his peak years. In 1953, after his fatal car accident which almost killed him, Hogan won The Masters, The U.S.Open and the British Open; the only reason he didn’t win the PGA, was there were no planes to get him back in time. 3. Jack Nicklaus – 18 Majors, 19 second place finishes. All this while never being away from his family for more than 2 weeks at a time. Nicklaus is also said to have the toughest competition playing during his reign. 4. Tiger Woods – 14 Majors, and will most likely break the all time wins record for the PGA. Most likely will not break Nicklaus’ 18 majors. If so, Woods moves to 3rd or possibly 2nd. 5. Gary Player – 9 Majors, massive international record. etc… 6. Arnold Palmer 7 Majors and credited for changing the game of golf with his identification with the average fan. 7. Phil Mickelson, 5 Majors, over 40 PGA wins, all this while battling arthritis and maintaining a full family life. 8. Sam Snead 7 Majors 9. Gene Sarazen 7 Majors 10 Lee Trevino 6 Majors. Trevino beats out Seve Ballesteros and the rest of the modern day golfers because of the way he won, who he beat and his incredible ball striking. Trevino would beat Jack Nicklaus in Majors, win his first PGA tournament with the U.S. Open, all this while fighting to make ends meet. Not even a Sponsor before his first Open qualification. I almost had Trevino at 6.	Thomas Watson
"The chorus of which hit by glam-rock band Sweet begins: ""'Yeah, yeah, yeah-yeah-yeah And the man in the back said everyone attack And it turned into a ….""?"	golf golf — golfer , n. /golf, gawlf/; Brit . also /gof/, n. 1. a game in which clubs with wooden or metal heads are used to hit a small, white ball into a number of holes, usually 9 or 18, in succession, situated at various distances over a course having natural or artificial obstacles, the object being to get the ball into each hole in as few strokes as possible. 2. a word used in communications to represent the letter G. v.i. [1425-75; late ME; of uncert. orig.] * * * Game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a small ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on an outdoor course. A hole includes (1) a teeing area, a clearing from which the ball is initially driven toward the actual hole, or cup; (2) a fairway, a long, closely mowed, and often angled lane; (3) a putting green, a smooth grassy area containing the hole; and (4) often one or more natural or artificial hazards (such as bunkers). Each hole has associated with it a par, or score standard, usually from par 3 to par 5. The origins of the game are difficult to ascertain, although evidence now suggests that early forms of golf were played in the Netherlands first and then in Scotland. Golf developed in Scotland the courses were originally fields of grass that sheep had clipped short in their characteristic grazing style. Golf balls were originally made of wood; wood was replaced in the 17th century by boiled feathers stuffed in a leather cover, in the 19th century by gutta-percha, and in the 20th century by hard rubber. Clubs, limited in number to 14, are known by the traditional names of "irons" (primarily for mid-range to short shots) and "woods" (primarily for longer shots); today irons are more likely made of stainless steel, and the heads of woods are usually made of metal such as steel or titanium. * * * ▪ 2009 The introduction of drug testing was one big change for golf during 2008, and another came when the world's number-one-ranked player, Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods, was out of action for the last six months of the season following a knee operation. Between August 2007 and March 2008, the remarkable Woods had won eight out of nine events and was runner-up in the other. After another second-place finish in the Masters Tournament at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club in April 2008, however, the 32-year-old American underwent arthroscopic surgery on his left knee. His one-tournament comeback in June was a truly memorable reappearance. In the U.S. Open at the Torrey Pines South golf course in San Diego (where he had triumphed in the last four stagings of the Buick Invitational), Woods , clearly in serious pain after many of his shots, holed a 4-m (13-ft) putt on the final green to tie 45-year-old Rocco Mediate of the U.S. with a one-under-par total of 283. Woods then birdied the same par-five hole again to stay alive in the 18-hole play-off the following day and won with a par at the first extra hole of sudden death. That gave him his 14th major title, only 4 short of fellow American Jack Nicklaus's record, but three days later it was announced that Woods would be undergoing reconstructive surgery on his anterior cruciate ligament and that he had played the tournament with a double stress fracture in his left leg. It made his victory—achieved after a 91-hole marathon—all the more staggering. The first “Tiger-less” majors in more than a decade were the British Open at Royal Birkdale in Southport, Eng., and the Professional Golfers' Association ( PGA ) championship at Oakland Hills in Bloomfield, Mich. His absence created an opportunity for someone to seize the spotlight, and the player to do it was Ireland's Padraig Harrington. Harrington won his first major at the 2007 British Open, but his defense in 2008 was in doubt because of a wrist injury. Nevertheless, a brilliant back-nine 32 on the final day—highlighted by a five-wood approach to the long 17th hole, which finished little more than a metre from the flag and led to an eagle three—swept him to a four-stroke victory over England's Ian Poulter with a three-over-par total of 283. He thus became the first European to retain the title since Britain's James Braid in 1906. The week was also memorable for the performance of 1986 and 1993 champion Greg Norman of Australia, who, less than a month after his marriage to former American tennis star Chris Evert, came out of semiretirement to hold the lead with one round to go. The 53-year-old Norman had the chance to become easily the oldest-ever winner of a major, but his closing round 77 dropped him into a tie for third place. The PGA championship was only three weeks later, and Harrington, six behind at the halfway point, stormed to another victory with two brilliant closing rounds of 66. He beat Spain's Sergio Garcia and American Ben Curtis by two strokes, with the three-under-par aggregate of 277, and became the first European to win the event since Scotland's Tommy Armour in 1930. Although Harrington was the winner of three of golf's last six majors, he finished fifth in the Masters in April, where the star of the show was South Africa's Trevor Immelman. Less than four months after he had undergone surgery to remove a benign tumour on his diaphragm, Immelman held at least a share of the lead after each round and could afford a closing 75, which matched the highest last round by a champion in the event's history. With an eight-under total of 280, he finished three clear of Woods. It was a first major title for the 28-year-old Immelman, the first South African to win at Augusta since Gary Player in 1978, and he did it in the week when Player set a record of 51 appearances in the tournament. Without Woods, the United States was underdog for the Ryder Cup at Valhalla in Louisville, Ky., but Europe under the captaincy of Nick Faldo failed to achieve an unprecedented fourth successive European victory. Harrington, Garcia, and England's Lee Westwood (three players of whom the most was expected) did not manage one win between them, whereas the six American newcomers, three of them chosen by captain Paul Azinger, all played their part in a stunning 161/2–111/2 success. The PGA Tour again culminated in the FedEx Cup play-offs. Fiji's Vijay Singh won the first two events, and Colombian Camilo Villegas took the second two, but it was Singh who claimed the $10 million bonus; the 45-year-old also finished as leading money winner on the circuit, with $6,601,094. On the European Tour, Robert Karlsson became the first Swede to claim the Order of Merit, with £2,171,087 ( about $3,425,000), and then combined with Henrik Stenson to win the World Cup at Mission Hills, China . After three Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) wins in her first eight events of the year, Sweden's Annika Sörenstam appeared to be mounting a challenge to women's world number one Lorena Ochoa of Mexico. In May, however, the 37-year-old Sörenstam announced that she was retiring from competitive golf at the end of the season. Sörenstam hoped that she might bow out with an 11th major title, but it was not to be. The nearest she came was joint second place in the Kraft Nabisco Championship at Mission Hills Country Club in Rancho Mirage, Calif., five strokes behind Ochoa. It was the Mexican's second successive major win and came in the middle of a run of six victories in seven tournaments. The other three women's majors were all won by Asian players. The McDonald's LPGA Championship at Bulle Rock in Havre de Grace, Md., saw Yani Tseng beat Maria Hjorth of Sweden at the fourth play-off hole to become Taiwan's first major champion. Nineteen-year-old Park Inbee of South Korea beat yet another Swede, Helen Alfredsson, by four strokes in the U.S. Women's Open at Interlachen in Edina, Minn., and at the Ricoh Women's British Open at Sunningdale Old, Berkshire, Eng., her compatriot Shin Ji Yai defeated Tseng by three. Ochoa topped the LPGA Tour money list for the third straight season, with earnings of $2,763,193. The LPGA Tour, with 121 non-Americans (including 45 South Koreans) in its ranks, caused a huge furor when it announced its intention to introduce a rule whereby anyone not reaching a certain standard of English could face suspension. In what was believed to be the first such move by a sports governing body, Deputy Commissioner Libba Galloway said, “For an athlete to be successful in the sports entertainment world we live in they need to be great performers on and off the course. Being able to communicate effectively with sponsors and fans is a big part of this.” Under increasing criticism, claims of discrimination, and possible legal action, the LPGA Tour backed off from its proposed ban, and non-English-speaking players would continue to be offered tutors and translators. In the amateur game, 18-year-old New Zealander Danny Lee eclipsed Woods as the youngest-ever winner of the men's U.S. Amateur, and Reinier Saxton of The Netherlands became British Amateur champion. Another Swede, Anna Nordqvist, won the Ladies British Amateur, and American Amanda Blumenherst took the U.S. version. In the men's and women's world team championships, held in Adelaide, Australia, in October, the victories went to Scotland and Sweden, respectively. The United States retained the Curtis Cup with a 13–7 triumph over Britain and Ireland's top women players at St. Andrews, Scot. As well as implementing a drug-testing program in 2008, golf's governing bodies came together under the umbrella of the International Golf Federation to formulate a strategy that they hoped would result in the sport's inclusion in the 2016 Olympic Games. Golf had not been part of the Games since 1904. Spaniard Seve Ballesteros, who retired from competition in 2007 at the age of 50, was admitted to a Madrid hospital in October and after the discovery of a brain tumour needed four major operations. Mark Garrod ▪ 2008 The four major men's golf championships in 2007 produced four different winners. For three men—American Zach Johnson, Argentina's Ángel Cabrera, and Irishman Padraig Harrington ( Harrington, Padraig )—it was a first major success, but for Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods it was victory number 13, placing him just five short of the record set by fellow American Jack Nicklaus. In the Masters Tournament at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club in April, Johnson's one-over-par 289 matched the highest winning total in the history of an event that dated back to 1934. On a course that had been stretched in 2006 to a massive 7,445 yd—the second longest ever for a major—the 31-year-old Iowan (ranked 56th in the world) was not expected to do well. Among the 60 players who made the halfway cut, Johnson ranked 57th in driving distance. He did not attempt to reach the green in two strokes at any of the four par-five holes, but during the week he made 11 birdies and 5 pars on them. He played the other 14 holes in 12 over. With birdies on the 13th, 14th, and 16th holes on the final day, he could even afford a bogey on 17 to finish two strokes ahead of Woods and South Africans Retief Goosen and Rory Sabbatini. It was the first time since the ranking system was introduced in 1986 that a player from outside the top 50 had captured the title. More high scoring came as no surprise at the U.S. Open, held in June at the famously difficult Oakmont ( Pa .) Country Club. The winning aggregate was 285, five over par, and victory went to Cabrera, the only player able to produce two below-par rounds. Cabrera, trying to become the first South American major winner since his Argentine compatriot Roberto de Vicenzo in 1967, charged from joint seventh place at the start of the final round into a three-stroke advantage with three holes to play. Cabrera's bogeys at the 16th and 17th holes and a par on 18 for a final-round 69 gave hope to Jim Furyk and Woods. Furyk, however, also bogeyed the 17th while tied for the lead, and Woods, one stroke behind, could not catch up either. A month later the world's best were gathered again for the British Open at Carnoustie, Scot. Andres Romero had the chance to give Argentina a second successive major win, but after a remarkable 10 birdies he went out of bounds on the 17th hole and finished with a double bogey and a bogey. Harrington led as a result, but on the 18th he twice went into the stream known as the Barry Burn, and his double-bogey six handed the advantage back to longtime leader Sergio García of Spain. García needed a closing-hole par to win, but his failure to get up and down from a green-side bunker left him tied with Harrington at 277, seven under par. In the four-hole play-off, Harrington opened with a birdie to García's bogey and stayed in front to become the first major winner from the Republic of Ireland. A second-round 63, which equaled the lowest ever in majors, gave Woods a lead he never relinquished in the Professional Golfers' Association ( PGA ) championship, held in August at Southern Hills Country Club in Tulsa, Okla. Playing in temperatures that exceeded 100 °F (38 °C), with the heat index touching 110, the world number one player was only one stroke ahead of fellow American Woody Austin with four holes to play, but a birdie on the 15th and pars on the remaining three holes took the 31-year-old Woods to an eight-under-par aggregate of 272 and a two-stroke victory. It confirmed Woods as the greatest front-runner the sport had ever seen; he had held at least a share of first place with a round to play in 13 majors and each time went on to win. The PGA Tour in the United States, in an attempt to improve the size of television viewing audiences, introduced a late-summer four-tournament play-off series and, with the sponsorship of FedEx, offered a deferred-annuity first prize of $10 million, the highest bonus ever paid in sports. As the top money winner at the time, Woods led the points standings going into the four tournaments. Although he controversially chose to miss the opening event (hardly a ringing endorsement of the Tour's initiative when coupled with American Phil Mickelson's absence from the third leg), Woods then finished second (behind Mickelson), first , and first again to be crowned FedEx Cup champion. Woods won seven titles during the season, including two of the three World Golf Championships, and finished his 2007 PGA Tour campaign with $10,867,052, more than $5 million more than runner-up Mickelson. Woods had 81 worldwide tournament victories to his name—and, when the FedEx Cup bonus was added, total career earnings (on the course) in excess of $100 million. Woods, whose Swedish wife, Elin, gave birth to their first child in June, also helped the United States beat the International team 191/2–141/2 in the Presidents Cup at the Royal Montreal Golf Club. In Europe 27-year-old Justin Rose became the youngest winner of the Order of Merit since Ronan Rafferty in 1989, winning the closing Volvo Masters at Valderrama Golf Club in Sotogrande, Spain, to leap ahead of South African Ernie Els and Harrington with a season-ending total of €2,944,945 ( about $4.3 million). In October Els took his record number of victories in the HSBC World Match Play Championship, at the Wentworth Club in Virginia Water, Surrey, Eng., to 7 in 14 years. Harrington also won the Irish Open at Adare Manor in County Limerick, where he became the first Irish winner since John O'Leary in 1982, while Spaniard Pablo Martin created history at the Portuguese Open, becoming the first amateur to win on the European Tour since the tour was launched in 1971. The dominant figure in the women's professional game was Mexico's Lorena Ochoa ( Ochoa, Lorena ), who took over from Annika Sörenstam as world number one, was the first woman to earn more than $3 million in a season on the Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) Tour and, with the Women's British Open, captured her first major title. The tournament was also the first women's professional event ever to be staged on the Old Course at St. Andrews, Scot. Earlier in the year, 18-year-old American Morgan Pressel became the youngest winner of a women's major with her victory in the Kraft Nabisco Championship, held at Mission Hills Country Club in Rancho Mirage, Calif. Suzann Pettersen, joint runner-up there, became Norway's first major champion only two months later in the LPGA championship at Bulle Rock, Havre de Grace, Md. When American Cristie Kerr emerged victorious at the U.S. Women's Open at Pine Needles in Southern Pines, N.C., there were four new women's major champions. Kerr and Pressel were then part of the American team that retained the Solheim Cup with a 16–12 victory over Europe at Halmstad ( Swed .) Golf Club. Sörenstam unexpectedly finished the season without a single win. The U.S. captured its second straight men's amateur Walker Cup against Great Britain and Ireland, but as in 2003 and 2005, the winner's margin of victory was only one point. One member of the Walker Cup team, Colt Knost, added the U.S. amateur championship to the Public Links title, a double achieved only once before, by Ryan Moore in 2004. The winner of the British amateur crown was another American, Drew Weaver, two months after he was on campus at Virginia Polytechnic Institute ( Virginia Tech ) when fellow student Seung Hui Cho shot dead 32 people and wounded 25 others before killing himself. Weaver, who ran for his life on hearing the gunfire, dedicated his victory to the victims. Golf was due to enter a new era in 2008 with the start of drug testing on all of the major tours. Although South African Gary Player had made unsubstantiated claims about players' having used performance-enhancing substances, Peter Dawson, chief executive of the Royal and Ancient Club (one of golf's two rule-making authorities), said , “The R&A has no reason to believe golf is anything other than a clean sport, but we've been supportive of a coordinated, international effort to test for drugs for quite some time now so we can demonstrate our sport is clean and we can keep it that way.” Mark Garrod ▪ 2007 Golf in 2006 was ultimately dominated yet again by Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods, who captured two more major championships, moved to second place on the all-time list, and remained the clear leader in the official world rankings. Until the dramatic climax to the U.S. Open in June, the year was shaping up to be an historic one for another American, Phil Mickelson. Having captured the 2005 Professional Golfers' Association ( PGA ) championship, Mickelson's success in the Masters at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club in April 2006 put him halfway toward matching the unique feat achieved by Woods in 2001 of holding all four major titles at the same time. Employing an unusual tactic of two drivers in his bag—one for extra distance, one for accuracy—he was brimming with confidence after a 13-stroke victory at the BellSouth Classic, held March 30–April 2 in Duluth, Ga., and on the lengthened Masters course he came from four behind at halfway to win by two strokes over South African Tim Clark, with a seven-under-par aggregate of 281. Mickelson led the U.S. Open at Winged Foot in Mamaroneck, N.Y., with one hole to go, but the left-hander hit a horrid drive, struck a tree with his second shot, put his third shot into a bunker, and recorded a double bogey. Remarkably, Scotland's Colin Montgomerie had also taken six shots just before that, and with both of them dropping to six over par, Australian Geoff Ogilvy's five-over total of 285 gave him his first major title. Woods, joint third in the Masters, lost his father to cancer a month later and did not return to competition until the U.S. Open, where two rounds of 76 meant that he missed the halfway cut in a major for the first time as a professional. Starting at the British Open in July, however, Woods proved once again that when he was on his game, the rest—Mickelson included—floundered in his wake. The British championship took place at the Royal Liverpool Club in Hoylake, Eng., for the first time since 1967, and on the bone-hard fairways, Woods had such faith in his approach play that he used his driver only once in 72 holes. Woods's control was a sight to behold, and with an 18-under-par total, he beat fellow American Chris DiMarco by two strokes. The win in Hoylake was the first of six successive stroke-play victories for the 30-year-old Woods, and when he captured the PGA championship at the Medinah ( Ill .) Country Club, he took his total of majors to 12. This was just six short of the record set by American Jack Nicklaus between 1962 and 1986, although Woods had been a professional for only 10 years. The Medinah win was even more emphatic than that at the British Open. Woods again finished 18 under par (equaling the championship record he jointly held with Bob May), and his closest challenger, 2003 winner Shaun Micheel of the U.S., was five strokes back. With six other PGA Tour victories—two of them part of the World Golf Championships series, in which he had chalked up an amazing 13 wins in 24 starts since its inception in 1999—Woods topped the money list for the seventh time, with $9,941,563. He was so far ahead that, like Mickelson, he did not even play the season-ending Tour championship. Unfortunately for Woods, he finished on the losing side at the Ryder Cup for the fourth time in five matches. Ireland staged the contest for the first time at the K Club in Straffan, County Kildare, and Europe not only achieved an unprecedented third successive victory but also repeated its 2004 record margin of 181/2–91/2. Woods recovered from hitting his opening shot into the water and from the bizarre incident when his caddie dropped one of his clubs into another lake to finish as the U.S.'s top scorer, with three points out of five. Mickelson failed to win any of his five games. Sergio García of Spain and England's Lee Westwood shared top billing in terms of points, with four out of five, but for emotion there was nothing to match Northern Ireland's Darren Clarke's three wins out of three. Only six weeks earlier Clarke's 39-year-old wife, Heather, had died from breast cancer. Another member of the winning Ryder Cup side, Englishman Paul Casey, finished one of the games with a hole in one just a week after having won golf's biggest first prize of $1.87 million in the HSBC World Match Play Championship at Wentworth, Eng., but he narrowly lost the European Order of Merit title to Ireland's Pádraig Harrington. García's closing bogey in the Volvo Masters at Valderrama, Spain, moved Harrington into a tie for second place. With £1,667,618 ( about $3,139,792), the Irishman grabbed the number one spot by just £23,616 ( about $44,464). Casey made up for that disappointment at year's end by being named European Tour Golfer of the Year. The World Cup, held December 7–10 in St. James, Barbados, was won by veteran Bernhard Langer of Germany and his young partner, Marcel Siem. In the women's game, three former leading lights were back on centre stage. Neither Australian Karrie Webb nor South Korean Pak Se Ri had won a major tournament since 2002, and American Sherri Steinhauer had waited 14 years for her second success. Webb's seventh major victory, in the Kraft Nabisco Championship at Mission Hills Country Club, Rancho Mirage, Calif., was a thrilling affair. She sank her 106-m (348-ft) pitch shot to the final green, but Lorena Ochoa of Mexico also eagled to force a play-off, which Webb won on the first extra hole. In the Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) championship at Bulle Rock, Havre de Grace, Md., in June, Webb tied again, this time with Pak. When they went into sudden death, Pak almost holed her 184-m (603-ft) four-iron approach to grab her fifth major title. It was no surprise that Steinhauer's long-awaited second major came in the Women's British Open at Royal Lytham and St. Annes in Lancashire, Eng. She won there in 1998, but that victory and her successful defense of the title a year later occurred before the event had achieved major status. World number one Annika Sörenstam had, by her own high standards, a quiet season, but the U.S. Women's Open at Newport Country Club in Newport, R.I., saw the Swedish champion achieve her 10th major title. Level with American Pat Hurst after four rounds, Sörenstam comfortably won it by four strokes in an 18-hole play-off. Ochoa led the LPGA Tour money list with one week to go, but for the first time it was decided to put a million-dollar prize up for grabs in a final-round shoot-out at the season-ending ADT Championship at Trump International Golf Club in West Palm Beach, Fla. Although Ochoa lost to Julieta Granada by two strokes, her second-place finish kept her atop the money list with $2,592,872. American Michelle Wie, who turned professional amid huge publicity on her 16th birthday in October 2005, had a season of near-misses on the women's circuit, finishing joint third in the Kraft Nabisco and U.S. Women's Open and fifth in the LPGA championship. Many questioned the wisdom of her accepting more invitations to compete in men's events, but she did finish 35th in the SK Telecom Open in Inch'on, S.Kor., and she won a sectional qualifying event for the PGA U.S. Open. In amateur golf, American women recorded a fifth successive victory over Britain and Ireland in the Curtis Cup at Pacific Dunes in Bandon, Ore. At the world amateur team championships in Stellenbosch, S.Af., in October, host South Africa captured the women's title on a card countback after a tie with Sweden, and in the men's event The Netherlands won for the first time. Julien Guerrier gave France its first winner of the British men's amateur championship since 1981, but that was eclipsed by Richie Ramsay's victory at the U.S. amateur. He was the first British winner since 1911 and the first from Scotland since 1898. Golf fans mourned the deaths in 2006 of two legendary players, Byron Nelson ( Nelson, Byron ), winner of five PGA major titles, and Patty Berg ( Berg, Patty ), winner of 15 women's majors and a cofounder of the LPGA. (See Obituaries.) Mark Garrod ▪ 2006 Having seen his five-year reign as world number one ended by Fijian Vijay Singh late in the 2004 season, Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods did not need long in 2005 to reclaim the position and reestablish himself as golf's leading light. In the process the American took two more steps toward Jack Nicklaus's record 18 major championship titles. Woods improved his total to 10 with victories in the Masters at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club and the British Open at the Old Course, St. Andrews, Scot., and he accomplished it as Nicklaus made his final appearances in the two events. Nicklaus received standing ovations as he brought down the curtain on what was the greatest career in golf's history. There was added emotion in the British Open because his caddie was his son Steve, whose own son Jake had died earlier in the year in a hot-tub accident at age 17 months. The 65-year-old Nicklaus failed in his stated goal of surviving the halfway cut at St. Andrews, but he did bow out with a birdie. The two Woods successes were contrasting affairs. At the Masters, which he had won in 1997, 2001, and 2002, Woods trailed Ryder Cup teammate Chris DiMarco by six strokes at halfway before equaling the tournament record of seven successive birdies in a third-round 65, which took him three clear. Although DiMarco faltered with a third-round 74—and Woods had never lost a major when he held the lead after 54 holes—the fourth round turned out to be an unexpectedly thrilling climax. DiMarco appeared to have a chance to draw level on the par-three 16th hole, only for Woods to produce one of the most memorable shots of his career. Long and left off the tee, he chose to play his chip shot up and down the steep slope in the green. In what was perhaps the most dramatic moment of the entire 2005 season, the ball lingered on the edge of the hole before it toppled in accompanied by a huge roar from the crowd. DiMarco missed his putt and was two behind. He was handed a lifeline when Woods bogeyed the final two holes, and, tied at 12 under par, they went into a play-off. DiMarco, who had nearly chipped in for victory on the last hole, faced a similar shot at the first extra hole but missed again, and Woods grabbed the victory for his fourth green jacket with a 4.6-m (15-ft) birdie putt. There was no such late excitement in the British Open. Back on the course where he had won in 2000 by eight strokes with a major-championship record of 19 under par, Woods was in a league of his own. An opening-round 66 gave him the lead; he followed with a second-round 67 to surge into the lead by four strokes. Closing scores of 71 and 70 were sufficient to give Woods a five-stroke victory with a 14-under-par score of 274. In front of his home fans, 42-year-old Colin Montgomerie was second, the fourth time he had come up just shy in pursuit of a first major title. Woods also figured prominently in the other two major championships of the season, finishing second to New Zealander Michael Campbell in the U.S. Open at Pinehurst, N.C., and fourth behind American Phil Mickelson in the Professional Golfers' Association ( PGA ) championship at Baltusrol Golf Club in Springfield, N.J. Campbell's victory was a real surprise. The 36-year-old, who was 80th in the world rankings, would not have entered the tournament had it not been for a qualifying tournament that was held in Europe for the first time. At Pinehurst, with a round to play, he was in joint fourth position. The defending champion, South African Retief Goosen, who was seeking a third win in five years, led by three strokes over little-known American Jason Gore, but both those players collapsed with final rounds of 81 and 84, respectively, while Campbell's fourth-round 69 for a level-par total of 280 gave him a two-stroke triumph over Woods. Campbell became New Zealand's first major golf champion since Bob Charles captured the 1963 British Open; he later added the record £1 million ($1.8 million) first prize in the HSBC World Match Play championship. Mickelson had achieved his first major win in the 2004 Masters and had come close in the other three majors of that season, but it was not until the 2005 PGA championship that he put himself in position to win again. Bad weather forced the event into a Monday-morning finish, and Australian Steve Elkington and Denmark's Thomas Bjorn posted three-under-par aggregates of 277. Mickelson chipped from the rough to within one metre (3 ft) of the final hole and sank the birdie putt to win by one stroke. Woods finished at two under par on Sunday evening and unexpectedly flew home to Florida without waiting to see if he might be required for a play-off. Woods was quickly back on the winning trail; he again pushed DiMarco into second place at the NEC Invitational at Firestone Country Club, Akron, Ohio, and then beat American John Daly in a play-off for another of the World Golf Championships events, the American Express championship at Harding Park, San Francisco. Remarkably, that made it 11 victories for Woods in the 21 WGC tournaments in which he had played since the series was introduced in 1999. Not surprisingly, he topped the PGA Tour money list for the sixth time; his 2005 earnings of $10,628,024 took his worldwide career total to nearly $70 million, not including endorsement, promotional, and appearance fees. Montgomerie became the European tour's leading money winner for a remarkable eighth time, with earnings of £1,888,613 ( about $3.3 million). DiMarco had some compensation for his two narrow losses to Woods when he sank the winning putt to give the United States an 181/2–151/2 victory over the International side in the Presidents Cup at the Robert Trent Jones Club, Gainesville, Va. One of the hottest stories in women's golf was American Michelle Wie, whose potential was recognized in 2005 when she decided to turn professional on reaching the age of 16. Without having won any significant titles, Wie signed contracts with Nike and Sony for a reported $10 million. As an amateur she gained worldwide fame in 2004 by missing the halfway cut by only one shot in the PGA Tour's Sony Open. She made two more appearances on the men's circuit in 2005 and finished second and third (in a tie with South Korea's Young Kim), respectively , in the Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) championship at Bulle Rock, Havre de Grace, Md., and the Women's British Open at Royal Birkdale Golf Club, Southport, Eng., two of the women's four major championships. Wie's professional debut came at the world championship at Bighorn Golf Club, Palm Desert, Calif., but after posting a total that would have given her fourth place, she was disqualified when officials ruled that she had taken an incorrect drop away from a bush during the third round. Sweden's Annika Sörenstam won that event as well as the Kraft Nabisco championship at Mission Hills Country Club, Rancho Mirage, Calif., and the LPGA championship to bring her number of major titles to nine. The U.S. Women's Open was captured by South Korea's Birdie Kim at Cherry Hills Country Club, Cherry Hills Village, Colo., where amateurs Morgan Pressel and Brittany Lang tied for second. Victory in the Women's British Open went to another South Korean, Jang Jeong. The United States regained the Solheim Cup trophy from Europe by a 151/2–121/2 margin at Crooked Stick Golf Club, Carmel, Ind. In men's amateur competition, the Walker Cup returned to American hands, but only just. After three successive defeats, the U.S. narrowly beat Britain and Ireland by 121/2–111/2 at the Chicago Golf Club, Wheaton, Ill., despite having lost their number one player, Ryan Moore, to the professional ranks two months after his brilliant 13th-place finish in the 2005 Masters. Moore's successor as U.S. amateur champion was Edoardo Molinari, the first Italian ever to have entered the event. Molinari won at Merion Golf Club, Ardmore, Pa. The British amateur championship was won by Ireland's Brian McElhinney at Royal Birkdale. Mark Garrod ▪ 2005 In 2004 the dedication and hard work of Fijian golfer Vijay Singh was fully rewarded. In ending the five-year reign of American Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods as world number one, the 41-year-old Singh achieved the third major win of his career and established a level of consistency that led to record-breaking results. Singh became only the second player—Woods was the other—since Sam Snead in 1950 to have registered nine or more tournament titles in one season on the Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) Tour. Six of them came in his last nine starts, and, not surprisingly, Singh became the first golfer to win more than $10 million in one season. He took that to $10,905,166 at season's end, retaining the money list title by more than $5 million over South Africa's Ernie Els. Singh had won his first professional tournament in Malaysia in 1984, but an allegation of changing his scorecard at the 1985 Indonesian Open—he always maintained that there was a misunderstanding—brought a suspension, and he became a club professional in the Borneo rainforest. He qualified for the European tour on the second attempt and after becoming one of its leading lights made the move to the U.S. and was named PGA Rookie of the Year in 1993. His first major title came at the 1998 PGA championship, and two years later he added the Masters tournament. It was at the PGA championship that Singh triumphed again during his remarkable 2004 run. He led the final major of the season, which was staged in August at the spectacular Whistling Straits course in Kohler, Wis., by one stroke with a round to play, and despite a four-over-par 76, he qualified for a play-off against Americans Chris DiMarco and Justin Leonard; Leonard had bogeyed two of his last three holes to match their eight-under-par aggregates of 280. Singh then birdied the first of the three play-off holes, and it gave him an advantage he did not let slip. Not since Reginald Whitcombe at the 1938 British Open had someone scored as poorly in the final round of any major and still won. In contrast, the Masters at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club in April was distinguished by spectacular scoring in the closing stages. With eagles on the 8th and 13th holes of the final round, Els moved three strokes clear, but American Phil Mickelson completed a thrilling burst of five birdies in the last seven holes with a 5.5-m (18-ft) putt on the 18th to finish with a nine-under-par 279, edging Els by one stroke. The left-handed Mickelson literally jumped for joy; in 46 previous majors he had had 17 top-10 finishes but not one victory. With two holes to play in the U.S. Open at Shinnecock Hills Golf Club in Southampton, N.Y., in June, Mickelson was out in front again. His double-bogey five at the short 17th, however, allowed South African Retief Goosen to capture his second victory in the event in four years. The championship was controversial for the increasing difficulty of the greens as the week progressed. In the final round, 28 of the 66-strong field failed to break 80, and no one broke 70. Play even had to be suspended for emergency watering of the seventh green after three of the first four players ran up triple-bogey sixes. The U.S. Golf Association was criticized for having allowed the situation to develop, but remarkably, Goosen had a mere 24 putts in his closing 71 for a total of 276, four under par. Els, who was tied for second after three rounds, was among those who scored 80 that day, but the chance to make amends came in the British Open at Scotland's Royal Troon Golf Club in July. A birdie at the penultimate hole left him trailing Todd Hamilton by one, and he had a chance to win after the American bogeyed the last. Els missed his 3-m (10-ft) birdie putt, however, and the four-hole play-off was settled by his bogey on the third hole. Hamilton, age 38, was a PGA Tour rookie who had registered his first tour victory in March in the Honda Classic at the Country Club at Mirasol in Palm Beach Gardens, Fla. The Ryder Cup was held in September at the Oakland Hills Country Club in Bloomfield Hills, Mich. For the first time since 1981, Europe did not have a major champion in its lineup, but it rose to the occasion, and the Americans were sent to their worst-ever defeat, a crushing 181/2–91/2 margin. Captain Hal Sutton paired Woods and Mickelson, his two highest-ranked players, for the opening fourballs and foursomes, but they lost both games, and the experiment was abandoned. Mickelson, who had controversially changed equipment just before the match, was then dropped, but the Europeans, led superbly by Bernhard Langer of Germany, refused to slacken the grip they had established. Top scorers were Spain's Sergio García and England's Lee Westwood with 41/2 points out of 5, but all 12 players for Europe contributed at least one point. The U.S. had won only 3 of the last 10 Ryder Cup matches. Els captured the World Golf Championships-American Express Championship at Mount Juliet in Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ire., and then won a record sixth title in the HSBC World Match Play Championship at the Wentworth Club in Virginia Water, Surrey, Eng. Golf's richest prize of £1 million (£1 = about $1.80) was on offer again there. Els set a new record for money earned in a single season on the European tour, easily keeping his number one spot with a final figure of £2,808,907 and equaling another record on the circuit with a 12-under-par round of 60 at the Royal Melbourne Golf Club in Australia to win the Heineken Classic. Els won two tournaments on the PGA Tour as well, but the first of those, the Sony Open at the Waialae Country Club, Honolulu, was better remembered for the performance of 14-year-old Hawaiian Michelle Wie. In May 2003 world number one Annika Sörenstam had become the first woman since 1945 to compete against men in an official event, and while the Swede failed to make the halfway cut by four strokes, Wie missed out by a single shot, beating 49 male players with her rounds of 72 and 68. A fourth-place finish in the first of the Ladies Professional Golf Association's (LPGA's) majors, the Kraft Nabisco championship at Rancho Mirage, Calif., in March, underlined Wie's enormous potential, and in the Curtis Cup at Formby ( Eng .) Golf Club, she not only became the youngest player to have competed in the match but also helped the U.S. retain the trophy with a 10–8 victory over Great Britain and Ireland's women amateurs. A fortune in the paid ranks seemingly awaited Wie, but for the time being Sörenstam remained the undisputed queen, topping the LPGA Tour for a fourth successive season and seventh in all. She also increased her number of major titles to seven by winning the McDonald's LPGA championship at DuPont Country Club in Wilmington, Del. South Korea's Grace Park won the Nabisco; American Meg Mallon captured the U.S. Open at Orchards Golf Club in South Hadley, Mass.; and England's Karen Stupples took the Women's British Open at Sunningdale, Eng., following a remarkable eagle-albatross start to her final-round 64. Highlights of the amateur season included the world team championships at the Rio Mar Country Club in Puerto Rico. Sweden's women won the Espirito Santo Trophy, beating Canada and the U.S. by three strokes, while the U.S. men made it three wins in a row with the Eisenhower Trophy, finishing nine shots clear of Spain in an event reduced to 54 holes because of thunderstorms. American amateur champion Ryan Moore had the low individual score. The World Cup was won by England's Luke Donald and Paul Casey at the Real Club de Golf de Sevilla in Seville, Spain. On the same November day, at the Phoenix tournament in Miyazaki, Japan, Woods finally returned to winning ways after nine months, and Sörenstam registered her 10th victory of the season and 56th in all to finish with winnings of $2,544,707. Mark Garrod ▪ 2004 With Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods for once unable to add to his collection of major championship golf titles during 2003, his main rivals had a chance to make their mark, but it was not to be. For the first time since 1969, the four majors—the Masters, the U.S. Open, the British Open, and the Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) championship—were won by players who had not tasted success in them before, and two majors were captured by complete outsiders. Following knee surgery, however, Woods won five other tournaments to remain unchallenged as world number one throughout yet another season. American Ben Curtis began the year ranked 1,269th in the world. By the time he teed off on July 17 in the British Open at Royal St. George's Golf Club in Sandwich, Kent, Eng., the 26-year-old PGA Tour rookie was still only 396th and chasing his first top 10 finish in a Tour event. By the end of the tournament, Curtis had achieved one of the biggest upsets in major golf history. Although records were hard to find, it was believed that not since Francis Ouimet at the 1913 U.S. Open had a golfer won the very first major in which he competed. After bursting clear on the final afternoon, Curtis had four bogeys in the last seven holes to finish with a one-under-par aggregate score of 283. Thomas Björn of Denmark stood on the 15th tee three strokes in the lead, but he bogeyed the 15th hole, needed three attempts to get out of a bunker for a double-bogey five at the par-three 16th, and had another bogey on the 17th to finish tied with Fiji's Vijay Singh one stroke behind Curtis. England's Mark Roe would remember the tournament for a very different reason. A third-round score of 67 should have left Roe in joint third place, but he and playing partner Jesper Parnevik had forgotten to exchange scorecards on the first tee, and the error was not spotted by officials until it was too late. They both were disqualified for signing incorrect scores. Four weeks later 34-year-old Shaun Micheel, playing in only the third major of his career, scored his own upset in the PGA championship at Oak Hill Country Club in Rochester, N.Y. He was ranked 169th in the world, had not won on the PGA Tour, and was best known for having received a 1994 bravery award for diving into a river and rescuing an elderly couple from a sinking car. Playing in the final group with fellow American Chad Campbell and holding a one-shot lead with one hole to play, Micheel hit a stunning 159-m (174-yd) seven-iron shot that settled just short of the hole. The tap-in birdie for a four-under-par 276 gave him a two-stroke triumph. The victors of the Masters at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club in April and the U.S. Open at Olympia Fields near Chicago in June were less surprising, but Canadian Mike Weir and American Jim Furyk, respectively, were first-time major winners nonetheless. Weir had won twice on the PGA Tour earlier in the season when he became the first Canadian and second left-hander to win a major (left-handed New Zealander Bob Charles won the 1963 British Open). A brilliant putting display at Augusta enabled Weir to tie American Len Mattiace at a seven-under-par 281; Mattiace, who had shot a spectacular final round of 65, then ran up a double-bogey six at the first hole of a sudden-death play-off. The buildup to the tournament had been dominated by controversy. Martha Burk, head of the National Council of Women's Organizations, wrote to Augusta National urging a change to the club's all-male membership, and club chairman Hootie Johnson responded with a public statement: “We will not be bullied, threatened or intimidated. There may well come a day when women will be invited to join our membership, but that timetable will be ours and not at the point of a bayonet.” The row escalated to the point where Augusta National broadcast the tournament without television advertising so that companies associated with the event would not come under pressure. A protest took place during the week of the tournament, but the club maintained its stance. The U.S. Open had no such controversy—just record scoring. Furyk and Singh each set a new 36-hole record of 133. Singh equaled the lowest round ever in a major event with his second-round 63. Furyk added a 67 for a 54-hole record of 200, and his final-round 72 earned him a three-stroke victory over Australian Stephen Leaney. Furyk's eight-under-par 272 tied the championship record. South Africa's Ernie Els had seven wins around the globe, finishing the year as the leading money winner (€2,975,374 [about $3,500,000]) on the European tour and equaling the record of Gary Player and Severiano Ballesteros with a fifth victory in the HSBC World Match Play Championship at the Wentworth Club in Surrey, Eng. Els, however, lost the world number two position to Singh, whose four PGA Tour titles and $7,611,995 in winnings helped him deny Woods what would have been a record fifth successive money-list crown. A player who finished 96th out of 114 in a tournament would not normally be worthy of mention, but there was huge interest when Sweden's Annika Sörenstam agreed to become the first woman to play a PGA Tour event since 1945. Sörenstam, the women's world number one, captured two of the Ladies Professional Golf Association's (LPGA's) four majors during the season, but it was her appearance at the PGA's Bank of America Colonial Classic tournament at the Colonial Country Club in Fort Worth, Texas, that captured the imagination of the sporting public. Under the biggest scrutiny of her career (for what she insisted was a one-off appearance in a men's event), Sörenstam held her head high, scoring a one-over-par 71 in the first round before slipping to a second-round 74 and missing the halfway cut by four strokes. It set the ball rolling for other appearances by women in previously men-only tournaments. American Suzy Whaley finished 148th out of 156 in the Greater Hartford Open event for which she had qualified; Australian Jan Stephenson played on the U.S. Champions Tour for golfers over age 50 (she tied for last place); teenage Hawaiian amateur Michelle Wie missed the cut on both the PGA Tour's second-string Nationwide Tour and the Canadian circuit; England's Laura Davies competed in the Korean Open (also missing the cut); and Pak Se Ri, the women's world number two, finished a notable 10th in the SBS Super Tournament in her native South Korea. The phenomenal Wie was only 13 when she finished ninth in the Kraft Nabisco championship, the first of the women's majors, at Rancho Mirage, Calif., in March. The title went to Patricia Meunier-Lebouc of France one stroke ahead of Sörenstam, who went on to win the McDonald's LPGA championship at DuPont Country Club in Wilmington, Del., in June after a one-hole play-off with South Korea's Grace Park, and the Weetabix Women's British Open at Royal Lytham and St. Annes Golf Club in Lancashire, Eng., by one stroke from Pak in July and August. That win completed a career Grand Slam for the 32-year-old Sörenstam, but the U.S. Women's Open at Pumpkin Ridge Golf Club in North Plains, Ore., produced another huge shock, with Hilary Lunke coming through sectional and final qualifying to beat fellow Americans Kelly Robbins and Angela Stanford in an 18-hole play-off. Sörenstam finished atop the LPGA money list with $2,029,506. The President's Cup match between the U.S. holders and the international side, held in George, S.Af., ended in a 17–17 tie after Woods and Els halved three holes in a sudden death play-off and it was agreed that the trophy be shared. The World Cup, at Kiawah, S.C., was won by South Africa's Rory Sabbatini and Trevor Immelman. They were standing in for Els and Retief Goosen, both of whom chose not to play. In the Solheim Cup at Barseback Golf and Country Club near Malmö, Swed., Europe's women beat the U.S. 171/2–101/2, while Britain and Ireland's men amateurs achieved a third successive victory over the U.S. in the Walker Cup, winning 121/2–111/2 at Ganton, North Yorkshire, Eng. Gary Wolstenholme, a member of the Britain and Ireland side, won his second British amateur title at Royal Troon in Scotland, while the American amateur championship at Oakmont ( Pa .) Country Club saw 19-year-old Nick Flanagan become not only the second youngest winner (after Woods) but also the first Australian to win in 100 years. Mark Garrod ▪ 2003 His position as one of the world's most recognizable and successful sportsmen already assured, Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods continued to leave his mark on golf in 2002. A third victory in the Masters at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club and a second win in the U.S. Open at Bethpage State Park's Black Course on Long Island, N.Y., gave Woods the opportunity to become the first player to capture all four of the game's major championships in one season. The magnitude of that feat might have daunted others, but the four trophies had already been in Woods's possession for a brief time following his 2001 Masters triumph. He had ended 2000 by winning the U.S. Open, British Open, and Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) championship. As it turned out, the Grand Slam remained an elusive dream. In the British Open at Muirfield, Scot., Woods was forced to play during a freakish storm and recorded his highest score as a professional—81 in the third round. In the PGA championship he finished with four successive birdies but failed to overtake fellow American Rich Beem. For consistency, however, there was nobody to touch Woods, and as the only other golfer besides Tom Watson to top the PGA Tour money list four years in a row (Woods won $6,912,625 in 2002 to boost his career earnings on the circuit to $33 million), he remained the sport's dominant force. At the Masters Woods faced a course that had been lengthened considerably since the 2001 tournament. Previously only Jack Nicklaus and Nick Faldo had been able to make a successful defense of the Masters title, but Woods joined them by shooting a closing round of 71 and a 12-under-par total of 276, three better than South Africa's Retief Goosen. The buildup to his attempt to win again in 2003, however, was overshadowed by a row over the absence of any women members at Augusta National. At the U.S. Open, Woods shot a two-over-par 72 on the last round to finish with a three-under 277 and win again by three strokes, this time over American Phil Mickelson.The rain and high winds that hampered Woods's play during the British Open also spelled trouble for Colin Montgomerie of Scotland, who shot an 84 just 24 hours after he had scored a 64. South African Ernie Els enjoyed a two-shot lead going into the last day of the tournament, but the two-time U.S. Open champion had to struggle for the third major title of his career. The event went into a four-hole play-off between Els, Australians Steve Elkington and Stuart Appleby, and France's Thomas Levet, who all tied at 278, and then into sudden death between Els and Levet before the former prevailed. The PGA championship was staged at Hazeltine National Golf Club in Chaska, Minn., and Beem admitted that he was stunned to be the victor. In 1995 the Arizona native had quit the game and for a while sold cellular phones and car stereo systems, but his interest in golf eventually returned. In only his fourth appearance at a major tournament, Beem held off Woods to win by one with a 10-under 278. Despite Woods's dominance, there was one stage on which he had yet to impose his personality and genius—the Ryder Cup event. The cup was returned to European hands during the year after their dramatic 151/2–121/2 victory over the U.S. team at the De Vere Belfry in Sutton Coldfield, Eng. Postponed for 12 months because of the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the U.S., the Ryder Cup was played amid unprecedented security for a golf event. The competition was successful in restoring dignity and decorum to an occasion that had in 1999 witnessed some unsavoury crowd scenes and unsportsmanlike behaviour from members of the U.S. squad, who in the heat of the moment had begun celebrating before their victory was guaranteed. The lead story of the 2002 Ryder Cup was a controversial decision by U.S. captain Curtis Strange that backfired badly for the Americans. With the competition tied 8–8 going into the concluding 12 singles matches, Sam Torrance, captain of the European team, packed the top of his order with his strongest players in the hope of putting points on the board and building an unstoppable momentum. Strange, in contrast, put world number two Mickelson in the 11th spot and Woods last. His belief was that it would be better to save his two best players for a tight finish. Mickelson, however, lost to Ryder Cup newcomer Phillip Price, who was ranked only 119th in the world, and Woods's clash with Swedish player Jesper Parnevik was too late to be relevant. A 3-m (10-ft) par putt by Ireland's Paul McGinley to halve with American Jim Furyk had already sealed the victory for Europe. Montgomerie led the European team with a top score of 41/2 out of a possible 5 points. Woods had gone into the contest on the back of another victory, the World Golf Championships–American Express Championship at Mount Juliet in Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ire., but his comment that he would rather win that event—with its million-dollar first prize—than the Ryder Cup sparked a debate about his priorities. Strange's successor as captain, Hal Sutton, made it his mission for 2004 to have a team displaying the same passion as the Europeans. There were two surprise winners in the World Golf Championships series. In the Accenture match play in Carlsbad, Calif., Kevin Sutherland was ranked 62nd of the 64 players taking part and had not won a PGA Tour title in 183 attempts, but a last-green success over fellow Californian Scott McCarron gave him the million-dollar prize. Then, in the NEC Invitational at Sahalee Country Club in Sammamish, Wash., Australian Craig Parry achieved his first PGA Tour success at the 236th try. He became a million dollars richer as well, winning by four strokes. In the EMC–World Cup at Vista Vallarta in Puerto Vallarta, Mex., Japan's Shigeki Maruyama and Toshimitsu Izawa outplayed the U.S.'s Mickelson and David Toms to give Japan its first victory since 1957. Masters runner-up Goosen topped the European money list for the second successive season, with Ireland's Padraig Harrington again second, while a spectacular 11 wins—and 13 worldwide—made Sweden's Annika Sörenstam the all-conquering performer on the Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) Tour once more. In the women's majors, Sörenstam took the Kraft Nabisco title, South Korean Se Ri Pak the McDonald's LPGA championship, American Juli Inkster the U.S. Women's Open, and Australian Karrie Webb the Weetabix Women's British Open. Inkster then led the U.S. team as it regained the Solheim Cup, defeating Europe 151/2–121/2 at the Interlachen Country Club in Edina, Minn. The Australian women's team and the U.S. men's team were the winners of the world amateur team championships at Saujana Golf and Country Club outside Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. In the women's competition, Australia won the Espirito Santo Trophy by tiebreaker over Thailand. A week later France led the men's tournament with a round to play, but a 66 from American College Player of the Year D.J. Trahan helped the U.S. to a successful defense of the Eisenhower Trophy. The year saw the passing of the player who had won more professional golf titles than anyone else. American legend Sam Snead, owner of what was generally considered to be the sweetest swing ever, died four days short of his 90th birthday. (See Obituaries ( Snead, Samuel Jackson ).) Mark Garrod ▪ 2002 In the immediate aftermath of the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the U.S., at a time of national mourning, American players collectively decided not to travel to England. The Ryder Cup, due to be held on September 28–30 at the Belfry in Sutton Coldfield, Eng., was postponed until September 2002. With the Ryder Cup, one of golf's biggest events, canceled, one achievement dwarfed all else on the links in 2001. In April Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods became the first player in the sport's history to hold all four of the modern major championships—the Masters, the U.S. Open, the British Open, and the Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) Championship—at the same time. The Masters, always held at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club, was the only one of the four that Woods did not have in his possession at the start of the year, and rarely if ever had a tournament been anticipated more. Woods set the stage perfectly by winning his two preceding events. In Augusta his opening round of 70, two under par, left him five strokes behind fellow American Chris DiMarco. A second-round 66 heightened the excitement going into the weekend and brought the 25-year-old Woods into a share of second place, only two behind DiMarco. When he added a 68 on the third day, Woods moved into a one-stroke lead. Four years earlier the first major title of his career had come by a record 12-shot margin and with a record 18-under-par aggregate of 270, but completing his “Tiger Slam” was to prove much more difficult. A bogey on the first hole of the final round dropped Woods level with American Phil Mickelson, and David Duval, also of the U.S., made four successive birdies from the fifth hole and another birdie at the 10th to tie for the lead. With three holes to play, Woods and Duval were 15 under par and Mickelson 14 under. Both Duval and Mickelson bogeyed the short 16th, and Duval missed a 1.5-m (5-ft) birdie chance on the final green. A drive and pitch to within 5.6 m (18 ft) of the final hole left Woods with two putts needed for victory. He holed for a birdie and finished at 16 under par for a two-stroke win over Duval. The opportunity to continue his domination came with the U.S. Open, at Southern Hills Country Club in Tulsa, Okla., in June. Woods had won the event in 2000 by a major championship record margin of 15 strokes, but his title defense was to be the start of a disappointing summer. An opening round of 74, four over par, left him eight behind the surprise leader, Retief Goosen. The 32-year-old South African, a member of the European circuit, had missed the halfway cut in seven of his previous nine majors in the U.S., but although he was caught on the second day by Americans Mark Brooks and J.L. Lewis, he dug his heels in. With a round to go, Goosen shared the lead with American Stewart Cink, and with one hole to play, the two were locked together with Brooks, who had not won a tournament since he captured the PGA championship in 1996. What followed ensured that the event would be remembered for more than the simple fact that Woods did not win (he was joint 12th). Brooks three-putted for a bogey five, and Cink then took a double-bogey six. Goosen had hit his second shot to within 3.7 m (12 ft) and had two putts with which to become champion. His first went past the hole, and to the astonishment of the millions watching on television, he missed the next putt as well. This left Goosen and Brooks tied on the four-under-par total of 276 and meant that the pair faced an 18-hole play-off the next day. Not having to go into sudden death gave Goosen the opportunity to regroup, and he did so superbly, winning by two strokes with a par 70 to become only the sixth overseas player to take the title since 1927. Much less of a surprise was Duval's victory in the British Open, held at Royal Lytham and St. Annes in Lancashire, Eng., in July. Coming into the event he had had eight top-10 finishes in the space of 13 majors. Scotland's Colin Montgomerie led for the first two days, and at the halfway point Duval was seven shots behind. On the third day the American shot a 65, good enough to bring him into a four-way tie as Montgomerie and others fell back, and with a final-round 67 the 29-year-old Duval triumphed by three with a 10-under-par total of 274. The final day of the British Open, however, had another extraordinary story. On the second tee Wales's Ian Woosnam, joint leader after a birdie at the first hole, was told by his caddie that he had 15 clubs in his bag, one more than the rules permitted. A driver with which Woosnam had been practicing, but which he had decided not to use, was still in the bag. A two-stroke penalty was imposed, and the former world number one player, mortified and furious, finished joint third. The blunder was calculated to have cost him more than $312,000—and a place on Europe's Ryder Cup team. Two weeks later the same caddie was late in arriving for a round at the Scandinavian Masters in Malmö, Swed.—forcing Woosnam to find a last-minute replacement—and was fired. The final major of the year, the PGA championship, held at the Atlanta Athletic Club in Duluth, Ga., in August, had no such incident, but it did include a record-breaking performance. Mickelson shot one stroke under the previous lowest aggregate in major history with a 14-under-par 266, but fellow American David Toms's closing pitch and 3-m (10-ft) putt for par, after a calculated decision not to go for the green in two at the par four, lowered that one more to a 15-under-par 265 and gave Toms, like Goosen and Duval, his first major title. The win also qualified Toms for a Ryder Cup debut, but that had to be put on hold after September 11. Discussions eventually led to the decision that the match between the U.S. and Europe would be put back 12 months. Subsequent matches were changed to even-numbered years to restore the two-year cycle, with the Presidents Cup matches (the U.S. versus an international side comprising all countries outside Europe) switching to odd-numbered years starting in 2003. The loss of three of his major titles did not stop Woods from maintaining a commanding lead in the world rankings to the end of the year or from topping the PGA Tour money list for the third successive season and the fourth time in five years, with a final total of $5,687,777. Goosen was the leading money winner on the European tour at £1,779,975 ( about $2,537,000). If Woods's victory in the Masters was the performance of the year, the round of the year was surely that by Sweden's Annika Sörenstam (see Biographies ( Sorenstam, Annika )) during the Standard Register Ping tournament at the Moon Valley Country Club in Phoenix, Ariz, in March. Sörenstam became the first woman to break 60 in an official event. Not surprisingly, she went on to win the tournament and did so with a Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) record total of 261, 27 under par. The Swedish player won the Nabisco Championship, the first women's major of the season, by three shots the following week at Missions Hills Country Club in Rancho Mirage, Calif., and regained the world's number one position from Australian Karrie Webb before Webb hit back with an eight-stroke win in the U.S. Women's Open, held in June at the Pine Needles Lodge and Golf Club in Southern Pines, N.C. Three weeks later Webb gained a two-stroke victory at the McDonald's LPGA championship at the DuPont Country Club in Wilmington, Del. That gave Webb her fifth victory in eight majors and made her at 26 the youngest woman golfer to record a career Grand Slam. The fourth and final major, the Weetabix Women's British Open held at Sunningdale, Eng., in August, resulted in a South Korean one-two finish. Pak Se Ri, who won both the U.S. Women's Open and the LPGA championship in 1998, beat Kim Mi Hyun by two strokes. Despite the tough competition, Sörenstam finished the season as the LPGA's top money winner with a record $2,105,868. The high spot of the amateur season was the Walker Cup, which matched the U.S. against Great Britain and Ireland at the Ocean Forest course in Sea Island, Ga. The home side led by a point after the first day, but just as they had been at Nairn, Scot., in 1999, the Americans were totally outplayed on the second day and again lost 15–9. It was Britain and Ireland's first-ever successful defense of the trophy and only their second away win. Mark Garrod ▪ 2001 The achievements of one man would mean the year 2000 would always be remembered in golf. Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods matched Ben Hogan's previously unique feat of winning three of the sport's four major championships in one season (1953). En route, he joined Hogan, Gene Sarazen, Gary Player, and Jack Nicklaus as the only players to record at least one victory in each of the four majors—the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, and Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) championship—during their careers. At 24, Woods was also the youngest man to complete the set. It was not only the fact that Woods won the U.S. and British opens and the PGA championship that made it such an unforgettable summer, it was also the manner of his successes. The 100th U.S. Open at Pebble Beach in Monterey, Calif., was always going to be an emotion-charged occasion in the absence of defending champion Payne Stewart, who was killed along with five others in an airplane accident in October 1999. Woods, however, having mourned the loss of his close friend, registered the widest margin of victory in the entire 140-year history of major championship golf. No one had ever finished the event in double figures under par, but the world's number-one player—he was untouchable in that position all year—completed the 72 holes in a 12-under-par aggregate of 272, a massive 15 strokes ahead of joint runners-up Ernie Els of South Africa and Miguel Ángel Jiménez of Spain. The previous record margin was the 13 shots by which Tom Morris, Sr., had won the 1862 British Open, and the 272 total equalled the U.S. Open record of Nicklaus in 1980 and Lee Janzen in 1993, both on a par 70 course while Pebble Beach was par 71. With victories behind him in the 1997 Masters (itself by a tournament record 12 strokes and with a record aggregate) and the 1999 PGA championship, Woods traveled to the British Open at St. Andrews in Fife, Scot., with the opportunity to complete his career Grand Slam. He did not lead from start to finish as he had at Pebble Beach, but after trailing Els by one shot following a first-round 67 he proved himself in a class of his own once more. By adding scores of 66, 67, and 69, Woods, in only his 14th major as a professional, became champion by 8 strokes with a total of 269. Since the Old Course had a par of 72, he was the first player to reach 19 under par in major history. As a consequence, there had never been a stronger favourite than Woods was for the PGA championship, held at the Valhalla Golf Club in Louisville, Ky. He duly won again, but only after a tremendous battle with his fellow Californian Bob May. Woods threw down the gauntlet with opening rounds of 66 and 67, but the unfancied 31-year-old May, without a single U.S. PGA tour victory to his name, closed with three successive 66s. When May holed a 5.5-m (18-ft) birdie putt on the final green, Woods needed to follow him in from 1.8 m (6 ft) to force a play-off. Showing enormous strength of character, he did. Both players had played the last nine holes in 31, and at 18 under par both had broken the championship record. Previously there would have been a sudden-death shootout, but a three-hole play-off had been introduced. Woods, after sinking a 6.1-m (20-ft) putt on the first hole for yet another birdie, held on (a touch fortuitously perhaps after his drive at the last hole disappeared into the bushes but came out again) to win by one stroke. May had done the sport a great service by rising to the challenge of the man who had been threatening to dominate in a way never seen in golf before. A week later, however, Woods won the World Golf Championship NEC Invitational at the Firestone Country Club in Akron, Ohio, by 11 strokes. His preeminence was reflected in the signing of a five-year endorsement contract with clothes and ball manufacturer Nike worth an estimated $100 million, believed to be the highest ever agreed upon for an individual sportsman. His success and fame benefited all U.S. tour players in terms of increased prize money and the tour itself in sponsorship and television deals, but before the year was out, Woods and his management company, the giant International Management Group, flexed their muscles a little by letting it be known they were not entirely happy with some of the tour regulations. How the issues were resolved would be an indication of how powerful Woods had become. It was easy to forget that in the first major championship of the year, the Masters at the Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Ga., Woods had finished “only” fifth, six strokes behind winner Vijay Singh. The 37-year-old Fijian, who had his first major victory at the 1998 PGA, finished with a 10-under-par total of 278, three better than Els. The South African was also joint second in the British Open (along with Denmark's Thomas Bjorn), giving him the distinction of being runner-up in the first three majors of the season. Not surprisingly, Woods, with six other PGA tour victories, shattered all previous records in topping the PGA tour money list with $9,188,321, making him the biggest money winner in golf history, with over $23 million. On top of that, he partnered with David Duval as the U.S. retained the World Cup with a three-stroke triumph over Argentina and helped the U.S. to a crushing victory over the international side in the Presidents Cup at the Robert Trent Jones course in Lake Manassas, Va., in October. Having lost the previous encounter by a nine-point margin in Melbourne, Australia, in 1998, the U.S. won the opening session 5–0 and went on to record a 211/2– 101/2success. The U.S. also won the Eisenhower Trophy world men's amateur championship by an overwhelming 16-stroke margin at the Sporting Club Berlin in September, and the Curtis Cup women's amateur trophy, beating Great Britain and Ireland 10–8 at Ganton in Yorkshire, Eng., in June. The Solheim Cup was lost for only the second time, with Europe's women professionals defeating the Americans 141/2–111/2 at Loch Lomond, Scot. The match sparked controversy when Sweden's Annika Sörenstam holed a chip at the 13th hole of her four-ball match but was asked to replay the shot for playing out of turn. Americans Kelly Robbins and Pat Hurst, along with U.S. captain Pat Bradley, initiated the dispute and the letter of the law was applied, but it left Sörenstam in tears and a nasty taste in everyone's mouth. The women's scene had something of its own “Tiger” in Australian Karrie Webb (see Biographies ( Webb, Karrie )), who as well as being a clear winner of the Ladies' Professional Golf Association tour with $1,876,853 captured two majors—the Nabisco Championship by 10 strokes at Mission Hills Country Club in Rancho Mirage, Calif., and most coveted of all, the U.S. Women's Open by 5 at the Merit Club in Libertyville, Ill. At the Nabisco event, however, Webb had to share top billing with 13-year-old Thai amateur Aree Song Wongluekiet, who was lying a remarkable joint 3rd with a round to go before slipping back to finish 10th. In Europe the men's tour was won by England's Lee Westwood, who won five times in ending the seven-year reign of Colin Montgomerie of Scotland. Westwood went into the final afternoon of the final event needing to finish sixth in the American Express world championship at Valderrama, Spain, to overtake Northern Ireland's Darren Clarke, winner in February of the Andersen Consulting world match play championship. Westwood, who had also won the Cisco world match play championship at Wentworth, Eng., scored a 67 to place second, two strokes behind Canadian Mike Weir, with Woods finishing fifth after hitting three shots into water on the 17th hole during the four rounds. Westwood was second again when golf's biggest-ever first prize was contested at the Nedbank Golf Challenge at Sun City, S.Af. The $2 million jackpot went to Els at the second hole of a playoff between the two. The European women's circuit was won by Sörenstam, narrowly topping her fellow Swede Sophie Gustafson, for whom the highlight of the year was a two-stroke victory in the Weetabix British Women's Open at Royal Birkdale in Southport, Eng., in August. That championship was scheduled to become one of the four women's majors in 2001 after the Canadian ban on cigarette sponsorship brought an end to the du Maurier Classic following Meg Mallon's one-shot win at the Royal Ottawa Golf Club. The increasing strength of golf across the continent of Europe was illustrated by France's win in the Espirito Santo women's world amateur team championship at the Sporting Club Berlin in August, the British amateur championship victory of Finland's Mikko Ilonen in June, and Spain's successful defense of the Alfred Dunhill Cup at St. Andrews in October. Age was shown as no barrier to winning when 66-year-old Englishman Neil Coles won on the European seniors tour to join American legend Sam Snead as the only two players to capture professional titles in six different decades. Off the course, the debate among ruling bodies about whether to curb technological advances in club and ball manufacture continued unresolved. The U.S. Golf Association banned a number of drivers because of the so-called springlike effect of the clubfaces, but Scotland's Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, the organization that governed the sport in the rest of the world, deemed no action necessary. David Fay, executive director of the USGA, described the illegal clubs as the equivalent of “diving into a swimming pool off a diving board versus the side of the pool.” The Royal and Ancient Club did not disagree with that, but stated that based on the data currently available to them, “any consequential increase in driving distance that may be achieved is not considered to be detrimental to the game.” The lack of uniformity between the two bodies was considered undesirable by both, but no solution was in sight. Another saga set to run and run was nipped in the bud, however, when Mark James resigned as a vice-captain for the 2001 European Ryder Cup side after creating controversy with a book on his captaincy in 1999. James had thrown away a good luck letter from Nick Faldo because of a dispute between the two, and a war of words was still going on months later when James stepped down. Later in the year James was discovered to be suffering from lymphoma cancer and began treatment. Mark Garrod ▪ 2000 One event overshadowed all else in golf in 1999. On October 25 Payne Stewart, who four months earlier at the age of 42 had won his second U.S. Open championship, died along with five others in a tragic airplane accident. (See Obituaries ( Stewart, Payne William ).) The group was traveling in a Learjet from Stewart's home in Orlando, Fla., to the U.S. Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) tour championship in Houston, Texas, but soon after takeoff, air traffic controllers lost contact with the plane. Military aircraft were dispatched to fly alongside, and it was reported that the windows of the jet were frosted over, an indication that cabin pressure had been lost, killing all those on board. The plane continued on autopilot for four hours and 2,900 km (1,800 mi) before crashing in South Dakota. As investigations began, the sport mourned the loss of one of its most colourful and easily recognizable characters, known all over the world for his trademark knickers and tam-o'-shanter caps. The tour championship was rearranged so that all the players could fly from Houston to Orlando for a memorial service. Returning to the event, many of them wore knickers for the final round in memory of their colleague and friend. The year saw the introduction of a World Championship series of three tournaments (two in the United States, one in Spain) sanctioned by the game's five major tours (in the U.S., Europe, Japan, Australasia, and southern Africa). Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods won two of the three events en route to topping the U.S. money list with a staggering $6,616,585 (the previous record was David Duval's $2,591,031 in 1998). While the massive amounts of money at stake (a $5 million purse for each tournament, with a $1 million check for the winner) inevitably gave the new tournaments news value, they did not change the fact that for the players and public alike the highlights of the year remained the four major championships—the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, and the PGA championship—and another highly charged Ryder Cup match between the U.S. and Europe. The U.S. Open was held at Pinehurst, N.C., and Stewart was involved in a thrilling battle with his fellow Americans Phil Mickelson and Woods. One behind Mickelson with three holes to play, Stewart made a 7.6-m (25-ft) putt for par on the 16th and drew level when Mickelson bogeyed. Stewart then birdied the short 17th to go in front, and at the last, after driving into the rough and being forced to lay up short of the green, he rolled in a 5.5-m (15-ft) putt for par and victory. Such was the expectation level on Woods's shoulders following his runaway 12-shot success at the 1997 Masters—his first major as a professional—that he had been the favourite for every big tournament since. At the PGA championship at Medinah Country Club near Chicago, Woods came through. He established a five-stroke lead with seven holes to play, but a bogey on the 12th and a double bogey on the 13th allowed the chasing pack to close. Leading that pack was 19-year-old Sergio García of Spain, a professional for only four months but already a winner in Europe. Suddenly, Woods was the one trying to fend off a challenge from a younger man, and he managed to do so, but only after García had played a miraculous shot from the base of a tree on the 16th hole. Four months earlier García had finished as the leading amateur at the Masters at Augusta, Ga., which was won by his countryman José-María Olazábal. After winning the Masters in 1994, Olazábal had overcome a crippling condition (initially thought to be rheumatoid arthritis in his feet but then discovered to be a herniated disk in his lower back) and had been forced to take an 18-month rest from the game. His eight under par total of 280 at the 1999 Masters was the highest winning score for 10 years, but it was two better than American runner-up Davis Love III and three better than Australian Greg Norman. The British Open championship, held at Carnoustie, Scot., for the first time since 1975, had an even more dramatic climax. At 6,731 m (7,361 yd), the second longest course in major championship history, with a ferocious rough and narrow fairways, it was the hardest test any of the players had ever faced and in many people's eyes an unfair one. With one round to go Jean Van de Velde, a qualifier trying to become the first French winner since Arnaud Massy in 1907 and ranked only 152nd in the world, led by five. With one hole to play he was still three clear, but he finished with a triple bogey seven that included his climbing into a muddy stream in bare feet and with his trousers legs rolled up. By the time Van de Velde completed the hole, Paul Lawrie of Scotland and American Justin Leonard, the 1997 champion, found themselves joining him in a four-hole play-off after each scored six over par totals of 290, the second highest leading score in a major championship since 1947. Given a chance he never expected, Lawrie, also a qualifier and 159th in the world rankings, seized it. He birdied the final two holes and, having been 10 strokes behind before shooting a closing 67, completed the biggest comeback in major championship history. Lawrie, Van de Velde, and García were among seven new faces in the European side that defended the Ryder Cup at the Country Club in Brookline, Mass. García was the first teenager ever to appear in the match. The American favourites went into the closing day's 12 singles four points behind but staged the greatest recovery the event had ever seen to win by a single point, 141/2–131/2. The climax was laced with controversy, however, as American players celebrated Leonard's 13.7-m (45-ft) putt on the 17th green before opponent Olazábal had had a chance to reply and keep the match alive. After calm was restored and the Spaniard missed, apologies were quickly made, but it upset the European team, and European captain Mark James later accused some of the home side of inciting the crowd. Woods, who finished the season ranked number one, became the first player to win four successive U.S. tour events since Ben Hogan in 1953, and his eight titles in all equaled the most since Sam Snead's 11 in 1950. Duval briefly took over as number one after four early season victories, including the Bob Hope Chrysler Classic at the Arnold Palmer course at La Quinta, Calif., with a round of 59—only the third such score in U.S. PGA tour history. Woods was undoubtedly the year's star performer, however, and later in November he added the World Cup of Golf at The Mines Resort in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Taking the individual title by nine shots with a record 21 under par total, Woods outscored his partner, Mark O'Meara, by 19, but they still won the team event by five over the Spanish pair Miguel Angel Martin and Santiago Luna. With earnings of £1,302,056 ( about $2,170,000), Scotland 's Colin Montgomerie achieved a remarkable seventh successive European Order of Merit title, this time holding off the challenge of England's Lee Westwood and García, who combined with Olazábal and Miguel Angel Jiménez to give Spain their first-ever victory in the Alfred Dunhill Cup at St. Andrews in Scotland. Montgomerie also won the Cisco World Match Play title at Wentworth in Surrey, Eng., to add to his five Order of Merit victories. Bruce Fleisher won seven times in taking over from Hale Irwin as leading money winner of the U.S. Senior tour with $2,515,705. The two outstanding players on the Ladies' Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) tour were Australian Karrie Webb and American Juli Inkster (see Biographies ( Inkster, Juli )). Webb had six wins, the last of them her first major at the du Maurier Classic at Priddis Greens Golf and Country Club in Calgary, Alta., and with a staggering 22 top-10 finishes in 25 starts topped the money list with $1,591,959, while Inkster had five successes including two majors—the U.S. Women's Open at Old Waverly Golf Club in West Point, Miss., and the McDonald's LPGA championship at DuPont Country Club in Wilmington, Del. Her compatriot Sherri Steinhauer made a successful defense of the Weetabix Women's British Open at Woburn Golf and Country Club in Milton Keynes, Eng. The leading money winner on the European LPGA tour was Laura Davies for the fifth time. In the amateur game, Britain and Ireland came from 7–5 down after the first day to regain the Walker Cup from the United States by 15–9 at Nairn Golf Club near Inverness, Scot. It was only their fifth victory in 37 matches and their most comprehensive. One member of the British side was England's Graeme Storm, who had won the British amateur championship at Royal Portrush in Northern Ireland, while the American team included David Gossett, winner of the U.S. amateur title at Pebble Beach ( Calif .) Golf Links. The U.S. women's amateur championship was won by Dorothy Delasin at Biltmore Forest Country Club in Asheville, N.C., and the British women's amateur title was captured by Marine Monnet of France at Royal Birkdale in Southport, Eng. The year would also be remembered for the passing, at the age of 97, of Gene Sarazen, one of only four players to date who won all four major championships. (See Obituaries ( Sarazen, Eugene ).) Mark Garrod ▪ 1999 Golf prides itself on being a sport for all ages, and around the world in 1998 the proof was there for everyone to see. American Mark O'Meara, age 41, became the oldest player ever to win two of the game's four major championships (the Masters , U.S. Open, British Open, and the U.S. Professional Golfers' Association of America [PGA] championship) in the same year; 58-year-old Jack Nicklaus shone again on the big stage; 53-year-old Hale Irwin set record winnings for a single tour; a 17-year-old amateur finished fourth in the British Open; and two 20-year-olds (a first-year professional and an amateur) fought out a play-off for the U.S. Women's Open championship. Eldrick (" Tiger ") Woods remained the leader of the younger generation, heading the world rankings for the majority of the season, but the 22-year-old Californian's second full season as a professional failed to reach the dizzying heights of the first. The Masters title he had won in record-breaking fashion at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Club in 1997 was one of the two that passed into O'Meara's hands, and Woods was succeeded as leading money winner on the PGA tour by David Duval, who amassed winnings of $2,591,031. That would have been a record figure for any player in one season on a single tour but for the fact that Irwin retained his position atop the U.S. Senior tour with an incredible $2,861,945. In the past three seasons on the circuit, Irwin had won nearly $7 million in prize money—over $1 million more than in his 26-year PGA tour career, which included three U.S. Open championships. No one could dethrone Colin Montgomerie on the PGA European tour; two late victories enabled the 35-year-old Scot to win the Order of Merit for a record sixth successive year with £993,077 ( about $1,640,000). Although he also captured the $1 million first prize in the Andersen Consulting World Championship of Golf at Grayhawk in Scottsdale, Ariz., the fact that he had still to win one of the major championships left a cloud of disappointment hanging over his accomplishment. O'Meara won the Masters in dramatic fashion, holing a 6.1-m (20-ft) birdie putt on the final green to defeat Fred Couples and Duval by a single shot with a nine-under-par total of 279—nine higher than Woods's winning score 12 months earlier. It ended O'Meara's 18-year wait for his first major championship. The performance of the week, however, came from Nicklaus, winner of the Masters title a record six times and battling a troublesome hip complaint, who turned back the clock to finish tied for sixth. Nicklaus was playing in the tournament for a record 40th time and had been honoured on the eve of the event. Nicklaus finished tied for 43rd in the U.S. Open at the Olympic Club in San Francisco two months later, but then golf's "Golden Bear" announced that he would not be playing in either the British Open at Royal Birkdale Golf Club in Southport, Eng., or the PGA championship at Sahalee Country Club, near Seattle, Wash. That brought to an end an astonishing run, stretching back to 1957, of 154 successive major championships for which he was eligible. Nicklaus's 18 victories (plus 2 U.S. Amateurs) were accepted as a record that might stand for all time. The U.S. Open was won for the second time in six years by Lee Janzen, who pushed fellow American Payne Stewart into second place just as he had in 1993. Seven strokes behind after three holes of the final round, Janzen recorded a two-under-par 68 to Stewart's 74 to win by one stroke with a level-par total of 280. It was the best final-round comeback in the championship in 25 years. As at the Masters, the U.S. Open winner had to share the limelight. Casey Martin, who suffered from a degenerative circulatory disease in his right leg called Klippel-Trenauney-Weber Syndrome, had won a court case against the PGA tour for the right to ride in PGA tournaments. He came through a play-off in the qualifying event to become the first player ever to be allowed to use a motorized golf cart while playing in a major championship and finished the U.S. Open in a highly creditable tie for 23rd, one shot behind his former college teammate Woods. Reigning U.S. Amateur champion Matt Kuchar, having already finished 21st at the Masters, was tied for fourth after two rounds and eventually, on his 20th birthday, finished joint 14th. Good as that was, 17-year-old English amateur Justin Rose eclipsed it at the British Open. A qualifier like Martin, Rose achieved fourth place, the best by an amateur in the championship since American Frank Stranahan finished in a tie for second in 1953. After a windswept four days, Rose, who subsequently turned professional and failed to survive a single halfway cut in his first 10 starts, finished one stroke behind Woods and two behind O'Meara and American Brian Watts. The tie on the level-par total of 280 resulted in a four-hole play-off for Watts and O'Meara, who began it with a birdie four, never lost the advantage, and thereby completed his double of the Masters and British Open. O'Meara thus went into the PGA championship with a chance to become only the second player in golfing history to win three majors in a season (American Ben Hogan accomplished it in 1953). He threatened to do so into the final day but eventually finished tied for fourth, five strokes behind Fiji's Vijay Singh, winner by two over American Steve Stricker with a nine-under-par total of 271. O'Meara, who also beat Woods in the final of the Cisco World Match Play Championship at Wentworth, Surrey, Eng., won the PGA tour's Player of the Year award despite finishing only seventh on the final money list. Duval's seven victories within 12 months enabled him to finish more than $350,000 ahead of second-place Singh in prize money, with Jim Furyk third and Woods fourth. Montgomerie had three European tour victories, and the final Order of Merit table showed him £90,000 ( nearly $150,000) ahead of Northern Ireland's Darren Clarke and £178,000 ( nearly $295,000) above England's Lee Westwood, who won seven tournaments and was named the tour's Player of the Year. As a rookie on the Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) tour, Pak Se Ri (see BIOGRAPHIES ( Pak Se Ri )) of South Korea was a power in the women's game. Pak won the first two major championships in which she played—the McDonald's LPGA championship at DuPont Country Club in Wilmington, Del., and the U.S. Women's Open at Blackwolf Run in Kohler, Wis., where she and American amateur Jenny Chuasiriporn tied on the six-over-par aggregate of 290, the latter after holing a 12.2-m (40-ft) putt on the final green. The play-off, in which both were trying to become the youngest-ever champion and Chuasiriporn only the second amateur winner (Catherine Lacoste of France won as an amateur in 1967), was still unresolved after 18 holes, but at the second extra hole Pak made a 5.5-m (18-ft) birdie putt. One week later Pak won the Jamie Farr Kroger Classic in Sylvania, Ohio, with a record-low 23-under-par 261 and a second-round 10-under-par 61, the lowest score in LPGA history. The consistency of Sweden's Annika Sörenstam enabled her to become the leading money winner on the LPGA tour for the third time in four years. What she could not do was win back the Solheim Cup for Europe. At Muirfield Village Golf Course in Dublin, Ohio, the U.S. held on to the trophy by a 16-12 margin with a team that included Tammie Green, who was six months pregnant, and Sherri Steinhauer, winner of the Weetabix Women's British Open at Royal Lytham and St. Anne's in Lancashire, Eng. Sörenstam's compatriot Helen Alfredsson was the top earner on the European LPGA tour with £125,975 ( about $208,000), but because of a loss of sponsors there were fewer tournaments and only eight players earned more than £40,000 ($66,000). The U.S. regained the Curtis Cup women's amateur trophy from Great Britain and Ireland, winning 10-8 at Minikahda Club in Minneapolis, Minn. Chuasiriporn was a member of the team but did not win a match and then, as at the U.S. Women's Open, came in second again at the U.S. Women's Amateur at Barton Hills Country Club near Ann Arbor, Mich. This time the player to beat her was 19-year-old South Korean-born American Grace Park. The British Ladies' Amateur championship was won by England's Kim Rostron and the British men's title by Spain's 18-year-old Sergio Garcia, who also reached the semifinals of the U.S. Amateur Championships. The eventual champion there was American Hank Keuhne, whose sister, Kelli, was U.S. Women's Amateur champion in 1995 and 1996. South Africa retained the Alfred Dunhill Cup at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews in Fife, Scot., while the year ended with two firsts—a surprising victory for England (represented by Nick Faldo and David Carter) in the World Cup of Golf at Gulf Harbour, Auckland, N.Z., and a commanding win for the International Team over the U.S. in the Presidents Cup at Royal Melbourne, Australia. The final margin was a resounding 20 1/2 -11 1/2 , with the unbeaten Japanese player Shigeki Maruyama being named man of the match and Australian Greg Norman making a successful recovery from the shoulder surgery that had kept him out of the action for much of the season. MARK GARROD ▪ 1998 A new word entered the golfing lexicon in 1997: Tigermania. No player in the long history of the game had attracted publicity to the extent that Eldrick (" Tiger ") Woods ) ( Woods, Tiger ) did in his first full year as a professional. And the sport smiled all the way to the bank. The arrival on the scene of the young Californian helped to produce an explosion of interest. According to figures released by the Associated Press, ticket sales at the tournaments he played were up 25%, souvenir sales were up 20%, and American television audiences for the final day of the four major championships (the Masters , U.S. Open, British Open, and U.S. Professional Golfers' Association of America [PGA] championship) increased by nearly 60%. Golf apparel and footwear sales for his main sponsor, Nike, improved 100% to $120 million in the fiscal year ended May 31, which made the five-year, $40 million contract the company signed with Woods when he left the amateur ranks in August 1996 appear a bargain. The PGA TOUR organization in the United States, meanwhile, concluded talks with the major television networks with deals that would produce a doubling of income for the organization to $650 million over four years. "We believe golf is at the beginning of an unprecedented growth cycle," stated the tour's commissioner, Tim Finchem. "The substantial investment our television partners have made in the future of the game will enable us to assist the World Golf Foundation in building facilities that will serve as entry points for kids to be introduced to the game. Right now only 2% of kids between the ages of 12 and 17 are involved in the game. We need to change that." To act as the catalyst for all this, Woods had to recapture as a professional the success he had enjoyed as an amateur (three successive U.S. Junior Amateur titles followed by three successive U.S. Amateur titles). After winning two of his first eight professional events in 1996, he began 1997 with another victory in the Mercedes championship at La Costa Resort and Spa, in Carlsbad, Calif., and then produced the single most outstanding performance of the entire season in the Masters at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club. In what was his first major championship as a professional, Woods produced rounds of 70, 66, 65, and 69 for an 18-under-par total of 270—the lowest aggregate in Masters history. His 12-stroke winning margin over fellow American Tom Kite was also a record, and he was the youngest champion of one of the four major tournaments in 66 years. Easily the longest hitter in the event (John Daly was not competing), Woods was so dominant that inevitably talk turned to whether he could become the first player ever to win all four majors in one season, especially when he won his next tournament as well, the GTE Byron Nelson Classic in Irving, Texas . It did not happen; in fact, Woods never even came close in the other three. He did, however, become the first player to win more than $2 million in one season on the PGA tour, and he also enjoyed a short spell at the top of the official world golf ranking. During the year Tom Lehman of the U.S. and Ernie Els of South Africa also reached that pinnacle, but for most of the season, Greg Norman led the rankings. The Australian did not win a major, but he took the $1 million first prize at the Andersen Consulting world championship and two PGA tour titles. Els won the U.S. Open at the Congressional Country Club in Bethesda, Md. It was his second victory in the championship in four years, and, as in 1994, Scotland's Colin Montgomerie finished second. Tied with two holes to play, Montgomerie scored a bogey five on the 17th and lost by a single shot to Els's four-under-par total of 276. The British Open was staged at the Royal Troon Golf Club in Troon, Scot. With a round to go, Sweden's Jesper Parnevik led Northern Ireland's Darren Clarke by two shots and Americans Fred Couples and Justin Leonard by five. With six holes remaining, Parnevik was still two ahead, but now of Leonard, and at the end he could not hold off the 25-year-old Texan, a former U.S. Amateur champion. Leonard scored a closing 65 to Parnevik's 73 and won by three with a 12-under-par aggregate of 272. The PGA championship at Winged Foot Golf Club in Mamaronek, N.Y., also resulted in an American's winning his first major. Leonard was prominent again, and after three rounds he and Davis Love III were tied for the lead, seven strokes ahead of the rest of the field. This time, however, Love conquered all. His last round, 66 for an 11-under-par total of 269, was five better than Leonard could manage. With major winners Woods, Leonard, and Love on the team, the United States was favoured to regain the Ryder Cup, held on continental Europe for the first time, at Valderrama Golf Club in southern Spain. For the second successive year, however, Europe won by the narrowest possible margin, 14 1 /2 -13 1/ 2 . After Europe took a five-point lead into the 12 concluding singles, the Americans staged a comeback, but they had too much ground to cover. Germany's Bernhard Langer made sure that Europe gained a tie in the tournament and therefore retained the trophy by beating Brad Faxon, and on the final green of the final game, Montgomerie secured Europe's victory in the match by halving with Scott Hoch. Montgomerie was the top points scorer, with 3 1 /2 out of a possible 5, while Love lost all his four games. Leonard halved two and lost two, and Woods finished with one win, one half, and three defeats. Montgomerie and Langer were the most consistent performers on the PGA European tour. The German won four times to Montgomerie's two, but the Scot nevertheless won a record fifth successive Order of Merit title. He earned £798,947 to Langer's £692,398. Special mention should also be made of ninth-placed José-María Olazábal, who returned in February after nearly 18 months out with an injury. The former U.S. Masters champion had been diagnosed as suffering from rheumatoid arthritis in his feet, but a German physician believed a herniated disc in his lower back was the cause of his problems and gave Olazábal an exercise program. Five months later he was playing tournament golf again, winning a tournament and regaining his Ryder Cup place. Woods finished the PGA tour with $2,066,833, just under $200,000 more than David Duval, who after seven second-place finishes in his career suddenly had three successive victories at the end of the season, climaxing in the tour championship at the Champions Golf Club near Houston, Texas. The men who achieved the most wins and earned the most official money during 1997, however, were Hale Irwin and Gil Morgan on the PGA Senior tour. Irwin tied the tour record for most titles with nine and won $2,343,364, whereas Morgan won six and finished with $2,160,562. Tommy Horton retained his position as leading money winner on the European Seniors tour, although Gary Player of South Africa won the Senior British Open at Royal Portrush Golf Club, Portrush, N.Ire. Els narrowly failed in his bid to win the Toyota World Match Play championship for a fourth successive time, losing on the final green of the final round to Fiji's Vijay Singh at the Wentworth ( Surrey , Eng .) Club. A week later, however, he linked up with Retief Goosen and David Frost to give South Africa its first victory in the Alfred Dunhill Cup at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews in Fife, Scot. They beat Sweden 2-1 in the final. Sweden's Annika Sorenstam scored six victories and earned $1,236,789 in becoming the leading player on the Ladies' Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) tour for the second time, but she could not make it three U.S. Women's Open championships in a row. That trophy went to England's Alison Nicholas, who defeated Hall of Famer Nancy Lopez of the U.S. by one shot with a 10-under-par total of 274 at Pumpkin Ridge Golf Club in Cornelius, Ore. Nicholas also finished at the top of the European Women's Tour Order of Merit with £94,589. Karrie Webb of Australia won her second Weetabix Women's British Open at Sunningdale, Berkshire, Eng., by eight strokes over American Rosie Jones with a record-low 19-under total of 269. Webb also came in second among the LPGA money leaders, taking home $987,606. The U.S. Women's Amateur was won by Silvia Cavalleri of Italy at the Brae Burn Country Club in West Newton, Mass., and the U.S. men's amateur team regained the Walker Cup, beating Great Britain and Ireland 18-6 at Quaker Ridge Golf Club in Scarsdale, N.Y. Matthew Kuchar succeeded Woods as the men's U.S. Amateur champion. The year saw the death at the age of 84 of Ben Hogan ), ( Hogan, William Benjamin ) one of golf's greatest-ever exponents. Hogan won the U.S. Open four times, the Masters and the PGA twice each, and the British Open once. MARK GARROD ▪ 1997 For much of 1996 the world of golf was seeking a new star and wondering if technological advances in club and ball manufacture were making the search more difficult. Jack Nicklaus looked back on the 35 years he had played professionally and concluded that the biggest single change he had seen was in equipment. "I think it is great for the average golfer because it can improve his game and he can get more enjoyment out of it," he said. "But for the pros I think it has had an adverse effect. You used to be able to separate yourself from most of the players by your shot-making ability, or if you were long or had a certain skill more developed than the other player. Not any more." South African Gary Player, another of the four players in history to have won all four major championships (the Masters , United States Open, the British Open , and the U.S. Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) championship), added, "It's not even nearly the same game. I think golf equipment has done immeasurable harm at the professional level." The fact that the first 42 tournaments on the U.S. PGA tour produced 33 different champions, 13 of them winning for the first time, added weight to the argument. By the end of the year, however, there was one young golfer who appeared to have the ability to stand out from the pack and the potential to lead the sport into the next millennium. Californian Eldrick (" Tiger ") Woods, who in 1994 at age 18 had become the youngest-ever winner of the U.S. Amateur championship, became the first player to win it for three successive years, recovering in the final from five down to beat Steve Scott at the second extra hole at Pumpkin Ridge Golf Club in Cornelius, Ore. In June Woods briefly led the U.S. Open on the opening day at Oakland Hills Country Club near Bloomfield Hills, Mich., and then equaled the lowest-ever total by an amateur in finishing tied for 22nd in the British Open at Royal Lytham and St. Annes in Lancashire, Eng. It was no surprise when Woods after his third U.S. Amateur victory abandoned his Stanford University studies and turned professional. His performance in his first few weeks as a professional was remarkable. After finishing in a tie for 60th in the Greater Milwaukee Open, the 20-year-old finished 11th in the Bell Canadian Open, tied for fifth in the Quad City Classic, tied for third in the B.C. Open, and finished first in the Las Vegas Invitational after a play-off against Davis Love III. Two weeks later he triumphed again in the Walt Disney World/Oldsmobile Classic at Lake Buena Vista, Fla., though in controversial fashion when Taylor Smith, having matched Woods's 21-under-par total of 267, was disqualified for using a long putter with a grip that did not conform to the rules. In November Woods finished fifth to Greg Norman in the Australian Open. In only eight weeks as a professional, Woods had risen into the top 40 of the Sony world rankings, and he was to finish in 24th place on the U.S. money list, with earnings of $790,594. Yet that was only the tip of a financial iceberg. The moment he left the amateur ranks, Woods became one of the hottest properties in sport. A clothing deal worth a reported $40 million over five years was signed with Nike, and another contract with Titleist to use its clubs totaled a reported $20 million over five years. In the competition for the four major championships, the most dramatic was unquestionably in the Masters, where Greg Norman of Australia, ranked first in the world throughout the season, tied the Augusta ( Ga .) National course record of 63 on the first day and with a round to play was six strokes in the lead. After a string of near misses in the U.S. major tournaments, it seemed that Norman finally was to win this title. On the final afternoon, however, he collapsed to a 78 and in the end only just held on to second place, five strokes behind Nick Faldo of the U.K., whose closing 67 (for a 12-under-par aggregate of 276) gave him a third Masters victory and a sixth major in nine years. In the U.S. Open, Davis Love, Tom Lehman, and Steve Jones all stood on the final tee at two under par. Then Love three-putted and Lehman drove into a bunker, and so Jones's par four made him the surprising champion. It was his first U.S. tour victory in 7 years, 2 1/2 of them spent out of the game after a dirt-bike accident, and just to play in the Open he had to survive a play-off in the qualifying competition. While Love continued to wait for a victory in a major tournament, Lehman was celebrating his own first success five weeks later in the British Open. A third-round 64 put him six shots in the lead, and with closest challenger Faldo failing to apply the pressure he had in the Masters, Lehman could afford a 73 in the final round and still beat fellow American Mark McCumber and South Africa's Ernie Els by two strokes. The PGA championship, at the Valhalla Golf Club in Louisville, Ky., produced a play-off between two more Americans, Mark Brooks and Kenny Perry. Both were seeking their first major victory, and it was Brooks who prevailed. Perry had been two strokes ahead standing on the final tee, but bogeyed the par five and then watched Brooks birdie it to force a tie. Unfortunately for Perry, the first hole of sudden death was the same 18th, and he could not recover from driving into trouble again. The U.S. PGA tour money list title also went to Lehman, whose six-shot victory in the season-ending tour championship at Southern Hills Country Club in Tulsa, Okla., put him ahead of Phil Mickelson with a record total of $1,780,159. Mickelson had the most wins ( four ) and also teamed up with Mark O'Meara and Steve Stricker to give the United States victory in the Alfred Dunhill Cup at St. Andrews in Fife, Scot. The U.S. also scored a success in the second President's Cup match against the International Team (the rest of the world minus Europe). In an exciting finish at the Robert Trent Jones Golf Club in Lake Manassas, Va., Fred Couples sank a 10-m (33-ft) birdie putt at the second-to-last hole of the decisive singles match against Vijay Singh of Fiji for a 16 1/2 -15 1/2 victory. On the PGA European tour, the player with the most victories—Ian Woosnam of Wales, with four—did not win the Order of Merit. That went for a record-equaling fourth successive time to Scotland's Colin Montgomerie, who, besides winning three tournaments, had eight other top-10 finishes and earned £ 875,146. He remained the dominant personality on a circuit deprived in 1996 of José María Olazabal of Spain, who did not play during the year because of rheumatoid arthritis in both his feet. Els won the Toyota World Match Play championship at Wentworth, Surrey, Eng., for an unprecedented third year in a row. He then teamed with Wayne Westner to take South Africa to a massive 18-stroke victory in the World Cup of Golf at Cape Town, S.Af. In the U.S. Women's Open, Sweden's Annika Sorenstam not only became just the sixth player to have made a successful defense of the title but did so by a commanding six-stroke margin at Pine Needles Lodge & Golf Club in North Carolina. In 1995 Sorenstam had become the first player, male or female, to win the most money in both the U.S. and Europe. That feat was nearly achieved again in 1996 by Laura Davies of the U.K. In the U.S. she fought a thrilling yearlong battle with Australian rookie Karrie Webb, her four victories including the McDonald's LPGA championship and the du Maurier Classic, and she also enjoyed three victories in Europe and two in Japan, the last of them by a 15-stroke margin. Webb climaxed her year with a victory in the inaugural LPGA tour championship, her fourth tournament win of the year. She also became the first LPGA player and the first rookie in golf to win more than $1 million in a single season and was named Rookie of the Year. If the top U.S. women golfers were overshadowed at home, then they truly asserted themselves overseas. After leading by two points going into the 12 concluding singles of the Solheim Cup at the St. Pierre Country Club in Chepstow, Wales, Europe slumped to a 17-11 defeat. The U.S. retained the trophy despite omitting Emilee Klein, a seven-stroke winner of the Weetabix Women's British Open at the Woburn Golf and Country Club in Milton Keynes, Eng. The U.S. did suffer defeat in the Curtis Cup, Britain and Ireland's women amateurs winning 11 1/2 -6 1/2 at the Killarney Golf & Fishing Club in Ireland to maintain a remarkable record of only one loss in the last six matches. The following week, however, Kelli Kuehne of the U.S. won the Ladies' British amateur championship at Hoylake near Liverpool, Eng.; she then retained her U.S. Women's amateur title at Firethorn Golf Club in Lincoln, Neb. Victory in the women's world amateur team championship in the Philippines went, for the first time, to South Korea. Australia won the men's title. Prize money on the U.S. Seniors tour reached a staggering $37 million, with Jim Colbert, who regained his number one position by finishing third in the final event, and Hale Irwin each winning in excess of $1.6 million. Nine players earned more than $1 million—the same number as on the main circuit. (MARK GARROD) ▪ 1996 Nobody could accuse golf of following a familiar or predictable path in 1995. Even by the standards of a sport that deals in the unexpected more than most, it was an exceptional season. Two of the four major men's championships were decided only after play-offs, and the other two had memorable finishes as well; history was made in the women's game; and, by the smallest possible margin, Europe achieved its second victory on U.S. soil in the Ryder Cup. As surprising as anything was the inability of Zimbabwe's Nick Price, the dominant figure at the beginning of the year, to make an impact. Not only did Price—winner in 1994 of both the British Open and the U.S. Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) championships—fail to add to his major titles, but he failed to register a single tour success. His top spot, both in the U.S. and in the Sony world rankings, was taken by Greg Norman of Australia. Yet Norman would also look back on the 1995 season with some disappointment. The world tour he had hoped to see launched did not get off the ground and, as so often in the past, he came up just short on the big occasions, finishing in a tie for third in the Masters Tournament and second in the U.S. Open. His three victories helped him earn a record $1,654,959 for the season, however, and made him one of nine golfers to top the million-dollar mark. A year that began, uniquely, with no U.S. golfer in possession of a major championship ended with Americans holding three of the four. Ben Crenshaw did not anticipate being the first of them, but after poor early season form, the 43-year-old won his second Masters title at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club. Crenshaw, the 1984 champion, was overcome with emotion the moment he sank the short putt that gave him a 14-under-par total of 274 and a one-stroke victory over fellow American Davis Love III. Seven days earlier his 90-year-old coach, Harvey Penick, author of Harvey Penick's Little Red Book, which in 1992 became the best-selling sports book of all time, had died in Austin, Texas. The funeral was on the eve of the Masters, yet Crenshaw broke off his practice to be a pallbearer and after his victory said, "I had a 15th club in my bag—Harvey. It was like someone put their hand on my shoulder and guided me through." At the centennial U.S. Open at Shinnecock Hills Golf Club in Southampton, N.Y., Corey Pavin won his first major title. While others struggled in a challenging wind, he compiled a closing 68 for an even-par total of 280. A marvelous 4-wood approach to within 1.5 m (1 m = 3.3 ft) of the final hole led to a two-stroke winning margin over Norman. For a record 25th time, the British Open was staged at the course regarded as the home of golf, St. Andrews in Fife, Scotland. In wild weather the player known as the "Wild Thing," John Daly of the U.S., emerged triumphant, although only after a play-off with Costantino Rocca of Italy. Daly's total of 282, six under par, looked good enough to give him the title until Rocca, needing a birdie to tie, made dramatic amends for the poorest of chip shots by holing a 20-m putt. In the four-hole play-off, however, Rocca never recovered from three-putting the first green and eventually lost by four strokes. The week marked the end of an era for the tournament as Arnold Palmer, who first played in the Open in 1960, announced that it would be his last. While his opening rounds of 83 and 75 prevented him from qualifying for the final two rounds, the reception the 65-year-old American received from the crowd and other players left nobody in any doubt about the special place he held in the sport's annals. The one major championship to have eluded Palmer during his career was the PGA, which in 1995 returned to the Riviera Country Club in Los Angeles. It produced another play-off, this time between Steve Elkington of Australia and Scotland's Colin Montgomerie. Elkington scored a final-round 64, but Montgomerie birdied the last three holes for a 65 and a matching 17-under-par total of 267. Unlike the Daly-Rocca play-off, Elkington and Montgomerie went into sudden death, and at the first hole Elkington, fifth in the Masters and sixth in the British Open, made a 7.6-m birdie putt, while Montgomerie, also seeking his first major, missed from 6.1 m. Montgomerie, who also lost a play-off for the 1994 U.S. Open, did win another close affair, however, becoming the leading money winner on the European tour for the third successive season. He went into the final event, the Volvo Masters at Valderrama, Spain, just behind his fellow Scot Sam Torrance and holed a one-metre putt on the final green to take second place. It gave him record official earnings of £ 835,051 against Torrance's £755,706. In the Ryder Cup competition at Oak Hill Country Club in Rochester, N.Y., the U.S. players built a 9-7 lead in the foursomes and fourballs, and as they had lost the singles only once since 1957, few foresaw that the final day would conclude as it did. Europe, however, produced a stirring comeback. With 3 of the 12 singles contests left, the U.S. still held the lead, but England's Nick Faldo came from one down with two to play to beat Curtis Strange, and then Philip Walton of Ireland defeated Jay Haas on the final green. In Pavin the U.S. had the most successful player, four points out of a possible five, but every one of the European players enjoyed at least one win, and their 14 1/2-13 1/2 victory was a personal triumph for captain Bernard Gallacher—after eight defeats as a player and two as captain. The Toyota World Match Play championship at Wentworth, Surrey, England, was successfully defended by 1994 champion Ernie Els of South Africa. Another trophy to remain in the same hands was the Heineken World Cup. The event broke new ground for top-level golf by being held in China at the Mission Hills Club in Shenzhen, but the story remained the same. Fred Couples and Davis Love III won for the U.S. for the fourth time in a row and, as in Puerto Rico in 1994, they finished 14 shots ahead of their nearest challengers, this time Australians Robert Allenby and Brett Ogle. The history maker in the women's competition was Sweden's Annika Sorenstam, who became the first player, male or female, to be the leading money winner in both the U.S. and Europe in the same season. Sorenstam won the U.S. Women's Open at the Broadmoor Golf Club in Colorado Springs, Colo., by one stroke from Meg Mallon of the U.S. with a two-under-par total of 278 and finished the Ladies' Professional Golf Association tour with $666,533. On the Women's Professional Golfers' European Tour, Sorenstam won two tournaments, was joint runner-up behind Karrie Webb of Australia in the Weetabix British Women's Open, and earned £130,324. Webb's victory was an extraordinary one. A professional for only 10 months, she had rounds of 69, 70, 69, and 70 on the par-73 Woburn course in Milton Keynes, England, to win by six shots. Sorenstam's success overshadowed another superb season by England's Laura Davies. Four victories in Europe, including the Guardian Irish Holidays Open at St. Margaret's, Dublin, by a tour-record 16 strokes, and two in the U.S. left Davies in second place on both circuits, but she did remain at the top of the world rankings throughout the year. The outstanding players at the amateur level were Eldrick (" Tiger ") Woods of the U.S. and Scotland's Gordon Sherry. Woods, still only 19, retained his U.S. amateur title at the Newport (R.I.) Country Club, while the 21-year-old Sherry, runner-up in 1994, won the British Amateur at the Royal Liverpool club, Hoylake, England. The Walker Cup match at Royal Porthcawl in Wales brought the two together as leaders of their teams. Great Britain and Ireland won the tournament 14-10, only their fourth victory over the U.S. in a series dating back to 1922. (MARK GARROD) ▪ 1995 In 1994, for the first time, not one U.S. golfer won any of the world's four major championships. Nick Price of Zimbabwe (see BIOGRAPHIES ( Price, Nick )) took both the British Open championship at Turnberry, Scotland, and the Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) championship at Tulsa, Okla. José-María Olazábal of Spain captured the Masters at Augusta, Ga., and Ernie Els of South Africa won the United States Open championship at Oakmont, Pa. It was a notable season for Price. He led the Sony world rankings for the first time and was leading money winner on the American PGA tour for the second successive year, with earnings of $1,499,927, against the $1,330,307 won by Greg Norman of Australia. Price was also the first man since Tom Watson in 1982 to collect two consecutive major titles. Watson that year won both the U.S. and British Open championships. It was not, however, a year bereft of U.S. success. Fred Couples and Davis Love won the World Cup at Dorado, P.R.—for the third successive year—with a record score of 536 (Couples 265, Love 271) for the 72 holes. This was 14 strokes ahead of Zimbabwe, which was represented by Mark McNulty and Tony Johnstone. The U.S. also defeated the rest of the world in an inaugural President's Cup match played at Lake Manassas, Wash., along Ryder Cup lines but excluding players from Europe. The margin was a very comfortable 20-12. Additional success was gained by the U.S. women professionals, who regained the Solheim Cup from Europe 13-7 at the Greenbrier resort in West Virginia. No individual approached the performance of Price, who gained seven victories during the year. In addition to the PGA, he won four other tournaments on the U.S. tour: the Honda Classic, the Southwestern Bell Colonial, the Motorola Western Open, and the Bell Canadian Open. Earlier in the year he had also taken the ICL International on the South African circuit. Price had twice before come close to winning the British Open, losing a three-stroke lead to Watson at Royal Troon in 1982 and being beaten only by an exceptional last round by Severiano Ballesteros at Royal Lytham in 1988. The chances were that Price would suffer a similar fate at Turnberry, for Jesper Parnevik of Sweden, who was playing ahead of him, was three strokes ahead standing on the last tee. Price reduced the gap with a birdie three at the 16th, however, and, just after Parnevik had scored one over par on the 18th, the Zimbabwean sank a huge putt at the 17th for an eagle three. This gave him a lead that, this time, he held. Price had rounds of 69, 66, 67, 66 for a 72-hole total of 268, one shot ahead of Parnevik. Price's victory in the PGA was much more conclusive. He played golf of the very highest standard and with rounds of 67, 65, 70, and 67 for a total of 269 finished six strokes ahead of Corey Pavin of the U.S. Earlier in the year Olazábal, who had tended to live in the shadow of fellow Spaniard Ballesteros, at last realized one of his ambitions by winning the Masters. After an indifferent opening round of 74, he followed with scores of 67, 69, 69 for a total of 279. He finished two strokes ahead of Tom Lehman of the U.S., who had never won a tournament on the PGA tour. Lehman nonetheless summoned the bravest of challenges. He was particularly unlucky with a number of putts over the last few holes. A star was born in Els. Though he had demonstrated precocious talent as an amateur, his victory in the U.S. Open was only his second outside his homeland, the other having been in the Japanese Dunlop Phoenix tournament in late 1993. His U.S. Open was achieved, however, only after a three-way play-off with Loren Roberts of the U.S. and Colin Montgomerie of Scotland. The three of them tied after 72 holes with scores of 279, Els with rounds of 69, 71, 66, 73, Roberts with 76, 69, 64, 70, and Montgomerie with 71, 65, 73, 70. The unusual aspect of Els's victory in the play-off was that he dropped four strokes in the first two holes, taking a five at the first and a seven at the second. However, he finished the round in 74 to tie Roberts again, Montgomerie having been eliminated with a 78, and then won the championship at the second extra hole of a sudden-death play-off. Later in the year Els also won the Toyota world matchplay championship at Wentworth, Surrey, England, beating Montgomerie in the final by four and two. He also won the inaugural Gene Sarazen World Open in Atlanta, Ga. Montgomerie's disappointment on both these occasions was compensated by the fact that for the second consecutive year he was leading money winner on the PGA European tour. He won three tournaments—the Peugeot Spanish Open, the Murphy's English Open, and the Volvo German Open—and was consistently in the top half dozen, so much so that his prize money of £ 762,719 set a record. One of the surprises of the year was Canada's victory in the Alfred Dunhill Cup at St. Andrews, Scotland. Very much one of the outsiders, Canada defeated the U.S. 2-1 in the final. Dave Barr beat Tom Kite with a 70 to a 71, and Ray Stewart did the same to Fred Couples with a 71 to a 72. In the other game Rick Gibson lost to Curtis Strange, taking 74 against a 67. If Price had an outstanding year, so too did Laura Davies, the first British woman professional to top the U.S. Ladies' Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) money list. Her earnings totaled $687,201. She also finished the year far ahead in the world rankings. Her seven tournament victories included the Thailand Open; the Standard Register Ping tournament, the Sara Lee Classic, and the McDonald's LPGA championship in the U.S.; the Irish and Scottish opens in Europe; and the Itoen in Japan. Davies' one disappointment was not to have helped Europe keep the Solheim Cup. But, after the honours were shared through the first two days, the U.S. women showed that they had the greater strength in the singles, in which they won 8 of the 10 matches. Including fourballs and foursomes, the final match result was U.S. 13, Europe 7. Patty Sheehan, one of the members of that successful U.S. team, won the U.S. Women's Open championship. It was her second victory in three years, and her score of 277 at Indianwood Golf and Country Club in Lake Orion, Mich., for the 72 holes tied the championship record. She finished one stroke ahead of Tammie Green. The British Open was won by Liselotte Neumann of Sweden. Her total of 280 at Woburn, Bedfordshire, England, was three strokes better than that of Dottie Mochrie, who played a considerable, if at times controversial, part in the Solheim Cup victory of the U.S., and Annika Sorenstam of Sweden. Neumann also topped the Women's Professional Golfers' European Tour with winnings of £102,750. A very good future prospect may have emerged in Tiger Woods, the U.S. amateur, who won the U.S. amateur championship at Ponte Vedra Beach, Fla. At 18, he was the youngest champion and also the first African-American golfer to win the title. Moreover, he did it in the most thrilling manner, six down at one point, four down at lunch, and still four down with six holes to play. But he won each of those remaining holes to defeat Trip Kuehne by two up. Woods was also a member of the team that ended five years of frustration for the U.S. by winning the world amateur team championship for the Eisenhower trophy at Paris. Woods, Allen Doyle, John Harris, and Todd Demsey had a four-round aggregate of 838. The U.S.'s women amateurs also won the team championship in Paris. Sarah Ingram, Carol Thompson, and Wendy Ward scored 569 for the 54 holes. Ward had already become U.S. amateur champion by defeating Jill McGill by two and one at Hot Springs, Va. The British women's amateur championship was won by Emma Duggleby, who defeated Cecilia Morgue d'Algue of France by three and one at Newport, Wales. Lee James of England took the British men's amateur championship, beating Gordon Sherry of Scotland by two and one at Nairn, Scotland. (MICHAEL WILLIAMS) ▪ 1994 The golfing wheel of skill, as opposed to fortune, turned decisively back to the United States in 1993. The partial supremacy that Europe had enjoyed through the 1980s was ended as Americans dominated competition on a number of fronts. They retained the Ryder Cup at the Belfry, winning on British soil for the first time since 1981; won the World Cup for the second successive year; regained the Alfred Dunhill Cup; held very easily on to the Walker Cup; and, in the hands of Corey Pavin, recaptured the Suntory World Matchplay Championship for the first time since 1979. Europe, on the other hand, could claim only limited success. Nick Faldo of the U.K. remained, as he had been all year, at the head of the Sony world rankings, while Bernhard Langer of Germany won the Masters Tournament at the Augusta ( Ga .) National Golf Club for the second time in his career. Two of the world's four major championships, the United States Open and the Professional Golfers' Association of America ( PGA ) tournament were also won by Americans—Lee Janzen and Paul Azinger, respectively. In the British Open, however, there was a welcome return to form by Greg Norman of Australia. The major confrontation between the U.S. and Europe was in the Ryder Cup, where each was represented by the best 12 players from their respective professional tours. Since 1983 the tournament had been very evenly contested, with the U.S. winning three times, Europe twice, and one match tied. During this period the overall points tally was Europe 85 1/2, U.S. 82 1/2; in five of those six matches, no more than two points separated the two sides. This was again the case in 1993, with the U.S. winning 15-13 and the result in doubt until the final hour. Europe had enjoyed a one-point lead at the end of the first day, increased it to three halfway through the second, but by nightfall was back to just a one-point lead with 12 singles matches to come. Europe's ultimate defeat was to a large extent due to the failure of its best players to win a single point. Faldo and Ian Woosnam both halved their games against, respectively, Azinger and Fred Couples, but Severiano Ballesteros, against Jim Gallagher, Langer, against Tom Kite, and Jose-Maria Olazabal, against Raymond Floyd, at 51 the oldest player to have appeared in the match, all lost. This said a great deal for the American resolve under the captaincy of Tom Watson. Even so, Europe was still tantalizingly close to victory, the two turning points being the three-hole lead Barry Lane lost to Chip Beck with only five holes to play, followed by Costantino Rocca of Italy, who was one up with two to play, also losing to Davis Love. It is worth stating that there was no prize money in the biennial Ryder Cup. Conversely, there was £ 1 million at stake in the Alfred Dunhill Cup, a medal match-play event annually held at St. Andrews, Scotland. Yet the latter, contested by teams of three from all parts of the world, remained very much the subsidiary competition. Couples and Payne Stewart were again on duty for the U.S., supplemented by the big-hitting John Daly. They headed their qualifying group and, in bitterly cold October weather, defeated Sweden in the semifinals and then England, the defending champion, by 2-1 in the final. The strong man of the side was Couples, who won all five of his games and was 15 under par for 90 holes—remarkable golf in such conditions. In much higher temperatures at Lake Nona, Orlando, Fla., a month later, Couples was in fine fettle for the Heineken World Cup (originally the Canada Cup) and, with Love, retained the trophy they had won a year earlier in Madrid. Between them, they were 20 under par for the four rounds, with both players' scores counting in the tournament's format, and they won by five shots from Zimbabwe, which was represented by Nick Price and Mark McNulty. Among the spectators at the World Cup, held in his hometown, was Pavin, who a few weeks earlier had won the Toyota World Matchplay championship at Wentworth, Surrey, England. In the final he defeated Faldo, the favourite, by one hole. In the earlier rounds he had beaten Peter Baker of England, Price of Zimbabwe, and Colin Montgomerie of Scotland. Against Faldo, Pavin was two up with three holes to play but lost both the 16th and 17th in the 36-hole match. However, on the 18th Faldo hit his second shot into a bush and lost the hole to Pavin's par five. Pavin was the first U.S. winner of the tournament since Bill Rogers in 1979. This was far from being Faldo's only disappointment in a frustrating year. Though he kept his place at the head of the world rankings, the major honours eluded him, and he was even overtaken in Europe's last tournament of the year, the Volvo Masters, by Montgomerie in the race to become the year's leading money winner. Faldo had led in this competition since the British Open in July, but Montgomerie, a consistent player who had earlier in the year won the Dutch Open, rose from fifth to first place by taking the Volvo Masters in impressive style. He had official earnings of £613,682 for the year. There was also something of a surprise on the U.S. tour as Price, the 1992 PGA champion, won four tournaments, three of them in a row, to finish as leading money winner with $1,478,557. Faldo's biggest disappointment was his failure to retain his British Open championship at Royal St. George's, Sandwich, Kent, though in most years his golf would have been good enough to have done so. Tied with Pavin for first place with 18 holes to play, he then shot a 67 and still lost by two strokes. This was the result of some exceptional golf by Norman, whose last round of 64 was the lowest ever by a British Open champion. He was also the first British Open champion to break 70 in every round—66, 68, 69, 64 for a record aggregate of 267—as he took golf on to what Faldo described as "a new level." Norman's only previous major tournament victory had been in the British Open of 1986, but he nearly added a third, losing the PGA at the Inverness Golf Club near Toledo, Ohio, only in a play-off to Azinger after they had tied at 272 for the 72 holes. It was Azinger's first major title. Defeat for Norman meant that he had now lost play-offs for the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, and the PGA. Faldo was third in the PGA, a stroke behind, and was an accumulative 22 under par for that event and the British Open without winning either. Langer's second victory in the Masters at Augusta National was impressively gained as he won by four strokes from Beck of the U.S. Langer had scores of 68, 70, 69, 70 for an 11-under-par total of 277. Janzen, one of the more promising U.S. players, broke 70 in all four rounds of the U.S. Open at the Baltusrol Golf Club in Springfield, N.J., and with a total of 272 won by two strokes from Stewart. The U.S. gained an overwhelming 19-5 triumph in the Walker Cup at Interlachen Country Club in Edina, Minn. It was the biggest margin of victory since the format was changed in 1965 from 36-hole matches to 18. The youngest amateur team ever selected by Great Britain and Ireland was overwhelmed by the more experienced U.S. players. One of the outstanding American contributions in the Walker Cup came from John Harris, who at the age of 41 was making his first appearance in the tournament. A week later he achieved the even-greater distinction of winning the U.S. amateur championship at the Champions Golf Club near Houston, Texas, where he beat Danny Ellis by five and three. Among the players defeated in the earlier rounds was Iain Pyman, a member of the British Walker Cup team. He had won the British amateur championship at Royal Portrush, Northern Ireland, when he defeated Paul Page at the first extra hole of an outstanding final. Lauri Merten won the U.S. Women's Open championship at the Crooked Stick Golf Club in Carmel, Ind., with rounds of 71, 71, 70, 68 for a 72-hole total of 280, one stroke ahead of Donna Andrews and Helen Alfredsson. But the leading money winner on the Ladies' Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) tour was Betsy King with $595,992. Karen Lunn of Australia had the double distinction of winning both the Weetabix British Women's Open at Woburn, Bedfordshire, England, and leading the Women Professional Golfers' European Tour (WPGET) money list. In the Open she had rounds of 71, 69, 68, 67 for a total of 275, eight strokes ahead of Brandie Burton of the U.S. Lunn's earnings for the year on a tour that was affected by the recession amounted to £ 81,266. Jill McGill won the U.S. women's amateur championship when she defeated Sarah Ingram in the final by one hole at San Diego, Calif. The British women's amateur title went to Catriona Lambert, the Scottish champion, who beat Kirsty Speak of England by three and two at Royal Lytham and St. Annes, Lancashire. Patty Sheehan (see BIOGRAPHIES ( Sheehan, Patty )), winner of the Mazda LPGA championship in Bethesda, Md ., became the 13th golfer to be inducted into the LPGA Hall of Fame. (MICHAEL WILLIAMS) * * * ▪ billiards pocket-billiards game named for its similarity to the original outdoor stick-and-ball game of golf. In the billiards version, each player tries to play an assigned object ball into the six holes, or pockets, of the table, beginning with the left side pocket and moving in clockwise rotation around the table. The object balls are respotted after each hole is completed, and the player who completes the “course” in the lowest number of strokes is the winner. Each player begins with the cue ball on the centre spot and the object ball on the foot spot. The player's first shot of the game must rebound off the foot cushion before contacting the object ball. If the shot is missed, the player continues from wherever the cue ball comes to rest. On subsequent holes the object ball is replaced on the foot spot, but the cue ball is played from where the previous player left it. These shots need not be banked. Other rules are similar to those of pocket billiards . ▪ sport Introduction a cross-country game in which a player strikes a small ball with various clubs from a series of starting points (teeing grounds) into a series of holes on a course. The player who holes his ball in the fewest strokes wins. The origins of the game are difficult to ascertain, although evidence now suggests that early forms of golf were played in the Netherlands ( Netherlands, The ) first and then in Scotland. From a somewhat obscure antiquity, the game attained worldwide popularity, especially in the 20th century. Nothing is known about the early game's favourite venues on the European continent, but in Scotland golf was first played on seaside links with their crisp turf and natural hazards. Only later in the game's evolution did play on downs, moorland, and parkland courses begin. Golfers participate at every level, from a recreational game to popular televised professional tournaments. Despite its attractions, golf is not a game for everyone; it requires a high degree of skill that is honed only with great patience and dedication. History Origins The origin of golf has long been debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, which involved using a bent stick to hit a wool- or feather-stuffed leather ball. According to one view, paganica spread throughout several countries as the Romans conquered much of Europe during the 1st century BC and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan (ch'ui-wan) as the progenitor, a game played in China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and earlier and described as “a game in which you hit a ball with a stick while walking.” Chuiwan is thought to have been introduced into Europe by traders during the Middle Ages. However, upon close examination, neither theory is convincing. Other early stick-and-ball games included the English game of cambuca (a term of Celtic origin). In France the game was known as chambot and may have been related to Irish hurling and Scottish shinty , or camanachd, as well as to the French pastime (derived from an Italian game) of jeu de mail. This game was in turn exported to the Low Countries, Germany, and England (where it was called pall-mall , pronounced “pell mell”). As early as 1819 the English traveler William Ousely claimed that golf descended from the Persian national game of chaugán, the ancestor of modern polo . Later, historians, not least because of the resemblance of names, considered the French cross-country game of chicane to be a descendant of chaugán. In chicane a ball had to be driven with the fewest possible strokes to a church or garden door. This game was described in the novels of Émile Zola ( Zola, Émile ) and Charles Deulin, where it went by the name of chole. Chicane closely resembled the game of kolf, which the Dutch golf historian J.H. van Hengel believed to be the earliest form of golf. Many traditions surround the game of kolf. One relates that it was played annually in the village of Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the killer of Floris V, count of Holland and Zeeland, a year earlier. No evidence supports this early date, however, and it would seem to be a clear anachronism. Based on the evidence, it may well be that golf came into being only a little before the 15th century. It may be conceived as a domesticated form of such medieval games as football, in which the size of the goals and the ball was radically reduced and in which, as a consequence, the element of violence had to give way to the element of skill. Seen from this perspective, golf would be the result of the process of civilization as described in the work of German-born sociologist Norbert Elias. Scots as inventors: a popular fallacy For many years it was believed that golf originated in Scotland . This belief rested on three references in Scottish acts of Parliament from the second half of the 15th century. In a resolution of the 14th Parliament, convened in Edinburgh on March 6, 1457, the games of football and golf (“futbawe and ye golf”) were banned with a vengeance (“utterly cryt done”). This ban was repeated in 1471 when Parliament thought it “expedient [th]at…ye futbal and golf be abusit.” In a resolution passed in 1491, football, golf, and other useless games were outlawed altogether (“fut bawis gouff or uthir sic unproffitable sports”). In addition, these texts enjoined the Scottish people to practice archery , a sport which might be put to good use in defending the country. In more recent times the validity of these sources has been called into question on two grounds. First, pictorial evidence now seems to point to a continental European origin of golf. The earliest golfing picture is a miniature in a book of hours formerly owned by Adelaïde of Savoy, the duchess of Burgundy. Executed about the middle of the 15th century ( Chantilly , Mus ée Condé, MS 76), it predates the earliest of the Scottish sources quoted above. The miniature from Adelaïde's book is, in turn, the forerunner of the well-known example from a book of hours in the British Library that is ascribed variously to the workshops of two Flemish artists, Simon Bening (c. 1483–1561) and Gerard Horenbout ( Ghent-Bruges school ) (c. 1465–1541), both of whom were active in the Ghent-Bruges school in the first half of the 16th century. There is yet another miniature, from the book of hours of Philip I (the Handsome ), the son of Emperor Maximilian I (Colegio Real de Corpus Christi, Valencia ). Created in 1505, one year before Philip's death, it shows golfers in the process of swinging and putting. In addition to the books of hours, there are engravings that highlight golf. Playing Monkeys, by Pieter van der Borcht (1545–1608), features a monkey taking a swing at a teed ball, and Venus , Protectress of Lovers, by Pieter Janszoon Saenredam (1597–1665), shows , in the margins of a picture of an embracing couple with Venus and Cupid, some people playing games such as football and golf. The latter work is a copy of an earlier work by engraver Hendrik Goltzius ( Goltzius, Hendrik ) (1558–1617). The earliest known scenes depicting golf in Scotland are found in two paintings dated 1680 (or 1720) and 1746–47. The earlier work is an oil painting by an unknown artist who depicted a gentlemen foursome and two caddies against the backdrop of the town of St. Andrews. The second, a watercolour by the Englishman Paul Sandby (1725–1809), shows a squad of soldiers fighting over a golf ball in the shrubbery at the foot of Edinburgh Castle. As to the Scottish acts of Parliament, the difficulty there lies in the uncertainty concerning the meaning of the term golf in 15th-century Scotland. In the equally controversial debate about the origins of cricket, British historian Eric Midwinter pointed out that a sport's provenance cannot be proved by a mere textual reference to a game unless the context and the meaning of the reference are exactly known: Thus, by the strictest definition of historical evidence, we require both the name, and its [being attached] to some description which is recognizable cricket, before it is safe to talk about the origin of the game. The Scottish sources fail to meet this standard for the origins of golf. As early as 1360 the magistrate of Brussels issued an ordinance according to which anyone caught playing a similar club-and-ball game was threatened with a fine of 20 shillings or confiscation of his upper garment (“Item. wie met coluen tsolt es om twintich scell' oft op hare ouerste cleet.”). While it seems plausible that met coluen (which is the dative plural of colve, of which kolf, meaning “with clubs,” is a variant) yielded the Scots loanword golf , it is clear from the verb tsollen (from the French souler, “to play football”) that the text envisaged the rough competitive team game of soule played with a curved stick. That on the Continent kolve primarily denoted a hockey stick becomes evident from the Boek van Merline (1261), poet Jacob van Maerlant ( Maerlant, Jacob van )'s translation of Robert De Boron 's Livre de Merlin, in which young Merlin is engaged in a game of soule à la crosse ( hockey ). Where in the French source Merlin viciously hits one of his playmates with a crosse (a hockey stick), in Maerlant's Flemish version the word used is kolve. Proof that golf in Scotland had exactly the same meaning as its Flemish counterpart kolve comes in The Buik of Alexander the Conqueror, a translation, by Sir Gilbert Hay (c. 1460), of the medieval Roman d'Alexandre. In Hay's French source, Alexander the Great had received a ball (estuef) and a hockey stick ( crosse ) from the king of Persia. In his Scots version, Hay rendered crosse into golf-staff and further alludes to the stick as a means with which to chase the Persian emperor and his lords to and fro like a ball in a hockey match. Such a description leaves hardly any doubt that in 15th-century Scotland the term golf primarily referred to a fiercely contended team game, and this accounts for its being banned in the acts of Parliament quoted above. A continental origin of golf is also suggested by a linguistic analysis of golfing terms and a recently discovered Dutch description of golf from the first half of the 16th century. Golf historians have long surmised that the terms tee and stymie are based on the Dutch word tuitje (a diminutive of tuit, meaning “snout”) and the phrase stuit me ( meaning “hinders me”), but these derivations have been questioned on phonological grounds and therefore have never been accepted by historical dictionaries. However, a Dutch origin of tee is still plausible, as a variation of the Flemish tese, meaning “target” (as in curling ); the word originally referred to the hole but eventually came to mean a “pile of sand taken from the hole.” There are also good reasons to posit a Dutch origin for the words putt (from putten, “put into a hole”) and bunker (a possible back-formation of bancaert kolve). However, the source most likely to tip the scales in favour of a Dutch origin is a phrase booklet written by a Dutch schoolmaster, Pieter van Afferden, or Petrus Apherdianus (1510–80). The book, Tyrocinium latinae linguae (Recruits' Drill in the Latin Language; 1545), was intended to impart a knowledge of Latin in everyday situations by matching Latin phrases with Dutch ones. This source predates the earliest Scottish description of golf—the 1636 Vocabula by Scotsman David Wedderburn—by almost a century. Its remarkable feature, however, is that in a chapter titled “De Clauis Plumbatis” (“On the [Game with the] Leaded Clubs”) it is much more explicit than other early sources. In the Tyrocinium the club is indeed called a kolve, and the game as such is referred to as kolven (the infinitive of a verb used as a noun). This confirms that the Scots word golf is indeed based on kolve or kolf. In the course of a dialogue in this text, the fictitious players also give the first indication of the existence of rules. For instance, a golfer who misses the ball is said to lose the right to strike (wastes a stroke); to step onto the teeing ground before it is one's turn is against the rules because a certain order of play has to be adhered to; a player must be allowed to swing freely, necessitating that other players step back; a golfer is not allowed to stand in the light of his partner; and, lastly, in order to putt, the ball has to be struck—merely pushing it is forbidden and is called a knavish trick. The hole, however, is called not a put but a cuyl. Generally speaking, then, the Tyrocinium proves that, by the middle of the 16th century, golf in the Netherlands was a firmly established and rather sophisticated game. Golf in Scotland Despite the likelihood of a continental origin of golf, King James IV ( James IV ), who had prohibited the hockeylike game of golf earlier (in 1491), nevertheless became the first authenticated player of “real” golf. That royalty were the leaders of this new sporting fashion is to be expected. The route of transmission to Scotland was likely to have been Flemish traders and craftsmen who had found employment at the Scottish court. The lord high treasurer's accounts for the years 1502, 1503, and 1506 include payments for the king's “golf clubbis and ballis” and other equipment during stays at Perth, Edinburgh, and St. Andrews. In addition, the entry for the year 1506 specifies the amount of three French crowns lost by the king in a golfing bet (betting on the outcome of games was widespread in the Middle Ages). The Stuarts also gave the game its first woman golfer— Mary , Queen of Scots, who was charged with playing in the fields beside Seton only a few days after the murder of her husband, Lord Darnley ( Darnley, Henry Stewart, Lord ). The contemporary account of the queen's misconduct also makes it clear that at the time a golf club was still called a golf in Scotland. The fact that in Scotland golf counted royalty among its followers and the fact that the first pictorial representations of the game are to be found in books of hours owned by members of the continental high aristocracy suggest that from the middle of the 15th century there are two games to distinguish: one was kolve/kolf, a variety of hockey that was popular with townspeople and the peasantry, and the other was golf, the preserve of the upper crust of society. However, there is no evidence of the existence of the latter in Scotland much before the 16th century. Development of golfers' associations Early British ( United Kingdom ) societies There is another provenance story that says James I introduced golf to Blackheath in 1608, long thought to be the year the historic royal Blackheath Golf Club was founded. Although King James and his courtiers played golf somewhere in the vicinity, it is doubtful whether any organized society then existed, and research has set the earliest date of such a society nearly two centuries later. W.E. Hughes, editor of the Chronicles of Blackheath Golfers, ascribes the club's foundation to 1787. The oldest club with documentary proof of its origin is the Gentlemen Golfers of Leith, now the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers , whose modern home is at Muirfield in East Lothian. Its genesis was a move by a group of players to hold a competition or tournament. In 1744 “several Gentlemen of Honour skillful in the ancient and healthfull exercise of Golf” petitioned the Edinburgh city council to provide a silver club for annual competition on the links of Leith. The Society of St. Andrews Golfers, now the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews (R&A), Scotland , was formed in 1754 by a group of 22 golfers who played there. The rules that the society adopted were almost identical to the Edinburgh Gentlemen Golfers' rules. These two clubs played major roles in the development of the game in Scotland. Eventually the R&A became, by common consent, the oracle on rules. In 1919 it accepted the management of the British Open and Amateur championships. The R&A thus became the governing body for golf in the British Isles and throughout most of the Commonwealth. With the birth of the Royal North Devon Golf Club in 1864, golf took a firm foothold in England. The Devon club was the first course on seaside links outside Scotland. The Royal Liverpool Golf Club was established in 1869 on a rabbit warren at Hoylake. In its infancy players simply cut holes with their penknives and stuck feathers in them for the guidance of those who were coming behind. The rabbits were the greenskeepers. By 1870 the club was fairly established, and members played matches against players from clubs such as Blackheath and the Royal North Devon Club at Westward Ho!. The Royal Liverpool Club hosted Great Britain's first Amateur Championship in 1885 and the first English Amateur Championship in 1925. The first Scotland-England amateur match was organized in 1902, and it was at Hoylake in 1921 that an unofficial contest between British and U.S. players, a curtain-raiser to the Amateur Championship, was played and served as the genesis of the Walker Cup series. The United States and Canada The following advertisement, which appeared in James Rivington's gazette in New York on April 21, 1779, clearly refers to golf: To the GOLF PLAYERS: The Season for this pleasant and healthy Exercise now advancing, Gentlemen may be furnished with excellent CLUBS and the veritable Caledonian BALLS, by enquiring at the Printer's. The South Carolina and Georgia Almanac of 1793 published, under the heading “Societies Established in Charleston,” the following item: “Golf Club Formed 1786.” The Charleston City Gazette and Daily Advertiser of September 18, 1788, reported: “There is lately erected that pleasing and genteel amusement, the KOLF BAAN.” However, this perhaps pointed to the existence of an indoor facility for the Dutch game of kolf, a variety of the French jeu de mail mentioned above. Later notices dated 1791 and 1794 referred to the South Carolina Golf Club, which celebrated an anniversary with a dinner on Harleston's Green in the latter year. Although these fragments constitute the earliest clear evidence of golf clubs in the United States, the clubs appear to have been primarily social organizations that did not survive the War of 1812. The first permanent golf club in the Western Hemisphere was the Royal Montreal Golf Club, established in 1873. The members played on Fletcher's Fields in the city's central area until urban growth compelled a move of some miles to Dixie, a name derived from a group of Southern refugees who arrived there after the U.S. Civil War. The Royal Quebec Golf Club was founded in 1874; the Toronto and Niagara, Ontario, clubs in 1876; and the Brantford, Ontario, club in 1879. In the meantime, golf was played experimentally at many places in the United States without taking permanent root until, in 1885, it was played in Foxburg, Pennsylvania. The Oakhurst Golf Club in West Virginia, which later became the Greenbrier Club, is said to have been formed in 1884; and the Dorset Field Club in Dorset, Vermont, claims to have been organized and to have laid out its course in 1886, although in both instances written records are lacking. The Foxburg Golf Club has provided strong support for the claim that it was organized in 1887 and is the oldest golf club in the United States with a permanent existence. Foxburg also claims the oldest American golf course. Golf as an organized game in the United States, however, usually is dated from the founding of the St. Andrew's Golf Club at Yonkers, New York, in 1888. Its progenitor was John Reid, a Scot from Dunfermline who became known as “the father of American golf.” Reid, on learning that fellow Scot Robert Lockhart was returning to the old country on business, asked him to bring back some golf clubs and balls. This done, Reid and his friend John B. Upham tried them out on February 22, 1888, over an improvised three-hole layout. That fall, five men formed the club, and in the spring they moved to a course in an apple orchard. There, it is said, they hung their coats and a jug of good Scotch whisky in a convenient apple tree, and they subsequently became known as the “Apple Tree Gang.” The club made its final move in 1897 to Mount Hope in Westchester county, New York. Other early courses included Newport, Rhode Island (1890); Shinnecock Hills on Long Island (1891); and the Chicago Golf Club (1892) at Wheaton, Illinois. The Tuxedo Golf Club in New York, founded in 1889, met the Shinnecock men in 1894 in what has been assumed to be the first interclub match in the United States. The Newport club staged an invitational tournament for amateurs in September 1894, and in October the St. Andrew's club promoted a similar competition. These were announced as championships, but that was questioned because the events were each promoted by a single club and on an invitational basis. It was from the controversy roused by these promotions that the United States Golf Association (USGA) was instituted in 1894. Its aims were to organize the U.S. Amateur and Open championships and to formulate a set of rules for the game. The founding fathers, two from each club, were from St. Andrew's, Shinnecock Hills, Chicago, the Country Club at Brookline, and Newport. The U.S. national championships—the Amateur, the Women's Amateur, and the Open—were inaugurated in 1895. Other countries Before organized clubs had been established in North America, colonies of British settlers, merchants, and civil servants carried golf with them. India has the oldest club outside Great Britain; the Royal Calcutta Golf Club was founded in 1829, and the Royal Bombay Golf Club came about 12 years later. The Royal Calcutta initiated an amateur championship for India, and the two clubs paved the way for many in East Asia. The Royal Bangkok Golf Club (1890) was first housed in an ancient temple. Golf came to China when the Shanghai Golf Club was formed in 1896, until which time the game was apparently unknown outside Hong Kong. The Japanese ( Japan ) a few years later constructed a course at Kōbe. The Tokyo Golf Club was founded in 1914. With the boom in the popularity of the game in Japan after World War II, players came to be numbered in the thousands, despite the fact that the shortage of open land made the game enormously expensive to play. The first club in Australia , the Royal Adelaide Golf Club, was formed in 1870, and it is believed that the game was played in Melbourne in 1847 but went into abeyance for nearly half a century, the gold rush having taken priority over golf for the settlers. New Zealand origins have been dated from the formation of the Christchurch Golf Club in 1873. South Africa's ( South Africa ) first course was at the Maritzburg Golf Club in Natal in 1884, though the Royal Cape Golf Club (1885) has been rated as the country's senior club. On the European continent the first golf course was laid in France at Pau in 1856. Until 1913, when the count of Gallifet was admitted as a member, the club “Golf de Pau” remained the preserve of Scottish residents at the foot of the Pyrenees, some of whom were descendants of Wellington's army. Biarritz Golf Club came into being in 1888, and Cannes Golf Club was founded by the “King of Cannes,” the Russian grandduke Michael, in 1891. The French golf federation, the Union des Golfs de France, was inaugurated in 1912. In Germany, golf was first played by English tourists in spas such as Bad Homburg and Wiesbaden. The first golf club in Germany, Berlin Golf Club, now Golf- und Landclub Berlin-Wannsee, was founded in 1895 and run by Anglo-Saxons. The German Federation (Deutscher Golfverband) was established in Hamburg in 1907. In Switzerland the first golf course, in Davos, was planned in 1895 by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who after its completion was annoyed by the fact that cows enjoyed chewing up the red flags that marked the greens. Development of equipment How the ball is hit and directed is the essence of golf. The changing story of the ball's manufacture falls broadly into well-defined phases, beginning with the “feathery,” which was used for centuries until it was superseded by gutta-percha. The history of the golf ball The feather-ball ( feather ) era For many years golf balls were made from wood, but in the early 17th century feather balls were introduced and were hailed as an advance. “Featheries” were manufactured by compressing boiled feathers into the pieces of stitched leather that composed the cover. For stuffing in the feathers a wooden tool was first used, after which the stuffing iron had to complete the job. When the leather case was crammed beyond increase, the hole was stitched up and the case left to dry; then the ball was hammered and made as round as possible and painted white. The whole process was so slow that the maker did well to finish four balls in a day, so that they cost as much as five shillings each. Although the feathery could be hit a long way, it became sodden and disabled in wet weather and was destroyed by hacks from iron clubs, and thus the balls were short-lived as well as expensive. The gutta-percha era gutta-percha , the evaporated milky juice or latex of various South American and South Pacific island trees (especially those of Malaysia), is soft and impressible at the temperature of boiling water but becomes hard and nonbrittle and retains its shape when cooled. It is not affected by water except at boiling temperature. In the mid-1840s it was discovered to be a substance ideal for the easy and efficient manufacture of golf balls; the manufacturing process consisted simply of boiling a strip of gutta-percha, molding it into a spherical shape, and allowing it to dry. It took a few years, however, for the potential of the “gutty” to be realized. The first prototypes were smooth as billiard balls; they were difficult to get airborne and tended to duck ( drop ) quickly in flight. It was soon discovered that ball flight improved tremendously once the ball acquired the nicks, cuts, and scuff marks that resulted from a round of play. Ball makers learned to mold balls with raised or indented surface patterns, thus ensuring proper flight. The emergence of the gutta-percha in 1848 brought about a revolutionary change in the game. The professionals had divided views, however. At St. Andrews Allan Robertson, a leading manufacturer of feather balls, would have nothing to do with gutties at first; but “Old Tom” Morris ( Morris, Thomas ), who was then his assistant, wisely foresaw the possibilities of the new ball, and on this issue the two actually parted company in 1852, Morris going into business on his own (he returned to St. Andrews in 1859, after the death of Robertson). The ball was heartily welcomed by the golf community, not least for its economy ( cost : one shilling each), and its coming immediately swelled the golfing ranks. The rubber ball The beginning of the 20th century introduced a new ball and a new era. The U.S. patent of the three-piece rubber ball—the invention of Coburn Haskell, a golfer from Cleveland, and Bertram G. Work of the B.F. Goodrich Company—involved a tension-wound rubber thread around a solid rubber core. The new design allowed for a ball that flew and rolled farther than a gutty; it was also easier to hit and gave its striker a greater sense of power. Older men found it easier to play, and hosts of women and children were drawn into the game. Early concerns as to the controllability of the rubber ball were quelled when the 1901 U.S. Amateur and the 1902 U.S. Open and British Open were won by players using the Haskell ball, defeating opponents playing gutties. Early rubber balls were covered with a layer of gutta-percha molded into a pattern of bumps (called a “bramble pattern”) that covered the entire surface. The Spalding company introduced a ball covered with balata , a natural rubber, in 1903; it proved more durable and easier to control than gutta-percha. Experiments with ball design also revealed that balls with indentations produced better results than balls with bumps (in that they reduced the drag on a ball's surface by increasing turbulence in flight), and in 1905 the dimpled cover was patented by England's William Taylor. A number of ball varieties then appeared from manufacturers catering to the golfer's desire to hit the ball farther. Length was the lure, and the trade race upset the design of courses. Championship and other tees had to be sited farther back. Another factor that greatly increased the popularity and playability of golf was the introduction of the golf tee, patented in 1899 by George F. Grant, one of the first African American golfers. Previously players forged a tee from a pinch of wet sand or used other early tees made from cardboard, rubber, or steel. Grant's invention increased the average player's chances of getting the ball airborne. The 1.62 formula Shortly after World War I the R&A enacted what is called the “1.62 formula”—that the ball should have a maximum weight of 1.62 ounces (45.93 grams) and a minimum diameter of 1.62 inches (4.11 cm). For two years the USGA tried a ball which weighed 1.55 ounces (43.94 grams) and was 1.68 inches (4.27 cm) in diameter, but in 1932 it reverted to a weight of 1.62 ounces while retaining a diameter of 1.68 inches. This larger-sized American ball was ruled mandatory by the British Professional Golf Association in 1968 and replaced the smaller ball throughout the world by 1980. By the turn of the 21st century, golf balls still conformed to the above standards, although a host of new designs were available. Traditional three-piece balata-covered balls were still popular, but golfers could also choose from two-piece balls (with a solid core and a hard Surlyn cover), two-piece “performance” balls (with thicker cores and thinner covers, allowing for the feel and control of a three-piece ball), and three-piece double-cover balls (consisting of an inner core covered by two layers of varying hardness). Experiments in the size, depth, and arrangement of dimples have also produced balls with longer flight and a higher degree of backspin. Modern golf balls can have anywhere from 324 to 492 dimples arranged in sophisticated patterns, such as multiple triangular or pentagonal groups. A major challenge for ball manufacturers is to produce improved products that still conform to USGA standards. A ball that would travel 600 yards (550 metres) is more than possible, but such a ball would not conform to the USGA's edict of 1942, which limited the velocity of a golf ball to 250 feet per second at impact. Nevertheless, ball makers have great flexibility in terms of materials used, dimple patterns, and size and weight (providing this design conforms to the standards of size and weight) and are free to design any ball that takes advantage of such leeway. The history of the club Early clubs Early specimens of clubs with lead-alloy shells, as described by Pieter van Afferden in the 16th century (see above ), came to light in 1970 when the Dutch East Indiaman Kennemerland, sunk off the Shetland Islands in 1664, was excavated. Previously the oldest clubs known were discovered in a house in Hull, England, along with a newspaper carrying a date of 1741. In the British Golf Museum at St. Andrews there are specimens of ancient clubs including two woods and an especially notable putting cleek—i.e., a putter having an iron head on a wooden shaft—made in the second half of the 18th century by Simon Cossar of Leith, club maker to the Company of Gentlemen Golfers. When Allan Robertson (see above ) of the R&A saw that golfing would not be ruined by the gutta-percha ball, he realized the value of iron clubs for approach shots and made a cleek for steadier putting. Other developments included “Young Tom” (son of “Old Tom”) Morris's ( Morris, Thomas, Jr. ) idea for the cup-faced niblick (what would be a nine iron in today's parlance) for playing the shorter approaches. The club makers of outstanding repute in the early 19th century were Hugh Philip at St. Andrews and the McEwan brothers of Musselburgh, notably Douglas, whose clubs were described as models of symmetry and shape. They were artists at a time when clubs were passing from “rude and clumsy bludgeons” to a new and handsome look. Manufacturing methods The hickory shafts of the woods—the play club (modern driver), the spoons, and the brassie —had been spliced to heads of apple or beech faced with horn. The harder rubber ball, however, brought about the use of persimmon wood and, later, laminated club heads. Hard insets appeared in the faces. Increased demand led to the adaptation of shoe-last machine tools for the fashioning of wooden club heads. Sockets were bored in the club heads, and shafts were inserted rather than spliced. Drop-forging completely replaced hand forging in the fashioning of iron clubs, and faces were deepened to accommodate the livelier ball and were machine-lined to increase the spin on the ball in flight. Composition materials were developed as an alternative to leather in grips, and the grip foundations were molded in so many ways that they were regulated in 1947. Inventive minds created novel clubs, not only centre-shafted and aluminum putters and the sand wedge but also types that were such radical departures from the traditional form and make that they could not be approved by the USGA or the R&A. In its revised code of 1908 the R&A ruled that it would not sanction any substantial departure from the traditional form and make of golf clubs. This principle has been invoked many times since then. Improvement of the shaft was accompanied by the general introduction of numbered, rather than named, clubs and by the merchandising of matched sets rather than individual clubs. Clubs had become more numerous and more finely graduated than the names that traditionally had been applied to them ( brassie , spoon , niblick , mashie , etc.), and shafts could be manufactured to specifications for flexibility and point of flex. Whereas formerly a golfer seeking new clubs went through a rack of mashies until he found one that “felt right” and then tried to find other clubs of similar feel, he later bought a whole set manufactured to impart the same feel. The merchandising opportunities inherent in the numbered and matched sets were carried to an extreme, and in 1938 the USGA limited the number of clubs a player might use in a round to 14. The R&A concurred in a similar edict the next year. Experiments with steel shafts went through several phases. In 1924 the Union Hardware Company of Torrington, Connecticut, U.S., drew a seamless shaft of high-carbon steel that could be heat-treated and tempered. It was approved by the R&A in 1929 and substantially replaced hickory in the early 1930s. In the 1960s aluminum shafts had a brief spurt of popularity; shafts of fibreglass, graphite, and titanium were introduced into the game in the decades thereafter. By the 1970s the technique of investment casting, a method of casting rather than forging to enhance the perimeter weighting of iron clubs, was commonplace, and a decade later “woods” made of metal were in widespread use by tournament professionals. The stainless-steel club heads of the 1980s gave way to titanium (a lightweight, extremely hard metal) heads in the 1990s. By the turn of the 21st century, the conversion to metal-head “woods” was near-complete. Virtually all touring professionals used them, and the term metals was gradually replacing woods in golf parlance. Players and tournaments There is no doubt that the development of golf as an organized sport was distinctly British, and Britain produced the first great players of the game. As the early golfing associations, or clubs, became established in Scotland and then England, there emerged a group of professionals who made golf balls, fashioned and repaired clubs, laid out and maintained courses, and gave lessons. Many of them were outstanding golfers and would take on all comers in the popular stakes ( money ) matches of the day. Allan Robertson of St. Andrews, for example, was regarded as the greatest golfer of his time and, according to legend, was never beaten in a stakes match played on even terms (that is, without giving his opponent a handicap). The British professionals and their amateur counterparts represented the best golf in the world from the second half of the 19th century, when the sport began to gain some world prominence, up to about the 1920s, when American players began to excel. With the tremendous increases in financial rewards to be gained in golf during the latter half of the 20th century, especially on the U.S. professional tour, and with the great mobility provided by jet transportation, golfers from other countries (e.g., Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan, Fiji, Spain, and Argentina) began to appear in the top tournaments. The premier championships The most prestigious tournaments for nonprofessionals are the Amateur Championships of the United States and Great Britain. For professionals the coveted “grand-slam” tournaments are the Masters ( Masters Tournament ), the U.S. Open ( United States Open Championship ), the British Open , and the Professional Golfers' Association (Professional Golfers' Association of America) ( PGA ) Championship. The Players Championship has also steadily gained in popularity and prestige, to the extent that it has earned the unofficial designation of a “fifth major.” The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup for professionals are important team golfing tournaments that have pitted American golfers against those of Europe. British ( British Open ) tournaments and players The Open Championship of the British Isles, which the British like to call the Open to emphasize the tradition and priority of the event begun in 1860, was the concept of the Prestwick Club in Scotland, whose minutes recorded a proposal that all clubs should contribute to raise a fund for a trophy for professional competition. Their hope, however, was badly disappointed, and the offer of support was so meagre that Prestwick decided to go it alone and spent 30 guineas on the ornamental challenge belt to be awarded to the champion. The early championships were dominated by Willie Park, “Old Tom” Morris ( Morris, Thomas, Jr. ), and his son, “Young Tom,” who retired the belt by winning it three times in succession, 1868–70. In the absence of a prize, there was no championship in 1871; but the next year a cup, which has been in competition ever since, was put up. At the end of the 19th century, England was producing great players. John Henry Taylor ( Taylor, John Henry ) and Harry Vardon ( Vardon, Harry ), together with James Braid ( Braid, James ), a Scotsman, among them won the Open Championship 16 times between 1894 and 1914. These three supreme golfers were known as “the great triumvirate” and were primarily responsible for the formation of the Professional Golfers Association in 1901. This body is responsible for professional tournaments in Great Britain and for the biennial Ryder Cup match (for professionals) when it is played there. The British Amateur Championship was started in 1885 after the Royal Liverpool Golf Club at Hoylake had proposed a tournament “open to all amateur golfers.” The tournament attracted nearly all the best amateurs of the time, but it was not immediately recognized as the championship. The following year the Royal Liverpool suggested to the R&A that the tournament be established as the Amateur Championship, and 24 clubs joined together to purchase a trophy and manage the event. Among British players who won the Amateur Championship at least two times before the series was interrupted by World War I were H.G. Hutchinson, John Ball (who won it eight times), J.E. Laidlay, and H.H. Hilton. The interwar years were marked by many outstanding players, including Cyril Tolley, Amateur champion in 1920 and 1929; Roger Wethered, Amateur champion in 1923; and Scots Hector Thomson, Jack McLean, and A.T. Kyle. The Ladies' Golf Union in Britain was formed in 1893. The first Ladies' British Amateur Championship was held that year on the old St. Anne's course in England. One of the first outstanding woman golfers was Dorothy Campbell, who won the Ladies' British Amateur Championship in 1909 and 1911 and was runner-up in 1908. She won the U.S. Women's Amateur Championship in 1909, 1910, and 1924 and the Canadian championship in 1910, 1911, and 1912. Among the many notable women who played championship golf between the wars were Joyce Wethered ( Wethered, Joyce ) (Roger Wethered's sister) and Cecil Leitch, each of whom won the Ladies' British Amateur title four times. U.S. tournaments and players The first official U.S. Open ( United States Open Championship ), Amateur ( United States Amateur Championship ), and Women's Amateur championships were held in 1895. Walter J. Travis ( Travis, Walter ) was the first great American golfer. He proved his ability as a golfer by winning the U.S. Amateur (1900–03) and the British Amateur (1904, the only year he entered this event) titles. Jerome D. Travers, the next great American champion, was a player with indomitable courage and nerve that rarely failed him. He won the U.S. Amateur Championship (1907–08, 1912–13) and the U.S. Open title (1915). After World War I the influence of the many Scottish golfers who had emigrated to the United States became evident. American golfers virtually monopolized the British Open Championship until the mid 1930s. From the 1920s into the 1980s American teams dominated the Walker Cup and Ryder Cup matches, as American women golfers did the Curtis Cup tournament from its inception in the 1930s. American golfers had begun to show their prowess in 1913, when Francis Ouimet ( Ouimet, Francis ) became a national hero by defeating Vardon and Edward Ray, two of the best British professionals, for the U.S. Open. Also notable was Charles (“Chick”) Evans ( Evans, Chick ), who was the first golfer to win the U.S. Open and Amateur in the same year (1916). But Bobby Jones ( Jones, Bobby ) has been regarded as the greatest amateur golfer of modern times. His career was brilliant from his debut in national competition in the U.S. Amateur of 1916 until his unparalleled performance in 1930 of winning all four of the world's most difficult titles—the British Amateur, the British Open, the U.S. Amateur, and the U.S. Open. The popular appeal of the U.S. Amateur Championship has been seriously weakened by departures to the professional ranks, however, and it has become exceptional for an Amateur champion to resist the lure of tournament money. In the late 1930s the professional circuit, underwritten by civic and club organizations throughout the country, began putting up major prize money for the experts. In 1936 aggregate prize money totaled $100,000. By 2000 the PGA was offering more than $135,000,000 in prizes annually. The first outstanding American professional golfers were Walter Hagen ( Hagen, Walter ) and Gene Sarazen ( Sarazen, Gene ). Hagen, a colourful and stylish player known as “The Haig,” is credited with raising the social standing of golfers. His record of 11 major tournament victories ranks second on the all-time list. Sarazen attained a career grand slam—that is, he won the U.S. Open, British Open, the PGA Championship, and the Masters Tournament during the course of his career. (It should be noted that when Bobby Jones won a grand slam during the 1930 season, the four tournaments that constituted the grand slam were different; the British Amateur and U.S. Amateur tournaments would be supplanted by the PGA Championship and the Masters.) Dominant players of the 1940s included Sam Snead ( Snead, Sam ), Ben Hogan ( Hogan, Ben ), Byron Nelson ( Nelson, Byron ), and Jimmy Demaret. Snead, one of golf's most humourous and ingratiating players, was recognized for the easy grace of his natural, self-taught swing. His 81 PGA Tour victories still stand as the all-time record for men (Kathy Whitworth ( Whitworth, Kathy ) holds the record for the most tour wins, with 88 in the Ladies Professional Golf Association). Equally dominant was Hogan, who in many ways was the polar opposite of Snead. An aloof, intense player nicknamed “the Hawk,” Hogan possessed a swing regarded as technically perfect and almost machinelike in consistency. Critically injured in an auto accident in 1949, Hogan was not expected to walk, let alone play golf, again, but he adhered to a rigorous exercise program and returned to the game within a year. His fragile legs allowed him to play only a limited schedule, but many feel that Hogan played his best golf after his comeback. In 1953 he became the first player to win three major tournaments (the Masters , the U.S. Open, and the British Open) within a single season. Golf steadily increased in popularity throughout the 20th century, becoming something of a worldwide phenomenon in the late 1950s and early '60s. The catalyst for this was Arnold Palmer ( Palmer, Arnold ). Handsome, charismatic, and possessing an exciting, go-for-broke style of play, Palmer was the perfect star for the new age of television coverage in golf. A major drawing card at tournaments, his legions of fans became known as “Arnie's Army.” He became the first player to win four Masters Tournaments, which he accomplished in every even-numbered year from 1958 to 1964. His popularity was such that many resented the arrival of the comparatively dour Jack Nicklaus ( Nicklaus, Jack ), who turned professional in 1962 and was soon to dominate the game. In time, however, Nicklaus captured the hearts of golf fans throughout the world and came to be regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the game. A career grand-slam winner, Nicklaus holds the all-time record of 18 victories in the major professional tournaments. He achieved his final major victory at age 46 in the 1986 Masters, regarded as one of the most memorable and emotional moments in golf history. Also dominant during the 1960s and '70s were the South African Gary Player ( Player, Gary ) (another career grand-slam winner) and the Americans Billy Casper and Lee Trevino ( Trevino, Lee ). Other outstanding players of these and the following decades included Tom Watson, Johnny Miller, Chi Chi Rodriguez, Raymond Floyd, Hale Irwin, Greg Norman, Seve Ballesteros, José Maria Olazabal, Davis Love III, and Vijay Singh. By the 1990s it seemed inconceivable that any single player would come along to challenge Nicklaus's dominance, Palmer's popularity, or Hogan's precision. The inconceivable happened in 1997 with the emergence of Tiger Woods ( Woods, Tiger ). Heavily touted in the press for years as a child prodigy (he is reported to have shot 48 for nine holes at age three), Woods at age 21 fulfilled his promise by winning the 1997 Masters with a record score of 270 and by a record margin of 12 strokes. At his young age he was already one of the most powerful and disciplined players in golf history, his game exhibiting no weaknesses in any area. Woods went on to achieve within the next four years what many top golfers can only dream of accomplishing within a lifetime. At age 24 he utterly dominated the U.S. Open and British Open tournaments of 2000 and became the youngest player to achieve a career grand slam. He scored his second Masters victory in 2001, thus becoming the first to hold all four major professional titles simultaneously, an accomplishment regarded as one of the great feats in the history of professional sports. Before Woods's arrival, it would have seemed absurd to tout so young a player as the greatest in the game's history, yet he has been afforded such praise by the likes of Nicklaus, Snead, and other veteran players. That he is of African American and Asian descent is also significant in that, within a few short years, he almost single-handedly transformed a game that once seemed the domain of white males into one that is now enjoyed by all ethnic groups. He is perhaps the perfect embodiment of golf's potential in the 21st century. The Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) Several professional tournaments for women were staged during the 1920s and '30s; important players from this era include Glenna Collett ( Vare, Glenna Collett ) from the United States and Joyce Wethered ( Wethered, Joyce ) of Great Britain. It was not until the 1940s that efforts began in earnest to form a professional golf organization for women. The first, the Women's Professional Golf Association (WPGA), was chartered in 1944. Standout players soon emerged, including Patty Berg ( Berg, Patty ), Louise Suggs ( Suggs, Louise ), Betty Jameson, and, especially , the multisport legend Mildred (“Babe”) Didrikson Zaharias ( Zaharias, Babe Didrikson ). Even Zaharias's popularity, however, could not ensure success for the WPGA, which folded in 1949. Nevertheless, it proved within its brief existence the need for a professional women's organization. The Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) was incorporated in August 1950 by the aforementioned golfers plus eight others. Funding for LPGA tournaments was at first so poor that golfers themselves performed many of the organizational tasks and course maintenance chores. Soon, however, the introduction of the Weathervane series of tournaments (a series of four 36-hole tournaments that offered a $3,000 prize for each tournament and a $5,000 prize for the overall winner of the four) proved sufficiently popular to sustain the organization throughout the decade. The play of such outstanding golfers as Kathy Whitworth ( Whitworth, Kathy ), Mickey Wright ( Wright, Mickey ), Carol Mann, Sandra Haynie, and Sandra Palmer helped maintain a reasonable level of popularity for the LPGA throughout the 1960s. Star players who emerged during the following decade include Jan Stephenson, Jo-Anne Carner, Amy Alcott, and Judy Rankin. The most notable player to emerge during the '70s was Nancy Lopez, who, by winning nine tournaments (including a record five straight) during her first full season on the tour (1978), was a major force in increasing the popularity and prestige of the LPGA. Pat Daniel, Betsy King, Patty Sheehan, Juli Inkster, and Laura Davies were among the top players of the 1980s and '90s. By the turn of the century, when the annual purse for LPGA events had increased to more than $37 million per year, the tour was dominated by such players as Karrie Webb, Annika Sorenstam, and Se Ri Pak. Sorenstam made headlines in 2001 by becoming the first female golfer to score 59 in competition and by becoming only the fourth player in LPGA history (after Whitworth, Wright , and Lopez) to win four consecutive tournaments. International competition Matches and tournaments The first organized series of regular international matches were between Great Britain and the United States . The amateur team match between the two countries for the Walker Cup was inaugurated in 1922, and the professional team match for the Ryder Cup in 1927. The women's amateur team match for the Curtis Cup began in 1932. Although the competition in all these contests has often been close, the U.S. teams managed to win the cups with great consistency. In an attempt to bring parity to the Ryder Cup, the format was changed in 1979 to broaden the British team to include continental European players as well. This strategy has proved successful, and subsequent Ryder Cup matches have been fiercely contended, with both teams exhibiting excellent play. Between 1979 and 2000 the United States won six times and Europe four times, while one match (1989) ended in a tie. Circuits The coming of jet transport stimulated competition. Ocean hopping became routine, enabling outstanding players from such places as South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Fiji, Spain, Japan, and Korea to compete in the premier championships in Great Britain and the United States and on the lucrative U.S. PGA Tour. Since being launched in 1971, the PGA European Tour has grown in terms of prestige and prize money to the extent that American players are frequent participants. By the turn of the 21st century, professional golf was a worldwide phenomenon, with players of various nationalities competing on multiple international tours. The Senior PGA Tour Also popular is the Senior PGA Tour, designed for golfers 50 years of age and up. Begun in the early 1980s, its total purse was $10 million within a few years, and it had swelled to some $50 million by 2000. Although veterans such as Nicklaus, Palmer, Trevino ( Trevino, Lee ), Rodriguez, and Irwin were no longer competing with the young men of the PGA Tour on a daily basis, they extended their competitive careers into the 21st century with the Senior PGA Tour, demonstrating some excellent golf in the process. Play of the game Courses The game consists of playing the ball from a teeing ground into a hole by successive strokes in accordance with the rules. The stipulated round consists of 18 holes, and most golf courses have 18. Standard 18-hole courses measure from 6,500 to 7,000 yards (5,900 to 6,400 metres); individual holes are from 100 to 600 yards (90 to 550 metres). Some courses have only nine holes; these are played twice in a stipulated round. The clubs are designed for the various positions in which the ball may come to rest and for the various distances to the hole. The objective is to hole the ball in the fewest strokes. In the early 19th century there was no agreement on the number of holes on a golf course; localities differed widely in the matter. When the popularity of Leith, with its five holes, waned and St. Andrews became the hub, the round of 18 holes was established. Originally the St. Andrews holes filed straight out alongside the shore and were played in reverse for the return journey—11 holes each way. In 1764 the round was modified to 18 holes. The variety of courses gives golf an intrinsic charm. Equipment Golf balls Regulation balls have a maximum weight of 1.62 ounces (45.93 grams) and a minimum diameter of 1.68 inches (4.27 cm). In U.S. competition the velocity of the ball may not exceed 250 feet per second when measured under prescribed conditions on an apparatus maintained by the USGA, but there is no velocity specification for British play. Golf clubs In the average good player's set there are usually either 3 or 4 wood clubs and 9 or 10 irons (no more than 14 clubs may be carried during a round). No two clubs in a set are the same. There are differences in length and suppleness of shaft, weight, size, and shape of head, the angle at which the shaft ends and the head begins (the lie ), and the angle of the face of the club from the vertical (the loft ). The various clubs are known both by number and by name. The number of a club largely designates its length and the pitch of its head, which translates into the distance and height a club will drive a ball. Generally, the lower the number, the greater the distance potential; distance decreases and pitch (thus height) increases progressively as club numbers go up. The woods (or metals) are mostly used for driving the longer distances. Sources differ on the name equivalency of the numbered clubs, but the most widely used clubs may be identified as follows: ● Irons: number 1 ( driving iron ), number 2 ( midiron ), number 3 ( mid-mashie ), number 4 ( mashie iron ), number 5 ( mashie ), number 6 (spade mashie), number 7 (mashie-niblick), number 8 ( pitching niblick ), number 9 ( niblick ), number 10 ( wedge ), and putter (carries no number). Rules The rule-making bodies for golf are the R&A and the USGA. They attempt to perpetuate uniformity in rules by exchanging views on interpretations and on recommendations for revision. The present code makes an amazing contrast with the first rules, 13 in number, that were framed by the Honourable Company ( Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers ). The first of them ordained that the ball had to be teed within a club length of the previous hole and the tee had to be on the ground. Tee and green were one. The ball struck from the tee was not to be changed, and the player could (rule 5) take his ball out of water or “watery filth” to play it and allow his opponent a stroke. The St. Andrews golfers, in founding the R&A, adopted almost exactly the Leith rules. There were periodical reforms before the rules committee of the R&A was formed in 1897 to become the final authority. The rules committee has co-opted representatives from the Commonwealth, the European Golf Federation, the United States, and the British Unions Advisory Committee. Britain and the United States have had separate codes at various times, but a uniform code went into effect in 1967. The rules of golf define an amateur golfer as “one who plays the game solely as a nonremunerative and non-profit-making sport.” But the elasticity of this definition perturbs the game's legislators for what it does not define. The whole question of status in its various aspects engages the attention jointly of the R&A and the USGA. In general, an amateur remains so until and unless he takes specific action toward becoming a professional, even though he might have indicated his intention of becoming a professional in the future. Procedure The starting place for each hole to be played is the teeing ground. The front is indicated by two markers, and the teeing ground is the rectangular space two club lengths in depth directly behind the line indicated by the markers. The player tees his ball anywhere within this space, usually setting it up on a small wooden or plastic peg (called a tee), and strikes it toward the hole. The stroke from the teeing ground is called the drive. For this the player usually employs a number 1 wood club, or driver, although, to avoid a hazard or to attempt to place his ball in a favourable position for his second shot (for example, on a long hole with a sharp bend, or dogleg), he may prefer one of the other woods or an iron. On short, par-three holes most players use an iron. The preferred line to the hole is generally a clear, mowed route called the fairway. The fairway was historically bordered by unmowed vegetation—heather, grasses, weeds, bushes—called rough. Most modern courses in the United States, however, are not characterized by deep and tangled rough and when inland make effective use of trees. At strategic places along the preferred line to the hole and guarding the putting green are obstacles called bunkers, depressions filled with sand (sand traps). Some holes require the player to cross streams or ponds. Both bunkers and bodies of water are termed hazards. Middle irons are used until the player has come within close range of the green. Two methods of play are then open for the approach shot: the golfer may pitch the ball all the way and depend on backspin to stop it near the pin, or he may play a chip shot, in which the ball flies partway through the air, as to the edge of the close-clipped surface of the green, and then rolls the remaining distance. The hole itself measures 4.25 inches (10.8 cm) in diameter and at least 4 inches (10.2 cm) deep, and it is set in an area of turf especially prepared and maintained and closely mowed for putting. When the player putts, he uses a straight-faced club and rolls the ball across the putting green toward and eventually into the hole. Forms of play Match and medal play There are two distinct forms of play: match play and stroke ( medal ) play. In match play the player and his opponent are playing together and competing only against each other, while in stroke play each competitor is competing against every other player in the tournament. In match play the game is played by holes, and each hole is won by the player who holes his ball in the fewest strokes. If both players score the same number of strokes, the hole is halved. When a player has won one more hole than his opponents, he is said to be one up. The match is won by the player who is leading by a number of holes greater than the number of holes remaining to be played, as, for example, three up and two to play. In stroke play the competitor who holes the stipulated round or rounds in the fewest total strokes is the winner. Amateur championships once were all at match play, and open championships and most professional events at stroke play, covering four 18-hole rounds. Some amateur events have adopted stroke play (the match play U.S. Amateur event was competed at stroke play from 1965 to 1973), as has the U.S. PGA Championship. Stroke play requires a greater degree of consistency in a player, for one hole where he lapses into a high figure can ruin his total and cost him victory. The same high score on a hole in match play means only the loss of that hole. In both match and stroke play, players can compete as individuals or as partners. When two players compete as partners, each playing his own ball, the better ball on each hole is their score for that hole; this is a four-ball or best-ball match. Two players may compete as partners with two others, each pair playing alternate strokes on a single ball; this is a match foursome. The advent of televised championships wrote the death notice for match play in professional golf. By scheduling the leaders together on the final round, exciting finishes are made most probable. Handicaps ( handicap ) Players of varying abilities compete against each other by using handicaps. A handicap is the number of strokes a player receives to adjust his score to a common level. The better the player, the smaller his handicap, and the best players have handicaps of zero (scratch players). A scratch player whose average score is 70 can have an even match with a player whose average score is 80 by giving him a handicap of 10 strokes. Handicap golf is limited to amateur competitions, and championship tournaments are played without handicaps. Par golf Every course has a par, which is defined as the score an expert (i.e., a scratch player) would be expected to make, and many courses also have a bogey, which is defined as the score that a moderately good golfer would be expected to make. Both par and bogey are further defined as errorless play without flukes and under ordinary weather conditions, allowing two strokes on the putting green. Par is essentially an American term that came into use in the early 1900s as a base for computing handicaps. Bogey is essentially a British term that came into use in England in 1891 and was derived from a mythical Colonel Bogey, who was described as uniformly steady but never overbrilliant. Colloquially in the United States , bogey is used to indicate a score one stroke above par. Variants Par-three golf Par-three golf courses, on which each hole measures 100 yards (90 metres) more or less and plays at par three, were developed as a result of the shortage of available open land in congested urban areas. Whereas a regulation 18-hole course may stretch to more than 7,000 yards, about 4 miles (6.4 km), an 18-hole par-three, or short-hole, course can be laid out in about 1,800 yards (1.6 km). Driving ranges Driving ranges were developed as commercial establishments at which golfers and aspiring golfers could, for a small fee, practice their swings. They, too, have appealed to golfers in areas in which courses are overcrowded and are especially popular in Japan , where such conditions prevail. Heiner Gillmeister Francis Moran John Ross Goodner Ed. Additional Reading Historical surveys include Robert H.K. Browning, A History of Golf (1955, reprinted 1990); and Alan Eliot and John Allan May, A History of Golf (1990, rev. ed. 1994). More specialized histories are Geoffrey Cousins, Lords of the Links: The Story of Professional Golf (1977), and Golf in Britain: A Social History from the Beginnings to the Present Day (1975); and Herbert Warren Wind, The Story of American Golf (2001). Information on women's golf may be found in Roger Vaughan, Golf : The Women's Game (2001). The struggle of African American golfers is told in Pete McDaniel, Uneven Lies (2001). References on the design of courses include Geoffrey S. Cornish and Ronald E. Whitman, The Architects of Golf (1993, rev. ed. of 1981 book entitled The Golf Course); and Geoff Shackleford, The Golden Age of Golf Design (1999). Pat Ward-Thomas, Charles Price, Herbert Warren Wind, Peter Thomson, and Mark Rowlinson, The World Atlas of Golf (1976, rev. ed. 2001), reviews golf courses, the game , and important events in the game's history. Donald Steel and Peter Ryde (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Golf (1975); and Malcolm Campbell, The Encyclopedia of Golf (1991, rev. ed 1994), are highly regarded reference works. For pictorial histories, see Anthony Edgeware and John de St. Jorre, Legendary Golf Clubs of Scotland, England , Wales , and Ireland (1998); and Dick Durrance and John Sibley Yow, Golfers (2000).John Ross Goodner Ed. * * *	i don't know
What was the name of Hanna-Barbera's space-age counterpart to The Flintstones?	Top 10 Best Hanna-Barbera Cartoons - Listverse Top 10 Best Hanna-Barbera Cartoons JFrater, and astro January 29, 2009 I have to confess that while I don’t watch television much these days, as a kid I adored the cartoons of Hanna-Barbera. They were always colorful and fun, and I have many happy memories of early weekend mornings in front of the tele before rushing off to play for the day. These cartoons are not full of skimpily clad girls with attitudes that would make an adult blush (as so many are today) – they are from the good old days of innocent entertainment. This broad selection covers some of my favorites, and definitely the top of the pick. I hope this list as fun a trip down memory lane for you all as it was for me. 10 The Herculoids Together, the Herculoids battled to defend their planet from menaces on Quasar and from Outer Space. All of the Herculoids displayed Human-level intelligence, and Zandor & Tarra displayed a working knowledge of complex alien technologies as well as the ability to pilot interstellar spacecraft. Although the “speech” of their companions was limited and repetitive, Zandor, Tarra and Dorno (c.f.The Mutoids: “Gleep says that the aliens who landed are attacking Dorno and Tundro.”) demonstrated that Gloop & Gleep, at least, had a comprehensive mode of communication, and that they could at least understand and interpret the “language”. In reality, the voices were brief tracks supplied by two actors and reused throughout the series, in keeping with Hanna-Barbera’s thrifty ethos. 9 The Quick Draw McGraw Show Quick Draw McGraw is the anthropomorphic cartoon horse, the third cartoon television production created by Hanna-Barbera following their success with The Ruff & Reddy Show and The Huckleberry Hound Show. It debuted in 1959. Quick Draw was usually depicted as a sheriff in these short films set in the American Old West. Each episode was approximately six minutes long; this allowed four episodes per half-hour program with commercial advertisements in between. Quick Draw was often accompanied by his deputy, a Mexican burro called Baba Looey, who spoke English with a Mexican accent. Quick Draw satirized the westerns that were popular among the American public at the time. His character was well-intentioned, but somewhat dim. 8 The Huckleberry Hound Show One of the very first HB cartoons, beginning in 1958, and lasting 69 episodes. The Huckleberry Hound Show was probably the series that truly made Hanna-Barbera a household name, and is often credited with legitimizing the concept of animation produced specifically for television; it won an Emmy award in 1961. Three segments were included in the program: one featuring Huckleberry Hound; Yogi Bear and his sidekick Boo Boo; and Pixie and Dixie, two mice who in each short found a new way to outwit the cat Mr. Jinks. 7 Yogi Bear Yogi Bear made his debut in 1958 as a supporting character in The Huckleberry Hound Show. He was the first break-out character created by Hanna-Barbera Studios, and was eventually more popular than Huckleberry Hound. In 1961 he was given his own show, The Yogi Bear Show, which also included the segments Snagglepuss and Yakky Doodle. Yogi was one of several Hanna-Barbera characters to have a collar, which allowed the body to be kept static and to redraw just the head in each frame when he was speaking, thus reducing the number of drawings needed for a seven-minute cartoon from 14,000 to around 2,000. 6 Johnny Quest Jonny Quest was about a boy who accompanies his father on extraordinary adventures. It featured more realistic violence than earlier Hanna-Barbera programs, adding suspense and impact to the show. This, the first of several Hanna-Barbera action-based adventure shows, ran on ABC in prime time for one season in 1964–1965. The series was inspired by the James Bond film Dr. No, and its visual style was unusual for its time, combining a fairly realistic depiction of human figures and objects with fairly limited animation techniques. The series made heavy use of rich music scores, offscreen impacts with sound effects, reaction shots, cycling animations, cutaways, scene to scene dissolves, and abbreviated dialogue to move the story forward, without requiring extensive original animation of figures. 5 The Jetsons The Jetsons originally ran on Sunday nights on ABC from September 23, 1962 to March 3, 1963. It was Hanna-Barbera’s space age counterpart to The Flintstones. A half-hour family sitcom projecting contemporary American culture and lifestyle into another time period. The Jetsons live in a futuristic utopia of elaborate robotic contraptions, aliens, holograms, and whimsical inventions. George Jetson (the father) works 3 hours a day and 3 days a week for his short, tyrannical boss named Mr. Cosmo Spacely, owner of the company Spacely Space Sprockets. Typical episodes involve Mr. Spacely firing and rehiring or promoting and demoting George Jetson. 4 Tom and Jerry Tom and Jerry centered on a never-ending rivalry between a housecat (Tom) and a mouse (Jerry) whose chases and battles often involved comic violence. Hanna and Barbera ultimately wrote and directed one hundred and fourteen Tom and Jerry cartoons at the MGM cartoon studio in Hollywood, California between 1940 and 1957, when the animation unit was closed. The original series is notable for having won the Academy Awards for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) seven times. Throughout the years, the term and title Tom and Jerry became practically synonymous with never-ending rivalry, as much as the related “cat and mouse fight” metaphor has. 3 Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! is the first incarnation of the long-running Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning cartoon Scooby-Doo. It premiered on September 13, 1969 at 10:30 a.m. EST and ran for two seasons on CBS as a half-hour long show. Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! was a breakaway hit for Hanna-Barbera and CBS, who quickly introduced similar cartoons to accompany Scooby-Doo: Josie and the Pussycats, The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show, The Funky Phantom, Speed Buggy, Jabberjaw, and Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels. From episode to episode, the plot varied very little – with the “gang” breaking down near a haunted building, trying to find clues, eventually solving the puzzle, and heading off again. Despite this, the show was immensely popular – and beyond any doubt greater than the future series which included the annoying Scrappy Doo (Scooby’s nephew). 2 The Smurfs The Smurfs is a American cartoon series that aired on NBC from 1981 to 1990. Made by Hanna-Barbera, it is based on the Belgian comic series The Smurfs, created by Peyo, and aired for 256 episodes, with a total of 421 stories. The show became a major success for NBC, spawning spin-off television specials on an almost yearly basis. The Smurfs was nominated multiple times for Daytime Emmy awards, and won Outstanding Children’s Entertainment Series in 1982–1983. The Smurfs television show enjoyed continued success until 1990, when, after a decade of success, NBC cancelled it due to decreasing ratings. 1 The Flintstones The Flintstones is about a working class Stone Age man’s life with his family and his next door neighbor and best friend. This show played like a prehistoric Honeymooners and its popularity rested heavily on its consistently entertaining juxtaposition of modern-day concerns in the Stone Age setting. The first prime-time animated series geared for adults, the show originally aired from 1960 to 1966 on the ABC network. The show is an allegory to American society of the mid-20th century; in the Flintstones’ fantasy version of the past, dinosaurs, saber-toothed tigers, woolly mammoths, and other long extinct animals co-exist with barefoot cavemen, who use technology very similar to that of the mid-20th century, although made entirely from pre-industrial materials and largely powered through the use of various animals. Notable Omissions: Top Cat, Captain Caveman, Space Ghost, Birdman, and the Snorks This article is licensed under the GFDL because it contains quotations from Wikipedia. Contributor: JFrater, and astro	The Jetsons
On which race track is the Kentucky Oaks run?	Chronology of Hanna-Barbera Cartoons, page 1 of 2 from the book Hanna-Barbera Cartoons page 1 of 2 or a sample chapter from the book. 1936 To Spring becomes William Hanna's directorial debut for Harman-Ising, released through Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. 1937 Joseph Barbera and William Hanna meet in the offices of MGM. 1938 William Hanna directs several Captain and the Kids cartoons for MGM. 1939 Hanna and Barbera begin working together on a new animated short starring a cat and a mouse entitled Puss Gets the Boot. 1940 Puss Gets the Boot, directed by Hanna and Barbera, receives an Academy Award nomination. They also direct two new cartoons for MGM entitled Swing Social and Gallopin' Gals. 1941 Tom and Jerry are officially christened in a cartoon directed by Hanna and Barbera, entitled Midnight Snack. Tom and Jerry receive an Academy Award nomination for the cartoon The Night Before Christmas, directed by Hanna and Barbera. They also direct new cartoons entitled The Goose Goes South and Officer Pooch. 1942 Hanna and Barbera direct the following Tom and Jerry releases this year entitled Fraidy Cat, Dog Trouble, Puss N' Toots, The Bowling Alley Cat, and Fine Feathered Friend. 1943 Hanna and Barbera direct War Dogs for MGM. The first of seven Academy Awards, and the first of four Academy Awards in a row, is given to the Tom and Jerry cartoon Yankee Doodle Mouse, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1944 Tom and Jerry win their second Academy Award for Mouse Trouble, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1945 Tom and Jerry win the Academy Award again with Quiet Please!, directed by Hanna and Barbera. Anchors Aweigh is produced and contains a historic motion picture scene combining animation with live-action. Gene Kelly and Jerry share the screen in a dance sequence together and Tom has a brief cameo appearance. 1946 Tom and Jerry win their fourth Academy Award for Cat Concerto, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1947 Tom and Jerry receive another Academy Award nomination for Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Mouse, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1948 Tom and Jerry receive their fifth Academy Award for The Little Orphan, directed by Hanna and Barbera. They also direct a new cartoon entitled Make Mine Freedom. 1949 Tom and Jerry receive another Academy Award nomination for the Tom and Jerry cartoon Hatch Up Your Troubles, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1950 Tom and Jerry receive an Academy Award nomination for Jerry's Cousin, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1951 Tom and Jerry win their sixth Academy Award for The Two Mouseketeers, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1952 Tom and Jerry win their seventh Academy Award, making it seven wins in ten years, with Johann Mouse, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1953 MGM releases Dangerous When Wet, which contains an animated/live-action sequence of Tom and Jerry swimming in perfect synchronization with Esther Williams. 1954 Tom and Jerry receive an Academy Award nomination for Touché, Pussycat, directed by Hanna and Barbera. 1955 Good Will to Men, a remake of Hugh Harman's 1939 cartoon entitled Peace On Earth, is directed by Hanna and Barbera and receives an Academy Award nomination. 1956 Gene Kelly returns to Hanna and Barbera with another animation project: to create the animation sequence in Invitation to the Dance, a MGM theatrical feature. Hanna and Barbera produce for MGM Spike and Tyke, the father and son dog team from the Tom and Jerry cartoons. They appear in their very own cartoon entitled Give and Tyke. 1957 MGM closes the animation studio. Hanna and Barbera open Hanna-Barbera Productions and begin work on Ruff and Reddy, their first animated series for television airing on NBC. Utilizing the "limited animation" technique that had been used years earlier to limit the costs of theatrical cartoons, Hanna-Barbera used only 4,000 cels per cartoon. This new technique would work well for Hanna-Barbera, considering they were only given $2,700 to produce a five-minute cartoon. Bill and Joe stepped up to the challenge and collectively figured out how to combine action with dialogue while limiting the amount of drawings used to simulate movement. Hanna-Barbera's first animated television show Ruff and Reddy is released as a half-hour series on NBC. Starring the voices of Don Messick and Daws Butler, the series followed a serial-style format and was first aired in black and white but was soon broadcast in color. Hanna-Barbera had the foresight to produce all episodes in color. 1958 Hanna-Barbera releases The Huckleberry Hound Show. The show is comprised of six-and-a-half-minute separate cartoon segments starring Pixie and Dixie, Yogi Bear, and Huckleberry Hound. Tot Watchers, the last MGM Tom and Jerry cartoon directed by Hanna and Barbera, is released. 1959 The Quick Draw McGraw Show is released featuring a new group of television cartoon stars--Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy and Snooper and Blabber--in separate segments. A common trivia question is the identity of a character found in the Quick Draw segments, a reoccurring orange dog named Snuf�es who makes happy noises and �oats in the air after receiving a dog biscuit. Hanna-Barbera also releases its first theatrical cartoon called Loopy de Loop through Columbia Pictures. 1960 Often thought of as Hanna-Barbera's most famous creation, The Flintstones premieres in prime-time on ABC. This half-hour series runs for six seasons totaling 166 episodes. The Huckleberry Hound Show wins an Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Field of Children's Programming. 1961 Yogi Bear is so popular, he is given his own show. Hokey Wolf takes Yogi's place in The Huckleberry Hound Show. The Yogi Bear Show is a half-hour series featuring Yakky Doodle and Snagglepuss, the pink, quick-witted mountain lion thespian who must "exit, stage left" whenever he sees trouble. Top Cat, Hanna-Barbera's second prime-time half-hour series, premieres on ABC. 1962 The Jetsons premieres on ABC in prime-time as the futuristic answer to The Flintstones. Unlike The Flintstones, Hanna-Barbera only produced twenty-four episodes of The Jetsons, an amazing statistic to many fans. The original episodes continued to run in syndication for twenty-two years, and it wasn't until 1984 that all new episodes were produced for television. Hanna-Barbera releases a syndicated package entitled The Hanna-Barbera New Cartoon Series, which featured three new series of shorts: Wally Gator, Touché Turtle, and Lippy the Lion. Fifty-two episodes of each were produced. 1964 The Magilla Gorilla Show is released featuring two other cartoon segments, Ricochet Rabbit and Breezly and Sneezly. Punkin' Puss and Mush Mouse replaces Breezly and Sneezly in the fall. Peter Potamus is released in syndication also featuring separate cartoon segments Breezly and Sneezly and Yippee, Yappee and Yahooey. Hanna-Barbera releases Jonny Quest, a science-fiction action-adventure series that premiered on ABC. The series concept was by Doug Wildey, a respected comic book artist. A total of twenty-six half-hours were produced. Hanna-Barbera releases Hey There, It's Yogi Bear through Columbia Pictures, Hanna-Barbera's first full-length animated feature. 1965 Hanna-Barbera releases a one-hour prime-time special entitled The World of Secret Squirrel and Atom Ant, to showcase a new Saturday morning series. This special features Hanna and Barbera landing a helicopter in the studio parking lot and racing into the studio to talk to the animated characters of Secret Squirrel and Atom Ant. The Tom and Jerry Show is released by MGM as a half-hour series on CBS, featuring the theatrical Tom and Jerry cartoons directed by Hanna and Barbera while they were at MGM in the '40s and '50s. The series title would be changed to Tom and Jerry and Friends for syndication. Hanna-Barbera releases the series The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show comprised of two half-hour blocks, the first starring Atom Ant along with separate segments for the Hillbilly Bears and Precious Pupp. The second half-hour featured Secret Squirrel with his sidekick Morocco Mole and two separate segments for Squiddly Diddly and Winsome Witch, airing on NBC. Hanna-Barbera produces eighty-two five-and-a-half-minute episodes of Sinbad Jr. for Orion Pictures. The series was originally titled The Adventures of Sinbad Jr. 1966 The Peter Potamus Show is released as a half-hour series on ABC. Hanna-Barbera releases The Man Called Flintstone, a feature-length animated theatrical spy thriller starring Fred Flintstone. The final episode of The Flintstones original series airs. Hanna-Barbera takes a new direction as it releases science-fiction action-adventure shows on CBS. The studio releases Frankenstein Jr. and The Impossibles, a half-hour series comprised of two Impossibles segments and one Frankenstein Jr. segment per episode. Space Ghost and Dino Boy is released as a half-hour series on CBS comprised of two Space Ghost segments and one Dino Boy segment. Space Kiddettes, featuring the adventures of four space-age youngsters, and the animated adventures of Young Samson and his dog Goliath are released as a half-hour series in syndication. The studio also releases Alice in Wonderland, based on the original Lewis Carroll story. Hanna-Barbera produces the half-hour series Laurel and Hardy for Wolper Productions and Larry Harmon Productions. 1967 Hanna-Barbera releases a half-hour action-adventure superhero series Birdman and the Galaxy Trio on NBC. This series was comprised of two Birdman segments and one Galaxy Trio segment per half-hour. The Herculoids, Moby Dick and Mighty Mightor and Shazzan are released as a half-hour series on CBS. Hanna-Barbera produces and releases in association with Marvel Comics Group, Fantastic Four, a half-hour series based on the popular Marvel comic book characters on ABC. Yogi and His Friends is syndicated featuring some of Hanna-Barbera's classic cartoon stars, Snagglepuss, Huckleberry Hound, and Hokey Wolf, to name a few. Hanna and Barbera are reunited with Gene Kelly in the one-hour Emmy Award�winning special Jack and the Beanstalk, produced and released by Hanna-Barbera and airing on NBC. This musical special combined live-action with animation and was based on the children's story of the same name. Hanna-Barbera produces Abbott and Costello for RKO-Jomar Productions. Bud Abbott supplied the voice for his character in this animated series. 1968 Hanna-Barbera releases their first animated/live-action series on NBC entitled The Banana Splits Adventure Hour. This hour-long show contained live-action sequences of the Banana Splits (live actors dressed in animal suits), musical wraparounds starring the Splits, and Danger Island, a live-action serial show filmed in Mexico. All of the live-action segments were directed by Richard Donner. The series also contained three animated segments: Arabian Knights, The Three Musketeers, and Micro-Ventures. Hanna-Barbera in association with Heatter-Quigley produces and releases Wacky Races, a half-hour series on CBS. The show is broken into two eleven-minute road races starring Dick Dastardly, Muttley, Penelope Pitstop, and others. Hanna-Barbera releases a half-hour series entitled The Adventures of Gulliver on ABC. The live-action/animated half-hour series The New Adventures of Huck Finn is released on NBC. 1969 Hanna-Barbera releases a new one-hour series starring a psychedelic musical group called The Cattanooga Cats on ABC. This series includes It's the Wolf, Around the World in 79 Days, and Autocat and Motormouse. Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! is released as a half-hour series on CBS. The show rebroadcasts on ABC several times and new episodes are produced in 1978. Wacky Races do-badders, Dastardly and Muttley, star in a half-hour spin-off series entitled Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines released on CBS. This series contains cartoon minuettes featuring Muttley in fantasy-type scenarios entitled "Magnificent Muttley." Also featured is a character named Klunk who is voiced by Don Messick. Klunk is a character that has a unique language and is understood only by his partner Zilly, also voiced by Don Messick. Kluck's wild facial expressions fit every sound and syllable. Another Wacky Races spin-off, The Perils of Penelope Pitstop, is released as a half-hour series on CBS. 1970 Where's Huddles? is released as a half-hour series on CBS. Hanna-Barbera in association with Radio Comics, Inc. and Teenamation, Inc. produces and releases Josie and the Pussycats as a sci-fi mystery/musical half-hour series for CBS. Motormouse and Autocat along with It's the Wolf are given their own half-hour time slot on ABC. The Harlem Globetrotters is produced in association with Saperstein Productions and releases as a half-hour animated series on CBS. 1971 The Funky Phantom is released as a half-hour series on ABC. Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm appear as young adults in Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm, a half-hour series released on CBS. Help! It's the Hair Bear Bunch is released as a half-hour series on CBS. 1972 Gidget Makes the Wrong Connection is produced for Columbia Pictures and released as a one-hour special on ABC. Hanna-Barbera releases Banana Splits in Hocus Pocus Park, starring the Banana Splits in both live-action and animated sequences. This one-hour special premieres on ABC. Hanna-Barbera produces two late-night animated specials for Paramount Television, one starring Tom Bosley entitled Love and the Old Fashioned Father, and the other starring Richard Dawson who played Melvin Danger in Love and the Private Eye. Both specials aired as part of the Love American Style series. The studio also produces and releases two half-hour animated specials, The Thanksgiving that Almost Wasn't and A Christmas Story. Last of the Curlews, a one-hour animated special based on a book by Fred Bosworth regarding the possible extinction of the Eskimo Curlew species, is released and broadcast as an ABC Afterschool Special. The New Scooby-Doo Movies are released as a one-hour series featuring famous celebrities in animated form including Don Knotts, Sandy Duncan, Sonny and Cher, Davy Jones, Cass Elliot, and Dick Van Dyke. Hanna-Barbera produces and releases in association with American Leisure Concepts The Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan. Josie and the Pussycats in Outer Space is produced in association with Archie Comics and released as a half-hour series on CBS. Sealab 2020 is released as a half-hour series on NBC. The studio also releases The Flintstones Comedy Hour, which contained previously released Flintstones episodes and other assorted comedy segments including Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm. Wait 'Till Your Father Gets Home is released as a half-hour syndicated series. Hanna-Barbera releases Yogi's Ark Lark, based on the Noah's Ark tale from the Bible. This half-hour special premieres on ABC. Oliver and the Artful Dodger is released as a two-hour special on ABC. It is based on the classic Charles Dickens novel Oliver Twist. Robin Hoodnik, an animated version of the classic fairy tale Robin Hood, starring animals in the lead roles, is released as a one-hour special on ABC. Roman Holidays is released as a half-hour series on NBC. 1973 Hanna-Barbera wins an Emmy Award and the Golden Eagle Award for Last of the Curlews. Hanna-Barbera in association with Sagittarius Productions produces Charlotte's Web, an Annie Award�winning animated full-length feature released by Paramount Pictures. The studio produces Lost in Space for 20th Century Fox and Irwin Allen, a one-hour special based on its television show, airing on ABC. Hanna-Barbera in association with the estate of Charles Addams produces and releases a half-hour series entitled The Addams Family based on Addams's famous comic strip characters. The studio also releases Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kids, a half-hour series combining music and espionage on NBC. Yogi's Gang is released as a half-hour series on ABC. Joining Yogi and Boo Boo are Snagglepuss, Wally Gator, and other Hanna-Barbera characters. Speed Buggy is released as a half-hour series on CBS. Super Friends is produced for Warner Bros. Television as a one-hour series airing on ABC. This show features DC Comic book characters such as Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman. Hanna-Barbera produces Jeannie for Columbia Pictures as a half-hour series based on its popular television show I Dream of Jeannie. Inch High Private Eye is released as a half-hour series on NBC. Goober and the Ghost Chasers is released as a half-hour series on ABC. Hanna-Barbera releases three one-hour syndicated specials under the banner Famous Classic Tales entitled 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, The Count of Monte Cristo, and The Three Musketeers. Help! It's the Hair Bear Bunch is syndicated under the new title The Yo Yo Bears on CBS. 1974 Hong Kong Phooey, Devlin, and These are the Days, are released as half-hour series on ABC. Valley of the Dinosaurs is released as a half-hour series on CBS. Wheelie and the Chopper Bunch is released as a half-hour series on NBC. Patridge Family: 2200 A.D. is produced for Columbia Pictures and released as a half-hour series on CBS. This show was based on its popular television sitcom. Hanna-Barbera releases the ABC Afterschool Special entitled Cyrano, a one-hour animated adaptation of the play by Edmond Rostand. 1975 Hanna-Barbera produces all-new episodes of Tom and Jerry for MGM. Joining them is Hanna-Barbera's Grape Ape in the Tom and Jerry/Grape Ape Show, a one-hour series on ABC. Hanna-Barbera releases an animated version of James Fenimore Cooper's story entitled Last of the Mohicans, another in a series of syndicated specials called Famous Classic Tales. 1976 Joseph Barbera and William Hanna receive their Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Phantom Rebel is released as a one-hour special on NBC. Hanna-Barbera releases Davy Crockett on the Mississippi, a one hour special under the Famous Classic Tales banner on CBS. The studio also releases Little Big League, a one-hour Flintstones special airing on NBC. Hanna-Barbera releases another mystery-themed half-hour series on CBS entitled Clue Club, featuring two cowardly dogs, Woofer and Wimper. Jabberjaw is released as a half-hour series on ABC. The New Tom and Jerry/Grape Ape Show is produced for MGM and released as a one-hour series on ABC. Joining this show is Hanna-Barbera's Mumbley. The Space Ghost/Frankenstein Jr. Show is released as a half-hour series on NBC. The Scooby-Doo/Dynomutt Hour is released on ABC. Scooby's cousin Scooby-Dum makes his first appearance and Dynomutt teams up with the Blue Falcon--each had their own half-hour segments. 1977 Hanna-Barbera releases Five Weeks in a Balloon, under the Famous Classic Tales banner, an animated one-hour special based on the Jules Verne story, on CBS. The Skatebirds is released as a one-hour series on CBS. This show is comprised of live-action sequences of costumed characters on roller skates and other cartoon segments Woofer and Wimper, Dog Detectives, The Robonic Stooges, and Mystery Island, a live-action segment. Hanna-Barbera produces for Warner Bros. Television, The All-New Super Friends Hour, introducing the Wonder Twins, Zan and Jayna, along with their monkey Gleek. Scooby's All-Star Laff-A-Lympics is released as a two-hour series on ABC. This series featured over forty of Hanna-Barbera's cartoon characters starring in sporting events. Other segments were Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels, The Blue Falcon and Dynomutt and episodes from Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! The series would change its name to Scooby's All-Stars and then Scooby's Laff-A-Lympics the following season. Yabba Dabba Doo--Part 1 is released as a two-hour special on CBS. The studio also releases a one-hour series that features C.B. Bears, the first of six cartoon segments; the others are Shake Rattle and Roll, Undercover Elephant, Heyyy, It's the King, Blast Off Buzzard, and Posse Impossible. The syndicated half-hour series Fred Flintstone and Friends is released including previously broadcast episodes of The Flintstones Comedy Hour, Yogi's Gang, Goober and the Ghost Chasers, and Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm. The syndicated package Fun World of Hanna-Barbera is released and includes episodes of Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan, The Funky Phantom, The Perils of Penelope Pitstop, Wacky Races, and Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines. The studio also releases Hanna-Barbera's Flintstone Christmas, a one-hour animated television special for NBC. Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels is released on ABC as a half-hour series. 1978 Funny World of Fred and Bunni is a one-hour animated/live-action special on CBS. Hanna-Barbera, in association with Hungarofilm, produces the animated theatrical motion picture entitled Forever Like The Rose. Hanna-Barbera, in association with Norman Maurer, re-releases under the new title The Three Robonic Stooges a half-hour series on CBS. It is paired with Woofer and Wimper, Dog Detectives. Hanna-Barbera Productions releases an animated version of Anna Sewell's classic children's tale entitled Black Beauty, under the Famous Classic Tales banner airing on CBS. Dynomutt, Dog Wonder is given its own half-hour time slot on ABC. Another version of the Super Friends is produced for Warner Bros. Television entitled Challenge of the Super Friends. This series featured the diametrical Legion of Doom, DC Comics supervillians such as Riddler, Scarecrow, Lex Luthor, and Braniac. Hanna-Barbera produces for King Features Syndicate The All-New Popeye Show containing various segments such as Dinky Dog, The Adventures of Popeye, and Popeye's Treasure Hunt. The next season the show added two new segments, Popeye's Sports Parade and Popeye Health and Safety Tips. Yogi's Space Race Show is released as a ninety-minute series on NBC. The show is comprised of segments from Space Race, Galaxy Goof-Ups, The Buford Files, and Galloping Ghost. Hanna-Barbera produces and releases in association with Toho Co. Ltd. and Benedict Pictures The Godzilla Power Hour, which includes Jana of the Jungle segments. Later in the season, the show is retitled Godzilla and the Super 90 to include classic Jonny Quest episodes. Hanna-Barbera produces for King Features Syndicate a half-hour special entitled The Popeye Show, containing segments from the Saturday morning show entitled The All-New Popeye Hour. Yogi Bear's Galaxy Goof-Ups is given its own time slot as a half-hour series on NBC. 1979 Hanna-Barbera in association with Harvey World Famous Comics produces and releases a half-hour series entitled Casper and the Angels and two animated television specials for NBC, Casper's First Christmas and Casper's Halloween Special. Hanna-Barbera releases another Famous Classic Tales title Gulliver's Travels based on the John Swift classic. Hanna-Barbera releases Buford and the Galloping Ghost, a mystery themed half-hour series comprised of two segments, The Buford Files and The Galloping Ghost. The New Fred and Barney Show is released as a half-hour series on NBC and features Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm as teenagers. Hanna-Barbera produces for King Features Syndicate a half-hour Popeye special entitled Sweet Hearts at Sea. Fred and Barney Meet the Thing and Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo are released as ninety-minute shows on NBC. Hanna-Barbera releases Yabba Dabba Doo�Part 2, a special saluting the careers of Bill Hanna and Joe Barbera. Godzilla returns in The Godzilla Show. In November the series is retitled The Godzilla/Globetrotters Adventure Hour with the addition of the Harlem Globetrotters, then changed again to The Godzilla/Dynomutt Hour with Funky Phantom, and finally Hong Kong Phooey joined Godzilla to create The Godzilla/Hong Kong Phooey Hour. Scooby and Scrappy-Doo is released as a half-hour series on ABC. Hanna-Barbera in association with Saperstein Productions produces The Super Globetrotters as a half-hour series on NBC. The World's Greatest Super Friends is produced for Warner Bros. Television and is released as a one-hour series on ABC. Hanna-Barbera releases Scooby Goes Hollywood, a one-hour special premiering on ABC.	i don't know
A Tale of the Christ is the sub-title of which 1880 novel by Lew Wallace?	Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ - General Lew Wallace Study & Museum General Lew Wallace Study & Museum Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ “My God, did I set all of this in motion?” –Lew Wallace Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ by General Lew Wallace was published by Harper & Brothers on November 12, 1880. Wallace had been researching and writing the novel for seven years. He did most of his work underneath a beech tree near his residence in Crawfordsville, Indiana. The novel grew in such popularity during Wallace’s lifetime that it was adapted into a stage play in 1899. That dramatization was followed by the motion picture productions in 1907, 1925, 1959, and 2016. Ben-Hur has also been adapted into several cartoons and a musical. Ben-Hur‘s impact on American culture is larger than the dramatic adaptations alone. The Supreme Tribe of Ben-Hur, a national fraternal organization founded upon Ben-Hur, later reformed into Ben-Hur Life Insurance. There have even been American towns named after Ben-Hur. “It seems now that when I sit down finally in the old man’s gown and slippers, helping the cat to keep the fireplace warm, I shall look back upon Ben-Hur as my best performance…” Lew writing under the Ben-Hur Beech Novel Following his first novel, The Fair God (1873), Lew Wallace believed he could make a career for himself in writing. Although a novel with Jesus Christ as the protagonist would be a hard sell with the American public, Wallace began writing. He framed the tale through the eyes of a young Jewish noble, Judah Ben-Hur. The novel featured friendship, betrayal, revenge, love lost, love regained, redemption, and, of course, a chariot race. In a preface to “The First Christmas,” Wallace recounts some of the process of writing Ben-Hur, including a conversation with noted agnostic Robert G. Ingersoll. Wallace wrote most of his masterpiece underneath a beech tree in Crawfordsville, Indiana. He completed the final chapters of the novel, especially those dealing with the crucifixion of Christ, while he was serving as Governor of the New Mexico Territory. Ben-Hur was an unusual novel for its time. Literature had moved away from historical, romantic, adventure fiction; the new trend was to write realistic fiction about contemporary life. However, Ben-Hur created a resurgence of its literary type. Henry Sienkiewicz’s Quo Vadis? is the best example of a popular novel whose author found inspiration from reading Ben-Hur. The juggernaut Harper & Brothers greatly aided sales of Ben-Hur through its distribution and advertising policies, particularly by including excerpts in school readers. School readers were the major product of most publishers; including an excerpt of the sea battle or the chariot race from Ben-Hur piqued students’ interest enough to buy the novel or at least check it out from the libraries, which often listed Ben-Hur among their most requested books. The novel has never been out of print since its first printing in 1880. Download the Preface to “The First Christmas” by Lew Wallace. Stage Adaptation Lew Wallace doubted Ben-Hur would translate into a successful stage adaptation. He anticipated two problems in particular. First was dealing sensitively with the religious nature of the book and the problems with an actor portraying Jesus Christ. The second problem was how to portray a chariot race in a theater. Stage magnates Marc Klaw and Abraham Erlanger managed to convince Wallace otherwise. They promised to depict Jesus Christ only as a beam of white light. They solved the problem of the chariot race by training eight horses, pulling two chariots, to run on treadmills installed in the floor of the stage. While the horses ran at full gallop on the stage, the background scenery–installed on a cyclorama–moved behind the racing chariots to complete the illusion that the chariots and horses were actually moving. Ben-Hur on Broadway Ben-Hur opened at the Broadway Theater in New York City on November 29, 1899. William Young adapted the novel for the stage by William Young. Joseph Brooks directed. Edward Morgan was the first Judah Ben-Hur on the stage, although William Farnum soon replaced him. William S. Hart, who would later achieve fame for his roles in silent westerns, portrayed Messala on opening night. Ben-Hur took to the road and often held two-week engagements in U. S. cities. The production also appeared in Europe and Australia. Estimates suggest there were over 6,000 performances given and over 20 million people saw Ben-Hur during its twenty-one-year run. The final performance of Ben-Hur was delivered in April 1921. 1907 Movie In 1907 a “moving picture” company known as Kalem decided to film Ben-Hur. This first incarnation of Ben-Hur on film was fifteen minutes in length and was in no way comparable to the motion picture spectacles that would follow. Kalem viewed the production as inexpensive and hoped to turn a quick profit, due to the phenomenal success of the book and stage play. However, Kalem neglected to seek permission from the Wallace estate, Harper & Bros. (publishers of Ben-Hur), or Klaw & Erlanger (producers of the stage play) to adapt the work into a motion picture. Henry Wallace, Lew Wallace’s son, learned of this unauthorized version of Ben-Hur when the film appeared in “cheap five cent theatres” in Indianapolis. He promptly fired off letters to interested parties such as Harpers and Klaw & Erlanger. In one letter, Henry wrote, “I can see the finish of the play unless a quick and hard move is made on this form of entertainment. The people will be surfeited with the name no matter how poor the scenes.” Lawsuit Shortly thereafter, Henry Wallace, Harper & Bros, and Klaw & Erlanger brought suit against Kalem. They charged that Kalem had violated the copyright existing on the book. Furthermore they argued that the film cut into the profits of the stage production–not because it was strong competition against the stage play, but because the shoddy film cheapened the artistic integrity of Ben-Hur. Kalem, on the other hand, argued that the film would serve as good publicity for both the book and the play. On November 13, 1911, the United States Supreme Court decided in favor of the plaintiffs. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. delivered the opinion of the court, which upheld the lower court’s ruling [Kalem Co. v. Harper Bros., 222 U.S. 55 (1911)]. The court ordered Kalem to pay $25,000 in damages, which was likely more than it even cost to produce the film. Due to Henry Wallace’s foresight, he was ultimately responsible for securing the intellectual property of authors from copyright infringement by film and theatrical productions. Film Rights When Henry Wallace was asked to sell the film rights to his father’s literary works, he responded, “I will oppose in every way possible all attempts to produce any of General Wallace’s work in moving pictures. The reason is because the average moving picture shows are wretched exhibitions utterly unworthy of dignified consideration.” However, in 1915 Henry witnessed D. W. Griffith’s masterpiece Birth of a Nation. Perhaps the memorable “Ride of the Klan” scene convinced him that Ben-Hur‘s chariot race could be filmed equally well. Henry affixed a price tag of one million dollars for the movie rights. At this price no one was willing to pay. However, on August 2, 1921, Henry lowered his demands and settled on $600,000 for the rights to Ben-Hur. By comparison, the most expensive movie made to that date was Intolerance, which cost one million dollars. 1925 Movie A group headed by Abraham Erlanger acquired the film rights. (Erlanger was also responsible for bringing Ben-Hur to the stage.) Eventually the rights passed to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Filming began in Italy, but production delays and political upheaval convinced MGM studio head Irving Thalberg to return to the states. California had to substitute for the ancient Roman Empire. Fred Niblo directed the film. William Wyler, who would re-make the story in 1959, was an assistant director. Ben-Hur was a breakout role for 25-year-old Ramon Novarro who, only three years earlier, had his first starring role. Francis X. Bushman played Messala. Many Hollywood stars flocked to the stupendous set and served as chariot race extras, including Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, Harry Lloyd, Myrna Loy, and Lillian Gish. For some, the 1925 chariot race might be better than the 1959 version. Stunt men participated in an actual race, with a monetary reward to the winner. In this way, the 1925 race provides more excitement and realism than the later, largely choreographed, version. The film ended up costing MGM approximately $4 million dollars and was one of the most costly films of the silent era. It opened on December 30, 1925, at the George M. Cohan Theater in New York City and received rave reviews. After expenses, the film only turned a slight profit; nevertheless, it helped solidify MGM’s reputation as a major studio. 1959 Movie With the advent of television into many American homes in the 1950s, many theaters closed and movie studios suffered. MGM decided to return to Ben-Hur in an effort to emerge from their financial difficulties. William Wyler, who had already earned two Academy Awards® for best director, was selected to direct the film. British actors played Romans and American actors, for the most part, played the Jewish characters. Charlton Heston played Judah Ben-Hur and Stephen Boyd opposed him as Messala. Wyler chose to film in both Italy and California, following the example of the 1925 production. Despite some lobbying from Crawfordsville, Indiana, residents to host Ben-Hur’s premier, it opened on November 19, 1959, at the Lowe’s State Theater in New York City. Ben-Hur’s initial release grossed in excess of $40 million. Lasting Impact The 1960 Academy Awards® presented Ben-Hur with eleven of twelve awards for which it had been nominated. The major categories, Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Actor, were all won. Curiously, the only category for which it was nominated but not awarded was Best Screenplay. This faux pas was largely the result of confusion and controversy over who had written the script. Although Karl Tunberg received credit for the screenplay, other writers, including Gore Vidal, had also worked on the script. Many attributed the initial screenplay to Christopher Fry, but due to a falling out he did not receive credit. Nevertheless, as Charlton Heston delivered his acceptance speech for Best Actor, he made certain to thank Fry for the screenplay. The 1959 Ben-Hur is a cultural icon. It has become an American tradition to broadcast Ben-Hur over Easter weekend. In 1998 the American Film Institute listed Ben-Hur as one of the 100 Greatest Movies. 2016 Ben-Hur On August 19, 2016, yet another theatrical release of Ben-Hur hit the screens. The movie starred Jack Huston as Judah Ben-Hur, Toby Kebbell as Messala, and Morgan Freeman as Sheikh Ilderim. Timur Bekmambetov directed the movie and chose to film in Italy. The movie cost $100 million to make. During its opening weekend, it grossed only $11 million in the United States. Most secular critics panned the 2016 “re-visioning” of Ben-Hur. Christian reviewers viewed the film more favorably, but it ultimately proved a disappointment.	Ben-Hur
For which 1988 Mike Nicholls directed film was Melanie Griffith nominated for a Best Actress Oscar?	9780486799285: Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ - AbeBooks - Wallace, Lew: 048679928X Rating [?] Book Description Dover Publications Inc., United States, 2015. Paperback. Book Condition: New. Reissue. 203 x 127 mm. Language: English . Brand New Book. Betrayed by his best friend and enslaved by the Romans, Judah Ben-Hur seeks revenge but instead finds redemption through his encounters with Jesus Christ. Generations have thrilled to the sacred destiny of the mighty charioteer Ben-Hur, whose enduring tale began as a bestselling 1880 novel that later inspired equally popular stage and film interpretations. Combining the appeal of a historical adventure with a heartfelt message of Christian love and compassion, the story blends the visceral excitement of a quest for vengeance with the spiritual thrill of forgiveness. Author Lew Wallace a Civil War general, politician, and diplomat conducted meticulous research into the ancient world to bring a vivid immediacy tohis characters and settings, from life as a Roman galley slave, to the living death of exile, to a Jerusalem leper colony. The novel s countless admirers included President James A. Garfield, a former professor of literature, who told the author, With this beautiful and reverent book you have lightened the burden of my daily life. Bookseller Inventory # AAZ9780486799285 Rating [?] Book Description Dover Publications Inc., United States, 2015. Paperback. Book Condition: New. Reissue. 203 x 127 mm. Language: English . Brand New Book. Betrayed by his best friend and enslaved by the Romans, Judah Ben-Hur seeks revenge but instead finds redemption through his encounters with Jesus Christ. Generations have thrilled to the sacred destiny of the mighty charioteer Ben-Hur, whose enduring tale began as a bestselling 1880 novel that later inspired equally popular stage and film interpretations. Combining the appeal of a historical adventure with a heartfelt message of Christian love and compassion, the story blends the visceral excitement of a quest for vengeance with the spiritual thrill of forgiveness. Author Lew Wallace a Civil War general, politician, and diplomat conducted meticulous research into the ancient world to bring a vivid immediacy tohis characters and settings, from life as a Roman galley slave, to the living death of exile, to a Jerusalem leper colony. The novel s countless admirers included President James A. Garfield, a former professor of literature, who told the author, With this beautiful and reverent book you have lightened the burden of my daily life. Bookseller Inventory # AAZ9780486799285 Rating [?] Book Description Dover Publications Inc., 2015. Paperback. Book Condition: New. Brand New Book. Shipping: Once your order has been confirmed and payment received, your order will then be processed. The book will be located by our staff, packaged and despatched to you as quickly as possible. From time to time, items get mislaid en route. If your item fails to arrive, please contact us first. We will endeavour to trace the item for you and where necessary, replace or refund the item. Please do not leave negative feedback without contacting us first. All orders will be dispatched within two working days. If you have any quesions please contact us. Bookseller Inventory # V9780486799285	i don't know
The Sinews of Peace speech in 1946 by Winston Churchill that introduced the phrase 'iron curtain' was made at Westminster College in Fulton in which US state?	Iron Curtain Speech by Winston Churchill Share By Jennifer Rosenberg Nine months after Sir Winston Churchill failed to be reelected as Britain's Prime Minister, Churchill traveled by train with President Harry Truman to make a speech. On March 5, 1946, at the request of Westminster College in the small Missouri town of Fulton (population of 7,000), Churchill gave his now famous "Iron Curtain" speech to a crowd of 40,000. In addition to accepting an honorary degree from the college, Churchill made one of his most famous post-war speeches. In this speech, Churchill gave the very descriptive phrase that surprised the United States and Britain, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent." Before this speech, the U.S. and Britain had been concerned with their own post-war economies and had remained extremely grateful for the Soviet Union's proactive role in ending World War II . It was Churchill's speech, which he titled "The Sinews of Peace," that changed the way the democratic West viewed the Communist East. continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance Though many people believe that Churchill coined the phrase "the iron curtain" during this speech, the term had actually been used for decades (including in several earlier letters from Churchill to Truman). Churchill's use of the phrase gave it wider circulation and made the phrase popularly recognized as the division of Europe into East and West. Many people consider Churchill's "iron curtain speech" the beginning of the Cold War. Below is Churchill's "The Sinews of Peace" speech, also commonly referred to as the "Iron Curtain" speech, in its entirety. "The Sinews of Peace" by Winston Churchill I am glad to come to Westminster College this afternoon, and am complimented that you should give me a degree. The name "Westminster" is somehow familiar to me. I seem to have heard of it before. Indeed, it was at Westminster that I received a very large part of my education in politics, dialectic, rhetoric, and one or two other things. In fact we have both been educated at the same, or similar, or, at any rate, kindred establishments. It is also an honour, perhaps almost unique, for a private visitor to be introduced to an academic audience by the President of the United States. Amid his heavy burdens, duties, and responsibilities - unsought but not recoiled from - the President has travelled a thousand miles to dignify and magnify our meeting here to-day and to give me an opportunity of addressing this kindred nation, as well as my own countrymen across the ocean, and perhaps some other countries too. The President has told you that it is his wish, as I am sure it is yours, that I should have full liberty to give my true and faithful counsel in these anxious and baffling times. I shall certainly avail myself of this freedom, and feel the more right to do so because any private ambitions I may have cherished in my younger days have been satisfied beyond my wildest dreams. Let me, however, make it clear that I have no official mission or status of any kind, and that I speak only for myself. There is nothing here but what you see. I can therefore allow my mind, with the experience of a lifetime, to play over the problems which beset us on the morrow of our absolute victory in arms, and to try to make sure with what strength I have that what has been gained with so much sacrifice and suffering shall be preserved for the future glory and safety of mankind. The United States stands at this time at the pinnacle of world power. It is a solemn moment for the American Democracy. For with primacy in power is also joined an awe-inspiring accountability to the future. If you look around you, you must feel not only the sense of duty done but also you must feel anxiety lest you fall below the level of achievement. Opportunity is here now, clear and shining for both our countries. To reject it or ignore it or fritter it away will bring upon us all the long reproaches of the after-time. It is necessary that constancy of mind, persistency of purpose, and the grand simplicity of decision shall guide and rule the conduct of the English-speaking peoples in peace as they did in war. We must, and I believe we shall, prove ourselves equal to this severe requirement. When American military men approach some serious situation they are wont to write at the head of their directive the words "over-all strategic concept." There is wisdom in this, as it leads to clarity of thought. What then is the over-all strategic concept which we should inscribe today? It is nothing less than the safety and welfare, the freedom and progress, of all the homes and families of all the men and women in all the lands. And here I speak particularly of the myriad cottage or apartment homes where the wage-earner strives amid the accidents and difficulties of life to guard his wife and children from privation and bring the family up in the fear of the Lord, or upon ethical conceptions which often play their potent part. To give security to these countless homes, they must be shielded from the two giant marauders, war and tyranny. We all know the frightful disturbances in which the ordinary family is plunged when the curse of war swoops down upon the bread-winner and those for whom he works and contrives. The awful ruin of Europe, with all its vanished glories, and of large parts of Asia glares us in the eyes. When the designs of wicked men or the aggressive urge of mighty States dissolve over large areas the frame of civilised society, humble folk are confronted with difficulties with which they cannot cope. For them all is distorted, all is broken, even ground to pulp. When I stand here this quiet afternoon I shudder to visualise what is actually happening to millions now and what is going to happen in this period when famine stalks the earth. None can compute what has been called "the unestimated sum of human pain." Our supreme task and duty is to guard the homes of the common people from the horrors and miseries of another war. We are all agreed on that. Our American military colleagues, after having proclaimed their "over-all strategic concept" and computed available resources, always proceed to the next step - namely, the method. Here again there is widespread agreement. A world organisation has already been erected for the prime purpose of preventing war, UNO, the successor of the League of Nations , with the decisive addition of the United States and all that that means, is already at work. We must make sure that its work is fruitful, that it is a reality and not a sham, that it is a force for action, and not merely a frothing of words, that it is a true temple of peace in which the shields of many nations can some day be hung up, and not merely a cockpit in a Tower of Babel . Before we cast away the solid assurances of national armaments for self-preservation we must be certain that our temple is built, not upon shifting sands or quagmires, but upon the rock. Anyone can see with his eyes open that our path will be difficult and also long, but if we persevere together as we did in the two world wars - though not, alas, in the interval between them - I cannot doubt that we shall achieve our common purpose in the end. I have, however, a definite and practical proposal to make for action. Courts and magistrates may be set up but they cannot function without sheriffs and constables. The United Nations Organisation must immediately begin to be equipped with an international armed force. In such a matter we can only go step by step, but we must begin now. I propose that each of the Powers and States should be invited to delegate a certain number of air squadrons to the service of the world organisation. These squadrons would be trained and prepared in their own countries, but would move around in rotation from one country to another. They would wear the uniform of their own countries but with different badges. They would not be required to act against their own nation, but in other respects they would be directed by the world organisation. This might be started on a modest scale and would grow as confidence grew. I wished to see this done after the first world war , and I devoutly trust it may be done forthwith. It would nevertheless be wrong and imprudent to entrust the secret knowledge or experience of the atomic bomb, which the United States, Great Britain, and Canada now share, to the world organisation, while it is still in its infancy. It would be criminal madness to cast it adrift in this still agitated and un-united world. No one in any country has slept less well in their beds because this knowledge and the method and the raw materials to apply it, are at present largely retained in American hands. I do not believe we should all have slept so soundly had the positions been reversed and if some Communist or neo-Fascist State monopolised for the time being these dread agencies. The fear of them alone might easily have been used to enforce totalitarian systems upon the free democratic world, with consequences appalling to human imagination. God has willed that this shall not be and we have at least a breathing space to set our house in order before this peril has to be encountered: and even then, if no effort is spared, we should still possess so formidable a superiority as to impose effective deterrents upon its employment, or threat of employment, by others. Ultimately, when the essential brotherhood of man is truly embodied and expressed in a world organisation with all the necessary practical safeguards to make it effective, these powers would naturally be confided to that world organisation. Now I come to the second danger of these two marauders which threatens the cottage, the home, and the ordinary people - namely, tyranny. We cannot be blind to the fact that the liberties enjoyed by individual citizens throughout the British Empire are not valid in a considerable number of countries, some of which are very powerful. In these States control is enforced upon the common people by various kinds of all-embracing police governments. The power of the State is exercised without restraint, either by dictators or by compact oligarchies operating through a privileged party and a political police. It is not our duty at this time when difficulties are so numerous to interfere forcibly in the internal affairs of countries which we have not conquered in war. But we must never cease to proclaim in fearless tones the great principles of freedom and the rights of man which are the joint inheritance of the English-speaking world and which through Magna Carta , the Bill of Rights, the Habeas Corpus , trial by jury, and the English common law find their most famous expression in the American Declaration of Independence. All this means that the people of any country have the right, and should have the power by constitutional action, by free unfettered elections, with secret ballot, to choose or change the character or form of government under which they dwell; that freedom of speech and thought should reign; that courts of justice, independent of the executive, unbiased by any party, should administer laws which have received the broad assent of large majorities or are consecrated by time and custom. Here are the title deeds of freedom which should lie in every cottage home. Here is the message of the British and American peoples to mankind. Let us preach what we practise - let us practise what we preach. I have now stated the two great dangers which menace the homes of the people: War and Tyranny. I have not yet spoken of poverty and privation which are in many cases the prevailing anxiety. But if the dangers of war and tyranny are removed, there is no doubt that science and co-operation can bring in the next few years to the world, certainly in the next few decades newly taught in the sharpening school of war, an expansion of material well-being beyond anything that has yet occurred in human experience. Now, at this sad and breathless moment, we are plunged in the hunger and distress which are the aftermath of our stupendous struggle; but this will pass and may pass quickly, and there is no reason except human folly of sub-human crime which should deny to all the nations the inauguration and enjoyment of an age of plenty. I have often used words which I learned fifty years ago from a great Irish-American orator, a friend of mine, Mr. Bourke Cockran. "There is enough for all. The earth is a generous mother; she will provide in plentiful abundance food for all her children if they will but cultivate her soil in justice and in peace." So far I feel that we are in full agreement. Now, while still pursuing the method of realising our overall strategic concept, I come to the crux of what I have travelled here to say. Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of world organisation will be gained without what I have called the fraternal association of the English-speaking peoples. This means a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States. This is no time for generalities, and I will venture to be precise. Fraternal association requires not only the growing friendship and mutual understanding between our two vast but kindred systems of society, but the continuance of the intimate relationship between our military advisers, leading to common study of potential dangers, the similarity of weapons and manuals of instructions, and to the interchange of officers and cadets at technical colleges. It should carry with it the continuance of the present facilities for mutual security by the joint use of all Naval and Air Force bases in the possession of either country all over the world. This would perhaps double the mobility of the American Navy and Air Force. It would greatly expand that of the British Empire Forces and it might well lead, if and as the world calms down, to important financial savings. Already we use together a large number of islands; more may well be entrusted to our joint care in the near future. The United States has already a Permanent Defence Agreement with the Dominion of Canada, which is so devotedly attached to the British Commonwealth and Empire . This Agreement is more effective than many of those which have often been made under formal alliances. This principle should be extended to all British Commonwealths with full reciprocity. Thus, whatever happens, and thus only, shall we be secure ourselves and able to work together for the high and simple causes that are dear to us and bode no ill to any. Eventually there may come - I feel eventually there will come - the principle of common citizenship, but that we may be content to leave to destiny, whose outstretched arm many of us can already clearly see. There is however an important question we must ask ourselves. Would a special relationship between the United States and the British Commonwealth be inconsistent with our over-riding loyalties to the World Organisation? I reply that, on the contrary, it is probably the only means by which that organisation will achieve its full stature and strength. There are already the special United States relations with Canada which I have just mentioned, and there are the special relations between the United States and the South American Republics. We British have our twenty years Treaty of Collaboration and Mutual Assistance with Soviet Russia. I agree with Mr. Bevin, the Foreign Secretary of Great Britain, that it might well be a fifty years Treaty so far as we are concerned. We aim at nothing but mutual assistance and collaboration. The British have an alliance with Portugal unbroken since 1384, and which produced fruitful results at critical moments in the late war. None of these clash with the general interest of a world agreement, or a world organisation; on the contrary they help it. "In my father's house are many mansions." Special associations between members of the United Nations which have no aggressive point against any other country, which harbour no design incompatible with the Charter of the United Nations, far from being harmful, are beneficial and, as I believe, indispensable. I spoke earlier of the Temple of Peace. Workmen from all countries must build that temple. If two of the workmen know each other particularly well and are old friends, if their families are inter-mingled, and if they have "faith in each other's purpose, hope in each other's future and charity towards each other's shortcomings" - to quote some good words I read here the other day - why cannot they work together at the common task as friends and partners? Why cannot they share their tools and thus increase each other's working powers? Indeed they must do so or else the temple may not be built, or, being built, it may collapse, and we shall all be proved again unteachable and have to go and try to learn again for a third time in a school of war, incomparably more rigorous than that from which we have just been released. The dark ages may return, the Stone Age may return on the gleaming wings of science, and what might now shower immeasurable material blessings upon mankind, may even bring about its total destruction. Beware, I say; time may be short. Do not let us take the course of allowing events to drift along until it is too late. If there is to be a fraternal association of the kind I have described, with all the extra strength and security which both our countries can derive from it, let us make sure that that great fact is known to the world, and that it plays its part in steadying and stabilising the foundations of peace. There is the path of wisdom. Prevention is better than cure. A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory. Nobody knows what Soviet Russia and its Communist international organisation intends to do in the immediate future, or what are the limits, if any, to their expansive and proselytising tendencies. I have a strong admiration and regard for the valiant Russian people and for my wartime comrade, Marshal Stalin. There is deep sympathy and goodwill in Britain - and I doubt not here also - towards the peoples of all the Russias and a resolve to persevere through many differences and rebuffs in establishing lasting friendships. We understand the Russian need to be secure on her western frontiers by the removal of all possibility of German aggression. We welcome Russia to her rightful place among the leading nations of the world. We welcome her flag upon the seas. Above all, we welcome constant, frequent and growing contacts between the Russian people and our own people on both sides of the Atlantic. It is my duty however, for I am sure you would wish me to state the facts as I see them to you, to place before you certain facts about the present position in Europe. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow. Athens alone - Greece with its immortal glories - is free to decide its future at an election under British, American and French observation. The Russian-dominated Polish Government has been encouraged to make enormous and wrongful inroads upon Germany, and mass expulsions of millions of Germans on a scale grievous and undreamed-of are now taking place. The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control . Police governments are prevailing in nearly every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there is no true democracy. Turkey and Persia are both profoundly alarmed and disturbed at the claims which are being made upon them and at the pressure being exerted by the Moscow Government. An attempt is being made by the Russians in Berlin to build up a quasi-Communist party in their zone of Occupied Germany by showing special favours to groups of left-wing German leaders. At the end of the fighting last June, the American and British Armies withdrew westwards, in accordance with an earlier agreement, to a depth at some points of 150 miles upon a front of nearly four hundred miles, in order to allow our Russian allies to occupy this vast expanse of territory which the Western Democracies had conquered. If now the Soviet Government tries, by separate action, to build up a pro-Communist Germany in their areas, this will cause new serious difficulties in the British and American zones, and will give the defeated Germans the power of putting themselves up to auction between the Soviets and the Western Democracies. Whatever conclusions may be drawn from these facts - and facts they are - this is certainly not the Liberated Europe we fought to build up. Nor is it one which contains the essentials of permanent peace. The safety of the world requires a new unity in Europe, from which no nation should be permanently outcast. It is from the quarrels of the strong parent races in Europe that the world wars we have witnessed, or which occurred in former times, have sprung. Twice in our own lifetime we have seen the United States, against their wishes and their traditions, against arguments, the force of which it is impossible not to comprehend, drawn by irresistible forces, into these wars in time to secure the victory of the good cause, but only after frightful slaughter and devastation had occurred. Twice the United States has had to send several millions of its young men across the Atlantic to find the war; but now war can find any nation, wherever it may dwell between dusk and dawn. Surely we should work with conscious purpose for a grand pacification of Europe, within the structure of the United Nations and in accordance with its Charter. That I feel is an open cause of policy of very great importance. In front of the iron curtain which lies across Europe are other causes for anxiety. In Italy the Communist Party is seriously hampered by having to support the Communist-trained Marshal Tito's claims to former Italian territory at the head of the Adriatic. Nevertheless the future of Italy hangs in the balance. Again one cannot imagine a regenerated Europe without a strong France. All my public life I have worked for a strong France and I never lost faith in her destiny, even in the darkest hours. I will not lose faith now. However, in a great number of countries, far from the Russian frontiers and throughout the world, Communist fifth columns are established and work in complete unity and absolute obedience to the directions they receive from the Communist centre. Except in the British Commonwealth and in the United States where Communism is in its infancy, the Communist parties or fifth columns constitute a growing challenge and peril to Christian civilisation. These are sombre facts for anyone to have to recite on the morrow of a victory gained by so much splendid comradeship in arms and in the cause of freedom and democracy; but we should be most unwise not to face them squarely while time remains. The outlook is also anxious in the Far East and especially in Manchuria. The Agreement which was made at Yalta, to which I was a party, was extremely favourable to Soviet Russia, but it was made at a time when no one could say that the German war might not extend all through the summer and autumn of 1945 and when the Japanese war was expected to last for a further 18 months from the end of the German war. In this country you are all so well-informed about the Far East, and such devoted friends of China, that I do not need to expatiate on the situation there. I have felt bound to portray the shadow which, alike in the west and in the east, falls upon the world. I was a high minister at the time of the Versailles Treaty and a close friend of Mr. Lloyd-George, who was the head of the British delegation at Versailles. I did not myself agree with many things that were done, but I have a very strong impression in my mind of that situation, and I find it painful to contrast it with that which prevails now. In those days there were high hopes and unbounded confidence that the wars were over, and that the League of Nations would become all-powerful. I do not see or feel that same confidence or even the same hopes in the haggard world at the present time. On the other hand I repulse the idea that a new war is inevitable; still more that it is imminent. It is because I am sure that our fortunes are still in our own hands and that we hold the power to save the future, that I feel the duty to speak out now that I have the occasion and the opportunity to do so. I do not believe that Soviet Russia desires war. What they desire is the fruits of war and the indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines. But what we have to consider here to-day while time remains, is the permanent prevention of war and the establishment of conditions of freedom and democracy as rapidly as possible in all countries. Our difficulties and dangers will not be removed by closing our eyes to them. They will not be removed by mere waiting to see what happens; nor will they be removed by a policy of appeasement. What is needed is a settlement, and the longer this is delayed, the more difficult it will be and the greater our dangers will become. From what I have seen of our Russian friends and Allies during the war, I am convinced that there is nothing they admire so much as strength, and there is nothing for which they have less respect than for weakness, especially military weakness. For that reason the old doctrine of a balance of power is unsound. We cannot afford, if we can help it, to work on narrow margins, offering temptations to a trial of strength. If the Western Democracies stand together in strict adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter, their influence for furthering those principles will be immense and no one is likely to molest them. If however they become divided or falter in their duty and if these all-important years are allowed to slip away then indeed catastrophe may overwhelm us all. Last time I saw it all coming and cried aloud to my own fellow-countrymen and to the world, but no one paid any attention. Up till the year 1933 or even 1935, Germany might have been saved from the awful fate which has overtaken her and we might all have been spared the miseries Hitler let loose upon mankind. There never was a war in all history easier to prevent by timely action than the one which has just desolated such great areas of the globe. It could have been prevented in my belief without the firing of a single shot, and Germany might be powerful, prosperous and honoured to-day; but no one would listen and one by one we were all sucked into the awful whirlpool. We surely must not let that happen again. This can only be achieved by reaching now, in 1946, a good understanding on all points with Russia under the general authority of the United Nations Organisation and by the maintenance of that good understanding through many peaceful years, by the world instrument, supported by the whole strength of the English-speaking world and all its connections. There is the solution which I respectfully offer to you in this Address to which I have given the title "The Sinews of Peace." Let no man underrate the abiding power of the British Empire and Commonwealth. Because you see the 46 millions in our island harassed about their food supply, of which they only grow one half, even in war-time, or because we have difficulty in restarting our industries and export trade after six years of passionate war effort, do not suppose that we shall not come through these dark years of privation as we have come through the glorious years of agony, or that half a century from now, you will not see 70 or 80 millions of Britons spread about the world and united in defence of our traditions, our way of life, and of the world causes which you and we espouse. If the population of the English-speaking Commonwealths be added to that of the United States with all that such co-operation implies in the air, on the sea, all over the globe and in science and in industry, and in moral force, there will be no quivering, precarious balance of power to offer its temptation to ambition or adventure. On the contrary, there will be an overwhelming assurance of security. If we adhere faithfully to the Charter of the United Nations and walk forward in sedate and sober strength seeking no one's land or treasure, seeking to lay no arbitrary control upon the thoughts of men; if all British moral and material forces and convictions are joined with your own in fraternal association, the high-roads of the future will be clear, not only for us but for all, not only for our time, but for a century to come. * The text of Sir Winston Churchill's "The Sinews of Peace" speech is quoted in its entirety from Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches 1897-1963 Volume VII: 1943-1949 (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1974) 7285-7293.	Missouri River
Flags flown on public buildings on November 14th for whose birthday?	Winston Churchill - The Sinews of Peace - Online Speech Bank The Sinews of Peace delivered 5 March 1946 Westminster College, Fulton Missouri [AUTHENTICITY CERTIFIED: Text version below transcribed directly from audio version .] President McCluer, ladies and gentlemen, and last but certainly not least, President of the United States of America: I am very glad indeed to come to Westminster College this afternoon, and I am complimented that you should give me a degree from an institution whose reputation has been so solidly established. The name "Westminster" somehow or other seems familiar to me. I -- I feel as if I've heard of it before. Indeed now that I come to think of it, it was at Westminster that I received a very large part of my education in politics, dialectic, rhetoric -- and one or two other things. So, in fact we have both been educated at the same, or similar, or, at any rate, kindred establishments. It is also an honor, ladies and gentlemen, perhaps almost unique, for a private visitor to be introduced to an academic audience by the President of the United States. Amid his heavy burdens, duties, and responsibilities -- unsought but not recoiled from -- the President has traveled a thousand miles to dignify and magnify our meeting here today and to give me an opportunity of addressing this kindred nation, as well as my own countrymen across the ocean, and -- and perhaps some other countries too. The -- The President has told you that it is his wish, as I am sure it is yours, that I should have full liberty to give my true and faithful counsel in these anxious and baffling times. Now, I shall certainly avail myself of this freedom, and feel the more right to do so because any private ambitions I may have cherished in my younger days have been satisfied beyond my wildest dreams. Let me, however, make it clear that I have no official mission or status of any kind, and that I speak only for myself. There is nothing here but what you see. I can therefore allow my mind, with the experience of a lifetime, to play over the problems which beset us on the morrow of our absolute victory in arms, and to try to make sure with what strength I have that what has been gained with so much sacrifice and suffering shall be preserved for the future glory and safety of mankind. Ladies and gentlemen, the United States stands at this time at the pinnacle of world power. It is a solemn moment for the American democracy. For with primacy in power is also joined an awe-inspiring accountability to the future. If, as you look around you -- If you look around you, you must feel not only the sense of duty done but also you must feel anxiety lest you fall below the level of achievement. Opportunity is here now, clear and shining for both our countries. To reject it or ignore it or fritter it away will bring upon us all the long reproaches of the after-time. It is necessary that constancy of mind, persistency of purpose, and the grand simplicity of decision shall rule and guide the conduct of the English-speaking peoples in peace as they did in war. And we must, and I believe we shall, prove ourselves equal to this severe requirement. President McCluer, when American military men approach some serious situation they are wont to write at the head of their directive the words "over-all strategic concept." There is wisdom in this, as it leads to clarity of thought. What then is the overall strategic concept which we should inscribe today? It is nothing less than the safety and welfare, the freedom and progress, of all the homes and families of all the men and women in all the lands. And here I speak particularly of the myriad cottage or apartment homes where the wage-earner strives amid the accidents and difficulties of life to guard his wife and children from privation and bring the family up in the fear of the Lord, or upon ethical conceptions which often play their potent part. To give security to these countless homes, they must be shielded from the two gaunt marauders, war and tyranny. We all know the frightful disturbance in which the ordinary family is plunged when the curse of war swoops down upon the bread-winner and those for whom he works and contrives. The awful ruin of Europe, with all its vanished glories, and of large parts of Asia glares us in the eyes. When the designs of wicked men or the aggressive urge of mighty States dissolve over large areas the frame of civilized society, humble folk are confronted with difficulties with which they cannot cope. For them is all distorted, all is broken, all is even ground to pulp. When I stand here this quiet afternoon I shudder to visualize what is actually happening to millions now and what is going to happen in this period when famine stalks the earth. None can compute what has been called "the unestimated sum of human pain." Our supreme task and duty is to guard the homes of the common people from the horrors and miseries of another war. We are all agreed on that. Our American military colleagues, after having proclaimed their "over-all strategic concept" and computed available resources, always proceed to the next step -- namely, the method. Here again there is widespread agreement. A world organization has already been erected for the prime purpose of preventing war. UNO -- "U-N-O"ï¿½ -- the successor of the League of Nations , with the decisive addition of the United States and all that that means, is already at work. We must make sure that its work is fruitful, that it is a reality and not a sham, that it is a force for action, and not merely a frothing of words, that it is a true temple of peace in which the shields of many nations can some day be hung up, and not merely a cockpit in a Tower of Babel. Before we cast away the solid assurances of national armaments for self-preservation we must be certain that our temple is built, not upon shifting sands or quagmires, but upon the rock.ï¿½ Anyone can see with his -- with his eyes open that our path will be difficult and also long, but if we persevere together as we did in the two world wars -- though not, alas, in the interval between them -- I cannot doubt that we shall achieve our common purpose in the end. I have, however, a definite and practical proposal to make for action. Courts and magistrates may be set up but they cannot function without sheriffs and constables. The United Nations Organization must immediately begin to be equipped with an international armed force. In such a matter we can only go step by step, but we must begin now. I propose that each of the Powers and States should be invited to dedicate a certain number of air squadrons to the service of the world organization. These squadrons would be trained and prepared in their own countries, but would move around in rotation from one country to another. They would wear the uniforms of their own countries but with different badges. They would not be required to act against their own nation, but in other respects they would be directed by the world organization. This might be started on a modest scale and it would grow as confidence grew. I wished to see this done after the first world war, and I devoutly trust that it may be done forthwith. It would nevertheless, ladies and gentlemen, be wrong and imprudent to entrust the secret knowledge or experience of the atomic bomb, which the United States, great Britain, and Canada now share, to the world organization, while it is still in its infancy. It would be criminal madness to cast it adrift in this still agitated and un-united world. No one in any country -- No one in any country has slept less well in their beds because this knowledge and the method and the raw materials to apply it, are at present largely retained in American hands. I do not believe we should all have slept so soundly had the positions been reversed and some Communist or neo-Fascist State monopolized for the time being these dread agencies. The fear of them alone might easily have been used to enforce totalitarian systems upon the free democratic world, with consequences appalling to human imagination. God has willed that this shall not be and we have at least a breathing space to set our house in order before this peril has to be encountered. And even then, if no effort is spared, we should still possess so formidable a superiority as to impose effective deterrents upon its employment, or threat of employment, by others. Ultimately, when the essential brotherhood of man is truly embodied and expressed in a world organization with all the necessary practical safeguards to make it effective, these powers would naturally be confided to that world organization. Now I come to the second of the two marauders, to the second danger which threatens the cottage homes, and ordinary people -- namely, tyranny. We cannot be blind to the fact that the liberties enjoyed by individual citizens throughout the United States and throughout the British Empire are not valid in a considerable number of countries, some of which are very powerful. With these States control is enforced upon the common people by various kinds of all-embracing police governments to a degree which is overwhelming and contrary to every principle of democracy. The power of the State is exercised without restraint, either by dictators or by compact oligarchies operating through a privileged party and a political police. It is not our duty at this time when difficulties are so numerous to interfere forcibly in the internal affairs of countries which we have not conquered in war. But we must never cease to proclaim in fearless tones the great principles of freedom and the rights of man which are the joint inheritance of the English-speaking world and which through Magna Carta , the Bill of Rights , the Habeas Corpus , trial by jury , the English common law find their most famous expression in the American Declaration of Independence . All this means that the people of any country have the right, and should have the power by constitutional action, by free unfettered elections, with secret ballot, to choose or change the character or form of government under which they dwell; that freedom of speech and thought should reign; that courts of justice, independent of the executive, unbiased by any party, should administer laws which have received the broad assent of large majorities or are consecrated by time and custom. Here are the title deeds of freedom which should lie in every cottage home. Here is the message of the British and American peoples to mankind. Let us preach what we practice -- let us practice what we preach. Though I have now stated the two great dangers which menace the homes of the people, war and tyranny, I have not yet spoken of poverty and privation which are in many cases the prevailing anxiety. But if the dangers of war and tyranny are removed, there is no doubt that science and cooperation can bring in the next few years, certainly in the next few decades, to the world, newly taught in the sharpening school of war, an expansion of material well-being beyond anything that has yet occurred in human experience. Now, at this sad and breathless moment, we are plunged in the hunger and distress which are the aftermath of our stupendous struggle; but this will pass and may pass quickly, and there is no reason except human folly or sub-human crime which should deny to all the nations the inauguration and enjoyment of an age of plenty. I have often used words which I learned 50 years ago from a great Irish-American orator, a friend of mine, Mr. Bourke Cockran , "There is enough for all. The earth is a generous mother; she will provide in plentiful abundance food for all her children if they will but cultivate her soil in justice and in peace." And so -- So far I -- I -- I feel that we are in -- in full agreement. Now, while still pursuing the method -- the method of realizing our overall strategic concept, I come to the crux of what I have traveled here to say. Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of world organization will be gained without what I have called the fraternal association of the English-speaking peoples. This means a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States of America. Ladies and gentlemen, this is no time for generalities, and I will venture to be precise. Fraternal association requires not only the growing friendship and mutual understanding between our two vast but kindred systems of society, but the continuance of the intimate relations between our military advisers, leading to common study of potential dangers, the similarity of weapons and manuals of instruction, and to the interchange of officers and cadets at technical colleges. It should carry with it the continuance of the present facilities for mutual security by the joint use of all Naval and Air Force bases in the possession of either country all over the world. And this -- this would perhaps double the mobility of the American Navy and Air Force. It would greatly expand that of the British Empire forces and it might well lead, if and as the world calms down, to important financial savings. Already we use together a large number of islands; more may well be entrusted to our joint care in the near future. The United States has already a Permanent Defense Agreement with the Dominion of Canada, which is so devotedly attached to the British Commonwealth and Empire. This Agreement is more effective than many of those which have often been made under formal alliances. This principle should be extended to all the British Commonwealths with full reciprocity. Thus, whatever happens, and thus only, shall we be secure ourselves and able to work together for the high and simple causes that are dear to us and bode no ill to any. Eventually -- Eventually there may come -- I feel eventually there will come -- the principle of common citizenship, but that we may be content to leave to destiny, whose outstretched arm many of us can already clearly see. There is however an important question we must ask ourselves. Would a -- a special relationship between the United States and the British Commonwealth be inconsistent with our overriding loyalties to the world organization? I reply that, on the contrary, it is probably the only means by which that organization will achieve its full stature and strength. There are already the special United States relations with Canada which I've just mentioned, and there are the relations between the United States and the South American Republics. We have also -- We British have also our twenty years Treaty of Collaboration and Mutual Assistance with Soviet Russia. I agree with Mr. Bevin, the Foreign Secretary of Great Britain, that it might well be a fifty years treaty so far as we are concerned. We aim at nothing but mutual assistance and collaboration with Russia. We have an alliance -- The British have an alliance with Portugal unbroken since the year 1384, and which produced fruitful results at a critical moment in the -- in the recent war. None of these clash with the general interest of a world agreement, or a world organization; on the contrary, they help it. "In my father's house are many mansions."ï¿½ Special associations between members of the United Nations which have no aggressive point against any other country, which harbor no design incompatible with the Charter of the United Nations, far from being harmful, are beneficial and, as I believe, indispensable. I spoke earlier, ladies and gentlemen, of -- of the Temple of Peace. Workmen from all countries must build that temple. If two of the workmen know each other particularly well and are old friends, if their families are intermingled, if they have "faith in each other's purpose, hope in each other's future and charity towards each other's shortcomings" -- to quote some good words I read here the other day -- why cannot they work together at the common task as friends and partners? Why can they not share their tools and thus increase each other's working powers? Indeed they must do so or else the temple may not be built, or, being built, it may collapse, and we should all be proved again unteachable and have to go and try to learn again for a third time in a school of war incomparably more rigorous than that from which we have just been released. The dark ages may return, the Stone Age may return on the gleaming wings of science, and what might now shower immeasurable material blessings upon mankind, may even bring about its total destruction. Beware, I say; time may be short. Do not let us take the course of allowing events to drift along until it is too late. If there is to be a fraternal association of the kind of I have described, with all the express strength and security which both our countries can derive from it, let us make sure that that great fact is known to the world, and that it plays its part in steadying and stabilizing the foundations of peace. There is the path of wisdom. Prevention is better than the cure. A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lightened -- lighted by the Allied victory. No -- Nobody knows what Soviet Russia and its Communist international organization intends to do in the immediate future, or what are the limits, if any, to their expansive and proselytizing tendencies. I have a strong admiration and regard for the valiant Russian people and for my wartime comrade, Marshall Stalin. There -- There is deep sympathy and goodwill in Britain -- and I doubt not here also -- towards the peoples of all the Russias and a resolve to persevere through many differences and rebuffs in establishing lasting friendships. We understand the Russian need to be secure on her western frontiers by the removal of all possibility of German aggression. We welcome Russia to her rightful place among the leading nations of the world. We welcome her flag upon the seas. Above all, we welcome, or should welcome, constant, frequent, and growing contacts between the Russian people and our own peoples on both sides of the Atlantic. It is my duty however, for I am sure you would not wish me to not misstate the...facts as I see them to you. It is my duty to place before you certain facts about the present position in Europe. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from -- from Moscow. Athens alone -- Greece with its immortal glories -- is free to decide its future at an election under British, American, and French observation. The Russian-dominated Polish government has been encouraged to make enormous and wrongful inroads upon Germany, and mass expulsions of millions of Germans on a scale grievous and undreamed-of are now taking place. The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to preeminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control. Police governments are prevailing in nearly every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there is no true democracy. Turkey and Persia are both profoundly alarmed and disturbed at the claims which are being made upon them and at the pressure being exerted by the Moscow government. An attempt is being made by the Russians in Berlin to build up a quasi-Communist party in their zone of occupied Germany by showing special favors to groups of left-wing German leaders. At the end of the fighting last June, the American and British armies withdrew westward, in accordance with an earlier agreement, to a depth at some points of 150 miles upon a front of nearly four hundred miles, in order to allow our Russian allies to occupy this vast expanse of territory which the Western democracies had conquered. If now the Soviet government tries, by separate action, to build up a pro-Communist Germany in their areas, this will cause new serious difficulties in the American and British zones, and will give the defeated Germans the power of putting themselves up to auction between the Soviets and the Western democracies. Whatever conclusions may be drawn from these facts -- and facts they are -- this is certainly not the liberated Europe we fought to build up. Nor is it one which contains the essentials of permanent peace. The safety of the world, ladies and gentlemen, requires a new unity in Europe, from which no nation should be permanently outcast. It is from the quarrels of the strong parent races in Europe that the world wars we have witnessed, or which occurred in former times, have sprung. Twice in our own lifetime we have seen the United States, against their wishes and their traditions, against arguments, the force of which it is impossible -- the force of which it is impossible not to comprehend. Twice we have seen them drawn by irresistible forces into these wars in time to secure the victory of the good cause, but only after frightful slaughter and devastation have occurred. Twice the United States has had to send several millions of its young men across the Atlantic to find the war; but now war can find any nation, wherever it may dwell between dusk and dawn. Surely we should work with conscious purpose for a grand pacification of Europe, within the structure of the United Nations and in accordance with our Charter. That, I feel, is -- opens a course of policy of very great importance. In front of the iron curtain which lies across Europe are other causes for anxiety. In Italy the Communist Party is seriously hampered by having to support the Communist-trained Marshal Tito's claims to former Italian territory at the head of the Adriatic. Nevertheless, the future of Italy hangs in the balance. Again one cannot imagine a regenerated Europe without a strong France. All my public life I worked for a strong France, and I never lost faith in her destiny, even in the darkest hours. I will not lose faith now. However, in a great number of countries, far from the Russian frontiers and throughout the world, Communist fifth columns are established and work in complete unity and absolute obedience to the directions they receive from the Communist center. Except in the British Commonwealth and in the United States where Communism is in its infancy, the Communist parties or fifth columns constitute a growing challenge and peril to Christian civilization. These are somber facts for anyone to have recite on the morrow a victory gained by so much splendid comradeship in arms and in the cause of freedom and democracy; but we should be most unwise not to face them squarely while time remains. The outlook is also anxious in the Far East and especially in Manchuria. The Agreement which was made at Yalta, to which I was a party, was extremely favorable to Soviet Russia, but it was made at a time when no one could say that the German war might not extend all through the summer and autumn of 1945 and when the Japanese war was expected by the best judges to last for a further 18 months from the end of the German war. In this country you all so well-informed about the Far East, and such devoted friends of China, that I do not need to expatiate on the situation there. I have, however, felt bound to portray the shadow which, alike in the west and in the east, falls upon the world. I was a minister at the time of the Versailles Treaty and a close friend of Mr. Lloyd-George , who was the head of the British delegation at Versailles. I did not myself agree with many things that were done, but I have a very strong impression in my mind of that situation, and I find it painful to contrast it with that which prevails now. In those days there were high hopes and unbounded confidence that the wars were over and that the League of Nations would become all-powerful. I do not see or feel that same confidence or even the same hopes in the haggard world at the present time. On the other hand, ladies and gentlemen, I repulse the idea that a new war is inevitable -- still more that it is imminent. It is because I am sure that our fortunes are still in our own hands and that we hold the power to save the future, that I feel the duty to speak out now that I have the occasion and the opportunity to do so. I do not believe that Soviet Russia desires war. What they desire is the fruits of war and the indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines. But what we have to consider here today while time remains, is the permanent prevention of war and the establishment of conditions of freedom and democracy as rapidly as possible in all countries. Our difficulties and dangers will not be removed by closing our eyes to them. They will not be removed by mere waiting to see what happens; nor will they be removed by a policy of appeasement. What is needed is a settlement, and the longer this is delayed, the more difficult it will be and the greater our dangers will become. From what -- what I have seen of our Russian friends and Allies during the war, I am convinced that there is nothing they admire so much as strength. And there is nothing for which they have less respect than for weakness, especially military weakness. For that -- For that reason the old doctrine of a balance of power is unsound. We cannot afford, if we can help it, to work on narrow margins, offering temptations to a trial of strength. If the Western democracies stand together in strict adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter there influence for furthering those principles will be immense and no one is likely to molest them. If, however, they become divided or falter in their duty, and if these all-important years are allowed to slip away, then indeed catastrophe may overwhelm us all. Last time I saw it all coming and I cried aloud to my own fellow countrymen and to the world, but -- but no one paid any attention. Up till the year 1933 or even 1935, Germany might have been saved from the awful fate which has overtaken her, and we might all have been spared the miseries Hitler let loose upon mankind. There never was a war in history easier to prevent by timely action than the one which has just desolated such great areas of the globe. It could have been prevented in my belief without the firing of a single shot, and Germany might be powerful, prosperous, and honored today; but no one would listen and one by one we were all sucked into the awful whirlpool. We surely, ladies and gentlemen, I put it to you, surely, we must not let that happen again. This can only be achieved by reaching now, in 1946 -- this year, 1946 -- by reaching a good understanding on all points with Russia under the general authority of the United Nations Organization and by the maintenance of that good understanding through many peaceful years, by the World Instrument, supported by the whole strength of the English-speaking world and all its connections. There is the solution which I respectfully offer to you in this address to which I have given the title, "The Sinews of Peace." Let -- Let no man underrate the abiding power of the British Empire and -- and Commonwealth. Because you see -- Because you see the 46 millions in our island harassed about their food supply, of which they only grow one half, even in war-time, or because we have difficulty in restarting our industries and export trade after six years of passionate war effort, do not suppose we shall not come through these dark years of privation as we have come through the glorious years of agony. Do not suppose that half a century from now you will not see 70 or 80 millions of Britons spread about the world united in defense of our traditions, and our way of life, and of the world causes which you and we espouse. If -- If the population of the English-speaking Commonwealths be added to that of the United States with all that such cooperation implies in the air, on the sea, all over the globe, and in science, and in industry, and in moral force, there will be no quivering, precarious balance of power to offer its temptation to ambition or adventure. On the contrary, there will be an overwhelming assurance of security. If we adhere faithfully to the Charter of the United Nations and walk forward in sedate and sober strength seeking no one's land or treasure, seeking to lay no arbitrary control upon the thoughts of men; if all British moral and material forces and convictions are joined with your own in fraternal association, the highroads of the future will be clear, not only for us, but for all; not only for our times, but for a century to come. See Also: The Churchill Centre ï¿½ United Nations Organization ï¿½ Figure of allusion: "Therefore whosoever heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them, I will liken him unto a wise man, which built his house upon a rock: And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell not: for it was founded upon a rock. And every one that heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them not, shall be likened unto a foolish man, which built his house upon the sand: And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it." - Matthew 7:24-27 ï¿½ John 14:2	i don't know
What is the antepenultimate word of this question?	antepenultimate - definition of antepenultimate in English \| Oxford Dictionaries Definition of antepenultimate in English: antepenultimate Last but two in a series; third last: ‘the antepenultimate item on the agenda’ More example sentences ‘Afficionados and adepts will recognize the last item as the words of Joel Beinin, the antepenultimate item as the words of Mahatma Gandhi, and the penultimate item as the motto of Faber College in Animal House.’ ‘Moreover, in the antepenultimate chapter of the novel, when the narrator reflects on his project, he intimates that he has been writing a novel all along.’ ‘Paradoxically, the sagacious and shrewdly written new column entitled ‘Nightmarch’ is hidden away at the bottom of the antepenultimate page.’ ‘West African speakers tend to have antepenultimate word stress.’ ‘This, as the copy editor Steve Pickering liked to say, is the antepenultimate paragraph.’ Pronunciation: Which of the following is a type of wild cat? ring-tailed cat Which of the following is a type of wild cat? leopard cat Which of the following is a type of wild cat? civet Which of the following is a type of wild cat? bobcat Which of the following is a type of wild cat? jaguar Which of the following is a type of wild cat? lox Which of the following is a type of wild cat? clouded leopard Which of the following is a type of wild cat? cougar Which of the following is a type of wild cat? mountain tiger Which of the following is a type of wild cat? ocelot You scored /10 practise again? Retry Most popular in the world Australia	OF
The ruins of the ancient city of Carthage are in which modern country?	word choice - Is "penultimate" commonly used? - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange up vote 35 down vote accepted Someone I know who is a native speaker of Spanish and a professor at a university in the United States has complained that when he used the word "penultimate" in class, the students don't know what he's talking about. The word is perfectly, unimpeachably, 100% correct. It is a bit of an upscale, literary word though. It certainly is a "term of art" in fields like linguistics, where it is used commonly to refer to syllables. I searched for the word in the Corpus of Contemporary American English, and divided the results by section: spoken, fiction, magazine, newspaper, and academic, and got these results : spoken: 10 fiction: 53 magazine: 55 newspaper: 36 academic: 93 total: 247 So, it is certainly used in all areas of English, with a moderate skew towards higher registers like academic writing. Depending on the intended audience, a writer contemplating using the word "penultimate" should consider that there is a relatively high likelihood that word will not be understood. Instead of "penultimate", the phrasing in common usage is either "next to last" or "second to last". Both of those should be universally understood. Interestingly, Google Ngrams shows that the word "penultimate" rose in usage (in published books) steadily from 1800 to about 1990, and since 1990 it has shown a steep dropoff, taking us back to usage levels from the late 1960s. The better-understood terms "second to last" and "next to last" are less common (again, though, in published books—Google Ngrams tells us nothing about spoken usage), with "next to last" having more historical usage but a slow tapering off of usage since 1960 and "second to last" increasing in usage from 1970 on, with both enjoying approximately the same usage today. up vote 20 down vote Penultimate is a regular word in the normal register in Portuguese or Spanish: penúltimo. In English, however, it becomes a much more educated word belonging to a much more learnèd, or elevated, register. Therefore to translate to English and keep to the same register, you must select the more pedestrian next-to-last. (Then again, if we were linguists talking about syllable stress, we would not be afraid to use this word. It just isn’t a blue-collar world; it’s a professional one.) It’s like asking whether you can translate PT/ES cotidiano to EN quotidian. Yes, you can, but you shouldn’t, because you’ve crossed register boundaries, which means it doesn’t sound equivalent even thought it means the same thing. Not always, but in general, when you find a word in English that’s a close cognate with something from Romance, the register has switched, and you should look for a more Anglo-Saxon word if you want to keep to the same style. Because of the Norman occupation, Modern English often has pairs of words in different and contrasting registers, where a more purely Romance or purely Germanic language than English now is would have only one. This gives English more flexibility and nuance by having recourse to a pair of terms instead of having one alone. But it is a perilous thing for non-native speakers, who must keep an eye out for a probably shift in register. Does that make sense? up vote 2 down vote Yes it is in common use. I use both telephone and internet banking - if I call the bank, or access it online, I have to give three randomly-chosen (by the bank's computer system) letters from my password. If one happens to be the penultimate or last letter, that's what they're called. I personally would have no problem with antepenultimate, or indeed preantepenultimate , but the bank obviously think that would be taking things too far! That deals with the question implied in the title. Regarding OP's specific intended usage, I think it's of no consequence (not to mention off-topic) what the variable is called in his code. But whilst I don't think many people capable of having and reading a bank statement would fail to understand the word, I would not write it on a statement. Because it's clunky phrasing, not a "rare word". If I were designing a statement that needed to show last and penultimate payment dates (which seems an odd requirement to me), I would simply write the legend "Last two payment dates" and trust the customer to figure out which was the last, and which came before that.	i don't know
"What was the name of ""She who must be obeyed"" in the novel She by H Rider Haggard?"	She \| novel by Haggard \| Britannica.com novel by Haggard Alternative Title: “She: A History of Adventure” Similar Topics A Tale of Two Cities She, in full She: A History of Adventure, romantic novel by H. Rider Haggard , published in 1887, about two adventurers who search for a supernatural white queen, Ayesha , or “She-Who-Must-Be-Obeyed,” who is the ruler of a lost African city called Kôr. Ayesha has waited for 2,000 years for the reincarnation of her lover, whom she killed out of jealousy. She is beautiful and powerful and finds her reincarnated ideal in Leo Vincey, who is her lover’s descendant. He falls under her spell, and she attempts to make him immortal; she tries to persuade him to pass through a magic fire, but in doing so herself, she ages and crumbles into dust. Learn More in these related articles: Ayesha fictional character, the supernatural white queen of a vanished African city in the romantic novel She (1887) by H. Rider Haggard. Ayesha ("She-Who-Must-Be-Obeyed") is a beautiful and majestic woman with supernatural powers who spends centuries waiting for the reincarnation of a lover from past... in Horace Rumpole ...cheap wine (“Château Thames Embankment”) and Keats’s poetry and refers to his wife as “She Who Must Be Obeyed” (an allusion to the title character of H. Rider Haggard’s She). First introduced in a 1975 BBC television drama, Rumpole reappeared many times in a television series that ran in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Mortimer based several... 2 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: July 06, 2014 URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/She-novel-by-Haggard Access Date: January 19, 2017 Share	Ayesha
In which sport did Malcolm Cooper win Gold medals for Great Britain at the 1984 and 1988 Olympics?	She -- H. Rider Haggard She -- H. Rider Haggard Friday, 26 June 2009 19:42 Dave Truesdale Englishman Henry Rider Haggard's (1856-1925) novel She: A History of Adventure, was serialized in The Graphic magazine from October, 1886 to January, 1887. Set in the Victorian era, when much of the planet still held tightly to its mysterious, unmapped lands, it is one of the first of what would come to be known as the "lost world" tale, a popular type of romantic adventure which would subsequently be emulated by many others. This journey into unknown territory follows intrepid adventurers on an expedition (inspired from a cryptic manuscript left by the deceased father of one of the explorers) as they sail from England all the way south of the island of Zanzibar, there to finally hit land on the Dark Continent, where they discover a small, lost civilization in the remote interior. They soon enough run into quite a bit of trouble, beginning with the discovery of ancient stone carvings, underground crypts, mummified bodies, cannibals, a curse, and the hidden domain of an immortal goddess/queen, who has enslaved a tribe of natives, who nevertheless worship her. The natives have given their immortal goddess the name Ayesha (who will figure in later Haggard novels), which is a translation from the Arabic for "She who must be obeyed." The goddess-queen She offers the explorers (one in particular) immortality (and the one she has chosen, the promise of her love), if only they will follow her into the forbidding abyss deep in the mountainous cavern wherein resides the Flame of Life. Will our stalwart troupe find it within themselves to resist the womanly charms and gentle seductions of the goddess, or will they succumb and allow the Flame of Life to imbue them with immortality, whereupon the one she has chosen will rule at her side forever? Are her motives sincere? Will an ancient prophecy be fulfilled? "She" aired on one of old time radio's most respected dramatic shows, Escape (1947-1954), on July 11, 1948, and while heavily condensed, manages to capture the exotic atmosphere, the thrill and dread of the dark and mysterious nature of the book quite well, despite what I felt to be a too-quick--albeit dramatic--finale. As of 1965, Haggard's novel She had sold 83 million copies in countless editions worldwide. It was also made into a 1965 Hammer film, the most lavishly produced of the Hammer films to that time. It starred the voluptuous Ursula Andress (pictured at right, who was the first of many "Bond" girls, from 1962's Dr. No), Peter Cushing, and Christopher Lee. While details of Hammer's She escape me, it deserves another viewing if for no other reason than a second look at the charms of the alluring, Swiss-born, 1960's film sex-goddess, Ursula Andress. (As an anecdotal aside, Ms. Andress won a Golden Globe Award in 1964 as New Star of the Year for her role in Dr. No. For trivia buffs, her famous white bikini from that film sold for 35,000 pounds at auction in 2001. Born in 1936 and now 73, she retired from acting in 2005. Along the way, however, she was married to film actor/director John Derek from 1957 to 1966, dated the likes of Marlon Brando and James Dean, and had a child by actor Harry Hamlin, with whom she co-starred in the film Clash of the Titans [with thanks to Wikipedia for the anecdotal material which I stumbled upon, found interesting, and decided to toss in].) Without further ado, enjoy Escape's well-produced dramatization of H. Rider Haggard's She. Play Time : 29:31	i don't know
At 22,834ft., which is the highest extinct volcano in the world?	Extinct Volcanoes - VOLCANOES VOLCANOES Bibliography What is an extinct volcano? Extinct volcanoes are those which scientists consider unlikely to erupt again. A volcano which has not erupted in the past 10,000 years is extinct. The extinct volcano no longer has a lava supply. An extinct volcano is no longer near an active geologic hot spot. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. A caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered inactive. Examples of extinct volcanoes: Kyushu-Palau Ridge in the Philippine Sea Kyushu-Palau Ridge is an ocean floor feature of the Philippine Sea. It is names after the near by islands. At the north end of the Japanese island of Kyushu and at the southern end is the Pacific island nation of Palau.The seabed ridges begin in an area about 900 km from the eastern end of the Bungo Channel or the Bungo strait between the Japanese islands of Kyushu and Shikoku. The ridge creates a line on the ocean floor which runs southeast in the direction of the island of Palau. There is a chain of extinct volcanoes along this line. Huascarán in Peru: Huascarán is the highest mountain in Peru, and the fourth-highest mountain in South America. The top of it is 6,768 meters high.The mountain is located in the Ancash Region of Peru. Huascarán has turned into a tourist attraction for mountain climbers. It is all that is left of an extinct volcano. It has been getting smaller and smaller over the years, in 1970 the Ancash Earthquake caused a big part of the mountain to crumble and fall off. That part of the mountain was all rock and ice and it killed almost 17,000 people in small towns around the mountain. Mount Buninyong in Australia: Mount Buninyong is large extinct volcano 15 kilometers south east of Ballarat Victoria, Australia. The 745 meter volcano is on the Western Victorian Volcanic Plains. The scoria cone of the volcano is more than 200 meters higher than the land around it which makes it one of biggest scoria volcanoes in Victoria. It has a deep central crater. The volcano erupted several times, and during one eruption the west side of the volcano was breached. In later eruptions the lava flowed through this gap in the side. It is possible that the breach was actually another crater. Create a free website	Aconcagua
Which American President was the recipient of the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize?	Extinct Volcanoes - VOLCANOES VOLCANOES Bibliography What is an extinct volcano? Extinct volcanoes are those which scientists consider unlikely to erupt again. A volcano which has not erupted in the past 10,000 years is extinct. The extinct volcano no longer has a lava supply. An extinct volcano is no longer near an active geologic hot spot. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. A caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered inactive. Examples of extinct volcanoes: Kyushu-Palau Ridge in the Philippine Sea Kyushu-Palau Ridge is an ocean floor feature of the Philippine Sea. It is names after the near by islands. At the north end of the Japanese island of Kyushu and at the southern end is the Pacific island nation of Palau.The seabed ridges begin in an area about 900 km from the eastern end of the Bungo Channel or the Bungo strait between the Japanese islands of Kyushu and Shikoku. The ridge creates a line on the ocean floor which runs southeast in the direction of the island of Palau. There is a chain of extinct volcanoes along this line. Huascarán in Peru: Huascarán is the highest mountain in Peru, and the fourth-highest mountain in South America. The top of it is 6,768 meters high.The mountain is located in the Ancash Region of Peru. Huascarán has turned into a tourist attraction for mountain climbers. It is all that is left of an extinct volcano. It has been getting smaller and smaller over the years, in 1970 the Ancash Earthquake caused a big part of the mountain to crumble and fall off. That part of the mountain was all rock and ice and it killed almost 17,000 people in small towns around the mountain. Mount Buninyong in Australia: Mount Buninyong is large extinct volcano 15 kilometers south east of Ballarat Victoria, Australia. The 745 meter volcano is on the Western Victorian Volcanic Plains. The scoria cone of the volcano is more than 200 meters higher than the land around it which makes it one of biggest scoria volcanoes in Victoria. It has a deep central crater. The volcano erupted several times, and during one eruption the west side of the volcano was breached. In later eruptions the lava flowed through this gap in the side. It is possible that the breach was actually another crater. Create a free website	i don't know
From which musical did the sing 'Get Me To The Church On Time' come?	"Getting Married In The Morning" - My Fair Lady - YouTube "Getting Married In The Morning" - My Fair Lady Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on May 19, 2009 Charlie Killeen (Alfred Doolittle) leads the chorus in this lively rendition of: Lerner & Loewe's " I'm Getting Married In The Morning" from Kilrush Choral Society's Inaugural Production (Amateur) of MY FAIR LADY Category	My Fair Lady
At 19,344ft., which is the highest active volcano in the world?	"Getting Married In The Morning" - My Fair Lady - YouTube "Getting Married In The Morning" - My Fair Lady Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on May 19, 2009 Charlie Killeen (Alfred Doolittle) leads the chorus in this lively rendition of: Lerner & Loewe's " I'm Getting Married In The Morning" from Kilrush Choral Society's Inaugural Production (Amateur) of MY FAIR LADY Category	i don't know
Which American President was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919?	The Nobel Peace Prize 1919 The Nobel Peace Prize 1919 Woodrow Wilson The Nobel Peace Prize 1919 Thomas Woodrow Wilson Prize share: 1/1 The Nobel Peace Prize 1919 was awarded to Woodrow Wilson. Woodrow Wilson received his Nobel Prize one year later, in 1920. During the selection process in 1919, the Norwegian Nobel Committee decided that none of the year's nominations met the criteria as outlined in the will of Alfred Nobel. According to the Nobel Foundation's statutes, the Nobel Prize can in such a case be reserved until the following year, and this statute was then applied. Woodrow Wilson therefore received his Nobel Prize for 1919 one year later, in 1920. Photos: Copyright © The Nobel Foundation Share this: To cite this page MLA style: "The Nobel Peace Prize 1919". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 19 Jan 2017. <http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/>	Woodrow Wilson
Of what is 'Pogonophobia' the morbid fear?	President Woodrow Wilson Wins Nobel Peace Prize \| World History Project President Woodrow Wilson Wins Nobel Peace Prize “ In accepting the honor of your award I am moved not only by a profound gratitude for the recognition of my [sincere and] earnest efforts in the cause of peace, but also by a very poignant humility before the vastness of the work still called for by this cause.” — Woodrow Wilson Source: Nobel Prize Website Added by: Rob Brent Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856–February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913. With Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft dividing the Republican Party vote, Wilson was elected President as a Democrat in 1912. To date he is the only President to hold a doctorate of philosophy (Ph.D.) degree and the only President to serve in a political office in New Jersey before election to the Presidency. In his first term, Wilson convinced a Democratic Congress to pass the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Farm Loan Act and America's first-ever federal progressive income tax in the Revenue Act of 1913. In a move that garnered a backlash from civil rights groups, and is still criticized today, Wilson allowed segregation in many federal agencies, which involved firing black workers from numerous posts. Narrowly re-elected in 1916, Wilson's second term centered on World War I. He based his re-election campaign around the slogan "he kept us out of the war," but U.S. neutrality would be short-lived. When the German government proposed to Mexico in the Zimmermann Telegram a military alliance in a war against the U.S. (promising the return of Arizona, New Mexico and Texas), and began unrestricted submarine warfare, Wilson in April 1917 asked Congress to declare war. He focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving the waging of the war primarily in the hands of the Army. On the home front, he began the United States' first effective draft in 1917, raised billions in war funding through Liberty Bonds, set up the War Industries Board, promoted labor union growth, supervised agriculture and food production through the Lever Act, took over control of the railroads, enacted the first federal drug prohibition, and suppressed anti-war movements. National women's suffrage was also achieved under Wilson's presidency. In the late stages of the war, Wilson took personal control of negotiations with Germany, including the armistice. He issued his Fourteen Points, his view of a post-war world that could avoid another terrible conflict. He went to Paris in 1919 to create the League of Nations and shape the Treaty of Versailles, with special attention on creating new nations out of defunct empires. Largely for his efforts to form the League, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1919, during the bitter fight with the Republican-controlled Senate over the U.S. joining the League of Nations, Wilson collapsed with a debilitating stroke. He refused to compromise, effectively destroying any chance for ratification. The League of Nations was established anyway, but the United States never joined. Wilson's idealistic internationalism, now referred to as "Wilsonianism", which calls for the United States to enter the world arena to fight for democracy, has been a contentious position in American foreign policy, serving as a model for "idealists" to emulate and "realists" to reject ever since. Source: Wikipedia Added by: Rob Brent Although at the apogee of his fame when the 1919 Peace Conference assembled in Versailles, Wilson failed to carry his total conception of an ideal peace, but he did secure the adoption of the Covenant of the League of Nations. His major failure, however, was suffered at home when the Senate declined to approve American acceptance of the League of Nations. This stunning defeat resulted from his losing control of Congress after he had made the congressional election of 1918 virtually a vote of confidence, from his failure to appoint to the American peace delegation those who could speak for the Republican Party or for the Senate, from his unwillingness to compromise when some minor compromises might well have carried the day, from his physical incapacity in the days just prior to the vote.	i don't know
'Metis', 'Callisto', and 'Sinope' are three of the satellites of which planet?	Jupiter Images Menu Shoemaker - Levy 9 Impacts Jupiter MENU Jupiter's moon Io has many active volcanoes. It's surface is one of the youngest in the Solar System (it rivals only the Earth). This picture taken by Voyager 2 in July 1979, shows two color-enhanced (blue) volcanic plumes erupting to heights of 100 km above the surface. Io is about the same size as Earth's Moon. (Courtesy NASA/JPL) Jupiter on February 13, 1979. Voyager 1 was approaching the giant planet and captured this view showing the Great Red Spot, the satellite Io (orange moon on left), and Europa (brighter moon on right). (Courtesy NASA/JPL). Callisto seen by Voyager 1 in March 1979. Callisto is about the size of the planet Mercury . It is a heavily-cratered moon, which contrasts starkly with Io. Io's surface is as young as Callisto's is old. Callisto probably consists of a mixture of ice and rock. When the Galileo spacecraft begins studying Jupiter's system in 1995-1997, some parts of Callisto are planned to be imaged at much higher resolution (greater detail) than was available from the Voyagers.	Jupiter
"Who wrote the poems ""The Solitary Reaper""and""Upon Westminster Bridge, September 3rd. 1802""?"	JUPITER'S Moons - EnchantedLearning.com Jupiter's Moons Activities, Web Links JUPITER'S MOONS Jupiter has four large moons and dozens of smaller ones (there are about 67 known moons so far). Galileo first discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter, Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto in 1610, using a 20-power telescope; these moons are known as the Galilean moons. The moons of Jupiter are (in order by their distance from Jupiter): Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, Thebe, Io, Europa, Ganymede (the biggest), Callisto (the second biggest), Leda (the smallest), Himalia, Lysithea, Elara, Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, Sinope, and many newly-discovered moons that haven't been named yet. METIS Metis is the closest moon to Jupiter. Metis is 25 miles (40 km) in diameter and orbits 79,500 miles (128,000 km) from Jupiter, within its main ring. Metis and the next moon, Adrastea, are probably the source of the dust in this ring. Metis has a mass of 9 x 1016kg. It orbits Jupiter in 0.294780 (Earth) days; this is faster than Jupiter rotates on its axis. Metis was discovered by Stephen Synnott (Voyager 2) in 1980. ADRASTEA Adrastea is the second-closest moon to Jupiter. Adrastea is 12 miles (20 km) in diameter and orbits 80,000 miles (129,000 km) from Jupiter, within its main ring. Adrastea and the first moon, Metis, are probably the source of the dust in this ring. Adrastea has a mass of 1.91 x 1016kg. It orbits Jupiter in 0.29826 (Earth) days; this is faster than Jupiter rotates on its axis. Adrastea was discovered by D. Jewitt and E. Danielson (Voyager 2) in 1979. AMALTHEA Amalthea is the third-closest moon to Jupiter and the reddest object in our solar system . Amalthea is 145 x 91 x 83 miles (232 x146 x134 km) in diameter and orbits 112,700 miles (181,300 km) from Jupiter, within the faint Gossamer ring. Amalthea and Thebe likely provide the dust for the Gossamer ring. Amalthea has a mass of 7.2 x 1021kg. It orbits Jupiter in 0.49817905 (Earth) days and is in synchronous rotation (always keeping the same side facing Jupiter). Amalthea gives off more heat than it receives from the Sun. Amalthea was discovered by Edward Emerson Barnard in 1892. THEBE Thebe is the fourth-closest moon to Jupiter. Thebe is 68 x 56 miles (110 x 90 km) in diameter and orbits 138,000 miles (222,000 km) from Jupiter. Amalthea and Thebe likely provide the dust for the Gossamer ring. Thebe has a mass of 8 x 1017kg. It orbits Jupiter in 0.6745 day (Earth) days and is in synchronous rotation (always keeping the same side facing Jupiter). Thebe was discovered by Stephen Synnott (Voyager 1) in 1980. THE GALILEAN MOONS Two sulfurous eruptions on Io. Pillan Patera, a volcanic caldera at the left, spews sulfur 86 miles above the surface. IO Io is a large, rocky, volcanically active moon of Jupiter. Its volcanoes spew out molten sulfur, making Io a very colorful moon. It is the innermost of Jupiter's four large moons and the third largest. It has a diameter of 1,942 miles (3,636 km), very close in size to our moon . Io's mean distance from Jupiter is 220,000 miles (422,000 km). It has a mass of 8.93x1022 kg. It takes Io 1.77 days to orbit Jupiter. There is a doughnut-shaped plasma cloud around Jupiter near Io's orbit (known as the "Io plasma torus") This torus is caused by Jupiter's strong magnetic field, which strips ions from Io as it rotates; Io acts like an electrical generator. Io was discovered by Galileo and Marius (independently) in 1610. Ole Romer (1644-1710) was a Danish astronomer who, in 1675-1676, was the first person to demonstrate that the speed of light is finite. Romer did this by observing eclipses of Jupiter's moon Io as Jupiter's distance from Earth varied through the year. He noticed that the observed period of Io's orbit differed by about 20 minutes; he concluded that this difference was due to the extra distance that the light had to travel to Earth. His calculations put the speed of light at about 225,000 kilometers per second (it is really a bit faster, at 299,792 kilometers per second). EUROPA Europa is a large, dense, icy moon of Jupiter. Europa is the smoothest object in our Solar System . Its surface is covered with long, crisscrossing trackways (but few craters) on water ice. Frozen sulfuric acid has been found on its surface. Europa's diameter is less than 2,000 miles (3,138 km), smaller than the Earth's moon . It takes Europa 3.55 days to orbit Jupiter (in a synchronous orbit). Its mean distance from Jupiter is about 420,000 miles (670,900 km). Its mass is 4.80x1022 kg. It was discovered by Galileo and S. Marius (independently) in 1610. GANYMEDE Ganymede is the largest moon of Jupiter, a large, icy, outer moon that is scarred with impact craters and many parallel faults. It has a diameter of about 3,400 miles (5,268 km) and orbits Jupiter at a mean distance of 664,000 miles (1,070,000 km). It has a magnetic field and probably has a molten iron core. It takes Ganymede 171.75 hours (7.15 Earth days) to orbit Jupiter. Its mass is 1.48x1023 kg. It was discovered by Galileo and S. Marius (independently) in 1610. Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system; it is also larger than the planets Mercury and Pluto. CALLISTO Callisto is a large, icy, dark-colored, low-density outer moon of Jupiter that is scarred with impact craters and ejecta. It has a diameter of about 3,000 miles (4800 km), the second-largest moon of Jupiter; it is roughly the size of Mercury . Callisto has the largest-known impact crater in the Solar System, Valhalla, which has a bright patch 600 km across and rings that go out to almost 3000 km. Callisto orbits Jupiter at a mean distance of 1,170,000 miles (1,883,000 km). Its mass is 1.08x1023 kg. It takes Callisto 400.8 hours = 16.7 days to orbit Jupiter (in a synchronous orbit). Callisto was discovered by Galileo and S. Marius (independently) in 1610. LEDA Leda is Jupiter's ninth and smallest moon. Leda is 9.9 miles (16 km km) in diameter and orbits at an average of 6,900,000 miles (11,094,000 km) from Jupiter. Leda has a mass of 5.68 x 1015kg. It orbits Jupiter in 238.72 (Earth) days. Very little is known about Leda. Leda was discovered by Charles Kowal in 1974. HIMALIA Himalia is Jupiter's tenth moon. Himalia is 110 miles (170 km) in diameter and orbits 7,000,000 miles (11,480,000 km) from Jupiter. Himalia has a mass of 9.5 x 1018kg. It orbits Jupiter in 250.5662 (Earth) days. Very little is known about Himalia. Himalia was discovered by C. Perrine in 1904. LYSITHEA Lysithea is Jupiter's eleventh moon. Lysithea is 15 miles (24 km) in diameter and orbits 7,200,000 miles (11,720,000 km) from Jupiter. Lysithea has a mass of 8 x 1016kg. It orbits Jupiter in 259.22 (Earth) days. Very little is known about Lysithea. Lysithea was discovered by S. Nicholson in 1938. ELARA Elara is Jupiter's twelfth moon. Elara is 50 miles (80 km) in diameter and orbits 7,250,000 miles (11,737,000 km) from Jupiter. Elara has a mass of 8 x 1017kg. It orbits Jupiter in 259.6528 (Earth) days. Very little is known about Elara. Elara was discovered by C. Perrine in 1905. ANANKE Ananke is Jupiter's thirteenth moon. Ananke is 12.5 miles (20 km) in diameter and orbits 13,100,000 miles (21,200,000 km) from Jupiter. Ananke has a mass of 4 x 1016kg. It orbits Jupiter in 631 (Earth) days and is in a retrograde orbit (orbiting opposite to the direction of Jupiter). Very little is known about Ananke. Ananke was discovered by S. Nicholson in 1951. CARME Carme is Jupiter's fourteenth moon. Carme is 18.5 miles (30 km) in diameter and orbits 13,800,000 miles (22,600,000 km) from Jupiter. Carme has a mass of 9 x 1016kg. It orbits Jupiter in 692 (Earth) days and is in a retrograde orbit (orbiting opposite to the direction of Jupiter). Very little is known about Carme. Carme was discovered by S. Nicholson in 1938. PASIPHAE Pasiphae is Jupiter's fifteenth moon. Pasiphae is 22 miles (36 km) in diameter and orbits 14,600,000 miles (23,500,000 km) from Jupiter. Pasiphae has a mass of 2 x 1023kg. It orbits Jupiter in 735 (Earth) days and is in a retrograde orbit (orbiting opposite to the direction of Jupiter). Very little is known about Pasiphae. Pasiphae was discovered by P. Melotte in 1908. SINOPE Sinope is Jupiter's sixteenth moon. Sinope is 17.5 miles (28 km) in diameter and orbits 14,700,000 miles (23,700,000 km) from Jupiter. Sinope has a mass of 8 x 1016kg. It orbits Jupiter in 758 (Earth) days and is in a retrograde orbit (orbiting opposite to the direction of Jupiter). Very little is known about Sinope. Sinope was discovered by S. Nicholson in 1914. S/1999 J 1 (a provisional name) The seventeenth and outermost moon; S/1999 J 1 is the smallest-known moon orbiting a major planet. This moon is 3 miles (5 km) in diameter and has an irregular orbit roughly 15 million miles (24 million km) from Jupiter. It orbits Jupiter in 774 (Earth) days and is in a retrograde orbit (orbiting opposite to the direction of Jupiter). It was discovered by Robert S. McMillan et al (at the Spacewatch program at the University of Arizona ) in 2000.	i don't know
'Atlas', 'Mimas' and 'Calypso' are three of the satellites of which planet?	Moons Moons: Moons are `fossils" into a planet's past. The major, named moon systems are: Earth: Luna (The Moon) Mars: Deimos, Phobos Jupiter: Adrastea, Amalthea, Ananke, Callisto, Carme, Elara, Europa, Ganymede, Himalia, Io, Leda, Lysithea, Metis, Pasiphae, Sinope, Thebe Saturn: Atlas, Calypso, Dione, Enceladus, Epimetheus, Helene, Hyperion, Iapetus, Janus, Mimas, Pan, Pandora, Phoebe, Prometheus, Rhea, Telesto, Tethys, Titan Uranus: Ariel, Belinda, Bianca, Cordelia, Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Miranda, Oberon, Ophelia, Portia, Puck, Rosalind, Titania, Umbriel Neptune: Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Naiad, Nereid, Proteus, Thalassa, Triton Pluto: Charon (note: Pluto/Charon form a binary system, but Charon is the smaller so it is classed as the moon of Pluto) New, smaller moons are being discovered all the time with recent space missions. The total count of moons (as of 12/18/2001) are: Mercury - 0 moons Mars - 2 moons Uranus - 20 moons Venus - 0 moons Jupiter - 28 moons Neptune - 8 moons Earth - 1 moon Saturn - 30 moons Pluto - 1 moon Moons range in shape from highly irregular to spheres. Their shape reflects their formation history, irregular objects are ill-formed moons (captured asteroids or comets) or pieces of a larger moon, spherical objects were once molten spheres, probably at the time of their formation. Moons of Mars: Deimos & Phobos We speculate, from their irregular appearances and low mean densities, that Deimos and Phobos, are captured asteroids. Both Deimos and Phobos are saturated with craters. Deimos has a smoother appearance caused by partial filling of some of its craters. Moons of Jupiter: Jupiter has 63 confirmed moons as of Jan 2009, i.e. moons with known orbits around Jupiter. Eight of these moons are regular, meaning they have prograde, nearly circular orbits. They are composed of the four Galilean satellites, plus the inner or Amalthea group: Adrastea is a typical small moon Metis is the innermost known satellite of Jupiter Amalthea is one of Jupiter's smaller, irregular moons, an example of moon collecting dust from another moon (Io) The remaining 55 moons are irregular, they have a mixture of prograde and retrograde orbits with high inclinations and eccentricities. Jupiter's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk. The irregular satellites are substantially smaller objects with more distant and eccentric orbits. They form families with shared similarities in orbit (semi-major axis, inclination, eccentricity) and composition; it is believed that these are at least partially collisional families that were created when larger (but still small) parent bodies were shattered by impacts from asteroids captured by Jupiter's gravitational field. Moons of Saturn: The moons of Saturn are numerous and diverse, ranging from tiny moonlets less than 1 kilometer across to the enormous Titan, which is larger than the planet Mercury. Saturn has sixty-two moons with confirmed orbits, fifty-three of which have names, and only thirteen of which have diameters larger than 50 kilometers. Saturn has seven moons that are large enough to become spherical. Twenty-four of Saturn's moons are regular satellites; they have prograde orbits not greatly inclined to the Saturn's equatorial plane. These include the seven major satellites, four small moons which exist in a Trojan orbit with larger moons, two mutually co-orbital moons and two moons which act as shepherds of Saturn's F Ring. Two other known regular satellites orbit within gaps in Saturn's rings. The relatively large Hyperion is locked in a resonance with Titan. The remaining regular moons orbit near the outer edge of the A Ring, within G Ring and between the major moons Mimas and Enceladus. The regular satellites are traditionally named after Titans and Titanesses or other figures associated with the mythological Saturn. The remaining thirty-eight, all small except one, are irregular satellites, whose orbits are much farther from Saturn, have high inclinations, and are mixed between prograde and retrograde. These moons are probably captured minor planets, or debris from the breakup of such bodies after they were captured, creating collisional families. The irregular satellites have been classified by their orbital characteristics into the Inuit, Norse, and Gallic groups, and their names are chosen from the corresponding mythologies. The largest of the irregular moons is Phoebe, the ninth moon of Saturn, discovered at the end of the 19th century. The rings of Saturn are made up of objects ranging in size from microscopic to hundreds of meters, each of which is on its own orbit about the planet. Thus, a precise number of Saturnian moons cannot be given, as there is no objective boundary between the countless small anonymous objects that form Saturn's ring system and the larger objects that have been named as moons. At least 150 moonlets embedded in the rings have been detected by the disturbance they create in the surrounding ring material, though this is thought to be only a small sample of the total population of such objects. Daphnis drifts through the Keeler gap Atlas the second of Saturn's known satellites, orbits near the outer edge of the A-ring Enceladus is one of the innermost moons of Saturn. Enceladus reflects almost 100 percent of the sunlight that strikes it and has evidence of internal heating and recent resurfacing effects Hyperion is one of the smaller moons of Saturn. It has a pock-marked body and is the largest irregularly shaped satellite ever observed. Iapetus is one of the stranger moons of Saturn, its leading side is dark with a slight reddish color while its trailing side is bright Dione is the densest moon of Saturn other than Titan, and has several usual characteristics: 1) has a rocky core and ice crust, 2) is heavy cratering on trailing hemisphere, 3) has bright, wispy features Rhea is the largest airless satellite of Saturn that has different regions with different crater sizes indicating that parts of the moon have undergone resurfacing since formation Mimas is one of the innermost moons of Saturn with a very large impact crater that came close to fracturing the moon Tethys is an icy body similar in nature to Dione and Rhea Phoebe is the last of the known satellites of Saturn and orbits in a retrograde direction (opposite to the direction of the other satellites' orbits) in a plane much closer to the ecliptic than to Saturn's equatorial plane. Thus, Phoebe may be a captured asteroid with a composition unmodified since the time it was formed in the outer Solar System. Moons of Uranus: Uranus, the seventh planet of the Solar System, has 27 known moons, all of which are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. William Herschel discovered the first two moons, Titania and Oberon, in 1787, and the other spherical moons were discovered in 1851 by William Lassell (Ariel and Umbriel) and in 1948 by Gerard Kuiper (Miranda). The remaining moons were discovered after 1985, either during the Voyager 2 flyby mission or with the aid of advanced Earth-based telescopes. A montage of Uranus' large moons and one smaller moon: from left to right Puck, Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon. Uranian moons are divided into three groups: thirteen inner moons, five major moons, and nine irregular moons. The inner moons are small dark bodies that share common properties and origins with the planet's rings. The five major moons are massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium (they were once molten spheres), and four of them show signs of internally driven processes such as canyon formation and volcanism on their surfaces. The largest of these five, Titania, is 1,578 km in diameter and the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System, and about 20 times less massive than Earth's Moon. Uranus's irregular moons have elliptical and strongly inclined (mostly retrograde) orbits at great distances from the planet. Ariel is a relatively small satellite and is the brightest moon of Uranus Miranda with a jumbled surface unlike anything in the Solar System, indicates evidence of violent past with possible multiple shattering and reassembly Titania is the largest moon of Uranus and is marked by a few large impact basins Moons of Neptune: Neptune has thirteen known moons, by far the largest of which is Triton, discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself. Over a century passed before the discovery of the second natural satellite, called Nereid. Neptune's moons are named for minor water deities in Greek mythology. Unique among all large planetary moons, Triton is an irregular satellite, as its orbit is retrograde to Neptune's rotation and inclined relative to the planet's equator. The next-largest irregular satellite in the Solar System, Saturn's moon Phoebe, is only 0.03% Triton's mass. Triton is massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium and to retain a thin atmosphere capable of forming clouds and hazes. Both its atmosphere and its surface are composed mainly of nitrogen with small amounts of methane and carbon monoxide. Triton's surface appears relatively young, and was probably modified by internally driven processes within the last few million years. The temperature at its surface is about 38K. Inward of Triton are six regular satellites, all of which have prograde orbits in planes that lie close to Neptune's equatorial plane. Some of these orbit among Neptune's rings. The largest of them is Proteus. Neptune also has six outer irregular satellites, including Nereid, whose orbits are much farther from Neptune, have high inclinations, and are mixed between prograde and retrograde. The two outermost ones, Psamathe and Neso, have the largest orbits of any natural satellites discovered in the Solar System to date. Proteus is one of the darkest objects in the Solar System	Saturn
What does the name 'Pont' as in Pontefract or Pontypoolmean?	The moons of Saturn The moons of Saturn September 14, 2015 by Matt Williams, Universe Today Saturn and its largest moons. Credit: NASA/JPL/SSI Saturn is well known for being a gas giant, and for its impressive ring system. But would it surprise you to know that this planet also has the second-most moons in the Solar System, second only to Jupiter? Yes, Saturn has at least 150 moons and moonlets in total, though only 53 of them have been given official names. Most of these moons are small, icy bodies that are little more than parts of its impressive ring system. In fact, 34 of the moons that have been named are less than 10 km in diameter while another 14 are 10 to 50 km in diameter. However, some of its inner and outer moons are among the largest and most dramatic in the Solar System, measuring between 250 and 5000 km in diameter and housing some of greatest mysteries in the Solar System. Discovery and Naming: Prior to the invention of telescopic photography, eight of Saturn's moons were observed using simple telescopes. The first to be discovered was Titan, Saturn's largest moon , which was observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1655 using a telescope of his own design. Between 1671 and 1684, Giovanni Domenico Cassini discovered the moons of Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus – which he collectively named the "Sider Lodoicea" (Latin for "Louisian Stars", after King Louis XIV of France). In 1789, William Herschel discovered Mimas and Enceladus, while father-and-son astronomers W.C Bond and G.P. Bond discovered Hyperion in 1848 – which was independently discovered by William Lassell that same year. By the end of the 19th century, the invention of long-exposure photographic plates allowed for the discovery of more moons – the first of which Phoebe, observed in 1899 by W.H. Pickering. In 1966, the tenth satellite of Saturn was discovered by French astronomer Audouin Dollfus, which was later named Janus. A few years later, it was realized that his observations could only be explained if another satellite had been present with an orbit similar to that of Janus. This eleventh moon was later named Epimetheus, which shares the same orbit with Janus and is the only known co-orbital in the Solar System. By 1980, three additional moons were discovered and later confirmed by the Voyager probes. They were the trojan moons (see below) of Helene (which orbits Dione) as well as Telesto and Calypso (which orbit Tethys). The study of the outer planets has since been revolutionized by the use of unmanned space probes. This began with the arrival of the Voyager spacecraft to the Cronian system in 1980-81, which resulted in the discovery of three additional moons – Atlas, Prometheus, and Pandora – bringing the total to 17. By 1990, archived images also revealed the existence of Pan. This was followed by the Cassini-Huygens mission, which arrived at Saturn in the summer of 2004. Initially, Cassini discovered three small inner moons, including Methone and Pallene between Mimas and Enceladus, as well as the second Lagrangian moon of Dione – Polydeuces. In November of 2004, Cassini scientists announced that several more moons must be orbiting within Saturn's rings. From this data, multiple moonlets and the moons of Daphnis and Anthe have been confirmed. The study of Saturn's moons has also been aided by the introduction of digital charge-coupled devices, which replaced photographic plates by the end of the 20th century. Because of this, ground-based telescopes have begun to discovered several new irregular moons around Saturn. In 2000, three medium-sized telescopes found thirteen new moons with eccentric orbits that were of considerable distance from the planet. In 2005, astronomers using the Mauna Kea Observatory announced the discovery of twelve more small outer moons. In 2006, astronomers using Japan's Subaru Telescope at Mauna Kea reported the discovery of nine more irregular moons. In April of 2007, Tarqeq (S/2007 S 1) was announced, and in May of that same year, S/2007 S 2 and S/2007 S 3 were reported. The modern names of Saturn's moons were suggested by John Herschel (William Herschel's son) in 1847. In keeping with the nomenclature of the other planets, he proposed they be named after mythological figures associated with the Roman god of agriculture and harvest – Saturn, the equivalent of the Greek Cronus. In particular, the seven known satellites were named after Titans, Titanesses and Giants – the brothers and sisters of Cronus. In 1848, Lassell proposed that the eighth satellite of Saturn be named Hyperion after another Titan. When in the 20th century, the names of Titans were exhausted, the moons were named after different characters of the Greco-Roman mythology, or giants from other mythologies. All the irregular moons (except Phoebe) are named after Inuit and Gallic gods and Norse ice giants. Inner Large Moons: Saturn's moons are grouped based on their size, orbits, and proximity to Saturn. The innermost moons and regular moons all have small orbital inclinations and eccentricities and prograde orbits. Meanwhile, the irregular moons in the outermost regions have orbital radii of millions of kilometers, orbital periods lasting several years, and move in retrograde orbits. Saturn's Inner Large Moons, which orbit within the E Ring (see below), include the larger satellites Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, and Dione. These moons are all composed primarily of water ice, and are believed to be differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle and crust. With a diameter of 396 km and a mass of 0.4×1020 kg, Mimas is the smallest and least massive of these moons. It is ovoid in shape and orbits Saturn at a distance of 185,539 km with an orbital period of 0.9 days. Saturn’s moons (from left to right) Janus, Pandora, Enceladus, Mimas and Rhea. Rhea is on top of Saturn. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute Enceladus, meanwhile, has a diameter of 504 km, a mass of 1.1×1020 km and is spherical in shape. It orbits Saturn at a distance of 237,948 km and takes 1.4 days to complete a single orbit. Though it is one of the smaller spherical moons, it is the only Cronian moon that is endogenously active – and one of the smallest known bodies in the Solar System that is geologically active. This results in features like the famous "tiger stripes" – a series of continuous, ridged, slightly curved and roughly parallel faults within the moon's southern polar latitudes. Large geysers have also been observed in the southern polar region that periodically release plumes of water ice, gas and dust which replenish Saturn's E ring. These jets are one of several indications that Enceladus has liquid water beneath it's icy crust, where geothermal processes release enough heat to maintain a warm water ocean closer to its core. With a geometrical albedo of more than 140%, Enceladus is one of the brightest known objects in the Solar System. At 1066 km in diameter, Tethys is the second-largest of Saturn's inner moons and the 16th-largest moon in the Solar System. The majority of its surface is made up of heavily cratered and hilly terrain and a smaller and smoother plains region. Its most prominent features are the large impact crater of Odysseus, which measures 400 km in diameter, and a vast canyon system named Ithaca Chasma – which is concentric with Odysseus and measures 100 km wide, 3 to 5 km deep and 2,000 km long. With a diameter and mass of 1,123 km and 11×1020 kg, Dione is the largest inner moon of Saturn. The majority of Dione's surface is heavily cratered old terrain, with craters that measure up to 250 km in diameter. However, the moon is also covered with an extensive network of troughs and lineaments which indicate that in the past it had global tectonic activity. Large Outer Moons: The Large Outer Moons, which orbit outside of the Saturn's E Ring, are similar in composition to the Inner Moons – i.e. composed primarily of water ice and rock. Of these, Rhea is the second largest – measuring 1,527 km in diameter and 23×1020 kg in mass – and the ninth largest moon of the Solar System. With an orbital radius of 527,108 km, it is the fifth-most distant of the larger moons, and takes 4.5 days to complete an orbit. Like other Cronian satellites, Rhea has a rather heavily cratered surface, and a few large fractures on its trailing hemisphere. Rhea also has two very large impact basins on its anti-Saturnian hemisphere – the Tirawa crater (similar to Odysseus on Tethys) and an as-yet unnamed crater – that measure 400 and 500 km across, respectively. A composite image of Titan’s atmosphere, created using blue, green and red spectral filters to create an enhanced-color view. Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute At 5150 km in diameter, and 1,350×1020 kg in mass, Titan is Saturn's largest moon and comprises more than 96% of the mass in orbit around the planet. Titan is also the only large moon to have its own atmosphere, which is cold, dense, and composed primarily of nitrogen with a small fraction of methane. Scientists have also noted the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere, as well as methane ice crystals. The surface of Titan, which is difficult to observe due to persistent atmospheric haze, shows only a few impact craters, evidence of cryovolcanoes, and longitudinal dune fields that were apparently shaped by tidal winds. Titan is also the only body in the Solar System beside Earth with bodies of liquid on its surface, in the form of methane–ethane lakes in Titan's north and south polar regions. With an orbital distance of 1,221,870 km, it is the second-farthest large moon from Saturn, and completes a single orbit every 16 days. Like Europa and Ganymede, it is believed that Titan has a subsurface ocean made of water mixed with ammonia, which can erupt to the surface of the moon and lead to cryovolcanism. Hyperion is Titan's immediate neighbor. At an average diameter of about 270 km, it is smaller and lighter than Mimas. It is also irregularly shaped and quite odd in composition. Essentially, the moon is an ovoid, tan-colored body with an extremely porous surface (which resembles a sponge). The surface of Hyperion is covered with numerous impact craters, most of which are 2 to 10 km in diameter. It also has a highly unpredictable rotation, with no well-defined poles or equator. At 1,470 km in diameter and 18×1020 kg in mass, Iapetus is the third-largest of Saturn's large moons. And at a distance of 3,560,820 km from Saturn, it is the most distant of the large moons, and takes 79 days to complete a single orbit. Due to its unusual color and composition – its leading hemisphere is dark and black whereas its trailing hemisphere is much brighter – it is often called the "yin and yang" of Saturn's moons. The moons of Saturn, from left to right: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea; Titan in the background; Iapetus (top) and Hyperion (bottom). Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute Irregular Moons: Beyond these larger moons are Saturn's Irregular Moons. These satellites are small, have large-radii, are inclined, have mostly retrograde orbits, and are believed to have been acquired by Saturn's gravity. These moons are made up of three basic groups – the Inuit Group, the Gallic Group, and the Norse Group. The Inuit Group consists of five irregular moons that are all named from Inuit mythology – Ijiraq, Kiviuq, Paaliaq, Siarnaq, and Tarqeq. All have prograde orbits that range from 11.1 to 17.9 million km, and from 7 to 40 km in diameter. They are all similar in appearance (reddish in hue) and have orbital inclinations of between 45 and 50°. The Gallic group are a group of four prograde outer moons named for characters in Gallic mythology -Albiorix, Bebhionn, Erriapus, and Tarvos. Here too, the moons are similar in appearance and have orbits that range from 16 to 19 million km. Their inclinations are in the 35°-40° range, their eccentricities around 0.53, and they range in size from 6 to 32 km. Last, there is the Norse group, which consists of 29 retrograde outer moons that take their names from Norse mythology. These satellites range in size from 6 to 18 km, their distances from 12 and 24 million km, their inclinations between 136° and 175°, and their eccentricities between 0.13 and 0.77. This group is also sometimes referred to as the Phoebe group, due to the presence of a single larger moon in the group – which measures 240 km in diameter. The second largest, Ymir, measures 18 km across. Within the Inner and Outer Large Moons, there are also those belonging to Alkyonide group. These moons – Methone, Anthe, and Pallene – are named after the Alkyonides of Greek mythology, are located between the orbits of Mimas and Enceladus, and are among the smallest moons around Saturn. Saturn’s moon of Enceladus. Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute Some of the larger moons even have moons of their own, which are known as Trojan moons. For instance, Tethys has two trojans – Telesto and Calypso, while Dione has Helene and Polydeuces. Formation: The two sides of Iapetus, “Saturn’s yin yang moon”. Credit: NASA/JPL It is thought that Saturn's moon of Titan, its mid-sized moons and rings developed in a way that is closer to the Galilean moons of Jupiter. In short, this would mean that the regular moons formed from a circumplanetary disc, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris similar to a protoplanetary disc. Meanwhile, the outer, irregular moons are believed to have been objects that were captured by Saturn's gravity and remained in distant orbits. Dione’s heavily cratered surface, as observed by the Cassini flyby in June, 2015. Credit: NASA/JPL However, there are some variations on this theory. In one alternative scenario, two Titan-sized moons were formed from an accretion disc around Saturn; the second one eventually breaking up to produce the rings and inner mid-sized moons. In another, two large moons fused together to form Titan, and the collision scattered icy debris that formed to create the mid-sized moons. However, the mechanics of how the moon's formed remains a mystery for the time being. With additional missions mounted to study the atmospheres, compositions and surfaces of these moons, we may begin to understand where they truly came from. Saturn’s rings and moons Credit: NASA Much like Jupiter, and all the other gas giants, Saturn's system of satellites is extensive as it is impressive. In addition to the larger moons that are believed to have formed from a massive debris field that once orbited it, it also has countless smaller satellites that were captured by its gravitational field over the course of billions of years. One can only imagine how many more remain to be found orbiting the ringed giant.	i don't know
"Who wrote the poems ""Hyperion""and""To Autumn""?"	To Autumn - Poems \| Academy of American Poets Academy of American Poets The Academy of American Poets is the largest membership-based nonprofit organization fostering an appreciation for contemporary poetry and supporting American poets. For over three generations, the Academy has connected millions of people to great poetry through programs such as National Poetry Month, the largest literary celebration in the world; Poets.org, the Academy’s popular website; American Poets, a biannual literary journal; and an annual series of poetry readings and special events. Since its founding, the Academy has awarded more money to poets than any other organization. browse poems & poets sign up to receive a new poem-a-day in your inbox sign up Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge occasions read this poet's poems English Romantic poet John Keats was born on October 31, 1795, in London. The oldest of four children, he lost both his parents at a young age. His father, a livery-stable keeper, died when Keats was eight; his mother died of tuberculosis six years later. After his mother's death, Keats's maternal grandmother appointed two London merchants, Richard Abbey and John Rowland Sandell, as guardians. Abbey, a prosperous tea broker, assumed the bulk of this responsibility, while Sandell played only a minor role. When Keats was fifteen, Abbey withdrew him from the Clarke School, Enfield, to apprentice with an apothecary-surgeon and study medicine in a London hospital. In 1816 Keats became a licensed apothecary, but he never practiced his profession, deciding instead to write poetry. Around this time, Keats met Leigh Hunt, an influential editor of the Examiner, who published his sonnets "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" and "O Solitude." Hunt also introduced Keats to a circle of literary men, including the poets Percy Bysshe Shelley and William Wordsworth . The group's influence enabled Keats to see his first volume, Poems by John Keats, published in 1817. Shelley, who was fond of Keats, had advised him to develop a more substantial body of work before publishing it. Keats, who was not as fond of Shelley, did not follow his advice. Endymion, a four-thousand-line erotic/allegorical romance based on the Greek myth of the same name, appeared the following year. Two of the most influential critical magazines of the time, the Quarterly Review and Blackwood's Magazine, attacked the collection. Calling the romantic verse of Hunt's literary circle "the Cockney school of poetry," Blackwood's declared Endymion to be nonsense and recommended that Keats give up poetry. Shelley, who privately disliked Endymion but recognized Keats's genius, wrote a more favorable review, but it was never published. Shelley also exaggerated the effect that the criticism had on Keats, attributing his declining health over the following years to a spirit broken by the negative reviews. Keats spent the summer of 1818 on a walking tour in Northern England and Scotland, returning home to care for his brother, Tom, who suffered from tuberculosis. While nursing his brother, Keats met and fell in love with a woman named Fanny Brawne. Writing some of his finest poetry between 1818 and 1819, Keats mainly worked on "Hyperion," a Miltonic blank-verse epic of the Greek creation myth. He stopped writing "Hyperion" upon the death of his brother, after completing only a small portion, but in late 1819 he returned to the piece and rewrote it as "The Fall of Hyperion" (unpublished until 1856). That same autumn Keats contracted tuberculosis, and by the following February he felt that death was already upon him, referring to the present as his "posthumous existence." In July 1820, he published his third and best volume of poetry, Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. The three title poems, dealing with mythical and legendary themes of ancient, medieval, and Renaissance times, are rich in imagery and phrasing. The volume also contains the unfinished "Hyperion," and three poems considered among the finest in the English language, "Ode on a Grecian Urn," "Ode on Melancholy," and "Ode to a Nightingale." The book received enthusiastic praise from Hunt, Shelley, Charles Lamb, and others, and in August, Frances Jeffrey, influential editor of the Edinburgh Review, wrote a review praising both the new book and Endymion. The fragment "Hyperion" was considered by Keats's contemporaries to be his greatest achievement, but by that time he had reached an advanced stage of his disease and was too ill to be encouraged. He continued a correspondence with Fanny Brawne and—when he could no longer bear to write to her directly—her mother, but his failing health and his literary ambitions prevented their getting married. Under his doctor's orders to seek a warm climate for the winter, Keats went to Rome with his friend, the painter Joseph Severn. He died there on February 23, 1821, at the age of twenty-five, and was buried in the Protestant cemetery. Selected Bibliography The Poems of John Keats (1978) The Poems of John Keats (1970) The Poems of John Keats (1970) Collections: The Poetical Works of Coleridge, Shelley, and Keats (1831) Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems (1820) Endymion: A Poetic Romance (1818) Poems (1817) Letters of John Keats: A New Selection (1970) The Letters of John Keats (1958) Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats (1848) Drama Otho The Great: A Dramatic Fragment (1819) King Stephen: A Dramatic Fragment (1819)	John Keats
Which American University is situated in Cambridge,Massachusetts?	To Autumn by John Keats \| Poetry Foundation To Autumn by John Keats Writing Ideas 1. “To Autumn” is an ode—a celebratory address to a person, place or thing. Think of something commonplace that you experience everyday and write an ode commemorating some aspect or quality of it. See Pablo Neruda’s “ Ode to a Large Tuna in the Market ” and Kevin Young’s “ Ode to the Midwest ” for other examples. 2. Personify a season and write a poem describing it. Think about what physical attributes your season might have, and what personality traits. How would it behave? 3. Keats allegedly wrote “To Autumn” after a particularly inspiring country walk. Try taking a notebook and going for your own walk out in a natural place. Pay attention to the sounds, sights, and smells around you and describe them in your poem. 4. Invent a rhyme scheme and write a poem that follows it for at least two stanzas. What is difficult about writing poetry that follows strict patterns? What is easy? 1. Keats uses personification —assigning human characteristics to inanimate objects—to create a portrait of a season. How is autumn characterized? What kind of person might autumn be? 2. What is the rhyme scheme of the poem? Does it follow any patterns that you recognize? Why might the rhyme scheme vary—and what effect does it have on you as a reader to have some rhymes close together and others far apart? 3. What kind of “music” does fall make? What are the seasonal details Keats chooses to include and how do they color the emotional tone of the poem? 4. Look closely at the stanzas of “To Autumn”: how many sentences does each contain? What is the setting, or time period, of each? How do the three stanzas work together to show different aspects of autumn? Teaching Tips 1. After sharing a one or two sentence summary of the poem, have students work in small groups to paraphrase it. Beginning with the first two stanzas, which describe the poet’s personified “autumn” who conspires with the sun, sits “careless on a granary floor,” and “watches the last oozings,” have students put the list of what autumn does into their own words. Have them pay special attention to the speaker’s choice of verbs as they read. After these activities, have students consider the motive behind the speaker’s address to autumn in each stanza. 2. Have students paraphrase and then illustrate the first two stanzas before stopping to discuss the change that occurs in the third. Then have them paraphrase the poet’s description of autumn’s music in the last stanza before determining an illustration. Ask, for example, how does autumn’s question, “where are the songs of spring?” change the speaker’s motive for talking in the last stanza? Ask, what might an illustration of this last stanza look like? Would a personified autumn appear in it? What are the similarities and the differences between this last stanza and the previous two that might make this illustration more challenging? Have small groups share their illustrations with classmates, explaining their choices. 3. Keats’s ode addresses the age-old and universal theme of the cycle of life, using the metaphor of the seasons to depict the human experience of growing to maturity and dying. In speaking of autumn, Keats explores the heightened awareness of one’s mortality that often comes in the midst of our most vital moments. Have students consider the speaker’s unique take on this revelation in the last stanza. How does the speaker depict the singular beauty of autumn’s music? After exploring the beautiful if haunting images, ask what commentary does he seem to make about autumn as the predecessor of winter? How does he use sensory images to capture the rare beauty of the season brimming with music that is unheard at other times of the year? What observations on the human experience might these images suggest? To Autumn Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; ConspiringConspiring Working together; literally, to conspire is “to breathe together” (OED) with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-evesthatch-eves Thatch-eaves, the edge of thatched roofs run; To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells. Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowingwinnowing Separating the wheat from the chaff, the heavy from the light wind; Or on a half-reap'd furrow sound asleep, Drows'd with the fume of poppies, while thy hookhook Scythe Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers: And sometimes like a gleanergleaner One who gathers the remaining food after the reaper has harvested the field thou dost keep Steady thy ladenladen Loaded down head across a brook; Or by a cyder-press, with patient look, Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours. Where are the songs of spring? Ay, Where are they?Where are they? Rhetorical convention known as ubi sunt , often appearing in poems that meditate on the transitory nature of life and the inevitability of death. Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,— While barred clouds bloombloom “to colour with a soft warm tint or glow” (OED) the soft-dying day, And touch the stubble-plainsstubble-plains Fields made up of stubble, the remaining stumps of grain left after reaping with rosy hue; Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn Among the river sallowssallows Willow trees, borne aloft Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The red-breast whistles from a garden-croftgarden-croft A croft is a small enclosed field; And gathering swallows twitter in the skies. Discover this poem's context and related poetry, articles, and media. Poet By Caitlin Kimball Fall is in the air. So we are reminded here in the Northern Hemisphere, by the arrival of back-to-school catalogs and tiny inedible gourds littering the desks of teachers and bank tellers. No matter how far we are from our school days, fall retains the air of fresh beginnings. And most of us are even further from our agricultural roots, making the weather a superficial consideration. It’s jacket time, and the streetlights snap on earlier. When John Keats walked the English countryside in the autumn of 1819, he witnessed day-by-day the glories—and grueling labor—of the harvest and its aftermath. In 1819 Keats was 23 years old and fully engrossed in the poetic vocation he had undertaken a few years before. Following some grim years as a surgeon’s apprentice, he had abandoned the medical profession and chose to pore over Shakespeare , Greek myths, and museum artifacts. Full of breathless appeals to heroes and muses, his early published verse helped feed the cliché of the moony Romantic: But what is higher beyond thought than thee? Fresher than berries of a mountain tree? More strange, more beautiful, more smooth, more regal, Than wings of swans, than doves, than dim-seen eagle? (from “Sleep and Poetry”) As florid as they were, his first compositions flaunt all the passion and musicality that he would refine into his most admired and enduring later work. The fanciful turns of phrase seem to unreel so easily, line after line, that it can be hard to appreciate the unease that produced them. “I have been hovering for some time between an exquisite sense of the luxurious and a love for Philosophy,” Keats wrote to his friend John Taylor in 1818. The scholar Walter Jackson Bate broadly diagnosed Keats’s problem as that of a house divided, his writing a struggle to unify sense and thought, the ideal and the real. By 1819, however, Keats was gaining confidence in a hunch he had articulated in a letter to his brothers two years before, which he called “ negative capability ”—a quality of imaginative open-mindedness in which “a sense of beauty overcomes every other consideration, or rather obliterates all consideration.” In an 1818 letter to his friend Richard Woodhouse, he imagined the role of the empathic, chameleon-like poet even more powerfully: As to the poetical Character itself . . . it is not itself—it has no self—it iseverything and nothing—It has no character—it enjoys light and shade; it lives in gusto, be it foul or fair, high or low, rich or poor, mean or elevated. . . . Over the course of that summer in the country, as he composed the series of odes that would earn him his “greatness” well over a century after his death, you can almost trace the progress of this self-shedding to its realization in “To Autumn.” The poem is well-rounded in every sense—all five senses, to be exact. Visions of abundance and frantic industry yield to delicious indolence, and the poem’s luxuriously light touches, fragrances, and tastes culminate in a delicate but persistent chorus. The first stanza is a sensory glut, however mild and pretty “mists and mellow fruitfulness” may seem. The trees and vines that climb high and crawl low are full of mature fruit and nuts; the flowers keep blooming, the beehives are overflowing with honey. It has taken all summer to grow the sweetest, densest, most delectable portion of the harvest (try to imagine a rhapsody on midsummer’s snap peas and kale). The end of summer is literally the fruition, the completion of a phenomenon of natural and manual labor. Sibilance (“mists,” “close bosom,” “bless,” “moss’d,” “swell,” “sweet,” “cease,” “cells”) and o-sounds, both long and short (“mellow,” “bosom,” “load,” “round,” “gourd,” “more,” “flowers”), help build this impression of combined pleasure and effort. Just as the mouth must work to voice a phrase such as “To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells / With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,” so is this harvest fantasia really a story of effort; the sun and season must “conspire” to “load and bless,” “bend,” “fill … to the core,” to “swell” and “plump” and “set” and “o’er-brim.” Nature has been hard at work. The stanza’s headiness and sensuality derives not just from gorgeous visions of fruit and flowers, but also from the outlay of energy, compressed into present-tense, monosyllabic verbs. But it is summer, not autumn, that has “o’er brimm’d” the bees’ “clammy cells” (the honeycombs of their hives). Early autumn is really summer’s climax. If the sun is “maturing,” it will eventually fully mature, and then . . . what? Keats lends only the hyperproductive bees the burden of thought (“they think warm days will never cease”), setting this ode apart from his others (such as “ Ode on a Grecian Urn ,” “ Ode to a Nightingale ,” and “ Ode to Psyche ”), in which the poet’s own anxieties propel his subjects. In this final ode, the poet’s ego is absent, signaling his developing powers of negative capability. The poem isn’t a raw record of sensation, of course. It retains touches of formal rhetoric associated with the ode. “Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?” the poet asks at the beginning of the second stanza, shifting his metaphoric imagination to see autumn as a harvester at rest. The spectacular labors of the first stanza are over; though the flowers live on and the fields are only “half-reap’d,” time has passed. The slowing of time is sensual, though the pleasures are subtler when contrasted with the visual riot of the first stanza. The sounds of the second stanza are softer, too, all f’s and w’s: “hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind,” “half-reap’d furrow,” “fume,” “twined flowers.” The drowsy, gentle imagery betrays a dramatic compression of time: the reaper has already amassed a “store” in his granary, the wind winnows (the next step in preparing grain) its contents, and the lush growth has become overgrowth (“twined flowers”). Autumn is next conceived as a “gleaner,” a kind of harvest scavenger who painstakingly picks over what the scythe (the “hook”) has left behind. Finally, Autumn, as if it has all the time in the world, watches the cider ooze through the press, drop by drop. The apples that weighted the “moss’d cottage trees” have now ripened, fallen, and been crushed. The harvest is over. Autumn, who conspired with the sun to put summer into overdrive, sending the bees into a frenzy of effort, is now under its own spell, “drows’d with the fume of poppies.” The third stanza breaks the spell momentarily for the reader as well, opening with more rhetorical posturing. “Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they?” The rhetorical questions, exhorting the reader not to think about spring, of course immediately bring to mind that tender season, now played out. Spring’s promise of growth and hopeful expenditure of energy, and summer’s overwhelming bounty, are done. It is the fate of any creation. In two of Keats’s odes composed just a few months before, he tries to reconcile the surrender of life’s beauty to death by affirming its endurance in art, myth, and memory. “Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird! / No hungry generations tread thee down,” he proclaims in “Ode to a Nightingale,” while the figures in the “Ode on a Grecian Urn” are “For ever panting, and for ever young; / All breathing human passion far above. . . .” But now Keats won’t leave the sensual realm for the visionary or philosophical, achieving the “fellowship with essence,” as he phrased it in his early long poem, Endymion, which we associate with the Romantic ideal (“I live not in myself, but I become / Portion of that around me,” wrote Keats’s contemporary Lord Byron in 1816). The poem’s last stanza offers a mild gesture toward “resolution” in an ever-unfolding present tense. It is early evening, and the emptied fields look warm under a pink-tinted sky. The images and sounds are specific, but the vision is comprehensive: down by the river, we hear the “wailful choir” of the gnats, while over on the hillside the lambs bleat. In the hedges the crickets sing, the robin harmonizes in the garden, and swallows twitter overhead. Keats indulges in the pathetic fallacy to strike the melancholy note (the gnats are mourning!), but as the song progresses the poet doesn’t project any further emotions onto the choristers; they bleat, trill, whistle, and twitter, as is their nature. It is getting late, and the prospect of decay is everywhere, but its touch is light: “soft-dying day,” “bourne aloft / Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies.” It’s hard not to notice, after a few readings, that although the closing scene is imbued with a sense of mortality, autumn’s song sounds much like spring’s. After all, the birds and the lambs, although now “full-grown,” would have sung and bleated in May as well. The four distinct seasons, with all their sensuous variety, are one forward motion whose end is always death. We may rely on it, and must rely on it; the harvest is our means of surviving the cold that follows. Though Keats doesn’t make any overt attempt to reconcile autumn’s tragic nature, that his consciousness makes music of the creatures’ noises reminds us that this is a poetic creation. As much as the poet has absorbed his senses in an essence apart from himself, making no evaluations or claims for transcendence, he has taken pains to rescue and preserve the season whole—diminishment and all. Like the Greek figures on Keats’s urn, the scene is forever unfolding, round and perfect in its paradox of action and stasis. It is always not yet winter. “I have two luxuries to brood over in my walks, your Loveliness and the hour of my death,” Keats wrote to his would-be love, Fanny Brawne, that summer. He had watched his own brother die of tuberculosis just a few months before, and his medical training would have made clear to him the likelihood of his own fate. As he roamed the stubble-plains of Winchester in September, tubercular bacteria were already colonizing his lungs. A few months later, the illness worsened and his doctor advised him to curb his writing to preserve what was left of his vitality. That summer of 1819, the season of Keats’s flourishing that culminated in “To Autumn,” would be the poet’s own autumn. To Autumn	i don't know
What does 'Holden Caulfield' say he will be, in the title of a famous novel?	Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye (Click the character infographic to download.) Oh, Holden. We can’t make up our mind between feeling sorry for him and telling him to just get a grip already. The problem? All he wants to do is connect with someone—anyone—but the boy has high standards. Impossibly high standards. Standards so high that only a precocious fourth-grader can live up to them. It’s tough being a lonely misanthrope. Lost in the Crowd No matter how many times Holden says he’s “lonesome” (it’s a lot), he often can’t even get to the point of reaching out at all. The very first thing the does when he gets off the train in New York is go to a phone booth… and then he leaves twenty minutes later without having even picked up the receiver. We’re going to quote the whole passage, because it’s worth it: as soon as I was inside, I couldn't think of anybody to call up. My brother D.B. was in Hollywood. My kid sister Phoebe goes to bed around nine o'clock— so I couldn't call her up. […] My parents would be the ones [to pick up the phone]. Then I thought of giving Jane Gallagher's mother a buzz, and find out when Jane's vacation started, but I didn't feel like it. Besides, it was pretty late to call up. Then I thought of calling this girl I used to go around with quite frequently, Sally Hayes, because I knew her Christmas vacation had started already—she'd written me this long, phony letter, inviting me over to help her trim the Christmas tree Christmas Eve and all— but I was afraid her mother'd answer the phone. […] Then I thought of calling up this guy that went to the Whooton School when I was there, Carl Luce, but I didn't like him much. So I ended up not calling anybody. I came out of the booth, after about twenty minutes or so. (9.1) Every time Holden thinks of someone to call, he ends up deciding not to—usually because he’s afraid he’ll have to interact with someone he doesn’t like. (Like adults.) On the one hand, this is just Holden’s passivity. Over and over again, he decides not to do something. On the other hand, judging by the interactions that he does have, we… can’t really blame him. Take a look at just a handful of these encounters: He invites Ackley along to the movies, but Ackley won't return the favor by letting Holden sleep in his roommate's bed. He writes Stradlater's composition for him, and in return gets yelled at (and socked in the nose, but technically that was for different reasons). He even had to type that essay on a junky old typewriter because he had lent his own to the guy down the hall. He lends out up his hound's-tooth jacket, knowing it'll get stretched out in the shoulders. He gets stuck with the tab for the three "moronic" girls' drinks in the Lavender Room at his hotel. He pays Sunny even though he doesn't have sex with her, and ends up getting cheated out of five more dollars (and socked in the stomach, although technically this, too, was for different reasons). Still, Holden never makes himself out to be a victim. He doesn't seem to notice that he gets taken advantage of over and over and over again. At least, not on a conscious level. (We’re not so sure about his unconscious.). Despite his Judgy McJudgerson exterior, Holden just wants to make friends—like a cute little puppy who keeps on trying. Holden and the Phonies Scratch that: like a cute little puppy with a really bad attitude. Holden may want to make friends, but we’re not sure why: in his mind, everyone is a social-climber, a name-dropper, appearance-obsessed, a secret slob, a private flit (a.k.a gay), or a suck-up. Holden finds any semblance of normal adult life to be "phony." How phony? So phony that he uses the word 33 times—and trust us, that’s a lot of times to use a word like phony. He doesn't want to grow up and get a job and play golf and drink martinis and go to an office, and he certainly doesn't want anything to do with the "bastards" that do. Except that, really, he sort of does. We’re not psychoanalysts but here’s our take: if Holden calls everyone a phony, he can feel better when they reject him. You know like making fun of the cool kids so it doesn’t hurt when they don’t invite you to their parties. Who cares if the three girls in the Lavender Room weren't terribly interested in giving him the time of day; they were just phonies who couldn't carry on a conversation. Who cares if Ackley doesn't want to let him stay and chat; Ackley's just a pimply moron. Who cares that Stradlater doesn't want to hang out; he's just a jerk. Take just this one incident. At the Lavender Room, when he finally convinces the cute blonde to dance with him, the other two “ nearly had hysterics […] I certainly must've been very hard up to even bother with any of them” (10.13). We have to ask: who’s laughing at whom, here? We have a sneaking suspicion that the girls are the ones having a laugh at Holden’s expense—a scrawny little teenager who can’t even get the bartender to serve him. So, is Holden really an incisive judge of human character who’s too good to be ordinary—or is he just an unlikable, awkward kid with a big chip on his shoulder and a defense mechanism to match? Let’s Get Physical Right about now, Shmoop is looking around a little self-consciously. (Maybe you are too.) Holden doesn’t sound too different from any other disaffected, bored kid, us included. But there are definite hints in the text that Holden isn't just another normal teenager. For one, we know he had to take some sort of "rest" from regular life to go through therapy and get psychoanalyzed. We know he's prone to violent outbreaks, like breaking all the windows in the garage the night Allie died, or tackling Stradlater after his date with Jane, or screaming at Sally in public (he claims he's not yelling, but she repeatedly asks him to "stop screaming" at her [17.55]). He's flunked out of multiple boarding schools. He's depressed all the time. (By our count, 25 times in the course of the novel.) By the end of the novel, Holden's depression starts to get physical: he's nauseous, he has a headache, he feels dizzy, and he eventually passes out. His comments at the beginning of the novel suggest that his breakdown was in fact physical: he says he "practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam check-ups and stuff" (1.10). So we can pretty sure there's something up with Holden—something more than your average teenage emo kid with Dashboard Confessional posters on his walls. Death to Everyone So, what went wrong? Was Holden just born this way , or can we blame some sort of trauma for his obsession with phonies, morons, and—yep—death? We know that Allie’s death was hugely significant for Holden. We learn about it almost right away, and then Allie pops up over and over again. In fact, when Phoebe asks Holden to name just one thing he likes, the first—and almost only—thing he can think of is Allie (22.36). Less significant (but still pretty awful) is the death of James Castle, the boy who jumped to his death wearing Holden’s turtleneck. But Holden can’t seem to make up his mind about how he feels about death. Sometimes, he seems terrified at the thought of his own death, like when he prays to Allie while crossing the street not to let him disappear. And then sometimes, he's indifferent and objective to the notion, like when he sits in the freezing cold park after looking for the ducks and wonders what his family would think and what his funeral would be like if he got pneumonia and died. And then there are the times he thinks about suicide, or imagines himself bleeding from a gut wound, or claims that, “If there's ever another war, I'm going to sit right the hell on top of [the atomic bomb]. I'll volunteer for it, I swear to God I will” (18.7). Here’s our thought (just roll with us for a minute): we think Holden is a typical teenager in a lot of ways, but we also think he just might be a representation of a post-World War II America—an America that’s dropped the atom bomb and lost its claim to innocence. (Key piece of evidence: Allie dies of leukemia, the disease that many survivors of the atom bomb got.) When Holden gets disgusted with the phonies, he’s disgusted with the idea that anyone can continue to walk around as though the trauma of war and the bomb hasn’t happened, that life can simply continue on. Let’s Talk About Sex In Chapter 9, Holden looks out of his hotel window into other rooms, where he sees a "distinguished-looking" man prancing about in women's clothes, and a couple squirting water or highballs or something into each other's mouths. Question #1: Why don’t these people close their shades? Question #2: Does Holden see sex as inherently degrading? We have no idea about #1, but we think the answer for #2 is … yes. If you really like a girl, he says, you wouldn't want to "do crumby stuff" to her (9.15), and Holden can think of “very crumby stuff.” In fact, he’s “probably the biggest sex maniac you ever saw” (9.15). But we’re not so sure about that. In fact, it seems to us that he feels like he can’t have a sexual relationship with a girl at all, because it would turn her into an object. This means Holden has to either fulfill his sexual urges with girls he doesn't care about, or not fulfill them at all. Holden's second problem, he says, is that when he's fooling around with a girl and she suggests they stop, he actually … stops. But, somehow, Holden can't find a balance between respecting a woman (and her saying "no") and taking sexual control of a situation where—maybe—the woman wants him to. Maybe Holden has good reason to respect boundaries. After all, he does (maybe) experience a come-on at the hands of his former teacher, and he did (maybe) have "perverty" stuff happen to him "about twenty times since [he] was a kid" (24.94). And Jane either did or did not get molested by her stepfather. (One thing to note—Holden uses “about twenty” a lot to indicate large but indeterminate numbers: “I’ve read the same sentence about twenty times” (3); a record from “about twenty years ago” (16); “about twenty sweaters” (16); “about twenty Indians” (16), and so on. So, “about twenty times” could really mean … one or two.) Why all this ambiguity? Well, an omniscient, third-person narrator could tell us exactly what’s going on. But that’s not what we have. What we have is Holden, a confused, possibly sex-crazed sixteen year old who admits that he "just [doesn't] understand" sex (9.15). One last thought: could Holden be gay? Is that why he feels confused and alienated? Well, maybe. He does spend a lot of time thinking about Stradlater’s hot bod. He also might read homosexuality where it isn’t, as with Carl Luce or Mr. Antolini. And he's not comfortable with the thought of having sex with a woman. And then there’s his own point that “I know more damn perverts, at schools and all, than anybody you ever met, and they’re always being perverty when I’m around” (24.82). You know—like maybe they’re picking up on something that Holden can’t even admit to himself? Phonies Lead to Hate; Hate Leads to the Dark Side Holden may not understand himself too well, and he may be troubled, but he does come up with some Yoda-like statements that really knock our socks off. Examples: • "If somebody knows quite a lot about [the theater and plays and literature], it takes you quite a while to find out whether they’re really stupid or not” (15.2). • "If [girls] like a boy, no matter how big a bastard is, they'll say he has an inferiority complex, and if they don't like him, no matter how nice a guy he is […], they'll say he's conceited" (18.1) • "Lots of times you don't know what interests you most till you start talking" (24.24). Now, this isn't exactly Algebra or Ancient Egyptian History, but there's a real emotional intelligence here. Holden understands people: how they think, how they act, and why they do what they do. And he doesn’t like it. In fact, you could even argue that Salinger made Holden too emotionally mature—that a real sixteen-year-old would never have this level of wisdom, even if he thought he did. One other point to make: Holden’s last name is Caulfield. So what? Well, a “caul” is a little piece of membrane that in rare cases covers the head of a newborn. Babies born with cauls are sometimes said to have supernatural powers, and the caul itself has been traditionally considered good luck. (And also useful protection against drowning, go figure.) So, the “caul” in Caulfield just might indicate that Holden is special—that he has some special insight into people, and that he’s been marked from birth. Maybe Salinger just liked the sound of the word? Well, maybe. But there’s a famous literary character who just so happens to introduce himself in the first person as having been born with a caul: David Copperfield . And guess who name-checks David Copperfield as the very beginning of his own story? Holden Caulfield, who dismisses “all that David Copperfield kind of crap” (1.1). Coincidence? We don’t think so. The Catcher in the Rye Finally, there’s Holden's grand ambition to be…the catcher in the rye. We talk about the irony a in "What's Up With the Title?,” but here’s the deal: Holden's ambitions = impossible. There are just too many "Fuck you" signs in the world. But why does he have this fantasy in the first place? Why is Holden so obsessed with innocence? Does it have to do with his feelings on and past (bad) experiences with sexuality? Probably. Does it also have to do with the fact that Allie died when he was ten years old? It's highly likely. Is it related to Holden's feelings on adult phoniness, his brewing madness, his emotional intelligence, and his dislike of social constructs? Almost certainly. And, finally, does it have to do with Salinger’s sense of post-World War II America as being a fundamentally corrupt, un-innocent, post-trauma culture? Almost certainly.	The Catcher in the Rye
Which racecourse hosts the Scottish Grand National?	BBC News - Why does Salinger's Catcher in the Rye still resonate? BBC News Why does Salinger's Catcher in the Rye still resonate? By Finlo Rohrer BBC News Magazine JD Salinger has consulted his lawyers over an unauthorised "sequel" to his classic novel The Catcher in the Rye. But 58 years after the story about a disaffected teenager was published, why is it still so powerful to so many people? Holden Caulfield does not like a lot of what he encounters. Much is dopey, corny, lousy, crumby, vomity but most of all, phoney. Holden is surrounded by phoneys, almost wherever he goes. It's almost enough to make him puke. FOR AND AGAINST Why people don't like it: Use of 1940s New York vernacular Self-obsessed central character Too much whining Holden is 16. Expelled from his prep school for flunking too many subjects, he travels to New York, his home town. He drinks, smokes, sees a prostitute, is punched by her pimp, goes on a date, has a strange encounter with a former teacher, spends a fair amount of time in the park, and really does not a great deal else. Mostly he ruminates on the people he meets, people he met in the past and his dead brother. Plot is in short supply. The Catcher in the Rye is a novel where not very much happens. And yet this story of a couple of days in the life of a teenager has sold tens of millions of copies since its release. There are not many other novels from the 1950s that can be found persistently hovering around the top 100 bestseller lists. Rise of teenager Fans of the novel regard it as the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager. Holden is at various times disaffected, disgruntled, alienated, isolated, directionless, and sarcastic. The book's publication in 1951 came at the dawn of the age of the teenager. A new social category, newly economically empowered and hungry for culture, was fed by music, films and novels. William Golding's Lord of the Flies also came propitiously, in 1954. The joy and the shock... is that he is a rebellious, misunderstood, thoughtful teenager and that is what people love him for - we don't want him stiff-backed and incontinent with grandchildren Katie Allen The Bookseller's review of John David California's 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye "It absolutely speaks to that moment the teenager emerges as a recognisable social group," says Dr Sarah Graham, author of Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye and a Routledge guide on the same subject. "Before that people went through their teenage years with no sense it was a particular kind of identity. It is the first novel of the modern teenage years." The fact that teenagers were all in high school for the first time, instead of working and providing for their family from an early age, gave them time to think. And to mope. "Leisure gave teenagers time to reflect on where they were going," says Dr Graham, of Leicester University. "The idea of existential angst in some way draws from Catcher in the Rye as much as the novel reflects it. There is a strong dialogue between the book and the teenage experience - they are mutually shaping." School controversy But The Catcher in the Rye wasn't written for the audience that has embraced it most wholeheartedly. "It was never written for a teenage audience, it was written for adult readers," says Dr Graham. "There's been so much controversy over the years with it being offered to high school students. From the 1950s there are cases of teachers losing their jobs for setting the book." JD SALINGER Lives in Cornish, New Hampshire Not keen on visitors Is thought to have continued writing without intention to publish Whatever the intended audience, Salinger's work has become a classic of one of publishing's most lucrative genres - teen fiction. And a thousand authors have tried to capture the spirit of Holden Caulfield. But despite its gazillions of sales, there are plenty of people - teenage and adult - who just cannot understand what the fuss is about. You can find a decent cross section of these critics giving the book one star on Amazon. "The moaning, dreary I-like-the-sound-of-my-own-voice tone with which Caulfield told his short story started to really get on my nerves," says one. Another concludes: "It's like reading a diary written by a spoilt, annoying, Emo teenager - self indulgent, repetitive and likely to leave you wanting to just slap the narrator while saying 'for God's sake, get over yourself'." Other brickbats from the iconoclasts include "over-rated", "lamentable", and "inane ramblings". Many of these readers are disappointed that the novel fails to meet the expectations generated by the mystique it is shrouded in. JD Salinger has done his part to enhance this mystique. That is to say, he has done nothing. WORKS INFLUENCED BY CATCHER Novels: Bret Easton Ellis's Less Than Zero, Miriam Toews's A Complicated Kindness, Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar, Judith Guest's Ordinary People Films: The Graduate, Dead Poets Society, Tadpole, Igby Goes Down, Donnie Darko Music: Green Day, The Offspring Source: Dr Sarah Graham Salinger's most famous achievement is writing The Catcher in the Rye, but his second most famous achievement is several decades of seclusion. He has not published since the 1960s, nor given an interview since the early 1980s. He is a man who only reminds the world of his extant status by occasional forays into legal action against copyright infringers. There can be few works of The Catcher in the Rye's stature that have avoided a Hollywood adaptation. The notoriety of the novel is also enhanced by something far darker - that John Lennon's killer Mark David Chapman was completely obsessed by the work, and was reading it when arrested. Whatever its reputation, Salinger's novel now enjoys a status as something passed from adults to teenagers, and from teenager to teenager. Teenage everyman Adults give it to teenagers hoping they will be reassured that having a train of misanthropic and cynical thoughts parading through their mind is entirely normal, perhaps even desirable. Those who embrace the novel recognize Holden as a teenage everyman. Dr Graham suggests it is unique, "the way in which a young affluent white male has come to stand for a universal experience of adolescence". He was too much like a goddam general instead of a sad screwed-up type guy Holden Caulfield on Laurence Olivier's take on Hamlet Holden feels uncomfortable about all the things that adults have learnt to inure themselves to. Holden can't bear to see people with cheap luggage - it becomes a symbol of a society where money is all. He hates the school headmaster who will not speak to the funny-looking parents. Holden hates everything that pretends to be authentic. And what do adults re-reading it in 2009 get? Perhaps they hope to recapture something of the way they thought when they were a teenager. A selection of your comments appears below. I read Catcher as 16-year-old in 1976 for O Level. For me, it was part of a great awakening, but that's also down to my teacher, Mike Allen. He told us to read the first chapter - but I gulped down - maybe half or more - of the book, can't remember exactly, in one sitting. I was certainly an emotionally and intellectually suppressed kid, and maybe that's why the book resonated so much with me. But Catcher and Mike Allen's teaching helped me feel that I did have a brain, and I could use it, so I owe them both a lot. I tried reading it again and it just didn't click the way it did that first time. Maybe it is overrated - but Salinger's use of skaz is certainly adept and Holden is a great anti-hero character, so the book keeps on working. Dave, Cambridge The REAL issue is that this, like many other books, has been over analysed, attributed with 'hidden' meanings, compared and judged, and assigned values by a diverse range of people. It has become a myth rather than what it actually is; a well written, well structured story. A story does not have to have a lot happen in it, nor does it have to be interesting. A story is something that should be read rather than interpreted or compared with other, unrelated, things. James, Spain Got to the end of it and thought I'd missed something, some piece of subtext or hint that something else was going on but being cleverly concealed. Then realised it was completely straightforward. Absolutely baffled as to why some people rate it so highly. Dave, Edinburgh Read it for first time a few years back - I was in my 60s. Read it because my wife read it and moaned at every page because she didn't like the narrator. So I read it to see what the fuss was about. At first I hated it because the "hero" is so unlikeable. But then I realized that he knew that he wasn't really important to his parents. They gave him affluence but not love. But the title says it all - the core of the book is his daydream about being the catcher in the rye, and saving his young brother. Joe, Glasgow Lets face it, the people who don't get the Catcher are lucky as they have managed to go through life without having cause to feel dejected and isolated enough to experience the emotions that this book encapsulates. Be sure, though that there is a significant majority for who this book resonates greatly, and these people are probably not the kind to browse the BBC magazine section to alleviate the boredom of 9-5 at Barclays. I can see the book losing relevance in the "modern" world where clamouring for an extra Facebook friend is as close to an existensial crisis as most people get. Yeknas , Kilchoan, Scotland Having just finished studying the novel for my GCSEs, I must say that I absolutely love it! Although I initially hated the book, I found it dull and uneventful, I grew to love it through the in-depth analysis we did in class. I think Holden is an incredibly interesting character and it gives an amazing insight into the mind of a troubled teenager, oppressed by society. It is now one of my favourite books. Christina M, London Possibly the most overrated book of all time Grahame, Newport The point of literature of this nature is to provoke thought. It's like all character studies, complex. If you want a good story, or need entertaining read pulp. If you want a commentary on the human condition then in Catcher there is no better. This is the text that defines the 20th century along with Ulysses, and will be a point of reference for ages to come when they look back on history of what went wrong in society. For those "not getting it" and who have posted negativity- there is a strong link between your inane babble and the point of the book. Stu Pittars, London We studied this and Paul Zindel's The Pigman at school. Both were brilliant and completely captivated the class, even those not usually interested in literature. Why? Because both deal directly with the issues that most teenagers encounter. Sharon Frances, Glasgow The book really speaks to the confused outsiders that are Holden-like in their thoughts and behaviour.I think the people that don't "get it" are simply to well-adjusted. Also, I'm surprised they haven't mentioned Wes Anderson's "Rushmore" as being influenced by Catcher, it is the most obvious example i would have thought. Colin Mackay, Edinburgh I can't believe people being disappointed in the work because they find the central character unsympathetic. You're not SUPPOSED to like him, he's not in a popularity contest. Many great works of art are supposed to make you feel uncomfortable. One of the few books everyone seems to have read, and that says a lot. David Blake, London I actually read this in 1980, I was 16, I read it because Mark Chapman was reading it and said it inspired him to kill John Lennon, I found the book in the attic last year and read it again even at 43. I still can't make the connection. The book was as boring last year as it was in 1980 Mrs Sutherland, Glasgow The first time I read 'Catcher in the Rye' I hated it. I was 17 at the time and growing up in a former pit village in the north of England. I couldn't understand why someone so privileged and with so much opportunity could be so miserable. I avoided reading it for many years. I read it maybe 10 years later and I can now class it as one of my favourites. In my opinion there's a certain irony to the work that I only understood after a certain amount of experience. I think the text is a work of genius. Andy Feast, Manchester, UK I read Catcher simply to see what all the fuss was about like the vast majority of others who have read it I would imagine. Frankly I really don't know what all the fuss was about.....a work of it's time seen as subversive and so gaining a reputation like any forbidden fruit. Written today it would be unlikely to even get published. Trevor, Nantwich I bought the book a while ago when it was hyped on a best seller programme. I have attempted to read it for the second time, and, I must tell you I am not enjoying it. Although I am a young 45 I just can't get into the flow of the book, the narrator bores me rigid, do I need to have gone through the American education system to understand any of it? It is not a book to read if you are at all suicidal, as it may push you over the edge. A Russell, Stratford-upon-Avon I apologise for using this hackneyed example, but I have to say it: it's timeless in a similar way to Shakespeare, and the use of vernacular shouldn't cloud the same thoughts and ideals we in our current day face. In fact, it helps us accept that the base of human nature is essentially the same no matter where it is dated, and this is of fear. Fear of the unknown, of the eventuality of death (sorry for being morbid). When we are young, we are made to believe that adults know everything. We mess up, they clean up after us, they teach us what is right and what is wrong. We finally realise upon reaching adulthood that the people making rules are as scared as we are. This fear can translate to what he calls being a "phoney", changing your behaviour around others because everything is not black and white anymore. Maybe Holden dost protest too much, but as a teenager who realises this veneer of calm around him melt around the edges for the first time, I don't blame him. He wants to save youth from us, just like we had it stolen from him. That's life I'm afraid, and we like reading about life. Life sells. Susan Gray, Harrow, London I'm 35 and read this for the first time earlier this year. I picked it up as it was small, fit in my rucksack and I was travelling. The Catcher In The Rye was tortuous. I would agree with two of the "Why people don't like it" points in the original article - too much whining and a self-obsessed central character. I'd also add that virtually nothing actually happens. There's no plot, no story. It's outdated, but even its age can't hide how dull it is. Picking JD Salinger over, say, Anthony Horowitz is like picking Forrest Gump over The Shawshank Redemption. Iain Purdie, Perth, UK There weren't any teenagers before Holden Caulfield. There certainly weren't any at Pencey anyway, just crumby overgrown kids who grin too much. Harry Bristol, Bristol The moment I started to read it I was enamoured. Holden struck me as really funny for some reason but I really related to him as well. I thought of high school as a waste of my time. I felt like everyone around me considered social status to be the most important part of their lives. Everyone was essentially being "phoney" in order to achieve a higher rank among their peers - drinking and doing drugs even if they didn't particularly want to etc. A lot of old friends ditched everything they ever were to be accepted by a bunch of people who had done the same, yielding to an imaginary pressure. It took every ounce of my tolerance to even show up every day and stand up to the nonsense. It was Holden's other experiences and sensitivity that in the end made me really depressed. I read the book twice but realized it was bad for my mental health. Holden was funny and interesting but also wasn't proactive enough. I realized that in order to bear all of the things that drive us mad about the "phonies" one must take initiative to do things that make one happy and stop thinking so much about other people and what they do and think.... I'll always think it was a good book though and it was a relief to think for a moment during adolescence that I wasn't completely alone in my misery. Jessica, Providence, USA Never read it, not interested in reading it either. If I want to hear a teenager moan, I ask my son to do the washing up! Andie, UK I just didn't get it. I read it in my late 20s and just got very annoyed with Holden. If I remember correctly, I kept comparing it with Mrs Dalloway, which, funnily enough, I got completely. Why? I don't know - it just seems to chime. Maybe it's time to look at it again in my late 30s - I may be a little more forgiving of teenage angst instead of getting annoyed. Maybe it's time to read Mrs Dalloway again and see if I've got rose-tinted lenses on. Janet, Newcastle upon Tyne	i don't know
Which 1980'sband took their name from a tin of paint?	BAND NAMES .. ORIGINS Numbers 10cc Manager Jonathan King chose the name after having a dream in which he was standing in front of the Hammersmith Odeon in London where the boarding read "10cc The Best Band in the World". A widely repeated claim, disputed by King and Godley, but confirmed in a 1988 interview by Creme, and also on the webpage of Gouldman's current line-up, is that the band name represented a volume of semen that was more than the average amount ejaculated by men, thus emphasising their potency or prowess. 10 SECONDS OF FOREVERS named after Hawkwind's "10 Seconds of Forever" 10,000 MANIACS Inspired by the old horror movie called '2000 Maniacs' 101 ERS (the) The group was named after the squat where they lived together: 101 Walterton Road, Maida Vale, although it was for a time rumoured that they were named for "Room 101", the infamous torture room in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. 13th FLOOR ELEVATORS (the) The band's name was developed from a suggestion by drummer John Ike Walton to use the name "Elevators" and Clementine Hall added "13th Floor" 2Be3 French band using English language as a pun ~ meaning To Be Free 23rd TURNOFF (THE) They took their name from the motorway sign indicating the nearby M6 exit. 3rd STRIKE Lead singer named his band after the "three strikes, you're out" law. 311 311 is an Omaha police code for indecent exposure. P-Nut and some friends went skinny dipping in a public pool. They were apprehended by police. P-Nut's friendwas arrested, cuffed (naked) and taken home to his parents. He was issued a citation for a code 311 (indecent exposure). 702 Pronounced "Seven-Oh-Two", named after the area code of their hometown of Las Vegas. 801 / THE 801 Taken from the Eno song "The True Wheel", which appears on his 1974 solo album Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy). The refrain of the song - "We are the 801, we are the central shaft" 808 STATE Took their name from their Roland TR-808 drum machine. ("the 808 state" is a nickname for Hawaii, due to 808 being the telephone area code) _____________________________________ A A DAY IN THE LIFE named after the Beatles song "A Day in the Life". They are now known as Hawthorne Heights. A DAY TO REMEMBER This was a phrase came from the band's first drummer Bobby Scruggs' girlfriend, who used the phrase a lot at the bands rehearsals. A PERFECT CIRCLE aka APC when asked at a news conference, frontman Maynard Keenan stated that the name " A Perfect Circle" originates from the friendships of the band members, all of them met one another in a way resembling "a perfect circle of friendship" A WILHELM SCREAM they named themselves after a sound effect, The Wilhelm scream, which is a frequently-used film and television stock sound effect, first used in 1951 for the film Distant Drums. A-CADS according to press releases, their name is a compromise between the band and thier manager Peter Rimmer. Apparently Rimmer was keen to name the group after the Rand Academy of Music, while the group members preferred choice was The Cads, the result being The A-Cads. A-HA "a-ha" comes from a title that member Pål Waaktaar thought giving to a song. Morten Harket was looking through Waaktaar's notebook and came across the name "a-ha". He liked it and said, "That's a great name. That's what we should call ourselves". After checking dictionaries in several languages, they found out that a-ha was an international way of expressing recognition, with positive connotations. A-STUDIO The band was first called their 'Alma-Ata Studio' after the town Almaty where it was formed. Later, the name was shortened to "A-Studio". A-TEENS The 'A' stands for ABBA since they started as a cover band for the group, but the name was changed upon the request from Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson to avoid confusion. ABC named after the 1970 number-one hit song by The Jackson 5, "ABC" ABBA An acronym for the first names of the band members: Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Anderson and Anni-Frid (Frida) Lyngstad. AC/DC Guitarists Malcolm and Angus Youngs sister-in-law Sandra reportedly came up with the name when she saw the abbreviation for Alternating Current and Direct Current on the back of a sewing machine. The band didn't realise at the time it was also slang for bi-sexual. ACE OF BASE Their first practice studio was in the basement of a car repair shop, and they were the greats of their own basement studio. ADIEMUS Creator Karl Jenkins invented the word, unaware at the time that it means "We will draw near" in Latin AEROSMITH It was evidently a word Joey Kramer wrote all over his notebooks in high school. Some think they were inspired by the 1925 book "Arrowsmith" by Sinclair Lewis. AFTER FOREVER named after Black Sabbath's "After Forever", a track from their third album Master of Reality recorded in 1972 AIDEN named after a character from the 2002 film The Ring AIR SUPPLY 5 years prior to the band's signing, Graham Russell saw the name in a dream. AKB48 Named after Tokyo's area Akihabara (colloquially shortened to Akiba), a mecca for electronics shopping and geeks. The group was formed as theatre-based, to perform at its own theatre at Akihabara on a daily basis, so that fans could always go and see them live. ALEXISONFIRE from contortionist stripper, Alexis Fire, which nearly resulted in a lawsuit from the stripper's representatives. ALICE COOPER The band were inspired while talking to a spirit named Alice Cooper who came to them when they were using their Ouija Board. After the band split up, Vincent Furnier their lead singer kept the name for his solo act. ALL TIME LOW All Time Low When in high school, members Alex Gaskarth, Jack Barakat, Rian Dawson, and Zack Merrick made a list of possible band names, one of which being "All Time Low". ALICE IN CHAINS Layne Staley formed a glam metal band Alice N' Chainz (Alice AND Chains) where he used to dress in drag on stage, taking the micky of glam rockers with their big hair etc. When he met up with Jerry Cantrell they formed a new band and eventually after not being able to think of a name decided to call it after Laynes old band but spelt differently .. So the name comes from Layne Staley who once said that "ALICE" represented the frail person, and the "CHAINS" represented the drug addiction. and the music was about "ALICE" breaking free of her "CHAINS", a.k.a. drugs. BUT inbetween Alice N Chainz and "Alice in Chains" .. Layne used to mock glam rock bands calling them Alice and Chains and Alice In Chains .. so I do think originally it may have been mockery of glam rock or was Alice himself, weak and chained in Wonderland .. his drugs!! ALL-AMERICAN REJECTS (The) The names "All-Americans" and "the Rejects" after the Green Day song Reject, were both suggested to the band as names, so they were merged. ALL CROWS ARE BLACK Steve Townend took the name from a problem in the logic of confirmation proposed by the German logician Carl Gustav Hempel in the 1940s and known as the Paradox of the Ravens. ALL TIME LOW was taken from the lyrics 'and it feels like I'm at an all-time low' from New Found Glory song, "Head on Collision" ALTER BRIDGE The name comes from a long-standing bridge near Mark Tremontis childhood home in Detroit, which was often regarded as a boundary to the children in surrounding neighborhoods; beyond it was uncharted territory. AMAZULU The name "Amazulu" is taken from the Zulu language word for the Zulu people. ANAMANAGUCHI The name came about from a member in one of Peter Berkman's former bands pronouncing gibberish in the style of Jabba the Hutt; The band has also explained it as coming from the members' internships at Armani (Berkman and DeVito), Prada (Warnaar), and Gucci (Silas) while studying fashion at Parsons School of Design ANBERLIN band member Stephen Christian has offered the explanations that he planned naming his first daughter Anberlin and that the name was a modification of the phrase "and Berlin" from a list of cities he wanted to visit. The one story that Stephen Christian asserts is true, is that he heard (or misheard) the word in the background noise of the Radiohead song "Everything in Its Right Place", he finally admitted he thought it sounded like 'Anberlin' in the background during the part of the song while Thom Yorke is singing "try to say" about 2:32 into the song. AND YOU WILL KNOW US BY THE TRAIL OF DEAD Initially the band claimed it to be a line in a Mayan ritual chant, though lead singer Conrad Keely has since admitted the story was a joke. ANTHRAX Scott Ian learnt about the virulent bacteria anthrax in biology class at high school, and thought it an awesome name for a band. AMERICA Band members met in London; they were all sons of members of the United States Air Force serving in the UK. ANTIETAM named after Jethro Tull's "Aqualung" ARCADE FIRE Based on a story that singer Win Butler heard as a kid. He was told that an arcade in Exeter had burnt down, killing many youths. ARCTIC MONKEYS The name was made up by the guitarist, Jamie Cook, while at school AREA CODE 615 They took their name from the telephone area code, which at the time covered all of Central and Eastern Tennessee. ARNOLD CORNS An early David Bowie band, the name of which was inspired by the Pink Floyd song 'Arnold Layne'. ART OF NOISE Named after the 1913 manifesto called The Art of Noises by Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo. AS I LAY DYING Named after the 1930 novel As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner ASKING ALEXANDRIA According to band member, lead singer Danny Worsnop, the name was taken from Alexander the Great. ASTARTE named after Astarte the great goddess of fertility, beauty and war; the Phoenician predecessor to the Greek Aphrodite. ASWAD the British reggae group, called themselves 'Aswad' knowing it means "Black" in Arabic at17 named after Janis Ian's song "At Seventeen" released in 1975 from her 7th studio album, Between the Lines ATAHUALPA YUPANQUI the most important Argentine folk musician of the 20th century, adopted his stage name as a tribute to two legendary Incan kings, Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca and Yupanqui, a Sapa Inca and a member of the Hurin dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco. ATLANTICS [The] They took their name from a local brand of petrol, Atlantic. ATREYU Named themselves after a character in 1979 novel The Never Ending Story and the 1984 movie of the same name AUDIOSLAVE according to lead guitarist Tom Morello the name supposedly came to singer Chris Cornell in a vision. AUTOMATIC PILOT from psychiatric testimony characterizing Dan White's state of mind while killing George Moscone and Harvey Milk AVENGED SEVENFOLD The band's name is a reference to the Book of Genesis in the Bible, where Cain is sentenced to live in exile for murdering his brother. God marked him so that none would kill him on account of his sin; the man who dared to kill Cain would suffer "vengeance seven times over" AXL ROSE Guns N Roses singer's name is an anagram of oral sex AZTEC TWO-STEP Took their name from a line in Lawrence Ferlinghetti's poem 'See It Was Like This When' _____________________________________ The beehive hairstyle popular in the 1950's was called a B-52. BACHMAN-TURNER OVERDRIVE A combination of band members' last names and the trucker's magazine 'Overdrive'. BACKSTREET BOYS named after a flea market in Orlando, Florida. BAD BRAINS named after The Ramones' song "Bad Brain" BAD COMPANY Paul Rodgers did not name his group after the Jeff Bridges film Bad Company as is often quoted. Rodgers himself has said that he took the moniker from a book of Victorian morals that showed a picture of an innocent child looking up at an unsavory character leaning against a lamp post. The caption read "beware of bad company" . BADFINGER was derived from "Bad Finger Boogie," the working title of The Beatles' "With a Little Help from My Friends" BAND (The) According to guitarist Robbie Robertson, Bob Dylan's backup band resisted all conformity, even naming their ensemble. After landing their own recording contract, record company executives pressed them for a group name, but had to settle for simply "The Band". BAR-KAYS (The) Growing out of a local group dubbed the Imperials, they adopted a mutated version of their favorite brand of rum, Bacardi, as their name. BASTILLE Took their name from the French "Bastille Day", which date coinsides with lead singer Dan Smith's birthday. BAUHAUS They chose the name Bauhaus 1919, a reference to the German Bauhaus art movement and college of the 1920s, because of its "stylistic implications and associations", according to David J. The band also chose to use the same type font used on the Bauhaus college building in Dessau, Germany. They soon dropped the 1919, which was a reference to the first operating year of the art school . BAY CITY ROLLERS They blindly stuck a pin on a map. It landed on Bay City, Michigan. BEASTIE BOYS According to the documentary, American Punk, Beastie Boys, named their band with two words beginning with B because they were inspired by Bad Brains, also a "BB" band. Also ''Beastie' is an acronym for 'Boys Entering Anarchistic States Toward Internal Excellence'. BEAUTIFUL SOUTH (The) an English alternative rock group formed at the end of the 1980s by two former members of Hull group The Housemartins, Paul Heaton and Dave Hemingway. Heaton explained at the time that the name was partly a sarcastic reflection of his own dislike of southern England, and partly an attempt to force macho men to utter the word 'beautiful' BEATLES They went by the names Quarrymen and the Silver Beetles a while later, then shortened and mutated that to the Beatles. The original bassist, Stuart Sutcliffe came up with the Beetles in 1960, he was a fan huge of Buddy Holly & the Crickets (crickets-beetles). After which John Lennon is credited with combining Beetles and Beat to come up with the Beatles spelling. BEE GEES Although often refers to as the 'Brothers Gibb' therefore the Bee Gees, the band say they took their name from the initials of two friends that helped them out in their early days, Bill Goode and a disc jockey named Bill Gates. BELLE & SEBASTIAN from Belle et Sébastien, a children's book by French writer Cécile Aubry, which was later adapted into a TV series BETTER THAN EZRA Better Than Ezra got their name when they were starting out in clubs. It is rumoured, they were going on after a band called "Ezra" and when the MC was about to announce them he asked their name... they responded "...we're Better than Ezra" BETWEEN THE BURIED AND ME The band name was derived from a phrase in Counting Crows' song "Ghost Train". The lyrics say "Fifty Million feet of earth between the buried and me" BIFFY CLYRO there are many rumours of the origin of Biffy Clyro's name... one time lead singer, Simon Neil bought a Cliff Richard pen therefore it was a Cliffy Biro, they then changed this to Biffy Clyro. Another theory is that 'Biffy Clyro' were a Welsh tribe. The third rumour is that Biffy Clyro was a former player of the band's football team, Ayr United. They have never confirmed any of these. BIG BOPPER Jiles Perry Richardson a disc jockey, called himself 'The Big Bopper' because of his 240 pound frame and a 'bopper' was someone who was really into rock and roll back in the 1950s, BIG COUNTRY named after Talking Heads' "The Big Country"; a track from their second album, More Songs About Buildings and Food released in 1978's BIG DRILL CAR the band members have claimed in interviews that their name was inspired by the movie Journey to the Center of the Earth. BIG STAR One band member was given the idea from a grocery store which he often visited for snacks during recording sessions. One of many Big Star Markets outlets in the Memphis region at the time, it had a logo consisting of a five-pointed star enclosing the words "Big Star"; as well as the store's name, the band used its logo but without the word "Star" to avoid infringing copyright. BIKINI KILL the future band members began working together on a fanzine calling it Bikini Kill, and with the addition of former Go Team guitarist Billy Karren, they formed a band of the same name. The actual name was inspired by the 1967 B-movie The Million Eyes of Sumuru. BILLY TALENT The band is named after a character in the film Hard Core Logo (although the name in the film and the book by Michael Turner it was adapted from is spelled "Billy Tallent"). BLA TAGET The Swedish progg-band, that used to go under the name Gunder Hägg, the name of a legendary Swedish runner, but after name conflicts occurred they changed name to Blå Tåget, which was a ride at the amusement park Gröna Lund. BLACK, CILLA A reporter for the local paper, while writing a favorable review accidentley called her Cilla Black instead of Cilla White. BLACK ANGELS [The] named after Velvet Underground's "The Black Angel's Death Song" BLACK CROWES [The] Originally named Mr Crowe's Garden named after Leonard Leslie Brookes children's book Johnny Crow's Garden fairy tale. BLACK FAG a wind-up of the band name "Black Flag" BLACK FLAG Originally called Panic; the name was suggested by Ginn's brother, artist Raymond Pettibon, who also designed the band's logo. Pettibon stated "If a white flag means surrender, a black flag represents anarchy." Their new name was reminiscent of the anarchist symbol, the insecticide of the same name, and of the British heavy metal band Black Sabbath, one of Ginn's favorite bands. Ginn suggested that he was "comfortable with all the implications of the name". When Adam Ant first played in California, the band Black Flag gave out button badges that read: 'Black Flag kills Ants'. BLACK METAL took its name from Venom's second album "Black Metal" released in 1982. BLACK REBEL MOTORCYCLE CLUB took their name from Marlon Brando's motorcycle gang in the 1953 film "The Wild One". BLACK SABBATH The band Earth were inspired to call their first original song "Black Sabbath" after seeing the 1963 Boris Karloff's horror movie "Black Sabbath" After which they changed their name to Black Sabbath. BLEACH BOYS (The) origially called The Fur Coughs, their new name, The Bleach Boys was given to them by the philosopher Simon Critchley, and is a play on The Beach Boys. BLIMP (THE) Took their name from a Captain Beefheart song "The Blimp" from his 1969 album, Trout Mask Replica. BLIND MELON Bass player Brad Smith's father used this term to refer to some hippies who lived in a commune near his house. BLINK 182 Blink was the original name decided for the band, however an Irish band of the same name objected after they released demos and an album, so the 3 digit suffix was added; the numbers stand for nothing at all. An internet rumour suggests the 182 is a miscount of how many times Tony Montana (Al Pacino) says the word 'fuck' in the film Scarface. BLONDE REDHEAD Named themselves "Blonde Redhead" after a song by the New York no wave band DNA. BLONDIE The name derived from comments made by truck drivers who catcalled "Hey, Blondie" to Harry as the band, then called Angel and the Snake, drove by. BLOOD DUSTER named after Naked City's "Blood Duster" track on 1999 'Naked City' album BLOOD ON THE FLOOR originally called 'Love the Fashion', but while creating their first album vocalist Dahvie Christopher Mongillo came up with the name Blood On The Dance Floor. It is possible he was inspired Michael Jackson's song, "Blood On The Dance Floor". BLOOD, SWEAT AND TEARS Founder Al Kooper came up with the name when on the phone with a promoter, while gazing at a Johnny Cash album cover, Cash's "Blood Sweat & Tears" album. Another version is, the title was chosen by Al Kooper, inspired after a late-night gig in which Kooper played with a bloody hand. BLUE OCTOBER The front man of Blue October, Justin Furstenfeld, spent a brief stint in a mental hospital in October 1997. He stated that afterwards he wrote songs to keep depression away which led to the forming of the band. BLUE ÖYSTER CULT The name is an anagram of 'Cully's Stout Beer'. But it is said to be combination of a recipe the band's manager read in a book and the band's fascination with the occult. A third source says the band's éminence grise and manager, Sandy Pearlman, named the band after the Blue Point oysters on a local restaurant menu in 1971, but Allen Lanier suggested the addition of the all-important umlaut, over the Ö. BLUR The band had been known as "Seymour" until they were signed to Food Records in 1990. The label disliked the band name, the group selected a new one from a provided list, from which they eventually chose "Blur" . BOB DYLAN Robert Zimmerman changed his surname to Dylan in honor of Dylan Thomas BONDED BY BLOOD took thier name from Exodus' "Bonded by Blood" a track on their debut album Bonded by Blood released in 1984. BONO (Paul Hewson) Paul Hewson of U2, was inspired by a hearing aid store in Dublin, Ireland called 'Bono Vox'. BOO RADLEYS Their name is taken from the character of Boo Radley in Harper Lee's 1960 novel, To Kill A Mockingbird. BOOKER T. & THE M.G.'s M.G. stands for Memphis Group, a band led by keyboard player Booker T. Jones. BOOM BOOM SATELLITES named after Sigue Sigue Sputnik's song "Boom Boom Satellite" from their album Dress for Excess BOOMTOWN RATS Taken from the gang in Woody Guthrie's 'Bound for Glory' novel. BOREDOMS named themselves after Buzzcocks' "Boredom" from the Buzzcocks' 1976/77 "Spiral Scratch" EP. BORIS this Japanese experimental rock named themselves after Melvins' "Boris" from their 1991 album Bullhead. BRAINERD Original guitarist, Knife, names band after home-town, Brainerd in Minnesota. BRING ME THE HORIZON Took their name from a line said by Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, "Now... bring me that horizon". BUFFALO SPRINGFIELD The band took their name from a brand of heavy asphalt roller they saw while stuck in Los Angeles traffic BOYS (The) The group who were made up of 4 brothers got asked their name by the orginizers of a talent contest they were performing at; nameless at this time, their mother responded with "my boys" and then quickly changed her answer to "The Boys". BUCKWHEAT ZYDECO He acquired his nickname as a youth, because, with his braided hair, he looked like the character Buckwheat from Our Gang/The Little Rascals movies and of course Zydeco is a musical genre evolved in southwest Louisiana by French Creole speakers which blends blues, rhythm and blues, and music indigenous to the Louisiana Creoles and the Native people of Louisiana. BUNNY RUGS William Clarke explained that nickname came from his grandmother calling him 'Bunny' as a child because he would "jump around the house like a rabbit" and from a member of the Third World road crew calling him 'Rugs' because of his liking for sleeping on the floor. BURNING AIRLINES named after Brian Eno's "Burning Airlines Give You So Much More" BURNING INSIDE The band named themselves after the Ministry track of the same name BURY YOUR DEAD took their name from The Haunted's "Bury Your Dead" BUTTS BAND In an early interview ex-Doors member Robby Krieger explained the origin of his band name: "'Butts Band' equalled a bunch of losers desperate for a gig, hence the tattered speaker on the album front cover" BUZZCOCKS Howard Devoto and Pete Shelley chose the name "Buzzcocks" after reading the headline, "It's the buzz, cocks!", in a review of the TV series Rock Follies in Time Out magazine. The "buzz" is the excitement of playing on stage; "cock" is Manchester slang meaning "mate", as in friend/buddy. Alternatively, it came from a term "bus cock"; men driving a bus or truck with heavy diesel engines sometimes get an erection because of the vibrations. BZN This is short for Band zonder Naam or translated into English, "Band Without a Name" ______________________________________ C CANDLEBOX named after a line from Midnight Oil's "Tin Legs and Tin Mines"... the line 'boxed in like candles' CANNED HEAT Alan Wilson and Bob Hite took the name from Tommy Johnson's 1928 "Canned Heat Blues", a song about an alcoholic who had desperately turned to drinking Sterno, often called "canned heat". CANSEI DE SER SEXY Portuguese for "tired of being sexy", an alleged quote of Beyoncé Knowles, one of the largest musical influences upon this Brazilian band. CAPERCAILLIE The band is named after the Western Capercaillie, sometimes called a wood grouse, a native Scottish bird. CAPTAIN BEEFHEART Don Van Vliet had a strange Uncle of who would expose himself, squeeze his penis until the head turned purple, then comment about it looking "like a big ole' beef heart", but Don said on the David Letterman show when questioned about his name, that he had "a beef in my heart against this society". CASTILES [The] Bruce Stringsteen's high school band named themselves after the soapbar of the same name. CHAKA KHAN Yvette Stevens' African name, Chaka, means "fire". CHARLIE BROWN JR The band performed shows in the city without an official name until Chorão crashed his car into a coconut shack that was named "Charlie Brown". CHARLES, RAY His actual name is Ray Charles Robinson, but he did not want to be confused with boxer Sugar Ray Robinson, so dropped the Rosinson. CHEAP TRICK Allegally they consulted a Ouija board what they should call their band. CHEMICAL BROTHERS This name was derived from a song of theirs (while being The Dust Brothers) called "Chemical Beat", which was allegedly inspired by all the drugs in the clubs they played. They had to change names as there was already a "The Dust Brothers" in US. CHEROKEES Formed in Melbourne, Australia, they named themselves after a popular icecream of the early 60s. CHICAGO They called the band 'Chicago Transit Authority' on their first album, but after the city of Chicago threatened to sue them, they shortened it to Chicago. CHILLIWACK They changed their name in 1970 from The Collectors to Chilliwack, a Salish term meaning "going back up" and the name of a city east of Vancouver in the Fraser River valley. CHIEFTAINS (The) The band's name came from the book Death of a Chieftain by Irish author John Montague. CHILDREN OF BODOM. Named after Lake Bodom in Finland, the location where a triple murder took place, when four teenagers were on a camping trip. 3 were slaughtered, one escaped. CHRISTIAN DEATH The name "Christian Death" was a play on words of the fashion designer Christian Dior. CHROME WAVES named after Ride's "Chrome Waves" CHUBBY CHECKER Dick Clark's wife thought up the name as a take off on Fats Domino. CHUMBAWAMBA a band member had a dream.. in which the public toilet signs were labelled "Chumba" and "Wamba" instead of "Men" and "Women" and he didn't know which door to use. CHVRCHES (The) They chose the name Chvrches, using a Roman "v" to avoid confusions with actual churches on internet searches. Chvrches have also stated that the band name "has no religious connotation, [they] just thought it sounded cool". CILLA BLACK A reporter for the local paper, while writing a favorable review accidentley called her Cilla Black instead of Cilla White. CIRCLE OF DEAD CHILDREN Vocalist Joe Horvath has stated that the band name was inspired by a vision of his, where a circle of flags from every country in the world lay on the floor, each bearing a mutilated child from its respective nation. CLANNAD The band members were all from a family living in Gweedore in the county of Donegal (N. Ireland). Clannad is an abbreviation of "Clann as Dobhar", which means "the family from Gweedore". CLASH Taken from a newspaper headline stating 'A Clash With Police' CLEAR LIGHT Clear Light shared its name with a potent form of LSD, although Seal states the name came from his studies of Eastern philosophy. COBRA MOVEMENT (The) Named after a short-lived post-WW II art movement that drew together artists from Copenhagen, Brussels and Amsterdam, which used a cobra as its symbol with each of the respective cities representing the head, body and tail of the cobra. COCO ROBICHEAUX Curtis Arceneaux took his stage name from a Louisiana legend, in which a naughty child called Coco Robicheaux, is abducted by a werewolf or wendigo. COCTEAU TWINS The band was named after the song "The Cocteau Twins" by fellow Scotsmen 'Johnny and the Self-Abusers', who later renamed themselves Simple Minds; the song "The Cocteau Twins" was also re-penned as "No Cure. COLDPLAY Chris, Jonny, Will & Guy were called "Starfish" originally and a friend's group was called "Coldplay". When they did not want the name anymore, "Starfish" asked if they could use it instead. The original Coldplay took the name from a book of collected poems. COLONEL ROBERT MORRIS In 1998 Robert Morris, received the honorary title of "Colonel aide-de-camp" from Don Sundquist the governor of the state of Tennessee. Since then he was known as Colonel Robert Morris or often just as The Colonel COLONIA The name of the group comes from the ancient Latin name of the Croatian town Vinkovci which was "Colonia Aurelia Cibalae". COLOR ME BADD The name Color Me Badd represented overcoming racial and musical labels. COMMODORES It is reported that one of the group members tossed a dictionary into the air, and when it landed, randomly pointed to a word on the page it opened to. The word was "Commodores". CON FUNK SHUN named after New Birth's "Con-Funk-Shun" CONWAY TWITTY Looking at a road map, he spotted Conway, Arkansas, and Twitty, Texas. Thus, he went with the professional name of "Conway Twitty". COOPER, ALICE The band were inspired while talking to a spirit named Alice Cooper who came to them when they were using their Ouija Board. . After the band split up, Vincent Furnier their lead singer kept the name for his solo act. COOPER TEMPLE CLAUSE (THE) The band was named after the Cowper-Temple clause. The clause was inserted into the Elementary Education Act 1870, which established compulsory primary education in England and Wales. The clause, a compromise on the matter of funding for denominational schools, was named after its proposer, Liberal MP William Cowper-Temple. COP SHOT COP Phil Puleo reports their name was inspired by both the band members' shared dislike of police officers, and a newspaper headline about a botched police raid, reading "'Cop Shot Cop' or maybe it was 'Cop Shoots Cop.'" Another possible explanation for the band's moniker is what is described as a "junkie's to do list:" "cop" (obtain drugs, especially heroin) "shoot" (Inject the drugs)" and "cop" again. CORNERSHOP The band name originated from a stereotype referring to British Asians often owning corner shops. COSTELLO, ELVIS Declan Patrick McManus combined Elvis Presley's first name with his great grandmother's last name Costello, which his father also performed under as Day Costello. CRACKOUT named after 'Brian Krakow', a character in American TV teen drama, "My So-Called Life" CRASS A reference to the David Bowie song "Ziggy Stardust"... the line "The kids was just crass". CREEDANCE CLEARWATER REVIVAL It is reported the band took their name from Norvel Credence, a friend of band leader John Fogerty, plus John's favorite beer was called Clearwater, which, after it disappeared from the market for a time, was revived by another brewery and the four members' renewed commitment to their band. CRINGER Hawaiin band named after a talking cat from the cartoon He-Man. CHRISMA the name is made up from the duo's christian names Maurizio Arcieri and his wife Christina Moser. They later changed their name to Krisma. CROSS-EYED MARY taken from track 2, "Cross-Eyed Mary" on Jethro Tull's 1971 album Aqualung. CROWDED HOUSE This Australian / New Zealand trio chose the name from their cramped living conditions at North Sycamore Street in Los Angeles while working on their debut album. CRYSTAL FIGHTERS The group took their name Crystal Fighters from an unfinished opera which Laure Stockley's grandfather had penned during his final months of insanity. She came across the manuscript while clearing out the reclusive old man's remote home in the Basque countryside. She quickly became obsessed by the intriguing scrawls within it and shared it with the others. Captivated by its seemingly prophetic contents, the band took on the name and formed in an attempt to expand upon the wild and deranged spirit of Laure's grandfather's writings. CURE (The) The band's original name was Easy Cure, taken from the name of one of the group's early songs. The name was later shortened to The Cure because frontman Robert Smith felt the name was too American and "too hippyish". CURVED AIR named after Terry Riley's "A Rainbow in Curved Air" ________________________________________ D D. BOON As a teenager, singer, guitarist Dennes Dale Boon began painting and signed his works "D. Boon", partly because "D" was his slang for cannabis, partly after the American pioneer and hunter Daniel Boone, but mostly because it was similar to E. Bloom, Blue Öyster Cult's vocalist and guitarist. DALI'S CAR They took their name from a Captain Beefheart song from his album, Trout Mask Replica. DASHBOARD CONFESSIONAL Derived from the line in the band's song "The Sharp Hint of New Tears" which is "on the way home, this car hears my confessions/I think tonight I'll take the long way home...". DAVID & JONATHAN The duo named themselves after the Biblical characters DAVID BOWIE He took his last name from the Bowie knife, which he had a love of, as a child. He first used his given name 'David Jones' but changed it so as not to be confused with Davy Jones of the Monkees DAYS OF THE NEW Dead Reckoning changed it's name to Days of the New, but their true name is Days of the New World Order because Travis Meeks, the architect behind the band, intended his music to be both a warning and theme to the days of the new world order. dB's [the] As they told us with their debut album in 1981, dB's stands for 'decibels'. DEACON BLUE named after Steely Dan's "Deacon Blues" on their album Aja DEAD CAN DANCE Brendan Perry was allegedly inspired by the idea of making "animacy out of inanimacy" .. such as making lively music out of the dead wood of instruments. DEAD KENNEDYS The name was not meant to insult the assassinated Kennedy brothers, but to quote vocalist Jello Biafra, "to bring attention to the end of the American Dream". DEAD OR AMERICAN They took their name, supposedly, based on a dream of Greg Heuer's in which he found himself playing in band of the same name. Shortly after his departure from the band in 2003, the remaining members corrected that story, citing a quote about globalisation in which it was apparently claimed that in 20 years, most cultures will be Dead or American. DEATH CAB FOR CUTIE Took its name from a satirical song of the same name, performed by the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band on their 1967 album Gorilla and in The Beatles experimental movie, Magical Mystery Tour. DECEMBERISTS (The) With reference to the Russian Decembrist Revolt (Explaining their use of the National Anthem of the Soviet Union as an introduction at each concert) and to the atmosphere associated with the month of December DEEP PURPLE Taken from the Bing Crosby song "Deep Purple", a favourite song of Ritchie Blackmore's grandmother. (The song was more notably performed by Nino Tempo & April Stevens) DEF LEPPARD Supposedly inspired by a drawing Joe Elliot made of a leopard with no ears. DEFTONES The name "Deftones" was created by Stephen Carpenter, who wanted to pick "something that would just stand out but you know, not be all cheese-ball at the same time". He combined the hip hop slang term "def," which was used by artists such as LL Cool J and Public Enemy, with the suffix "-tones," which was a popular suffix among 1950s bands such as Dick Dale and the Del-Tones, The Quin-Tones, The Monotones, The Cleftones and The Harptones. Carpenter said the name is intentionally vague to reflect the band's tendency to not focus on just one style of music. DEL AMITRI Scottish alternative rock band (19832002, 2013pres) The band has repeatedly stated the story on their official website that Del Amitri "Started at school in 1980, originally called Del Amitri Rialzo in order to confuse the public". The name was invented for its meaninglessness; they say all other stories are fabrications. DEL-SATINS They chose the name Del-Satins as a tribute to the groups, The Dells and The Five Satins. DEMONS AND WIZARDS The original goal of the band was to forge the different musical styles of both Iced Earth's dark melodies and Blind Guardian's powerful vocals into one sound. In fact, according to the musicians, the band name is meant to describe the two styles: the self-proclaimed demon-like themes and sounds of Iced Earth and wizard-like themes and sounds of Blind Guardian. The moniker "Demons & Wizards" was inspired by Schaffer's wife always referring to him and Hansi as "Demons and Angels". Hansi always corrected her, since he claims to "not be at all angelic", and that it is more properly stated "Demons and Wizards", in reference to Uriah Heep's album of the same name. DENVER, JOHN A tribute to the Rocky Mountain area, an area John Henry Deutschendorf cherished. DEPECHE MODE The name was taken from a French fashion magazine, "Dépêche mode", which translates to "Fashion Update" or "Fashion News Dispatch" (dépêche = dispatch) though it has commonly been mistranslated as "Fast Fashion", due to the confusion with the French verb "se dépêcher" ("to hurry up"). DEREK AND THE DOMINOS The name "Derek and the Dominos" was a fluke. It occurred when the band's provisional name of "Del and the Dynamos" was misread as Derek and the Dominos. Eric Clapton's biography also states that Tony Ashton told Eric to call the band "Del and the Dominos", since "Del" was his nickname for Eric Clapton. Del and Eric were combined and the final name became "Derek and the Dominos" DESTINY'S CHILD Started as Destiny, that name was taken. Beyonce's mother found a picture of the four girls in a family bible. The picture had "Child" written on it. DEVIL'S BLOOD (The) The group's name is taken after the song "Devil's Blood" by the Swedish black-metal band Watain DEVO The name comes "from their concept of 'de-evolution' the idea that instead of continuing to evolve, mankind has actually begun to regress, as evidenced by the dysfunction and herd mentality of American society". In the late 1960s, this idea was developed as a joke by Kent State University art students Gerald Casale and Bob Lewis, who created a number of satirical art pieces in a devolution vein. DEXIE'S MIDNIGHT RUNNERS A drug the band was reputedly fond of ... Dexedrim. DIAMOND HEAD The name "Diamond Head" came from a Phil Manzanera album, that Brian Tatler had a poster of in his room. DIDO Florian Armstrong's name derives from that of the mythical Queen of Carthage, or by ancient Greek and Roman sources, the founder and first Queen of Carthage. DIRE STRAITS It describes the financial situation of the band in the early days. DIRTY MONEY Diddy explained in an interview with Spin magazine: "... I came up with Dirty Money back in 2005 when we were in a strip club in Jacksonville, Florida, during the Superbowl. People heard I was there, and all of a sudden so many people came in that I had to rush outside to my truck. I was sitting there with a bunch of money and I was like, 'Damn, this is some dirty money'. A light bulb went off that day". DISTURBED When asked in an interview why he suggested to name the band "Disturbed," lead singer David Draiman said, "It had been a name I have been contemplating for a band for years. It just seems to symbolize everything we were feeling at the time. The level of conformity that people are forced into was disturbing to us and we were just trying to push the envelope and the name just sorta made sense". DIZZY MIZZ LIZZY named after Larry Williams' "Dizzy Miss Lizzy" DOBIE GRAY In the early 1960s, Stripe Records in L.A. suggested to Lawrence Brown he should record under the name "Dobie Gray", an allusion to the then-popular sitcom The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis DOOBIE BROTHERS Original band name was Pud, changing it to Doobie which is slang for a marijuana joint. DOORS [The] Originally called the Psychedelic Rangers, the Doors took its name from the title of Aldous Huxley's book The Doors of Perception, which itself was a reference to a William Blake quote: "If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, infinite" DOVETAIL JOINT named after a line in The Beatles' "Glass Onion"... the line 'Trying to make a dovetail joint, yeah' DREAM THEATRE Named after a movie house in Monterey, California. The name was suggested by drummer Mike Portnoy's father, who lived in Monterey DUCK HUNT The band named themselves after the NES game, Duck Hunt, before changing their name to Failsafe. DUMDUM BOYS named themselves after Iggy Pop's "Dum Dum Boys" DUM DUM GIRLS after Iggy Pop's "Dum Dum Boys" as well as The Vaselines album "Dum Dum" DURAN DURAN A villan in the 1967 Jane Fonda movie 'Barbarella'. DUST BROTHERS [The] Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons called themselves The Dust Brothers, paying homage to the American production duo famous for their work with the Beastie Boys. DYLAN, BOB Robert Zimmerman changed his surname to Dylan in honor of Dylan Thomas ________________________________________ E E NOMINE Christian Weller and Friedrich "Fritz" Graner named their project from the Latin In Nomine, "In The Name Of". E STREET BAND Bruce Springsteen's band was named after E Street (not East) in Belmar, New Jersey, because the band used to practice at the E Street home of pianist David Sancious' mother EAGLES The band was hugely influences by the Byrds, they all wanted an American sounding name, Henley wanted something Native American, Eagles was born fitting all 3 needs. EARTH, WIND & FIRE The band's name reflects the elements in Maurice White's astrological chart. ECHO AND THE BUNNYMEN Widely thought Echo was the name of the drum machine used in their early demos. They must have made this story up or used it as a nickname for the DM, as there is no such drum machine. EDSELS The name of the group was originally The Essos, after the oil company, but was changed to match the then-new Ford automobile, the Edsel. ELBOW They changed their name from Soft, to Elbow, inspired by a line in the BBC TV drama The Singing Detective in which the character Philip Marlow describes the word "elbow" as the loveliest word in the English language. ELLA GURU named after Captain Beefheart's "Ella Guru" ELTON HERCULES JOHN Reginald Dwight took his stage name from two other British musicians, saxophone player Elton Dean and Long John Baldry. His middle name is from the horse out of the British TV series "Steptoe & Son" which he enjoyed. ELVIS COSTELLO Declan Patrick McManus combined Elvis Presley's first name with his great grandmother's last name Costello, which his father also performed under as Day Costello. EMERSON DRIVE Originally 12-Gauge, renamed itself Emerson Drive, after the Emerson Trail, which crosses western Alberta and joins the Alaskan Highway. EMF The initials officially stood for "Epsom Mad Funkers", but it is widely speculated that the initials instead represented "Ecstasy Mind Fuckers", some say "Ecstasy Mother Fuckers", "English Mother Fuckers," and even "Every Mother's Favourite"! EMINEM His real name is Marshall Bruce Mathers III, he took the "M-and-M" and rewrote it as Eminem. ENGELBERT HUMPERDINCK Manager, Gordon Mills, convinced Gerry Dorsey that an audience would never forget the name "Englebert Humperdinck", the name of the Austrian composer who wrote "Hansel and Gretel". EPSILON MINUS The name "Epsilon Minus" is a reference to Aldous Huxley's novel, Brave New World. ERIC'S TRIP named after Sonic Youth's "Eric's Trip" EURYTHMICS a method of music instruction from the 1890's which emphasizes physical response to the music. EVANESCENCE When asked where they got their name, they responded, "The dictionary". They apparently disliked their previous names Childish Intentions and Stricken, and wanted something better. They also wanted to do some artwork, with whatever name they chose, and decided to look under E. They liked the word and definition of Evanescence, likening it to the temporal nature of life. EVERYTHING BUT THE GIRL an advert slogan for a British bedroom furniture store that could sell you "Everything but the Girl" EXTREME Originally Dream, but this name was taken. They thought of ex-Dream, then settled for Extreme. ____________________________________ F FAIR TO MIDLAND According to the band's official website, their name comes from "...an old Texan play on the term 'fair to middling'." FAIRPORT CONVENTION As young musicians in the mid 60s, they used to 'convene' for rehearsals at a house named Fairport, the family home of rhythm guitarist Simon Nicol, in Muswell Hill; thus, was born the name of the band. FAITH NO MORE The band was originally called Sharp Young Men, but changed to Faith No Man when their front man was Mike 'The Man' Morris. After he left, 'The Man' was no more, so they switched to Faith No More. (Some have said the name came from a horse or dog on a betting slip). FALL (The) English post-punk band formed in Prestwich, Greater Manchester (1976-pres) bassist Tony Friel came up with the name "The Fall" after a 1956 novel by Albert Camus. FALL OUT BOY The band was nameless for their first two shows. At the end of their second show, they asked the audience to yell out their ideas for a name. One audience member suggested "Fallout Boy", a reference to the sidekick of the Simpsons cartoon character Radioactive Man. For copyright reasons, to avoid being sued, they separated Fall and Out to make it Fall Out Boy. FAMILY Record producer Kim Fowley suggested they call themselves "The Family" as they regularly wore double-breasted suits in performances, giving themselves a mafia appearance, a look they soon abandoned in favour a more casual dress code. FASTBALL Originally called "Magneto" until learning of a Mexican Boy Band of the same name, they first attempted to use the name "Magneto USA," but were ultimately advised against it. The band eventually settled on "Fastball" in reference to a "baseball-themed porn movie". FEEDBACK Later to become known as U2. As very young teenagers they called their band "Feedback" as that was the only technical term they knew back in those days (and maybe there was plenty of it at that young age when learning their skills!!) FEELIES [The] The name is taken from Aldous Huxleys novel Brave New World, in which the feelies were the equivalent of the movies. FLEETWOOD MAC Taken from Mick Fleetwood's surname, with the 'Mac' coming from John McVie. FLOWERPOT MEN [The] Psychedelic-era puns on flower power and "pot" (cannabis). FLYING BURRITO BROTHERS [the] The group borrowed their name from an East Coast-based group of the same name who had been colleagues of Gram Parsons' previous band, the International Submarine Band. FINE YOUNG CANNIBALS Inspired by the movie "All The Fine Young Cannibals" FIREBALLS [The] Sometimes billed as Jimmy Gilmer and the Fireballs, they took their name from Jerry Lee Lewis's "Great Balls of Fire". FIREHOUSE named after Kiss's "Firehouse" FIVE IRON FRENZY According to bassist Keith Hoerig: "We got the name from a roommate of ours. He was kind of paranoid, and afraid that if he went outside on this particular night he was going to get jumped by some people. He had a golf club to defend himself and he said something to the effect of it being like "putter mayhem". Scott looked at the golf club he was holding, and noting that it was a five iron said, "No, more like a Five Iron Frenzy" The name stuck." FLESH OF LULU They took their name from an American cult movie. FLORENCE & THE MACHINE The name of Florence and the Machine is attributed to front-woman Florence Welch's teenage collaboration with keyboardist and co-writer Isabella "Machine" Summers. Welch and Summers performed together for a time under the name Florence Robot/Isa Machine. Later, this was shortened to Florence and the Machine as it was felt to be too cumbersome. FOGHAT Singer Dave Peverett and his brother invented the word in a game of Scrabble. FOO FIGHTERS David Grohl was fascinated by sci-fi and the Roswell incident. He named his new project after a slang expression used in World War II by US pilots to describe the alien-looking fireballs they sometimes saw over Germany. Foo is a mutation of the French word for fire, "fue". FOREIGNER British guitarist Mick Jones started the band in New York, US. Being a foreigner over there, that became the band name. FOSTER THE PEOPLE Originally called "Foster & the People" by frontman Mark Foster, but changed when many of his friends misunderstood the name as "Foster the People". In a 2011 interview, Foster also recalled, "'Foster the People' that's like 'Take Care of the People'. FOTHERINGAY The band drew its name from x-Fairport Convention Sandy Denny's 1968 composition "Fotheringay" about Fotheringhay Castle, in which Mary, Queen of Scots had been imprisoned. The song originally appeared on the 1969 Fairport Convention album, What We Did on Our Holidays, Denny's first album with her x-band. FOUNDATIONS Taken from the surroundings where the band first started practicing, down in the basement of a large business building. FOUR SEASONS [the] Originally the Varietones, when they got turned at an auditioned to appear at a local bowling alley, they adopted the name of the place "The Four Seasons" FRANKIE GOES TO HOLLYWOOD On the B-side to the group's first single, Holly Johnson explained that the group's name derived from a page from The New Yorker magazine, featuring the headline "Frankie Goes Hollywood" and a picture of Frank Sinatra, although the magazine page Holly referred to was actually a pop art poster by Guy Peellaert. FRANK ALAMO Executive Eddie Barclay signed Jean-François Grandin to his label and persuaded him to take the stage name Frank Alamo, the surname being in tribute to John Wayne's film The Alamo. FRANZ FERDINAND A rock band from Glasgow named after the Archduke of Austria whose assassination in Sarajevo in 1914 sparked off the First World War. FREE "The Founding Father of British Blues", Alexis Korner, gave the band their name; maybe named after his early blues band " Free At Last". FRIENDLY FIRES The name Friendly Fires originates from the opening track of the Section 25 LP Always Now. FRUMIOUS BANDERSNATCH The band was named after a character from the Lewis Carroll poem "Jabberwocky". FUCK THE FACTS named after Naked City's "Fuck the Facts" track on their 1999 'Naked City' album FUGEES Three band members' parents were refugees / evacuees; also their label is called Refugee Camp. FULL DEVIL JACKET There are two stories on how the band got its name. One is that the band was named after a song written by lead singer Josh Brown, called Full Devil Jacket, and the other story is that the band simply pulled the name from a magazine article. FUNERAL FOR A FRIEND named after Planes Mistaken for Stars's "Funeral for a Friend", although some believe it's after Elton John's "Love Lies Bleeding (Funeral for a Friend). FURTHER Rock band founded in 2009 by former Grateful Dead members Bob Weir and Phil Lesh, who named their band after the famous touring bus used by Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters in the 1960s. FUTUREHEADS (the) Their name comes from the title of The Flaming Lips 5th album, 'Hit to Death in the Future Head'. FUZZBOX / WE'VE GOT A FUZZBOX AND WE'RE GONNA USE IT The band's name was shortened to Fuzzbox for the U.S. release of their first album. Their name was chosen after they bought a distortion pedal for their guitars and Maggie Dunne stated "We've got a fuzzbox and we're gonna use it!". __________________________________________ G GANG OR FOUR "Gang of Four" refers to the "big four" Structuralist theorists: Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan, not to be confused with the Maoist Gang of Four in China. GARBAGE Lead singer Shirley Manson's father yelled down to the band at one of their basement practice sessions, "Play more quietly - you sound like garbage." and a friend of drummer Butch Vig, said "This stuff sounds like garbage!" GARY U.S. BONDS For his first hit, "New Orleans", attention was brought to the record by having promotional copies sent to radio stations in sleeves inscribed "Buy U.S. Bonds" - hence at age 19, Gary Anderson became Gary U.S. Bonds. GENE VINCENT & THE BLUE CAPS The Blue Caps were named after the hat President Eisenhower wore to play golf. GENESIS From the first book in the Bible, their first album's title was "From Genesis to Revelation" GEORGIA WONDER This was the stage name of Lulu Hurst, a 'magnetic phenomenon' whose vaudeville act toured America in the late 19th Century. Stephanie Grant and Julian Moore from the band chose the name after trying to duplicate these powers from an exposé they discovered in a book about the period. GET UP KIDS [The] name came from the lyric "Suburban Get Up Kids" by The Cure. Singer Matt Pryor's previous bands all had names that began with S, so they dropped the 'Suburban.' More important, they thought they'd sell more albums in the "G" section of the record store than the overcrowded "S"'s. GIGOLO AUNTS named after Syd Barrett's "Gigolo Aunt" from his 1970 album, Barrett. GILBERT O'SULLIVAN Manager Gordon Mills found a clever name for his newfound talent. Playing off Ray O'Sullivan's last name and the playwriting team of Gilbert and Sullivan, the name Gilbert O'Sullivan seemed a natural choice. GIN BLOSSOMS The band got the idea from the famous old photograph of Fields and his big ol gin-blossomed nose that appears in Kenneth Angers book, "Hollywood Babylon II," with a caption describing Fields "terminal case of gin blossoms". GINGER FISH Drummer Kenneth Wilson, like Marilyn Manson, he combined the names of an iconic beauty with a serial killer, his name combines those of Ginger Rogers and Albert Fish. GLASS ONION The band Travis originally named themselves Glass Onions after a Beatles song, before naming themselves after the main character in the film "Paris, Texas" GO KART MOZART Took their name from a line in Bruce Springsteen's 'Blinded by the Light'. GODSMACK With Alice in Chains being a primary influence upon Godsmack, it is speculated that the band got their name from Alice in Chains 1992 song of the same name. Lead singer Sully Erna, stated "Where we picked the name from, I was making fun of somebody who had a cold sore on his lip, the next day I had one myself and somebody said, 'It's a godsmack.' and the name stuck". However, bassist Robbie Merril, in the home video DVD 'Smack This' stated "we stole it from Alice in Chains". GODSPEED YOU! BLACK EMPEROR (aka "Godspeed", or abbreviated to GYBE or GY!BE) The band took its name from God Speed You! Black Emperor, a 1976 Japanese black-and-white documentary by director Mitsuo Yanagimachi, which follows the exploits of a Japanese biker gang, the Black Emperors. GOLDTRIX The duo's name, Goldtrix, is a play on their names... Daniel Goldstein and Matrix. GOLDEN EARRING The Golden Earrings was taken from a song called Golden Earrings performed by the British group The Hunters, for whom they served as an opening and closing act. GOLDFINGER naturally after the James Bond movie. GOO GOO DOLLS When they were told that local newspapers wouldn't print their original name, Sex Maggots, it is said Jonny Rzeznik picked up a magazine from the early 60's with an ad for a doll that cried Goo Goo when you turned it upside down. Others have said a radio station held contest asking listeners to pick a name for them. When nothing but goo goo was received, so they just decided Goo Goo Dolls would be their name. GOOD CHARLOTTE They took their name from a children's book, which the identical twin brothers Joel (lead vocals and guitar) and Benji Madden (lead guitar and backing vocals) used to read when little, called "Good Charlotte: The Girls of Good Day Orphanage" by Carol Beach York. GORMERS [the] Their name was taken from a television character in The Andy Griffith Show, Gomer Pyle . GORKY'S ZYGOTIC MYNCI After struggling to come up with a name, they decided "we might as well stick with the most ridiculous crap name we could think of... Gorky's came from the word "gawky"; John Lawrence says that "gork" was school slang for a dimwit, Zygotic was "hijacked from GCSE biology"; it's derived from the word zygote, meaning a fertilized egg cell and Mynci is a spelling of the word "monkey" using Welsh spelling rules, rather than a direct Welsh translation, and is pronounced like "monkey". GRAMERCY FIVE Artie Shaw fashioned a small group from within his big band and named it the Gramercy Five after his home telephone exchange GRATEFUL DEAD Refers to a variety of themed Old English folk tales; eg. a traveler enters a village and finds the villagers refusing to bury the body of a dead man because he died owing creditors money. The traveler pays the dead man's debts and sees to a decent burial. Later in his travels, the man is saved by a mysterious event, which is credited to the dead man's grateful spirit. GREASE BAND (The) The Grease Band was named after Joe Cocker read an interview with jazz keyboardist Jimmy Smith, where Smith positively described another musician as "having a lot of grease". GREEN DAY A few of probabilities: 1) When the band members dropped out of school to work on the band, their principal said "it'll be a green day in hell before you make anything of yourselves". 2) When you smoked pot and chilled all day, that is a "Green Day". The lads used to skip school and do this. 3) A there was a sign in the movie "Soilent Green" stating Green Day. GREEN JELLY They were originally called Green Jello, but were sued by makers of Jello gelatine for using their brand name. GROUNDHOGS (The) The Groundhogs was originally formed as The Dollar Bills, Tony McPhee steered them towards the blues and renamed them after a John Lee Hooker song, "Groundhog's Blues". GUESS WHO? When the musician's producer hear their rendition of "Shakin' All Over", he feared that it would be lost in the flood of British records and came up with a plan .. A number of promotional copies were pressed with just a plain white label, the song title and the words 'Guess Who?', implying that the disc may have been cut someone famous. GUNDER HAGG They named their progg-band after the legendary Swedish runner, but after name conflicts occurred they changed name to Blå Tåget, which was a ride at the amusement park Gröna Lund. GUNNAR JÖKULL HAKONARSON The name came from a book that drummer Ken Pustelnik had read about fighting monks. GUNNER'S DAUGHTER Named after the punishment of Royal Navy boys, the caning administered to boys on the bare posterior, usually while "kissing the gunner's daughter" (bending over a gun barrel). GUNS 'N' ROSES Combination of Axl Rose and Tracii Guns' names, also it's a combination of LA Guns and Hollywood Roses when they merged. _______________________________________ H H-TOWN They took the name of the group, "H-Town," from the local nickname for the city of Houston, Texas. HANSON BROTHERS named after the goofy and rough hockey playing brothers in the Paul Newman movie "Slapshot" HARD-FI "Hard-Fi" is the name given to the sound produced by Lee "Scratch" Perry, a Grammy award-winning reggae and dub artist, at his Black Ark recording studio. Being admirers of Perry's work, the band decided to name themselves after his distinctive sound. HAWKWIND Nik Turner looked like a hawk and farted a lot HEAD LIKE A HOLE named after Nine Inch Nails' "Head Like A Hole", a 1990 hit single from the group's debut album Pretty Hate Machine in 1989. HEAVEN 17 Took their name from a fictional pop group mentioned in Anthony Burgess's novel A Clockwork Orange, where 'The Heaven Seventeen' are at number 4 in the charts with "Inside". HEAVY METAL KIDS They took their name from a gang of street kids, featured in the novel Nova Express by William S. Burroughs. HEDGEHOPPERS ANONYMOUS Apart from Alan Laud, the band members were Royal Air Force personnel based at RAF Wittering, near Peterborough, England; Hedgehoppers is RAF slang for low-flying planes. HELLO GOODBYE named after The Beatles' 1967's ' "Hello, Goodbye" HEPTONES [The] The name was chosen by group member Earl Morgan after seeing a Heptones Tonic bottle lying in a pile of refuse. HERMAN'S HERMITS Peter Noone resemblance to the character Sherman in the TV cartoon 'The Bullwinkle Show', but he misheard the name as Herman. Soon after, the band changed their name to Herman and The Hermits, very soon became abbreviated to Herman's Hermits. HIGH INERGY Fashioned after Martha and the Vandellas and The Supremes, Berry Gordy named them after the 1976 Supremes High Energy album with just the 'e' changed to an 'i' in "energy". HILLTOPPERS [The] They took their name from the nickname of the Western Kentucky athletic teams. HIT THE LIGHTS named after Metallica's "Hit the Lights" from their 1983 the debut studio album Kill 'Em All. HOLE Courtneys mother, who in a phone conversation with her daughter apparently said: 'Courtney, you can't go through life with a big hole inside you, just because you had a bad childhood.' HOLLIES [The] Not in homage to Buddy Holly, as rumored. They chose the name from some Christmas holly decorating Graham Nash's house. HOLLOWAYS [The] Named after the road where three of the band members met at the live music venue Nambucca on Holloway Road in North London. They would meet later to jam together, playing in future drummer Dave Danger's room, situated above the club on Holloway Road. HOLLYWOOD VAMPIRES The band name derives from The Hollywood Vampires, a celebrity drinking club formed by Alice Cooper in the 1970s HONEY CONE Eddie Holland of Holland-Dozier-Holland, named the act "Honey Cone" for a favorite flavor of ice cream. HOOTIE AND THE BLOWFISH Chosen from school friends' nicknames; Hootie had owl like eyes. The other had puffed up cheeks that they called Blowfish. HUES CORPORATION [The] Inspired by Howard Hughes and his empire, but when their manager Wally Holmes went to a lawyer, he said 'you can't spell it that way'. So Holmes came up with "Hues". HUNTERS & COLLECTORS named after German band Can's "Hunters and Collectors" from their 1975 Landed album HUSKER DU Inspired by 'Husker Du?', a Scandinavian young children's memory game. The name of the game is spelled with macrons (- over the U's). The Minneapolis punk rock band Hüsker Dü, replaced the macrons with umlauts (maybe inspired by heavy metal umlauts). _______________________________________ I I AGAINST I comes from the American hardcore punk band, Bad Brains' album, I Against I, released in November 1986 ICE NINE KILLS Taken from the Kurt Vonnegut book Cat's Cradle (1963), in which the author describes how a quantity of water immediately freezes when one drop of ice-nine is added. IDLEWILD Scottish indie rock band from Edinburgh (19952010, 2013pres) named themselves after the quiet meeting place in Anne of Green Gables, a best-selling novel by Lucy Maud Montgomery. IGGY POP & THE STOOGES Iguana and Iggy were nicknames since childhood. Pop was inspired by Jim Popp, a local junkie. The Stooges were originally the PSYCHEDELIC STOOGES.. which combined their love of drugs with "The Three Stooges". INSANE CLOWN POSSE Joe Bruce and Joey Utsler aka Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope originally part of "Inner City Posse" despite being from Oak Part, MI. a wannabe gang and rap group. The official story is that Violent J had a dream where the Dark Carnival visited him and thus the 2 became clowns and changed their name. Rumor has it that they were targets for their tagging from other real gangs and they changed it to avoid getting beaten up or killed. IN FEAR AND FAITH named after Circa Survive's "In Fear And Faith" released in 2006. INTERPOL There is confusion about origin of the name Interpol. An article in SPIN magazine said one of Paul Banks' classmates was fond of teasing him by saying "Paul, Paul, Interpol." Yet guitarist Kessler has said the band "...had played shows with no name, and then I got to the point where I was like, 'Guys, we're getting decent crowds, but like... we don't have a name so no one knows who to go see again.'" They considered Las Armas and The French Letters as names before adopting Interpol. They also famously performed a little publicized show at the Luna Lounge in New York under the pseudonym Cuddleworthy. (Interpol is an acronym for International Police Force, the world police organization) INXS The 3 Farriss brothers hoped their music would be "In Excess", and spelt it INXS IRON MAIDEN Steve Harris got the band name from a film of The Man in the Iron Mask. The "Iron Maiden" was a metal coffin with spikes running outside it that could be inserted inside. The occupant was than impaled and presumably killed.. ________________________________________ The initials "J.B." had no specific meaning, his given name was simply "JB" J. BLACKFOOT John Colbert was generally known as "J" or "Jay", he acquired the nickname "Blackfoot" as a child, for his habit of walking barefoot on the tarred sidewalks of Memphis. JACK OFF JILL Originally Jack & Jill, Marilyn Manson inspired the name change to Jack off Jill. THE JAGGERZ While on location for a photo shoot in the woods, the band noticed that little briars were sticking to their clothing. They found out these briars were locally, in the Pittsburgh area, known as "jaggerz". JEFFERSON AIRPLANE Inspired by the blues player Blind Lemon Jefferson and the name of a friend's dog. A jefferson airplane is a split matchstick end or other device to hold your splif in to get that last drag. JESUS AND MARY CHAIN (The) Scottish alternative rock band formed in East Kilbride (19831999, 2007pres) Originally called The Poppy Seeds and then Death of Joey, they initially told journalists that they had taken their eventual name from a line in a Bing Crosby film, but six months later they admitted that this wasn't true. Other accounts suggest that the name derived from an offer on a breakfast cereal packet, where customers could send off for a gold Jesus & Mary chain. JET named after the Paul McCartney & Wings number "Jet" on their 1974 album Band on the Run. JETHRO TULL Jethro Tull was a 1800's British farmer in the who invented a type of plough. The band used to change their name frequently, found Jethro Tull luckier than the rest. JIMMY EAT WORLD The band's name came from a crayon drawing made after an incident between Linton's younger brothers, Jim and Ed, who fought frequently. Jim usually won, but Ed sought revenge by drawing a picture of Jim shoving the Earth into his mouth; the picture bore the caption "Jimmy eat world". JJ CALE Elmer Valentine, co-owner of the Sunset Strip nightclub Whisky a Go Go, who employed John Weldon Cale in the mid-1960s, was the one that came up with the "JJ" moniker to avoid confusion with the Velvet Underground's John Cale. JOHN DENVER A tribute to the Rocky Mountain area, an area John Henry Deutschendorf cherished. JOHN, ELTON HERCULES Reginald Dwight took his stage name from two other British musicians, Elton Dean and Long John Baldry. His middle name is from the horse out of the TV series "Steptoe & Son" which he enjoyed. JOHNNY CHRIST Jonathan Lewis Seward used to write only Johnny on his autographs until Zacky came up with the name 'Johnny Christ', and in All Excess he said 'It sounded kind of ballsy and it would piss some people off....so everyone's going to hate that'. JOHNNY ROTTEN Named after his rotten teeth JOHNNY SEVEN The band is named the Johnny Seven O.M.A./One Man Army, a multi-function toy weapon the best selling boys' toy of 1964 JOY DIVISION From a sado-masochistic novel 'The House of Dolls' by Karol Cetinsky. Joy Divisions were lines of huts in which women were kept as sex slaves and forced to prostitute themselves to Nazi officers and German troops.. JUAN GABRIEL Alberto Valadez started to use the pseudonym... Juan, in honor of volleyball player Juan Contreras; and Gabriel, in honor of his own father. JUDAS PRIEST named after Bob Dylan's "The Ballad of Frankie Lee and Judas Priest", also this was originally a mild curse said to avoid saying "Jesus Christ"! JUDGE DREAD Guitarist/vocalist James Dean Bradfield was inspired by a manic street-preaching tramp. MARCELS [The] named after a popular hair style of the era, the marcel wave, by Fred Johnson's younger sister Priscilla. MARKED [The] named for the conspicuous birthmarks of both frontman Billy Corgan and drummer Ron Roesing. MARILLION Inspired by J.R.R. Tolkein's book 'Silmarillion' but modified it to avoid copyright problems. MARILYN MANSON Brian Warner combined the names of two opposing American pop cultural icons; actress Marilyn Monroe and cult leader Charles Manson. MARINA & the DIAMONDS Diamonds comes from Marinas surname Diamandis. She describes it: Im Marina. You are the diamonds. MARRS is an acronym derived from the forenames of the five 4AD artists involved in the project: Martyn Young (from Colourbox), Alex Ayuli and Rudy Tambala (from A.R. Kane), Russell Smith (an associate A.R. Kane member and founder of Terminal Cheesecake), and Steve Young (from Colourbox). MARS VOLTA [The] Cedric Bixler-Zavala stated in an interview ... The Volta is taken from a Federico Fellini book about his films, what he characterizes as a changing of scene, or a turnaround; a new scene to him is called Volta. Y'know, changing of time and the changeover. And Mars, we're just fascinated by science fiction..... MARTELLS [The] Named after Canadian teen pop idol Bobby Curtola's manager, Maria Martell. MASSIVE ATTACK Del Naja explained that Massive Attack was the name of a gigantic party organized by their favourite place of entertainment, The Warehouse, a party he and Andy Lee Isaac Vowles, retain good memories of. MATCHBOX TWENTY originally titled "Matchbox 20," the band took its name from a softball jersey with a "20" on it and a patch that had "Matchbox" written on it. The band altered its name to "Matchbox Twenty" after the release of its debut album Yourself or Someone Like You MATT BIANCO the name suggests that Matt Bianco is a person, often assumed to be an alias for the main constant member and frontman, Mark Reilly, but Matt is in fact, a made up spy, a secret agent; the band loved spy TV themes and film scores. MAX FROST & the TROOPERS The band name "Troopers" is based on the term "troops," the designation Max Frost used in the film to refer to his friends and followers. MAYHEM inspired by English heavy metal band Venom's instrumental track "Mayhem with Mercy" from their 1981 debut studio album Welcome to Hell MC5 An acronym 'Motor City Five' honouring Detriot. MCFLY Tom Fletcher proposed the idea, based on his love for the American science-fiction comedy Back to the Future and Michael J. Fox's character Marty McFly. At first, Danny Jones didn't agree with the name, but after watching the movie, he changed his mind, especially after he saw that the side of the manure truck says "D. Jones" on it. MILLIONS OF DEAD COPS Originally known as the Stains, the hardcore group played a 1981 gig with Black Flag, where they saw policemen brutalizing teenagers who were simply trying to cross the street. We started saying, These guys dont care. Theyre here to kill you,' frontman Dave Dictor recalls. Then a friend of ours, the bass player of a band called the Dicks, said, How about calling yourselves Millions of Dead Cops?' The band did just that. MIKE DIRNT During grade school, Green Day bassist Michael Pritchard would constantly play "air-bass", and while pretending to pluck the strings, he made the noise, "dirnt, dirnt, dirnt". As a result, his schoolmates began to call him "Mike Dirnt". THE MIND BENDERS The name of the group was inspired by the title of a 1963 UK feature film, starring the British actor Sir Dirk Bogarde, called The Mind Benders. MIND GARAGE The Reverend Michael Paine's wife Tori Paine, thought up this name and suggested to this psychedelic rock band to put Christian words with rock music and play in church. In 1967 The Mind Garage invented the concept of Electric Liturgy, the forerunner of todays popular Christian Rock. MEATLOAF Marvin Lee Aday stepped on the foot of his high school football coach, who shouted 'Meat Loaf' instead of swearing MEGADETH Dave Mustane was inspired by a government pamphlet (A Megadeath is a military term for one million dead people, so World War II was responsible for 80 Megadeaths) after getting kicked out of Metallica. Megadeth is a phonetical spelling for Megadeath. MEKONS Inspired the sci-fi alien villan in the 'Dan Dare' cartoon strip in the 'Eagle' comic. The Mekon was Dan Dare's arch enemy. MERCILESS DEATH Some have guessed that the name "Merciless Death" comes from the song Merciless Death by Dark Angel. However, in an interview with Andy Torres in 2007, Andy said the band's name originated from a conversation with Dan Holder in which Dan came up with a possible name for the band Merciless Onslaught and Andy asked him about replacing the word 'Onslaught' with 'Death'. From that point on they called themselves Merciless Death. METALLICA Lars Ulrich was helping a friend think of a name for a metal fanzine. The magazine went with 'Metal Mania' and Lars kept Metallica, which was one of the suggestions. MGMT The band first started with the name The Management, releasing various demo albums, but since this name was already being used by another band, they later changed it to MGMT. This abbreviation stands for Management. MIDNIGHT RAMLERS Inspired by the Rolling Stones title, Jon Huang christened his creation Midnight Ramblers, a track from The Rolling Stones 1969 album, Let It Bleed. MINDBENDERS Named after a 1962 British horror movie. (appeared as themselves in the film "To Sir, With Love") MISFITS Taken from the 1961 movie starring Clark Gable and Marilyn Monroe. MO-DO The name Mo-Do is claimed to originate from the two first letters of Fabio Frittelli's birth-town, Monfalcone, and the day of his birth, Domenica (which is Sunday in Italian). MOANS [The] They named themselves after an Art Blakey number. MOB [The] They named themselves after UK rock band Black Sabbath's "The Mob Rules" from their 1981 album, Mob Rules. They went on to become Queensrÿche. MOB RULES named after UK rock band Black Sabbath's "The Mob Rules" from their 1981 album, Mob Rules. MODEST MOUSE Named after line from a speech exercise that lead singer (a lisper) Isaac Brock learned in grade school. MOGWAI Named after the cute creatures from Gremlins, that turn into the evil Gremlin creatures when fed after midnight or when they get wet. Stuart Braithwaite commented that "it has no significant meaning, and we always intended on getting a better one, but like a lot of other things we never got 'round to it." MOLLY HATCHET The band, founded by Dave Hlubek, Steve Holland and Duane Roland in 1975, took its name from a prostitute who allegedly mutilated and decapitated her clients. MOODY BLUES [The] They were originally called "M & B 5" because they wanted to perform in a Birmingham brewery called 'Mitchell's and Butlers.' The building had a big 'MB' on it. Wanting to keep the MB, their final name had a subtle reference to the Duke Ellington song, "Mood Indigo". MOOKIE BLAYLOCK The name taken from the former All-Star basketball player for the Atlanta Hawks, the band later became Pearl Jam. MOTHERS OF INVENTION Their label asked them to add 'of Invention' to their original The Mothers which was an abbriviation for 'Motherfuckers'. MOTLEY CRUE When seeing the band, a friend of theirs commented "What a Motley looking Crue." Motley meaning "of great variety" MOTORHEAD When forming his new band, Lemmy concurred and decided to call the band 'Motörhead', inspired by the final song he had written for Hawkwind. The name of the song "Motorhead" is an American slang term for a speed freak.. A Motorhead in American slang is more commonly someone who loves to work on cars or motorcycles. MOTT THE HOOPLE A Willard Manus novel of the same name. The book is about an eccentric that works in a circus freak show. MOUNTAIN GOATS [The] The name is taken from the Screamin' Jay Hawkins song "Yellow Coat", which contains the line "50 million bulldogs, 20 mountain goats, all gathered 'round at sundown to see my yellow coat" MR. BIG named after UK rock band Free's, "Mr. Big", a track on their third studio album Fire and Water, released June 1970. MR. CROWE'S GARDEN Named after Leonard Leslie Brookes children's book Johnny Crow's Garden. MR. MISTER The name came from an inside joke about a Weather Report song "Mr. Gone" on the '78 album of the same name, where they referred to each other as "Mister This" or "Mister That", eventually they selected "Mr. Mister. MUDHONEY They settled on the title of a mid-60s exploitation flick (which they hadnt seen), directed by boobmeister Russ Meyer. As Mark Arm put it, Theres at least something to like about all of his movies. MUGWUMPS One source says thier name was taken from the William S. Burroughs novel The Naked Lunch. The liner notes for the 2007 re-release of The Mugwumps reports that Jim Hendricks claimed that the name came from music producer Erik Jacobsen, but Denny Doherty claimed that the name came from his Newfoundland grandmother. MUSICAL BOX [The] named after the Genesis song "The Musical Box" on their 1971 album Nursery Cryme, their 3rd studio album. MSI This is an abbreviation of Mindless Self Indulgence MUDDY WATERS His grandmother started calling him that after watching him play in a creek as a child. MUSLIMGAUZE The name Muslimgauze is a play on the word muslin [a type of gauze], combined with Muslim, referring to Bryn Jones' preoccupation with conflicts throughout the Muslim world. MUTO When guitarist George M, bassist Joe and drummer Lee decided to form an instrumental guitar driven metal trio they chose the italian/latin word Muto, an adjective meaning 'without words', 'unspoken', mute, unable to speak. MY BLOODY VALENTINE The band named themselves after the same name horror film, but known of them had ever actually seen the film. ________________________________________ N N.W.A. The Compton supergroup were practicing in Eazy-Es garage, trying to come up with a name more evocative than Dr.Dre and DJ Yellas former act, World Class Wreckin Cru. Ice Cube tells the story in the movie Straight Outta L.A.: Then Eazy said, How about N.W.A? We were like, Whats that mean? He said, Niggaz Wit Attitude. We were like, Hell yeah'. N.R.B.Q. Stands for New Rhythm and Blues Quartet (originally Quintet), although a 1982 article in "Creem" magazine suggested a different meaning: "Nothing Really Beats Quality". 'N SYNC From the last letter of each band member's name: justiN, chriS, joeY, lanstoN and jC. NAKED AND FAMOUS [The] named after The Presidents of the United States of America's "Naked and Famous" hit single of 1994. NANCY WHISKY Anne Alexandra Young Wilson took her stage name from a Scottish folk song, "Nancy Whisky". NAZARETH The group took their name from the first line of The Band's 1968 song "The Weight" .. "I pulled into Nazareth / Was feelin' 'bout half past dead" NECROPHOBIC It is believed that they named themselves after a Slayer song from the 1986 seminal album Reign in Blood. NED'S ATOMIC DUSTBIN title of an episode of The Goon Show that the mother of vocalist Jonn Penney would read to him. NEGATIVLAND They took their name from a Neu! track off Neu!'s self titled debut album, while their record label, Seeland Records, is named after another Neu! track. NEW FOUND GLORY Singer Jordan and guitarist Steve thought up "A New Found Glory" while working at Red Lobster, but dropped the "A" after confusion from fans on where to find their CD's at record stores. NEW MODEL ARMY The band was named after the English revolutionary army of Oliver Cromwell. NEW ORDER The band's original name was Joy Division until Ian Curtis, the lead singer, lyricist killed himself. The remaining members reformed the band, thus it was the New Order. "New Order" was also a famous expression used by Hitler. NEW YORK DOLLS Sylvain had a job at "A Different Drummer", a men's boutique that was across the street from the New York Doll Hospital, a doll repair shop. Sylvain claimed that the shop inspired the name for their future band. NICKEL CREEK named after one of fiddle virtuoso Byron Berline's songs "Nickel Creek". Byron Berline was Nickel Creek band member Sara Watkins' fiddle instructor. NICKELBACK Some say it derived from the American Football term, but according to most sources the name is derived from the nickel (money), which Mike Kroeger frequently had to give customers back in change when he was working at a Starbucks coffee shop and would frequently say "Here's your nickel back". NICE [The] The band name was inspired by the Small Faces' hit song about drugs "Here Comes the Nice" NINE BELOW ZERO named after the Sonny Boy Williamson II penned song "Nine Below Zero" NINE INCH NAILS Trent Reznor said in 1994 that he coined the name "Nine Inch Nails" because it "abbreviated easily", rather than for "any literal meaning". Other rumored explanations have circulated, alleging that Reznor chose to reference Jesus' crucifixion with nine-inch spikes, or Freddy Krueger's nine-inch fingernails. NIRVANA In Buddhism it means the state of perfect blessedness attained through the annihilation of the self. NO DOUBT original singer John Spence formed an Orange County-based 2 Tone ska group and it was named after Spence's favorite vocal expression "no doubt" with keyboardist Eric Stefani. After Spence's death, the name stuck. NOAH & the WHALE Their name is a combination of the title of the movie "Squid and the Whale" and the name of the film's director, "Noah Baumbach". NOFX guitarist Eric Melvin says that he came up with the name, inspired by the broken up punk band "Negative FX". The name is also meant to symbolize the band's rejection of gimmickry that the band was seeing in music at the time. NUNATAK The band's name is the Greenlandic word for a mountain top protruding from an ice sheet. ________________________________________ O O'JAYS [The] Originally called the Mascots, they named themselves after the Cleveland disc jockey Eddie O'Jay, who helped the band out in their early days. O'SULLIVAN, GILBERT Manager Gordon Mills found a clever name for his newfound talent. Playing off Ray O'Sullivan's last name and the playwriting team of Gilbert and Sullivan, the name Gilbert O'Sullivan seemed a natural choice. OASIS Oasis is the name of a Sports Centre in Swindon, England. Noel Gallacher was the roadie for a band that played there once, and a place where The Beatles played. OCEANSIZE The band named themselves after Jane's Addiction song, "Ocean Size". According to guitarist Gambler, the band's then-bassist Jon Ellis came up with the name: "I think, at the time, he was thinking what we would sound like. Janes Nothing's Shocking album, which has the track "Ocean Size" on it, was definitely a big influence." ORDINARY BOYS (The) named themselves after the song "The Ordinary Boys" performed by Morrissey on his 1988 album Viva Hate. OF MICE & MEN The Band is named after the novel by John Steinbeck. Steinbeck himself took the name from a line in the poem "To A Mouse" by Robert Burns, which reads "the best-laid schemes of mice and men/Go often awry." OFFSPRING [The] Its members Dexter Holland and Greg K decided to form a band after attending a Social Distortion concert. The band was called Manic Subsidal, who suddenly changed their name to The Offspring in 1986. OLD 97's	Matt Bianco
Which record-breaking film marked Clint Eastwood's directorial debut?	BAND NAMES .. ORIGINS Numbers 10cc Manager Jonathan King chose the name after having a dream in which he was standing in front of the Hammersmith Odeon in London where the boarding read "10cc The Best Band in the World". A widely repeated claim, disputed by King and Godley, but confirmed in a 1988 interview by Creme, and also on the webpage of Gouldman's current line-up, is that the band name represented a volume of semen that was more than the average amount ejaculated by men, thus emphasising their potency or prowess. 10 SECONDS OF FOREVERS named after Hawkwind's "10 Seconds of Forever" 10,000 MANIACS Inspired by the old horror movie called '2000 Maniacs' 101 ERS (the) The group was named after the squat where they lived together: 101 Walterton Road, Maida Vale, although it was for a time rumoured that they were named for "Room 101", the infamous torture room in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. 13th FLOOR ELEVATORS (the) The band's name was developed from a suggestion by drummer John Ike Walton to use the name "Elevators" and Clementine Hall added "13th Floor" 2Be3 French band using English language as a pun ~ meaning To Be Free 23rd TURNOFF (THE) They took their name from the motorway sign indicating the nearby M6 exit. 3rd STRIKE Lead singer named his band after the "three strikes, you're out" law. 311 311 is an Omaha police code for indecent exposure. P-Nut and some friends went skinny dipping in a public pool. They were apprehended by police. P-Nut's friendwas arrested, cuffed (naked) and taken home to his parents. He was issued a citation for a code 311 (indecent exposure). 702 Pronounced "Seven-Oh-Two", named after the area code of their hometown of Las Vegas. 801 / THE 801 Taken from the Eno song "The True Wheel", which appears on his 1974 solo album Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy). The refrain of the song - "We are the 801, we are the central shaft" 808 STATE Took their name from their Roland TR-808 drum machine. ("the 808 state" is a nickname for Hawaii, due to 808 being the telephone area code) _____________________________________ A A DAY IN THE LIFE named after the Beatles song "A Day in the Life". They are now known as Hawthorne Heights. A DAY TO REMEMBER This was a phrase came from the band's first drummer Bobby Scruggs' girlfriend, who used the phrase a lot at the bands rehearsals. A PERFECT CIRCLE aka APC when asked at a news conference, frontman Maynard Keenan stated that the name " A Perfect Circle" originates from the friendships of the band members, all of them met one another in a way resembling "a perfect circle of friendship" A WILHELM SCREAM they named themselves after a sound effect, The Wilhelm scream, which is a frequently-used film and television stock sound effect, first used in 1951 for the film Distant Drums. A-CADS according to press releases, their name is a compromise between the band and thier manager Peter Rimmer. Apparently Rimmer was keen to name the group after the Rand Academy of Music, while the group members preferred choice was The Cads, the result being The A-Cads. A-HA "a-ha" comes from a title that member Pål Waaktaar thought giving to a song. Morten Harket was looking through Waaktaar's notebook and came across the name "a-ha". He liked it and said, "That's a great name. That's what we should call ourselves". After checking dictionaries in several languages, they found out that a-ha was an international way of expressing recognition, with positive connotations. A-STUDIO The band was first called their 'Alma-Ata Studio' after the town Almaty where it was formed. Later, the name was shortened to "A-Studio". A-TEENS The 'A' stands for ABBA since they started as a cover band for the group, but the name was changed upon the request from Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson to avoid confusion. ABC named after the 1970 number-one hit song by The Jackson 5, "ABC" ABBA An acronym for the first names of the band members: Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Anderson and Anni-Frid (Frida) Lyngstad. AC/DC Guitarists Malcolm and Angus Youngs sister-in-law Sandra reportedly came up with the name when she saw the abbreviation for Alternating Current and Direct Current on the back of a sewing machine. The band didn't realise at the time it was also slang for bi-sexual. ACE OF BASE Their first practice studio was in the basement of a car repair shop, and they were the greats of their own basement studio. ADIEMUS Creator Karl Jenkins invented the word, unaware at the time that it means "We will draw near" in Latin AEROSMITH It was evidently a word Joey Kramer wrote all over his notebooks in high school. Some think they were inspired by the 1925 book "Arrowsmith" by Sinclair Lewis. AFTER FOREVER named after Black Sabbath's "After Forever", a track from their third album Master of Reality recorded in 1972 AIDEN named after a character from the 2002 film The Ring AIR SUPPLY 5 years prior to the band's signing, Graham Russell saw the name in a dream. AKB48 Named after Tokyo's area Akihabara (colloquially shortened to Akiba), a mecca for electronics shopping and geeks. The group was formed as theatre-based, to perform at its own theatre at Akihabara on a daily basis, so that fans could always go and see them live. ALEXISONFIRE from contortionist stripper, Alexis Fire, which nearly resulted in a lawsuit from the stripper's representatives. ALICE COOPER The band were inspired while talking to a spirit named Alice Cooper who came to them when they were using their Ouija Board. After the band split up, Vincent Furnier their lead singer kept the name for his solo act. ALL TIME LOW All Time Low When in high school, members Alex Gaskarth, Jack Barakat, Rian Dawson, and Zack Merrick made a list of possible band names, one of which being "All Time Low". ALICE IN CHAINS Layne Staley formed a glam metal band Alice N' Chainz (Alice AND Chains) where he used to dress in drag on stage, taking the micky of glam rockers with their big hair etc. When he met up with Jerry Cantrell they formed a new band and eventually after not being able to think of a name decided to call it after Laynes old band but spelt differently .. So the name comes from Layne Staley who once said that "ALICE" represented the frail person, and the "CHAINS" represented the drug addiction. and the music was about "ALICE" breaking free of her "CHAINS", a.k.a. drugs. BUT inbetween Alice N Chainz and "Alice in Chains" .. Layne used to mock glam rock bands calling them Alice and Chains and Alice In Chains .. so I do think originally it may have been mockery of glam rock or was Alice himself, weak and chained in Wonderland .. his drugs!! ALL-AMERICAN REJECTS (The) The names "All-Americans" and "the Rejects" after the Green Day song Reject, were both suggested to the band as names, so they were merged. ALL CROWS ARE BLACK Steve Townend took the name from a problem in the logic of confirmation proposed by the German logician Carl Gustav Hempel in the 1940s and known as the Paradox of the Ravens. ALL TIME LOW was taken from the lyrics 'and it feels like I'm at an all-time low' from New Found Glory song, "Head on Collision" ALTER BRIDGE The name comes from a long-standing bridge near Mark Tremontis childhood home in Detroit, which was often regarded as a boundary to the children in surrounding neighborhoods; beyond it was uncharted territory. AMAZULU The name "Amazulu" is taken from the Zulu language word for the Zulu people. ANAMANAGUCHI The name came about from a member in one of Peter Berkman's former bands pronouncing gibberish in the style of Jabba the Hutt; The band has also explained it as coming from the members' internships at Armani (Berkman and DeVito), Prada (Warnaar), and Gucci (Silas) while studying fashion at Parsons School of Design ANBERLIN band member Stephen Christian has offered the explanations that he planned naming his first daughter Anberlin and that the name was a modification of the phrase "and Berlin" from a list of cities he wanted to visit. The one story that Stephen Christian asserts is true, is that he heard (or misheard) the word in the background noise of the Radiohead song "Everything in Its Right Place", he finally admitted he thought it sounded like 'Anberlin' in the background during the part of the song while Thom Yorke is singing "try to say" about 2:32 into the song. AND YOU WILL KNOW US BY THE TRAIL OF DEAD Initially the band claimed it to be a line in a Mayan ritual chant, though lead singer Conrad Keely has since admitted the story was a joke. ANTHRAX Scott Ian learnt about the virulent bacteria anthrax in biology class at high school, and thought it an awesome name for a band. AMERICA Band members met in London; they were all sons of members of the United States Air Force serving in the UK. ANTIETAM named after Jethro Tull's "Aqualung" ARCADE FIRE Based on a story that singer Win Butler heard as a kid. He was told that an arcade in Exeter had burnt down, killing many youths. ARCTIC MONKEYS The name was made up by the guitarist, Jamie Cook, while at school AREA CODE 615 They took their name from the telephone area code, which at the time covered all of Central and Eastern Tennessee. ARNOLD CORNS An early David Bowie band, the name of which was inspired by the Pink Floyd song 'Arnold Layne'. ART OF NOISE Named after the 1913 manifesto called The Art of Noises by Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo. AS I LAY DYING Named after the 1930 novel As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner ASKING ALEXANDRIA According to band member, lead singer Danny Worsnop, the name was taken from Alexander the Great. ASTARTE named after Astarte the great goddess of fertility, beauty and war; the Phoenician predecessor to the Greek Aphrodite. ASWAD the British reggae group, called themselves 'Aswad' knowing it means "Black" in Arabic at17 named after Janis Ian's song "At Seventeen" released in 1975 from her 7th studio album, Between the Lines ATAHUALPA YUPANQUI the most important Argentine folk musician of the 20th century, adopted his stage name as a tribute to two legendary Incan kings, Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca and Yupanqui, a Sapa Inca and a member of the Hurin dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco. ATLANTICS [The] They took their name from a local brand of petrol, Atlantic. ATREYU Named themselves after a character in 1979 novel The Never Ending Story and the 1984 movie of the same name AUDIOSLAVE according to lead guitarist Tom Morello the name supposedly came to singer Chris Cornell in a vision. AUTOMATIC PILOT from psychiatric testimony characterizing Dan White's state of mind while killing George Moscone and Harvey Milk AVENGED SEVENFOLD The band's name is a reference to the Book of Genesis in the Bible, where Cain is sentenced to live in exile for murdering his brother. God marked him so that none would kill him on account of his sin; the man who dared to kill Cain would suffer "vengeance seven times over" AXL ROSE Guns N Roses singer's name is an anagram of oral sex AZTEC TWO-STEP Took their name from a line in Lawrence Ferlinghetti's poem 'See It Was Like This When' _____________________________________ The beehive hairstyle popular in the 1950's was called a B-52. BACHMAN-TURNER OVERDRIVE A combination of band members' last names and the trucker's magazine 'Overdrive'. BACKSTREET BOYS named after a flea market in Orlando, Florida. BAD BRAINS named after The Ramones' song "Bad Brain" BAD COMPANY Paul Rodgers did not name his group after the Jeff Bridges film Bad Company as is often quoted. Rodgers himself has said that he took the moniker from a book of Victorian morals that showed a picture of an innocent child looking up at an unsavory character leaning against a lamp post. The caption read "beware of bad company" . BADFINGER was derived from "Bad Finger Boogie," the working title of The Beatles' "With a Little Help from My Friends" BAND (The) According to guitarist Robbie Robertson, Bob Dylan's backup band resisted all conformity, even naming their ensemble. After landing their own recording contract, record company executives pressed them for a group name, but had to settle for simply "The Band". BAR-KAYS (The) Growing out of a local group dubbed the Imperials, they adopted a mutated version of their favorite brand of rum, Bacardi, as their name. BASTILLE Took their name from the French "Bastille Day", which date coinsides with lead singer Dan Smith's birthday. BAUHAUS They chose the name Bauhaus 1919, a reference to the German Bauhaus art movement and college of the 1920s, because of its "stylistic implications and associations", according to David J. The band also chose to use the same type font used on the Bauhaus college building in Dessau, Germany. They soon dropped the 1919, which was a reference to the first operating year of the art school . BAY CITY ROLLERS They blindly stuck a pin on a map. It landed on Bay City, Michigan. BEASTIE BOYS According to the documentary, American Punk, Beastie Boys, named their band with two words beginning with B because they were inspired by Bad Brains, also a "BB" band. Also ''Beastie' is an acronym for 'Boys Entering Anarchistic States Toward Internal Excellence'. BEAUTIFUL SOUTH (The) an English alternative rock group formed at the end of the 1980s by two former members of Hull group The Housemartins, Paul Heaton and Dave Hemingway. Heaton explained at the time that the name was partly a sarcastic reflection of his own dislike of southern England, and partly an attempt to force macho men to utter the word 'beautiful' BEATLES They went by the names Quarrymen and the Silver Beetles a while later, then shortened and mutated that to the Beatles. The original bassist, Stuart Sutcliffe came up with the Beetles in 1960, he was a fan huge of Buddy Holly & the Crickets (crickets-beetles). After which John Lennon is credited with combining Beetles and Beat to come up with the Beatles spelling. BEE GEES Although often refers to as the 'Brothers Gibb' therefore the Bee Gees, the band say they took their name from the initials of two friends that helped them out in their early days, Bill Goode and a disc jockey named Bill Gates. BELLE & SEBASTIAN from Belle et Sébastien, a children's book by French writer Cécile Aubry, which was later adapted into a TV series BETTER THAN EZRA Better Than Ezra got their name when they were starting out in clubs. It is rumoured, they were going on after a band called "Ezra" and when the MC was about to announce them he asked their name... they responded "...we're Better than Ezra" BETWEEN THE BURIED AND ME The band name was derived from a phrase in Counting Crows' song "Ghost Train". The lyrics say "Fifty Million feet of earth between the buried and me" BIFFY CLYRO there are many rumours of the origin of Biffy Clyro's name... one time lead singer, Simon Neil bought a Cliff Richard pen therefore it was a Cliffy Biro, they then changed this to Biffy Clyro. Another theory is that 'Biffy Clyro' were a Welsh tribe. The third rumour is that Biffy Clyro was a former player of the band's football team, Ayr United. They have never confirmed any of these. BIG BOPPER Jiles Perry Richardson a disc jockey, called himself 'The Big Bopper' because of his 240 pound frame and a 'bopper' was someone who was really into rock and roll back in the 1950s, BIG COUNTRY named after Talking Heads' "The Big Country"; a track from their second album, More Songs About Buildings and Food released in 1978's BIG DRILL CAR the band members have claimed in interviews that their name was inspired by the movie Journey to the Center of the Earth. BIG STAR One band member was given the idea from a grocery store which he often visited for snacks during recording sessions. One of many Big Star Markets outlets in the Memphis region at the time, it had a logo consisting of a five-pointed star enclosing the words "Big Star"; as well as the store's name, the band used its logo but without the word "Star" to avoid infringing copyright. BIKINI KILL the future band members began working together on a fanzine calling it Bikini Kill, and with the addition of former Go Team guitarist Billy Karren, they formed a band of the same name. The actual name was inspired by the 1967 B-movie The Million Eyes of Sumuru. BILLY TALENT The band is named after a character in the film Hard Core Logo (although the name in the film and the book by Michael Turner it was adapted from is spelled "Billy Tallent"). BLA TAGET The Swedish progg-band, that used to go under the name Gunder Hägg, the name of a legendary Swedish runner, but after name conflicts occurred they changed name to Blå Tåget, which was a ride at the amusement park Gröna Lund. BLACK, CILLA A reporter for the local paper, while writing a favorable review accidentley called her Cilla Black instead of Cilla White. BLACK ANGELS [The] named after Velvet Underground's "The Black Angel's Death Song" BLACK CROWES [The] Originally named Mr Crowe's Garden named after Leonard Leslie Brookes children's book Johnny Crow's Garden fairy tale. BLACK FAG a wind-up of the band name "Black Flag" BLACK FLAG Originally called Panic; the name was suggested by Ginn's brother, artist Raymond Pettibon, who also designed the band's logo. Pettibon stated "If a white flag means surrender, a black flag represents anarchy." Their new name was reminiscent of the anarchist symbol, the insecticide of the same name, and of the British heavy metal band Black Sabbath, one of Ginn's favorite bands. Ginn suggested that he was "comfortable with all the implications of the name". When Adam Ant first played in California, the band Black Flag gave out button badges that read: 'Black Flag kills Ants'. BLACK METAL took its name from Venom's second album "Black Metal" released in 1982. BLACK REBEL MOTORCYCLE CLUB took their name from Marlon Brando's motorcycle gang in the 1953 film "The Wild One". BLACK SABBATH The band Earth were inspired to call their first original song "Black Sabbath" after seeing the 1963 Boris Karloff's horror movie "Black Sabbath" After which they changed their name to Black Sabbath. BLEACH BOYS (The) origially called The Fur Coughs, their new name, The Bleach Boys was given to them by the philosopher Simon Critchley, and is a play on The Beach Boys. BLIMP (THE) Took their name from a Captain Beefheart song "The Blimp" from his 1969 album, Trout Mask Replica. BLIND MELON Bass player Brad Smith's father used this term to refer to some hippies who lived in a commune near his house. BLINK 182 Blink was the original name decided for the band, however an Irish band of the same name objected after they released demos and an album, so the 3 digit suffix was added; the numbers stand for nothing at all. An internet rumour suggests the 182 is a miscount of how many times Tony Montana (Al Pacino) says the word 'fuck' in the film Scarface. BLONDE REDHEAD Named themselves "Blonde Redhead" after a song by the New York no wave band DNA. BLONDIE The name derived from comments made by truck drivers who catcalled "Hey, Blondie" to Harry as the band, then called Angel and the Snake, drove by. BLOOD DUSTER named after Naked City's "Blood Duster" track on 1999 'Naked City' album BLOOD ON THE FLOOR originally called 'Love the Fashion', but while creating their first album vocalist Dahvie Christopher Mongillo came up with the name Blood On The Dance Floor. It is possible he was inspired Michael Jackson's song, "Blood On The Dance Floor". BLOOD, SWEAT AND TEARS Founder Al Kooper came up with the name when on the phone with a promoter, while gazing at a Johnny Cash album cover, Cash's "Blood Sweat & Tears" album. Another version is, the title was chosen by Al Kooper, inspired after a late-night gig in which Kooper played with a bloody hand. BLUE OCTOBER The front man of Blue October, Justin Furstenfeld, spent a brief stint in a mental hospital in October 1997. He stated that afterwards he wrote songs to keep depression away which led to the forming of the band. BLUE ÖYSTER CULT The name is an anagram of 'Cully's Stout Beer'. But it is said to be combination of a recipe the band's manager read in a book and the band's fascination with the occult. A third source says the band's éminence grise and manager, Sandy Pearlman, named the band after the Blue Point oysters on a local restaurant menu in 1971, but Allen Lanier suggested the addition of the all-important umlaut, over the Ö. BLUR The band had been known as "Seymour" until they were signed to Food Records in 1990. The label disliked the band name, the group selected a new one from a provided list, from which they eventually chose "Blur" . BOB DYLAN Robert Zimmerman changed his surname to Dylan in honor of Dylan Thomas BONDED BY BLOOD took thier name from Exodus' "Bonded by Blood" a track on their debut album Bonded by Blood released in 1984. BONO (Paul Hewson) Paul Hewson of U2, was inspired by a hearing aid store in Dublin, Ireland called 'Bono Vox'. BOO RADLEYS Their name is taken from the character of Boo Radley in Harper Lee's 1960 novel, To Kill A Mockingbird. BOOKER T. & THE M.G.'s M.G. stands for Memphis Group, a band led by keyboard player Booker T. Jones. BOOM BOOM SATELLITES named after Sigue Sigue Sputnik's song "Boom Boom Satellite" from their album Dress for Excess BOOMTOWN RATS Taken from the gang in Woody Guthrie's 'Bound for Glory' novel. BOREDOMS named themselves after Buzzcocks' "Boredom" from the Buzzcocks' 1976/77 "Spiral Scratch" EP. BORIS this Japanese experimental rock named themselves after Melvins' "Boris" from their 1991 album Bullhead. BRAINERD Original guitarist, Knife, names band after home-town, Brainerd in Minnesota. BRING ME THE HORIZON Took their name from a line said by Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, "Now... bring me that horizon". BUFFALO SPRINGFIELD The band took their name from a brand of heavy asphalt roller they saw while stuck in Los Angeles traffic BOYS (The) The group who were made up of 4 brothers got asked their name by the orginizers of a talent contest they were performing at; nameless at this time, their mother responded with "my boys" and then quickly changed her answer to "The Boys". BUCKWHEAT ZYDECO He acquired his nickname as a youth, because, with his braided hair, he looked like the character Buckwheat from Our Gang/The Little Rascals movies and of course Zydeco is a musical genre evolved in southwest Louisiana by French Creole speakers which blends blues, rhythm and blues, and music indigenous to the Louisiana Creoles and the Native people of Louisiana. BUNNY RUGS William Clarke explained that nickname came from his grandmother calling him 'Bunny' as a child because he would "jump around the house like a rabbit" and from a member of the Third World road crew calling him 'Rugs' because of his liking for sleeping on the floor. BURNING AIRLINES named after Brian Eno's "Burning Airlines Give You So Much More" BURNING INSIDE The band named themselves after the Ministry track of the same name BURY YOUR DEAD took their name from The Haunted's "Bury Your Dead" BUTTS BAND In an early interview ex-Doors member Robby Krieger explained the origin of his band name: "'Butts Band' equalled a bunch of losers desperate for a gig, hence the tattered speaker on the album front cover" BUZZCOCKS Howard Devoto and Pete Shelley chose the name "Buzzcocks" after reading the headline, "It's the buzz, cocks!", in a review of the TV series Rock Follies in Time Out magazine. The "buzz" is the excitement of playing on stage; "cock" is Manchester slang meaning "mate", as in friend/buddy. Alternatively, it came from a term "bus cock"; men driving a bus or truck with heavy diesel engines sometimes get an erection because of the vibrations. BZN This is short for Band zonder Naam or translated into English, "Band Without a Name" ______________________________________ C CANDLEBOX named after a line from Midnight Oil's "Tin Legs and Tin Mines"... the line 'boxed in like candles' CANNED HEAT Alan Wilson and Bob Hite took the name from Tommy Johnson's 1928 "Canned Heat Blues", a song about an alcoholic who had desperately turned to drinking Sterno, often called "canned heat". CANSEI DE SER SEXY Portuguese for "tired of being sexy", an alleged quote of Beyoncé Knowles, one of the largest musical influences upon this Brazilian band. CAPERCAILLIE The band is named after the Western Capercaillie, sometimes called a wood grouse, a native Scottish bird. CAPTAIN BEEFHEART Don Van Vliet had a strange Uncle of who would expose himself, squeeze his penis until the head turned purple, then comment about it looking "like a big ole' beef heart", but Don said on the David Letterman show when questioned about his name, that he had "a beef in my heart against this society". CASTILES [The] Bruce Stringsteen's high school band named themselves after the soapbar of the same name. CHAKA KHAN Yvette Stevens' African name, Chaka, means "fire". CHARLIE BROWN JR The band performed shows in the city without an official name until Chorão crashed his car into a coconut shack that was named "Charlie Brown". CHARLES, RAY His actual name is Ray Charles Robinson, but he did not want to be confused with boxer Sugar Ray Robinson, so dropped the Rosinson. CHEAP TRICK Allegally they consulted a Ouija board what they should call their band. CHEMICAL BROTHERS This name was derived from a song of theirs (while being The Dust Brothers) called "Chemical Beat", which was allegedly inspired by all the drugs in the clubs they played. They had to change names as there was already a "The Dust Brothers" in US. CHEROKEES Formed in Melbourne, Australia, they named themselves after a popular icecream of the early 60s. CHICAGO They called the band 'Chicago Transit Authority' on their first album, but after the city of Chicago threatened to sue them, they shortened it to Chicago. CHILLIWACK They changed their name in 1970 from The Collectors to Chilliwack, a Salish term meaning "going back up" and the name of a city east of Vancouver in the Fraser River valley. CHIEFTAINS (The) The band's name came from the book Death of a Chieftain by Irish author John Montague. CHILDREN OF BODOM. Named after Lake Bodom in Finland, the location where a triple murder took place, when four teenagers were on a camping trip. 3 were slaughtered, one escaped. CHRISTIAN DEATH The name "Christian Death" was a play on words of the fashion designer Christian Dior. CHROME WAVES named after Ride's "Chrome Waves" CHUBBY CHECKER Dick Clark's wife thought up the name as a take off on Fats Domino. CHUMBAWAMBA a band member had a dream.. in which the public toilet signs were labelled "Chumba" and "Wamba" instead of "Men" and "Women" and he didn't know which door to use. CHVRCHES (The) They chose the name Chvrches, using a Roman "v" to avoid confusions with actual churches on internet searches. Chvrches have also stated that the band name "has no religious connotation, [they] just thought it sounded cool". CILLA BLACK A reporter for the local paper, while writing a favorable review accidentley called her Cilla Black instead of Cilla White. CIRCLE OF DEAD CHILDREN Vocalist Joe Horvath has stated that the band name was inspired by a vision of his, where a circle of flags from every country in the world lay on the floor, each bearing a mutilated child from its respective nation. CLANNAD The band members were all from a family living in Gweedore in the county of Donegal (N. Ireland). Clannad is an abbreviation of "Clann as Dobhar", which means "the family from Gweedore". CLASH Taken from a newspaper headline stating 'A Clash With Police' CLEAR LIGHT Clear Light shared its name with a potent form of LSD, although Seal states the name came from his studies of Eastern philosophy. COBRA MOVEMENT (The) Named after a short-lived post-WW II art movement that drew together artists from Copenhagen, Brussels and Amsterdam, which used a cobra as its symbol with each of the respective cities representing the head, body and tail of the cobra. COCO ROBICHEAUX Curtis Arceneaux took his stage name from a Louisiana legend, in which a naughty child called Coco Robicheaux, is abducted by a werewolf or wendigo. COCTEAU TWINS The band was named after the song "The Cocteau Twins" by fellow Scotsmen 'Johnny and the Self-Abusers', who later renamed themselves Simple Minds; the song "The Cocteau Twins" was also re-penned as "No Cure. COLDPLAY Chris, Jonny, Will & Guy were called "Starfish" originally and a friend's group was called "Coldplay". When they did not want the name anymore, "Starfish" asked if they could use it instead. The original Coldplay took the name from a book of collected poems. COLONEL ROBERT MORRIS In 1998 Robert Morris, received the honorary title of "Colonel aide-de-camp" from Don Sundquist the governor of the state of Tennessee. Since then he was known as Colonel Robert Morris or often just as The Colonel COLONIA The name of the group comes from the ancient Latin name of the Croatian town Vinkovci which was "Colonia Aurelia Cibalae". COLOR ME BADD The name Color Me Badd represented overcoming racial and musical labels. COMMODORES It is reported that one of the group members tossed a dictionary into the air, and when it landed, randomly pointed to a word on the page it opened to. The word was "Commodores". CON FUNK SHUN named after New Birth's "Con-Funk-Shun" CONWAY TWITTY Looking at a road map, he spotted Conway, Arkansas, and Twitty, Texas. Thus, he went with the professional name of "Conway Twitty". COOPER, ALICE The band were inspired while talking to a spirit named Alice Cooper who came to them when they were using their Ouija Board. . After the band split up, Vincent Furnier their lead singer kept the name for his solo act. COOPER TEMPLE CLAUSE (THE) The band was named after the Cowper-Temple clause. The clause was inserted into the Elementary Education Act 1870, which established compulsory primary education in England and Wales. The clause, a compromise on the matter of funding for denominational schools, was named after its proposer, Liberal MP William Cowper-Temple. COP SHOT COP Phil Puleo reports their name was inspired by both the band members' shared dislike of police officers, and a newspaper headline about a botched police raid, reading "'Cop Shot Cop' or maybe it was 'Cop Shoots Cop.'" Another possible explanation for the band's moniker is what is described as a "junkie's to do list:" "cop" (obtain drugs, especially heroin) "shoot" (Inject the drugs)" and "cop" again. CORNERSHOP The band name originated from a stereotype referring to British Asians often owning corner shops. COSTELLO, ELVIS Declan Patrick McManus combined Elvis Presley's first name with his great grandmother's last name Costello, which his father also performed under as Day Costello. CRACKOUT named after 'Brian Krakow', a character in American TV teen drama, "My So-Called Life" CRASS A reference to the David Bowie song "Ziggy Stardust"... the line "The kids was just crass". CREEDANCE CLEARWATER REVIVAL It is reported the band took their name from Norvel Credence, a friend of band leader John Fogerty, plus John's favorite beer was called Clearwater, which, after it disappeared from the market for a time, was revived by another brewery and the four members' renewed commitment to their band. CRINGER Hawaiin band named after a talking cat from the cartoon He-Man. CHRISMA the name is made up from the duo's christian names Maurizio Arcieri and his wife Christina Moser. They later changed their name to Krisma. CROSS-EYED MARY taken from track 2, "Cross-Eyed Mary" on Jethro Tull's 1971 album Aqualung. CROWDED HOUSE This Australian / New Zealand trio chose the name from their cramped living conditions at North Sycamore Street in Los Angeles while working on their debut album. CRYSTAL FIGHTERS The group took their name Crystal Fighters from an unfinished opera which Laure Stockley's grandfather had penned during his final months of insanity. She came across the manuscript while clearing out the reclusive old man's remote home in the Basque countryside. She quickly became obsessed by the intriguing scrawls within it and shared it with the others. Captivated by its seemingly prophetic contents, the band took on the name and formed in an attempt to expand upon the wild and deranged spirit of Laure's grandfather's writings. CURE (The) The band's original name was Easy Cure, taken from the name of one of the group's early songs. The name was later shortened to The Cure because frontman Robert Smith felt the name was too American and "too hippyish". CURVED AIR named after Terry Riley's "A Rainbow in Curved Air" ________________________________________ D D. BOON As a teenager, singer, guitarist Dennes Dale Boon began painting and signed his works "D. Boon", partly because "D" was his slang for cannabis, partly after the American pioneer and hunter Daniel Boone, but mostly because it was similar to E. Bloom, Blue Öyster Cult's vocalist and guitarist. DALI'S CAR They took their name from a Captain Beefheart song from his album, Trout Mask Replica. DASHBOARD CONFESSIONAL Derived from the line in the band's song "The Sharp Hint of New Tears" which is "on the way home, this car hears my confessions/I think tonight I'll take the long way home...". DAVID & JONATHAN The duo named themselves after the Biblical characters DAVID BOWIE He took his last name from the Bowie knife, which he had a love of, as a child. He first used his given name 'David Jones' but changed it so as not to be confused with Davy Jones of the Monkees DAYS OF THE NEW Dead Reckoning changed it's name to Days of the New, but their true name is Days of the New World Order because Travis Meeks, the architect behind the band, intended his music to be both a warning and theme to the days of the new world order. dB's [the] As they told us with their debut album in 1981, dB's stands for 'decibels'. DEACON BLUE named after Steely Dan's "Deacon Blues" on their album Aja DEAD CAN DANCE Brendan Perry was allegedly inspired by the idea of making "animacy out of inanimacy" .. such as making lively music out of the dead wood of instruments. DEAD KENNEDYS The name was not meant to insult the assassinated Kennedy brothers, but to quote vocalist Jello Biafra, "to bring attention to the end of the American Dream". DEAD OR AMERICAN They took their name, supposedly, based on a dream of Greg Heuer's in which he found himself playing in band of the same name. Shortly after his departure from the band in 2003, the remaining members corrected that story, citing a quote about globalisation in which it was apparently claimed that in 20 years, most cultures will be Dead or American. DEATH CAB FOR CUTIE Took its name from a satirical song of the same name, performed by the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band on their 1967 album Gorilla and in The Beatles experimental movie, Magical Mystery Tour. DECEMBERISTS (The) With reference to the Russian Decembrist Revolt (Explaining their use of the National Anthem of the Soviet Union as an introduction at each concert) and to the atmosphere associated with the month of December DEEP PURPLE Taken from the Bing Crosby song "Deep Purple", a favourite song of Ritchie Blackmore's grandmother. (The song was more notably performed by Nino Tempo & April Stevens) DEF LEPPARD Supposedly inspired by a drawing Joe Elliot made of a leopard with no ears. DEFTONES The name "Deftones" was created by Stephen Carpenter, who wanted to pick "something that would just stand out but you know, not be all cheese-ball at the same time". He combined the hip hop slang term "def," which was used by artists such as LL Cool J and Public Enemy, with the suffix "-tones," which was a popular suffix among 1950s bands such as Dick Dale and the Del-Tones, The Quin-Tones, The Monotones, The Cleftones and The Harptones. Carpenter said the name is intentionally vague to reflect the band's tendency to not focus on just one style of music. DEL AMITRI Scottish alternative rock band (19832002, 2013pres) The band has repeatedly stated the story on their official website that Del Amitri "Started at school in 1980, originally called Del Amitri Rialzo in order to confuse the public". The name was invented for its meaninglessness; they say all other stories are fabrications. DEL-SATINS They chose the name Del-Satins as a tribute to the groups, The Dells and The Five Satins. DEMONS AND WIZARDS The original goal of the band was to forge the different musical styles of both Iced Earth's dark melodies and Blind Guardian's powerful vocals into one sound. In fact, according to the musicians, the band name is meant to describe the two styles: the self-proclaimed demon-like themes and sounds of Iced Earth and wizard-like themes and sounds of Blind Guardian. The moniker "Demons & Wizards" was inspired by Schaffer's wife always referring to him and Hansi as "Demons and Angels". Hansi always corrected her, since he claims to "not be at all angelic", and that it is more properly stated "Demons and Wizards", in reference to Uriah Heep's album of the same name. DENVER, JOHN A tribute to the Rocky Mountain area, an area John Henry Deutschendorf cherished. DEPECHE MODE The name was taken from a French fashion magazine, "Dépêche mode", which translates to "Fashion Update" or "Fashion News Dispatch" (dépêche = dispatch) though it has commonly been mistranslated as "Fast Fashion", due to the confusion with the French verb "se dépêcher" ("to hurry up"). DEREK AND THE DOMINOS The name "Derek and the Dominos" was a fluke. It occurred when the band's provisional name of "Del and the Dynamos" was misread as Derek and the Dominos. Eric Clapton's biography also states that Tony Ashton told Eric to call the band "Del and the Dominos", since "Del" was his nickname for Eric Clapton. Del and Eric were combined and the final name became "Derek and the Dominos" DESTINY'S CHILD Started as Destiny, that name was taken. Beyonce's mother found a picture of the four girls in a family bible. The picture had "Child" written on it. DEVIL'S BLOOD (The) The group's name is taken after the song "Devil's Blood" by the Swedish black-metal band Watain DEVO The name comes "from their concept of 'de-evolution' the idea that instead of continuing to evolve, mankind has actually begun to regress, as evidenced by the dysfunction and herd mentality of American society". In the late 1960s, this idea was developed as a joke by Kent State University art students Gerald Casale and Bob Lewis, who created a number of satirical art pieces in a devolution vein. DEXIE'S MIDNIGHT RUNNERS A drug the band was reputedly fond of ... Dexedrim. DIAMOND HEAD The name "Diamond Head" came from a Phil Manzanera album, that Brian Tatler had a poster of in his room. DIDO Florian Armstrong's name derives from that of the mythical Queen of Carthage, or by ancient Greek and Roman sources, the founder and first Queen of Carthage. DIRE STRAITS It describes the financial situation of the band in the early days. DIRTY MONEY Diddy explained in an interview with Spin magazine: "... I came up with Dirty Money back in 2005 when we were in a strip club in Jacksonville, Florida, during the Superbowl. People heard I was there, and all of a sudden so many people came in that I had to rush outside to my truck. I was sitting there with a bunch of money and I was like, 'Damn, this is some dirty money'. A light bulb went off that day". DISTURBED When asked in an interview why he suggested to name the band "Disturbed," lead singer David Draiman said, "It had been a name I have been contemplating for a band for years. It just seems to symbolize everything we were feeling at the time. The level of conformity that people are forced into was disturbing to us and we were just trying to push the envelope and the name just sorta made sense". DIZZY MIZZ LIZZY named after Larry Williams' "Dizzy Miss Lizzy" DOBIE GRAY In the early 1960s, Stripe Records in L.A. suggested to Lawrence Brown he should record under the name "Dobie Gray", an allusion to the then-popular sitcom The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis DOOBIE BROTHERS Original band name was Pud, changing it to Doobie which is slang for a marijuana joint. DOORS [The] Originally called the Psychedelic Rangers, the Doors took its name from the title of Aldous Huxley's book The Doors of Perception, which itself was a reference to a William Blake quote: "If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, infinite" DOVETAIL JOINT named after a line in The Beatles' "Glass Onion"... the line 'Trying to make a dovetail joint, yeah' DREAM THEATRE Named after a movie house in Monterey, California. The name was suggested by drummer Mike Portnoy's father, who lived in Monterey DUCK HUNT The band named themselves after the NES game, Duck Hunt, before changing their name to Failsafe. DUMDUM BOYS named themselves after Iggy Pop's "Dum Dum Boys" DUM DUM GIRLS after Iggy Pop's "Dum Dum Boys" as well as The Vaselines album "Dum Dum" DURAN DURAN A villan in the 1967 Jane Fonda movie 'Barbarella'. DUST BROTHERS [The] Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons called themselves The Dust Brothers, paying homage to the American production duo famous for their work with the Beastie Boys. DYLAN, BOB Robert Zimmerman changed his surname to Dylan in honor of Dylan Thomas ________________________________________ E E NOMINE Christian Weller and Friedrich "Fritz" Graner named their project from the Latin In Nomine, "In The Name Of". E STREET BAND Bruce Springsteen's band was named after E Street (not East) in Belmar, New Jersey, because the band used to practice at the E Street home of pianist David Sancious' mother EAGLES The band was hugely influences by the Byrds, they all wanted an American sounding name, Henley wanted something Native American, Eagles was born fitting all 3 needs. EARTH, WIND & FIRE The band's name reflects the elements in Maurice White's astrological chart. ECHO AND THE BUNNYMEN Widely thought Echo was the name of the drum machine used in their early demos. They must have made this story up or used it as a nickname for the DM, as there is no such drum machine. EDSELS The name of the group was originally The Essos, after the oil company, but was changed to match the then-new Ford automobile, the Edsel. ELBOW They changed their name from Soft, to Elbow, inspired by a line in the BBC TV drama The Singing Detective in which the character Philip Marlow describes the word "elbow" as the loveliest word in the English language. ELLA GURU named after Captain Beefheart's "Ella Guru" ELTON HERCULES JOHN Reginald Dwight took his stage name from two other British musicians, saxophone player Elton Dean and Long John Baldry. His middle name is from the horse out of the British TV series "Steptoe & Son" which he enjoyed. ELVIS COSTELLO Declan Patrick McManus combined Elvis Presley's first name with his great grandmother's last name Costello, which his father also performed under as Day Costello. EMERSON DRIVE Originally 12-Gauge, renamed itself Emerson Drive, after the Emerson Trail, which crosses western Alberta and joins the Alaskan Highway. EMF The initials officially stood for "Epsom Mad Funkers", but it is widely speculated that the initials instead represented "Ecstasy Mind Fuckers", some say "Ecstasy Mother Fuckers", "English Mother Fuckers," and even "Every Mother's Favourite"! EMINEM His real name is Marshall Bruce Mathers III, he took the "M-and-M" and rewrote it as Eminem. ENGELBERT HUMPERDINCK Manager, Gordon Mills, convinced Gerry Dorsey that an audience would never forget the name "Englebert Humperdinck", the name of the Austrian composer who wrote "Hansel and Gretel". EPSILON MINUS The name "Epsilon Minus" is a reference to Aldous Huxley's novel, Brave New World. ERIC'S TRIP named after Sonic Youth's "Eric's Trip" EURYTHMICS a method of music instruction from the 1890's which emphasizes physical response to the music. EVANESCENCE When asked where they got their name, they responded, "The dictionary". They apparently disliked their previous names Childish Intentions and Stricken, and wanted something better. They also wanted to do some artwork, with whatever name they chose, and decided to look under E. They liked the word and definition of Evanescence, likening it to the temporal nature of life. EVERYTHING BUT THE GIRL an advert slogan for a British bedroom furniture store that could sell you "Everything but the Girl" EXTREME Originally Dream, but this name was taken. They thought of ex-Dream, then settled for Extreme. ____________________________________ F FAIR TO MIDLAND According to the band's official website, their name comes from "...an old Texan play on the term 'fair to middling'." FAIRPORT CONVENTION As young musicians in the mid 60s, they used to 'convene' for rehearsals at a house named Fairport, the family home of rhythm guitarist Simon Nicol, in Muswell Hill; thus, was born the name of the band. FAITH NO MORE The band was originally called Sharp Young Men, but changed to Faith No Man when their front man was Mike 'The Man' Morris. After he left, 'The Man' was no more, so they switched to Faith No More. (Some have said the name came from a horse or dog on a betting slip). FALL (The) English post-punk band formed in Prestwich, Greater Manchester (1976-pres) bassist Tony Friel came up with the name "The Fall" after a 1956 novel by Albert Camus. FALL OUT BOY The band was nameless for their first two shows. At the end of their second show, they asked the audience to yell out their ideas for a name. One audience member suggested "Fallout Boy", a reference to the sidekick of the Simpsons cartoon character Radioactive Man. For copyright reasons, to avoid being sued, they separated Fall and Out to make it Fall Out Boy. FAMILY Record producer Kim Fowley suggested they call themselves "The Family" as they regularly wore double-breasted suits in performances, giving themselves a mafia appearance, a look they soon abandoned in favour a more casual dress code. FASTBALL Originally called "Magneto" until learning of a Mexican Boy Band of the same name, they first attempted to use the name "Magneto USA," but were ultimately advised against it. The band eventually settled on "Fastball" in reference to a "baseball-themed porn movie". FEEDBACK Later to become known as U2. As very young teenagers they called their band "Feedback" as that was the only technical term they knew back in those days (and maybe there was plenty of it at that young age when learning their skills!!) FEELIES [The] The name is taken from Aldous Huxleys novel Brave New World, in which the feelies were the equivalent of the movies. FLEETWOOD MAC Taken from Mick Fleetwood's surname, with the 'Mac' coming from John McVie. FLOWERPOT MEN [The] Psychedelic-era puns on flower power and "pot" (cannabis). FLYING BURRITO BROTHERS [the] The group borrowed their name from an East Coast-based group of the same name who had been colleagues of Gram Parsons' previous band, the International Submarine Band. FINE YOUNG CANNIBALS Inspired by the movie "All The Fine Young Cannibals" FIREBALLS [The] Sometimes billed as Jimmy Gilmer and the Fireballs, they took their name from Jerry Lee Lewis's "Great Balls of Fire". FIREHOUSE named after Kiss's "Firehouse" FIVE IRON FRENZY According to bassist Keith Hoerig: "We got the name from a roommate of ours. He was kind of paranoid, and afraid that if he went outside on this particular night he was going to get jumped by some people. He had a golf club to defend himself and he said something to the effect of it being like "putter mayhem". Scott looked at the golf club he was holding, and noting that it was a five iron said, "No, more like a Five Iron Frenzy" The name stuck." FLESH OF LULU They took their name from an American cult movie. FLORENCE & THE MACHINE The name of Florence and the Machine is attributed to front-woman Florence Welch's teenage collaboration with keyboardist and co-writer Isabella "Machine" Summers. Welch and Summers performed together for a time under the name Florence Robot/Isa Machine. Later, this was shortened to Florence and the Machine as it was felt to be too cumbersome. FOGHAT Singer Dave Peverett and his brother invented the word in a game of Scrabble. FOO FIGHTERS David Grohl was fascinated by sci-fi and the Roswell incident. He named his new project after a slang expression used in World War II by US pilots to describe the alien-looking fireballs they sometimes saw over Germany. Foo is a mutation of the French word for fire, "fue". FOREIGNER British guitarist Mick Jones started the band in New York, US. Being a foreigner over there, that became the band name. FOSTER THE PEOPLE Originally called "Foster & the People" by frontman Mark Foster, but changed when many of his friends misunderstood the name as "Foster the People". In a 2011 interview, Foster also recalled, "'Foster the People' that's like 'Take Care of the People'. FOTHERINGAY The band drew its name from x-Fairport Convention Sandy Denny's 1968 composition "Fotheringay" about Fotheringhay Castle, in which Mary, Queen of Scots had been imprisoned. The song originally appeared on the 1969 Fairport Convention album, What We Did on Our Holidays, Denny's first album with her x-band. FOUNDATIONS Taken from the surroundings where the band first started practicing, down in the basement of a large business building. FOUR SEASONS [the] Originally the Varietones, when they got turned at an auditioned to appear at a local bowling alley, they adopted the name of the place "The Four Seasons" FRANKIE GOES TO HOLLYWOOD On the B-side to the group's first single, Holly Johnson explained that the group's name derived from a page from The New Yorker magazine, featuring the headline "Frankie Goes Hollywood" and a picture of Frank Sinatra, although the magazine page Holly referred to was actually a pop art poster by Guy Peellaert. FRANK ALAMO Executive Eddie Barclay signed Jean-François Grandin to his label and persuaded him to take the stage name Frank Alamo, the surname being in tribute to John Wayne's film The Alamo. FRANZ FERDINAND A rock band from Glasgow named after the Archduke of Austria whose assassination in Sarajevo in 1914 sparked off the First World War. FREE "The Founding Father of British Blues", Alexis Korner, gave the band their name; maybe named after his early blues band " Free At Last". FRIENDLY FIRES The name Friendly Fires originates from the opening track of the Section 25 LP Always Now. FRUMIOUS BANDERSNATCH The band was named after a character from the Lewis Carroll poem "Jabberwocky". FUCK THE FACTS named after Naked City's "Fuck the Facts" track on their 1999 'Naked City' album FUGEES Three band members' parents were refugees / evacuees; also their label is called Refugee Camp. FULL DEVIL JACKET There are two stories on how the band got its name. One is that the band was named after a song written by lead singer Josh Brown, called Full Devil Jacket, and the other story is that the band simply pulled the name from a magazine article. FUNERAL FOR A FRIEND named after Planes Mistaken for Stars's "Funeral for a Friend", although some believe it's after Elton John's "Love Lies Bleeding (Funeral for a Friend). FURTHER Rock band founded in 2009 by former Grateful Dead members Bob Weir and Phil Lesh, who named their band after the famous touring bus used by Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters in the 1960s. FUTUREHEADS (the) Their name comes from the title of The Flaming Lips 5th album, 'Hit to Death in the Future Head'. FUZZBOX / WE'VE GOT A FUZZBOX AND WE'RE GONNA USE IT The band's name was shortened to Fuzzbox for the U.S. release of their first album. Their name was chosen after they bought a distortion pedal for their guitars and Maggie Dunne stated "We've got a fuzzbox and we're gonna use it!". __________________________________________ G GANG OR FOUR "Gang of Four" refers to the "big four" Structuralist theorists: Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan, not to be confused with the Maoist Gang of Four in China. GARBAGE Lead singer Shirley Manson's father yelled down to the band at one of their basement practice sessions, "Play more quietly - you sound like garbage." and a friend of drummer Butch Vig, said "This stuff sounds like garbage!" GARY U.S. BONDS For his first hit, "New Orleans", attention was brought to the record by having promotional copies sent to radio stations in sleeves inscribed "Buy U.S. Bonds" - hence at age 19, Gary Anderson became Gary U.S. Bonds. GENE VINCENT & THE BLUE CAPS The Blue Caps were named after the hat President Eisenhower wore to play golf. GENESIS From the first book in the Bible, their first album's title was "From Genesis to Revelation" GEORGIA WONDER This was the stage name of Lulu Hurst, a 'magnetic phenomenon' whose vaudeville act toured America in the late 19th Century. Stephanie Grant and Julian Moore from the band chose the name after trying to duplicate these powers from an exposé they discovered in a book about the period. GET UP KIDS [The] name came from the lyric "Suburban Get Up Kids" by The Cure. Singer Matt Pryor's previous bands all had names that began with S, so they dropped the 'Suburban.' More important, they thought they'd sell more albums in the "G" section of the record store than the overcrowded "S"'s. GIGOLO AUNTS named after Syd Barrett's "Gigolo Aunt" from his 1970 album, Barrett. GILBERT O'SULLIVAN Manager Gordon Mills found a clever name for his newfound talent. Playing off Ray O'Sullivan's last name and the playwriting team of Gilbert and Sullivan, the name Gilbert O'Sullivan seemed a natural choice. GIN BLOSSOMS The band got the idea from the famous old photograph of Fields and his big ol gin-blossomed nose that appears in Kenneth Angers book, "Hollywood Babylon II," with a caption describing Fields "terminal case of gin blossoms". GINGER FISH Drummer Kenneth Wilson, like Marilyn Manson, he combined the names of an iconic beauty with a serial killer, his name combines those of Ginger Rogers and Albert Fish. GLASS ONION The band Travis originally named themselves Glass Onions after a Beatles song, before naming themselves after the main character in the film "Paris, Texas" GO KART MOZART Took their name from a line in Bruce Springsteen's 'Blinded by the Light'. GODSMACK With Alice in Chains being a primary influence upon Godsmack, it is speculated that the band got their name from Alice in Chains 1992 song of the same name. Lead singer Sully Erna, stated "Where we picked the name from, I was making fun of somebody who had a cold sore on his lip, the next day I had one myself and somebody said, 'It's a godsmack.' and the name stuck". However, bassist Robbie Merril, in the home video DVD 'Smack This' stated "we stole it from Alice in Chains". GODSPEED YOU! BLACK EMPEROR (aka "Godspeed", or abbreviated to GYBE or GY!BE) The band took its name from God Speed You! Black Emperor, a 1976 Japanese black-and-white documentary by director Mitsuo Yanagimachi, which follows the exploits of a Japanese biker gang, the Black Emperors. GOLDTRIX The duo's name, Goldtrix, is a play on their names... Daniel Goldstein and Matrix. GOLDEN EARRING The Golden Earrings was taken from a song called Golden Earrings performed by the British group The Hunters, for whom they served as an opening and closing act. GOLDFINGER naturally after the James Bond movie. GOO GOO DOLLS When they were told that local newspapers wouldn't print their original name, Sex Maggots, it is said Jonny Rzeznik picked up a magazine from the early 60's with an ad for a doll that cried Goo Goo when you turned it upside down. Others have said a radio station held contest asking listeners to pick a name for them. When nothing but goo goo was received, so they just decided Goo Goo Dolls would be their name. GOOD CHARLOTTE They took their name from a children's book, which the identical twin brothers Joel (lead vocals and guitar) and Benji Madden (lead guitar and backing vocals) used to read when little, called "Good Charlotte: The Girls of Good Day Orphanage" by Carol Beach York. GORMERS [the] Their name was taken from a television character in The Andy Griffith Show, Gomer Pyle . GORKY'S ZYGOTIC MYNCI After struggling to come up with a name, they decided "we might as well stick with the most ridiculous crap name we could think of... Gorky's came from the word "gawky"; John Lawrence says that "gork" was school slang for a dimwit, Zygotic was "hijacked from GCSE biology"; it's derived from the word zygote, meaning a fertilized egg cell and Mynci is a spelling of the word "monkey" using Welsh spelling rules, rather than a direct Welsh translation, and is pronounced like "monkey". GRAMERCY FIVE Artie Shaw fashioned a small group from within his big band and named it the Gramercy Five after his home telephone exchange GRATEFUL DEAD Refers to a variety of themed Old English folk tales; eg. a traveler enters a village and finds the villagers refusing to bury the body of a dead man because he died owing creditors money. The traveler pays the dead man's debts and sees to a decent burial. Later in his travels, the man is saved by a mysterious event, which is credited to the dead man's grateful spirit. GREASE BAND (The) The Grease Band was named after Joe Cocker read an interview with jazz keyboardist Jimmy Smith, where Smith positively described another musician as "having a lot of grease". GREEN DAY A few of probabilities: 1) When the band members dropped out of school to work on the band, their principal said "it'll be a green day in hell before you make anything of yourselves". 2) When you smoked pot and chilled all day, that is a "Green Day". The lads used to skip school and do this. 3) A there was a sign in the movie "Soilent Green" stating Green Day. GREEN JELLY They were originally called Green Jello, but were sued by makers of Jello gelatine for using their brand name. GROUNDHOGS (The) The Groundhogs was originally formed as The Dollar Bills, Tony McPhee steered them towards the blues and renamed them after a John Lee Hooker song, "Groundhog's Blues". GUESS WHO? When the musician's producer hear their rendition of "Shakin' All Over", he feared that it would be lost in the flood of British records and came up with a plan .. A number of promotional copies were pressed with just a plain white label, the song title and the words 'Guess Who?', implying that the disc may have been cut someone famous. GUNDER HAGG They named their progg-band after the legendary Swedish runner, but after name conflicts occurred they changed name to Blå Tåget, which was a ride at the amusement park Gröna Lund. GUNNAR JÖKULL HAKONARSON The name came from a book that drummer Ken Pustelnik had read about fighting monks. GUNNER'S DAUGHTER Named after the punishment of Royal Navy boys, the caning administered to boys on the bare posterior, usually while "kissing the gunner's daughter" (bending over a gun barrel). GUNS 'N' ROSES Combination of Axl Rose and Tracii Guns' names, also it's a combination of LA Guns and Hollywood Roses when they merged. _______________________________________ H H-TOWN They took the name of the group, "H-Town," from the local nickname for the city of Houston, Texas. HANSON BROTHERS named after the goofy and rough hockey playing brothers in the Paul Newman movie "Slapshot" HARD-FI "Hard-Fi" is the name given to the sound produced by Lee "Scratch" Perry, a Grammy award-winning reggae and dub artist, at his Black Ark recording studio. Being admirers of Perry's work, the band decided to name themselves after his distinctive sound. HAWKWIND Nik Turner looked like a hawk and farted a lot HEAD LIKE A HOLE named after Nine Inch Nails' "Head Like A Hole", a 1990 hit single from the group's debut album Pretty Hate Machine in 1989. HEAVEN 17 Took their name from a fictional pop group mentioned in Anthony Burgess's novel A Clockwork Orange, where 'The Heaven Seventeen' are at number 4 in the charts with "Inside". HEAVY METAL KIDS They took their name from a gang of street kids, featured in the novel Nova Express by William S. Burroughs. HEDGEHOPPERS ANONYMOUS Apart from Alan Laud, the band members were Royal Air Force personnel based at RAF Wittering, near Peterborough, England; Hedgehoppers is RAF slang for low-flying planes. HELLO GOODBYE named after The Beatles' 1967's ' "Hello, Goodbye" HEPTONES [The] The name was chosen by group member Earl Morgan after seeing a Heptones Tonic bottle lying in a pile of refuse. HERMAN'S HERMITS Peter Noone resemblance to the character Sherman in the TV cartoon 'The Bullwinkle Show', but he misheard the name as Herman. Soon after, the band changed their name to Herman and The Hermits, very soon became abbreviated to Herman's Hermits. HIGH INERGY Fashioned after Martha and the Vandellas and The Supremes, Berry Gordy named them after the 1976 Supremes High Energy album with just the 'e' changed to an 'i' in "energy". HILLTOPPERS [The] They took their name from the nickname of the Western Kentucky athletic teams. HIT THE LIGHTS named after Metallica's "Hit the Lights" from their 1983 the debut studio album Kill 'Em All. HOLE Courtneys mother, who in a phone conversation with her daughter apparently said: 'Courtney, you can't go through life with a big hole inside you, just because you had a bad childhood.' HOLLIES [The] Not in homage to Buddy Holly, as rumored. They chose the name from some Christmas holly decorating Graham Nash's house. HOLLOWAYS [The] Named after the road where three of the band members met at the live music venue Nambucca on Holloway Road in North London. They would meet later to jam together, playing in future drummer Dave Danger's room, situated above the club on Holloway Road. HOLLYWOOD VAMPIRES The band name derives from The Hollywood Vampires, a celebrity drinking club formed by Alice Cooper in the 1970s HONEY CONE Eddie Holland of Holland-Dozier-Holland, named the act "Honey Cone" for a favorite flavor of ice cream. HOOTIE AND THE BLOWFISH Chosen from school friends' nicknames; Hootie had owl like eyes. The other had puffed up cheeks that they called Blowfish. HUES CORPORATION [The] Inspired by Howard Hughes and his empire, but when their manager Wally Holmes went to a lawyer, he said 'you can't spell it that way'. So Holmes came up with "Hues". HUNTERS & COLLECTORS named after German band Can's "Hunters and Collectors" from their 1975 Landed album HUSKER DU Inspired by 'Husker Du?', a Scandinavian young children's memory game. The name of the game is spelled with macrons (- over the U's). The Minneapolis punk rock band Hüsker Dü, replaced the macrons with umlauts (maybe inspired by heavy metal umlauts). _______________________________________ I I AGAINST I comes from the American hardcore punk band, Bad Brains' album, I Against I, released in November 1986 ICE NINE KILLS Taken from the Kurt Vonnegut book Cat's Cradle (1963), in which the author describes how a quantity of water immediately freezes when one drop of ice-nine is added. IDLEWILD Scottish indie rock band from Edinburgh (19952010, 2013pres) named themselves after the quiet meeting place in Anne of Green Gables, a best-selling novel by Lucy Maud Montgomery. IGGY POP & THE STOOGES Iguana and Iggy were nicknames since childhood. Pop was inspired by Jim Popp, a local junkie. The Stooges were originally the PSYCHEDELIC STOOGES.. which combined their love of drugs with "The Three Stooges". INSANE CLOWN POSSE Joe Bruce and Joey Utsler aka Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope originally part of "Inner City Posse" despite being from Oak Part, MI. a wannabe gang and rap group. The official story is that Violent J had a dream where the Dark Carnival visited him and thus the 2 became clowns and changed their name. Rumor has it that they were targets for their tagging from other real gangs and they changed it to avoid getting beaten up or killed. IN FEAR AND FAITH named after Circa Survive's "In Fear And Faith" released in 2006. INTERPOL There is confusion about origin of the name Interpol. An article in SPIN magazine said one of Paul Banks' classmates was fond of teasing him by saying "Paul, Paul, Interpol." Yet guitarist Kessler has said the band "...had played shows with no name, and then I got to the point where I was like, 'Guys, we're getting decent crowds, but like... we don't have a name so no one knows who to go see again.'" They considered Las Armas and The French Letters as names before adopting Interpol. They also famously performed a little publicized show at the Luna Lounge in New York under the pseudonym Cuddleworthy. (Interpol is an acronym for International Police Force, the world police organization) INXS The 3 Farriss brothers hoped their music would be "In Excess", and spelt it INXS IRON MAIDEN Steve Harris got the band name from a film of The Man in the Iron Mask. The "Iron Maiden" was a metal coffin with spikes running outside it that could be inserted inside. The occupant was than impaled and presumably killed.. ________________________________________ The initials "J.B." had no specific meaning, his given name was simply "JB" J. BLACKFOOT John Colbert was generally known as "J" or "Jay", he acquired the nickname "Blackfoot" as a child, for his habit of walking barefoot on the tarred sidewalks of Memphis. JACK OFF JILL Originally Jack & Jill, Marilyn Manson inspired the name change to Jack off Jill. THE JAGGERZ While on location for a photo shoot in the woods, the band noticed that little briars were sticking to their clothing. They found out these briars were locally, in the Pittsburgh area, known as "jaggerz". JEFFERSON AIRPLANE Inspired by the blues player Blind Lemon Jefferson and the name of a friend's dog. A jefferson airplane is a split matchstick end or other device to hold your splif in to get that last drag. JESUS AND MARY CHAIN (The) Scottish alternative rock band formed in East Kilbride (19831999, 2007pres) Originally called The Poppy Seeds and then Death of Joey, they initially told journalists that they had taken their eventual name from a line in a Bing Crosby film, but six months later they admitted that this wasn't true. Other accounts suggest that the name derived from an offer on a breakfast cereal packet, where customers could send off for a gold Jesus & Mary chain. JET named after the Paul McCartney & Wings number "Jet" on their 1974 album Band on the Run. JETHRO TULL Jethro Tull was a 1800's British farmer in the who invented a type of plough. The band used to change their name frequently, found Jethro Tull luckier than the rest. JIMMY EAT WORLD The band's name came from a crayon drawing made after an incident between Linton's younger brothers, Jim and Ed, who fought frequently. Jim usually won, but Ed sought revenge by drawing a picture of Jim shoving the Earth into his mouth; the picture bore the caption "Jimmy eat world". JJ CALE Elmer Valentine, co-owner of the Sunset Strip nightclub Whisky a Go Go, who employed John Weldon Cale in the mid-1960s, was the one that came up with the "JJ" moniker to avoid confusion with the Velvet Underground's John Cale. JOHN DENVER A tribute to the Rocky Mountain area, an area John Henry Deutschendorf cherished. JOHN, ELTON HERCULES Reginald Dwight took his stage name from two other British musicians, Elton Dean and Long John Baldry. His middle name is from the horse out of the TV series "Steptoe & Son" which he enjoyed. JOHNNY CHRIST Jonathan Lewis Seward used to write only Johnny on his autographs until Zacky came up with the name 'Johnny Christ', and in All Excess he said 'It sounded kind of ballsy and it would piss some people off....so everyone's going to hate that'. JOHNNY ROTTEN Named after his rotten teeth JOHNNY SEVEN The band is named the Johnny Seven O.M.A./One Man Army, a multi-function toy weapon the best selling boys' toy of 1964 JOY DIVISION From a sado-masochistic novel 'The House of Dolls' by Karol Cetinsky. Joy Divisions were lines of huts in which women were kept as sex slaves and forced to prostitute themselves to Nazi officers and German troops.. JUAN GABRIEL Alberto Valadez started to use the pseudonym... Juan, in honor of volleyball player Juan Contreras; and Gabriel, in honor of his own father. JUDAS PRIEST named after Bob Dylan's "The Ballad of Frankie Lee and Judas Priest", also this was originally a mild curse said to avoid saying "Jesus Christ"! JUDGE DREAD Guitarist/vocalist James Dean Bradfield was inspired by a manic street-preaching tramp. MARCELS [The] named after a popular hair style of the era, the marcel wave, by Fred Johnson's younger sister Priscilla. MARKED [The] named for the conspicuous birthmarks of both frontman Billy Corgan and drummer Ron Roesing. MARILLION Inspired by J.R.R. Tolkein's book 'Silmarillion' but modified it to avoid copyright problems. MARILYN MANSON Brian Warner combined the names of two opposing American pop cultural icons; actress Marilyn Monroe and cult leader Charles Manson. MARINA & the DIAMONDS Diamonds comes from Marinas surname Diamandis. She describes it: Im Marina. You are the diamonds. MARRS is an acronym derived from the forenames of the five 4AD artists involved in the project: Martyn Young (from Colourbox), Alex Ayuli and Rudy Tambala (from A.R. Kane), Russell Smith (an associate A.R. Kane member and founder of Terminal Cheesecake), and Steve Young (from Colourbox). MARS VOLTA [The] Cedric Bixler-Zavala stated in an interview ... The Volta is taken from a Federico Fellini book about his films, what he characterizes as a changing of scene, or a turnaround; a new scene to him is called Volta. Y'know, changing of time and the changeover. And Mars, we're just fascinated by science fiction..... MARTELLS [The] Named after Canadian teen pop idol Bobby Curtola's manager, Maria Martell. MASSIVE ATTACK Del Naja explained that Massive Attack was the name of a gigantic party organized by their favourite place of entertainment, The Warehouse, a party he and Andy Lee Isaac Vowles, retain good memories of. MATCHBOX TWENTY originally titled "Matchbox 20," the band took its name from a softball jersey with a "20" on it and a patch that had "Matchbox" written on it. The band altered its name to "Matchbox Twenty" after the release of its debut album Yourself or Someone Like You MATT BIANCO the name suggests that Matt Bianco is a person, often assumed to be an alias for the main constant member and frontman, Mark Reilly, but Matt is in fact, a made up spy, a secret agent; the band loved spy TV themes and film scores. MAX FROST & the TROOPERS The band name "Troopers" is based on the term "troops," the designation Max Frost used in the film to refer to his friends and followers. MAYHEM inspired by English heavy metal band Venom's instrumental track "Mayhem with Mercy" from their 1981 debut studio album Welcome to Hell MC5 An acronym 'Motor City Five' honouring Detriot. MCFLY Tom Fletcher proposed the idea, based on his love for the American science-fiction comedy Back to the Future and Michael J. Fox's character Marty McFly. At first, Danny Jones didn't agree with the name, but after watching the movie, he changed his mind, especially after he saw that the side of the manure truck says "D. Jones" on it. MILLIONS OF DEAD COPS Originally known as the Stains, the hardcore group played a 1981 gig with Black Flag, where they saw policemen brutalizing teenagers who were simply trying to cross the street. We started saying, These guys dont care. Theyre here to kill you,' frontman Dave Dictor recalls. Then a friend of ours, the bass player of a band called the Dicks, said, How about calling yourselves Millions of Dead Cops?' The band did just that. MIKE DIRNT During grade school, Green Day bassist Michael Pritchard would constantly play "air-bass", and while pretending to pluck the strings, he made the noise, "dirnt, dirnt, dirnt". As a result, his schoolmates began to call him "Mike Dirnt". THE MIND BENDERS The name of the group was inspired by the title of a 1963 UK feature film, starring the British actor Sir Dirk Bogarde, called The Mind Benders. MIND GARAGE The Reverend Michael Paine's wife Tori Paine, thought up this name and suggested to this psychedelic rock band to put Christian words with rock music and play in church. In 1967 The Mind Garage invented the concept of Electric Liturgy, the forerunner of todays popular Christian Rock. MEATLOAF Marvin Lee Aday stepped on the foot of his high school football coach, who shouted 'Meat Loaf' instead of swearing MEGADETH Dave Mustane was inspired by a government pamphlet (A Megadeath is a military term for one million dead people, so World War II was responsible for 80 Megadeaths) after getting kicked out of Metallica. Megadeth is a phonetical spelling for Megadeath. MEKONS Inspired the sci-fi alien villan in the 'Dan Dare' cartoon strip in the 'Eagle' comic. The Mekon was Dan Dare's arch enemy. MERCILESS DEATH Some have guessed that the name "Merciless Death" comes from the song Merciless Death by Dark Angel. However, in an interview with Andy Torres in 2007, Andy said the band's name originated from a conversation with Dan Holder in which Dan came up with a possible name for the band Merciless Onslaught and Andy asked him about replacing the word 'Onslaught' with 'Death'. From that point on they called themselves Merciless Death. METALLICA Lars Ulrich was helping a friend think of a name for a metal fanzine. The magazine went with 'Metal Mania' and Lars kept Metallica, which was one of the suggestions. MGMT The band first started with the name The Management, releasing various demo albums, but since this name was already being used by another band, they later changed it to MGMT. This abbreviation stands for Management. MIDNIGHT RAMLERS Inspired by the Rolling Stones title, Jon Huang christened his creation Midnight Ramblers, a track from The Rolling Stones 1969 album, Let It Bleed. MINDBENDERS Named after a 1962 British horror movie. (appeared as themselves in the film "To Sir, With Love") MISFITS Taken from the 1961 movie starring Clark Gable and Marilyn Monroe. MO-DO The name Mo-Do is claimed to originate from the two first letters of Fabio Frittelli's birth-town, Monfalcone, and the day of his birth, Domenica (which is Sunday in Italian). MOANS [The] They named themselves after an Art Blakey number. MOB [The] They named themselves after UK rock band Black Sabbath's "The Mob Rules" from their 1981 album, Mob Rules. They went on to become Queensrÿche. MOB RULES named after UK rock band Black Sabbath's "The Mob Rules" from their 1981 album, Mob Rules. MODEST MOUSE Named after line from a speech exercise that lead singer (a lisper) Isaac Brock learned in grade school. MOGWAI Named after the cute creatures from Gremlins, that turn into the evil Gremlin creatures when fed after midnight or when they get wet. Stuart Braithwaite commented that "it has no significant meaning, and we always intended on getting a better one, but like a lot of other things we never got 'round to it." MOLLY HATCHET The band, founded by Dave Hlubek, Steve Holland and Duane Roland in 1975, took its name from a prostitute who allegedly mutilated and decapitated her clients. MOODY BLUES [The] They were originally called "M & B 5" because they wanted to perform in a Birmingham brewery called 'Mitchell's and Butlers.' The building had a big 'MB' on it. Wanting to keep the MB, their final name had a subtle reference to the Duke Ellington song, "Mood Indigo". MOOKIE BLAYLOCK The name taken from the former All-Star basketball player for the Atlanta Hawks, the band later became Pearl Jam. MOTHERS OF INVENTION Their label asked them to add 'of Invention' to their original The Mothers which was an abbriviation for 'Motherfuckers'. MOTLEY CRUE When seeing the band, a friend of theirs commented "What a Motley looking Crue." Motley meaning "of great variety" MOTORHEAD When forming his new band, Lemmy concurred and decided to call the band 'Motörhead', inspired by the final song he had written for Hawkwind. The name of the song "Motorhead" is an American slang term for a speed freak.. A Motorhead in American slang is more commonly someone who loves to work on cars or motorcycles. MOTT THE HOOPLE A Willard Manus novel of the same name. The book is about an eccentric that works in a circus freak show. MOUNTAIN GOATS [The] The name is taken from the Screamin' Jay Hawkins song "Yellow Coat", which contains the line "50 million bulldogs, 20 mountain goats, all gathered 'round at sundown to see my yellow coat" MR. BIG named after UK rock band Free's, "Mr. Big", a track on their third studio album Fire and Water, released June 1970. MR. CROWE'S GARDEN Named after Leonard Leslie Brookes children's book Johnny Crow's Garden. MR. MISTER The name came from an inside joke about a Weather Report song "Mr. Gone" on the '78 album of the same name, where they referred to each other as "Mister This" or "Mister That", eventually they selected "Mr. Mister. MUDHONEY They settled on the title of a mid-60s exploitation flick (which they hadnt seen), directed by boobmeister Russ Meyer. As Mark Arm put it, Theres at least something to like about all of his movies. MUGWUMPS One source says thier name was taken from the William S. Burroughs novel The Naked Lunch. The liner notes for the 2007 re-release of The Mugwumps reports that Jim Hendricks claimed that the name came from music producer Erik Jacobsen, but Denny Doherty claimed that the name came from his Newfoundland grandmother. MUSICAL BOX [The] named after the Genesis song "The Musical Box" on their 1971 album Nursery Cryme, their 3rd studio album. MSI This is an abbreviation of Mindless Self Indulgence MUDDY WATERS His grandmother started calling him that after watching him play in a creek as a child. MUSLIMGAUZE The name Muslimgauze is a play on the word muslin [a type of gauze], combined with Muslim, referring to Bryn Jones' preoccupation with conflicts throughout the Muslim world. MUTO When guitarist George M, bassist Joe and drummer Lee decided to form an instrumental guitar driven metal trio they chose the italian/latin word Muto, an adjective meaning 'without words', 'unspoken', mute, unable to speak. MY BLOODY VALENTINE The band named themselves after the same name horror film, but known of them had ever actually seen the film. ________________________________________ N N.W.A. The Compton supergroup were practicing in Eazy-Es garage, trying to come up with a name more evocative than Dr.Dre and DJ Yellas former act, World Class Wreckin Cru. Ice Cube tells the story in the movie Straight Outta L.A.: Then Eazy said, How about N.W.A? We were like, Whats that mean? He said, Niggaz Wit Attitude. We were like, Hell yeah'. N.R.B.Q. Stands for New Rhythm and Blues Quartet (originally Quintet), although a 1982 article in "Creem" magazine suggested a different meaning: "Nothing Really Beats Quality". 'N SYNC From the last letter of each band member's name: justiN, chriS, joeY, lanstoN and jC. NAKED AND FAMOUS [The] named after The Presidents of the United States of America's "Naked and Famous" hit single of 1994. NANCY WHISKY Anne Alexandra Young Wilson took her stage name from a Scottish folk song, "Nancy Whisky". NAZARETH The group took their name from the first line of The Band's 1968 song "The Weight" .. "I pulled into Nazareth / Was feelin' 'bout half past dead" NECROPHOBIC It is believed that they named themselves after a Slayer song from the 1986 seminal album Reign in Blood. NED'S ATOMIC DUSTBIN title of an episode of The Goon Show that the mother of vocalist Jonn Penney would read to him. NEGATIVLAND They took their name from a Neu! track off Neu!'s self titled debut album, while their record label, Seeland Records, is named after another Neu! track. NEW FOUND GLORY Singer Jordan and guitarist Steve thought up "A New Found Glory" while working at Red Lobster, but dropped the "A" after confusion from fans on where to find their CD's at record stores. NEW MODEL ARMY The band was named after the English revolutionary army of Oliver Cromwell. NEW ORDER The band's original name was Joy Division until Ian Curtis, the lead singer, lyricist killed himself. The remaining members reformed the band, thus it was the New Order. "New Order" was also a famous expression used by Hitler. NEW YORK DOLLS Sylvain had a job at "A Different Drummer", a men's boutique that was across the street from the New York Doll Hospital, a doll repair shop. Sylvain claimed that the shop inspired the name for their future band. NICKEL CREEK named after one of fiddle virtuoso Byron Berline's songs "Nickel Creek". Byron Berline was Nickel Creek band member Sara Watkins' fiddle instructor. NICKELBACK Some say it derived from the American Football term, but according to most sources the name is derived from the nickel (money), which Mike Kroeger frequently had to give customers back in change when he was working at a Starbucks coffee shop and would frequently say "Here's your nickel back". NICE [The] The band name was inspired by the Small Faces' hit song about drugs "Here Comes the Nice" NINE BELOW ZERO named after the Sonny Boy Williamson II penned song "Nine Below Zero" NINE INCH NAILS Trent Reznor said in 1994 that he coined the name "Nine Inch Nails" because it "abbreviated easily", rather than for "any literal meaning". Other rumored explanations have circulated, alleging that Reznor chose to reference Jesus' crucifixion with nine-inch spikes, or Freddy Krueger's nine-inch fingernails. NIRVANA In Buddhism it means the state of perfect blessedness attained through the annihilation of the self. NO DOUBT original singer John Spence formed an Orange County-based 2 Tone ska group and it was named after Spence's favorite vocal expression "no doubt" with keyboardist Eric Stefani. After Spence's death, the name stuck. NOAH & the WHALE Their name is a combination of the title of the movie "Squid and the Whale" and the name of the film's director, "Noah Baumbach". NOFX guitarist Eric Melvin says that he came up with the name, inspired by the broken up punk band "Negative FX". The name is also meant to symbolize the band's rejection of gimmickry that the band was seeing in music at the time. NUNATAK The band's name is the Greenlandic word for a mountain top protruding from an ice sheet. ________________________________________ O O'JAYS [The] Originally called the Mascots, they named themselves after the Cleveland disc jockey Eddie O'Jay, who helped the band out in their early days. O'SULLIVAN, GILBERT Manager Gordon Mills found a clever name for his newfound talent. Playing off Ray O'Sullivan's last name and the playwriting team of Gilbert and Sullivan, the name Gilbert O'Sullivan seemed a natural choice. OASIS Oasis is the name of a Sports Centre in Swindon, England. Noel Gallacher was the roadie for a band that played there once, and a place where The Beatles played. OCEANSIZE The band named themselves after Jane's Addiction song, "Ocean Size". According to guitarist Gambler, the band's then-bassist Jon Ellis came up with the name: "I think, at the time, he was thinking what we would sound like. Janes Nothing's Shocking album, which has the track "Ocean Size" on it, was definitely a big influence." ORDINARY BOYS (The) named themselves after the song "The Ordinary Boys" performed by Morrissey on his 1988 album Viva Hate. OF MICE & MEN The Band is named after the novel by John Steinbeck. Steinbeck himself took the name from a line in the poem "To A Mouse" by Robert Burns, which reads "the best-laid schemes of mice and men/Go often awry." OFFSPRING [The] Its members Dexter Holland and Greg K decided to form a band after attending a Social Distortion concert. The band was called Manic Subsidal, who suddenly changed their name to The Offspring in 1986. OLD 97's	i don't know
If Clint Eastwood was 'The Good', Lee Van Cleef 'The Bad',who was 'The Ugly'?	Amazon.com: The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly: Eli Wallach, Clint Eastwood, Lee Van Cleef, Aldo Giuffr?: Amazon Digital Services LLC By Claude Avary on June 11, 2004 Format: DVD\|Verified Purchase MGM released a DVD edition of "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly" in the late 1990s, but it had few extras, a mono soundtrack, and a scratched print. Finally, MGM has given Sergio Leone's Western epic the double-disc special edition it deserves. The print is restored and as clear as I've ever seen it, the sound is now an astonishing 5.1 Surround (listen to the glass falling off Tuco after he springs through the window in the opening sequence!) nineteen minutes of footage from the Italian original have been restored, and the discs are packed with extras. Even the packaging is great: a sturdy interlocking box, with the DVDs kept in the upper and bottom parts of the two lids. Also inside the box are cards containing posters for the film in five different countries. The film, like most of the European Westerns of the 1960s, was critically disregarded in its day. The New York Times said of it: "the most expensive, pious, and repellent movie in the history of its peculiar genre. There is scarcely a moment's respite from the pain." It's amazing how people missed the brilliance of this movie, which turned Western conventions upside down in such a wonderfully bizarre, European way. Now the film is considered a classic, and only Sergio Leone's own "Once Upon a Time in the West" (another great 2 DVD set, by the way) has more respect in the genre. Leone's strange style -- stretched out time, obsession with close-ups and extreme wide-shots, focus on rituals, and use of Morricone's wild and avant-garde score -- are all in full force in this tale of three treasure-seekers searching for a cache of gold coins on the Texas-New Mexico border during the Civil War. The implacable and unflappable 'hero' Blondie (Clint Eastwood), the crazy comic bandit Tuco (Eli Wallach), and the calculating immoral sadist Angel Eyes (Lee Van Cleef) cross each other's paths amidst the senseless violence of the war. Leone perfectly contrasts the self-interested men with the greater backdrop of the tragedy of war. It's a strangely emotionally affecting picture despite its focus on three men who are detached from normal society and seem not to care about anything but money. So many individual scenes stand out for their virtuosity that the movie a parade of "greatest hits." Most astonishing of all is "The Ecstasy of Gold" sequence where Tuco dashes madly through a cemetery, looking for the grave that might hold the gold. Morricone's music here is especially overwhelming. Chances are you've seen the film and love it. What about the new scenes and the extras? Nineteen minutes of footage have been restored that were never shown in the American prints. The scenes integrate perfectly into the film, and after seeing them once, you won't be able to imagine they were ever missing. Among the scenes are Angel Eyes visiting a destroyed fort; Tuco hiring bandits to help him chase Blondie; Blondie and Angel Eyes having a face-to-face when they first set out together to find the gold; and some extra conversation between Tuco and Blondie in the desert. However, these scenes were never dubbed into English in the 1960s. Therefore, the DVD producers had to newly dub them. Eli Wallach and Clint Eastwood do their own voices. An actor named Simon Prescott does the imitation of the deceased Lee Van Cleef. Admittedly, Wallach and Eastwood no longer sound the same, but I couldn't imagine someone else imitating their voices -- it couldn't have been done any other way. Prescott is pretty good as Angel Eyes, if a bit more gravelly. The extras... Disc 1 has audio commentary by Richard Shickel, a film historian who wrote Eastwood's biography and also did commentary on Leone's "Once Upon a Time in America" DVD. His comments can be pretty dry, and he focuses mostly on Leone's style and techniques instead of on background information on the filming itself. Nonetheless, there are many interesting insights, and Shickel manages to say a lot during the three-hour running time. Most of the extras are on Disc 2: "Leone's West" -- A 20-minute documentary about the making of the film. Includes interviews with Shickel, producer Alberto Grimaldi, author of the English dialogue Mickey Knox, and best of all, Eastwood and Wallach. There's some very interesting info and memories here, mostly from Knox and the two actors. "The Leone Style" -- A 23-minute documentary, really just an extension of the first one. It spends more time on Leone's unusual techniques. The same interviewees appear here. "The Man Who Lost the Civil War" -- A 14-minute documentary that was produced separately from the DVD. It makes no mention of the movie, but is about its historical backdrop: the disastrous General Sibley campaign in Texas. Sibley appears in the film briefly, and this short documentary gives the viewer an important insight into the world of Blondie, Tuco, and Angel Eyes. "Reconstructing The Good, the Bad and the Ugly" -- An 11 minute look into the painstaking work involved with fixing the picture and sound, restoring the cut scenes, and re-dubbing it. "Il Maestro: Ennio Morricone" -- 8 minutes; mostly an interview with music scholar John Burlingame about the film's score. At the end of the feature, you can choose to listen to an audio-only twelve-minute lecture by Burlingame that provides a much more in-depth analysis of the music. "Deleted Scenes" -- Two scenes couldn't go back into the film. The extended torture scene had a damaged negative, so here it is in its rougher state. An apparently lost scene is reconstructed through text, stills, and clips from the French trailer. Finally, there's a gallery of posters, the original trailer, and MGM tossing in some gratuitous advertising for their other films. Don't miss this DVD. Not only is it one of the great action films and one the great westerns, but it's the kind of release that the DVD format was invented for! By Ryan Agadoni VINE VOICE on May 18, 2009 Format: Blu-ray I am a huge fan of Leone's work, especially his Westerns. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly is a fantastic entry in his oeuvre (though I rank Once Upon A Time in the West and For A Few Dollars More just above it). It is full of his great style, it's very entertaining, and it features one of the best adversarial trios ever put to film in Blondie, Tuco, and Angel Eyes. So it is with sadness that I have to rate this Blu-Ray 3 stars (and it's closer to 2.5). I've bought this movie three times now, not counting this Blu-Ray: on VHS, the first single disc DVD, and the SE that came out a few years ago. It should be obvious that I love this movie. When the Blu-Ray was announced, I was ecstatic. High definition Leone? Sign me up! I pre-ordered it along with the new T2 disc. Then I started reading early reviews that said the picture quality wasn't up to snuff. I was disheartened, and decided to cancel my order until I could check out the disc for myself. I rented it from Netflix, and have unfortunately found my fears confirmed. While it certainly looks better than the SE DVD, it is not the best this movie can look. The over-zealous Digital Noise Reduction that has been applied completely robs many scenes of the fine detail we might otherwise have seen in 1080p. I put the old SE DVD in my Xbox and flipped back and forth between the Blu-Ray and DVD on a single scene (Blondie stands alone against some hills in the background in the final scene). While the Blu-Ray looked "cleaner" (that is, the digital artifacting visible on the DVD was gone), there was actually no further detail to be seen on the Blu-Ray! It was as if you took the DVD image and smeared it until the noise was gone, then bumped it up to 1080. I looked specifically at Blondie's eyes to see if any more detail was visible on the Blu-Ray, but there wasn't. The bushes on the hill in the background, too, looked like sharpened up-scaled blobs rather than bushes captured on film by a camera. So, the picture quality isn't as good, but how about the rest? Well, it's mostly great! The extras, carried over from the SE, are all still interesting, and the new commentaries (which I haven't listened to yet) are very welcome and appreciated. The new menus are also nice. But I do have one more negative point: the sound. If you watch the special feature on restoring the movie, the producer notes that in order to make a 5.1 audio track, he had to add sound effects. While I'm sure some appreciate having a 5.1 track, the sound effects (specifically the gun-shots) sound way off from the original unique and integral Leone effects. They use the exact same stock gun-shot that you've heard on TV cop shows and it really detracts from the movie if you've seen the original as many times as I have. The Blu-Ray includes many audio options, but unfortunately, an original mono track is not among them. It did have an English 2.0 mono, but it's still the remastered sound with the lame gun-shot effects, oddly. To hear the difference, pick a scene (like Tuco in the bath), and switch back and forth between the English 5.1 or 2.0 and the Italian 2.0. It's very obvious and really bugs me. So if I want to hear the original sound effects, I have to watch it in Italian? Come on, MGM/Fox, how hard would it have been to include the ORIGINAL 2.0 Mono track? So, in conclusion, you have a great movie on Blu-Ray with lackluster picture and no original English soundtrack, but a plethora of great extras, all on a single disc. Worth it? Not for me, but it may be for you. I'm holding out hope that one day MGM/Fox will get a good transfer that isn't overly digitally tampered with (Leone should have some GRAIN, man! Check out the Italian BR releases!), and includes the original mono sound in English. Until then, I'm going to have to buy the old 1-disc DVD release used to enjoy this great movie.	Eli Wallach
Which war was contested between 1775 and 1783 and was concluded by the 'Treaty of Paris'?	The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (Blu-ray) (1966) Starring Lee Van Cleef & Clint Eastwood; Directed by Sergio Leone; Starring Eli Wallach; MGM (Video & DVD) \| OLDIES.com Entertainment Reviews: USA Today - 02/06/1998 "...[A] wry portrait of monetary greed in which Clint Eastwood, Eli Wallach and Lee Van Cleef one-up each other against a Civil War backdrop..." Entertainment Weekly - 01/11/2002 "...Sergio Leone's sublime spaghetti Western remains the balls-out joyride it was 34 years ago..." Premiere - 12/01/2003 "Leone took the western to a mythic pinnacle few could reach -- and few tried. But going back was no longer an option." Rolling Stone - 06/24/2004 "[E]very element of Sergio Leone's 1967 classic is riveting..." Uncut - 01/01/2005 "The third chapter in Sergio Leone's trilogy of Spanish-shot spaghetti westerns is the most ambitious..." Empire - 09/01/2007 "Leone's movies were raw, crazy and brutal, yet, thanks to his keen eye, beautiful....This film is Leone's breeziest." Product Description: Blondie (Clint Eastwood) and Tuco (Eli Wallach) are gunmen who admire each other professionally but dislike each other personally. Encountering a group of dying soldiers, Tuco learns the location of the graveyard where a Confederate treasure is buried, while Blondie learns the identity of the exact grave. Joined by mercenary drifter Angel Eyes (Lee Van Cleef), they cross the desert, each of the desperadoes knowing half the secret and each focusing his squinty eyes on the $200,000 bounty. In a classic that puts style above substance, Italian director Sergio Leone uses vivid Cinemascope imagery to depict a bleak and bloody American West in this final installment of his collaboration with Clint Eastwood in the Man with No Name Trilogy. A prototype for the so-called Spaghetti Western genre, the film solidified Eastwood's position as a major international star with his stoic, brooding presence. Cinematographer Tonino Delli Colli's stunning visuals are a match for the vivacious Ennio Morricone score, one of the most recognizable in all of cinema. Although the film was not released in the United States until 1967, it was produced and released internationally in 1966. Keywords: Production Notes: Theatrical Release: December 1967 (USA) THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY is actually a prequel to the other two Man with No Name films--A FISTFUL OF DOLLARS and FOR A FEW DOLLARS MORE. During the last part of the movie, Clint Eastwood's character acquires the poncho he wears in the other films. During the shooting of all three productions, the poncho was never cleaned or replaced. Eastwood made $250,000 working on THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY, a huge increase over the $50,000 salary for FOR A FEW DOLLARS MORE and the $15,000 paycheck for A FISTFUL OF DOLLARS. By the time THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY was released in the United States, he was a full-blown star.	i don't know
Hong Kong was ceded to Britain by the 'Treaty of Nanking', which ended which war that had lasted from 1839 - 1842?	Hong Kong ceded to the British - Jan 20, 1841 - HISTORY.com Hong Kong ceded to the British Share this: Hong Kong ceded to the British Author Hong Kong ceded to the British URL Publisher A+E Networks During the First Opium War, China cedes the island of Hong Kong to the British with the signing of the Chuenpi Convention, an agreement seeking an end to the first Anglo-Chinese conflict. In 1839, Britain invaded China to crush opposition to its interference in the country’s economic and political affairs. One of Britain’s first acts of the war was to occupy Hong Kong, a sparsely inhabited island off the coast of southeast China. In 1841, China ceded the island to the British, and in 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was signed, formally ending the First Opium War. Britain’s new colony flourished as an East-West trading center and as the commercial gateway and distribution center for southern China. In 1898, Britain was granted an additional 99 years of rule over Hong Kong under the Second Convention of Peking. In September 1984, after years of negotiations, the British and the Chinese signed a formal agreement approving the 1997 turnover of the island in exchange for a Chinese pledge to preserve Hong Kong’s capitalist system. On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was peaceably handed over to China in a ceremony attended by numerous Chinese and British dignitaries. The chief executive under the new Hong Kong government, Tung Chee Hwa, formulated a policy based upon the concept of “one country, two systems,” thus preserving Hong Kong’s role as a principal capitalist center in Asia. Related Videos	First Opium War
'MC' are the international vehicle registration letters for which country?	Treaty of Nanking \| Military Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Treaty of Nanking at Wikisource The Treaty of Nanking (or Nanjing) was signed on the 29th of August 1842 to mark the end of the First Opium War (1839–42) between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Qing Dynasty of China. It was the first of unequal treaties against the Chinese because Britain had no obligations in return. [1] In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack the city, representatives from the British and Qing Empires negotiated aboard HMS Cornwallis anchored at Nanjing. On 29 August 1842, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives, Qiying , Yilibu , and Niujian, signed the treaty. It consisted of thirteen articles and ratification by Queen Victoria and the Daoguang Emperor was exchanged nine months later. Contents Edit The fundamental purpose of the treaty was to change the framework of foreign trade which had been in force since 1760 ( Canton System ). The treaty abolished the monopoly of the Thirteen Factories on foreign trade (Article V) in Canton and instead five ports were opened for trade, Canton ( Shameen Island until 1943), Amoy (Xiamen until 1930), Foochowfoo (Fuzhou), Ningpo ( Ningbo ) and Shanghai (until 1943), [2] where Britons were to be allowed to trade with anyone they wished. Britain also gained the right to send consuls to the treaty ports , which were given the right to communicate directly with local Chinese officials (Article II). The treaty stipulated that trade in the treaty ports should be subject to fixed tariffs, which were to be agreed upon between the British and the Qing governments (Article X). Reparations and demobilization Edit The Qing government was obliged to pay the British government six million silver dollars for the opium that had been confiscated by Lin Zexu in 1839 (Article IV), 3 million dollars in compensation for debts that the Hong merchants in Canton owed British merchants (Article V), and a further 12 million dollars in war reparations for the cost of the war (VI). The total sum of 21 million dollars was to be paid in installments over three years and the Qing government would be charged an annual interest rate of 5 percent for the money that was not paid in a timely manner (Article VII). The Qing government undertook to release all British prisoners of war (Article VIII) and to give a general amnesty to all Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war (Article IX). The British on their part, undertook to withdraw all of their troops from Nanking and the Grand Canal after the emperor had given his assent to the treaty and the first installment of money had been received (Article XII). British troops would remain in Gulangyu and Zhoushan until the Qing government had paid reparations in full (Article XII). Cession of Hong Kong Edit In 1841, a rough outline for a treaty was sent for the guidance of Plenipotentiary Charles Elliot . It had a blank after the words "the cession of the islands of _____". Pottinger sent this old draft treaty on shore, with the letter s struck out of islands and the words Hong Kong placed after it. [3] Robert Montgomery Martin , treasurer of Hong Kong, wrote in an official report: The terms of peace having been read, Elepoo the senior commissioner paused, expecting something more, and at length said "is that all?" Mr. Morrison enquired of Lieutenant-colonel Malcolm if there was anything else, and being answered in the negative, Elepoo immediately and with great tact closed the negotiation by saying, "all shall be granted—it is settled—it is finished." [3] The Qing government agreed to make Hong Kong Island a crown colony , ceding it to the British Queen "in perpetuity" (常遠 in Chinese version) to provide British traders with a harbour where they could unload their goods (Article III). Pottinger was later appointed the first governor of Hong Kong. In 1860, the colony was extended with the Kowloon peninsula and in 1898, the Second Convention of Peking further expanded the colony with the 99-year lease of the New Territories . In 1984, the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China (PRC) concluded the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong , under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island and Kowloon (south of Boundary Street) ceded under the Convention of Peking (1860), was transferred to the PRC on 1 July 1997. Aftermath and legacy Edit Since the Treaty of Nanking was brief and with only general stipulations, the British and Chinese representatives agreed that a supplementary treaty be concluded in order to work out more detailed regulations for relations. On 3 October 1843, the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue was concluded at Bocca Tigris outside Canton. Nevertheless, the treaties of 1842–43 left several unsettled issues. In particular it did not resolve the status of the opium trade. Although the American treaty of 1844 explicitly banned Americans from selling opium, the trade continued as both the British and American merchants were only subject to the legal control of their consuls. The opium trade was later legalised in the Treaties of Tianjin , which China concluded after the Second Opium War . The Nanking Treaty ended the old Canton System and created a new framework for China's foreign relations and overseas trade which would last for almost a hundred years. Most injurious were the fixed tariff, extraterritoriality, and the most favoured nation provisions. These were conceded partly out of expediency and partly because the Qing officials did not yet know of international law or understand the long term consequences. The tariff fixed at 5% was higher than the existing tariff, the concept of extraterritoriality seemed to put the burden on foreigners to police themselves, and most favoured nation treatment seemed to set the foreigners one against the others. Although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished until 1943. [4] See also	i don't know
In what year was Olaf Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden, assassinated?	BBC ON THIS DAY \| 28 \| 1986: Swedish prime minister assassinated About This Site \| Text Only 1986: Swedish prime minister assassinated The Swedish prime minister has died after being shot in a street ambush in central Stockholm. His wife was wounded. Olof and Lisbeth Palme were attacked as they were leaving a cinema at about 2330 local time. Mr Palme was shot twice in the stomach, his wife was shot in the back. Police say a taxi-driver used his mobile radio to raise the alarm. Two young girls sitting in a car close to the scene of the shooting tried to help the Prime Minister. He was rushed to hospital but was dead on arrival. Mrs Palme is being treated for her injury, but it is not thought to be life threatening. Advocate of peace Mr Palme, 59, and a social democrat, was serving his second term as leader. He believed in open government and shunned tight security. He had two bodyguards to protect him on official functions but frequently walked unattended through the Swedish capital and went on holidays unescorted to his summer cottage on the island of Gotland. His assassination will come as a shock to the Swedes. They have always taken great pride in the fact their prime minister could walk openly in the streets without the security which accompanies other heads of state. Mr Palme will be remembered as a campaigner for the working classes and Third World causes. He was first elected as prime minister in 1969. He became a leading advocate of peace and non violence and campaigned for an end to the war in Vietnam. He saw himself carrying the banner of Social Democracy through Europe at a time when the Right was only temporarily in triumph. He once said: "I know that the Thatchers and the Reagans will be out in a few years. We have to survive till then."	1986
Nanak (Dev) was born in 1469, he dies in 1583.He was a teacher and founder of which religious belief?	Bush and CIA behind the Palmemurder - Palmemordet also in Swedish (Updated 2013-01-19) By John P Anderson The responsibility for Olof Palme's murder belongs with the CIA and the political network in the world controlled by the American intelligence apparatus. I tend to think that the CIA and George Bush are the "bad guys" here. Bush continued the policies of wars for profit with deliveries of weapons to Iran, Iraq and the Contras. The Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was assassinated in 1986 as he exited a cinema at around 10 PM with his wife. Olof Palme was certainly a controversial politician in Sweden, and had during the decades before his murder become controversial even outside the borders of Sweden. He became the social democratic Prime Minister for the first time in the late 60's and by this time he had already acquired a high profile on the Swedish political scene and was even somewhat known on the US one. As the Vietnam quagmire deepened, Palme took a strong stand against the American policies and even led anti Vietnam War demonstrations through the streets of Stockholm. I myself participated in some of these demonstrations, although I never caught a glimpse of the well known politician. The assassin managed to escape from the death scene , running through some small streets towards a local park. In the aftermath of the murder, the police authorities gravitated towards investigating the small Kurdish community in Sweden. Soon the newspapers were filled with stories of threats made against Palme by Kurdish extremists because of some actions taken by Palme that were considered detrimental to the Kurdish cause. In the long run these suspicions didn't pan out and within a few years a local Swedish hoodlum, Krister Pettersson was indicted for the crime and subsequently convicted of it. The conviction was appealed and the Swedish Supreme Court soon freed Mr. Pettersson for insufficient evidence. The prosecution again tried to bring the suspect to court but was stopped by the same Court for similar reasons. From afar in the US I occasionally followed the developments, noticing the mushrooming leads that seemed to point in all kinds of different directions. Parts of the local Swedish police were suspected of the crime, then the Kurds again, followed by other suspects like the Chilean "Operation Condor", the European terrorist organization P2, the South African apartheid regime's intelligence services, not to mention the local Swedish Extreme Right. When I first heard of the assassination I was sure it was politically motivated. I knew for a fact that Palme was hated like few other politicians in Sweden by his opponents, somewhat for his effectiveness but mainly for his cutting and sarcastic political debating style that left his opponents frequently in tatters. My own father, a farmer, was no lover of social democracy in general, and Palme especially was like a red shirt in front of a bull to him, leaving him frequently sputtering with indignation. It wasn't farfetched to believe that a local Swedish political fanatic could have committed the deed. But I thought I knew it was atypical of the Swedish temperament to commit such a brutal political crime, the papers afterwards frequently lamented the fact that Sweden now had lost its innocence, not unlike the US reaction to the JFK assassination. My early suspicions inevitably turned towards the US Intelligence Services since I knew that they would have no qualms about getting rid of Palme if it would further their purposes. From my studies of the Reagan administration I knew that it was very likely that the CIA had sabotaged the Carter rescue attempt of the American hostages in Iran. The attempt turned out to be a disaster with helicopters and airplanes colliding even before any serious attempt was under way. I was sure that the rumors of the "October Surprise" were correct, since even a Reagan insider confirmed that the Reagan campaign had closed a deal with the mullahs in Teheran to delay the release of the American hostages so that President Carter wouldn't be able to claim credit for the release and thus win the 1980 election. A friend of mine, who had become tired of my interest in the JFK assassination , suggested that political murders in the US were no big deal, even Sweden had prominent politicians murdered. This was during the time that the prosecution still was pursuing Krister Pettersson, the freed suspect. I recall having to bite my tongue, since I wanted to reply that the murder of Palme could probably be traced to the CIA and its sister organizations. A few years later, my suspicions gained considerable credence. During my perusal of political controversies on the Internet I ran across a former American CIA agent by the name of "Chip"Tatum, whose spilling of the beans were interesting to say the least. According to Tatum, the US had been awash in political shenanigans during the 80's , the CIA had financed the Contras with drug sales in targeted black neighborhoods and corrupted the then Governor of Arkansas, Bill Clinton, in the process. All this activity was headed by George Bush, the Vice President. Any individual standing in the way of this criminal operation was summarily done away with. I bolted upright when Tatum revealed that the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was murdered on behalf of a hidden organization, the OSG, which had a certain colonel Oliver North in a leading role. North's ultimate superior was Vice President George Bush. I quickly drew the conclusion, that the investigation into Palme's murder was the same type of cover-up operation as the Warren Commission had been. It seemed to me that the reach of the American intelligence agencies extended all the way into the top echelons of Sweden's political elite and police authority. In my mind I conjured up training facilities somewhere in the US, where na�ve Swedish politicians and police investigators were sent to learn how to run an investigation in such a fashion that the cover-up would have a minimal chance of being exposed. I have a feeling that their teachers were somewhat confounded with some of the careless statements by leading Swedish pupils though. One investigator let slip: "If the truth about the assassination of Olof Palme were ever to be known, it would shake Sweden to its foundation!" Another commented: "It would be best if the murder of Palme were never solved." One of my suspicions from the elections of 1992, the fact that there had to be some political dirty tricks behind the inexplicable withdrawal of candidate Perot during the summer of 1992, turned out to be correct. "Salandria's Law" definitively suggested that some action on behalf of the Bush campaign had caused Perot's damaging exit, and Tatum confirmed it, in fact he revealed that this episode was the determining factor in his decision to quit intelligence activities. Tatum had been approached by the OSG and Bush to assassinate Perot, but had refused, since he didn't want to be involved in the killing of American citizens as opposed to foreign ones. He informed the shocked officials that he had stacked away evidence of criminal activities by the Reagan/Bush administrations in at least six countries, and if he didn't check in at certain times, these recipients were to release the documents. He agreed to let himself be framed on minor charges in order to acquire a felon status that could be used against him in case he went public, but when his wife was subsequently also jailed, Tatum went public anyway. Since a few years now, he has disappeared totally from the scene, some say he has made a deal with the establishment to keep quiet and some say he probably has been mixed in concrete and is resting on the ocean floor. In early 1999, I had managed to acquire a tape featuring "Chip" Tatum, where he disclosed how Palme had been set up and murdered, and I was pondering if it was worth it to try to alert Swedish newspapers to the fact that this valuable tape existed. I decided to write a story about the new evidence and sent it by e-mail to the three largest Swedish newspapers. Then I proceeded to wait to see if there would be any reaction. I was soon disappointed, there were no mention of this new angle to the continuing Palme investigation. In fact, other gossipy assassination angles frequently appeared, but the tape of Tatum disappeared into the dark recesses of the papers. (But not on Leopold Report, here you can listen to the short sequence when Gene Tatum talk about the Palmemurder and more than one hour about the background): Listen to the tape here One such story featured the Kurd leader, Ocalan, who with the help of CIA had been captured by Turkish authorities and transported in bondage to Turkey. Soon afterwards reports from Turkey had Ocalan saying to his captors that his former wife was behind the assassination of Palme. I had to laugh to myself, the CIA and its Turkish sister organization certainly didn't waste any time putting out disinformation. Later I ran across a Swedish retired journalist, who had set up a web site about the Palme murder. This journalist, who during his career often had met with Palme, was on the right track when he thought that it was worthwhile to pursue the CIA angle of the assassination. I decided to sent him the story I had written for the Swedish papers and hit pay dirt. Within a few days he had plastered a shortened version on his web site, where the story promptly died. Not one paper followed up on the revelations. I quickly drew some conclusions about the reach of the American intelligence agencies, they obviously had their tentacles all the way into the managing structures of the main Swedish media. Here is the whole story from which excerpts were published: "My name is John Anderson, I was born in Sweden, emigrated to the United States in the 1970’s. During my youth I participated in anti Vietnam War demonstrations in Stockholm and saw Olof Palme as a political hero of mine. As we all know Olof Palme was assassinated in 1986 and the case is still unsolved although there is an abundance of theories about who and what was behind the assassination. Since the advent of the Internet I have been able to follow the news in Sweden about the continuing investigation while living in the United States slowly absorbing its culture and political secrets. This perspective of mine, gained over the last two decades, have led me to a simple conclusion. The responsibility for Olof Palme’s murder belongs with the CIA and the political network controlled by the American intelligence apparatus. In my hands I have a tape of a CIA “black bag operative” stating knowledge of a decision by the same apparatus to eliminate Palme using a South African operative. I believe this person to be telling the truth. How did I arrive at such a conclusion. I grew up with a youthful admiration for all things American, not unusual in the late 50’s and early 60’s. As I gained more knowledge this was tempered by my distaste for US support of all “Tin Pot dictators” around the world and of course because of Vietnam. A defining moment in my life was the assassination of JFK in 1963. Since I came to the US I have studied this assassination a great deal and in the process discovered the truth about American democracy. Not only was there a coup d’etate in 1963, but the modern history of the USA is bunk, a myth propagated by the mastering of “public relations” at the service of a “Shadow Government” instituted in 1947 if not earlier. In order to understand what has happened we need to go back to the 30’s. The Great Depression brought FDR to power and with him policies that were abhorred by the powers that be in the USA. Within a year of FDR’s ascent to the Presidency, large parts of the establishment were conspiring to overthrow FDR in favor of a fascist state. This is verifiable history, the coup failed because the general, who had been tapped to lead the overthrow balked. The media wouldn’t reveal the coup attempt since the economic elite was behind it. This same elite watched Hitler tame the depression by turning his countrymen against the Jews and establishing a war economy while profits were still low to nonexistent back home. They watched Hitler go down in flames and they decided that what was needed for the USA was a set-up like Hitler’s but concealed in such a way that the people would have no reason to object to fascist policies. And this is exactly what they created in the years following WWII. The enemy was easy and right around the corner, world wide Communism, even better than the Jews, by now we know that the war economy lasted for a half century, it hasn’t petered out yet because there are always other enemies right around the corner. The public relations and other aspects of the new system fell to the newly created CIA, which has put its operatives in every elite media institution in such a clever way that the vast majority of the people have no idea that they are spoon fed only approved news. Here, finally, are the reasons for all undemocratic policies the US has followed since WWII, the establishment knew of no other way of keeping a modern economy going but through the creation of a series of wars supported by the people through secret manipulation. George Herbert Walker Bush was recruited by the CIA in the 50’s, he was part and parcel of the ”Bay of Pigs” invasion in 1961, he became CIA director in 1976 to protect the agency, he directed the efforts to defeat President Carter successfully through dirty tricks like sabotage of the Carter rescue mission to Teheran in 1979, he then closed a deal with the Iranians to delay the release of the American hostages so that Ronald Reagan would be elected, whereupon he wrestled the presidency away from Reagan with the help of the CIA. He continued the policies of wars for profit with deliveries of weapons to Iran, Iraq and the Contras. Regarding Iran though, he had a problem, these deliveries had to be kept a secret because Iran was an enemy. In order to accomplish this he needed third countries to collude with him by allowing “end certificates” for weapons to be routed through their countries to Iran. And this is where Olof Palme met his destiny, he was approached about letting Bofors route American weapons to Iran through false “end certificates” and he refused. By this time the powers that be had policies in force to “align” wobbly and weak-kneed leaders of nations within the US sphere of influence. So Palme was “aligned” by a South African operative. There is no doubt that influential Swedish politicians know what happened as well as parts of the Swedish police, but they are precluded from revealing what they know through threats and their own powerlessness. As far as all the false leads leading nowhere, this is the specialty of CIA since JFK’s murder. They are masters at this game, the way they win is when people are so confused that they throw up their arms in defeat.The name of the CIA operative is Dois Gene Chip Tatum. Later I sent the audio file with Tatum commenting on the murder, which ended up on the web page. Still not a word from the established Swedish media, although the site had hits approaching 50,000 per month. Recently this site had visits from 34 countries during one specific month, including visits from US military and government personnel!	i don't know

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