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What was the codename given to the British Commando raid on St Nazaire in March 1942?	28th March 1942: The Commando raid on St. Nazaire March 1942 The Commando raid on St. Nazaire The old lend-lease 1919-built American destroyer, USS Buchanan, renamed HMS Campbeltown was converted for the raid and given the approximate appearance of a German Mowe-class escort vessel in the hope that this would cause the German defenders to hesitate. She also had 4.5 tons of explosive packed into her bows. In April 1918 the Royal Navy had launched the Zeebrugge Raid when ships packed with explosive had been forced into the Belgium port being used as a U-Boat base. Despite very high casualties on that occasion it was decided that a similar method might be used to disable the French base of St Nazaire, a potential home base for the Tirpitz if she ventured into the Atlantic. This time it was a joint Royal Navy – Commando raid. On the 23rd March Hitler had himself warned of the probability of ‘English’ raids on the European coast – some said he had an uncanny ability to foresee these things. Nevertheless the raid achieved considerable surprise. A motor launch (ML) of the type which took part in the raid on St Nazaire. Sixteen such MLs were assigned to the force and were to carry commandos and demolition parties into St Nazaire. Their frail wooden hulls offered scant protection and only three of the craft survived the operation. Captain Robert Ryder was in command of the Naval force and was to describe the progress of the force up the Loire river, which they edged up as far as possible before they were challenged and came under gunfire – to which they responded vigorously. At the moment of opening fire, we in MGB 314 were just coming up to a guard ship anchored in the river abreast the south entrance. In the glare of the searchlights we could see her clearly and her guns. At about 300 yards three well-aimed bursts of fire from our pom-pom silenced her. It was indeed an unfortunate day for that vessel, as she not only received bursts of fire from each craft in turn as they passed but finally provided an excellent target for their own shore batteries, who fired on her until she scuttled herself. After about three or four minutes of this brisk action there was a perceptible slackening in the enemy’s fire. This was a triumph for the many gun-layers in the coastal craft and in the Campbeltown. It was, at this stage, a straight fight between the carefully sited enemy flak emplacements ashore, enjoying all the protection which concrete could afford, and the gun-layers, handling the short-range weapons on the exposed decks of their small and lively craft. Only in the Campbeltown had it been possible to provide a reasonable amount of steel protection, and this was largely offset by her being the most conspicuous target in our force. To our advantage, on the other hand, we were the attackers and, by evading the batteries guarding the approaches, we had arrived off our objective, with a force mounting forty or more close-range cannon. With our craft steaming past the southern entrance to the port a big percentage of our armament could concentrate on each ofthe enemy emplacements in turn as they passed them, and, finally, on arrival at our selected points of attack, we could reasonably expect to outnumber them locally. For all this the enemy, with their heavily protected emplacements and heavier-calibre guns (20 mm, 40 mm, and 88 mm) had the advantage. Our triumph, therefore, although it was short-lived, was a fine feat of arms for our guncrews and for those officers and gunners’ mates who in many cases stood beside the guns to assist in directing the fire. The slackening in the enemy’s fire, moreover, came at the precise moment when the Campbeltown had to aim for the lock gate. MGB 314, increasing speed to keep ahead of Campbeltown, passed about 200 yards off the Old Mole and then sheered off to starboard while Campbeltown continued on round and in to her objective. She had increased to nineteen knots; there was a slight check as she cut the torpedo net and she hit the caisson of the lock with a crash. The exact time of impact was 1.34 am, four minutes after the intended time. Captain Robert Ryder was one of five men awarded Victoria Crosses for his part in the raid. Lieutenant-Commander Stephen Halden Beattie who was responsible for captaining HMS Campbeltown and driving her into the dock, and Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Newman, in overall command of the raid were similarly decorated. Also taking part were Motor Torpedo Boats , including No 74: 'underway at speed, coastal waters, as converted for St Nazaire raid'. Able Seaman Savage One of five Victoria Crosses awarded for action during the raid. Able Seaman Savage who was a gun-layer of a pom-pom in MGB 314, engaged enemy positions ashore, shooting with great accuracy. Although he had no gun-shield and was in a most exposed position, he continued firing with great coolness until at last he was killed at his gun. Sergeant Tom Durrant from No.1 Commando was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1945 after the full circumstances of his part in the raid came to light. Motor Launch 306 came under heavy fire while proceeding up the River Loire towards the port. Sergeant Durrant, in his position abaft the bridge, where he had no cover or protection, engaged enemy gun positions and searchlights ashore. During this engagement he was severely wounded in the arm but refused to leave his gun. The Motor Launch subsequently went down the river and was attacked by a German destroyer at 50 to 60 yards range, and often closer. In this action Sergeant Durrant continued to fire at the destroyer’s bridge with the greatest of coolness and with complete disregard of the enemy’s fire. The Motor Launch was illuminated by the enemy searchlight, and Sergeant Durrant drew on himself the individual attention of the enemy guns, and was again wounded in many places. Despite these further wounds he stayed in his exposed position, still firing his gun, although after a time only able to support himself by holding on to the gun mounting. After a running fight, the Commander of the German destroyer called on the Motor Launch to surrender. Sergeant Durrant’s answer was a further burst of fire at the destroyer’s bridge. Although now very weak, he went on firing, using drums of ammunition as fast as they could be replaced. A renewed attack by the enemy vessel eventually silenced the fire of the Motor Launch, but Sergeant Durrant refused to give up until the destroyer came alongside, grappled the Motor Launch and took prisoner those who remained alive. Sergeant Durrant’s gallant fight was commended by the German officers on boarding the Motor Launch. This very gallant non-commissioned officer later died of the many wounds received in action. The Commando Veterans Association has an online collection of original documents relating to Sergeant Durrant and his family, including the letters written from Prisoner of War camp by which they learnt of his death. The Campbeltown wedged into the dock gates, showing signs of the damage sustained in the battle. British prisoners of war guarded by Germans on the dockside at St Nazaire. There were a substantial number of wounded taken prisoner during the raid. The German propaganda photographer had a hard job finding pictures of dejected British prisoners of war. British prisoners of war detained in a nearby building - they look like they might be in a pub. They knew something the Germans didn't. After being found hiding in a boat moored at the dockside Michael Burn, left, realised he was about to photographed as he was marched back and managed to produce a defiant 'V' sign with his fingers - the Nazi propaganda machine did not notice and published the picture. Michael Burn was one of the officers from No. 2 Commando who found themselves left on the dockside among a number of men who had completed their task of blowing up various military installations. They discovered that all the boats had left and there was no possibility of them getting away. ” Well, the transports let us down again”. The order was given to make for Spain, a thousand miles away. All the men had memorised the Spanish phrase ‘I am an escaped British prisoner’ with which they were supposed to greet the Spanish authorities. Five men actually made it to Spain. The remainder were picked up by the Germans, hiding in various buildings and ships along the harbourside, during the course of the morning. The officers were interrogated in turn: Beattie himself was interrogated by a senior naval officer who, after praising his seamanship, asked him how the British could be so stupid as to imagine that so huge a dock could be put out of action by a flimsy destroyer which the Germans would soon haul away; at which moment there was a violent explosion, the windows in the interrogation-room were blown in, and, rushing out, the naval officer got the answer to his gibe. Not only had she exploded, but taken with her scores of German investigators, sightseers and souvenir-hunters. We heard the explosion in the guard-room and gave a big cheer. So that was that. The ‘paramount purpose’ had been achieved in full. The Tirpitz never did venture out into the Atlantic. The dock was not repaired till after the War. . Keep up to date with all the latest news relating to the The Greatest Raid on Facebook . German troops were crawling all over the Campbeltown on the morning of the 28th, they did not guess that she was packed with explosives. Around 360 men died when she exploded at noon. { 18 comments… read them below or add one } Jill Pigdon-Jones August 5, 2015 at 12:02 pm Hi I am seeking information on my uncle Kenneth Hills who was on ML262 and sadly did not make it home. Are there any more websites or avenues I can explore for more information. Kind regards. shaun bayford March 12, 2015 at 5:07 pm David , really sorry ive taken so long to get back to you . My grandads name was Ernest john Butcher and he lived in Portslade near Brighton . he is pictured standing up looking towards the camera on the far right of the picture titled….. British prisoners of war guarded by Germans on the dockside at St Nazaire…… he is standing up next to another chap in a white roll neck jumper . if you want to contact me i am on [email protected] . regards Shaun/ Pete May 17, 2014 at 12:42 pm I recall stories of this raid when I was younger from my relatives … I just came across this site and the remarkable story of courage and determination by all involved in this raid… And still some 70 years on it makes the hairs on my neck stand up… It was and is the greatest raid of all… And will stand as a testimony in history to all those involved and especially those that gave their lives that day… I still get a wry smile thinking of those Germans around and on the ship when it finally exploded … Of course not for their loss of life but more for the sense of the idea that the raid had failed up till that moment…. They are true heroes one and all…. And each and every man worthy of many more honours than the ones given….. I certainly won’t forget the men or the price they paid… Thank you Peter Stanley October 30, 2013 at 10:54 pm Readers of this site interested in the raid on St Nazaire may wish to know of my 2009 book Commando to Colditz: Micky Burn’s Journey to the Far Side of Tears – The Raid on St Nazaire, published by Murdoch Books, Sydney, and still available. It tells the story of Captain Micky Burn, 2 Commando (pictured on this site), before and during the raid and in captivity. Of the 28 men in Micky’s troop 14 died in the raid and half of the survivors (including him) were captured. As the title suggests, Micky ended up in Colditz. The book explores the relationships between Micky and his men, and between the families of those killed and captured in the raid during the months of anxiety and grief that followed. It was based on Micky’s own archive and interviews I conducted with him. Sadly, he died in October 2010. Prof. Peter Stanley David Tait October 30, 2013 at 3:15 pm I understand the movie “Turn Towards the Sun” starring Michael Burn, MAY be available on Amazon by Christmas. Do you know of Robert Lyman’s book Into the Jaws of Death:The Gallant 600 of the St Nazaire Raid? Robert is speaking at The National Army Museum, Chelsea, at 7.00 p.m. 5th December 2013 (advisable to book ticket in advance). David Tait Ted Greenwood June 1, 2013 at 8:53 am I have just read and enjoyed R.E.D. Ryder’s book. The Attack on St. Nazaire. i followed up with the Google website. I’m too young to remember the WW2. born 1943 but it’s wonderful to read of these heroics. Leave a Comment	St Nazaire Raid
Which cheese is normally used in a Caesar Salad?	Operation Chariot: Commando Raid on St. Nazaire \| The National WWII Museum Blog Give Operation Chariot: Commando Raid on St. Nazaire Aerial view of the aftermath of Operation Chariot: The Raid on St. Nazaire, March 1942 © IWM (C 2352) In what some historians have called the original mission impossible, a small unit of Commandos achieved the unthinkable. On 28 March 1942, the British made a daring raid on the Normandie Dock at St. Nazaire in German-occupied France. The why’s and how’s of the Raid on St. Nazaire make this a heck of a story, but the fact that the plan was ultimately a success is the most incredible part of it all. Hitler instituted his naval “Plan Z” in early 1939, calling for a massive augmentation of the Kriegsmarine for the sole purpose of being able to challenge the Royal Navy. U-boats were threatening Allied supply lanes from the United States to Britain, routes which if destroyed would render Britain unable to wage war. Since American’s entrance into the fight just several weeks before, U-boats had crept inward toward the Eastern coast, wreaking havoc on merchant ships and sinking millions of tons of supplies. In addition to the threat on Atlantic supply routes, the Allies had experienced repeated heavy losses in Asia with Japanese victories over Singapore & Malaya, and the evacuation of MacArthur from the Philippines. The United States was still reeling from the attack on Pearl Harbor, and hadn’t quite recovered enough to fully join the British in the fight. Churchill was desperate for a success. Aside from the knowledge of Hitler’s cancellation of Operation Sealion —the planned invasion of Great Britain—there had been no good news for the Brits since the end of the Battle of Britain. And perhaps the greatest naval threat of all, the German battleship Tirpitz forced the Royal Navy on its toes, having to dedicate much of its fleet to the containment of the Tirpitz in Norwegian waters where it was bullying merchant convoys to the Soviet ports of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. On several occasions, the Brits unsuccessfully tried to lure Tirpitz into a fight in the hopes of knocking her out preemptively. When that strategy failed, there was one alternate course left: to destroy the Normandie Dock at St. Nazaire—the only Atlantic dock large enough to hold the 45,500-ton Tirpitz for repairs and maintenance. In so doing, the kriegsmarine wouldn’t be able risk sending Tirpitz into the Atlantic without the availability of a dock. A view of the German battleship Tirpitz in Norwegian waters. The plan, known as Operation Chariot, was instituted by Lord Louis Mountbatten in late January 1942. He was not the first to suggest targeting St. Nazaire, but the idea had been repeatedly shot down by military brass who believed it impossible and therefore a waste of time and resources. Mountbatten, however, believed that “It’s the fact that it is regarded as impossible that makes it possible; the Germans will never think we’ll attempt it.” The job was given to the Commandos, a unit less than two years old, disliked by much of the regular military who saw their independence as a lack of discipline, and who resented that the best of the regular army units were recruited for Commando units. Nevertheless, Commandos received unique and specialized training meant to give them supreme confidence, the ability to fight independently, and first and foremost to conduct small-scale offensive raids in occupied territory. The group and its tactics were a favorite of Churchill’s. Mk. 1 Bren light machine gun, a favorite weapon of the Commandos who revolutionized the use of the weapon, firing it from the hip rather than the standard manner of firing from the ground. National WWII Museum, 2005.023 British intelligence on the topography and layout of the dock facilities was vast, including aerial reconnaissance photos and even detailed renderings of the interior and underground elements of the dock area. In just nine days, the HMS Campbeltown (previously an American WWI-era destroyer known as the USS Buchanan) was metamorphosed to resemble a German destroyer. The idea was that a task force of a few hundred Royal Navy personnel and British Commandos would slither into the Loire Estuary on the incognito Campbeltown flying the German naval ensign, complete with a captured code book enabling the communication of their supposed friendliness to the Germans. The Campbeltown, stuffed with several tons of the explosive Amatol, was to ram into the 1,500-ton gate of the Normandie dock and blow it to bits. The pump station which controlled the rise and fall of the dry dock’s water, and the winding houses which controlled the opening and closing of the caissons or “doors” of the dock were also targeted for destruction. Despite being well-prepared, the raid didn’t go exactly as planned. The Commandos, however, were prepared for the unexpected. Late on 27 March, Royal Air Forces bombers were supposed to serve as decoys, bombing random but clear targets to the east of the dock in order to detract from the German forces guarding the coast in 80 or so gun emplacements. Since it was a cloudy night, however, the bombers dropped far fewer bombs than intended for fear of harming French civilians. So instead they hovered suspiciously over the area, alerting the Germans that something wasn’t quite right. Though the Campbeltown was initially surprisingly successful at entering the estuary at around 0100 hours on the morning of 28 March, the bizarre behavior of the bombers gave them away. The Campbeltown was now under fire from German coastal and railway guns. Swapping out the German ensign for the White Ensign of the Royal Navy, the Campbeltown rammed the dock gate just a few minutes behind schedule, though her bombs would prove to be several hours tardy. The Commandoes disembarked from the beached destroyer, heading immediately to the secondary targets. The pump station and winding houses were successfully taken out. The surviving Commandos headed to a predesignated rally point where they were to board several mahogany Motor Launches that would transport the home. These small wooden boats were particularly vulnerable, and many of them were easily destroyed by German gunfire; fuel burned on the surface of the water. This left the remaining 120 or so wounded and exhausted Commandos to face 5,000 well-armed and alert Germans. By dawn, the fighting was over. While the cost was high in terms of loss of manpower, all targets were successfully destroyed—the Campbeltown’s explosives eventually destroying the main gate a few hours later than intended—rendering the Normandie Dock at St. Nazaire useless, and thereby keeping the Tirpitz out of the Battle of the Atlantic. The success was a huge morale boost for the Brits, as well as the French who were finally given a sense of hope. The Raid on St. Nazaire resulted in the awarding of five Victoria Crosses, the most VC’s given for a single action during the war. The success of the raid infuriated Hitler, and in response he ordered that any Commandos captured in the future were to be immediately executed as spies and terrorists. The US military, on the other hand, was so impressed with the unique capabilities of Commando units that they soon created similar units in the American military, known as Rangers, who were trained by British Commandos in Scotland. The Tirpitz would be sunk by RAF bombers in 1944. New US Army Rangers armed with M28 Thompsons train with British Commandos Wednesday, March 28th, 2012 @ 1:15 pm Post Category :	i don't know
Which Greek goddess was the mother of Achilles?	Achilles - Ancient History - HISTORY.com Google Achilles: Early Life Like most mythological heroes, Achilles had a complicated family tree. His father was Peleus, the mortal king of the Myrmidons–a people who, according to legend, were extraordinarily fearless and skilled soldiers. His mother was Thetis, a Nereid. Did You Know? Today, we use the phrase “Achilles heel” to describe a powerful person’s fatal weakness. According to myths and stories composed long after the Iliad, Thetis was extraordinarily concerned about her baby son’s mortality. She did everything she could to make him immortal: She burned him over a fire every night, then dressed his wounds with ambrosial ointment; and she dunked him into the River Styx, whose waters were said to confer the invulnerability of the gods. However, she gripped him tightly by the foot as she dipped him into the river–so tightly that the water never touched his heel. As a result, Achilles was invulnerable everywhere but there. When he was 9 years old, a seer predicted that Achilles would die heroically in battle against the Trojans. When she heard about this, Thetis disguised him as a girl and sent him to live on the Aegean island of Skyros. To be a great warrior was Achilles’ fate, however, and he soon left Skyros and joined the Greek army. In a last-ditch effort to save her son’s life, Thetis asked the divine blacksmith Hephaestus to make a sword and shield that would keep him safe. The armor that Hephaestus produced for Achilles did not make him immortal, but it was distinctive enough to be recognized by friend and foe alike. When Homer wrote the Iliad in about 720 BCE, however, readers and listeners would not have known any of this. They only knew that Achilles was a great hero, that he had superhuman strength and courage and that he was supremely handsome. Homer painted a more nuanced picture: In addition to these qualities, his Achilles was vengeful and quick to anger and could be petulant when he did not get his way. He was also deeply loyal and would sacrifice anything for his friends and family. Achilles: The Trojan War According to legend, the Trojan War began when the god-king Zeus decided to reduce Earth’s mortal population by arranging a war between the Greeks (Homer calls them the Achaeans) and the Trojans. He did this by meddling in their political and emotional affairs. At Achilles’ parents’ wedding banquet, Zeus invited the prince of Troy, a young man named Paris, to judge a beauty contest between the goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. Each of the goddesses offered Paris a bribe in exchange for his vote. Aphrodite’s was the most alluring: She promised to give the young prince the most beautiful wife in the world. Unfortunately, the wife in question–Helen, the daughter of Zeus–was already married to someone else: Menelaus, the king of Sparta . At Aphrodite’s urging, Paris went to Sparta, won Helen’s heart and took her (along with all of Menelaus’ money) back to Troy. Menelaus vowed revenge. He assembled an army of Greece’s greatest warriors, including Achilles and his Myrmidons, and set off to conquer Troy and get his wife back. In Homer’s telling, this war lasted for 10 bloody years. Achilles: The Illiad When the Iliad begins, the Trojan War has been going on for nine years. Achilles, the poem’s protagonist, has led one battle after another. He has met with great success–in fact, he is undefeated in battle–but the war itself has reached a stalemate. Homer’s story focuses on a different conflict, however: the internecine quarrel between his hero and Agamemnon, the leader of the Achaean armies and Menelaus’ brother. In a battle that took place before the poem begins, Agamemnon had taken as a concubine a young Trojan woman named Chryseis. Chryseis’ father, a priest of the god Apollo, tried to buy his daughter’s freedom, but Agamemnon mocked his entreaties and refused to release the girl. Enraged, Apollo punished the Greek armies by sending a plague to kill the soldiers one by one. As his ranks thinned, Agamemnon finally agreed to allow Chryseis to return to her father. However, he demanded a replacement concubine in exchange: Achilles’ wife, the Trojan princess Breseis. Achilles did as his commander asked and relinquished his bride. Then, he announced that he would no longer fight on Agamemnon’s behalf. He gathered his belongings, including the armor Hephaestus had made, and refused to come out of his tent. With the Greeks’ greatest warrior off the battlefield, the tide began to turn in favor of the Trojans. The Greeks lost one battle after another. Eventually, Achilles’ best friend, the soldier Patroclus, was able to wrangle a compromise: Achilles would not fight, but he would let Patroclus use his powerful armor as a disguise. That way, the Trojans would think that Achilles had returned to battle and would retreat in fear. The plan was working until Apollo, still seething about Agamemnon’s treatment of Chryseis and her father, intervened on the Trojans’ behalf. He helped the Trojan prince Hector to find and kill Patroclus. Furious, Achilles vowed to take revenge. He chased Hector back to Troy, slaughtering Trojans all the way. When they got to the city walls, Hector tried to reason with his pursuer, but Achilles was not interested. He stabbed Hector in the throat, killing him. Hector had begged for an honorable burial in Troy, but Achilles was determined to humiliate his enemy even in death. He dragged Hector’s body behind his chariot all the way back to the Achaean camp and tossed it on the garbage heap. However, in the poem’s last section Achilles finally relents: He returns Hector’s body to his father for a proper burial. Achilles: The Fate of Achilles In his Iliad, Homer does not explain what happened to Achilles. According to later legends (and bits and pieces of Homer’s own Odyssey), the warrior returned to Troy after Hector’s funeral to exact further revenge for Patroclus’ death. However, the still-vengeful Apollo told Hector’s brother Paris that Achilles was coming. Paris, who was not a brave warrior, ambushed Achilles as he entered Troy. He shot his unsuspecting enemy with an arrow, which Apollo guided to the one place he knew Achilles was vulnerable: his heel, where his mother’s hand had kept the waters of the Styx from touching his skin. Achilles died on the spot, still undefeated in battle. Tags	Thetis
How many Eleanor Crosses were erected by Edward the First?	Tables Showing the Achilles Genealogy The Family of Achilles from Peleus and Thetis to Chaos Achilles is the son of the nymph Thetis and the mortal king Peleus . Achilles' ancestors are confusing: Part of this has to do with the fact that only one of his parents was a mortal. The immortals aren't many generations from the first generation ever in Greek genealogy. This makes Achilles' mother's side of the family tree lop-sided. Another factor is the recurrence of the same mythological figure repeatedly in the family tree. Zeus is one such repeat performer. He gets connected biologically with many of the major heroes. It would be hard to figure out what the best specific blood relationship Zeus bears to our hero Achilles because he is related in too many different ways. Tables 1 and 2 proceed in the normal way -- from ancestor to descendant, from Zeus etc. to Achilles on his father Peleus' side [Table 1], and from Chaos to Achilles' mother Thetis [Table 2]. The other tables (3-6) show the ancestry of other figures in Achilles' family tree, but in the reverse direction. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States Table 3 shows the ancestry of Grandma Chariclo (Achilles' father's mother) down to Oceanus et al. Table 4 shows the ancestry of Grandpa Sciron (Achilles' father's father) down to Zeus et al. Tables 5 (& 6) show the ancestry of Hippodamia (Achilles' great-great-grandmother) & Aegina down to Oceanus et al. The final table shows the ancestry of Zeus. Some ancestors are not restricted to a single generation. The 6 tables together cover just about everyone in the family from the beginning of the cosmos down to the time of Achilles. TABLE 1 Nereus THETIS - The Mother of Achilles In the family tree of Achilles, Zeus comes up several times. One of the more famous mortal sons of Zeus was Tantalus -- the one who served up his own son Pelops at a feast for the gods. The goddess Demeter, who was mourning the loss of her daughter Persephone, was too distracted to notice the feast meal consisted of human flesh, so she ate the shoulder of Pelops before the gods could restore Pelops to life. After they did revivify Pelops, Demeter replaced the missing part with an ivory shoulder. For his crime, Tantalus was sentenced to eternal suffering in the Underworld. In the family tree of Achilles, Pelops appears as the parent of a son named Sciron [see TABLE 4]. This would make Sciron a brother of Atreus (as in the cursed House of Atreus ) and Thyestes. The Athenian hero Theseus later killed Sciron. TABLE 3 CHARICLO - Mother of Endeis (Mother of Peleus [Peleus is the father of Achilles]) Chariclo is a great-grandmother of Achilles. Aegina is the other great-grandmother of Achilles on his father's side. _	i don't know
Who wrote the book The Red Badge of Courage'?	SparkNotes: The Red Badge of Courage: Plot Overview The Red Badge of Courage Stephen Crane Context Character List During the Civil War, a Union regiment rests along a riverbank, where it has been camped for weeks. A tall soldier named Jim Conklin spreads a rumor that the army will soon march. Henry Fleming, a recent recruit with this 304th Regiment, worries about his courage. He fears that if he were to see battle, he might run. The narrator reveals that Henry joined the army because he was drawn to the glory of military conflict. Since the time he joined, however, the army has merely been waiting for engagement. At last the regiment is given orders to march, and the soldiers spend several weary days traveling on foot. Eventually they approach a battlefield and begin to hear the distant roar of conflict. After securing its position, the enemy charges. Henry, boxed in by his fellow soldiers, realizes that he could not run even if he wanted to. He fires mechanically, feeling like a cog in a machine. The blue (Union) regiment defeats the gray (Confederate) soldiers, and the victors congratulate one another. Henry wakes from a brief nap to find that the enemy is again charging his regiment. Terror overtakes him this time and he leaps up and flees the line. As he scampers across the landscape, he tells himself that made the right decision, that his regiment could not have won, and that the men who remained to fight were fools. He passes a general on horseback and overhears the commander saying that the regiment has held back the enemy charge. Ashamed of his cowardice, Henry tries to convince himself that he was right to preserve his own life to do so. He wanders through a forest glade in which he encounters the decaying corpse of a soldier. Shaken, he hurries away. After a time, Henry joins a column of wounded soldiers winding down the road. He is deeply envious of these men, thinking that a wound is like “a red badge of courage”—visible proof of valorous behavior. He meets a tattered man who has been shot twice and who speaks proudly of the fact that his regiment did not flee. He repeatedly asks Henry where he is wounded, which makes Henry deeply uncomfortable and compels him to hurry away to a different part of the column. He meets a spectral soldier with a distant, numb look on his face. Henry eventually recognizes the man as a badly wounded Jim Conklin. Henry promises to take care of Jim, but Jim runs from the line into a small grove of bushes where Henry and the tattered man watch him die. Henry and the tattered soldier wander through the woods. Henry hears the rumble of combat in the distance. The tattered soldier continues to ask Henry about his wound, even as his own health visibly worsens. At last, Henry is unable to bear the tattered man’s questioning and abandons him to die in the forest. Henry continues to wander until he finds himself close enough to the battlefield to be able to watch some of the fighting. He sees a blue regiment in retreat and attempts to stop the soldiers to find out what has happened. One of the fleeing men hits him on the head with a rifle, opening a bloody gash on Henry’s head. Eventually, another soldier leads Henry to his regiment’s camp, where Henry is reunited with his companions. His friend Wilson, believing that Henry has been shot, cares for him tenderly. The next day, the regiment proceeds back to the battlefield. Henry fights like a lion. Thinking of Jim Conklin, he vents his rage against the enemy soldiers. His lieutenant says that with ten thousand Henrys, he could win the war in a week. Nevertheless, Henry and Wilson overhear an officer say that the soldiers of the 304th fight like “mule drivers.” Insulted, they long to prove the man wrong. In an ensuing charge, the regiment’s color bearer falls. Henry takes the flag and carries it proudly before the regiment. After the charge fails, the derisive officer tells the regiment’s colonel that his men fight like “mud diggers,” further infuriating Henry. Another soldier tells Henry and Wilson, to their gratification, that the colonel and lieutenant consider them the best fighters in the regiment. The group is sent into more fighting, and Henry continues to carry the flag. The regiment charges a group of enemy soldiers fortified behind a fence, and, after a pitched battle, wins the fence. Wilson seizes the enemy flag and the regiment takes four prisoners. As he and the others march back to their position, Henry reflects on his experiences in the war. Though he revels in his recent success in battle, he feels deeply ashamed of his behavior the previous day, especially his abandonment of the tattered man. But after a moment, he puts his guilt behind him and realizes that he has come through “the red sickness” of battle. He is now able to look forward to peace, feeling a quiet, steady manhood within himself.	Stephen Crane
'The Fensman' was a regular train service from East Anglia to which London Mainline rail terminus?	Stephen Crane Biography Stephen Crane Biography This section contains 1,022 word (approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page) PDF The Red Badge of Courage Author/Context Stephen Crane was born November 1, 1871, in Newark, New Jersey. He was the fourteenth and last child of the Reverend John Townley Crane, a Methodist minister and published writer in ethics (The Arts of Intoxication, 1870), and Mary Helen Peck, the daughter of a prominent Methodist minister. Both of his parents were active in the temperance movement, and his father moved the family repeatedly as he was transferred to different ministries. Crane's father died when he was nine, and his mother earned extra money by writing for Methodist journals, the New York Tribune, and the Philadelphia Press, all with young Stephen's help. In 1885, Stephen entered the Pennington (N.J.) Seminary, a Methodist boarding school where his father had served as principal, then later transferred to Claverack (N.Y.) College-Hudson River Institute, a military boarding school. He left mid-year in 1890 for "academic delinquencies," but attained the rank of cadet captain. In January 1891, he entered Syracuse University, which was co-founded by his mother's uncle, and became extensively involved in writing and English. Instead of returning to school the next September, he decided to concentrate on his writing, and stayed with artist friends in New York. He studied the Bowery and flophouses in New York City for inspiration in his writing. Crane's mother died in December of 1891, and a few weeks later he wrote a draft of his first novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, in two days. Crane took work in New York as a freelance writer during 1892, and with no hope of finding a publisher for Maggie, he borrowed his inheritance from his mother in 1893, in order to publish it himself, which he did under the pseudonym Johnston Smith. The book was not widely reviewed, but was noticed by the authors Hamlin Garland and William Dean Howells; Howells subsequently invited Crane to tea. Crane began reading Civil War memoirs, and began to write The Red Badge of Courage in the spring of 1893. By 1894 Crane was writing extensively, despite anxiety over hearing no response from a publisher on the Red Badge. Late that October, The Red Badge was accepted in a condensed version for serial publication in a newspaper. After personal congratulations from the Philadelphia Press, the manuscript was accepted for publication as a novel in December. Crane spent 1895 traveling through the American West and Mexico, writing the whole time. His book of poems, The Black Riders, was published on May 11. The Red Badge of Courage was published on October 5, and quickly became a bestseller, establishing Crane's reputation as an author. In 1896, his book George's Mother was published, and a revised version of Maggie was published. Although he met Theodore Roosevelt in New York and shared some of his writing, he fell out of favor with Roosevelt and the New York police when he testified in defense of a woman friend who had been arrested on charges of solicitation. Later in 1896, Crane left the U.S. for Cuba to cover the Cuban revolution. In 1897, the boat from which Crane was covering the Cuban war sank, becoming the inspiration for his story "The Open Boat." In March, Crane took passage to Greece to cover the Greco-Turkish war. His girlfriend, Cora Howorth Steward, was hired by the New York Journal as their first female war correspondent. The two were married during this time, and after the war moved to Oxted, Surrey, in England. Through his British publisher, Crane met the writer Joseph Conrad, who became his close friend. Crane's book The Third Violet, inspired by his travels in Mexico, was published on May 15, and after moving to England, Crane wrote several short stories, including The Monster. Tangled literary commitments and poverty forced Crane back to New York in 1898; he then signed on to cover the American campaign in Cuba. After being sent away from the war zone because of fever and exhaustion, he was fired, but signed on with another paper to cover the Puerto Rican campaign. During this time, he wrote but had no correspondence at all with his wife or family, who opened official inquiries as to his whereabouts. He returned to New York that November, then sailed for England at the end of December. In England during 1899, Crane became friends with David Garnett, Henry James, and H.G. Wells. A second book of poems, War is Kind, was published on May 20. Active Service, a novel about the Greek war, was published October 14. The Monster and Other Stories was published on December 9. On December 29, Crane suffered a tubercular hemorrhage of the lungs. Sick and beset by deadlines, Crane concealed his serious tuberculosis until April 1, 1900, when he suffered massive lung hemorrhages. In May, he traveled as a patient to a sanitarium in Badenweiler, Germany, where he died on June 5. He was twenty-nine years old. He was buried by his wife in Hillside, New Jersey. Whilomville Stories (1900), Wounds in the Rain (1900), Great Battles of the World (1901), and The O'Ruddy (1903), were all published posthumously. Stephen Crane was a revolutionary in that he was one of the first American proponents of a literary genre called Naturalism, which took hold as an American literary trend only after Crane's death. Naturalism takes the stance that literary composition should portray an objective, empirically-based representation of human beings and the human condition. It differs from Realism, however, in that it is decidedly pessimistic in its portrayal, championing Darwinian beliefs in biological determinism. Naturalists reject free will and see humanity as controlled strictly by instinct, emotion, and societal conditions. In Europe, where the movement started, Naturalism was championed by the writers Edmond Louis Antoine de Goncourt, Jules Alfred Huot de Gancourt, and Émile Zola. In America, the trend started by Crane was picked up by Frank Norris, Sherwood Anderson, John Dos Passos, Theodore Dreiser, and James T. Farrell. Crane himself is known for his pessimistic and brutal psychological portraits, which are offset by a beautiful sense of language and an undercurrent of human sympathy. Bibliography	i don't know
Siderite and Limonite are ores of which metallic element?	magnetite, hematite, limonite and siderite are ores of which metal magnetite, hematite, limonite and siderite are ores of which metal magnetite, hematite, limonite and siderite are ores of which metal Milling is also known as grinding, it is a material more refining process. A sharp object works by concentrating forces which creates a high pressure due to the very ... magnetite, hematite, limonite and siderite are ores of which metal Mining crushers mainly include jaw crusher, cone crusher, impact crusher, mobile crusher for crushing stone, rock, quarry materials in mining industry. what metal is found in the mineral limonite hematite and magnetite ... 排名: 4.8/5 · 3,819 条评论 Main iron ores are magnetite,limonite, hematite ore, ... (hematite, magnetite, limonite, and siderite) mixed with other ores. 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Now in the Premier League who is the manager of Leicester City Football Club?	extraction of iron from siderite - Grinding Mill China extraction of iron from siderite Posted at: June 11, 2013 [ 4.9 - 7488 Ratings ] Iron ore – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically… Iron ore – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey … » Free online chat! Mineral Extraction – Jet, Iron and Alum – Staithes Town … Mineral Extraction around Staithes. It is debateable which mineral was the first to attract attention. Iron Age remains have been found in Roxby Beck close to the … » Free online chat! Iron (World of Earth Science) Study Guide & Homework … Iron Reference (World of Earth Science) … Iron is the fourth-most common element in Earth’s crust, and the second-most common metal after aluminum. » Free online chat! Iron compounds definition of Iron compounds in the Free … iron, metallic chemical element; symbol Fe [Lat. ferrum]; at. no. 26; at. wt. 55.845; m.p. about 1,535&degC;; b.p. about 2,750&degC;; sp. gr. 7.87 at 20&degC … » Free online chat! Natural Sample Of Iron Ore. Stock Photo 62908276 : … Download royalty free Natural sample of iron ore. stock photo from Shutterstock’s library of millions of high resolution stock photos, vectors, and illustrations. » Free online chat! Iron: Occurrence – Nautilus Home Page The principal iron minerals are hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), limonite (Fe2O3.H2O) and siderite (FeCO3). The most common natural iron compounds are … » Free online chat! iron Facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com … Get information, facts, and pictures about iron at Encyclopedia.com. Make research projects and school reports about iron easy with credible articles from our FREE … » Free online chat! 6 General Principles and of Processes of Isolation … Thermodynamics illustrates why only a certain reducing element and a minimum specific temperature are suitable for reduction of a metal oxide to the metal in an … » Free online chat! 6 General Principles and of Processes of Isolation … Thermodynamics illustrates why only a certain reducing element and a minimum specific temperature are suitable for reduction of a metal oxide to the metal in an … » Free online chat! iron: Definition, Synonyms from Answers.com iron n. ( Symbol Fe ) A silvery-white, lustrous, malleable, ductile, magnetic or magnetizable, metallic element occurring abundantly in combined forms, » Free online chat! GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ISOLATION OF METALS – Welcome … Introduction All materials on the Earth are made of naturally occurring elements. Elements have been categorized as metals, non-metals, and metalloids and » Free online chat! Iron ore processing, iron ore mining, iron ore grinding … Iron ore processing, iron ore mining, iron ore grinding plant, iron ore crusher. 10mm wet vibratory screen for iron ore; 2010 2011 iron ore price increases » Free online chat! iron ore Iron Ore: Iron Ore (from wikipedia) Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides … Mining – Mines – Jobs Mining – Roughneck Chronicles Canadian Mining Companies, Uranium Mining Companies, Copper Mining Companies » Free online chat! Mineral Photos – By Type \| Minerals Education Coalition The Minerals Education Coalition’s (MEC) mission is to identify, produce and disseminate fact-based K-12 minerals education lessons and activities and to inform and … » Free online chat! Bolivia Natural Resources – Facts About Bolivia – Bolivian … Bolivia is rich in natural resources, most of which have yet to be exploited. Interesting facts about Bolivia and its natural resources. » Free online chat! Vibrating Equipment – Iron Ore Beneficiation Plant – … Supplier and Manufacturer of Vibrating Equipment, Linear Motion Vibrating Screen, Dewatering Screen, Circular Motion Screen and Electromagnetic Feeders offered by … » Free online chat! Mineral Deposits – definition of Mineral Deposits by the … min·er·al (m n r-l) n. 1. A naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline … » Free online chat! Crystal Peak, Colorado, Amazonite, Smoky Quartz, … crystal peak, colorado, amazonite, smoky quartz, gemstones, jewelry, minerals, agates, rockhunting information, gemcutting service in Buena Vista, Colorado » Free online chat! The Chemistry of Copper Heap Leaching – Regional … The Chemistry of Copper Heap Leaching . John Dreier November, 1999. Introduction. Between 1980 and 2000, primary copper produced by acid sulfate leaching	i don't know
In which constellation is the bright star Vega?	Vega is the Harp Star \| Brightest Stars \| EarthSky Vega is the Harp Star By Larry Sessions in Brightest Stars \| July 20, 2016 One of the prettiest stories in all skylore surrounds this star. “On the 7th night of the 7th moon … “ Image via Fred Espenak . Used with permission. The beautiful blue-white star Vega has a special place in the hearts of many skywatchers. Come to know it, and you will see. Follow the links below to learn more. Vega science How to see Vega. Observers in the Northern Hemisphere can see the star Vega come into view in the northeast in mid-evening in May. Look for this star in the very early evening in June – high overhead on autumn evenings – in the northwestern quadrant of the sky on December evenings. The constellation Lyra the Harp and its brightest star Vega Vega is easily recognizable for its brilliance and blue-white color. You can also easily pick out its constellation Lyra, which is small and compact, and consists primarily of Vega and four fainter stars in the form of a parallelogram. The little constellation Lyra has some interesting features. Near Vega is Epsilon Lyrae, the famed “double-double” star. Between the Gamma and Beta stars is the famous Ring Nebula, visible in small telescopes. Vega is one of three stars in an asterism – or noticeable star pattern – called the Summer Triangle to the early evening sky. The other two stars in the Triangle are Deneb and Altair . You can see the Summer Triangle in the evening beginning around June, through the end of each year. Tanabata and her lover meet on a bridge of magpies across the Celestial River, each year on the 7th night of the 7th moon. Image via Anhellica/Lilliacerise’s blog Here are the stars depicted in the illustration above, from Matthew Chin in Yuen Long, Hong Kong. He wrote: “Happy Chinese Valentine’s Day: the Qixi Festival .” This festival in China is August 9 in 2016, August 28 in 2017 and August 17 in 2018. Vega in history and myth. In western skylore, Vega’s constellation Lyra is said to be the harp played by the legendary Greek musician Orpheus. It’s said that when Orpheus played this harp, neither god nor moral could turn away. Vega is sometimes called the Harp Star. But the most beautiful story relating to Vega comes from Asia. There are many variations. In Japan, Vega is sometimes called Tanabata (or Orihime), a celestial princess or goddess. She falls in love with a mortal, Kengyu (or Hikoboshi), represented by the star Altair. But when Tanabata’s father finds out, he is enraged and forbids her to see this mere mortal. Thus the two lovers are placed in the sky, where they are separated by the Celestial River, known to us as Milky Way. Yet the sky gods are kind. Each year, on the 7th night of the 7th moon, a bridge of magpies forms across the Celestial River, and the two lovers are reunited. Sometimes Kengyu’s annual trip across the Celestial River is treacherous, though, and he doesn’t make it. In that case, Tanabata’s tears form raindrops that fall over Japan. Many Japanese celebrations of Tanabata are held in July, but sometimes they are held in August. If it rains, the raindrops are thought to be Tanabata’s tears because Kengyu could not meet her. Sometimes the meteors of the Perseid shower are said to be Tanabata’s tears. NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope recently captured this image of the star Vega, located 25 light years away in the constellation Lyra. Spitzer was able to detect the heat radiation from the cloud of dust around the star and found that the debris disc is much larger than previously thought. Image Credit: NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Size of star Vega in contrast to our sun. Image via RJHall at Wikimedia Commons Vega science. Vega is the 5th brightest star visible from Earth, and the 3rd brightest easily visible from mid-northern latitudes, after Sirius and Arcturus. At about 25 light-years in distance, it is the 6th closest of all the bright stars, or 5th if you exclude Alpha Centauri, which is not easily visible from most of the Northern Hemisphere. Vega’s distinctly blue color indicates a surface temperature of nearly 17,000 degrees F, making it about 7,000 degrees hotter than our sun. Roughly 2.5 times the diameter of the sun, and just less than that in mass, Vega’s internal pressures and temperatures are far greater than our sun, making it burn its fuel faster. This causes Vega to produce 35-40 times the energy of the sun, which in turn shortens its lifetime. At about 500 million years, Vega is already middle-aged. Currently it is only about a tenth the age of our sun, and will run out of fuel in another half-billion years. In astronomer-speak, Vega is an “A0V main sequence star.” The “A0” signifies its temperature, whereas the “V” is a measure of energy output (luminosity), indicating that Vega is a normal star (not a giant). “Main sequence” again testifies to the fact that it belongs in the category of normal stars, and that it produces energy through stable fusion of hydrogen into helium. With a visual magnitude (apparent brightness) of 0.03, Vega is only marginally dimmer than Arcturus, but with a distinctly different, cool-blue color. Vega’s position is RA: 18h 36m 56.3s, dec: +38° 47′ 1.3″.	Lyra
At over 3000 feet Lugnaquilla is the highest peak in which Irish mountains?	Lyra Constellation: Facts, Myth, Stars, Deep Sky Objects, Pictures \| Constellation Guide Constellation Guide Constellations: A Guide to the Night Sky Lyra Constellation Lyra constellation lies in the northern sky. It represents the lyre, a musical instrument with strings used in antiquity and later times. The constellation is associated with the myth of the Greek musician and poet Orpheus. It was first catalogued by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy in the 2nd century. Lyra contains Vega , the fifth brightest star in the sky and second brightest star in the northern hemisphere, and the famous variable star RR Lyrae. It is also home to several notable deep sky objects, including the globular cluster Messier 56 , the planetary nebula Messier 57 (the Ring Nebula ), the merging triplet of galaxies NGC 6745, and the open cluster NGC 6791. FACTS, LOCATION & MAP Lyra Constellation Map, by IAU and Sky&Telescope magazine Lyra is a small constellation, 52nd in size, occupying an area of 286 square degrees. It is located in the fourth quadrant of the northern hemisphere (NQ4) and can be seen at latitudes between +90° and -40°. The neighboring constellations are Cygnus , Draco , Hercules and Vulpecula . Lyra contains two Messier objects – Messier 56 (M56, NGC 6779) and Messier 57 (M57, NGC 6720, the Ring Nebula) – and has nine stars with known planets. The brightest star in the constellation is Vega, Alpha Lyrae , which is also the fifth brightest star in the sky, with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.03. There are three meteor showers associated with the constellation: the Lyrids , which peak around April 21-22 every year, the June Lyrids and the Alpha Lyrids. Lyra belongs to the Hercules family of constellations, along with Aquila , Ara , Centaurus , Corona Australis , Corvus , Crater , Crux , Cygnus , Hercules , Hydra , Lupus , Ophiuchus , Sagitta , Scutum , Sextans , Serpens , Triangulum Australe and Vulpecula . MYTH Lyra represents the lyre of Orpheus, the musician and poet in Greek mythology who was killed by the Bacchantes. When he died, his lyre was thrown into a river. Zeus sent an eagle to get the lyre and placed both of them in the sky. Orpheus was the son of the Thracian King Oeagrus and the muse Calliope. When he was young, god Apollo gave him a golden lyre and taught him to play it, and his mother taught him to write verses. Orpheus was known for his ability to charm even stones with his music, for his attempts to save his wife Eurydice from the underworld, and for being the harpist and companion of Jason and the Argonauts. Without Orpheus and his music, the Argonauts would not have been able to make it past the Sirens, whose song enticed sailors to come to them, which usually resulted in sailors crashing their ships into the islands on which the Sirens lived. When the Argonauts approached the islands, Orpheus drew his lyre and played music that drowned out the Sirens’ calls. The most famous story involving Orpheus is that of the death of his wife Eurydice. Eurydice was trying to escape a satyr at her wedding, and fell into a nest of vipers. She was bitten on the heel and died. Orpheus found the body and, deeply shaken, he played songs that made the gods and the nymphs cry. The gods felt pity for him and advised him to travel to the underworld and try to retrieve Eurydice. Orpheus took their advice. Once there, his song deeply moved Hades and his wife Persephone and they agreed to return Eurydice to the world of the living on one condition: Orpheus should walk in front of her and not look back until they both had reached the upper world. Orpheus and Eurydice started walking and, as much as he wanted to, he did not look back. However, he forgot that they both had to arrive to the upper world before he could turn. As soon as he reached it, he turned around, but Eurydice was not quite up there yet and she disappeared from his sight, for good this time. Orpheus found his death at the hands of Thracian Maenads, who ripped him to shreds for not honouring Dionysus. His lyre was carried to heaven by the Muses, who also collected the fragments of his body and buried them below Mount Olympus. Lyra constellation was often depicted as a vulture or an eagle carrying Orpheus’ lyre in its wings or beak, and called Aquila Cadens or Vultur Cadens, which means “the falling eagle” or “falling vulture.” In Wales, the constellation is known as King Arthur’s Harp (Talyn Arthur) or King David’s Harp. MAJOR STARS IN LYRA Vega, Alpha Lyrae, image: Roberto Mura Vega – α Lyrae (Alpha Lyrae) Vega is the brightest star in the Lyra constellation. With an apparent visual magnitude of 0.03, it is also the fifth brightest star in the night sky, after Sirius in Canis Major , Canopus in Carina , Arcturus in Boötes , and Alpha Centauri A in Centaurus constellation . Vega is also the second brightest star in the northern sky; only Arcturus is brighter. The star is 25.04 light years distant from Earth. Vega was the first star other than the Sun to be photographed and the first one to have its spectrum recorded. It was first imaged by William Bond and John Adams Whipple at the Harvard College Observatory on July 17, 1850, and it was the American amateur astronomer Henry Draper who took the first photograph of Vega’s spectrum in August 1872. The star belongs to the spectral class A0V, which makes it a white dwarf. It was the northern pole star around the year 12,000 BC and will be again around the year 13,727. The Summer Triangle – Vega, Altair, Deneb Vega is 2.1 times as massive as the Sun, and only about a tenth of the Sun’s age. It is believed to be about 455 million years old, which is about a half of its life expectancy. It is a suspected variable star and a rapid rotator, with a projected rotational velocity of 274 km/s at the equator. The star is believed to have a circumstellar disk of dust, as it emits excess infrared radiation. It may have at least one planet the size of Jupiter in its orbit. Vega is easy to find in the night sky because it is bright and also because it is part of a familiar summer asterism, the Summer Triangle , which it forms with the stars Altair in the constellation Aquila and Deneb in Cygnus . Vega is located at the vertex of the triangle, and easy to find because the constellation Cygnus, the Swan , is easily recognizable in the sky. Sulafat – γ Lyrae (Gamma Lyrae) Gamma Lyrae is the second brightest star in the constellation. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 3.261 and is approximately 620 light years distant from the Sun. The star is a blue-white giant. It belongs to the spectral class B9 III. Gamma Lyrae is sometimes known by its traditional names, Sulafat (Sulaphat) and Jugum. The name Sulafat is derived from the Arabic al-sulḥafāt, which means “the turtle,” and Jugum comes from the Latin word iugum, meaning “yoke.” The star has a radius 15 times that of the Sun. It is a relatively fast rotator, with a projected rotational velocity of 71-72 km/s. Sheliak –β Lyrae (Beta Lyrae) Beta Lyrae is a double star system. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 3.52 and is approximately 960 light years distant from Earth. It has the traditional name Sheliak, derived from šiliyāq, which is the Arabic name for the constellation. The Beta Lyrae system has a variable luminosity, ranging from 3.4 to 4.3 magnitudes. The variability was first discovered by the British astronomer John Goodricke in 1784. The components are so close together that they form a spectroscopic binary star, one that cannot be resolved into individual components with optical telescopes.The two orbit each other with a period of 12.9414 days and periodically eclipse each other. As a result, their apparent magnitude varies. The primary star has the stellar classification of B7II – it is a blue-white bright giant. The secondary component is also believed to be a class B star. The system is a semidetached binary, one in which one of the stars fills the binary star’s Roche lobe, and the other star does not. Gas from the surface of the donor star is transferred to the accreting star, and the transfer of mass dominates the system’s evolution. The B7II star, now the less massive component, was once the more massive component in the system. As is evolved into a giant, it transferred most of its mass to the other star, as the two are in close orbit. As a result, the other star is now surrounded by an accretion disk, one that makes it difficult to pinpoint the star’s exact stellar type. R Lyrae and Vega. Image: Kevin Heider, NASA, ESA. Credit: A. Fujii R Lyrae R Lyrae is a red giant with the stellar classification of M5III. It is a semiregular pulsating star with an apparent magnitude that varies between 3.9 and 5.0. The star is approximately 350 light years distant from the solar system. It is significantly brighter and larger, yet also cooler than the Sun. δ Lyrae (Delta Lyrae) Delta Lyrae consists of a star and a star system sharing the same Bayer designation. Delta-1 Lyrae is a binary star system with an orbital period of about 88 days. The components have apparent magnitudes of 5.569 and 9.8. The separation between the two stars is very small and they form a spectroscopic binary. The system is approximately 1,100 light years distant from the Sun. The primary star is a blue-white dwarf with the stellar classification of B2.5 V. It is twice as hot and much brighter than the Sun. The companion is an orange giant of the spectral type K2III, which makes it brighter and larger, yet cooler than the Sun. Delta-2 Lyrae is a red bright giant with the stellar classification M4 II. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.30 and is approximately 740 light years distant. It is 6,500 times more luminous than the Sun and has a radius 200 times solar. The star is believed to be 75 million years old. The Double Double, Epsilon Lyrae. Image: Robert Mura The Double Double – ε Lyrae (Epsilon Lyrae) Epsilon Lyrae, popularly known as the Double Double, is a multiple star system about 162 light years away. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.7. In binoculars, the systems appears as two stars, each of which can be resolved into a binary when observed through a telescope. The two main components, the binary stars, orbit each other. Epsilon-1 Lyrae, the northern component in the system, is a double star consisting of components that are only 2.35 arcseconds apart. The stars have apparent magnitudes of 4.7 and 6.2 and an orbital period of about 1,200 years. The stars of Epsilon-2 Lyrae are separated by 2.3 arcseconds and have magnitudes of 5.1 and 5.5. Their orbital period is about half that of the Epsilon-1 stars. Epsilon Lyrae has a fifth component, discovered in 1985. The star orbits the Epsilon-2 pair with an estimated period of a few decades. RR Lyrae RR Lyrae is a well known variable star in Lyra constellation, located near the border with Cygnus . The star serves as a prototype of an entire class of stars, known as the RR Lyrae variables. These are periodic variable stars usually found in globular clusters and frequently used to measure galactic distances, as the relationship between their pulsation period and absolute magnitude makes them excellent standard candles. RR Lyrae variables are pulsating horizontal brach stars belonging to the spectral class A (and much less frequently F), with about half the Sun’s mass. They are believed to have been similar to the Sun at some point, but then shed their mass. They are old, metal-poor stars with an average absolute magnitude of 0.75, and only 40 to 50 times more luminous than the Sun. RR Lyrae is the brightest star in this class, with an apparent magnitude ranging from 7.06 to 8.12. The star has a mean apparent magnitude of 7.195 and is approximately 860 light years distant from the Sun. RR Lyrae has evolved from the main sequence, passed through the red giant stage and is now in the horizontal branch (HB) stage of evolution, powered by helium fusion in its core and hydrogen fusion in the shell surrounding the core. RR Lyrae’s variability was first discovered by the Scottish astronomer Williamina Fleming in 1901. The star shows a regular pattern of pulsation over a short period of 0.56686776 days, or 13 hours and 36 minutes. Each such radial pulsation causes the star’s radius to vary from 5.1 to 5.6 times the solar radius. DM Lyrae DM Lyrae is a dwarf nova, a cataclysmic variable star composed of a close binary system in which one of the stars is a white dwarf that accretes matter from the companion star. As a result, the white dwarf is involved in periodic outbursts, presumably as a result of the instability in the accretion disk. The primary component in the DM Lyrae system is of unknown type. The system usually has an apparent visual magnitude of 18, but during outbursts the magnitude reaches 13.6. Two such outbursts were observed in the last century, one in 1928 and another in July 1996. The most recent one, in 1996, was a very long and bright one, indicating that the star is a variable of the SU Ursae Majoris type, one that has super-outbursts in addition to normal outbursts. κ Lyrae (Kappa Lyrae) Kappa Lyrae is an orange giant with the stellar classification of K2III. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.323 and is approximately 238 light years distant from the solar system. It is classified as a variable star. Alathfar – μ Lyrae (Mu Lyrae) Mu Lyrae is a white subgiant star belonging to the spectral class A3IVn. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 5.12 and is approximately 439 light years distant from Earth. The star’s traditional name, Alathfar (or Al Athfar), comes from the Arabic al-’uz̧fur, which means “the talons (of the swooping eagle.” It shares the name with Eta Lyrae, but the latter is usually spelled Aladfar. Mu Lyrae lies 2.5 degrees west-northwest of Vega. Gliese 758 Gliese 758 is a yellow dwarf with the stellar classification of G8V. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 6.36 and is 51.4 light years distant from the Sun. It can easily be seen in binoculars. The star is similar to the Sun. It has 97 percent of the Sun’s mass, and 51 percent higher metallicity, i.e. abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium. A substellar companion, Gliese 758 b, was discovered in the star’s orbit in November 2009. It has between 30 and 40 Jupiter masses. Kuiper 90 (17 Lyrae C, Gliese 747AB) Gliese 747AB is a nearby star system composed of two red dwarf stars of the spectral types M3 and M5. The system is 26.5 light years distant from the Sun. The two stars orbit each other at a small angular separation (0.35”) with a period of 5 years. DEEP SKY OBJECTS IN LYRA Messier 56 by Hubble Space Telescope Messier 56 (M56, NGC 6779) Messier 56 is a globular cluster in Lyra constellation. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 8.3 and is approximately 32,900 light years distant from the solar system. The cluster is about 84 light years across. It was discovered by Charles Messier on January 19, 1779. M56 lies halfway between the stars Albireo (Beta Cygni) in Cygnus constellation and Sulafat, Gamma Lyrae. It appears as a fuzzy star in larger binoculars, but can be resolved with an 8 inch telescope. M56 is believed to be about 13.70 billion years old. The brightest stars in it are 13th magnitude, and it contains about a dozen variables. The planetary nebula Messier 57, also known as the Ring Nebula, in the constellation Lyra. Image: Hubble Heritage Team The Ring Nebula – Messier 57 (M57, NGC 6720) The Ring Nebula , Messier 57, is a famous planetary nebula in Lyra constellation, located south of the bright star Vega, about 40% of the distance from Beta to Gamma Lyrae. It is relatively easy to find and is a popular target among amateur astronomers. The nebula was formed when a shell of ionized gas was expelled by a red giant star that was in the process of becoming a white dwarf. It is expanding at the rate of about 1 arcsecond per century. The central planetary nebula nucleus (PNN) was discovered by the Hungarian astronomer Jenő Gothard on September 1, 1886. The Ring Nebula belongs to the class of planetary nebulae known as bipolar nebulae. It has a thick equatorial ring that noticeably extends the structure through its main axis of symmetry. The nebula has an apparent visual magnitude of 8.8 and is approximately 2,300 light years distant. It was discovered by the French astrononer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix in January 1779, and Charles Messier discovered it independently later the same month, and included it in his catalogue as the 57th object. NGC 6791, image: NASA, ESA, Digitized Sky Survey, and L. Bedin (STScI) NGC 6791 NGC 6791 is an open cluster in Lyra. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 9.5 and is approximately 13,300 light years distant from the solar system. The cluster was discovered by the German astronomer Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke in 1853. It is believed to be around 8 billion years old. It is one of the oldest and most metal-rich clusters known in the Milky Way. NGC 6745 – A large spiral galaxy, with its nucleus still intact, peers at the smaller passing galaxy (nearly out of the field of view at lower right), while a bright blue beak and bright whitish-blue top feathers show the distinct path taken during the smaller galaxy’s journey. These galaxies did not merely interact gravitationally as they passed one another, they actually collided. When galaxies collide, the stars that normally comprise the major portion of the luminous mass of each of the two galaxies will almost never collide with each other, but will pass rather freely between each other with little damage. Wherever the interstellar clouds of the two galaxies collide, they do not freely move past each other without interruption but, rather, suffer a damaging collision. High relative velocities cause ram pressures at the surface of contact between the interacting interstellar clouds. This pressure, in turn, produces material densities sufficiently extreme as to trigger star formation through gravitational collapse. The hot blue stars in this image are evidence of this star formation. Image: Hubble Heritage Team NGC 6745 NGC 6745 is an irregular galaxy in Lyra constellation, believed to be around 10 billion years old. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 13.3 and is approximately 206 million light years distant from the Sun. NGC 6745 is really a triplet of galaxies that have been colliding and merging for hundreds of millions of years. The larger galaxy, NGC 6745A, is believed to have been a spiral galaxy before the collision, but now appears peculiar as a result of the encounter. The smaller galaxy, NGC 6745B, has passed through the larger one and is now moving away from it. The smaller galaxy is believed to have lost most of its interstellar medium to the larger one in the collision. IC 1296 IC 1296 is a barred spiral galaxy in Lyra constellation. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 14.8 and is approximately 221 million light years distant from Earth. The galaxy lies 4′ to the north-west of the Ring Nebula . Astronomy	i don't know
The 1968 film '2001: A space Odyssey' was based on which story by Arthur C Clarke?	Arthur C. Clarke biography \| birthday, trivia \| British Writer \| Who2 Arthur C. Clarke Biography Writer Sci-fi superstar Arthur C. Clarke wrote the 1953 novel Childhood’s End, which went on to become one of most popular and acclaimed science fiction novels of all time. Yet he is still better known for his 1968 novel 2001: A Space Odyssey (based on his own 1951 short story The Sentinel). Clarke worked with director Stanley Kubrick on the screenplay for the 1968 film, which is now regarded as a classic. Clarke has published hundreds of essays and short stories and over 75 novels, including the sequels 2010: Odyssey Two (1982), 2061: Odyssey Three (1988), 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997). Along with his literary work, he is credited with coming up with the idea for a real-life space success: geostationary communications satellites. Since 1956 he has lived in Sri Lanka. Clarke was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1998. Arthur C. Clarke – The Authorized Biography was published by Neil McAleer in 1992. He died in the Indian Ocean country of Sri Lanka, his home since 1956. Extra credit Clarke’s middle name is Charles… He was nominated for a screenwriting Oscar in 1969 for 2001: A Space Odyssey, but did not win; the winner that year was Mel Brooks for the comedy The Producers… Among Clarke’s literary creations is the fictional supercomputer Hal 9000 .	Sentinel
In which BBC T.V. Programme do families consider staying in Britain or emigrating to Australia?	Arthur C Clarke facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about Arthur C Clarke COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Arthur C. Clarke Known as one of the modern masters of science fiction, English novelist Arthur C. Clarke (born 1917) created the immensely popular 2001 series, which became the basis for a classic film in 1968. Arthur C. Clarke is the architect of some of the 20th Century's most enduring mythology. A futurist and science fiction writer, Clarke has penned over 600 articles and short stories, as well as dozens of novels and collections. His work has been translated into over 30 languages and adapted on television and in Hollywood movies, most notably in the classic 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. That Stanley Kubrick movie helped make Arthur C. Clarke an international celebrity. It won a whole new audience for his visionary tales about the possibilities of science and the wonders of space exploration, and solidified his reputation as one of the modern masters of science fiction. Discovers Science Fiction Early Arthur Charles Clarke was born on December 16, 1917 in the seaside town of Minehead, Somerset, England. His parents, Charles Wright and Nora (Willis) Clarke, were farmers. Clarke was educated at Huish's Grammar School in Taunton, Somerset. He first began reading science fiction at the age of 12, when he first discovered the pulp magazine Amazing Stories. It soon became his principal passion. "During my lunch hour away from school I used to haunt the local Woolworth's in search of my fix," he told The New York Times Book Review, "which cost three pence a shot, roughly a quarter today." As a teenager, Clarke began writing his own stories for a school magazine. When poverty forced him to drop out of school in 1936, he moved to London to work as a civil servant auditor for the British government. He kept up his interest in outer space by joining the British Interplanetary Society, an association of sci-fi hobbyists. He wrote articles on space exploration for the Society journal and got to know other science fiction writers and editors. He would later use these contacts to secure the publication of his first stories. When World War II broke out, Clarke joined the Royal Air Force (RAF), where he worked as a radar instructor and earned the rank of flight-lieutenant. During this time, Clarke served as a technical officer on the first Ground Control Approach radar. In 1945, he wrote an article, "Extraterrestrial Relays," which proposed using satellites for communications, something which would become quite common in later years. After the war ended he returned to London and enrolled at King's College. He graduated in 1948 with a bachelor of science degree. His honor subjects were mathematics and physics. Becomes Prominent Futurist In 1946, Clarke became the chairman of the British Interplanetary Society. That spring saw the publication of his first two science fiction stories, "Loophole" and "Rescue Party" (both published in Amazing Science Fiction magazine). During this period, he often wrote under pen names, which included Charles Willis and E.G. O'Brien. His early stories were known for their tidy construction and sound scientific basis. In 1949, Clarke returned to hard science, joining the staff of Physics Abstracts as its assistant editor. But he continued writing about outer space as well. His first novel, Prelude to Space was published in 1951. Another book, The Sands of Mars followed later that year. While many reviewers found the prose in these novels a bit stiff, they did offer an optimistic view of the potentials of science in the space age. Islands in the Sky (1952), about a boy in an orbiting space station, was another representative early book. Sentinel of Things To Come In 1952, Clarke received the International Fantasy Award for his early work. The next year, he published Expedition to Earth, a collection of short stories which included "The Sentinel." This tale, which involves the discovery by humans of a mysterious alien monolith, was to form the basis of the 1968 film and novelization 2001: A Space Odyssey. It also marked the introduction of metaphysical and religious themes into Clarke's work. Many readers saw "The Sentinel" as an allegory about man's search for God. Certainly it expressed Clarke's belief in the power of science in helping mankind understand the universe. Clarke continued to explore these themes in his next two books. Against the Fall of Night (1953) follows a young protagonist in his attempts to escape from the controlled environment of a utopian city of the future. Childhood's End involves an attempt by aliens to tutor mankind in the ways of cosmic transcendence. Both stories so gripped Clarke's imagination that he spent many years revising and rewriting them under various titles. Both novels are highly conceptual and contain many mystical, visionary passages. They are considered two of his finest achievements and helped break new ground in the science fiction genre. Man of Many Interests Clarke maintained other interests during this fertile period as well. On June 15, 1953, he married Marilyn Mayfield. In 1954, he took the first the first step in what would become a lifelong effort to explore and photograph the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the coast of Sri Lanka. He took up residence in Sri Lanka (known at the time as Ceylon) in 1956. An avid skin diver, Clarke wrote many non-fiction books and articles about his experiences. Clarke continued to write prolifically throughout the 1950s. His work came to embrace many topics that went beyond the conventions of genre science fiction. The Deep Range (1954) concerned the possibility of farming under the sea in the future, managing to combine Clarke's interests in science and underwater exploration. The Star (1955) was another powerful allegorical story about a star put in the sky by God to herald the birth of Jesus. It won a Hugo award, the science fiction community's highest honor. In the 1960s, Clarke began to concentrate on non-fiction. His writings on the nature of science won him the UNESCO Kalinga Prize in 1962. In 1963, he published his first non-science fiction novel, Glide Path, about the origins of radar. As space travel became more reality than fiction, Clarke began to write and speak extensively on the subject. He became well-known around the world as a television commentator for CBS covering the Apollo 11, 12, and 15 missions. Becomes an International Figure Clarke's fame took a quantum leap with the release of Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). This adaptation of Clarke's short story "The Sentinel" redefined science fiction filmmaking. It eschewed the cowboy conventions of earlier, Western-influenced movies about space exploration. Instead, 2001 followed Clarke's lead in using science fiction as a bridge to the consideration of mystical and religious themes. The limits of technology were also explored, in a scene where a space station's super computer, known as HAL 9000, goes berserk and attempts to kill its human users. The picture was a hit with moviegoers and made Clarke the most recognizable science fiction writer on the planet. He penned a novelization of the film which expanded upon the characters and themes contained in "The Sentinel." Clarke used his newfound international celebrity to secure a lucrative new book contract. A collection of his non-fiction science writing, The Exploration of Space received the International Fantasy Award in 1972, A new novel, Rendezvous with Rama appeared in 1973. It explored many of the same themes as 2001 and was awarded all the major science fiction prizes. Imperial Earth: A Fantasy of Love and Discord (1975) got a decidedly mixed reception from critics. But Clarke bounced back with Fountains of Paradise (1979), which won the Hugo Award for Best Novel. Clarke disappointed many of his fans, however, when he announced it would be his last book of fiction. Reneges on Promise By 1982, despite his previous statements, Clarke was ready to write another novel. He produced a sequel, 2010: Odyssey Two, which was made into a popular film two years later. It was followed in 1986 by 2061: Odyssey Three, solidifying the "Sentinel" mythos into a full-blown series. Also in 1986, Clarke was the recipient of a Nebula Grand Master Award for his contributions to science fiction. Now in his seventies and a certified living legend, Clarke showed no signs of slowing down. With help from co-author Gentry Lee, he produced sequels to Rendezvous with Rama in 1989, 1991, and 1994. In 1989, his memoir, Astounding Days: A Science Fictional Autobiography appeared. The entertaining account of his life contains many fascinating anecdotes about other writers Clarke had known. The solo novel The Ghost from the Grand Banks (1990), about attempts to raise the Titanic in the near future, was dismissed by reviewers as too spare. But 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997) returned Clarke to familiar and beloved territory. The sprawling conclusion to the saga begun in "The Sentinel" some 45 years earlier read like a summation of the visionary writer's life and philosophy. Clarke's critics have said his work lacks warmth, that he concentrated on science to the detriment of the "human element" that is so necessary to good fiction. But critics sympathetic to Clarke's viewpoint see in his work a vision that transcends the limitations of "nuts and bolts" sci-fi. That vision, wrote Eric S. Rabkin in his study Arthur C. Clarke, is "a humane and open and fundamentally optimistic view of humankind and its potential in a universe which dwarfs us in physical size but which we may hope some day to match in spirit." Further Reading Contemporary Authors, New Revisions, Volume 55, Gale, 1997. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, edited by John Clute and Peter Nichols, St. Martin's Press, 1993. Hollow, John, Against the Night, The Stars: The Science Fiction of Arthur C. Clarke, Harcourt Brace, 1983. Rabkin, Eric S., Arthur C. Clarke, Starmont House, 1979. Cite this article COPYRIGHT 2002 The Gale Group Inc. Clarke, Arthur C. British Science Fiction Writer 1917- Born at Minehead, Somerset, United Kingdom , on December 17, 1917, Arthur C. Clarke was fascinated by science fiction and astronomy at an early age. In the 1930s he joined the British Interplanetary Society. After enlisting in the Royal Air Force in 1941, he became a radar instructor and participated in the development of ground-controlled landings of aircraft under zero-visibility conditions. In 1945 the technical journal Wireless World published Clarke's article "Extra-Terrestrial Relays," which proposed the use of three broadcast satellites in equatorial orbit to provide worldwide communication. Clarke chose an orbital altitude of 35,786 kilometers (22,300 miles) because at that distance the angular velocity of Earth 's rotation would match that of the satellite. As a result, the satellite would remained fixed in the sky. Twenty years later, Early Bird was launched, the first of the commercial satellites that provide global communications networks for telephone, television, and high-speed digital communication, including the Internet . After World War II , Clarke obtained a bachelor of science degree in physics and mathematics at King's College, London. In 1954 he became enchanted by underwater scuba diving, which simulated weightlessness in spaceflight. In 1969 Clarke moved to Sri Lanka . Clarke has written eighty books on science and technology, along with their sociological consequences.* He collaborated with the director Stanley Kubrick on the film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), which was based on his short story "The Sentinel." Clarke has received many honors and awards, including knighthood, the Franklin Institute Gold Medal, the UNESCO-Kalinga Prize, honorary fellow memberships and awards from major scientific and astronautical organizations, and a nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994. Among Clarke's works are the following books: Nonfiction Ascent to Orbit, a Scientific Autobiography: The Technical Writings of Arthur C. Clarke. New York : John Wiley & Sons, 1984. Astounding Days: A Science Fictional Autobiography. New York: Bantam, 1989. The Exploration of Space. New York: Harper, 1951. Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!: Collected Essays, 1934-1998. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999. How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village. New York: Bantam, 1992. The Making of a Moon: The Story of the Earth Satellite Program. New York: Harper, 1957. Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible. New York: Harper, 1962. The Promise of Space. New York: Harper, 1968. Voices from the Sky: Previews of the Coming Space Age. New York:Harper, 1965. Fiction Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology COPYRIGHT 2001 The Gale Group Inc. Clarke, Arthur C. (1917-) Famous British science fiction author and technologist credited with originating the concept of communication satellites. Clarke has also presented two television series on paranormal phenomena. He was born December 16, 1917, in Minehead, Somersetshire, England , and was educated at King's College, University of London (B.Sc., 1948). He had previously been an auditor in the British Civil Service (1936-44) and a radar instructor in the Royal Air Force (1941-46), retiring as a flight lieutenant. After graduation he served as an assistant editor of Science Abstracts (1949-50). He began freelance writing in 1951 and has since turned out numerous nonfiction and science fiction books such as, Childhood's End, and Rendezvous with Rama. He was selected to chair the Second International Astronautics Congress in London, 1951. Clarke has received many important awards for his science fiction writing and his scientific contributions, including the Stuart Ballantine Gold Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1963 for his concept of communications satellites, the Robert Ball Award from the Aviation-Space Writers Association in 1965 for best aerospace reporting of the year, and the Westinghouse Science Writing Award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1969. Clarke became internationally famous for his screenplay (with Stanley Kubrick) for the film 2001: A Space Odyssey, which received the Second International Film Festival special award in 1969 and an Academy Award nomination from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (1969). With such a background of scientific fact and fiction, Clarke's investigation of claimed paranormal phenomena was of special interest. He was coauthor with Simon Welfare and John Fairley of two important television series: Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World (1980) and Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers (1984), both presented on British television and later aired on programs in the United States and other countries. The series was supported by books containing additional material not in the television programs. In both books and television programs, Clarke and his collaborators express a considerable skepticism, although granting a limited probability to certain claimed paranormal phenomena such as apparitions, maledictions, poltergeists, telepathy, stigmata, and fire walking. However, the great value of books and programs lay in the scrutiny of recent phenomena instead of simply a rehash of old material, and in the television programs rare early movie records of phenomena were shown together with recently filmed events. Both books and television programs therefore constitute a useful record of research, and even their skepticism is a healthy corrective to overcredulous writing and filming on the paranormal. Sources: The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press Arthur C. Clarke: (Sir Arthur Charles Clarke), 1917–2008, British science fiction writer. During World War II he served as a radar instructor and aviator in the Royal Air Force. After the war he obtained a degree in physics and mathematics from King's College, London (1948) and in 1956 he settled permanently in Sri Lanka. His popular, technologically realistic books and stories are based not solely on imagination but also on scientific fact and theory. His works blend dread and wonder as they examine the search for meaning in the universe and as they champion the idea that humanity's future lies far beyond Earth. Among his nearly 100 books are Childhood's End (1953), The Nine Billion Names of God (1967), Rendezvous with Rama (1973), and The Songs of Distant Earth (1983); he alwo wrote more than 1,000 short stories and essays. In 1968 he collaborated with filmmaker Stanley Kubrick on 2001: A Space Odyssey, a novel that became an extremely successful motion picture with a screenplay also co-written by Kubrick and Clarke. Three novelistic sequels by Clarke followed, the last in 1997. Clarke's Collected Stories were published in 2001. Many of his ideas proved to be prophetic. In 1945, for instance, Clarke proposed the concept of positioning an artificial satellite in an orbit in which it circles the earth every 24 hours, thus appearing stationary to the locale below. Today, dozens of such communications satellites orbit the earth in a geosynchronous circuit known as the Clarke orbit. He was knighted in 1998. See his Astounding Days: A Science Fictional Autobiography (1990); biography by N. McAleer (1992); study by J. D. Olander and M. H. Greenberg, ed. (1977), G. E. Slusser (1977), E. S. Rabkin (1979), and J. Hollow (1983). Cite this article COPYRIGHT 2001 The Gale Group Inc. CLARKE, Arthur C(harles) Nationality: British. Born: Minehead, Somerset, 16 December 1917. Education: Huish's Grammar School, Taunton, Somerset, 1927-36; King's College, London, 1946-48, B.Sc. (honours) in physics and mathematics 1948. Military Service: Flight Lieutenant in the Royal Air Force, 1941-46; served as Radar Instructor, and Technical Officer on the first Ground Controlled Approach radar; originated proposal for use of satellites for communications, 1945. Family: Married Marilyn Mayfield in 1954 (divorced 1964). Career: Assistant auditor, Exchequer and Audit Department, London, 1936-41; assistant editor, Physics Abstracts, London, 1949-50; since 1954, engaged in underwater exploration and photography of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the coast of Sri Lanka. Director, Rocket Publishing, London, Underwater Safaris, Colombo, and the Spaceward Corporation, New York. Has made numerous radio and television appearances (most recently as presenter of the television series Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World, 1980, and World of Strange Powers, 1985), and has lectured widely in Britain and the United States; commentator, for CBS-TV, on lunar flights of Apollo 11, 12 and 15; Vikram Sarabhai Professor, Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India, 1980. Awards: International Fantasy award, 1952; Hugo award, 1956, 1969 (for screenplay), 1974, 1980; Unesco Kalinga prize, 1961; Boys' Clubs of America award, 1961; Franklin Institute Ballantine medal, 1963; Aviation-Space Writers Association Ball award, 1965; American Association for the Advancement of Science-Westinghouse Science Writing award, 1969; Playboy award, 1971; Nebula award, 1972, 1973, 1979; Jupiter award, 1973; John W. Campbell Memorial award, 1974; American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics award, 1974; Boston Museum of Science Washburn award, 1977; Marconi fellowship, 1982; Science Fiction Writers of America Grand Master award, 1986; Vidya Jyothi medal, 1986; International Science Policy Foundation medal, 1992; Lord Perry award, 1992; Presidential Award, University of Illinois, 1997. D.Sc.: Beaver College, Glenside, Pennsylvania, 1971. D. Litt.: University of Liverpool, 1995; University of Hong Kong, 1996. Chair, British Interplanetary Society, 1946-47, 1950-53. Guest of Honor, World Science Fiction Convention, 1956. Fellow, Royal Astronomical Society; Fellow, King's College, London, 1977; Chancellor, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, since 1979. C.B.E. (Commander, Order of the British Empire), 1989; knighted, 1998. European satellite, launched in April 2000, named after Clarke in recognition of his contribution to the development of global communication networks. Agent: David Higham Associates Ltd., 5-8 Lower John Street, London W1R 4HA, England; or, Scouil, Chichak, Galen Literary Agency, 381 Park Avenue, New York, New York 10016, U.S.A. Address: 25 Barnes Place, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka; or, Dene Court, Bishop's Lydeard, Taunton, Somerset TA4 3LT, England. Publications Novels Prelude to Space. New York, Galaxy, 1951; London, Sidgwick andJackson, 1953; as Master of Space, New York, Lancer 1961; as The Space Dreamers, Lancer, 1969. The Sands of Mars. London, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1951; New York, Gnome Press, 1952. Against the Fall of Night. New York, Gnome Press, 1953; revised edition, as The City and the Stars, London, Muller, and New York, Harcourt Brace, 1956. Childhood's End. New York, Ballantine, 1953; London, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1954. Earthlight. London, Muller, and New York, Ballantine, 1955, 1998. The Deep Range. New York, Harcourt Brace, and London, Muller, 1957. Across the Sea of Stars (omnibus). New York, Harcourt Brace, 1959. A Fall of Moondust. London, Gollancz, and New York, HarcourtBrace, 1961. From the Oceans, From the Stars (omnibus). New York, HarcourtBrace, 1962. Glide Path. New York, Harcourt Brace, 1963; London, Sidgwick andJackson, 1969. An Arthur C. Clarke Omnibus [and Second Omnibus ]. London, Sidgwick and Jackson, 2 vols., 1965-68. Prelude to Mars (omnibus). New York, Harcourt Brace, 1965. 2001: A Space Odyssey (novelization of screenplay), with StanleyKubrick. New York, New American Library, and London, Hutchinson, 1968; with a new introduction, Thorndike, Maine, G. K. Hall, 1994. The Lion of Comarre, and Against the Fall of Night. New York, Harcourt Brace, 1968; London, Gollancz, 1970. Rendezvous with Rama. London, Gollancz, and New York, HarcourtBrace, 1973. Imperial Earth. London, Gollancz, 1975; revised edition, New York, Harcourt Brace, 1976. The Fountains of Paradise. London, Gollancz, and New York, Harcourt Brace, 1979. 2010: Odyssey Two. New York, Ballantine, and London, Granada, 1982. The Songs of Distant Earth. London, Grafton, and New York, Ballantine, 1986. 2061: Odyssey Three. New York, Ballantine, and London, Grafton, 1988. Cradle, with Gentry Lee. London, Gollancz, and New York, Warner, 1988. Rama II, with Gentry Lee. London, Gollancz, and New York, Bantam, 1989. Beyond the Fall of Night, with Gregory Benford. New York, Putnam, 1990; with Against the Fall of Night, London, Gollancz, 1991. The Ghost from the Grand Banks. New York, Bantam, and London, Gollancz, 1990. The Garden of Rama, with Gentry Lee. London, Gollancz, and NewYork, Bantam, 1991. Rama Revealed, with Gentry Lee . London, Gollancz, and New York, Bantam, 1993. The Hammer of God. London, Gollancz, and New York, Bantam, 1993. Richter 10, with Mike McQuay. New York, Bantam Books, 1996. 3001: The Final Odyssey. New York, Ballantine Books, 1997. The Trigger, with Michael Kube-McDowell. New York, BantamBooks, 1999. The Light of Other Days, with Stephen Baxter. New York, Tor, 2000. Short Stories 2001: A Space Odyssey, with Stanley Kubrick, 1968. Other Interplanetary Flight: An Introduction to Astronautics. London, Temple Press, 1950; New York, Harper, 1951; revised edition, 1960. The Exploration of Space. London, Temple Press, and New York, Harper, 1951; revised edition, 1959. Islands in the Sky (for children). London, Sidgwick and Jackson, andPhiladelphia, Winston, 1952. The Young Traveller in Space (for children). London, Phoenix House, 1954; as Going into Space, New York, Harper, 1954; as The Scottie Book of Space Travel, London, Transworld, 1957; revised edition, with Robert Silverberg, as Into Space, New York, Harper, 1971. The Exploration of the Moon. London, Muller, 1954; New York, Harper, 1955. The Coast of Coral. London, Muller, and New York, Harper, 1956. The Making of a Moon: The Story of the Earth Satellite Program. London, Muller, and New York, Harper, 1957; revised edition, Harper, 1958. The Reefs of Taprobane: Underwater Adventures Around Ceylon. London, Muller, and New York, Harper, 1957. Voice Across the Sea. London, Muller, 1958; New York, Harper, 1959; revised edition, London, Mitchell Beazley, and Harper, 1974. Boy Beneath the Sea (for children). New York, Harper, 1958. The Challenge of the Spaceship: Previews of Tomorrow's World. New York, Harper, 1959; London, Muller, 1960. The First Five Fathoms: A Guide to Underwater Adventure. NewYork, Harper, 1960. The Challenge of the Sea. New York, Holt Rinehart, 1960; London, Muller, 1961. Indian Ocean Adventure. New York, Harper, 1961; London, Barker, 1962. Profiles of the Future: An Enquiry into the Limits of the Possible. London, Gollancz, 1962; New York, Harper, 1963; revised edition, Harper, 1973; Gollancz, 1974, 1982; New York, Holt Rinehart, 1984. Dolphin Island (for children). New York, Holt Rinehart, and London, Gollancz, 1963. The Treasure of the Great Reef. London, Barker, and New York, Harper, 1964; revised edition, New York, Ballantine, 1974. Indian Ocean Treasure, with Mike Wilson. New York, Harper, 1964;London, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1972. Man and Space, with the editors of Life. New York, Time, 1964. Voices from the Sky: Previews of the Coming Space Age. New York, Harper, 1965; London, Gollancz, 1966. The Promise of Space. New York, Harper, and London, Hodder andStoughton, 1968. First on the Moon, with the astronauts. London, Joseph, and Boston, Little Brown, 1970. Report on the Planet Three and Other Speculations. London, Gollancz, and New York, Harper, 1972. The Lost Worlds of 2001. New York, New American Library, andLondon, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1972. Beyond Jupiter: The Worlds of Tomorrow, with Chesley Bonestell. Boston, Little Brown, 1972. Technology and the Frontiers of Knowledge (lectures), with others. New York, Doubleday, 1973. The View from Serendip (on Sri Lanka). New York, Random House, 1977; London, Gollancz, 1978. 1984: Spring: A Choice of Futures. New York, Ballantine, andLondon, Granada, 1984. Ascent to Orbit: A Scientific Autobiography: The Technical Writings of Arthur C. Clarke. New York and Chichester, Sussex, Wiley, 1984. The Odyssey File, with Peter Hyams. New York, Ballantine, andLondon, Granada, 1985. Astounding Days: A Science-Fictional Autobiography. London, Gollancz, 1989; New York, Bantam, 1990. How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village. London, Gollancz, and New York, Bantam, 1992. By Space Possessed: Essays on the Exploration of Space. London, Gollancz, 1993. The Snows of Olympus: A Garden on Mars. London, Gollancz, 1994. Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!: Collected Essays, 1934-1998, edited by Ian T. Macauley. New York, St. Martin's Press, 1999. Editor, Time Probe: Sciences in Science Fiction. New York, DelacortePress, 1966; London, Gollancz, 1967. Editor, The Coming of the Space Age: Famous Accounts of Man's Probing of the Universe. London, Gollancz, and New York, Meredith, 1967. Editor, with George Proctor, The Science Fiction Hall of Fame 3: The Nebula Winners 1965-1969. New York, Avon, 1982. Editor, July 20, 2019: A Day in the Life of the 21st Century. NewYork, Macmillan, 1986; London, Grafton, 1987. * Mugar Memorial Library, Boston University. Critical Studies: "Out of the Ego Chamber" by Jeremy Bernstein, in New Yorker, 9 August 1969; Arthur C. Clarke edited by Joseph D. Olander and Martin H. Greenberg, New York, Taplinger, and Edinburgh, Harris, 1977; The Space Odysseys of Arthur C. Clarke by George Edgar Slusser, San Bernardino, California, Borgo Press, 1978; Arthur C. Clarke (includes bibliography) by Eric S. Rabkin, West Linn, Oregon, Starmont House, 1979, revised edition, 1980; Against the Night, The Stars: The Science Fiction of Arthur C. Clarke by John Hollow, New York, Harcourt Brace, 1983, revised edition, Athens, Ohio University Press-Swallow Press, 1987; Odyssey: The Authorized Biography of Arthur C. Clarke by Neil McAleer, Chicago, Contemporary Books, and London, Gollancz, 1992; Arthur C. Clarke: A Critical Companion by Robin Anne Reid. Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Press, 1997; Arthur C. Clarke and Lord Dunsany, a Correspondence, edited by Keith Allen Daniels. San Francisco, Anamnesis Press, 1998. Arthur C. Clarke comments: I regard myself primarily as an entertainer and my ideals are Maugham, Kipling, Wells. My chief aim is the old SF cliché, "The search for wonder." However, I am almost equally interested in style and rhythm, having been much influenced by Tennyson, Swinburne, Housman, and the Georgian poets. My main themes are exploration (space, sea, time), the position of Man in the hierarchy of the universe, and the effect of contact with other intelligences. The writer who probably had most influence on me was W. Olaf Stapledon (Last and First Men ). * * * Although Arthur C. Clarke's success in the literary field began in the 1950s, his early involvement in the 1930s with the British Interplanetary Society (BIS) heralded his intellectual devotion to outer space. Later, as an enlisted officer in the Royal Air Force, Clarke wrote "Extra Terrestrial Relays" (1945), a prescient article detailing a communications satellite system that predated by two decades the eventual launching of the Early Bird synchronous satellites. Finally, Clarke's first books, the nonfiction Interplanetary Flight and its successor, The Exploration of Space, promoted space travel. The ease with which he rendered complex scientific principles catapulted The Exploration of Space into a Book-of-the-Month selection. Capitalizing on the relationships he fostered through his affiliation with BIS, Clarke wrote nineteen science fiction (sf) stories—some published under the pseudonyms Charles Willis and E.G. O'Brien—before his first two novels, Prelude to Space and The Sands of Mars, were published in 1951. While Peter Nicholls remarks in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction that these early works are marred by wooden prose and a somewhat mechanical structure, the novels do prefigure the scientific optimism, technological sense of wonder, and sheer entertainment value that dominate Clarke's philosophy and define his sf writing. A jewel in the wealth of Clarke's short stories, "Sentinel of Eternity," reprinted in Expedition to Earth as "The Sentinel," shines forth, as it is the inspiration for Stanley Kubrick's landmark movie 2001: A Space Odyssey and Clarke's 2001 novel adaptation. 2001 tells the story of the Discovery, a spaceship operated by an intelligent computer, HAL 9000. The ship is sent into outer space to track a mysterious signal emanating from a black monolith on Earth's moon. HAL's secret agenda slowly eliminates Discovery 's human crew save Dave Bowman who, encountering a mirror monolith on a Saturn moon, evolves into the Star Child. This narrative of an enigmatic alien artifact, also shown four million years in the past helping encourage the dawn of Man, embodies the scientific and metaphysical qualities of Clarke's writings. Nicholls considers these qualities as Clarke's central paradox; namely, that a writer exploring scientific theories and detailing technological advances should be drawn to the metaphysical, mystical, even quasi-religious essence of space and the universe at large. Never one to avoid the tensions between science and religion, Clarke's darkly comic "The Nine Billion Names of God" depicts Tibetan monks who, with the aid of Western computer salesmen and technicians, count all the names of God and, fulfilling the purpose of Man, trigger the end of the universe. In the Hugo-winning "The Star," Clarke offers the reader a Jesuit astrophysicist questioning his faith after discovering evidence that the star of Bethlehem, which had announced the birth of Christ to the Three Wise Men, was a supernova that destroyed an entire alien race. "Although the narrator's faith is troubled," writes David N. Samuelson in Science Fiction Writers, "his trust in science—like Clarke's—is not." Childhood's End, Clarke's first successful sf novel, is replete with his thematic interests in its offering of humanity's transcendent evolution under the guidance and tutelage of the Overlords, a devilshaped alien species steering Earth towards an admittedly ambiguous utopia. The true mission of the Overlords is revealed when Jeff Greggson—son of George and Jean Greggson, who, with others, have rejected the Overlords and established an independent New Athens—begins displaying extrasensory powers. Humanity's maturation, it seems, is available only to Earth's children whose mental evolution draws them into the Overmind, a galactic entity transcending physical form. Barred from achieving their own transcendence, the Overlords watch humanity's evolutionary leap while Jan Rodericks, returning from the Overlords' home planet, remains as the last human to record Earth's final destruction. The novel is bittersweet as it announces humanity's next step up the evolutionary ladder while, in the same breath, condemning a humanity left behind. City and the Stars —an updated and expanded version of Clarke's earlier Against the Fall of Night —depicts the far-future city of Diaspar as an enclosed urban utopia mediated by a complex computerized system. The protagonist Alvin is a "pure pattern" born out of the Memory Banks matrix, the first human born on Earth in ten million years. With the help of Khedron, a jester designed to introduce randomness into the highly regulated cityscape, Alvin escapes Diaspar only to find a parallel race of mentally evolved agrarian humans living in the town of Lys. Joined by the Lys-born Hilvar, Alvin uncovers a long-buried spaceship and proceeds into outer space to encounter the Vanamonde, a body-less consciousness created to defend Earth from the destructive powers of the equally bodiless Shalmirance. City and the Stars narrates humanity's divergent evolution along mental and technical paths, its subsequent consequences and resultant retreat from outer space, and a resurgent humanity once again reaching out to the stars. With the closing sunset/sunrise imagery symbolizing the eclipse of one epoch and the dawn of another, the "final passages blend a sense of loss and of transcendence with an almost mystical intensity," notes Nicholls. While non-fiction books and articles—many of them dealing with undersea exploration—dominated Clarke's output in the 1960s, Rendezvous with Rama was the first of an unprecedented three-book deal Clarke signed following the immense success of 2001. Rama follows a group of humans, led by Captain Bill Norton, who explore a derelict artifact (dubbed "Rama") hurtling through space towards the inner solar system. While exploration and adventure dominate a story full of surprises and technological wonders, transcendence and closure are denied in Rama as the ship's intentions are withheld, only to be explored further in a series of sequels—Rama II, Garden of Rama, and Rama Revealed —written in collaboration with Gentry Lee. Although Clarke's original Rama swept the awards circuit (winning the Hugo, Nebula, John W. Campbell Memorial Award and British Science Fiction Award), controversy swirled as to whether the book, due to its stylistic flaws and narrative structure, actually deserved the awards or whether the accolade stemmed from the return to fiction of a much beloved sf author. Clarke's next two novels, Imperial Earth: A Fantasy of Love and Discord and The Fountains of Paradise, offer a treasure trove of technological wonders and scientific imagery. Imperial Earth, notable for descriptions of outer-planet mining, spaceship propulsion, and cloning, tells the story of Titan native Duncan Mackenzie's investigation of political and scientific intrigues on Earth and his bid, through cloning, to procure an heir to his empire. The Fountains of Paradise narrates Vannevar Morgan's attempts to construct a space elevator designed to escape Earth's gravity. Fleshing out the story are two revelations: first, a highly advanced galactic civilization has communicated with the human race through a robot probe; and, second, Prince Kalidasa had challenged the gods 2, 000 years earlier by attempting to build a tower into heaven on Taprobane, the same island-site for Morgan's space elevator. While The Fountains of Paradise won the Hugo, some critics fault the novel for abruptly dropping the Kalidasa storyline and centering the action on a somewhat stereotyped Morgan. Nevertheless, both novels broach the topics of science, technological marvels, and the bid for a taste of immortality, if not godhood. The 1980s saw Clarke attempt the impossible; namely, to catch lightning in a bottle and write two sequels to 2001. 2010: Odyssey Two and 2061: Odyssey Three attempt to continue the magical weave of science, transcendence, and mystery embodied in the black monolith; unfortunately, the books fail to evoke the same narrative momentum as 2001. 2010 is a proficient book offering a distinctly human story as American/Russian tensions threaten a joint rescue mission of Dave Bowman's Discovery and the reactivation of HAL 9000. 2061 follows Heywood Floyd's exploration of Halley's comet and his subsequent redirection to the Jovian moon of Europa—the one place the monoliths had expressively forbidden humans to visit. While Clarke attempts to sustain the mystery of the monolith through the course of these books, critics feel the monolith was adequately explained in 2001 or, on the other hand, disappointingly depicted in the subsequent sequels. Although the 2001 sequels offer high-caliber scientific ideas and wondrous descriptions of the universe, Clarke's success at plot advancement and narrative vision is questionable. The lukewarm critical reception of the 2001 sequels is symptomatic of the response to Clarke's contemporary work; in fact, divergent opinions on Clarke's narrative execution has increasingly dogged the latter phase of his career. For example, popular and critical responses to The Songs of Distant Earth —an expansion of a 1958 short story about human survivors introducing conflict to the inhabited utopia of Thallassa—and Richter 10 (with Mike McQuay)—a futuristic disaster novel—question the plausibility of Clarke's science, the privileging of scientific principles over plot development, and a pacing that is described alternately as taut and long-winded. Quite possibly the most surprising novel of the 1990s was 3001: The Final Odyssey, supposedly the last of the Odyssey series. In this story, Frank Poole, long believed dead, is revived from a frozen state and is surprised to find the Europa monolith has absorbed Dave Bowman and HAL. Once again, critical opinion varies, as some view the narrative as reasonably written with thoughtful explorations of technology and Freudian theory, while others consider the novel's contemporary rendition of the once-transcendent monolith as an alien threat to be a disappointing treatment with few surprises. Despite increasingly ill health, Clarke has continued to produce a voluminous literary output, often writing in collaboration with contemporary sf authors who grew up reading his early work. Indeed, after more than 50 novels, 35 non-fiction texts, 600 articles and short stories, numerous television scripts, and stints as a commentator during the Apollo moon landings, the Science Fiction Writers of America acknowledged Clarke's extensive contributions and continuing output and bestowed upon him Grand Master status in 1986. Armed with a scientific optimism and a cosmic, even transcendent, perception of humanity's role in an infinitely larger universe, Arthur C. Clarke is credited with helping revolutionize the sf genre from the Golden Age of the 1940s and 1950s through six decades of sf writing and into a new millennium that begins, as Clarke impatiently reiterates, in 2001. —Graham J. Murphy Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA	i don't know
Which French artist painted 'Liberty Leading the People'?	Famous Paintings: Liberty Leading the People, 1830 Famous Paintings: Liberty Leading the People, 1830 Tweet One of the most famous paintings by Eugene Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People is best understood by recalling Western art history in the first half of the 19th century. At that time, the history of painting was an ongoing dialogue between two of its most famous painters: Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1781-1867), and Eugene Delacroix (1789-1863). Their rivalry centered on the supremacy of line and draftsmanship, championed by Ingres, versus that of color, advocated by his rival. This echoed the 17th century debate between the Poussinists and Rubenists. The Poussinists championed academism and the superiority of drawing, while the Rubenists felt that color and its expressive potential were most significant. In the hands of these famous painters, this debate became Classicism versus Romanticism. Today, art history considers Delacroix the father of French Romantic painting. Eugene Delacroix. Self Portrait. Oil on canvas, ca. 1837. Louvre, Paris. To right. Although his classical education at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Delacoix's passion was not in the academic; rather, he opted to capture moments of extreme emotion in his paintings. Nowhere is this more apparent than in Liberty Leading the People, 1830. Historical Events Surrounding Liberty Leading the People Liberty was painted in the aftermath of Paris' "Three Glorious Days" of July 27-29, 1830, when a widespread revolt overthrew the regime of Charles X of France. The impetus for the rebellion was Charles X's plan to reinstate systems of pre-Revolutionary France, which included: pledging one billion francs in an impoverished country to the aristocracy in reparations for property lost during the Revolution; abolishing free press and the legislature; and curtailing suffrage rights. Three days later on July 27th, fighting broke out - not far from the artist's studio - between Parisians and the king's mercenaries. Liberty is a prime example of why and how famous paintings are best understood by exploring their political and social contexts. How so? Liberty Leading the People, 1830. Oil on canvas, approx. 8'6" by 10'8". Louvre, Paris. The Hats This seemingly minor detail conveys a crucial aspect of what is being communicated in Liberty Leading the People -- except for the monarchy, all social classes participated in the revolt, as telegraphed by the hats worn by the fighters. The factory worker with an uplifted saber (on the left) sports the hat typical of his class; next to Liberty is a young man waving two pistols and wearing the black beret traditionally donned by university students. And so it is with top hats and cloth hats. But Liberty herself steals the show. Not only is she a symbol of bravery, persistence, and leadership, but she reminds viewers that women played an indispensable role in the events of July 1830. With a Greek profile and exposed breasts, she is reminiscent of ancient statuary, an allegory of revolution set in a realistic battle scene. She, too, wears a hat; her Phrygian cap was a widely recognized symbol of liberty during the French Revolution. She grasps a musket in one hand and the new Tricolor in the other. This flag was adopted by the new monarchy to supersede the white flag of the Bourbons. Repetition of the Tricolor - on the Notre Dame towers in the distant and on end of a pike at the left - conveys hope hat this new regime won't revert to pre-Revolutionary France. Within the subdued palette of Liberty, the saturated hues of the flag are a riveting exception; its colors are echoed in the blue pants legs, socks and jacket, and in the red sash and blood stains of the downed fighters. The Aftermath By 3 August 1830, the uprising was successful: Charles X abdicated and went into exile. The 1831 Salon, though, didn't consider Liberty to be a succesful painting. Critics sniped that Liberty herself looked like a working class woman, a fishwife, or perhaps even a harlot. Worse still, the dramatic energy and proletarian power captured in this painting were deemed so incendiary and dangerous that this masterpiece was hidden from public view until 1855. Now, Liberty is justifiably considered one of the most famous paintings by Delacroix, with its use on French bills and postage stamps (left) attesting to its status as an icon of French culture and art history. Explore some Ingres paintings to see how a radically different style. And investigate some Jacques Louis David paintings, which offer a visual chronicle of the French Revolution. See how engaging art history can be when told a certain way? That's what Masterpiece Cards is all about! This boxed set of 250 art history cards offers: facts about and stories behind famous paintings a checklist of must-see masterpieces in US and European art museums highlights from over five centuries of art history. See sample Masterpiece Cards -- there's nothing like them, we promise. And stay in touch by joining this blog for weekly-ish articles like this one.	Eugène Delacroix
In the church calendar what name is given to the first Sunday after Easter Sunday?	Eugene Delacroix - Bio, Facts, Family \| Famous Birthdays Eugene Delacroix Taurus Artist#26 About French Romantic artist and lithographer who most famously painted "Liberty Leading the People" in 1830 and influenced the Impressionists. Before Fame He began his neoclassical artistic training with Pierre-Narcisse Guerin in 1815. Four years later, he was commissioned to paint his early work "The Virgin of the Harvest" by a local church. Trivia His use of color and brushstrokes influenced the development of French Impressionism, and the thematic content of his work similarly inspired the Symbolist movement. Family Life He grew up as the son of Victoire Oeben and Charles-François Delacroix. However, he was likely the biological child of the renowned French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, who remained Delacroix's artistic patron throughout his career.	i don't know
Who played the Doctor Who companion Donna Noble??	A Companion To The Doctor’s Companions: Donna Noble \| Anglophenia \| BBC America A Companion To The Doctor’s Companions: Donna Noble By Fraser McAlpine \| 5 years ago The Doctor and Donna Once you’ve had your horizons dramatically shifted, you’ll always come back different. Every one of the Doctor’s former companions knows this. They’ve seen things that the majority of their fellow humans don’t believe in. They’ve taken part in enormously significant events, but can’t ever really talk about it, because no one will believe them. They’re heroes and heroines, saviors of whole civilizations, but not on their home planet. No one embodies this contradiction better than Donna Noble. When it was first announced that Catherine Tate would become the Tenth Doctor’s next assistant after Martha Jones, people were concerned. Catherine was best known as a sketch comedienne, had already made a huge name for herself in the UK, to such a extent that she had managed to convince the Prime Minister, Tony Blair, to appear in a sketch with her. Doctor Who has a thick seam of comedy running through it, always has had, but alarm bells were ringing. The show had only been back a few years, by bringing in a comedy performer with their own cultural baggage, could things tip over into panto territory? Was the show in danger of falling back into its bad old self-referential wink-wink “let’s put this in for the fans” ways? Thankfully not. After two companions who clearly fancied the pants off of the handsome Tennenth Doctor (pun intended), Donna is the bucket of ice-water in his cocky face. There would be no “reversing the polarity of the neutron flow” with Donna Noble around, she’d be far more likely to look blankly at the Doctor and insist he just gets ON with it. And Donna wasn’t just there to act as a latter-day Tegan. The insane cockiness of the Tenth Doctor needed tempering. After Martha had been transformed from a trainee doctor to a soldier, and her family traumatised by the Master, he needed someone who could help him take stock of where he’d been and the rules he chose to live by. Donna’s role in the Doctor’s life was similar to that of an elder sister, looking after a child prodigy. Yes he can do stuff that she can’t do, but she ping-pongs between knowing this is astonishing and being appalled by what it all means. And she’s not shy of telling him either. Here’s her first scene, another of the Tenth Doctor’s great “what? What? WHAT?” cliff-hangers: <noscript><iframe width="500" height="375" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/WyTn8gWlbu8?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></noscript> And here’s the Doctor trying to cheer Donna up by bringing her into his world a bit: <noscript><iframe width="500" height="281" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/330-Zdk5myk?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></noscript> And here’s a selection of Donna moments, funny and sad, sharp and soft. There are points during this selection when you could’ve renamed the show Donna Who and no one would’ve minded: <noscript><iframe width="500" height="375" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/E83ZLtYar7s?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></noscript> And when the comedy does come, it’s not silly or self-congratulatory, it comes from the fact that Donna is a right madam (and so is the Doctor). That familial bickering has been there throughout, which can cause some confusion: <noscript><iframe width="500" height="375" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/koPXlG4wIxc?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></noscript> And here’s Donna knowingly doing what every elder sister would do – the right thing – and trying not to get bitter about having to be the one to do it. <noscript><iframe width="500" height="281" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8kQVtWuvsUU?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></noscript> Oh and let’s have another look at her goodbye, shall we? Coming hard on the heels of the Doctor’s final farewell to Rose, it’s every bit as sad, but somehow crueller. Having saved the day, she gets no compensatory human Doctor to cuddle up to, no fond memories to look back on. She gave everything and got nothing back in return. Her horizons changed, and were then artificially put back again. <noscript><iframe width="500" height="375" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pjiYE7KizIw?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></noscript> Tell you what, if she could remember what had happened to her, he’d be getting the telling-off of ALL. TIME, winning lottery ticket or no winning lottery ticket.	Catherine Tate
Which composer's second symphony is known as The Resurrection Symphony'?	Companions of New Who: Donna Noble \| Doctor Who TV Companions of New Who: Donna Noble February 21, 2013 Email Guest contributor Mark Spurdle continues his companion retrospective, this time with Donna. Since Doctor Who’s revival, we have been graced with a number of companions, some gaining high praise from fans, and others not. In my series of articles I will be talking about the key moments for these companions and giving my overall views. Introduction Once again a jaw dropping, hair–raising series had ended, and it also was the end to Martha Jones’ tenure on our screens, battling monsters and saving the day with the Doctor. We were promised a new companion, along with a series that was deemed to be the best series of New Who. To make a series complete you require a companion that can make you laugh, gasp and cry, and we got that through Donna Noble. Of course, Donna Noble didn’t actually make her first appearance in the opener of Series 4 “Partners in Crime”. Oh no! The dastardly clever man known as Russell T Davies had her first appear in the 2006 Christmas special “The Runaway Bride”. Her appearance stunned the Doctor as no-one can just “hop” into the TARDIS! In my opinion Donna wasn’t completely likeable or engaging in this episode. I know Catherine Tate was playing here, but she just acted and portrayed Donna like any other Tate character. She was mouthy, bad tempered and raised her voice a lot. However, she wasn’t always like this. She showed her humanity and caring nature when she witnessed the Doctor flooding the Racnoss Empress and her children. Without her the Doctor wouldn’t have left the scene, so basically, she saved his life. This warranted her the offer of joining the Doctor in the TARDIS, however much to my surprise (as well as the Doctor’s) she declined, but said that the Doctor needs someone in his life, to slow him down and make him think of the consequences. It seemed Donna Noble would be a one episode character. (So we thought!) What did work? There are so many positive traits regarding Donna. She is regarded among as one of the best New Who companions by many “Who” fans, myself included. To gain such praise and acclaim means she must have had some incredible traits. But what were these traits? For starters, I love a companion that shows passion and humanity, and Donna ticks the box for me as she shows so much in Series 4. I look back on episodes such as “The Fires of Pompeii”, the compassion and emotion she possessed when she realised she simply could not save those around her in Pompeii due to fixed time, showed us all that she was a great addition to the TARDIS and also showed us that Catherine Tate CAN (yes, can!) act in serious roles and isn’t a one dimensional comedienne. Donna showcased all again in another emotional and tear jerking episode. I’m talking about the episode “Planet of the Ood”. Slavery is naturally a horrific topic and seeing it happen to the Ood in the way it did shocked not only me, but Donna. She showed great determination to try and free the Ood which warmed my heart, and made her go down in my good books. Furthermore the “Doctor Donna!” is another piece of brilliance from Mr. Davies and it is a rather interesting idea. A half Doctor, half Donna sounds absurd at the time. But it’s actually “Brilliant!”. The Doctor’s intelligence and Donna’s spark creates something amazing and something we’ve never seen before. Donna defeated the Daleks with such ease, it was as if she just flicked a switch…..oh wait, she did! Even though this ending annoys me quite a bit (I mean come on, it’s the Daleks! They can’t be defeated by just flipping a switch!), I’m still pleased to see Donna save the day, showing to everyone that she is important. Of course, all good things must come to an end, and Donna’s came in such a horrible way. Russell T Davies really is a genius when it comes to making viewers of Doctor Who emotionally attached to his characters, and me, like many other Whovians were certainly attached to Donna. It was utterly heart-breaking to see Donna so happy, so exhilarated when she was the Doctor Donna. She was on top of the world; she was finally equal to the Doctor (if not better) and was finally starting to feel better about herself. But her world came crashing down, the Doctor Donna was impossible, it would kill her, her mind could not contain such information and power. My heart could not contain such heart-breaking moments such as when the Doctor had to wipe poor Donna’s mind, meaning she would forget him, the TARDIS and everything she had done and everything she had saved. This….was the first time I had cried at Doctor Who. What didn’t work? For me, the poor points of our fiery mouthed Donna were of course, her loud and unnecessary shouting. Now, I don’t begrudge a companion shouting “DOCTOR!” when in trouble, but shouting and saying things like “OI!” all the time got on my nerves quite a bit. It wasn’t needed and made our beloved companions seem like some foul mouthed creature. However, she rarely did this in Series 4, unlike her debut episode “The Runaway Bride”. The End of Time Donna, unlike Rose, Sarah Jane and Martha was the only former companion to not make a cameo in Tennant’s swansong. Instead she played a significant part in the episode. Donna purchased a book on Joshua Naismith, due to the Doctor Donna. Of course, Donna being oblivious to her former state purchased it because it felt right and it made her think of Wilf. Her mind was burning up and she was close to death due to remembering her time with the Doctor and the TARDIS (due to the Master changing every human into himself). When I saw Donna’s discomfort and pain I feared she would actually die, of course she didn’t and she went too “sleep”. When she woke up to the noise of the TARDIS she uttered one of my favourite Donna quotes: “Have I missed something…again?!” Furthermore I thought Donna would never be seen again, however, I was wrong! The Doctor, visiting his old companions before he “died” decided to pay Donna a visit, well, not actually a visit, but he did turn up on her wedding day. Stood in the shadows he presented Wilf and Sylvia a present, a lottery ticket which was the winning one. Seeing Donna’s joy as she finally married was heart-warming and made my day complete. In conclusion Donna Noble on the whole was one of those classic companions that developed quickly to great success. She possessed that caring nature which showed in Series 4. She was a determined character and never afraid to tell the Doctor when she disagreed with his view and say he was wrong. Donna’s exit was heart-breaking, but her return made me delighted and her closing episode “The End of Time” made her story and character complete. Catherine Tate was a phenomenal actor regarding Donna and really showed us that she could be serious and surprised me and many others. Overall, Donna and Catherine Tate were a breath of fresh air and made Series 4 a great series. Other articles in this series:	i don't know
Which tennis player was known as The Bounding Basque'?	Jean Borotra \| Tennis Player Profile at Sports Pundit France French tennis player, Jean Robert Borotra, was known as the “Bounding Basque” during the prime time of his tennis career. He led tennis in the late 1920’s until the early 1930’s. Born on August 13, 1898 in Domaine du Pouy and died on July 17, 1994, Borotra won at least 5 Grand Slam championship titles under the singles category. He was also successful in the 1928 Australian championships under the singles, double, and mixed doubles category; the French Championships from 1924 to 1936 tournaments under the singles, men’s doubles and mixed doubles categories; and the 1925 to 1932 Wimbledon Championship under the singles, men’s and mixed doubles. He only took the championship title of the mixed doubles and was the finalist for the singles category of the American championship title. Borotra first appeared in the 1921 French Davis Cup team and was one of the famous “Four Musketeers” in France. He was also an active member of the Francois de la Rocque’s Parti Social Francias. During the leadership of Vichy France in the Revolution Nationale’s development of sports policies of international tennis from August 1940 to April 1942, Borotra became the 1st General Commissioner. Borotra, together with the other Musketeers were elected into the 1976 International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island. Aside from achieving a legacy, he too was awarded the Distinguished Service Award by the United Sports Academy. They recognized his achievements and contributions in the tennis world. The Jean Borotra World Fair Play Trophy is annually given by the International Fair Play Committee recognizing accomplishments done by tennis players of this generation. He was the founder and President of Honour of the International Committee for Fair Play. At 95, Bortora died at Arbonne because of old age and illness. Improve this page! Latest edit made by Maree Cartujano Share this page: Log in or sign up to post a comment Reply to	Jean Borotra
The Eclipse Stakes are run annually at which English racecourse?	Throwback Thursday: The Bounding Basque - The Championships, Wimbledon 2017 - Official Site by IBM Throwback Thursday: The Bounding Basque By Sarah Kirkham Wimbledon's Throwback Thursday series continues with a look at Jean Borotra, the Bounding Basque. Wimbledon.com explains... It’s not every day you are able to witness a tennis legend take part in a Championship main event 42 years after their first Wimbledon appearance. But in 1964, this is exactly what eager tennis fans had in store. At 65 years old, Jean Borotra was participating in the Gentlemen’s and Mixed Doubles. Playing with fellow Frenchman Gil de Kermadec in the Gentlemen’s Doubles, they lost in the first round to Jan Hajer and Tom Okker from the Netherlands 6-4, 6-3, 6-1. Borotra succeeded in reaching the second round of the Mixed Doubles with Isabelle de Lansalut, also from France, but was defeated by Ian Crookenden and Robyn Ebbern 6-3, 6-0. The fact that he competed in the main event at this age certainly tells you something about his enthusiasm. Budge Patty for instance was born in the same year as Borotra’s first victory, and ceased playing in the main events in 1961. Three years before Borotra stopped playing. Borotra is possibly best remembered as one of the greatest French players to have dominated the golden age of tennis in the 1920s. As part of the ‘Four Musketeers’ (which included Rene Lacoste, Henri Cochet and Jacques Brugnon) every Gentlemen’s Singles Championship between 1924 and 1929 was a French victory. They appeared to be unstoppable. His first victory came in 1924, two years after his first appearance. He defeated his fellow Musketeer Lacoste 6-1, 3-6, 6-1, 3-6, 6-4 to become the first male from outside the English speaking world to win Wimbledon. During this dominance Borotra was given the nickname ‘The Bounding Basque’. Wearing his trademark black beret, he played with an infectious flare and excitement that rapidly spread throughout the transfixed crowd. This excitement was often heightened when he began to kiss the hands of female spectators during play. Something I am sure a few avid tennis fans of today would not mind! He continually played in the main events from 1922 to 1939, and again from 1948 to 1964. During the war years he was created the French First General Commissioner to Sports until 1942 when he was arrested by the Nazi secret police, the Gestapo. He spent the rest of the war imprisoned in a German concentration camp before being moved to Itter Castle in Austria until May 1945. Borotra continued to play at Wimbledon as part of the Veteran’s events (later renamed the Senior Invitation Doubles) right up until 1977 - 55 years after his Wimbledon debut!! To this day, he remains the oldest competitor to have competed in the main event. I wonder how John McEnroe and Jimmy Connors would fare in the main event today?	i don't know
What name is given to the electrical discharge seen around a ship's masthead?	St. Elmo's Fire: Helena, Castor and Pollux, &c. The Nautical Magazine (1832), p.696 onward. Saint Elmo's Fire. Among the many natural phenomena which have excited the superstitious awe of mankind in past ages, but which happily have met with their explanation among the generalizations of modern science, are those remarkable luminous appearances which in certain states of the air invest pointed bodies, such as the masts of ships, and are known to the English sailors as Comazants,—to the French and Spaniards under the more poetican name of St. Elmo's (or St. Helmo's) Fires,—and to the Iralians as the Fires of St. Peter and St. Nicholas; the Portuguese call them Corpo Santo, and in some parts of the Mediterranean they are named after St. Clair. One of the most ancient notices of this phenomenon is recorded in the Commentaries of Cæsar, in his book "De Bello Africano," where it is spoken of as a very extraordinary appearance.—"In the month of February, about the second watch of the night, there suddenly arose a thick cloud, followed by a shower of hail, and the same night the points of the spears belonging to the fifth legion seemed to take fire." Seneca also, in his "Quæstiones Naturales," states that a star settled on the lance of Gylippus as he was sailing to Syracuse. Pliny, in his second book of Natural History, calls these appearances stars, and says that they settled not only upon the masts and other parts of the ships, but also upon men's heads.—"Stars make their appearance both at land and sea. I have seen a light in that form on the spears of soldiers keeping watch by night upon the ramparts. They are seen also on the sail-yards, and other parts of ships, making an audible sound, and frequently changing their places. Two of these lights forbode good weather and a prosperous voyage, and extinguish one that appears single and with a threatening aspect,—this the sailors call Helen, but the two they call Castor and Pollux, and invoke them as gods. These lights do sometimes, about evening, rest on men's heads and are a great and good omen. But these are among the awful mysteries in nature." Livy also (c. 32.) relates that the spears of some soldiers in Sicily, and a walking stick which a horseman in Sardinia held in his hand, seemed to be on fire. He states also; that the shores were luminous with frequent fires. Plutrach also records the fact, and Procossius affirms that, in the war against the Vandals, the Gods favoured Belisarius with the same good omen. There is no doubt that during many centuries these appearances continued to be regarded with mingled feelings of admiration and fear. In the record of the second voyage of Columbus (Historia del Almirante, written by his son) is a passage which will illustrates the superstituon of the fifteenth century. "During the night of Saturday (October 1493), the thunder and rain being very violent, St. Elmo appeared on the top-gallant mast with seven lighted tapers; that is to say, we saw those fires which the sailors believe to proceed from the body of the saint. Immediately all on board began to sing litanies and thanksgivings, for the sailors hold it for certain, that as soon as St. Elmo appears, the danger of the tempest is over." Herrera also notices that Magellan's sailors had the same superstitions. Thus it appears that the auspicious view which the ancients took of this phenomenon continues, also during the middle ages, modified, however, by the religious faith of the observed. As we approach our own times supersititon gradually relinquishes its hold of this appearance; and mere matter-of-fact observers, forgetful of the bodies of saints illuminated by wax tapers, speak of it as it is, and even make it ridiculous by attributing to it a material character which it certainly does not possess Forbid, sailing among the Balearic islands in 1896, relates that during the night a sudden darkness came on, accompanied by fearful lightning and thunder. All the sails were firled, and preparations were made for the storm: "We saw more than thirty St. Elmo's fires. There was one playing upon the vane of the main mast more than a foot and a half high. I sent a man up to bring it down. When he was aloft he cried out that it made a noise like wetted gunpowder in burning. I told him to take off the vane and come down; but scarcely had he removed it from its place than the fire quitted it and re-appeared at the end of the mast, without any possibility of removing it. It remained for a long time and gradually went out." We come now to divest the phenomenon of all its romance in the plain statements of two intelligent observers. The first is Lieut. Milne of the Royal navy, who, in a communication to Professor Jamieson states that he was off the Coast of Brazil in September 1827; the day had been sultry, and heavily charged clouds had been collecting in the south-west. As evening approached it became very dark; the lightning was very vivid, and was followed by heavy peals of distant thunder. About ten o'clock a light was observed on the extremity of the vane staff at the masthead, and shortly afterwards another on the weather side of the fore-top-sail-yard. One of the midshipmen, curious to examine this appearance a little more closely went aloft. He found that it appeared to proceed from an iron bolt in the yard-arm; its size was rather larger than that of a walnut, and it had a faint yellow cast in the centre, approaching to blue on the external edge. On applying his hand to it it made a noise like the burning of a port-fire, emitting at the same time a dense smoke without any sensible smell. On taking away his hand it resumed its former appearance, but he applied the sleeve of his wet jacket, it ran up it, and immediately became extinguished, and did not appear again. The light onthe vane-staff retained its position for upwards of an hour, but on account of the heavy rain, and probably also from having been struck by the vane attached to the staff, it went out, but resumed its position after the rain had ceased, although with a less degree of brightness. In the above account the only circumstance which we do not understand is the dense smoke said to have been emitted by the light. This may perhaps be attributed to the imagination of the observers, who witnessed the phenomenon for the first time. Other accouts are given by Lieutenant Milne, but these we need not repeat; he says, that the fire usually appeared on metal, such as iron bolts and copper spindles; but on one occasion he noticed it on a spindle of hard wood, from which the copper had been removed. He states that bad weather always followed the phenomenon. In a letter from Mr. William Traill, of Kirkwall, to Professor Traill, dated 16th of May, 1837, and published in the scientific journals of the time as an interesting notice of St. Elmo's Fire in Orkney. During a tremendous gale in Feburary, 1837, a large boat was sunk, but the crew succeeded in getting her to the shore. This was accomlished by night; they had to wait until three o'clock ont he following morning until the tide should ebb from her. During this time she was attached to the shore by an iron chain about thirty fathoms long, which did not touch the water, when suddenly Mr. Traill beheld "a sheet of blood-red flame extending along the shore, for about thirty fathoms broad and one hundred fathoms long, commencing at the chain and stretching along in the direction of the shore, which was E.S.E., the wind being N.N.W. at the time. The flame remained about ten seconds, and occured four times in about two minutes." The boatmen, about thirty in number, who were sheltering themselves from the weather, were apparently alarmed, and about to make enquiries, when atention was suddenly attracted by a most splendid appearance of the boat. "The whole mast was illuminated, and from the iron spike at the summit a flame of one foot long was pointed to the N.N.W., from which a thunder-cloud was rapidly coming. The cloud approached, which was accompanied by thunder and hail; the flame increased and followed the course of the cloud till it was immediately above, when it arrived at the length of nearly three feet, after which it rapidly diminished, still pointing to the cloud as it was borne rapidly on to S.S.E. The whole lasted about four minutes and had a most splendid appearance." The popular opinion is that St. Elmo's Fire now appears only on the points of ships' masts; but M. Arago confutes this opinion by adducing a variety of cases, which seem to prove that the only reason why the phenomenon is not commonly seen on the tops of church spires, and on the summits of high buildings in general, is simply because people never look out for it. But a few recorded instances are sufficient to prove that good observers only are wanting to make the phenomenon much more common. M. Binon, who was cure/ of Rouzet during twenty-seven years, informed Mr. Watson, the electrician, that during great storms, accompanied with black clouds and frequent lightnings, the three pointed extremeties of the cross of the steeple of that place appeared surrounded with a body of flame, and that when this phenomenon has been seen the storm was no longer to be dreaded, and calm weather returned soon after. In August, 1768, Lichtenberg noticed the St. Elmo's Fire on the steeple of St. Jacques at Gottingen. In January, 1778, during a violent storm, accompanied by rain and hail, M. Mongery noticed luminous tufts on many of the most elevated summits of the city of Rouen. The observations of Cæsar, respecting the luminous points of his soldiers' spears, has been repeated in modern times, and still more remarkable cases have occured. In Januard, 1822, during a heavy fall of snow, M. de Thielaw, while on the road to Frey Viry, noticed that the extremeties of the brances of all the trees by the road side were luminous, the light appearing of a faint bluish tinge. In January, 1824, after a storm, M. Masadorf noticed in a field near Cothen, a cart-load of straw situated immediately under a large black cloud; the extremeties of the straw appeared to be on fire and the carter's whip was also luminous. This phenomenon lasted about ten minutes, and disappeared as the black cloud was blown away by the wind. Rozet, in his work on Algiers, relates, that on the 8th of May, 1831, after sunset, some artillery officers were walking during a storm on the terrace of the fort Babazoun at Algiers; their heads being uncovered, they saw, to their great astonishment, that each one's hair stood on end, and that each hair was terminated by a minute luminous tuft; on raising the hands, these tufts formed also at the extremeties of their fingers. All these and various other phases, under which the St. Elmo's Fire appears, admit of explanation on the principle which regulates a thunder storm. The electrical balance between the clouds, a portion of the earth's surface directly opposed to these clouds, and the intermediate air being disturbed, the particles of air, by a process called induction, increase this disturbance, throwing the clouds and the earth into two highly excited opposite states, which tend more and more to combine, according to the length of the process, until at last a union is effected by what Dr. Faraday calls a disruptive discharge, which is usually accompanied by lightning and thunder. If it were possible to connect the clouds and the eath by a good metallic conductor, the electrical balance would be restored, and no such violent discharge would ensue. But it sometimes happen that when the air is in a highly excited state, a point projecting into it will effect a partial discharge. This is accompanied by a luminous burst of light and a sort of roaring noise. The experiment can be shown at the electrical machine, and is known as the brush discharge. It usually takes place betwen a good and a bad conductor; it commences at the root of the brush and is complete at the point of the rod before the more distant particles of air acquire the same electrical intensity. Hence, in the foregoing examples, it will be seen that the points of ships' masts, the extremeties of church steeples, and even less elevated objects, are all subject to a visitation from St. Elmo's Fire; or in other words, when placed in highly excited air and electrical discharge may take place upon them, of so slow a character as to be entirely free from danger. It is the immense velocity with which lightning travels, which causes it to commit such fearful havoc when it strikes badly conducted substances. Excerpt from Elements of Meteorology, by John Brocklesby (1851); pp.156-7. 382. St. Elmo's Fire. When in a darkened room a needle is brought near to the charged conductor of an electrical machine, the point is tipped with a vivid light, caused by the flow of electricity from the conductor to the needle. In the same manner when thunder-clouds approach very near the earth, lightning does not always occur; but the electricity becomes so intense, that it escaped from one to the other by points upon the surface of the earth, which then glow with a brilliant flame. This phenomenon has received the appellation of St. Elmo's fire. It was known to the ancients by the name of Castor and Pollux, and many instances have been recorded by classic writers. On the night before the battle that Posthumius gained over the Sabines, the Roman javelins emitted a light like torches; and Cæsar relates that during the African war, in the month of February, there suddenly arose, about the second watch of the night, a dreadful storm that threw the Roman army into great confusion, at which time the points of the darts of the fifth legion appeared to be on fire. 383. The fire of St. Elmo is often finely displayed upon the masts of vessels. An extraordinary instance, which happened in 1696, is thus related by Count Forbin: "In the night it became extremely dark, and thundered and lightened fearfully. We saw upon different parts of the ship about thirty St. Elmo's fires; among the rest was one upon the top of the vane of the mainmast, about eighteen inches long. I ordered one of the sailors to take the vane down, but he had scarcely removed it when the fire again appeared upon the top of the mast, where it remained for a long time, and then gradually vanished." When Lord Napier was on the Mediterranean, in June, 1818, he observed, during a dark and stormy night, a blaze of pale light upon the mainmast of his vessel. It appeared near the summit, and extended about three feet downward, flitting and creeping around the surface of the mast. The heads of the other two masts presented a similar appearance. At the end of half an hour, the flames were no longer visible. 384. This phenomenon frequently occurs on the summits of mountains, when thunder clouds pass near them. Saussure observed it upon the Alps, in 1767. On extending his arm, he experienced slight electric shocks, accompanied by a whistling sound, and obtained distinct sparks from the gold button of a hat belonging to one of his party. It is often noticed at Edinburg castle, which stands upon a high rock, 250 feet above the surrounding country. Upon the approach of a storm, the bayonets of the soldiers mounting guard are frequently seen capped with flame, and an iron ramrod, placed upright upon the walls, presents a like appearance. A singular instance of spontaneous electricity took place at Algiers, on the 8th of May, 1831. During the evening of this day, as some French officers were walking with their heads uncovered, each was surprised at seeing the hairs upon the heads of his companions erect, and tipped with flame. Upon raising their hands, they perceived a similar light flitting upon the ends of their fingers. A remarkable case of this kind was observed by Pres. Totten, of Trinity College, at Hartford, Ct., in the month of Dec. 1839. As this gentleman was walking one evening in the midst of a heavy snow-storm, protected by an umbrella, his attention was arrested by momentary flashes of light, which at intervals illumined his path. The source of the light was detected upon meeting another person, the point of whose umbrella was seen covered with flame, which was constantly escaping in flashes. The light first noticed by Pres. Totten, proceeded from his own umbrella. Excerpt from	St. Elmo's fire
After a nine year chart absence which sixties trio had a Top Ten hit single in 1976 with 'No Regrets'?	Lightning Dictionary: Glossary of Terms Tweet Lightning Dictionary System: Throughout this site, definitions of terms in this glossary are always available from any page. When a term in the glossary appears anywhere on this site, it is highlighted and hyperlinked. To view the term's definition, click on the highlighted word to open the definition window. Anvil Cloud- The flat top of a thunderstorm ( cumulonimbus ) cloud that spreads out in front of or behind the parent cloud, making the entire system resemble an anvil (pictured at right). The anvil will usually mark the tropopause in the lower atmosphere above which moisture and clouds cannot rise any further. Thunderstorm anvils are often blown up to hundreds of miles away from the parent thunderstorm by upper-level winds, creating a thin, wispy layer of cirrus clouds that signal the storms' presence at great distances. Anvil Crawlers- Lightning that branches upward and outward like a tree along the tops and sides of large thunderstorms. The lightning seems to 'travel' or 'crawl' across the sky, as in the slow-motion movie at right (click for full-speed mpeg video). Anvil crawlers are also sometimes referred to as 'spider lightning'. Anvil Lightning- A cloud-to-ground lightning flash that arcs horizontally away from the parent thunderstorm to strike the ground some distance away. Since these 'bolts from the blue' deceptively strike ground directly below sometimes clear skies, they present a danger to the safety of anyone within several miles of a storm. Arc- A channel of ionized air with electric current flowing through it, usually used to describe those occuring during a fault on an energized power line. Ball Lightning- A rare phenomenon described as a floating, illuminated sphere that occurs during thunderstorms. It has been described as moving fast, slow or staying stationary, being quiet or produce a hissing or crackling noise, passing through windows, last from seconds to minutes, and/or disappear slowly or suddenly either quietly or with a loud bang. No definitive photographs have ever been obtained of ball lightning, nor have any official accounts been made of it, therefore its veracity in scientific circles is questioned. The only source of information on ball lightning has come from eyewitness accounts, and to this day 'ball lightning' remains a mystery. Since an arc from a short-circuiting power line exhibits many of the characteristics attributed to ball lightning and since a direct lightning strike can cause such a short circuit, many ball lightning reports may actually be nothing more than faults (short circuits) on energized power lines. Branches- The parts of the stepped leader paths that are not part of the main lightning channel . They are only illuminated during the first return stroke of a lightning flash , and are somewhat dimmer than the main channel . Branches create their own thunder, and since they extend away from the main channel in all directions, branches are often heard first as a sharp, crackling peal immediately before the loud crash from the main lightning bolt. CG- Commonly used abbreviation for a Cloud-to-Ground lightning flash . Channel- The narrow path of ionized air in which the lightning discharge current flows. It is illuminated brightly during the return stroke . Cloud-to-Air- Referring to a discharge (or a portion of a discharge) jumping from a cloud into clear air. Technically speaking, all cloud-to-ground lightning strikes contain 'cloud-to-air' components in the many branches that extend away from the main channel and terminate abruptly in mid-air. However, the most visually dramatic examples of cloud-to-air lightning occur when a long, bright lightning channel jumps out of the side of a cumulonimbus cloud and terminates in the clear air surrounding the storm (see photo at right). Cloud-to-Cloud (CC)- Referring to a (rare) discharge between two separate convective towers, mainly within a cluster of closely-spaced storms. Not to be confused with Intracloud lightning which refers to a discharge within a single cloud. Cloud-to-Ground (CG)- Referring to a discharge between cloud and ground (pictured at right) initiated by a downward moving stepped leader . Convection- The process whereby warm air rises in columns upwards through cooler surrounding air. Convection is a big part of the 'engine' in thunderstorm development, pulling massive volumes of moisture (water vapor) in warm air into the cooler air above, allowing condensation of the water vapor into towering storm clouds ( cumulonimbus ). Convective activity is likely to occur when the atmosphere is unstable and/or when a strong 'forcing element' such as a cold front is present (a cold front acts like a horizontal 'wedge' as it moves, forcing air ahead of it to rise). Thunderstorm activity is also sometimes called 'convective' activity. Corona Discharge- A slow, steady discharge streaming off of a point or edge of an object in the presence of high opposing electrical charge. Corona discharge is usually visible as a small, slightly glowing 'spray' extending out into the air. On a small scale, corona discharge can equalize opposing electrostatic charges before full electrical breakdown occurs and a spark jumps. On a thunderstorm-scale level, corona discharge can occur from objects on the ground underneath the cloud's charge region. However, this rate of 'current' leak is extremely miniscule or even nonexistent in comparison to the rate and magnitude that the gigantic storm cloud is generating the voltage. Therefore, corona discharge on the ground doesn't even in the slightest bit prevent a lightning strike from occuring. Cumulonimbus- A thunderstorm cloud (pictured at right). Cumulonimbus can tower over 60,000 feet (over 11 miles) up into the sky. Smaller cumulonimbus (30,000 feet) can still produce lightning, high winds, heavy rain, and sometimes tornadoes. When a cumulonimbus cloud reaches the top of the troposphere, its top will flatten and spread out into an ' anvil ' shape. Cumulonimbus clouds are the product of strong convective activity. A rapidly growing cumulonimbus cloud's upper edges will usually look hard and rounded, like cauliflower, as it protrudes skyward: Cumulus Congestus- Large, towering, isolated cumulus clouds that often precede or signal the potential for cumulonimbus and thunderstorm development. Some cumulus congestus clouds produce rain showers. Dendritic- Having a structure like a tree (trunk and branches). Discharge- The flow of current down the lightning channel that equalizes the charge difference between two regions of opposing charge inside a thunderstorm. Fault- A short circuit. Flash- Referring to an entire lightning discharge event from beginning to end. Flashover- A fault on an electrical power line caused by a breach of an insulator by an arc through the air, usually used to describe those triggered by a lightning strike. Fulgurite- Brittle, glassy formations caused by a lightning strike to sandy soil. The lightning heats the soil and fuses the soil particles together surrounding the path of the channel , resulting in a hollow tube-like formation shaped like the section of lightning that formed it (pictured at right). Artificial fulgurites have been created using man-made lightning in laboratories. The word fulgurite comes from the Greek word fulgur, which means lightning. Ground-to-Cloud- Referring to a discharge between cloud and ground initiated by an upward moving leader , usually occuring off of towers (pictured at right), mountains, and tall buildings. (see Lightning Classifications ) Heat Lightning- Distant flashes of lightning barely visible on the horizon from faraway thunderstorms. Named so because it is often seen on hot, muggy nights, when conditions are favorable for thunderstorm development. 'Heat lightning' often is early warning sign that storms are approaching, because the lightning you see may be moving your way. Instability - A condition in the atmosphere where a layer of warm, moist air near the earth's surface is situated below a layer of cooler, drier air above it. Warm air is lighter than cool air, and its bouyancy makes it tend to rise upward in columns in a process called convection . Convective activity often results in thunderstorms. Atmospheric instability is created any time a warm, moist layer of air is given the potential energy to rise upward through the cooler air. Most instability is created when the sun heats the earth's surface, which in turn heats the atmosphere near the ground. The sun's heating is also called 'diurnal' heating. Southerly winds can also create instability at non-sun-heated locations by transporting warm, moist air from one location to another (called warm advection), such as from the Gulf of Mexico to the mountains of West Virginia. Intracloud Lightning- Referring to a discharge within a cloud, the most common type (pictured at right). The channel is normally obscured from view, and the discharge appears to the observer as a sheet of light in the sky, therefore it is often called Sheet Lightning. (See Sheet Lightning .) Ionization- The process by which air becomes conductive. It is caused by a tremendous charge difference between two regions of opposite charge, and in the case of lightning it is the process that starts the discharge . The electrons in the negatively charged region are so strongly attracted to the positively charged region that they begin to move through the air towards the opposing charge and create a conductive channel . The ionized channel is a conducting path for the lightning discharge . Also called electrical breakdown. (See Leader , Stepped leader ) Keraunomedicine- A division of medical study pertaining to lightning injuries. Leader- A forming channel of ionized air moving towards the opposing charge. It can move in steps and branch out, ( stepped leader ) or move continuously in a single path. (See Stepped Leader , Ionization ) Lightning Protection System- A system of rods, cables and groundings designed to intercept a strike and divert it safely to ground, avoiding structural damage to buildings, boats, and other vulnerable objects. A lightning protection system consists of metallic rods, heavy-duty cable, and a solid grounding terminal. The cable connects the lightning rods to ground. Lightning rods do not attract lightning, they simply provide a safe path for the lightning current to flow. See also Lightning Protection Systems . Power Flash- Bright electrical arcs from power lines, transformers, or other electrical equipment, usually used to describe those caused by lightning, tornadoes, high winds, or winter weather. (See also How Lightning Causes an Electrical Fault ) Rain Shaft- A distinctly visible, isolated column of rain falling from a cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus cloud. Cloud-to-ground lightning strikes often occur mostly inside or close to a rain shaft. Return Stroke- The flow of current ( discharge ) through a ionized channel . The return stroke is brightly illuminated, and is the source of loud thunder . The first return stroke in a cloud-to-ground lightning flash is the only one that is branched . Many times there will be more than one return stroke down the same channel (see animation at right), making the lightning seem to flicker. (See Streamers ) Sferics- Radio waves produced by a lightning discharge. They can be heard with an A.M. radio. (See also Sferics and Lightning Detection ) Sheet Lightning- Name for the sheet of light in the sky from an intracloud discharge . Shock Wave- The rapid expansion if air caused by the sudden and extreme heating of the air in a lightning channel during a return stroke . The shock wave continues outward for a few feet, moving faster than the speed of sound, and then slows to a sound wave, heard as thunder . The shock wave from an extremely close lightning strike can knock a person off his/her feet, and cause hearing damage and/or other injury. These shock waves can also damage objects directly struck or nearby objects. (See Thunder ) Sprites and Jets- Electrical discharges that occur high above active thunderstorms. They have been found to occur in conjunction with and/or as a reaction to a normal cloud-to-ground lightning discharge . They are swift and faintly lit, making them almost invisible to the naked eye. Observations of sprites and jets have been made by placing a telescope on a high mountain and aiming it above thunderstorms occuring hundreds of miles away. For more information and photos on sprites and jets, check the Lightning Links page. St. Elmo's Fire- Name given to a faint, soft blue-green glow around objects (particularly on airplanes or the masts of ships) during a thunderstorm. St Elmo's fire is thought to be a form of corona discharge caused by the high electrical potential created by a thunderstorm. The presence of St. Elmo's Fire on objects on the ground often indicates that a very close or direct cloud-to-ground lightning strike is imminent. Stepped Leader- Name for the downward moving propagation of electrical breakdown that moves from the base of the cloud towards the ground. It splits into more and more branches as it moves downward, and the branch that reaches an upward-moving leader from an object on the ground first becomes the path for the return stroke . The stepped leader is named so because its propagation moves in in steps, moving through the air in short bursts. The stepped leader is dimly illuminated, but is not visible to the human eye because of its speed and closeness in time (a small fraction of a second) to the bright return stroke . However, playing video of cloud-to-ground lightning strikes in slow-motion can sometimes reveal part of the stepped leader just before it connects to the ground. From video of a distant cloud-to-ground strike near Gothenburg, Nebraska: Frames 1 through 4 show the stepped leader descending, Frame 5 shows the intense first return stroke, Frame 6 shows the decaying first return stroke. (See Ionization , Cloud-to-ground discharge ) Streamers- small intracloud discharges that act as 'feeders' for additional charge from other regions in the cloud to a larger channel , initiating another return stroke along the larger channel . This process can repeat many times and is the cause of a lightning flash appearing to 'flicker' on ond off. Strike Point- referring to the object or location on the ground where a cloud-to-ground lightning channel terminated. Stroke- referring to the flow of current through a lightning channel . Thunder- The sound waves produced by the explosive heating of the air in the lightning channel during a return stroke . It originates as shock waves close to the channel , and moves radially away from the channel . Thunder changes in pitch with varying distances from the channel . The closer one is to the lightning flash , the more high-pitched and 'crackle-sounding' the thunder. The further away, the more low-pitched and 'boom-rumble' sounding it is. Thunder rumbles and crackles because the lightning channel is crooked and jagged, causing the sound waves to arrive at the hearer at different times and directions. If lightning strikes closer than around 300 feet, the observer will hear one loud, startling, high-pitched bang which is not 'sound wave' thunder, but the shock wave , sometimes preceded by a faint crackling noise. (See Shock Wave ) For more detailed information on thunder, visit the wvlightning.com Thunder Center . Thundersnow- A heavy snowstorm with lightning and thunder, or a lightning discharge during wintry weather. Voltage Gradient- (Sometimes referred to as 'Ground Current') The surge of voltage through the ground raidially outward from the lightning strike point . The voltage gradient can electrocute anyone standing on the ground close to a lightning strike, often the cause of lightning injuries to people or animals who are near a lightning strike but are not directly hit. The reason that standing under or near a tree during a storm is dangerous is due mainly to the voltage gradient. Even if the main lightning channel flows entirely through or along the tree and does not jump over and hit whoever is standing there, the resulting huge surge of current through the ground surrounding the tree will give a nasty shock to anyone touching the ground nearby. The reason the term 'gradient' is used is because the voltage in the ground is lower with increasing distance from the strike point.	i don't know
After which battle did King Charles the Second famously take refuge in an Oak tree?	Shropshire. History Heritage. Charles II. Boscobel. Legends & People The Fugitive King As our school days recede, one of the few bits of history that sticks in the mind must be that of how King Charles II evaded the clutches of Cromwell and his troops by hiding up an oak tree. But where is this oak? And where did the events that led up to Charles taking this unusual means of concealment occur? Many people and counties make claims to having the actual tree that he hid in, but the truth is that most of the events took place in the County of Shropshire. mmm To set the scene for these events it is necessary to go back in time to the 17th century when the country was in a turmoil and still recovering from the effects of civil war. Charles I had been executed and Cromwell had declared the country a common-wealth. The young Prince Charles sought refuge in France and then later in Holland. It was merely a matter of time, though, before he attempted to regain his father's throne, and shortly after his 20th birthday he set sail from Holland and landed in Scotland on the 23rd June. Together with his loyal Scottish troops he made his way south, reaching Worcester virtually unopposed where he was proclaimed 'King of Great Britain, France and Ireland'. Cromwell reached Worcester four days later and camped to the south-east of the city. mmm After preliminary skirmishing, a huge battle took place on the 3rd of September, 1651, and by the end of the day Charles had been soundly beaten. The dejection and confusion of this moment are best reflected in Charles' own account which he dictated to Samuel Pepys some thirty years later. "After the battle was so absolutely lost as to be beyond hope of recovery, I began to think of the best way of saving myself, and the first thought that came into my head was that if I could possibly, I would get to London as soon as possible, if not sooner than the news of our defeat could get thither. And it being near dark I talked with some, especially my Lord Rochester who was then Wilmot, about their opinions of which would be the best way for me to escape, it being impossible as I thought to get back to Scotland. I found them mightily distracted and their opinions different of the possibility of getting into Scotland, but not agreeing with mine, for going to London, saving my Lord Wilmot, and the truth is I did not impart my design of going to London to any but my Lord Wilmot." Even though Charles had decided to make for London, they were forced to flee northwards, and together with a guide, Charles Giffard, they made their way into what is now the Telford area, and this is where I decided to take up the trail and follow in the footsteps of His Royal Highness King Charles II. Now, with me trying to retrace his path some 335 years later, things had obviously changed. Housing estates, developments, in fact a complete new town had sprouted up and consequently his exact route was hard to follow. mmm Charles and his group were heading for a house called Boscobel, as their guide was related to the owner. However, it was to a former Priory called White Ladies that Charles and his party were initially taken. It was explained in this way. "Upon further consideration by His Majesty and council, and to the end of the company might not know whither His Majesty directly intended, Mr Giffard was required to conduct His Majesty to some house near Boscobel, the better to blind the design of going thither. Mr Giffard proposed White Ladies, lying about half a mile beyond Boscobel." It was thought far too dangerous for a large number of people to know Charles' actual hiding place and so to White Ladies they went. mmm I made my way down a leafy, narrow and overgrown lane which was full of potholes, in turn full of water, and found the Priory of White Ladies, which is now in ruin. mmm In reality, the Priory was dissolved over a hundred years before Charles' arrival but the Priory buildings had been turned into houses. It had been an Augustinian Priory dedicated to St. Leonard. The name refers to the wearing of undyed habits which distinguished St. Leonards from a Benedictine nunnery in the area known as Black Ladies. mmm For a moment, as I stood by the gate looking across the lawns surrounding the ruins, I heard a light wind whispering through the trees behind me and I imagined I could hear horses hooves, the jingle of harness and the riders' anxious voices as the company approached the house. Charles and his group were let into White Ladies by a servant called George Penderel. Penderel had four brothers and it was this family that would figure prominently in the events of the next few days. Here. Charles changed into 'a pair of ordinary grey cloth breeches, a leather doublet and green jerkin'. His hair was cut short and his face darkened with soot. The rest of the party then left, but, unknown to the others, Charles had sent Lord Wilmot on a secret mission and that was to see if a route to London was possible. One of the Penderel brothers, called Richard, soon arrived at White Ladies and together with the King they set out on foot and hid in a wood nearby known as Spring Coppice. 'In this wood I stayed all day without meat or drink and by great fortune it rained all the time which hindered them, as I believe, from coming into the wood to search for men that might be fled there.' Although Charles claims not to have had any food or water during the day it is now widely believed that he did. According to Thomas Blount, a chronicler of the period, Charles was brought a blanket and some food by the wife of Francis Yates, a relative of the Penderels. the blanket was used to keep the rain off the King. The pair then began to discuss possible routes of escape with Charles resigned to heading for London. "As I was in the wood I talked to Richard Penderel about getting to London, and asking many questions, about what gentlemen he knew, I did not find he knew any man of quality in the way towards London. And the truth is, my mind changed as I lay in the wood, and I resolved of another way of making my escape, which was, to get over the Severn into Wales and so get either to Swansea or some other sea town that I knew had commerce with France. So that night, as soon as it was dark, Richard Penderel and I took our journey on foot towards the Severn, intending to pass over a ferry halfway between Bridgnorth and Shrewsbury." With that, I also took my journey on foot with the goal of finding their next port of call, a small cottage called Hubbal Grange. I made my way past the village of Tong and began to trudge along a seemingly endless dirt track, eventually coming across a sign embedded deeply in a hedge, indicating Hubbal Grange. It was here that I had to leave the dirt track and fight my way through thick undergrowth, trying to evade the stinging tentacles of huge nettles with one hand and swat at the swarm of ravenous flies buzzing eagerly around my head with the other. What is left of Hubbal Grange at last came into view, just a few ruined walls. I felt saddened by the disrepair of the building but Charles and Penderel must have been cheered for here they rested and ate a little food, and Richard Penderel's mother improved the King's disguise. mmm They then set out again, with Charles assuming the name of William Jones. As they continued their nocturnal hike, they came to Evelith Mill, not far from Shifnal. mmm When I arrived at Evelith, roughly 300 years later, I encountered a fierce-looking golden Labrador charging straight at me, only stopping, thankfully, at the brook which separated us. The reception for Charles and Penderel was no better. "Just as we came to the mill we could see the miller sitting at the mill door, he being in white clothes. It being a very dark night, he called out 'Who goes there?' Upon which Richard Penderel answered 'Neighbours going home', or some such words, whereupon the miller cried out, 'If you be neighbours stand, or else I will knock you down.' Upon which, we believing there was company in the house, Penderel bad me follow him close. So we fell to running, both of us, up a lane as long as we could run, it being very deep and very dirty, till at last I bad him leap over a hedge and lie still to hear if anyone followed us." They were not followed, and I managed to pass Evelith Mill untouched, although the barking Labrador kept a watchful eye on my progress. But I did get a glimpse of the now idle mill hiding behind a mass of green. The trees in front of the mill are enormous, they simply towered above me like giant sentinels hiding an ancient secret of a miller who refused sanctuary to a Royal fugitive one dark, dark night so long ago I felt relieved to be well away from the mill, probably in much the same way that Charles and Penderel did after their encounter with the miller. I continued in my desired direction, walking along the very same lanes that Charles had described earlier, although my pace was much more leisurely. I found my way into the old part of Madeley and to my next destination, Upper House. It dates from the 17th century and its appearance is typical of the period, with pointed gables and some of the original mullioned windows still in position. My fleeing predecessors arrived in the early hours of Friday, the 5th of September. The owner of the house was a Francis Woolfe. The King stayed in the background whilst Penderel went to ask Woolfe if he would receive 'a gentleman of quality' and hide him throughout the next day. "Mr Woolfe, when the country fellow told him that it was one that had escaped from the battle of Worcester said that for his part it was so dangerous a thing to harbour anybody that was known, that he would not venture his neck for any man, unless it were the King himself. Upon which Richard Penderel very discreetly, and without any leave, told him that it was I.. Upon which Mr Woolfe replied that he should be very ready to venture all he had in the world to secure me." There were a number of hiding places in the house but these were known to the Roundheads, so the King was only allowed to remain briefly, while he was given a meal of cold meat. He and Penderel were then taken to the barn that belonged to Upper House and were hidden behind the corn and hay. Here they stayed all day. mmm So far, the plan of getting to Wales was working well, and under the cover of night they would cross the river Severn and head towards the border. The pair must have been in extremely high spirits. But it was not to be. Later that day, Francis Yates' son arrived from Shrewsbury bearing bad news. All the river crossings were guarded by Cromwell's troops. The King was advised against making any attempts to cross the Severn. "Upon this I took the resolution of going that night the very same way back again to Penderel's house where I knew I should hear some news of what had become of my Lord Wilmot, and resolved again upon going to London." Before Charles and Penderel left for the return journey, the King's disguise was improved by Mrs Woolfe who is said to have used walnut juice to darken his skin so that he would look less like a nobleman. It was about eleven o'clock when they set out for Boscobel House. The King was concerned about having another encounter with the miller at Evelith so they made a slight detour and reached the river Worfe. "And therefore asking Richard Penderel whether he could swim or no, and how deep the river was, he told me it was a scurvy river, not easy to be past in all places and that he could not swim. So I told him that the river being a little one, I would undertake to help him over. Upon which we went close to the river side, and I, entering the river first, to see whether I could myself go over, who knew how to swim, found it a little above my middle, and there upon taking Richard Penderel by the hand, I helped him over." It certainly must have been an honour for a mere country man, without breeding, to have the future King of England help him across a river. When I arrived at the river Worfe there was no Royal hand to help me, not even a boat, and I did not really fancy the idea of wading through it. So I decided to take a somewhat drier route and bolted past the mill at Evelith hoping not to meet the ghost of the inhospitable miller, or worse, that ill-tempered golden Labrador! It was about three o'clock on Saturday morning when the King arrived at Boscobel. At this point they proceeded with caution. The King concealed himself in a wood nearby while Penderel went on ahead to ensure the house was safe for Charles to enter. He found one of Charles' officers from Worcester hiding there, a Major William Careless. Careless was a local man known to the family and he and Penderel returned to the wood in which the King was hiding and brought him to the house. mmm I arrived about three o'clock in the afternoon, feeling excited because this was the highlight of my journey. It was here I would find out the truth about the Royal Oak. I could see the black and white of the house through the trees, but as I neared it I realised that the effect was artificial. Originally the timber was exposed, but, sadly, due to the 18th century fashion it was covered with stucco. Nevertheless, the building has a majestic air which seems to boast a history that many houses would be envious of. "Careless told me that it would be very dangerous for me to either stay in that house or go into the wood, there being a great wood hand by Boscobel, and that he knew but one way how to pass the next day, and that was to get up into a great oak in a pretty plain place where we might see round about us, for the enemy would certainly search all the wood for people that had made their escape. Of which proposition I approving, we (that is to say Careless and I) went and carried with us some victuals for the whole day, viz, bread, cheese, small beer, and nothing else, and got up into a great oak that had been lopt some three or four years before, and being grown again, very bushy and thick, could not be seen through, and here we stayed all day." Apparently it was an abysmal day, typical of an English summer, and the rain poured down unabated, pushing the King and Careless to the edge of their patience. They managed to stay up the tree for fourteen hours. On the Saturday evening Charles enjoyed a greater amount of comfort than he had since leaving Worcester, ravenously eating a dish of chickens and during the evening he was shaved and his hair trimmed. The oak tree now stands alone, a solitary monument to one of our more romantic pieces of history. But it is not the original oak, Not the oak that found fame by sheltering a King. When the King was restored to the throne in 1660, the Penderels felt that it was safe to tell the world of the events that took place at Boscobel, and consequently a deluge of souvenir hunters descended on the poor tree and hacked it away piece by piece until there was nothing left. Possibly this could account for the many claims that people and counties have concerning the whereabouts of the Royal Oak. The present oak at Boscobel is believed to have been grown from an acorn of the original tree, planted in the exact same spot. The king spent the Saturday night hiding in a priest-hole that can still be seen in the attic of the house. Now, seeing that I was following in the footsteps of the King I just had to try it out for size. The priest-hole is just four feet square, but it seemed a great deal bigger than that to me, but then I'm only a small chap and the King was over six-feet tall. But I could still imagine the restless night, always on edge, that the King must have endured here. I certainly would not have liked it, for the open trap-door above me had been closed and nailed tight for nine long hours! mmm So this is where my trail ended. It had been an eventful few days for me just as it must have been for all those involved in helping the King avoid capture. But perhaps my story should not end just yet. King Charles left Boscobel House on Sunday, 7th September, 1651, four days after the Battle of Worcester. With the King were the four Penderel brothers and Francis Yates. They crossed into Staffordshire and made for Moseley Old Hall, and it was here that Charles met up again with his loyal friend Lord Wilmot. It was an emotional meeting as the King had been concerned about Wilmot's safety. From Moseley they went to Bentley Hall and it was here that Charles took on the guise of a serving man and together with Jane Lane, the daughter of the owner of Bentley Hall, they weaved their way down the country to Brighton. On the 5th of October, forty-two days after the Battle of Worcester, Charles sailed away to France aboard a coal ship named Surprise. mmm One more thing. When Charles did regain the throne, he never forgot about the Shropshire folk who aided him in his time of need, as a result he began to pay them an annual sum of money. These annuities were still being paid to their descendants three hundred and twenty seven years later! Edward Payne	Worcester
Give either Christian name of the writer H.G Wells?	Charles the Second treasure found hidden with no evidence of ownership Title: Charles the Second Author: Jacob Abbott * A Project Gutenberg of Australia eBook * eBook No.: 1400511h.html Language: English Date first posted: Jan 2014 Most recent update: Jan 2014 This eBook was produced by Roy Glashan. Project Gutenberg of Australia eBooks are created from printed editions which are in the public domain in Australia, unless a copyright notice is included. We do NOT keep any eBooks in compliance with a particular paper edition. Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing this file. This eBook is made available at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg of Australia License which may be viewed online at http://gutenberg.net.au/licence.html To contact Project Gutenberg of Australia go to http://gutenberg.net.au GO TO Project Gutenberg Australia HOME PAGE Charles the Second Frontispiece. The Dutch Squadron on the Thames. PREFACE The author of this series has made it his special object to confine himself very strictly, even in the most minute details which he records, to historic truth. The narratives are not tales founded upon history, but history itself, without any embellishment or any deviations from the strict truth, so far as it can now be discovered by an attentive examination of the annals written at the time when the events themselves occurred. In writing the narratives, the author has endeavored to avail himself of the best sources of information which this country affords; and though, of course, there must be in these volumes, as in all historical accounts, more or less of imperfection and error, there is no intentional embellishment. Nothing is stated, not even the most minute and apparently imaginary details, without what was deemed good historical authority. The readers, therefore, may rely upon the record as the truth, and nothing but the truth, so far as an honest purpose and a careful examination have been effectual in ascertaining it. King Charles the Second. I. — INFANCY King Charles the Second was the son and successor of King Charles the First. These two are the only kings of the name of Charles that have appeared, thus far, in the line of English sovereigns. Nor is it very probable that there will soon be another. The reigns of both these monarchs were stained and tarnished with many vices and crimes, and darkened by national disasters of every kind, and the name is thus connected with so many painful associations in the minds of men, that it seems to have been dropped, by common consent, in all branches of the royal family. The reign of Charles the First, as will be seen by the history of his life in this series, was characterized by a long and obstinate contest between the king and the people, which brought on, at last, a civil war, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner, and in the end beheaded on a block, before one of his own palaces. During the last stages of this terrible contest, and before Charles way himself taken prisoner, he was, as it were, a fugitive and an outlaw in his own dominions. His wife and family were scattered in various foreign lands, his cities and castles were in the hands of his enemies, and his oldest son, the prince Charles, was the object of special hostility. The prince incurred, therefore, a great many dangers, and suffered many heavy calamities in his early years. He lived to see these calamities pass away, and, after they were gone, he enjoyed, so far as his own personal safety and welfare were concerned, a tranquil and prosperous life. The storm, however, of trial and suffering which enveloped the evening of his father's days, darkened the morning of his own. The life of Charles the First was a river rising gently, from quiet springs, in a scene of verdure and sunshine, and flowing gradually into rugged and gloomy regions, where at last it falls into a terrific abyss, enveloped in darkness and storms. That of Charles the Second, on the other hand, rising in the wild and rugged mountains where the parent stream was engulfed, commences its course by leaping frightfully from precipice to precipice, with turbid and foaming waters, but emerges at last into a smooth and smiling land, and flows through it prosperously to the sea. Prince Charles's mother, the wife of Charles the First, was a French princess. Her name was Henrietta Maria. She was unaccomplished, beautiful, and very spirited woman. She was a Catholic, and the English people, who were very decided in their hostility to the Catholic faith, were extremely jealous of her. They watched all her movements with the utmost suspicion. They were very unwilling that an heir to the crown should arise in her family. The animosity which they felt against her husband the king, which was becoming every day more and more bitter, seemed to be doubly inveterate and intense toward her. They published pamphlets, in which they called her a daughter of Heth, a Canaanite, and an idolatress, and expressed hopes that from such a worse than pagan stock no progeny should ever spring. Henrietta was at this time—1630—twenty-one years of age, and had been married about four years. She had had one son, who had died a few days after his birth. Of course, she did not lead a very happy life in England. Her husband the king, like the majority of the English people, was a Protestant, and the difference was a far more important circumstance in those days than it would be now; though even now a difference in religious faith, on points which either party deems essential, is, in married life, an obstacle to domestic happiness, which comes to no termination, and admits of no cure. If it were possible for reason and reflection to control the impetuous impulses of youthful hearts, such differences of religious faith would be regarded, where they exist, as an insurmountable objection to a matrimonial union. The queen, made thus unhappy by religious dissensions with her husband, and by the public odium of which she was the object, lived in considerable retirement and seclusion at St. James's Palace, in Westminster, which is the western part of London. Here her second son, the subject of this history, was born, in May, 1630, which was ten years after the landing of the pilgrims on the Plymouth rock. The babe was very far from being pretty, though he grew up at last to be quite a handsome man. King Charles was very much pleased at the birth of his son. He rode into London the next morning at the head of a long train of guards and noble attendants, to the great cathedral church of St. Paul's, to render thanks publicly to God for the birth of his child and the safety of the queen. While this procession was going through the streets, all London being out to gaze upon it, the attention of the vast crowd was attracted to the appearance of a star glimmering faintly in the sky at midday. This is an occurrence not very uncommon, though it seldom, perhaps, occurs when it has so many observers to witness it. The star was doubtless Venus, which, in certain circumstances, is often bright enough to be seen when the sun is above the horizon. The populace of London, however, who were not in those days very profound astronomers, regarded the shining of the star as a supernatural occurrence altogether, and as portending the future greatness and glory of the prince whose natal day it thus unexpectedly adorned. Preparations were made for the baptism of the young prince in July. The baptism of a prince is an important affair, and there was one circumstance which gave a peculiar interest to that of the infant Charles. The Reformation had not been long established in England, and this happened to be the first occasion on which an heir to the English crown had been baptized since the Liturgy of the English Church had been arranged. There is a chapel connected with the palace of St. James, as is usual with royal palaces in Europe, and even, in fact, with the private castles and mansions of the higher nobility. The baptism took place there. On such occasions it is usual for certain persons to appear as sponsors, as they are called, who undertake to answer for the safe and careful instruction of the child in the principles of the Christian faith. This is, of course, mainly a form, the real function of the sponsors being confined, as it would appear, to making magnificent presents to their young godchild, in acknowledgment of the distinguished honor conferred upon them by their designation to the office which they hold. The sponsors, on this occasion, were certain royal personages in France, the relatives of the queen. They could not appear personally, and so they appointed proxies from among the higher nobility of England, who appeared at the baptism in their stead, and made the presents to the child. One of these proxies was a duchess, whose gift was a jewel valued at a sum in English money equal to thirty thousand dollars. The oldest son of a king of England receives the title of Prince of Wales; and there was an ancient custom of the realm, that an infant prince of Wales should be under the care, in his earliest years, of a Welsh nurse, so that the first words which he should learn to speak might be the vernacular language of his principality. Such a nurse was provided for Charles. Rockers for his cradle were appointed, and many other officers of his household, all the arrangements being made in a very magnificent and sumptuous manner. It is the custom in England to pay fees to the servants by which a lady or gentleman is attended, even when a guest in private dwellings; and some idea may be formed of the scale on which the pageantry of this occasion was conducted, from the fact that one of the lady sponsors who rode to the palace in the queen's carriage, which was sent for her on this occasion, paid a sum equal to fifty dollars each to six running footmen who attended the carriage, and a hundred dollars to the coachman; while a number of knights who came on horseback and in armor to attend upon the carriage, as it moved to the palace, received each a gratuity of two hundred and fifty dollars. The state dresses on the occasion of this baptism were very costly and splendid, being of white satin trimmed with crimson. The little prince was thus an object of great attention at the very commencement of his days, His mother had his portrait painted, and sent it to her mother in France. She did not, however, in the letters which accompanied the picture, though his mother, praise the beauty of her child. She said, in fact, that he was so ugly that she was ashamed of him, though his size and plumpness, she added, atoned for the want of beauty. And then he was so comically serious and grave in the expression of his countenance! the queen said she verily believed that he was wiser than herself. As the young prince advanced in years, the religious and political difficulties in the English nation increased, and by the time that he had arrived at an age when he could begin to receive impressions from the conversation and intercourse of those around him, the Parliament began to be very jealous of the influence which his mother might exert. They were extremely anxious that he should be educated a Protestant, and were very much afraid that his mother would contrive to initiate him secretly into the ideas and practices of the Catholic faith. She insisted that she did not attempt to do this, and perhaps she did not; but in those days it was often considered right to make false pretensions and to deceive, so far as this was necessary to promote the cause of true religion. The queen did certainly make some efforts to instill Catholic principles into the minds of some of her children; for she had other children after the birth of Charles. She gave a daughter a crucifix one day, which is a little image of Christ upon the cross, made usually of ivory, or silver, or gold, and also a rosary, which is a string of beads, by means of which the Catholics are assisted to count their prayers. Henrietta gave these things to her daughter secretly, and told her to hide them in her pocket, and taught her how to use them. The Parliament considered such attempts to influence the minds of the royal children as very heinous sins, and they made such arrangements for secluding the young prince Charles from his mother, and putting the others under the guidance of Protestant teachers and governors, as very much interfered with Henrietta's desires to enjoy the society of her children. Since England was a Protestant realm, a Catholic lady, in marrying an English king, ought not to have expected, perhaps, to have been allowed to bring up her children in her own faith; still, it must have been very hard for a mother to be forbidden to teach her own children what she undoubtedly believed was the only possible means of securing for them the favor and protection of Heaven. There is in London a vast storehouse of books, manuscripts, relics, curiosities, pictures, and other memorials of by-gone days, called the British Museum. Among the old records here preserved are various letters written by Henrietta, and one or two by Charles, the young prince, during his childhood. Here is one, for instance, written by Henrietta to her child, when the little prince was but eight years of age, chiding him for not being willing to take his medicine. He was at that time under the charge of Lord Newcastle. CHARLES,—I am sorry that I must begin my first letter with chiding you, because I hear that you will not take phisicke, I hope it was onlie for this day, and that to-morrow you will do it for if you will not, I must come to you, and make you take it, for it is for your health. I have given order to mi Lord of Newcastle to send mi word to-night whether you will or not. Therefore I hope you will not give me the paines to goe; and so I rest, your affectionate mother, HENRIETTE MARIE. The letter was addressed "To MI DEARE SONNE the Prince." The queen must have taken special pains with this her first letter to her son, for, with all its faults of orthography, it is very much more correct than most of the epistles which she attempted to write in English. She was very imperfectly acquainted with the English language, using, as she almost always did, in her domestic intercourse, her own native tongue. Time passed on, and the difficulties and contests between King Charles and his people and Parliament became more and more exciting and alarming. One after another of the king's most devoted and faithful ministers was arrested, tried, condemned, and beheaded, notwithstanding all the efforts which their sovereign master could make to save them. Parties were formed, and party spirit ran very high. Tumults were continually breaking out about the palaces, which threatened the personal safety of the king and queen. Henrietta herself was a special object of the hatred which these outbreaks expressed. The king himself was half distracted by the overwhelming difficulties of his position. Bad as it was in England, it was still worse in Scotland. There was an actual rebellion there, and the urgency of the danger in that quarter was so great that Charles concluded to go there, leaving the poor queen at home to take care of herself and her little ones as well as she could, with the few remaining means of protection yet left at her disposal. There was an ancient mansion, called Oatlands, not very far from London, where the queen generally resided during the absence of her husband. It was a lonely place, on low and level ground, and surrounded by moats filled with water, over which those who wished to enter passed by draw bridges. Henrietta chose this place for her residence because she thought she should be safer there from mobs and violence. She kept the children all there except the Prince of Wales, who was not allowed to be wholly under her care. He, how ever, often visited his mother, and she sometimes visited him. During the absence of her husband, Queen Henrietta was subjected to many severe and heavy trials. Her communications with him were often interrupted and broken. She felt a very warm interest in the prosperity and success of his expedition, and sometimes the tidings she received from him encouraged her to hope that all might yet be well. Here, for instance, is a note which she addressed one day to an officer who had sent her a letter from the king, that had come enclosed to him. It is written in a broken English, which shows how imperfectly the foreign lady had learned the language of her adopted country. They who understand the French language will be interested in observing that most of the errors which the writer falls into are those which result naturally from the usages of her mother tongue. Queen Henrietta to Sir Edward Nicholas. MAISTRE NICHOLAS,—I have reseaved your letter, and that you send me from the king, which writes me word he as been vere well reseaved in Scotland; that both the armi and the people have shewed a creat joy to see the king, and such that theay say was never seen before. Pray God it may continue. Your friend, HENRIETTE MARIE R. At one time during the king's absence in Scotland the Parliament threatened to take the queen's children all away from her, for fear, as they said, that she would make papists of them. This danger alarmed and distressed the queen exceedingly. She declared that she did not intend or desire to bring up her children in the Catholic faith. She knew this was contrary to the wish of the king her husband, as well as of the people of England. In order to diminish the danger that the children would be taken away, she left Oatlands herself, and went to reside at other palaces, only going occasionally to visit her children. Though she was thus absent from them in person, her heart was with them all the time, and she was watching with great solicitude and anxiety for any indications of a design on the part of her enemies to come and take them away. At last she received intelligence that an armed force was ordered to assemble one night in the vicinity of Oatlands to seize her children, under the pretext that the queen was herself forming plans for removing them out of the country and taking them to France. Henrietta was a lady of great spirit and energy, and this threatened danger to her children aroused all her powers. She sent immediately to all the friends about her on whom she could rely, and asked them to come, armed and equipped, and with as many followers as they could muster, to the park at Oatlands that night. There were also then in and near London a number of officers of the army, absent from their posts on furlough. She sent similar orders to these. All obeyed the summons with eager alacrity. The queen mustered and armed her own household, too, down to the lowest servants of the kitchen. By these means quite a little army was collected in the park at Oatlands, the separate parties coming in, one after another, in the evening and night. This guard patrolled the grounds till morning, the queen herself animating them by her presence and energy. The children, whom the excited mother was thus guarding, like a lioness defending her young, were all the time within the mansion, awaiting in infantile terror some dreadful calamity, they scarcely knew what, which all this excitement seemed to portend. The names and ages of the queen's children at this time were as follows: Charles, prince of Wales, the subject of this story, eleven. Mary, ten. Young as she was, she was already married, having been espoused a short time before to William, prince of Orange, who was one year older than herself. James, duke of York, seven. He became afterward King James II. Elizabeth, six. Henry, an infant only a few months old. The night passed away without any attack, though a considerable force assembled in the vicinity, which was, however, soon after disbanded. The queen's fears were, nevertheless, not allayed. She began to make arrangements for escaping from the kingdom in ease it should become necessary to do so. She sent a certain faithful friend and servant to Portsmouth with orders to get some vessels ready, so that she could fly there with her children and embark at a moment's notice, if these dangers and alarms should continue. She did not, however, have occasion to avail herself of these preparations. Affairs seemed to take a more favorable turn. The king came back from Scotland. He was received by his people, on his arrival, with apparent cordiality and good will. The queen was, of course, rejoiced to welcome him home, and she felt relieved and protected by his presence. The city of London, which had been the main seat of disaffection and hostility to the royal family, began to show symptoms of returning loyalty and friendly regard. In reciprocation for this, the king determined on making a grand entry into the city, to pay a sort of visit to the authorities. He rode, on this occasion, in a splendid chariot of state, with the little prince by his side. Queen Henrietta came next, in an open carriage of her own, and the other children, with other carriages, followed in the train. A long cortege of guards and attendants, richly dressed and magnificently mounted, preceded and followed the royal family, while the streets were lined with thousands of spectators, who waved handkerchiefs and banners, and shouted God save the king! In the midst of this scene of excitement and triumph, Henrietta rode quietly along, her anxieties relieved, her sorrows and trials ended, and her heart bounding with happiness and hope. She was once more, as she conceived, reunited to her husband and her children, and reconciled to the people of her realm. She thought her troubles were over Alas! they had, on the contrary, scarcely begun. II. — PRINCE CHARLES'S MOTHER The indications and promises of returning peace and happiness which gave Prince Charles's mother so much animation and hope after the return of her husband from Scotland were all very superficial and fallacious. The real grounds of the quarrel between the king and his Parliament, and of the feelings of alienation and ill will cherished toward the queen, were all, unfortunately, as deep and extensive as ever; and the storm, which lulled treacherously for a little time, broke forth soon afterward anew, with a frightful violence which it was evident that nothing could withstand. This new onset of disaster and calamity was produced in such a way that Henrietta had to reproach herself with being the cause of its coming. She had often represented to the king that, in her opinion, one main cause of the difficulties he had suffered was that he did not act efficiently and decidedly, and like a man, in putting down the opposition manifested against him on the part of his subjects; and now, soon after his return from Scotland, on some new spirit of disaffection showing itself in Parliament, she urged him to act at once energetically and promptly against it. She proposed to him to take an armed force with him, and proceed boldly to the halls where the Parliament was assembled, and arrest the leaders of the party who were opposed to him. There were five of them who were specially prominent. The queen believed that if these five men were seized and imprisoned in the Tower, the rest would be intimidated and overawed, and the monarch's lost authority and power would be restored again. The king was persuaded, partly by the dictates of his own judgment, and partly by the urgency of the queen, to make the attempt. The circumstances of this case, so far as the action of the king was concerned in them, are fully related in the history of Charles the First. Here we have only to speak of the queen, who was left in a state of great suspense and anxiety in her palace at Whitehall while her husband was gone on his dangerous mission. The plan of the king to make this irruption into the great legislative assembly of the nation had been kept, so they supposed, a very profound secret, lest the members whom he was going to arrest should receive warning of their danger and fly. When the time arrived, the king bade Henrietta farewell, saying that she might wait there an hour, and if she received no ill news from him during that time, she might be sure that he had been successful, and that he was once more master of his kingdom. The queen remained in the apartment where the king had left her, looking continually at the watch which she held before her, and counting the minutes impatiently as the hands moved slowly on. She had with her one confidential friend, the Lady Carlisle, who sat with her and seemed to share her solicitude, though she had not been entrusted with the secret. The time passed on. No ill tidings came; and at length the hour fully expired, and Henrietta, able to contain herself no longer, exclaimed with exultation, "Rejoice with me; the hour is gone. From this time my husband is master of his realm. His enemies in Parliament are all arrested before this time, and his kingdom is henceforth his own." It certainly is possible for kings and queens to have faithful friends, but there are so many motives and inducements to falsehood and treachery in court, that it is not possible, generally, for them to distinguish false friends from true. The Lady Carlisle was a confederate with some of the very men whom Charles had gone to arrest. On receiving this intimation of their danger, she sent immediately to the houses of Parliament, which were very near at hand, and the obnoxious members received warning in time to fly. The hour had indeed elapsed, but the king had met with several unexpected delays, both in his preparations for going, and on his way to the House of Commons, so that when at last he entered, the members were gone. His attempt, however, unsuccessful as it was, evoked a general storm of indignation and anger, producing thus all the exasperation which was to have been expected from the measure, without in any degree accomplishing its end. The poor queen was overwhelmed with confusion and dismay when she learned the result. She had urged her husband forward to an extremely dangerous and desperate measure, and then by her thoughtless indiscretion had completely defeated the end. A universal and utterly uncontrollable excitement burst like a clap of thunder upon the country as this outrage, as they termed it, of the king became known, and the queen was utterly appalled at the extent and magnitude of the mischief she had done. The mischief was irremediable. The spirit of resentment and indignation which the king's action had aroused, expressed itself in such tumultuous and riotous proceedings as to render the continuance of the royal family in London no longer safe. They accordingly removed up the river to Hampton Court, a famous palace on the Thames, not many miles from the city. There they remained but a very short time. The dangers which beset them were evidently increasing. It was manifest that the king must either give up what he deemed the just rights and prerogatives of the crown, or prepare to maintain them by war. The queen urged him to choose the latter alternative. To raise the means for doing this, she proposed that she should herself leave the country, taking with her, her jewels, and such other articles of great value as could be easily carried away, and by means of them and her personal exertions, raise funds and forces to aid her husband in the approaching struggle. The king yielded to the necessity which seemed to compel the adoption of this plan. He accordingly set off to accompany Henrietta to the shore. She took with her the young Princess Mary; in fact, the ostensible object of her journey was to convey her to her young husband, the Prince of Orange, in Holland. In such infantile marriages as theirs, it is not customary, though the marriage ceremony be performed, for the wedded pair to live together till they arrive at years a little more mature. The queen was to embark at Dover. Dover was in those days the great port of egress from England to the Continent. There was, and is still, a great castle on the cliffs to guard the harbor and the town. These cliffs are picturesque and high, falling off abruptly in chalky precipices to the sea. Among them at one place is a sort of dell, by which there is a gradual descent to the water. King Charles stood upon the shore when Henrietta sailed away, watching the ship as it receded from his view, with tears in his eyes. With all the faults, characteristic of her nation, which Henrietta possessed, she was now his best and truest friend, and when she was gone he felt that he was left desolate and alone in the midst of the appalling dangers by which he was environed. The Parting at Dover. The king went back to Hampton Court. Parliament sent him a request that he would come and reside nearer to the capital, and enjoined upon him particularly not to remove the young Prince of Wales. In the mean time they began to gather together their forces, and to provide munitions of war. The king did the same. He sent the young prince to the western part of the kingdom, and retired himself to the northward, to the city of York, which he made his head-quarters. In a word, both parties prepared for war. In the mean time, Queen Henrietta was very successful in her attempts to obtain aid for her husband in Holland. Her misfortunes awakened pity, with which, through her beauty, and the graces of her conversation and address, there was mingled a feeling analogous to love. Then, besides, there was something in her spirit of earnest and courageous devotion to her husband in the hours of his calamity that won for her a strong degree of admiration and respect. There are no efforts which are so efficient and powerful in the accomplishment of their end as those which a faithful wife makes to rescue and save her husband. The heart, generally so timid, seems to be inspired on such occasions with a preternatural courage, and the arm, at other times so feeble and helpless, is nerved with unexpected strength. Every one is ready to second and help such efforts, and she who makes them is surprised at her success, and wonders at the extent and efficiency of the powers which she finds herself so unexpectedly able to wield. The queen interested all classes in Holland in her plans, and by her personal credit, and the security of her diamonds and rubies, she borrowed large sums of money from the government, from the banks, and from private merchants. The sums which she thus raised amounted to two millions of pounds sterling, equal to nearly ten millions of dollars. While these negotiations were going on she remained in Holland, with her little daughter, the bride, under her care, whose education she was carrying forward all the time with the help of suitable masters; for, though married, Mary was yet a child. The little husband was going on at the same time with his studies too. Henrietta remained in Holland a year. She expended a part of her money in purchasing military stores and supplies for her husband, and then set sail with them, and with the money not expended, to join the king. The voyage was a very extraordinary one. A great gale of wind began to blow from the northeast soon after the ships left the port, which increased in violence for nine days, until at length the sea was lashed to such a state of fury that the company lost all hope of ever reaching the land. The queen had with her a large train of attendants, both ladies and gentlemen; and there were also in her suit a number of Catholic priests, who always accompanied her as the chaplains and confessors of her household. These persons had all been extremely sick, and had been tied into their beds on account of the excessive rolling of the ship, and their own exhaustion and helplessness. The danger increased, until at last it became so extremely imminent that all the self-possession of the passengers was entirely gone. In such protracted storms, the surges of the sea strike the ship with terrific force, and vast volumes of water fall heavily upon the decks, threatening instant destruction—the ship plunging awfully after the shock, as if sinking to rise no more. At such moments, the noble ladies who accompanied the queen on this voyage would be overwhelmed with terror, and they filled the cabins with their shrieks of dismay. All this time the queen herself was quiet and composed. She told the ladies not to fear, for "queens of England were never drowned." At one time, when the storm was at its height, the whole party were entirely overwhelmed with consternation and terror. Two of the ships were engulfed and lost. The queen's company thought that their own was sinking. They came crowding into the cabin where the priests were lying, sick and helpless, and began all together to confess their sins to them, in the Catholic mode, eager in these their last moments, as they supposed, to relieve their consciences in any way from the burdens of guilt which oppressed them. The queen herself did not participate in these fears. She ridiculed the absurd confessions, and rebuked the senseless panic to which the terrified penitents were yielding; and whenever any mitigation of the violence of the gale made it possible to do any thing to divert the minds of her company, she tried to make amusement out of the odd and strange dilemmas in which they were continually placed, and the ludicrous disasters and accidents which were always befalling her servants and officers of state, in their attempts to continue the etiquette and ceremony proper in attendance upon a queen, and from which even the violence of such a storm, and the imminence of such danger, could not excuse them. After a fortnight of danger, terror, and distress, the ships that remained of the little squadron succeeded in getting back to the port from which they had sailed. The queen, however, did not despair. After a few days of rest and refreshment she set sail again, though it was now in the dead of winter. The result of this second attempt was a prosperous voyage, and the little fleet arrived in due time at Burlington, on the English coast, where the queen landed her money and her stores. She had, however, after all, a very narrow escape, for she was very closely pursued on her voyage by an English squadron. They came into port the night after she had landed, and the next morning she was awakened by the crashing of cannon balls and the bursting of bomb shells in the houses around her, and found, on hastily rising, that the village was under a bombardment from the ships of her enemies. She hurried on some sort of dress, and sallied forth with her attendants to escape into the fields. This incident is related fully in the history of her husband, Charles the First; but there is one circumstance, not there detailed, which illustrates very strikingly that strange combination of mental greatness and energy worthy of a queen, with a simplicity of affections and tastes which we should scarcely expect in a child, that marked Henrietta's character. She had a small dog. Its name was Mike. They say it was an ugly little animal, too, in all eyes but her own. This dog accompanied her on the voyage, and landed with her on the English shore. On the morning, however, when she fled from her bed to escape from the balls and bomb shells of the English ships, she recollected, after getting a short distance from the house, that Mike was left behind. She immediately returned, ran up to her chamber again, seized Mike, who was sleeping unconsciously upon her bed, and bore the little pet away from the scene of ruin which the balls and bursting shells were making, all astonished, no doubt, at so hurried and violent an abduction. The party gained the open fields, and seeking shelter in a dry trench, which ran along the margin of a field, they crouched there together till the commander of the ships was tired of firing. The queen's destination was York, the great and ancient capital of the north of England York was the head quarters of King Charles's army, though he himself was not there at this time. As soon as news of the queen's arrival reached York, the general in command there sent down to the coast a detachment of two thousand men to escort the heroine, and the stores and money which she had brought, to her husband's capital. At the head of this force she marched in triumph across the country, with a long train of ordnance and baggage wagons loaded with supplies. There were six pieces of cannon, and two hundred and fifty wagons loaded with the money which she had obtained in Holland. The whole country was excited with enthusiasm at the spectacle. The enthusiasm was increased by the air and bearing of the queen, who, proud and happy at this successful result of all her dangers and toils, rode on horseback at the head of her army like a general, spoke frankly to the soldiers, sought no shelter from the sun and rain, and ate her meals, like the rest of the army, in a bivouac in the open field. She had been the means, in some degree, of leading the king into his difficulties, by the too vigorous measures she had urged him to take in the case of the attempted parliamentary arrest. She seems to have been determined to make that spirit of resolution and energy in her, which caused the mischief then, atone for it by its efficient usefulness now. She stopped on her march to summon and take a town, which had been hitherto in the hands of her husband's enemies, adding thus the glory of a conquest to the other triumphs of the day. In fact, the queen's heart was filled with pride and pleasure at this conclusion of her enterprise, as is very manifest from the frequent letters which she wrote to her husband at the time. The king's cause revived. They gradually approached each other in the operations which they severally conducted, until at last the king, after a great and successful battle, set off at the head of a large escort to come and meet his wife. They met in the vale of Keynton, near Edgehill, which is on the southern borders of Warwickshire, near the center of the island. The meeting was, of course, one of the greatest excitement and pleasure. Charles praised the high courage and faithful affection of his devoted wife, and she was filled with happiness in enjoying the love and gratitude of her husband. The pressure of outward misfortune and calamity has always the same strong tendency as was manifest in this case to invigorate anew all the ties of conjugal and domestic affection, and thus to create the happiness which it seems to the world to destroy. In the early part of Charles and Henrietta's married life, while every thing external went smoothly and prosperously with them, they were very far from being happy. They destroyed each other's peace by petty disputes and jars about things of little consequence, in which they each had scarcely any interest except a desire to carry the point and triumph over the other. King Charles himself preserved a record of one of these disputes. The queen had received, at the time of her marriage, certain estates, consisting of houses and lands, the income of which was to be at her disposal, and she wished to appoint certain treasurers to take charge of this property. She had made out a list of these officers in consultation with her mother. She gave this list to Charles one night, after he was himself in bed. He said he would look at it in the morning, but that she must remember that, by the marriage treaty, he was to appoint those officers. She said, in reply, that a part of those whom she had named were English. The king said that he would look at the paper in the morning, and such of the English names as he approved he would confirm, but that he could not appoint any Frenchmen. The queen answered that she and her mother had selected the men whom she had named, and she would not have any body else. Charles rejoined that the business was not either in her power or her mother's, and if she relied on such an influence to effect her wishes, he would not appoint any bodythat she recommended. The queen was very much hurt at this, and began to be angry. She said that if she could not put in whom she chose, to have the care of her property, she would not have any such property. He might take back her houses and lands, and allow her what he pleased in money in its stead. Charles replied by telling her to remember whom she was speaking to; that he could not be treated in that manner; and then the queen, giving way to lamentations and tears, said she was wretched and miserable; every thing that she wanted was denied her, and whatever she recommended was refused on the very account of her recommendation. Charles tried to speak, but she would not hear; she went on with her lamentations and complaints, interrupted only by her own sobs of passion and grief. The reader may perhaps imagine that this must have been an extreme and unusual instance of dissension between this royal pair; but it was not. Cases of far greater excitement and violence sometimes occurred. The French servants and attendants, whom the queen very naturally preferred, and upon whom the king was as naturally inclined to look with suspicion and ill will, were a continual source of disagreement between them. At last, one afternoon, the king, happening to come into that part of the palace at Whitehall where the queen's apartments were situated, and which was called "the queen's side", found there a number of her gentlemen and lady attendants in a great frolic, capering and dancing in a way which the gay Frenchmen probably considered nothing extraordinary, but which King Charles regarded as very irreverent and unsuitable conduct to be witnessed in the presence of an English queen. He was very much displeased. He advanced to Henrietta, took her by the arm, conducted her sternly to his own side of the palace, brought her into one of his own apartments, and locked the door. He then sent an officer to direct all the French servants and attendants in the queen's apartments to leave the palace immediately, and repair to Somerset House, which was not far distant, and remain there till they received further orders. The officer executed these commands in a very rough manner. The French women shrieked and cried, and filled the court yard of the palace with their clamor; but the officer paid no regard to this noise. He turned them all out of the apartments, and locked the doors after them. The queen was rendered quite frantic with vexation and rage at these proceedings. She flew to the windows to see and to bid farewell to her friends, and to offer them expressions of her sympathy. The king pulled her away, telling her to be quiet and submit, for he was determined that they should go. The queen was determined that she would not submit. She attempted to open the windows; the king held them down. Excited now to a perfect frenzy in the struggle, she began to break out the panes with her fist, while Charles exerted all his force to restrain and confine her, by grasping her wrists and endeavoring to force her away. What a contrast between the low and sordid selfishness and jealousy evinced in such dissensions as these, and the lofty and heroic devotedness and fidelity which this wife afterward evinced for her husband in the harassing cares the stormy voyages, and the martial exposures and fatigues which she endured for his sake! And yet, notwithstanding this great apparent contrast, and the wide difference in the estimation which mankind form of the conduct of the actor in these different scenes, still we can see that it is, after all, the impulse of the same lofty and indomitable spirit which acted in both. The soul itself of the queen was not altered, nor even the character of her action. The change was in the object and aim. In the one case she was contending against the authority of a husband, to gain petty and useless victories in domestic strife; in the other, the same spirit and energy were expended in encountering the storms and tempests of outward adversity to sustain her husband and protect her children. Thus the change was a change of circumstances rather than of character. The change was, however, none the less important on that account in its influence on the king. It restored to him the affection and sympathy of his wife, and filled his heart with inward happiness. It was a joyous change to him, though it was produced by sufferings and sorrows; for it was the very pressure of outward calamity that made his wife his friend again, and restored his domestic peace. In how many thousand instances is the same effect produced in a still more striking manner, though on a less conspicuous stage, than in the case of this royal pair! And how many thousands of outwardly prosperous families there are, from which domestic peace and happiness are gone, and nothing but the pressure from without of affliction or calamity can ever restore them! In consequence, in a great measure, of Henrietta's efficient help, the king's affairs greatly improved, and, for a time, it seemed as if he would gain an ultimate and final victory over his enemies, and recover his lost dominion. He advanced to Oxford, and made his head quarters there, and commenced the preparations for once more getting possession of the palaces and fortresses of London. He called together a Parliament at Oxford; some members came, and were regularly organized in the two houses of Lords and Commons, while the rest remained at London and continued their sittings there. Thus there were two governments, two Parliaments, and two capitals in England, and the whole realm was rent and distracted by the respective claims of these contending powers over the allegiance of the subjects and the government of the realm. III. — QUEEN HENRIETTA'S FLIGHT The brightening of the prospects in King Charles's affairs which was produced, for a time, by the queen's vigorous and energetic action, proved to be only a temporary gleam after all. The clouds and darkness soon returned again, and brooded over his horizon more gloomily than ever. The Parliament raised and organized new and more powerful armies. The great Republican general, Oliver Cromwell, who afterward became so celebrated as the Protector in the time of the Commonwealth, came into the field, and was very successful in all his military plans. Other Republican generals appeared in all parts of the kingdom, and fought with great determination and great success, driving the armies of the king before them wherever they moved, and reducing town after town, and castle after castle, until it began to appear evident that the whole kingdom would soon fall into their hands. Oliver Cromwell. Portrait painted by Samuel Cooper in 1656. In the mean time, the family of the queen were very much separated from each other, the children having been left in various places, exposed each to different privations and dangers. Two or three of them were in London in the hands of their father's enemies. Mary, the young bride of the Prince of Orange, was in Holland. Prince Charles, the oldest son, who was now about fourteen years of age, was at the head of one of his father's armies in the west of England. Of course, such a boy could not be expected to accomplish any thing as a general, or even to exercise any real military command. He, however, had his place at the head of a considerable force, and though there were generals with him to conduct all the operations, and to direct the soldiery, they were nominally the lieutenants of the prince, and acted, in all cases, in their young commander's name. Their great duty was, however, after all, to take care of their charge; and the army which accompanied Charles was thus rather an escort and a guard, to secure his safety, than a force from which any aid was to be expected in the recovery of the kingdom. The queen did every thing in her power to sustain the sinking fortunes of her husband, but in vain. At length, in June, 1644, she found herself unable to continue any longer such warlike and masculine exposures and toils. It became necessary for her to seek some place of retreat, where she could enjoy, for a time at least, the quiet and repose now essential to the preservation of her life. Oxford was no longer a place of safety. The Parliament had ordered her impeachment on account of her having brought in arms and munitions of war from foreign lands, to disturb, as they said, the peace of the kingdom. The Parliamentary armies were advancing toward Oxford, and she was threatened with being shut up and besieged there. She accordingly left Oxford, and went down to the sea- coast to Exeter, a strongly fortified place, on a hill surrounded in part by other hills, and very near the sea. There was a palace within the walls, where the queen thought she could enjoy, for a time at least, the needed seclusion and repose. The king accompanied her for a few miles on her journey, to a place called Abingdon, which is in the neighborhood of Oxford, and there the unhappy pair bade each other farewell, with much grief and many tears. They never met again. View of Exeter. Henrietta continued her sorrowful journey alone. She reached the sea- coast in the south-western part of England, where Exeter is situated, and shut herself up in the place of her retreat. She was in a state of great destitution, for Charles's circumstances were now so reduced that he could afford her very little aid. She sent across the Channel to her friends in France, asking them to help her. They sent immediately the supplies that she needed—articles of clothing, a considerable sum of money, and a nurse. She retained the clothing and the nurse, and a little of the money; the rest she sent to Charles. She was, however, now herself tolerably provided for in her new home, and here, a few weeks afterward, her sixth child was born. It was a daughter. The queen's long continued exertions and exposures had seriously impaired her health, and she lay, feeble and low, in her sick chamber for about ten days, when she learned to her dismay that one of the Parliamentary generals was advancing at the head of his army to attack the town which she had made her refuge. This general's name was Essex. The queen sent a messenger out to meet Essex, asking him to allow her to withdraw from the town before he should invest it with his armies. She said that she was very weak and feeble, and unable to endure the privations and alarms which the inhabitants of a besieged town have necessarily to bear; and she asked his permission, therefore, to retire to Bristol, till her health should be restored. Essex replied that he could not give her permission to retire from Exeter; that, in fact, the object of his coming there was to escort her to London, to bring her before Parliament, to answer to the charge of treason. The queen perceived immediately that nothing but the most prompt and resolute action could enable her to escape the impending danger. She had but little bodily strength remaining, but that little was stimulated and renewed by the mental resolution and energy which, as is usual in temperaments like hers, burned all the brighter in proportion to the urgency of the danger which called it into action. She rose from her sick bed, and began to concert measures for making her escape. She confided her plan to three trusty friends, one gentleman, one lady, and her confessor, who, as her spiritual teacher and guide, was her constant companion. She disguised herself and these her attendants, and succeeded in getting through the gates of Exeter without attracting any observation. This was before Essex arrived. She found, however, before she went far, that the van of the army was approaching, and she had to seek refuge in a hut till her enemies had passed. She concealed herself among some straw, her attendants seeking such other hiding places as were at hand. It was two days before the bodies of soldiery had all passed so as to make it safe for the queen to come out of her retreat. The hut would seem to have been uninhabited, as the accounts state that she remained all this time without food, though this seems to be an almost incredible degree of privation and exposure for an English queen. At any rate, she remained during all this time in a state of great mental anxiety and alarm, for there were parties of soldiery constantly going by, with a tumult and noise which kept her in continual terror. Their harsh and dissonant voices, heard sometimes in angry quarrels and sometimes in mirth, were always frightful. In fact, for a helpless woman in a situation like that of the queen, the mood of reckless and brutal mirth in such savages was perhaps more to be dreaded than that of their anger. At one time the queen overheard a party of these soldiers talking about her. They knew that to get possession of the papist queen was the object of their expedition. They spoke of getting her head and carrying it to London, saying that Parliament had offered a reward of fifty thousand crowns for it, and expressed the savage pleasure which it would give them to secure this prize, by imprecations and oaths. They did not, however, discover their intended victim. After the whole army passed, the queen ventured cautiously forth from her retreat; the little party got together again, and, still retaining their disguises, moved on over the road by which the soldiers had come, and which was in the shocking condition that a road and a country always exhibit where an army has been marching. Faint and exhausted with sickness, abstinence, and the effects of long continued anxiety and fear, the queen had scarcely strength to go on. She persevered, however, and at length found a second refuge in a cabin in a wood. She was going to Plymouth, which is forty or fifty miles from Exeter, to the south-west, and is the great port and naval station of the English, in that quarter of the island. She stopped at this cabin for a little time to rest, and to wait for some other friends and members of her household from the palace in Exeter to join her. Those friends were to wait until they found that the queen succeeded in making her escape, and then they were to follow, each in a different way, and all assuming such disguises as would most effectually help to conceal them. There was one of the party whom it must have been somewhat difficult to disguise. It was a dwarf, named Geoffrey Hudson, who had been a long time in the service of Henrietta as a personal attendant and messenger. It was the fancy of queens and princesses in those days to have such personages in their train. The oddity of the idea pleased them, and the smaller the dimensions of such a servitor, the greater was his value. In modern times all this is changed. Tall footmen now, in the families of the great, receive salaries in proportion to the number of inches in their stature, and the dwarfs go to the museums, to be exhibited, for a price, to the common wonder of mankind. The manner in which Sir Geoffrey Hudson was introduced into the service of the queen was as odd as his figure. It was just after she was married, and when she was about eighteen years old. She had two dwarfs then already, a gentleman and a lady, or, as they termed it then, a cavalier and a dame, and, to carry out the whimsical idea, she had arranged a match between these two, and had them married. Now there was in her court at that time a wild and thoughtless nobleman, a great friend and constant companion of her husband Charles the First, named Buckingham. An account of his various exploits is given in our history of Charles the First. Buckingham happened to hear of this Geoffrey Hudson, who was then a boy of seven or eight years of age, living with his parents somewhere in the interior of England. He sent for him, and had him brought secretly to his house, and made an arrangement to have him enter the service of the queen, without, however, saying any thing of his design to her. He then invited the queen and her husband to visit him at his palace; and when the time for luncheon arrived, one day, he conducted the party into the dining saloon to partake of some refreshment. There was upon the table, among other viands, what appeared to be a large venison pie. The company gathered around the table, and a servant proceeded to cut the pie, and on his breaking and raising a piece of the crust, out stepped the young dwarf upon the table, splendidly dressed and armed, and, advancing toward the queen, he kneeled before her, and begged to be received into her train. Her majesty was very much pleased with the addition itself thus made to her household, as well as diverted by the odd manner in which her new attendant was introduced into her service. The youthful dwarf was then only eighteen inches high, and he continued so until he was thirty years of age, when, to every body's surprise, he began to grow. He grew quite rapidly, and, for a time, there was a prospect that he would be entirely spoiled, as his whole value had consisted thus far in his littleness. He attained the height of three feet and a half, and there the mysterious principle of organic expansion, the most mysterious and inexplicable, perhaps, that is exhibited in all the phenomena of life, seemed to be finally exhausted, and, though he lived to be nearly seventy years of age, he grew no more. Notwithstanding the bodily infirmity, whatever it may have been, which prevented his growth, the dwarf possessed a considerable degree of mental capacity and courage. He did not bear, however, very good- naturedly, the jests and gibes of which he was the continual object, from the unfeeling courtiers, who often took pleasure in teasing him and in getting him into all sorts of absurd and ridiculous situations. At last his patience was entirely exhausted, and he challenged one of his tormentors, whose name was Crofts, to a duel. Crofts accepted the challenge, and, being determined to persevere in his fun to the end, appeared on the battle ground armed only with a squirt. This raised a laugh, of course, but it did not tend much to cool the injured Lilliputian's anger. He sternly insisted on another meeting, and with real weapons. Crofts had expected to have turned off the whole affair in a joke, but he found this could not be done; and public opinion among the courtiers around him compelled him finally to accept the challenge in earnest. The parties met on horseback, to put them more nearly on an equality. They fought with pistols. Crofts was killed upon the spot. After this Hudson was treated with more respect. He was entrusted by the queen with many commissions, and sometimes business was committed to him which required no little capacity, judgment, and courage. He was now, at the time of the queen's escape from Exeter, of his full stature, but as this was only three and a half feet, he encountered great danger in attempting to find his way out of the city and through the advancing columns of the army to rejoin the queen. He persevered, however, and reached her safely at last in the cabin in the wood. The babe, not yet two weeks old, was necessarily left behind. She was left in charge of Lady Morton, whom the queen appointed her governess. Lady Morton was young and beautiful. She was possessed of great strength and energy of character, and she devoted herself with her whole soul to preserving the life and securing the safety of her little charge. The queen and her party had to traverse a wild and desolate forest, many miles in extent, on the way to Plymouth. The name of it was Dartmoor Forest. Lonely as it was, however, the party was safer in it than in the open and inhabited country, which was all disturbed and in commotion, as every country necessarily is in time of civil war. As the queen drew near to Plymouth, she found that, for some reason, it would not be safe to enter that town, and so the whole party went on, continuing their journey farther to the westward still. Now there is one important sea-port to the westward of Plymouth which is called Falmouth, and near it, on a high promontory jutting into the sea, is a large and strong castle, called Pendennis Castle. This castle was, at the time of the queen's escape, in the hands of the king's friends, and she determined, accordingly, to seek refuge there. The whole party arrived here safely on the 29th of June. They were all completely worn out and exhausted by the fatigues, privations, and exposures of their terrible journey. The queen had determined to make her escape as soon as possible to France. She could no longer be of any service to the king in England; her resources were exhausted, and her personal health was so feeble that she must have been a burden to his cause, and not a help, if she had remained. There was a ship from Holland in the harbor. The Prince of Orange, it will be recollected, who had married the queen's oldest daughter, was a prince of Holland, and this vessel was under his direction. Some writers say it was sent to Falmouth by him to be ready for his mother-in-law, in case she should wish to make her escape from England. Others speak of it as being there accidentally at this time. However this may be, it was immediately placed at Queen Henrietta's disposal, and she determined to embark in it on the following morning. She knew very well that, as soon as Essex should have heard of her escape, parties would be scouring the country in all directions in pursuit of her, and that, although the castle where she had found a temporary refuge was strong, it was not best to incur the risk of being shut up and besieged in it. She accordingly embarked, with all her company, on board the Dutch ship on the very morning after her arrival, and immediately put to sea. They made all sail for the coast of France, intending to land at Dieppe. Dieppe is almost precisely east of Falmouth, two or three hundred miles from it, up the English Channel. As it is on the other side of the Channel, it would lie to the south of Falmouth, were it not that both the French and English coasts trend here to the northward. Some time before they arrived at their port, they perceived some ships in the offing that seemed to be pursuing them. They endeavored to escape, but their pursuers gained rapidly upon them, and at length fired a gun as a signal for the queen's vessel to stop. The ball came bounding over the water toward them, but did no harm. Of course there was a scene of universal commotion and panic on board the queen's ship. Some wanted to fire back upon the pursuers, some wished to stop and surrender, and others shrieked and cried, and were overwhelmed with uncontrollable emotions of terror. In the midst of this dreadful scene of confusion, the queen, as was usual with her in such emergencies, retained all her self-possession, and though weak and helpless before, felt a fresh strength and energy now, which the imminence itself of the danger seemed to inspire. She was excited, it is true, as well as the rest, but it was, in her case, the excitement of courage and resolution, and not of senseless terror and despair. She ascended to the deck; she took the direct command of the ship; she gave instructions to the pilot how to steer; and, though there was a storm coming on, she ordered every sail to be set, that the ship might be driven as rapidly as possible through the water. She forbade the captain to fire back upon their pursuers, fearing that such firing would occasion delay; and she gave distinct and positive orders to the captain, that so soon as it should appear that all hope of escape was gone, and that they must inevitably fall into the hands of their enemies, he was to set fire to the magazine of gunpowder, in order that they might all be destroyed by the explosion. In the mean time all the ships, pursuers and pursued, were rapidly nearing the French coast. The fugitives were hoping to reach their port. They were also hoping every moment to see some friendly French ships appear in sight to rescue them. To balance this double hope, there was a double fear. There were their pursuers behind them, whose shots were continually booming over the water, threatening them with destruction, and there was a storm arising which, with the great press of sail that they were carrying, brought with it a danger, perhaps, more imminent still. It happened that these hopes and fears were all realized, and nearly at the same time. A shot struck the ship, producing a great shock, and throwing all on board into terrible consternation. It damaged the rigging, bringing down the rent sails and broken cordage to the deck, and thus stopped the vessel's way. At the same moment some French vessels came in sight, and, as soon as they understood the case, bore down full sail to rescue the disabled vessel. The pursuers, changing suddenly their pursuit to flight, altered their course and moved slowly away. The storm, however, increased, and, preventing them from making the harbor of Dieppe, drove them along the shore, threatening every moment to dash them upon the rocks and breakers. At length the queen's vessel succeeded in getting into a rocky cove, where they were sheltered from the winds and waves, and found a chance to land. The queen ordered out the boat, and was set ashore with her attendants on the rocks. She climbed over them, wet as they were with the dashing spray, and slippery with sea weed. The little party, drenched with the rain, and exhausted and forlorn, wandered along the shore till they came to a little village of fishermen's huts. The queen went into the first wretched cabin which offered itself, and lay down upon the straw in the corner for rest and sleep. The tidings immediately spread all over the region that the Queen of England had landed on the coast, and produced, of course, universal excitement. The gentry in the neighborhood flocked down the next morning, in their carriages, to offer Henrietta their aid. They supplied her wants, invited her to their houses, and offered her their equipages to take her wherever she should decide to go. What she wanted was seclusion and rest. They accordingly conveyed her, at her request, to the Baths of Bourbon, where she remained some time, until, in fact, her health and strength were in some measure restored. Great personages of state were sent to her here from Paris, with money and all other necessary supplies, and in due time she was escorted in state to the city, and established in great magnificence and splendor in the Louvre, which was then one of the principal palaces of the capital. View of the Louvre. Notwithstanding the outward change which was thus made in the circumstances of the exiled queen, she was very unhappy. As the excitement of her danger and her efforts to escape it passed away, her spirits sunk, her beauty faded, and her countenance assumed the wan and haggard expression of despair. She mourned over the ruin of her husband's hopes, and her separation from him and from her children, with perpetual tears. She called to mind continually the image of the little babe, not yet three weeks old, whom she had left so defenseless in the very midst of her enemies. She longed to get some tidings of the child, and reproached herself sometimes for having thus, as it were, abandoned her. The localities which were the scenes of these events have been made very famous by them, and traditional tales of Queen Henrietta's residence in Exeter, and of her romantic escape from it, have been handed down there, from generation to generation, to the present day. They caused her portrait to be painted too, and hung it up in the city hall of Exeter as a memorial of their royal visitor. The palace where the little infant was born has long since passed away, but the portrait hangs in the Guildhall still. IV. — ESCAPE OF THE CHILDREN We left the mother of Prince Charles, at the close of the last chapter, in the palace of the Louvre in Paris. Though all her wants were now supplied, and though she lived in royal state in a magnificent palace on the banks of the Seine, still she was disconsolate and unhappy. She had, indeed, succeeded in effecting her own escape from the terrible dangers which had threatened her family in England, but she had left her husband and children behind, and she could not really enjoy herself the shelter which she had found from the storm, as long as those whom she so ardently loved were still out, exposed to all its fury. She had six children. Prince Charles, the oldest, was in the western part of England, in camp, acting nominally as the commander of an army, and fighting for his father's throne. He was now fourteen years of age. Next to him was Mary, the wife of the Prince of Orange, who was safe in Holland. She was one year younger than Charles. James, the third child, whose title was now Duke of York, was about ten. He had been left in Oxford when that city was surrendered, and had been taken captive there by the Republican army. The general in command sent him to London a prisoner. It was hard for such a child to be a captive, but then there was one solace in his lot. By being sent to London he rejoined his little sister Elizabeth and his brother Henry, who had remained there all the time. Henry was three years old and Elizabeth was six. These children, being too young, as was supposed, to attempt an escape, were not very closely confined. They were entrusted to the charge of some of the nobility, and lived in one of the London palaces. James was a very thoughtful and considerate boy, and had been enough with his father in his campaigns to understand something of the terrible dangers with which the family were surrounded. The other children were too young to know or care about them, and played blindman's buff and hide and go seek in the great saloons of the palace with as much infantile glee as if their father and mother were as safe and happy as ever. Though they felt thus no uneasiness and anxiety for themselves, their exiled mother mourned for them, and was oppressed by the most foreboding fears for their personal safety. She thought, however, still more frequently of the babe, and felt a still greater solicitude for her, left as she had been, at so exceedingly tender an age, in a situation of the most extreme and imminent danger. She felt somewhat guilty in having yielded her reluctant consent, for political reasons, to have her other children educated in what she believed a false system of religious faith, and she now prayed earnestly to God to spare the life of this her last and dearest child, and vowed in her anguish that, if the babe were ever restored to her, she would break through all restrictions, and bring her up a true believer. This vow she afterward earnestly fulfilled. The child, it will be recollected, was left, when Henrietta escaped from Exeter, in the care of the Countess of Morton, a young and beautiful, and also a very intelligent and energetic lady. The child had a visit from its father soon after its mother left it. King Charles, as soon as he heard that Essex was advancing to besiege Exeter, where he knew that the queen had sought refuge, and was, of course, exposed to fall into his power, hastened with an army to her rescue. He arrived in time to prevent Essex from getting possession of the place. He, in fact, drove the besieger away from the town, and entered it himself in triumph. The queen was gone, but he found the child. The king gazed upon the little stranger with a mixture of joy and sorrow. He caused it to be baptized, and named it Henrietta Anne. The name Henrietta was from the mother; Anne was the name of Henrietta's sister-in-law in Paris, who had been very kind to her in all her troubles. The king made ample arrangements for supplying Lady Morton with money out of the revenues of the town of Exeter, and, thinking that the child would be as safe in Exeter as any where, left her there, and went away to resume again his desperate conflicts with his political foes. Lady Morton remained for some time at Exeter, but the king's cause every where declined. His armies were conquered, his towns were taken, and he was compelled at last to give himself up a prisoner. Exeter, as well as all the other strongholds in the kingdom, fell into the hands of the parliamentary armies. They sent Lady Morton and the little Henrietta to London, and soon afterward provided them with a home in the mansion at Oatlands, where the queen herself and her other children had lived before. It was a quiet and safe retreat, but Lady Morton was very little satisfied with the plan of remaining there. She wished very much to get the babe back to its mother again in Paris. She heard, at length, of rumors that a plan was forming by the Parliament to take the child out of her charge, and she then resolved to attempt an escape at all hazards. Henrietta Anne was now two years old, and was beginning to talk a little. When asked what was her name, they had taught her to attempt to reply princess, though she did not succeed in uttering more than the first letters of the word, her answer being, in fact, prah. Lady Morton conceived the idea of making her escape across the country in the disguise of a beggar woman, changing, at the same time, the princess into a boy. She was herself very tall, and graceful, and beautiful, and it was hard for her to make herself look old and ugly. She, however, made a hump for her back out of a bundle of linen, and stooped in her gait to counterfeit age. She dressed herself in soiled and ragged clothes, disfigured her face by reversing the contrivances with which ladies in very fashionable life are said sometimes to produce artificial youth and beauty, and with the child in a bundle on her back, and a staff in her hand, she watched for a favorable opportunity to escape stealthily from the palace, in the forlorn hope of walking in that way undetected to Dover, a march of fifty miles, through a country filled with enemies. Little Henrietta was to be a boy, and as people on the way might ask the child its name, Lady Morton was obliged to select one for her which would fit, in some degree, her usual reply to such a question. She chose the name Pierre, which sounds, at least, as much like prah as princess does. The poor child, though not old enough to speak distinctly, was still old enough to talk a great deal. She was very indignant at the vile dress which she was compelled to wear, and at being called a beggar boy. She persisted in telling every body whom she met that she was not a boy, nor a beggar, nor Pierre, but the princess saying it all, however, very fortunately, in such an unintelligible way, that it only alarmed Lady Morton, without, however, attracting the attention of those who heard it, or giving them any information. Contrary to every reasonable expectation, Lady Morton succeeded in her wild and romantic attempt. She reached Dover in safety. She made arrangements for crossing in the packet boat, which then, as now, plied from Dover to Calais. She landed at length safely on the French coast, where she threw off her disguise, resumed her natural grace and beauty, made known her true name and character, and traveled in ease and safety to Paris. The excitement and the intoxicating joy which Henrietta experienced when she got her darling child once more in her arms, can be imagined, perhaps, even by the most sedate American mother; but the wild and frantic violence of her expressions of it, none but those who are conversant with the French character and French manners can know. Escape of Princess Henrietta. It was not very far from the time of little Henrietta's escape from her father's enemies in London, though, in fact, before it, that Prince Charles made his escape from the island too. His father, finding that his cause was becoming desperate, gave orders to those who had charge of his son to retreat to the southwestern coast of the island, and if the Republican armies should press hard upon him there, he was to make his escape, if necessary, by sea. The southwestern part of England is a long, mountainous promontory, constituting the county of Cornwall. It is a wild and secluded region, and the range which forms it seems to extend for twenty or thirty miles under the sea, where it rises again to the surface, forming a little group of islands, more wild and rugged even than the land. These are the Scilly Isles. They lie secluded and solitary, and are known chiefly to mankind through the ships that seek shelter among them in storms. Prince Charles retreated from post to post through Cornwall, the danger becoming more and more imminent every day, till at last it became necessary to fly from the country altogether. He embarked on board a vessel, and went first to the Scilly Isles. From Scilly he sailed eastward toward the coast of France. He landed first at the island of Jersey, which, though it is very near the French coast, and is inhabited by a French population, is under the English government. Here the prince met with a very cordial reception, as the authorities were strongly attached to his father's cause. Jersey is a beautiful isle and, far enough south to enjoy a genial climate, where flowers bloom and fruits ripen in the warm sunbeams, which are here no longer intercepted by the driving mists and rains which sweep almost perceptibly along the hill sides and fields of England. Prince Charles did not, however, remain long in Jersey. His destination was Paris. He passed, therefore, across to the main land, and traveled to the capital. He was received with great honors at his mother's new home, in the palace of the Louvre, as a royal prince, and heir apparent to the British crown. He was now sixteen. The adventures which he met with on his arrival will be the subject of the next chapter. James, the Duke of York, remained still in London. He continued there for two years, during which time his father's affairs went totally to ruin. The unfortunate king, after his armies were all defeated, and his cause was finally given up by his friends, and he had surrendered himself a prisoner to his enemies, was taken from castle to castle, every where strongly guarded and very closely confined. At length, worn down with privations and sufferings, and despairing of all hope of relief, he was taken to London to be tried for his life. James, in the mean time, with his brother, the little Duke of Gloucester, and his sister Elizabeth, were kept in St. James's Palace, as has already been stated, under the care of an officer to whom they had been given in charge. The queen was particularly anxious to have James make his escape. He was older than the others, and in case of the death of Charles, would be, of course, the next heir to the crown. He did, in fact, live till after the close of his brother's reign, and succeeded him, under the title of James the Second. His being thus in the direct line of succession made his father and mother very desirous of effecting his rescue, while the Parliament were strongly desirous, for the same reason, of keeping him safely. His governor received, therefore, a special charge to take the most effectual precautions to prevent his escape, and, for this purpose, not to allow of his having any communication whatever with his parents or his absent friends. The governor took all necessary measures to prevent such intercourse, and, as an additional precaution, made James promise that he would not receive any letter from any person unless it came through him. James's mother, however, not knowing these circumstances, wrote a letter to him, and sent it by a trusty messenger, directing him to watch for some opportunity to deliver it unobserved. Now there is a certain game of ball, called tennis, which was formerly a favorite amusement in England and on the Continent of Europe, and which, in fact, continues to be played there still. It requires an oblong enclosure, surrounded by high walls, against which the balls rebound. Such an enclosure is called a tennis court. It was customary to build such tennis courts in most of the royal palaces. There was one at St. James's Palace, where the young James, it seems, used sometimes to play.* Strangers had the opportunity of seeing the young prince in his coming and going to and from this place of amusement, and the queen's messenger determined to offer him the letter there. He accordingly tendered it to him stealthily, as he was passing, saying, "Take this; it is from your mother." [* Footnote. It was to such a tennis court at Versailles that the great National Assembly of France adjourned when the king excluded them from their hall, at the commencement of the great Revolution, and where they took the famous oath not to separate till they had established a constitution, which has been so celebrated in history as the Oath of the Tennis Court.] James drew back, replying, "I can not take it. I have promised that I will not." The messenger reported to the queen that he offered the letter to James, and that he refused to receive it. His mother was very much displeased, and wondered what such a strange refusal could mean. Although James thus failed to receive his communication, he was allowed at length, once or twice, to have an interview with his father, and in these interviews the king recommended to him to make his escape, if he could, and to join his mother in France. James determined to obey this injunction, and immediately set to work to plan his escape. He was fifteen years of age, and, of course, old enough to exercise some little invention. He was accustomed, as we have already stated, to join the younger children in games of hide and go seek. He began now to search for the most recondite hiding places, where he could not be found, and when he had concealed himself in such a place, he would remain there for a very long time, until his playmates had given up the search in despair. Then, at length, after having been missing for half an hour, he would reappear of his own accord. He thought that by this plan he should get the children and the attendants accustomed to his being for a long time out of sight, so that, when at length he should finally disappear, their attention would not be seriously attracted to the circumstance until he should have had time to get well set out upon his journey. He had, like his mother, a little dog, but, unlike her, he was not so strongly attached to it as to be willing to endanger his life to avoid a separation. When the time arrived, therefore, to set out on his secret journey, he locked the dog up in his room, to prevent its following him, and thus increasing the probability of his being recognized and brought back. He then engaged his brother and sister and his other playmates in the palace in a game of hide and go seek. He went off ostensibly to hide, but, instead of doing so, he stole out of the palace gates in company with a friend named Banfield, and a footman. It was in the rear of the palace that he made his exit, at a sort of postern gate, which opened upon an extensive park. After crossing the park, the party hurried on through London, and then directed their course down the River Thames toward Gravesend, a port near the mouth of the river, where they intended to embark for Holland. They had taken the precaution to disguise themselves. James wore a wig, which, changing the color and appearance of his hair, seemed to give a totally new expression to his face. He substituted other clothes, too, for those which he was usually accustomed to wear. The whole party succeeded thus in traversing the country without detection. They reached Gravesend, embarked on board a vessel there, and sailed to Holland, where James joined the Prince of Orange and his sister, and sent word to his mother that he had arrived there in safety. His little brother and sister were left behind. They were too young to fly themselves, and too old to be conveyed away, as little Henrietta had been, in the arms of another. They had, however, the mournful satisfaction of seeing their father just before his execution, and of bidding him a last farewell. The king, when he was condemned to die, begged to be allowed to see these children. They were brought to visit him in the chamber where he was confined. His parting interview with them, and the messages of affection and farewell which he sent to their brothers and sisters, and to their mother, constitute one of the most affecting scenes which the telescope of history brings to our view, in that long and distant vista of the past, which it enables us so fully to explore. The little Gloucester was too young to understand the sorrows of the hour, but Elizabeth felt them in all their intensity. She was twelve years old. When brought to her father, she burst into tears, and wept long and bitterly. Her little brother, sympathizing in his sister's sorrow, though not comprehending its cause, wept bitterly too. Elizabeth was thoughtful enough to write an account of what took place at this most solemn farewell as soon as it was over. Her account is as follows: "What the king said to me on the 29th of January, 1648, the last time I had the happiness to see him. "He told me that he was glad I was come, for, though he had not time to say much, yet somewhat he wished to say to me, which he could not to another, and he had feared 'the cruelty' was too great to permit his writing. 'But, darling,' he added, 'thou wilt forget what I tell thee.' Then, shedding an abundance of tears, I told him that I would write down all he said to me. 'He wished me,' he said, 'not to grieve and torment myself for him, for it was a glorious death he should die, it being for the laws and religion of the land.' He told me what books to read against popery. He said 'that he had forgiven all his enemies, and he hoped God would forgive them also;' and he commanded us, and all the rest of my brothers and sisters, to forgive them too. Above all, he bade me tell my mother 'that his thoughts had never strayed from her, and that his love for her would be the same to the last;' withal, he commanded me (and my brother) to love her and be obedient to her. He desired me 'not to grieve for him, for he should die a martyr, and that he doubted not but God would restore the throne to his son, and that then we should be all happier than we could possibly have been if he had lived.' "Then taking my brother Gloucester on his knee, he said, 'Dear boy, now will they cut off thy father's head.' Upon which the child looked very steadfastly upon him. 'Heed, my child, what I say; they will cut off my head, and perhaps make thee a king; but, mark what I say! You must not be a king as long as your brothers Charles and James live; therefore, I charge you, do not be made a king by them.' At which the child, sighing deeply, replied, 'I will be torn in pieces first.' And these words, coining so unexpectedly from so young a child, rejoiced my father exceedingly. And his majesty spoke to him of the welfare of his soul, and to keep his religion, commanding him to fear God, and he would provide for him; all which the young child earnestly promised to do." After the king's death the Parliament kept these children in custody for some time, and at last they became somewhat perplexed to know what to do with them. It was even proposed, when Cromwell's Republican government had become fully established, to bind them out apprentices, to learn some useful trade. This plan was, however, not carried into effect. They were held as prisoners, and sent at last to Carisbrooke Castle, where their father had been confined. Little Henry, too young to understand his sorrows, grew in strength and stature, like any other boy; but Elizabeth pined and sunk under the burden of her woes. She mourned incessantly her father's cruel death, her mother's and her brother's exile, and her own wearisome and hopeless captivity. "Little Harry", as she called him, and a Bible, which her father gave her in his last interview with her, were her only companions. She lingered along for two years after her father's death, until at length the hectic flush, the signal of approaching dissolution, appeared upon her cheek, and an unnatural brilliancy brightened in her eyes. They sent her father's physician to see if he could save her. His prescriptions did no good. One day the attendants came into her apartment and found her sitting in her chair, with her cheek resting upon the Bible which she had been reading, and which she had placed for a sort of pillow on the table, to rest her weary head upon when her reading was done. She was motionless. They would have thought her asleep, but her eyes were not closed. She was dead. The poor child's sorrows and sufferings were ended forever. The stern Republicans who now held dominion over England, men of iron as they were, could not but be touched with the unhappy fate of this their beautiful and innocent victim; and they so far relented from the severity of the policy which they had pursued toward the ill-fated family as to send the little Gloucester, after his sister's death, home to his mother. V. — THE PRINCE'S RECEPTION AT PARIS So complicated a story as that of the family of Charles can not be related, in all its parts, in the exact order of time; and having now shown under what circumstances the various members of the family made their escape from the dangers which threatened them in England, we return to follow the adventures of Prince Charles during his residence on the Continent, and, more particularly in this chapter, to describe his reception by the royal family of France. He was one of the first of the children that escaped, having arrived in France in 1646. His father was not beheaded until two years afterward. In order that the reader may understand distinctly the situation in which Charles found himself on his arrival at Paris, we must first describe the condition of the royal family of France at this time. They resided sometimes at Fontainebleau, a splendid palace in the midst of a magnificent park about forty miles from the city. Henrietta, it will be recollected, was the sister of a king of France. This king was Louis XIII. He died, however, not far from the time of Queen Henrietta's arrival in the country, leaving his little son Louis, then five years old, heir to the crown. The little Louis of course became king immediately, in name, as Louis XIV., and in the later periods of his life he attained to so high a degree of prosperity and power, that he has been, ever since his day, considered one of the most renowned of all the French kings. He was, of course, Prince Charles's cousin. At the period of Prince Charles's arrival, however, he was a mere child, being then about eight years old. Of course, he was too young really to exercise any of the powers of the government. His mother, Anne of Austria, was made regent, and authorized to govern the country until the young king should arrive at a suitable age to exercise his hereditary powers in his own name. Anne of Austria had been always very kind to Henrietta, and had always rendered her assistance whenever she had been reduced to any special extremity of distress. It was she who had sent the supplies of money and clothing to Henrietta when she fled, sick and destitute, to Exeter, vainly hoping to find repose and the means of restoration there. Besides King Louis XIII., who had died, Henrietta had another brother, whose name was Gaston, duke of Orleans. The Duke of Orleans had a daughter, who was styled the Duchess of Montpensier, deriving the title from her mother. She was, of course, also a cousin of Prince Charles. Her father, being brother of the late king, and uncle of the present one, was made lieutenant general of the kingdom, having thus the second place, that is, the place next to the queen, in the management of the affairs of the realm. Thus the little king commenced his reign by having in his court his mother as queen regent, his uncle lieutenant general, and his aunt, an exiled queen from a sister realm, his guest. He had also in his household his brother Philip, younger than himself, his cousin the young Duchess of Montpensier, and his cousin the Prince Charles. The family relationship of all these individuals will be made more clear by being presented in a tabular form, as follows: ROYAL FAMILY OF FRANCE IN THE TIME OF LOUIS XIV. Louis XIII. Louis XIV. Anne of Austria. Philip, 8 years old. HENRY IV Gaston, duke of Orleans. Duchess of Montpensier Duchess of Montpensier. Henrietta Maria. Prince Charles, 16. King Charles I. In the above table, the first column contains the name of Henry IV., the second those of three of his children, with the persons whom they respectively married, and the third the four grandchildren, who, as cousins, now found themselves domesticated together in the royal palaces of France. The young king was, as has already been said, about eight years old at the time of Prince Charles's arrival. The palace in which he resided when in the city was the Palace Royal, which was then, and has been ever since, one of the most celebrated buildings in the world. It was built at an enormous expense, during a previous reign, by a powerful minister of state, who was, in ecclesiastical rank, a cardinal, and his mansion was named, accordingly, the Palace Cardinal. It had, however, been recently taken as a royal residence, and its name changed to Palace Royal. Here the queen regent had her grand apartments of state, every thing being as rich as the most lavish expenditure could make it. She had one apartment, called an oratory, a sort of closet for prayer, which was lighted by a large window, the sash of which was made of silver. The interior of the room was ornamented with the most costly paintings and furniture, and was enriched with a profusion of silver and gold. The little king had his range of apartments too, with a whole household of officers and attendants as little as himself. These children were occupied continually with ceremonies, and pageants, and mock military parades, in which they figured in miniature arms and badges of authority, and with dresses made to imitate those of real monarchs and ministers of state. Every thing was regulated with the utmost regard to etiquette and punctilio, and without any limits or bounds to the expense. Thus, though the youthful officers of the little monarch's household exercised no real power, they displayed all the forms and appearances of royalty with more than usual pomp and splendor. It was a species of child's play, it is true, but it was probably the most grand and magnificent child's play that the world has ever witnessed. It was into this extraordinary scene that Prince Charles found himself ushered on his arrival in France. At the time of the prince's arrival the court happened to be residing, not at Paris, but at Fontainebleau. Fontainebleau, as has already been stated, is about forty miles from Paris, to the southward. There is a very splendid palace and castle there, built originally in very ancient times. There is a town near, both the castle and the town being in the midst of a vast park and forest, one of the most extended and magnificent royal domains in Europe. This forest has been reserved as a hunting ground for the French kings from a very early age. It covers an area of forty thousand acres, being thus many miles in extent. The royal family were at this palace at the time of Prince Charles's arrival, celebrating the festivities of a marriage. The prince accordingly, as we shall presently see, went there to join them. There were two persons who were anticipating the prince's arrival in France with special interest, his mother, and his young cousin, the Duchess of Montpensier. Her Christian name was Anne Marie Louisa.* She was a gay, frivolous, and coquettish girl, of about nineteen, immensely rich, being the heiress of the vast estates of her mother, who was not living. Her father, though he was the lieutenant general of the realm, and the former king's brother, was not rich. His wife, when she died, had bequeathed all her vast estates to her daughter Anne Maria was naturally haughty and vain, and; as her father was accustomed to come occasionally to her to get supplies of money, she was made vainer and more self-conceited still by his dependence upon her. Several matches had been proposed to her, and among them the Emperor of Germany had been named. He was a widower. His first wife, who had been Anne Maria's aunt, had just died. As the emperor was a potentate of great importance, the young belle thought she should prefer him to any of the others who had been proposed, and she made no secret of this her choice. It is true that he had made no proposal to her, but she presumed that he would do so after a suitable time had elapsed from the death of his first wife, and Anne Maria was contented to wait, considering the lofty elevation to which she would attain on becoming his bride. [* Footnote: She is commonly called, in the annals of the day in which she lived, Mademoiselle, as she was, par eminence, the young lady of the court. In history she is commonly called Mademoiselle de Montpensier; we shall call her, in this narrative, simply Anne Maria, as that is, for our purpose, the most convenient designation.] But Queen Henrietta Maria had another plan. She was very desirous to obtain Anne Maria for the wife of her son Charles. There were many reasons for this. The young lady was a princess of the royal family of France; she possessed, too, an immense fortune, and was young and beautiful withal, though not quite so young as Charles himself. He was sixteen, and she was about nineteen. It is true that Charles was now, in some sense, a fugitive and an exile, destitute of property, and without a home. Still he was a prince. He was the heir apparent of the kingdoms of England and Scotland. He was young and accomplished. These high qualifications, somewhat exaggerated, perhaps, by maternal partiality, seemed quite sufficient to Henrietta to induce the proud duchess to become the prince's bride. All this, it must be remembered, took place before the execution of King Charles the First, and when, of course, the fortunes of the family were not so desperate as they afterward became. Queen Henrietta had a great many conversations with Anne Maria before the prince arrived, in which she praised very highly his person and his accomplishments. She narrated to the duchess the various extraordinary adventures and the narrow escapes which the prince had met with in the course of his wanderings in England; she told her how dutiful and kind he had been to her as a son, and how efficient and courageous in his father's cause as a soldier. She described his appearance and his manners, and foretold how he would act, what tastes and preferences he would form, and how he would be regarded in the French court. The young duchess listened to all this with an appearance of indifference and unconcern, which was partly real and partly only assumed. She could not help feeling some curiosity to see her cousin, but her head was too full of the grander destination of being the wife of the emperor to think much of the pretensions of this wandering and homeless exile. Prince Charles, on his arrival, went first to Paris, where he found his mother. There was an invitation for them here to proceed to Fontainebleau, where, as has already been stated, the young king and his court were now residing. They went there accordingly, and were received with every mark of attention and honor. The queen regent took the young king into the carriage of state, and rode some miles along the avenue, through the forest, to meet the prince and his mother when they were coming. They were attended with the usual cortege of carriages and horsemen, and they moved with all the etiquette and ceremony proper to be observed in the reception of royal visitors. When the carriages met in the forest, they stopped, and the distinguished personages contained in them alighted. Queen Henrietta introduced her son to the queen regent and to Louis, the French king, and also to other personages of distinction who were in their train. Among them was Anne Maria. The queen regent took Henrietta and the prince into the carriage with her and the young king, and they proceeded thus together back to the palace. Prince Charles was somewhat embarrassed in making all these new acquaintances, in circumstances, too, of so much ceremony and parade, and the more so, as his knowledge of the French language was imperfect. He could understand it when spoken, but could not speak it well himself, and he appeared, accordingly, somewhat awkward and confused. He seemed particularly at a loss in his intercourse with Anne Maria. She was a little older than himself, and, being perfectly at home, both in the ceremonies of the occasion and in the language of the company, she felt entirely at her ease herself; and yet, from her natural temperament and character, she assumed such an air and bearing as would tend to prevent the prince from being so. In a word, it happened then as it has often happened since on similar occasions, that the beau was afraid of the belle. The party returned to the palace. On alighting, the little king gave his hand to his aunt, the Queen of England, while Prince Charles gave his to the queen regent, and thus the two matrons were gallanted into the hall. The prince had a seat assigned him on the following day in the queen regent's drawing room, and was thus regularly instated as an inmate of the royal household. He remained here several days, and at length the whole party returned to Paris. Anne Maria, in after years, wrote reminiscences of her early life, which were published after her death. In this journal she gives an account of her introduction to the young prince, and of her first acquaintance with him. It is expressed as follows: "He was only sixteen or seventeen years of age, rather tall, with a fine head, black hair, a dark complexion, and a tolerably agreeable countenance. But he neither spoke nor understood French, which was very inconvenient. Nevertheless, every thing was done to amuse him, and, during the three days that he remained at Fontainebleau, there were hunts and every other sport which could be commanded in that season. He paid his respects to all the princesses, and I discovered immediately that the Queen of England wished to persuade me that he had fallen in love with me. She told me that he talked of me incessantly; that, were she not to prevent it, he would be in my apartment* at all hours; that he found me quite to his taste, and that he was in despair on account of the death of the empress, for he was afraid that they would seek to marry me to the emperor. I listened to all she said as became me, but it did not have as much effect upon me as probably she wished." [* Footnote: This means at her residence. The whole suite of rooms occupied by a family is called, in France, their apartment.] After spending a few days at Fontainebleau, the whole party returned to Paris, and Queen Henrietta and the prince took up their abode again in the Palace Royal, or, as it is now more commonly called, the Palais Royal. Charles was much impressed with the pomp and splendor of the French court, so different from the rough mode of life to which he had been accustomed in his campaigns and wanderings in England. The etiquette and formality, however, were extreme, every thing, even the minutest motions, being regulated by nice rules, which made social intercourse and enjoyment one perpetual ceremony. But, notwithstanding all this pomp and splendor, and the multitude of officers and attendants who were constantly on service, there seems to have been, in the results obtained, a strange mixture of grand parade with discomfort and disorder. At one time at Fontainebleau, at a great entertainment, where all the princes and potentates that had been drawn there by the wedding were assembled, the cooks quarreled in the kitchen, and one of the courses of the supper failed entirely in consequence of their dissensions; and at another time, as a large party of visitors were passing out through a suite of rooms in great state, to descend a grand staircase, where some illustrious foreigners, who were present, were to take their leave, they found the apartments through which they were to pass all dark. The servants had neglected or forgotten to light them. These and similar incidents show that there may be regal luxury and state without order or comfort, as there may be regal wealth and power without any substantial happiness. Notwithstanding this, however, Prince Charles soon became strongly interested in the modes of life to which he was introduced at Paris and at Fontainebleau. There were balls, parties, festivities, and excursions of pleasure without number, his interest in these all being heightened by the presence of Anne Maria, whom he soon began to regard with a strong degree of that peculiar kind of interest which princesses and heiresses inspire. In Anne Maria's memoirs of her early life, we have a vivid description of many of the scenes in which both she herself and Charles were such prominent actors. She wrote always with great freedom, and in a very graphic manner, so that the tale which she tells of this period of her life forms a very entertaining narrative. Anne Maria gives a very minute account of what took place between herself and Charles on several occasions in the course of their acquaintance, and describes particularly various balls, and parties, and excursions of pleasure on which she was attended by the young prince. Her vanity was obviously gratified by the interest which Charles seemed to take in her, but she was probably incapable of any feelings of deep and disinterested love, and Charles made no impression upon her heart. She reserved herself for the emperor. For example, they were all one night invited to a grand ball by the Duchess de Choisy. This lady lived in a magnificent mansion, called the Hotel de Choisy. Just before the time came for the party of visitors to go, the Queen of England came over with Charles to the apartments of Anne Maria. The queen came ostensibly to give the last touches to the adjustment of the young lady's dress, and to the arrangement of her hair, but really, without doubt, in pursuance of her policy of taking every occasion to bring the young people together. "She came," says Anne Maria, in her narrative, "to dress me and arrange my hair herself. She came for this purpose to my apartments, and took the utmost pains to set me off to the best advantage, and the Prince of Wales held the flambeau near me to light my toilet the whole time. I wore black, white, and carnation; and my jewelry was fastened by ribbons of the same colors. I wore a plume of the same kind; all these had been selected and ordered by my aunt Henrietta. The queen regent, who knew that I was in my aunt Henrietta's hands, sent for me to come and see her when I was all ready, before going to the ball. I accordingly went, and this gave the prince an opportunity to go at once to the Hotel de Choisy, and be ready there to receive me when I should arrive I found him there at the door, ready to hand me from my coach. I stopped in a chamber to readjust my hair, and the Prince of Wales again held a flambeau for me. This time, too, he brought his cousin, Prince Rupert, as an interpreter between us; for, believe it who will, though he could understand every word I said to him, he could not reply the least sentence to me in French. When the ball was finished and we retired, the prince followed me to the porter's lodge of my hotel,* and lingered till I entered, and then went his way. [* Footnote: In all the great houses in Paris, the principal buildings of the edifice stand back from the street, surrounding a court yard, which has sometimes shrubbery and flowers and a fountain in the center. The entrance to this court yard is by a great gate and archway on the street, with the apartments occupied by the porter, that is, the keeper of the gate, on one side. The entrance to the porter's lodge is from under the archway.] "There was another occasion on which his gallantry to me attracted a great deal of attention. It was at a great fete celebrated at the Palais Royal. There was a play acted, with scenery and music, and then a ball. It took three whole days to arrange my ornaments for this night. The Queen of England would dress me on this occasion, also, with her own hands. My robe was all figured with diamonds, with carnation trimmings. I wore the jewels of the crown of France, and, to add to them, the Queen of England lent me some fine ones of her own, which she had not then sold. The queen praised the fine turn of my shape, my air, the beauty of my complexion, and the brightness of my light hair. I had a conspicuous seat in the middle of the ballroom, with the young King of France and the Prince of Wales at my feet I did not feel the least embarrassed, for, as I had an idea of marrying the emperor, I regarded the Prince of Wales only as an object of pity." Things went on in this way for a time, until at last some political difficulties occurred at Paris which broke in upon the ordinary routine of the royal family, and drove them, for a time, out of the city. Before these troubles were over, Henrietta and her son were struck down, as by a blow, by the tidings, which came upon them like a thunderbolt, that their husband and father had been beheaded. This dreadful event put a stop for a time to every thing like festive pleasures. The queen left her children, her palace, and all the gay circle of her friends, and retired to a convent, to mourn, in solitude and undisturbed, her irreparable loss. VI. — NEGOTIATIONS WITH ANNE MARIA Our Prince Charles now becomes, by the death of his father, King Charles the Second, both of England and of Scotland. That is, he becomes so in theory, according to the principles of the English Constitution, though, in fact, he is a fugitive and an exile still. Notwithstanding his exclusion, however, from the exercise of what he considered his right to reign, he was acknowledged as king by all true Royalists in England, and by all the continental powers. They would not aid him to recover his throne, but in the courts and royal palaces which he visited he was regarded as a king, and was treated, in form at least, with all the consideration and honor which belonged to royalty. Queen Henrietta was overwhelmed with grief and despair when she learned the dreadful tidings of the execution of her husband. At the time when these tidings came to her, she was involved, also, in many other sufferings and trials. As was intimated in the last chapter, serious difficulties had occurred between the royal family of France and the government and people of the city of Paris, from which a sort of insurrection had resulted, and the young king and his mother, together with all the principal personages of the court, had been compelled to fly from the city, in the night, to save their lives. They went in a train of twenty or thirty carriages, by torch light, having kept their plan a profound secret until the moment of their departure. The young king was asleep in his bed until the time arrived, when they took him up and put him into the carriage. Anne Maria, whose rank and wealth gave her a great deal of influence and power, took sides, in some degree, with the Parisians in this contest, so that her aunt, the queen regent, considered her as an enemy rather than a friend. She, however, took her with them in their flight; but Anne Maria, being very much out of humor, did all she could to tease and torment the party all the way. When they awoke her and informed her of their proposed escape from Paris, she was, as she says in her memoirs, very much delighted, for she knew that the movement was very unwise, and would get her aunt, the queen regent, and all their friends, into serious difficulties. She dressed herself as quick as she could, came down stairs, and proceeded to enter the queen regent's coach, saying that she wanted to have one or the other of certain seats—naming the best places—as she had no idea, she said, of being exposed to cold, or riding uncomfortably on such a night. The queen told her that those seats were for herself and another lady of high rank who was with her, to which Anne Maria replied, "Oh, very well; I suppose young ladies ought to give up to old people." In the course of conversation, as they were preparing to ride away, the queen asked Anne Maria if she was not surprised at being called up to go on such an expedition. "Oh no," said she; "my father" (that is, Gaston, the duke of Orleans) "told me all about it beforehand." This was not true, as she says herself in her own account of these transactions. She knew nothing about the plan until she was called from her bed. She said this, therefore, only to tease her aunt by the false pretension that the secret had been confided to her. Her aunt, however, did not believe her, and said, "Then why did you go to bed, if you knew what was going on?" "Oh," replied Anne Maria, "I thought it would be a good plan to get some sleep, as I did not know whether I should even have a bed to lie upon to-morrow night." The party of fugitives exhibited a scene of great terror and confusion, as they were assembling and crowding into their carriages, before they left the court of the Palais Royal. It was past midnight, in the month of January, and there was no moon. Called up suddenly as they were from their beds, and frightened with imaginary dangers, they all pressed forward, eager to go; and so hurried was their departure, that they took with them very scanty supplies, even for their most ordinary wants. At length they drove away. They passed rapidly out of the city. They proceeded to an ancient palace and castle called St. Germain's, about ten miles northeast of Paris. Anne Maria amused herself with the fears, and difficulties, and privations which the others suffered, and she gives an account of the first night they spent in the place of their retreat, which, as it illustrates her temperament and character, the reader will like perhaps, to see. The Evasion of Louis XIV. "I slept in a very handsome room, well painted, well gilded, and large, with very little fire, and no windows,* which is not very agreeable in the month of January. I slept on mattresses, which were laid upon the floor, and my sister, who had no bed, slept with me. I was obliged to sing to get her to sleep, and then her slumber did not last long, so that she disturbed mine. She tossed about, felt me near her, woke up, and exclaimed that she saw the beast, so I was obliged to sing again to put her to sleep, and in that way I passed the night. Judge whether this was an agreeable situation for one who had had little or no sleep the night before, and who had been ill all winter with colds. However, the fatigue and exposure of this expedition cured me. [* Footnote: That is, with no glass to the windows.] "In a short time my father gave me his room, but as nobody knew I was there, I was awoke in the night by a noise. I drew back my curtain, and was astonished to find my chamber filled with men in large buff skin collars, and who appeared surprised to see me, and knew me as little as I did them. I had no change of linen, and when I wanted any thing washed, it was done in the night, while I was in bed. I had no women to arrange my hair and dress me, which is very inconvenient. Still I did not lose my gayety, and they were in admiration at my making no complaint; and it is true that I am a creature that can make the most of every thing, and am greatly above trifles." To feel any commiseration for this young lady, on account of the alarm which she may be supposed to have experienced at seeing all those strange men in her chamber, would be sympathy thrown away, for her nerves were not of a sensibility to be affected much by such a circumstance as that. In fact, as the difficulties between the young king's government and the Parisians increased, Anne Maria played quite the part of a heroine. She went back and forth to Paris in her carriage, through the mob, when nobody else dared to go. She sometimes headed troops, and escorted ladies and gentlemen when they were afraid to go alone. Once she relieved a town, and once she took the command of the cannon of the Bastille, and issued her orders to fire with it upon the troops, with a composure which would have done honor to any veteran officer of artillery. We can not go into all these things here in detail, as they would lead us too far away from the subject of this narrative. We only allude to them, to give our readers some distinct idea of the temperament and character of the rich and blooming beauty whom young King Charles was wishing so ardently to make his bride. During the time that these difficulties continued in Paris, Queen Henrietta's situation was extremely unhappy. She was shut up in the palace of the Louvre, which became now her prison rather than her home. She was separated from the royal family; her son, the king, was generally absent in Holland or in Jersey, and her palace was often surrounded by mobs; whenever she ventured out in her carriage, she was threatened with violence and outrage by the populace in such a manner as to make her retreat as soon as possible to the protection of the palace walls. Her pecuniary means, too, were exhausted. She sold her jewels, from time to time, as long as they lasted, and then contracted debts which her creditors were continually pressing her to pay. Her friends at St. Germain's could not help her otherwise than by asking her to come to them. This she at last concluded to do, and she made her escape from Paris, under the escort of Anne Maria, who came to the city for the purpose of conducting her, and who succeeded, though with infinite difficulty, in securing a safe passage for Henrietta through the crowds of creditors and political foes who threatened to prevent her journey. These troubles were all, however, at last settled, and in the autumn (1649) the whole party returned again to Paris. In the mean time the young King Charles was contriving schemes for getting possession of his realm. It will be recollected that his sister Mary, who married the Prince of Orange, was at this time residing at the Hague, a city in Holland, near the sea. Charles went often there. It was a sort of rendezvous for those who had been obliged to leave England on account of their attachment to his father's fortunes, and who, now that the father was dead, transferred their loyalty to the son. They felt a very strong desire that Charles's plans for getting possession of his kingdom should succeed, and they were willing to do every thing in their power to promote his success. It must not be supposed, however, that they were governed in this by a disinterested principle of fidelity to Charles himself personally, or to the justice of his cause. Their own re-establishment in wealth and power was at stake as well as his, and they were ready to make common cause with him, knowing that they could save themselves from ruin only by reinstating him. Charles had his privy council and a sort of court at the Hague, and he arranged channels of communication, centering there, for collecting intelligence from England and Scotland, and through these he watched in every way for the opening of an opportunity to assert his rights to the British crown. He went, too, to Jersey, where the authorities and the inhabitants were on his side, and both there and at the Hague he busied himself with plans for raising funds and levying troops, and securing co-operation from those of the people of England who still remained loyal. Ireland was generally in his favor too, and he seriously meditated an expedition there. His mother was unwilling to have him engage in these schemes. She was afraid he would, sooner or later, involve himself in dangers from which he could not extricate himself, and that he would end by being plunged into the same pit of destruction that had engulfed his father. Amid all these political schemes, however, Charles did not forget Anne Maria. He was sager to secure her for his bride; for her fortune, and the power and influence of her connections, would aid him very much in recovering his throne. Her hope of marrying the Emperor of Germany, too, was gone, for that potentate had chosen another wife. Charles therefore continued his attentions to the young lady. She would not give him any distinct and decisive answer, but kept the subject in a state of perpetual negotiation. She was, in fact, growing more and more discontented and unhappy in disposition all the time. Her favorite plan of marrying the emperor had been thwarted, in part, by the difficulties which her friends—her father and her aunt especially—had contrived secretly to throw in the way, while outwardly and ostensibly they appeared to be doing all in their power to promote her wishes. They did not wish to have her married at all, as by this event the management of her vast fortune would pass out of their hands. She discovered this, their double dealing, when it was too late, and she was overwhelmed with vexation and chagrin. Things being in this state, Charles sent a special messenger, at one time, from the Hague, with instructions to make a formal proposal to Anne Maria, and to see if he could not bring the affair to a close. The name of this messenger was Lord Germain. The queen regent and her father urged Anne Maria now to consent to the proposal. They told her that Charles's prospects were brightening—that they themselves were going to render him powerful protection—that he had already acquired several allies—that there were whole provinces in England that were in his favor; and that all Ireland, which was, as it were, a kingdom in itself, was on his side. Whether they seriously desired that Anne Maria would consent to Charles's proposals, or only urged, for effect, what they knew very well she would persist in refusing, it is impossible to ascertain. If this latter were their design, it seemed likely to fail, for Anne Maria appeared to yield. She was sorry, she said, that the situation of affairs in Paris was not such as to allow of the French government giving Charles effectual help in gaining possession of the throne; but still, not withstanding that, she was ready to do what ever they might think best to command. Lord Germain then said that he should proceed directly to Holland and escort Charles to France, and he wanted Anne Maria to give him a direct and positive reply; for if she would really accept his proposal, he would come at once to court and claim her as his bride; otherwise he must proceed to Ireland, for the state of his affairs demanded his presence there. But if she would accept his proposal, he would immediately come to Paris, and have the marriage ceremony performed, and then he would remain afterward some days with her, that she might enjoy the honors and distinctions to which she would become entitled as the queen consort of a mighty realm. He would then, if she liked the plan, take her to Saint Germain's, where his mother, her aunt, was then residing, and establish her there while he was recovering his kingdom; or, if she preferred it, she might take up her residence in Paris, where she had been accustomed to live. To this the young lady replied that the last mentioned plan, that is, that she should continue to live at Paris after being married to Charles, was one that she could not think of. She should feel altogether unwilling to remain and enjoy the gayeties and festivities of Paris while her husband was at the head of his armies, exposed to all the dangers and privations of a camp; nor should she consider it right to go on incurring the expenses which a lady of her rank and position must necessarily bear in such a city, while he was perhaps embarrassed and distressed with the difficulties of providing funds for his own and his followers' necessities. She should feel, in fact, bound, if she were to become his wife, to do all in her power to assist him; and it would end, she foresaw, in her having to dispose of all her property, and expend the avails in aiding him to recover his kingdom. This, she said, she confessed alarmed her. It was a great sacrifice for her to make, reared as she had been in opulence and luxury. Lord Germain replied that all this was doubtless true, but then, on the other hand, he would venture to remind her that there was no other suitable match for her in Europe. He then went on to name the principal personages. The Emperor of Germany and the King of Spain were both married. Some other monarch was just about to espouse a Spanish princess. Others whom he named were too young; others, again, too old; and a certain prince whom he mentioned had been married, he said, these ten years, and his wife was in excellent health, so that every species of hope seemed to be cut off in that quarter. This conversation leading to no decisive result, Lord Germain renewed the subject after a few days, and pressed Anne Maria for a final answer. She said, now, that she had a very high regard for Queen Henrietta, and, indeed, a very strong affection for her; so strong that she should be willing to waive, for Henrietta's sake, all her objections to the disadvantages of Charles's position; but there was one objection which she felt that she could not surmount, and that was his religion. He was a Protestant, while she was a Catholic. Charles must remove this difficulty himself, which, if he had any regard for her, he certainly would be willing to do, since she would have to make so many sacrifices for him. Lord Germain, however, immediately discouraged this idea. He said that the position of Charles in respect to his kingdom was such as to render it impossible for him to change his religious faith. In fact, if he were to do so, he would be compelled to give up, at once, all hope of ever getting possession of his throne. Anne Maria knew this very well. The plea, however, made an excellent excuse to defend herself with from Lord Germain's importunities. She adhered to it, therefore, pertinaciously; the negotiation was broken off, and Lord Germain went away. Young adventurers like Charles, who wish to marry great heiresses, have always to exercise a great deal of patience, and to submit to a great many postponements and delays, even though they are successful in the end; and sovereign princes are not excepted, any more than other men, from this necessity. Dependent as woman is during all the earlier and all the later years of her life, and subjected as she is to the control, and too often, alas! to the caprice and injustice of man, there is a period—brief, it is true—when she is herself in power; and such characters as Anne Maria like to exercise their authority, while they feel that they possess it, with a pretty high hand. Charles seems to have felt the necessity of submitting to the inconvenience of Anne Maria's capricious delays, and, as long as she only continued to make excuses and objections instead of giving him a direct and positive refusal, he was led to persevere. Accordingly, not long after the conversations which his messenger had held with the lady as already described, he determined to come himself to France, and see if he could not accomplish something by his own personal exertions. He accordingly advanced to Peronne, which was not far from the frontier, and sent forward a courier to announce his approach. The royal family concluded to go out in their carriages to meet him. They were at this time at a famous royal resort a few leagues from Paris, called Compiegne. Charles was to dine at Compiegne, and then to proceed on toward Paris, where he had business to transact connected with his political plans. Anne Maria gives a minute account of the ride of the royal family to meet Charles on his approach to Compiegne, and of the interview with him, on her part, which attended it. She dressed herself in the morning, she says, with great care, and had her hair curled, which she seldom did except on very special occasions. When she entered the carriage to go out to meet the king, the queen regent, observing her appearance, said archly, "How easy it is to tell when young ladies expect to meet their lovers." Anne Maria says that she had a great mind to tell her, in reply, that it was easy, for those who had had a great deal of experience in preparing to meet lovers themselves. She did not, however, say this, and the forbearance seems to show that there was, after all, the latent element of discretion and respect for superiors in her character, though it showed itself so seldom in action. They rode out several miles to meet the coming king; and when the two parties met, they all alighted, and saluted each other by the road side, the ladies and gentlemen that accompanied them standing around. Anne Maria noticed that Charles addressed the king and queen regent first, and then her. After a short delay they got into their carriages again—King Charles entering the carriage with their majesties and Anne Maria—and they rode together thus back to Compiegne. Anne Maria, however, does not seem to have been in a mood to be pleased. She says that Charles began to talk with the king—Louis XIV.—who was now twelve years old, about the dogs and horses, and the hunting customs in the country of the Prince of Orange. He talked on these subjects fluently enough in the French language, but when afterward the queen regent, who would naturally be interested in a different class of topics, asked him about the affairs of his own kingdom and his plans for recovering it, he excused himself by saying that he did not speak French well enough to give her the information. Anne Maria says she determined from that moment not to conclude the marriage, "for I conceived a very poor opinion of him, being a king, and at his age, to have no knowledge of his affairs." Such minds as Anne Maria's are seldom very logical; but such an inference as this, that he was ignorant of his own affairs because he declined explaining plans whose success depended on secrecy in such a company as that, and in a language with which, though he could talk about dogs and horses in it, he was still very imperfectly acquainted, is far too great a jump from premises to conclusion to be honestly made. It is very evident that Anne Maria was not disposed to be pleased. They arrived at Compiegne. As the king was going on that evening, dinner was served soon after they arrived. Anne Maria says he ate no ortolans,* a very expensive and rare dish of little birds, which had been prepared expressly for this dinner in honor of the royal guest, "but flung himself upon a piece of beef and a shoulder of mutton, as if there had been nothing else at table. After dinner, when we were in the drawing room, the queen amused herself with the other ladies and gentlemen, and left him with me. He was a quarter of an hour without speaking a word; but I am willing to believe that his silence was the result of respect rather than any want of passion, though on this occasion, I frankly confess, I could have wished it less plainly exhibited. After a while, getting tired of his tediousness, I called another lady to my side, to see if she could not make him talk. She succeeded. Presently one of the gentlemen of the party came to me and said, 'He kept looking at you all dinner time, and is looking at you still.' To which I replied, 'He has plenty of time to look at me before he will please me, if he does not speak.' The gentleman rejoined, 'Oh, he has said tender things enough to you, no doubt, only you don't like to admit it.' To which I answered, 'Come and seat yourself by me the next time he is at my side, and hear for yourself how he talks about it." She says she then went and addressed the king herself, asking him various questions about persons who were in his suite, and that he answered them all with an air of mere common politeness, without any gallantry at all. [* Footnote: The ortolan is a very small bird, which is fattened in lamp-lighted rooms at great expense, because it is found to be of a more delicate flavor when excluded from the daylight. They come from the island of Cyprus, and have been famous in every age of the world as an article of royal luxury.] Finally, the hour for the departure of Charles and his party arrived, and the carriages came to the door. The French king, together with his mother and Anne Maria, and the usual attendants, accompanied them some miles into the forest on their way, and then, all alighting, as they had done when they met in the morning, they took leave of each other with the usual ceremonies of such occasions. Charles, after bidding King Louis farewell, advanced with Lord Germain, who was present in his suite at that time, to Anne Maria, and she gives the following rather petulant account of what passed: "'I believe,' said Charles, 'that my Lord Germain, who speaks French better than I do, has explained to you my sentiments and my intention. I am your very obedient servant.' I answered that I was equally his obedient servant. Germain paid me a great number of compliments, the king standing by. After they were over, the king bowed and departed." Charles, who had been all his life living roughly in camps, felt naturally ill at ease in the brilliant scenes of ceremony and splendor which the French court presented; and this embarrassment was greatly increased by the haughty air and manner, and the ill concealed raillery of the lady whose favorable regard he was so anxious to secure. His imperfect knowledge of the language, and his sense of the gloomy uncertainty of his own prospects in life, tended strongly to increase his distrust of himself and his timidity. We should have wished that he could have experienced somewhat kinder treatment from the object of his regard, were it not that his character, and especially his subsequent history, show that he was entirely mercenary and selfish himself in seeking her hand. If we can ever, in any instance, pardon the caprice and wanton cruelty of a coquette, it is when these qualities are exercised in thwarting the designs of a heartless speculator, who is endeavoring to fill his coffers with money by offering in exchange for it a mere worthless counterfeit of love. Charles seems to have been totally discouraged by the result of this unfortunate dinner party at Compiegne. He went to Paris, and from Paris he went to St. Germain's, where he remained for several months with his mother, revolving in his mind his fallen fortunes, and forming almost hopeless schemes for seeking to restore them. In the mean time, the wife whom the Emperor of Germany had married instead of Anne Maria, died, and the young belle sprang immediately into the excitement of a new hope of attaining the great object of her ambition after all. The emperor was fifty years of age, and had four children, but he was the Emperor of Germany, and that made amends for all. Anne Maria immediately began to lay her trains again for becoming his bride. What her plans were, and how they succeeded, we shall, perhaps, have occasion hereafter to describe. Though her heart was thus set upon having the emperor for her husband, she did not like, in the mean time, quite to give up her younger and more agreeable beau. Besides, her plans of marrying the emperor might fail, and Charles might succeed in recovering his kingdom. It was best, therefore, not to bring the negotiation with him to too absolute a close. When the time arrived, therefore, for Charles to take his departure, she thought she would just ride out to St. Germain's and pay her respects to Queen Henrietta, and bid the young king good-by. Neither Queen Henrietta nor her son attempted to renew the negotiation of his suite on the occasion of this visit. The queen told Anne Maria, on the other hand, that she supposed she ought to congratulate her on the death of the Empress of Germany, for, though the negotiation for her marriage with him had failed on a former occasion, she had no doubt it would be resumed now, and would be successful. Anne Maria replied, with an air of indifference, that she did not know or think any thing about it. The queen then said that she knew of a young man, not very far from them, who thought that a king of nineteen years of age was better for a husband than a man of fifty, a widower with four children, even if he was an emperor. "However," said she, "we do not know what turn things may take. My son may succeed in recovering his kingdom, and then, perhaps, if you should be in a situation to do so, you may listen more favorably to his addresses." Anne Maria was not to return directly back to Paris. She was going to visit her sisters, who lived at a little distance beyond. The Duke of York, that is, Henrietta's son James, then fourteen or fifteen years old, proposed to accompany her. She consented. Charles then proposed to go too. Anne Maria objected to this, saying that it was not quite proper. She had no objection to James's going, as he was a mere youth. Queen Henrietta removed her objection by offering to join the party herself; so they all went together. Anne Maria says that Charles treated her with great politeness and attention all the way, and paid her many compliments, but made no attempt to bring up again, in any way, the question of his suit. She was very glad he did not, she says, for her mind being now occupied with the plan of marrying the emperor, nothing that he could have said would have done any good. Thus the question was considered as virtually settled, and King Charles, soon after, turned his thoughts toward executing the plans which he had been long revolving for the recovery of his kingdom. VII. — THE ROYAL OAK OF BOSCOBEL It was in June, 1650, about eighteen months after the decapitation of his father, that Charles was ready to set out on his expedition to attempt the recovery of his rights to the English throne. He was but twenty years of age. He took with him no army, no supplies, no resources. He had a small number of attendants and followers, personally interested themselves in his success, and animated also, probably, by some degree of disinterested attachment to him. It was, however, on the whole, a desperate enterprise. Queen Henrietta, in her retirement at the Louvre, felt very anxious about the result of it. Charles himself, too, notwithstanding his own buoyant and sanguine temperament, and the natural confidence and hope pertaining to his years, must have felt many forebodings. But his condition on the Continent was getting every month more and more destitute and forlorn. He was a mere guest wherever he went, and destitute of means as he was, he found himself continually sinking in public consideration. Money as well as rank is very essentially necessary to make a relative a welcome guest, for any long time, in aristocratic circles. Charles concluded, therefore, that, all things considered, it was best for him to make a desperate effort to recover his kingdoms. His kingdoms were three, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Ireland was a conquered kingdom, Scotland, like England, had descended to him from his ancestors; for his grandfather, James VI., was king of Scotland, and being on his mothers side a descendant of an English king, he was, of course, one of the heirs of the English crown; and on the failure of the other heirs, he succeeded to that crown, retaining still his own. Thus both kingdoms descended to Charles. It was only the English kingdom that had really rebelled against, and put to death King Charles's father. There had been a great deal of difficulty in Scotland, it is true, and the republican spirit had spread quite extensively in that country. Still, affairs had not proceeded to such extremities there. The Scotch had, in some degree, joined with the English in resisting Charles the First, but it was not their wish to throw off the royal authority altogether. They abhorred episcopacy in the Church, but were well enough contented with monarchy in the state. Accordingly, soon after the death of the father, they had opened negotiations with the son, and had manifested their willingness to acknowledge him as their king, on certain conditions which they undertook to prescribe to him. It is very hard for a king to hold his scepter on conditions prescribed by his people. Charles tried every possible means to avoid submitting to this necessity. He found, however, that the only possible avenue of access to England was by first getting some sort of possession of Scotland; and so, signifying his willingness to comply with the Scotch demands, he set sail from Holland with his court, moved north ward with his little squadron over the waters of the German Ocean, and at length made port In the Frith of Cromarty, in the north of Scotland. The Scotch government, having but little faith in the royal word of such a youth as Charles would not allow him to land until he had formally signed their covenant, by which he bound himself to the conditions which they had thought it necessary to impose. He then landed. But he found his situation very far from such as comported with his ideas of royal authority and state. Charles was a gay, dissipated, reckless young man. The men whom he had to deal with were stern, sedate, and rigid religionists. They were scandalized at the looseness and irregularity of his character and manners. He was vexed and tormented by what he considered their ascetic bigotry, by the restraints which they were disposed to put upon his conduct, and the limits with which they insisted on bounding his authority. Long negotiations and debates ensued, each party becoming more and more irritated against the other. At last, on one occasion, Charles lost his patience entirely, and made his escape into the mountains, in hopes to raise an army there among the clans of wild Highlanders, who, accustomed from infancy to the most implicit obedience to their chieftains, are always very loyal to their king. The Scotch nobles, however, not wishing to drive him to extremities, sent for him to come back, and both parties becoming after this somewhat more considerate and accommodating, they at length came to an agreement, and proceeding together to Scone, a village some miles north of Edinburgh, they crowned Charles King of Scotland in a venerable abbey there, the ancient place of coronation for all the monarchs of the Scottish line. In the mean time, Cromwell, who was at the head of the republican government of England, knowing very well that Charles's plan would be to march into England as soon as he could mature his arrangements for such an enterprise, determined to anticipate this design by declaring war himself against Scotland, and marching an army there. Charles felt comparatively little interest in what became of Scotland. His aim was England. He knew, or supposed that there was a very large portion of the English people who secretly favored his cause, and he believed that if he could once cross the frontier, even with a small army, these his secret friends would all rise at once and flock to his standard. Still he attempted for a time to resist Cromwell in Scotland, but without success. Cromwell penetrated to the heart of the country, and actually passed the army of Charles. In these circumstances, Charles resolved to leave Scotland to its fate, and boldly to cross the English frontier, to see what he could do by raising his standard in his southern kingdom. The army acceded to this plan with acclamations. The king accordingly put his forces in motion, crossed the frontier, issued his manifestoes, and sent around couriers and heralds, announcing to the whole population that their king had come, and summoning all his subjects to arm themselves and hasten to his aid. This was in the summer of 1651, the year after his landing in Scotland. It certainly was a very bold and almost desperate measure, and the reader, whether Monarchist or Republican, can hardly help wishing the young adventurer success. The romantic enterprise was, however, destined to fail. The people of England were not yet prepared to return to royalty. Some few of the ancient noble families and country gentlemen adhered to the king's cause, but they came in to join his ranks very slowly. Those who were in favor of the king were called Cavaliers. The other party were called Roundheads. Queen Henrietta Maria had given them the name, on account of their manner of wearing their hair, cut short and close to their heads all around, while the gay Cavaliers cultivated their locks, which hung in long curls down upon their shoulders. The Cavaliers, it turned out, were few, while the Roundheads filled the land. It was, however, impossible for Charles to retreat, since Cromwell was behind him; for Cromwell, as soon as he found that his enemy had actually gone into England, paused only long enough to recover from his surprise, and then made all haste to follow him. The two armies thus moved down through the very heart of England, carrying every where, as they went, universal terror, confusion, and dismay. The whole country was thrown into extreme excitement. Every body was called upon to take sides, and thousands were perplexed and undecided which side to take. Families were divided, brothers separated, fathers and sons were ready to fight each other in their insane zeal, the latter for the Parliament, the former for the king. The whole country was filled with rumors, messengers, parties of soldiers going to and fro, and troops of horsemen, with robberies, plunderings, murders, and other deeds of violence without number, and all the other elements of confusion and misery which arouse the whole population of a country to terror and distress, and mar the very face of nature in time of civil war. What dreadful struggles man will make to gain the pleasure of ruling his fellow man! Along the frontiers of England and Wales there flows the beautiful River Severn, which widens majestically at its mouth, and passes by the Bristol Channel to the sea. One of the largest towns upon this river is Worcester. It was in those days strongly fortified. It stands on the eastern side of the river, with a great bridge opposite one of the gates leading across the Severn in the direction toward Wales. There are other bridges on the stream, both above and below, and many towns and villages in the vicinity, the whole presenting, at ordinary times, a delightful scene of industry and peace. View of Worcester. Worcester is, perhaps, three hundred miles from the frontiers of Scotland, on the way to London, though somewhat to the westward of the direct route. Charles's destination was the capital. He pushed on, notwithstanding the difficulties and disappointments which embarrassed his march, until at last, when he reached the banks of the Severn, he found he could go no further. His troops and his officers were wearied, faint, and discouraged. His hopes had not been realized, and while it was obviously dangerous to stop, it seemed still more dangerous to go on. However, as the authorities of Worcester were disposed to take sides with the king, Charles determined to stop there for a little time, at all events, to refresh his army, and consider what to do. He was received in the city with all due honors. He was proclaimed king on the following day, with great parade and loud acclamations. He established a camp in the neighborhood of the city. He issued great proclamations, calling upon all the people of the surrounding country to come and espouse his cause. He established his court, organized his privy council, and, in a word, perfected, on a somewhat humble scale it is true, all the arrangements proper to the condition of a monarch in his capital. He began, perhaps, in fact, to imagine himself really a king. If he did so, however, the illusion was soon dispelled. In one short week Cromwell's army came on, filling all the avenues of approach to the city, and exhibiting a force far too great, apparently, either for Charles to meet in battle, or to defend himself from in a siege. Charles's forces fought several preliminary battles and skirmishes in resisting the attempts of Cromwell's columns to get possession of the bridges and fords by which they were to cross the river. These contests resulted always in the same way. The detachments which Charles had sent forward to defend these points were one after another driven in, while Charles, with his council of war around him, watched from the top of the tower of a church within the city this gradual and irresistible advance of his determined enemy, with an anxiety which gradually deepened into dismay. The king, finding his situation now desperate, determined to make one final attempt to retrieve his fallen fortunes. He formed his troops in array, and marched out to give the advancing army battle. He put himself at the head of a troop of Highlanders, and fought in person with the courage and recklessness of despair. The officers knew full well that it was a question of victory or death; for if they did not conquer, they must die, either by wounds on the field of battle, or else, if taken prisoners, by being hung as traitors, or beheaded in the Tower. All possibility of escape, entrapped and surrounded as they were in the very heart of the country, hundreds of miles from the frontiers, seemed utterly hopeless. They fought, therefore, with reckless and desperate fury, but all was in vain. They were repulsed and driven in on all sides, and the soldiers fled at length, carrying the officers with them, in tumult and disorder, back through the gates into the city. An army flying in confusion to seek refuge in a city can not shut the gates behind them against their pursuers. In fact, in such a scene of terror and dismay, there is no order, no obedience, no composure. At the gate where Charles endeavored to get back into the city, he found the way choked up by a heavy ammunition cart which had been entangled there, one of the oxen that had been drawing it being killed. The throngs of men and horsemen were stopped by this disaster. The king dismounted, abandoned his horse, and made his way through and over the obstruction as he could. When he got into the city, he found all in confusion there. His men were throwing away their arms, and pressing onward in their flight. He lightened his own burdens by laying aside the heaviest of his armor, procured another horse, and rode up and down among his men, urging and entreating them to form again and face the enemy. He plead the justice of his cause, their duty to be faithful to their rightful sovereign, and every other argument which was capable of being expressed in the shouts and vociferations which, in such a scene, constitute the only kind of communication possible with panic stricken men; and when he found that all was in vain he said, in despair, that he would rather they would shoot him on the spot than let him live to witness such an abandonment of his cause by the only friends and followers that had been left to him. The powerful influence which these expostulations would otherwise have had, was lost and overborne in the torrent of confusion and terror which was spreading through all the streets of the city. The army of Cromwell forced their passage in, and fought their way from street to street, wherever they found any remaining resistance. Some of the king's troops were hemmed up in corners, and cut to pieces. Others, somewhat more fortunate, sought protection in towers and bastions, where they could make some sort of conditions with their victorious enemy before surrendering. Charles himself, finding that all was lost, made his escape at last from the city, at six o'clock in the evening, at the head of a troop of horse. He could not, however, endure the thought of giving up the contest, after all. Again and again, as he slowly retreated, he stopped to face about, and to urge his men to consent to turn back again and encounter the enemy. Their last halt was upon a bridge half a mile from the city. Here the king held a consultation with the few remaining counselors and officers that were with him, surveying, with them, the routed and flying bodies of men, who were now throwing away their arms and dispersing in all directions, in a state of hopeless disorganization and despair. The king saw plainly that his cause was irretrievably ruined, and they all agreed that nothing now remained for them but to make their escape back to Scotland, if by any possibility that could now be done. But how should they accomplish this end? To follow the multitude of defeated soldiers would be to share the certain capture and death which awaited them, and they were themselves all strangers to the country. To go on inquiring all the way would only expose them to equally certain discovery and capture. The first thing, however, obviously was to get away from the crowd. Charles and his attendants, therefore, turned aside from the high road—there were with the king fifty or sixty officers and noblemen, all mounted men—and moved along in such secluded by-paths as they could find. The king wished to diminish even this number of followers, but he could not get any of them to leave him. He complained afterward, in the account which he gave of these adventures, that, though they would not fight for him when battle was to be given, he could not get rid of them when the time came for flight. There was a servant of one of the gentlemen in the company who pretended to know the way, and he accordingly undertook to guide the party; but as soon as it became dark he got confused and lost, and did not know what to do. They contrived, however, to get another guide They went ten miles, attracting no particular attention, for at such a time of civil war a country is full of parties of men, armed and unarmed, going to and fro, who are allowed generally to move without molestation, as the inhabitants are only anxious to have as little as possible to say to them, that they may the sooner be gone. The royal party assumed the air and manner of one of these bands as long as daylight lasted, and when that was gone they went more securely and at their ease. After proceeding ten miles, they stopped at an obscure inn, where they took some drink and a little bread, and then resumed their journey, consulting with one another as they went as to what it was best to do. About ten or twelve miles further on there was a somewhat wild and sequestered region, in which there were two very secluded dwellings, about half a mile from each other. One of these residences was named Boscobel. The name had been given to it by a guest of the proprietor, at an entertainment which the latter had given, from the Italian words bosco bello, which mean beautiful grove. It was in or near a wood, and away from all high roads, having been built, probably, like many other of the dwellings reared in those days, as a place of retreat. In the preceding reigns of Charles and Elizabeth, the Catholics, who were called popish recusants, on account of their refusing to take an oath acknowledging the supremacy of the British sovereign over the English Church, had to resort to all possible modes of escape from Protestant persecution. They built these retreats in retired and secluded places, and constructed all sorts of concealed and secure hiding places within them, in the partitions and walls, where men whose lives were in danger might be concealed for many days. Boscobel was such a mansion. In fact, one of the king's generals, the Earl of Derby, had been concealed in it but a short time before. The king inquired particularly about it, and was induced himself to seek refuge there. This house belonged to a family of Giffards, one of whom was in the suite of King Charles at this time. There was another mansion about half a mile distant. This other place had been originally, in the Catholic days, a convent, and the nuns who inhabited it dressed in white. They were called, accordingly, the white ladies, and the place itself received the same name, which it retained after the sisters were gone. Mr. Giffard recommended going to the White Ladies' first. He wanted, in fact, to contrive some way to relieve the king of the encumbrance of so large a troop before going to Boscobel. They went, accordingly, to the White Ladies'. Neither of the houses was occupied at this time by the proprietors, but were in charge of housekeepers and servants. Among the tenants upon the estate there were several brothers of the name of Penderel. They were woodmen and farm servants, living at different places in the neighborhood, and having charge, some of them, of the houses above described. One of the Penderels was at the White Ladies'. He let the fugitives in, tired, exhausted, and hungry as they were, with the fatigue of marching nearly all the night. They sent immediately for Richard Penderel, who lived in a farm house nearby, and for another brother, who was at Boscobel. They took the king into an inner room, and immediately commenced the work of effectually disguising him. They gave him clothes belonging to some of the servants of the family, and destroyed his own. The king had about his person a watch and some costly decorations, such as orders of knighthood set in jewels, which would betray his rank if found in his possession. These the king distributed among his friends, intrusting them to the charge of such as he judged most likely to effect their escape. They then cut off his hair short all over, thus making him a Roundhead instead of a Cavalier. They rubbed soot from the fire place over his face, to change the expression of his features and complexion. They gave him thus, in all respects, as nearly as possible, the guise of a squalid peasant and laborer of the humblest class, accustomed to the privations and to the habits of poverty. In the mean time Richard Penderel arrived. Perhaps an intimation had been given him of the wishes of the king to be relieved of his company of followers; at any rate, he urged the whole retinue, as soon as he came to the house to press forward without any delay, as there was a detachment of Cromwell's forces, he said, at three miles' distance, who might be expected at any moment to come in pursuit of them Giffard brought Penderel then into the inner room to which the king had retired. "This is the king," said he. "I commit him to your charge. Take care of him." Richard undertook the trust. He told the king that he must immediately leave that place, and he conducted him secretly, all disguised as he was, out of a postern door, without making known his design to any of his followers, except the two or three who were in immediate attendance upon him. He led him away about half a mile into a wood, and, concealing him there, left him alone, saying he would go and see what intelligence he could obtain, and presently return again. The troop of followers, in the mean time, from whom the king had been so desirous to get free, when they found that he was gone, mounted their horses and rode away, to escape the danger with which Richard had threatened them. But, alas for the unhappy fugitives, they did not get far in their flight; they were overtaken, attacked, conquered, captured, and treated as traitors. Some were shot, one was beheaded, and others were shut up in prisons, where they pined in hopeless privation and suffering for many years. There was, however, one of the king's followers who did not go away with the rest. It was Lord Wilmot, an influential nobleman, who concealed himself in the vicinity, and kept near the king in all his subsequent wanderings. But we must return to the king in the wood. It was about sunrise when he was left there, the morning after the battle. It rained. The king tried in vain to find a shelter under the trees of the forest. The trees themselves were soon thoroughly saturated, and they received the driving rain from the skies only to let the water fall in heavier drops upon the poor fugitive's defenseless head. Richard borrowed a blanket at a cottage near, thinking that it would afford some protection, and brought it to his charge. The king folded it up to make a cushion to sit upon; for, worn out as he was with hard fighting all the day before, and hard riding all the night, he could not stand; so he chose to use his blanket as a protection from the wet ground beneath him, and to take the rain upon his head as it fell. Richard sent a peasant's wife to him presently with some food. Charles, who never had any great respect for the female sex, was alarmed to find that a woman had been entrusted with such a secret. "My good woman," said he, "can you be faithful to a distressed Cavalier?" "Yes, sir," said she; "I will die rather than betray you." Charles had, in fact, no occasion to fear. Woman is, indeed, communicative and confiding, and often, in unguarded hours, reveals indiscreetly what it would have been better to have withheld; but in all cases where real and important trusts are committed to her keeping, there is no human fidelity which can be more safely relied upon than hers. Charles remained in the wood all the day, exposed to the pelting of the storm. There was a road in sight, a sort of by-way leading across the country, and the monarch beguiled the weary hours as well as he could by watching this road from under the trees, to see if any soldiers came along. There was one troop that appeared, but it passed directly by, marching heavily through the mud and rain, the men intent, apparently, only on reaching their journey's end. When night came on, Richard Penderel returned, approaching cautiously, and, finding all safe, took the king into the house with him. They brought him to the fire, changed and dried his clothes, and gave him supper. The homeless monarch once more enjoyed the luxuries of warmth and shelter. During all the day, while he had been alone in the wood, he had been revolving in his mind the strange circumstances of his situation, vainly endeavoring, for many hours, to realize what seemed at first like a dreadful dream. Could it be really true that he, the monarch of three kingdoms, so recently at the head of a victorious army, and surrounded by generals and officers of state, was now a friendless and solitary fugitive, without even a place to hide his head from the cold autumnal storm? It seemed at first a dream; but it soon became a reality, and he began to ponder, in every form, the question what he should do. He looked east, west, north, and south, but could not see, in any quarter, any hope of succor, or any reasonable prospect of escape. He, however, arrived at the conclusion, before night came on, that it would be, on the whole, the best plan for him to attempt to escape into Wales. He was very near the frontier of that country. There was no difficulty to be apprehended on the road thither, excepting in the crossing of the Severn, which, as has already been remarked, flows from north to south not far from the line of the frontier. He thought, too, that if he could once succeed in getting into Wales, he could find secure retreats among the mountains there until he should be able to make his way to some sea-port on the coast trading with France, and so find his way back across the Channel. He proposed this plan to Richard in the evening, and asked him to accompany him as his guide. Richard readily consented, and the arrangements for the journey were made. They adjusted the king's dress again to complete his disguise, and Richard gave him a bill-hook—a sort of woodman's tool—to carry in his hand. It was agreed, also, that his name should be Will Jones so far as there should be any necessity for designating him by a name in the progress of the journey. They set out at nine o'clock that same night, in the darkness and rain. They wished to get to Madely, a town near the river, before the morning. Richard knew a Mr. Woolf there, a friend of the Royalist cause, who he thought would shelter them, and aid them in getting across the river. They went on very well for some time, until they came to a stream, a branch of the Severn, where there was a bridge, and on the other side a mill. The miller happened to be watching that night at his door. At such times everybody is on the alert, suspecting mischief or danger in every unusual sight or sound. Hearing the footsteps, he called out, "Who goes there?" "Neighbors," replied Richard. The king was silent. He had been previously charged by Richard not to speak, except when it could not possibly be avoided, as he had not the accent of the country. "Stop, then," said the miller, "if you be neighbors." The travelers only pressed forward the faster for this challenge. "Stop!" repeated the miller, "if you be neighbors, or I will knock you down;" and he ran out in pursuit of them, armed apparently with the means of executing his threat. Richard fled, the king closely following him. They turned into a lane, and ran a long distance, the way being in many places so dark that the king, in following Richard, was guided only by the sound of his footsteps, and the creaking of the leather dress which such peasants were accustomed in those days to wear. They crept along, however, as silently, and yet as rapidly as possible, until at length Richard turned suddenly aside, leaped over a sort of gap in the hedge, and crouched down in the trench on the other side. Here they remained for some time, listening to ascertain whether they were pursued. When they found that all was still, they crept forth from their hiding places, regained the road, and went on their way. At length they arrived at the town. Richard left the king concealed in an obscure corner of the street, while he went to the house of Mr. Woolf to see if he could obtain admission. All was dark and still. He knocked till he had aroused some of the family, and finally brought Mr. Woolf to the door. He told Mr. Woolf that he came to ask shelter for a gentleman who was wishing to get into Wales, and who could not safely travel by day. Mr. Woolf hesitated, and began to ask for further information in respect to the stranger. Richard said that he was an officer who had made his escape from the battle of Worcester, "Then," said Mr. Woolf, "I should hazard my life by concealing him, which I should not be willing to do for any body, unless it were the king." Richard then told him that it was his majesty. On hearing this, Mr. Woolf decided at once to admit and conceal the travelers, and Richard went back to bring the king. When they arrived at the house, they found Mr. Woolf making preparations for their reception. They placed the king by the fire to warm and dry his clothes, and they gave him such food as could be provided on so sudden an emergency. As the morning was now approaching, it was necessary to adopt some plan of concealment for the day, and Mr. Woolf decided upon concealing his guests in his barn. He said that there were holes and hiding places built in his house, but that they had all been discovered on some previous search, and, in case of any suspicion or alarm, the officers would go directly to them all. He took the travelers, accordingly, to the barn, and concealed them there among the hay. He said that he would himself, during the day, make inquiries in respect to the practicability of their going on upon their journey, and come and report to them in the evening. Accordingly, when the evening came, Mr. Woolf returned, relieved them from their confinement, and took them back again to the house. His report, however, in respect to the continuance of their journey, was very unfavorable. He thought it would be impossible, he said, for them to cross the Severn. The Republican forces had stationed guards at all the bridges, ferries, and fords, and at every other practicable place of crossing, and no one was allowed to pass without a strict examination. The country was greatly excited, too, with the intelligence of the king's escape; rewards were offered for his apprehension, and heavy penalties denounced upon all who should harbor or conceal him. Under these circumstances, Mr. Woolf recommended that Charles should go back to Boscobel, and conceal himself as securely as possible there, until some plan could be devised for effecting his escape from the country. The king had no alternative but to accede to this plan. He waited at Mr. Woolf's house till midnight, in order that the movement in the streets of the town might have time entirely to subside, and then, disappointed and discouraged by the failure of his hopes, he prepared to set out upon his return. Mr. Woolf made some changes in his disguise, and bathed his face in a decoction of walnut leaves, which he had prepared during the day, to alter his complexion, which was naturally very dark and peculiar, and thus exposed him to danger of discovery. When all was ready, the two travelers bade their kind host farewell, and crept forth again through the silent streets, to return, by the way they came, back to Boscobel. They went on very well till they began to approach the branch stream where they had met with their adventure with the miller. They could not cross this stream by the bridge without going by the mill again, which they were both afraid to do. The king proposed that they should go a little way below, and ford the stream. Richard was afraid to attempt this, as he could not swim; and as the night was dark, and the current rapid, there would be imminent danger of their getting beyond their depth. Charles said that he could swim, and that he would, accordingly, go first and try the water. They groped their way down, therefore, to the bank, and Charles, leaving his guide upon the land, waded in, and soon disappeared from view as he receded from the shore. He returned, however, after a short time, in safety, and reported the passage practicable, as the water was only three or four feet deep; so, taking Richard by the hand, he led him into the stream. It was a dismal and dangerous undertaking, wading thus through a deep and rapid current in darkness and cold, but they succeeded in passing safely over. They reached Boscobel before the morning dawned, and Richard, when they arrived, left the king in the wood while he went toward the house to reconnoiter, and see if all was safe. He found within an officer of the king's army, a certain Colonel Carlis, who had fled from Worcester some time after the king had left the field, and, being acquainted with the situation of Boscobel, had sought refuge there; William Penderel, who had remained in charge of Boscobel, having received and secreted him when he arrived. Richard and William brought Colonel Carlis out into the wood to see the king. They found him sitting upon the ground at the foot of a tree, entirely exhausted. He was worn out with hardship and fatigue. They took him to the house. They brought him to the fire, and gave him some food. The colonel drew off his majesty's heavy peasant shoes and coarse stockings. They were soaked with water and full of gravel. The colonel bathed his feet, which were sadly swollen and blistered, and, as there were no other shoes in the house which would answer for him to wear, Dame Penderel warmed and dried those which the colonel had taken off, by filling them with hot ashes from the fire, and then put them on again. The King at Boscobel. The king continued to enjoy such sort of comforts as these during the night, but when the morning drew near it became necessary to look out for some place of concealment. The Penderels thought that no place within the house would be safe, for there was danger every hour of the arrival of a band of soldiers, who would not fail to search the mansion most effectually in every part. There was the wood near by, which was very secluded and solitary; but still they feared that, in case of a search, the wood would be explored as effectually as the dwelling. Under these circumstances, Carlis was looking around, perplexed and uncertain, not knowing what to do, when he perceived some scattered oaks standing by themselves in a field not far from the house, one of which seemed to be so full and dense in its foliage as to afford some hope of concealment there. The tree, it seems, had been headed down once or twice, and this pruning had had the effect, usual in such cases, of making the branches spread and grow very thick and full. The colonel thought that though, in making a search for fugitives, men might very naturally explore a thicket or a grove, they would not probably think of examining a detached and solitary tree; he proposed, accordingly, that the king and himself should climb up into this spreading oak, and conceal themselves for the day among its branches. The king consented to this plan. They took some provisions, therefore, as soon as the day began to dawn, and something to answer the purpose of a cushion, and proceeded to the tree. By the help of William and Richard the king and the colonel climbed up, and established themselves in the top. The colonel placed the cushion for the king on the best support among the limbs that he could find. The bread and cheese, and a small bottle of beer, which Richard and William had brought for their day's supplies, they suspended to a branch within their reach. The colonel then seated himself a little above the king, in such a manner that the monarch's head could rest conveniently in his lap, and in as easy a position as it was possible, under such circumstances, to attain. Richard and William, then, after surveying the place of retreat all around from below, in order to be sure that the concealment afforded by the foliage was every where complete, went away, promising to keep faithful watch during the day and to return in the evening. All things being thus arranged in the oak, the colonel bade his majesty to close his eyes and go to sleep, saying that he would take good care that he did not fall. The king followed his directions, and slept safely for many hours. In the course of the day the king and Carlis saw, by means of the openings between the leaves, through which, as through loop holes in a tower, they continually reconnoitered the surrounding fields, men passing to and fro, some of whom they imagined to be soldiers searching the wood. They were not, however, themselves molested. They passed the day undisturbed, except by the incessant anxiety and alarm which they necessarily suffered, and the fatigue and pain, which must have become almost intolerable before night, from their constrained and comfortless position. Night, however, came at last, and relieved them from their duress. They descended from the tree and stole back cautiously to the house, the king resolving that he could not bear such hardship another day, and that they must, accordingly, find some other hiding place for him on the morrow. We can scarcely be surprised at this decision. A wild beast could hardly have endured a second day in such a lair. Other plans of concealment for the king were accordingly formed that night, and measures were soon concerted, as we shall see in the next chapter, to effect his escape from the country. The old tree, however, which had sheltered him so safely, was not forgotten. In after years, when the monarch was restored to his throne, and the story of his dangers and his escape was made known throughout the kingdom, thousands of visitors came to look upon the faithful tree which had thus afforded his majesty its unconscious but effectual protection. Every one took away a leaf or a sprig for a souvenir, and when, at last, the proprietor found that there was danger that the whole tree would be carried away unless he interposed, he fenced it in and tilled the ground around it, to defend it from further mutilation. It has borne the name of the Royal Oak from that time to the present day, and has been the theme of narrators and poets without number, who have celebrated its praises in every conceivable form of composition. There is, however, probably no one of them all who has done more for the wide extension of its fame among all the ranks and gradations of society than the unknown author of the humble distich, "The royal oak, it was the tree, That saved his royal majesty." VIII. — THE KING'S ESCAPE TO FRANCE When the king and Carlis came into the house again, on the evening after their wearisome day's confinement in the tree, Dame Penderel had some chickens prepared for his majesty's supper, which he enjoyed as a great and unexpected luxury. They showed him, too, the hiding hole, built in the walls, where the Earl of Derby had been concealed, and where they proposed that he should be lodged for the night. There was room in it to lay down a small straw pallet for a bed. The king thought it would be very secure, and was confirmed in his determination not to go again to the oak. Before his majesty retired, Carlis asked him what he would like to have to eat on the morrow. He said that he should like some mutton. Carlis assented, and, bidding his master good night, he left him to his repose. There was no mutton in the house, and Richard and William both agreed that it would be unsafe for either of them to procure any, since, as they were not accustomed to purchase such food, their doing so now would awaken suspicion that they had some unusual guest to provide for. The colonel, accordingly, undertook himself to obtain the supply. Getting the necessary directions, therefore, from Richard and William, he went to the house of a farmer at some little distance—a tenant, he was, on the Boscobel estate—and groped his way to the sheep-cote. He selected an animal, such as he thought suitable for his purpose, and butchered it with his dagger. He then went back to the house, and sent William Penderel to bring the plunder home. William dressed a leg of the mutton, and sent it in the morning into the room which they had assigned to the king, near his hiding hole. The king was overjoyed at the prospect of this feast He called for a carving knife and a frying pan. He cut off some callops from the joint, and then, after frying the meat with Carlis's assistance, they ate it together. The king, becoming now somewhat accustomed to his situation, began to grow a little more bold. He walked in a little gallery which opened from his room. There was a window in this gallery which commanded a view of the road. The king kept watch carefully at this window as he walked to and fro, that he might observe the first appearance of any enemy's approach. It was observed, too, that he apparently spent some time here in exercises of devotion, imploring, probably, the protection of Heaven, in this his hour of danger and distress. The vows and promises which he doubtless made were, however, all forgotten, as usual in such cases, when safety and prosperity came again. There was a little garden, too, near the house, with an eminence at the further end of it, where there was an arbor, with a stone table, and seats about it. It was retired, and yet, being in an elevated position, it answered, like the window of the gallery in the house, the double purpose of a hiding place and a watch tower. It was far more comfortable, and probably much more safe, than the wretched nest in the tree of the day before; for, were the king discovered in the arbor, there would be some chances of escape from detection still remaining, but to have been found in the tree would have been certain destruction. In the mean time, the Penderels had had messengers out during the Saturday and Sunday, communicating with certain known friends of the king in the neighboring towns, and endeavoring to concert some plan for his escape. They were successful in these consultations, and be fore Sunday night a plan was formed. It seems there was a certain Colonel Lane, whose wife had obtained a pass from the authorities of the Republican army to go to Bristol, on the occasion of the sickness of a relative, and to take with her a man servant. Bristol was a hundred miles to the southward, near the mouth of the Severn. It was thought that if the king should reach this place, he could, perhaps, succeed afterward in making his way to the southern coast of England, and embarking there, at some sea-port, for France. The plan was accordingly formed for Mrs. Lane to go, as she had designed, on this journey, and to take the king along with her in the guise of her servant. The arrangements were all made, and the king was to be met in a wood five or six miles from Boscobel, early on Monday morning, by some trusty friends, who were afterward to conceal him for a time in their houses, until all things should be ready for the journey. The king found, however, when the morning approached, that his feet were in such a condition that he could not walk. They accordingly procured a horse belonging to one of the Penderels, and put him upon it. The brothers all accompanied him as he went away. They were armed with concealed weapons, intending, if they we're attacked by any small party, to defend the king with their lives. They, however, went on without any molestation. It was a dark and rainy night. Nights are seldom otherwise in England in September. The brothers Penderel, six of them in all, guided the king along through the darkness and rain, until they were within a mile or two of the appointed place of meeting, where the king dismounted, for the purpose of walking the rest of way, for greater safety, and three of the brothers, taking the horse with them, returned. The rest went on, and, after delivering the king safely into the hands of his friends, who were waiting at the appointed place to receive him, bade his majesty farewell, and, expressing their good wishes for the safe accomplishment of his escape, they returned to Boscobel. They now altered the king's disguise in some degree, to accommodate the change in his assumed character from that of a peasant of the woods to a respectable farmer's son, such as would be a suitable traveling attendant for an English dame, and they gave him the new name of William Jackson in the place of Will Jones. Mrs. Lane's sister's husband was to go with them a part of the way, and there was another gentleman and lady also of the party, so they were five in all. The horses were brought to the door when all was ready, just in the edge of the evening, the pretended attendant standing respectfully by, with his hat under his arm. He was to ride upon the same horse with Mrs. Lane, the lady being seated on a pillion behind him. The family assembled to bid the party farewell, none, either of the travelers or of the spectators, except Mrs. Lane and her brother-in-law, having any idea that the meek looking William Jackson was any other than what he seemed. They traveled on day after day, meeting with various adventures, and apparently with narrow escapes. At one time a shoe was off from the horse's foot, and the king stopped at a blacksmith's to have it replaced. While the smith was busy at the work, the king, standing by, asked him what news. "No news," said the smith, "that I know of, since the grand news of beating the rogues, the Scots, at Worcester." The king asked if any of the English officers who were with the Scots had been taken since the battle. "Some had been captured," the smith replied, "but he could not learn that the rogue Charles Stuart had been taken." The king then told him that if that rogue were taken, he deserved to be hanged more than all the rest, for bringing the Scots in. "You speak like an honest man," said the smith. Soon after, the work was done, and Charles led the horse away. At another time, when the party had stopped for the night, the king, in accordance with his assumed character, went to the kitchen. They were roasting some meat with a jack, a machine used much in those days to keep meat, while roasting, in slow rotation before the fire, The jack had run down. They asked the pretended William Jackson to wind it up. In trying to do it, he attempted to wind it the wrong way. The cook, in ridiculing, his awkwardness, asked him what country he came from, that he did not know how to wind up a jack. The king meekly replied that he was the son of a poor tenant of Colonel Lane's, and that they seldom had meat to roast at home, and that, when they had it, they did not roast it with a jack. The party at length arrived safely at their place of destination, which was at the house of a Mrs. Norton, at a place called Leigh, about three miles from Bristol. Here the whole party were received, and, in order to seclude the king as much as possible from observation, Mrs. Lane pretended that he was in very feeble health, and he was, accordingly, a good deal confined to his room. The disease which they selected for him was an intermittent fever, which came on only at intervals. This would account for his being sometimes apparently pretty well, and allowed him occasionally, when tired of being shut up in his room, to come down and join the other servants, and hear their conversation. There was an old servant of the family, named Pope, a butler, to whose care the pretended William Jackson was specially confided. On the following morning after his arrival, Charles, feeling, notwithstanding his fever, a good appetite after the fatigues of his journey, went down to get his breakfast, and, while there, some men came in, friends of the servants, and Pope brought out a luncheon of bread and ale, and placed it before them. While they were eating it, they began to talk about the battle of Worcester, and one of the men described it so accurately, that the king perceived that he must have been there. On questioning him more particularly, the man said that he was a soldier in the king's army, and he began to describe the person and appearance of the king. Charles was alarmed, and very soon rose and went away. Pope, who had had, it seems, his suspicions before, was now confirmed in them. He went to Mrs. Lane, and told her that he knew very well that their stranger guest was the king. She denied most positively that it was so, but she immediately took measures to communicate the conversation to Charles. The result of their consultations, and of their inquiries about the character of Pope for prudence and fidelity, was to admit him to their confidence, and endeavor to secure his aid. He was faithful in keeping the secret, and he rendered the king afterward a great deal of very efficient aid. There was a certain Colonel Wyndham, whose name has become immortalized by his connection with the king's escape, who lived at a place called Trent, not far from the southern coast of England. After much deliberation and many inquiries, it was decided that the king should proceed there while arrangements should be made for his embarkation. When this plan was formed, Mrs. Lane received a pretended letter from home, saying that her father was taken suddenly and dangerously sick, and urging her immediate return. They set out accordingly, William having so far recovered from his fever as to be able to travel again! During all this time, Lord Wilmot, who has already been mentioned as a fellow fugitive with Charles from the battle of Worcester, had followed the party of the king in his progress through the country, under various disguises, and by different modes of travel, keeping near his royal master all the way, and obtaining stolen interviews with him, from time to time, for consultation. In this way each rendered the other very essential aid. The two friends arrived at last at Colonel Wyndham's together. Mrs. Lane and her party here took leave of the king, and returned northward toward her home. Colonel Wyndham was a personal acquaintance of the king. He had been an officer under Charles I., in the civil wars preceding that monarch's captivity and death, and Charles, who, as Prince of Wales, had made a campaign as will be recollected, in the west of England before he went to France, had had frequent intercourse with Wyndham, and bad great confidence in his fidelity. The colonel had been at last shut up in a castle, and had finally surrendered on such conditions as secured his own liberty and safety. He had, consequently, since been allowed to live quietly at his own estate in Trent, though he was watched and suspected by the government as a known friend of the king's. Charles had, of course, great confidence in him. He was very cordially received into his house, and very securely secreted there. It would be dangerous for Wyndham himself to do any thing openly in respect to finding a vessel to convey the king to France. He accordingly engaged a trusty friend to go down to the sea-port on the coast which was nearest to his residence, and see what he could do. This sea-port was Lyme, or Lyme-Regis, as it is sometimes called. It was about twenty-five miles from Trent, where Wyndham resided, toward the southwest, and about the same distance to the eastward of Exeter, where Charles's mother had some years before sought refuge from her husband's enemies. Colonel Wyndham's messenger went to Lyme. He found there, pretty soon, the master of a small vessel, which was accustomed to ply back and forth to one of the ports on the coast of France, to carry merchandise. The messenger, after making inquiries, and finding that the captain, if captain he may be called, was the right sort of man for such an enterprise, obtained an interview with him and introduced conversation by asking when he expected to go back to France. The captain replied that it would probably be some time before he should be able to make up another cargo. "How should you like to take some passengers?" said the messenger. "Passengers?" inquired the captain. "Yes," rejoined the other; "there are two gentlemen here who wish to cross the Channel privately, and they are willing to pay fifty pounds to be landed at any port on the other side. Will you take them?" The captain perceived that it was a serious business. There was a proclamation out, offering a reward for the apprehension of the king, or Charles Stuart as they called him, and also for other of the leaders at the battle of Worcester. All persons, too, were strictly prohibited from taking any one across the Channel; and to conceal the king, or to connive in any way at his escape, was death. The captain, however, at length agreed to the proposal, influenced as the colonel's messenger supposed, partly by the amount of his pay, and partly by his interest in the Royal cause. He agreed to make his little vessel ready without delay. They did not think it prudent for the king to attempt to embark at Lyme, but there was, a few miles to the eastward of it, along the shore, a small village named Charmouth, where there was a creek jutting up from the sea, and a little pier, sufficient for the landing of so small a vessel as the one they had engaged. It was agreed that, on an appointed day, the king and Lord Wilmot were to come down to Charmouth, and take up their lodgings at the inn; that in the night the captain was to sail out of the port of Lyme, in the most private manner possible, and come to Charmouth; and that the king and Wilmot, who would, in the mean time, be watching from the inn, when they saw the light of the approaching vessel, should come down to the pier and embark, and the captain then immediately sail away. The messenger accordingly went back to Colonel Wyndham's with intelligence of the plan that he had formed, while the captain of the vessel went to work as privately as possible to lay in his stores and make his other preparations for sea. He did this with the utmost precaution and secrecy, and succeeded in deceiving every body but his wife. Wives have the opportunity to perceive indications of the concealed existence of matters of moment and weight which others do not enjoy, in studying the countenances of their husbands. A man can easily, through the day, when surrounded by the world, assume an unconcerned and careless air, though oppressed with a very considerable mental burden; but when he comes home at night, he instinctively throws off half his disguise, and conjugal watchfulness and solicitude easily penetrate the remainder. At least it was so in this case. The captain's dame perceived that her husband was thoughtful and absent minded. She watched him. She observed some indications that he was making preparations for sea. She asked him what it meant. He said he did not know how soon he might have a cargo, and he wanted to be all ready in season. His wife, however, was not satisfied. She watched him more closely still, and when the appointed night came on which he had agreed to sail, finding that it was impossible for him to elude her vigilance, he told her plainly, that he was going across the Channel on private business, but that he should immediately return. She declared positively that he should not go. She knew, she said, that the business was something which would end in ruining him and his family, and she was determined that he should not risk her safety and his own life in any such desperate and treasonable plans. She locked the door upon him, and when he insisted on being released, she declared that if he did attempt to go, she would immediately give warning to the authorities, and have him arrested and confined. So the discomfited captain was compelled to give up his design, and break his appointment at the Charmouth pier. In the mean time, the king and Lord Wilmot came down, as had been agreed upon, to Charmouth, and put up, with many other travelers, at the inn. There was great excitement all over that part of the country, every one talking about the battle of Worcester, the escape of the king, and especially about an expedition which Cromwell had been organizing, which was then assembling on the southern coast. Its destination was the island of Jersey, which had thus far adhered to the Royalist cause, and which Cromwell was now intending to reduce to subjection to him. The bustle and movement which all these causes combined to create, made the king and Lord Wilmot very anxious and uneasy. There were assemblies convened in the villages which they passed through, and men were haranguing the populace on the victories which had been gained, and on the future measures to be pursued. In one place the bells were ringing, and bonfires were burning in celebration of the death of the king, it being rumored and believed that he had been shot. Our two fugitives, however, arrived safely at the inn, put up their horses, and began to watch anxiously for the light of the approaching vessel. They watched, of course, in vain. Midnight came, but no vessel. They waited hour after hour, till at last morning dawned, and they found that all hope of accomplishing their enterprise must be abandoned. They could not remain where they were, however, another day, without suspicion; so they prepared to move on and seek temporary refuge in some other neighboring town, while they could send one of the attendants who came with them back to Colonel Wyndham's, to see if he could ascertain the cause of the failure. One or two days were spent in inquiries, negotiations, and delays. The result was, that all hope of embarking at Lyme had to be abandoned, and it was concluded that the fugitives should proceed on to the eastward, along the coast, to the care of another Royalist, a certain Colonel Gunter, who might perhaps find means to send them away from some port in that part of the country. At any rate, they would, by this plan, escape the excitements and dangers which seemed to environ them in the neighborhood of Lyme. It was fortunate that they went away from Charmouth when they did; by doing so they narrowly escaped apprehension; for that night, while the king's horse was in the stable, a smith was sent for to set a shoe upon the horse of one of the other travelers. After finishing his work, he began to examine the feet of the other horses in the stalls, and when he came to the one which the king had rode, his attention was particularly attracted to the condition and appearance of the shoes, and he remarked to those who were with him that that horse had come a long journey, and that of the four shoes, he would warrant that no two had been made in the same county. This remark was quoted the next day, and the mysterious circumstance, trifling as it was, was sufficient, in the highly excitable state of the public mind, to awaken attention. People came to see the horse, and to inquire for the owner, but they found that both had disappeared. They immediately determined that the stranger must have been the king, or at least some distinguished personage in disguise, and they sent in search of the party in every direction; but the travelers had taken such effectual precautions to blind all pursuit that their track could not be followed. In the mean time, the king journeyed secretly on from the residence of one faithful adherent to another, encountering many perplexities, and escaping narrowly many dangers, until he came at last to the neighborhood of Shoreham, a town upon the coast of Sussex. Colonel Gunter had provided a vessel here. It was a small vessel, bound, with a load of coal, along the coast, to the westward, to a port called Pool, beyond the Isle of Wight. Colonel Gunter had arranged it with the master to deviate from his voyage, by crossing over to the coast of France, and leaving his passengers there. He was then to return, and proceed to his original destination. Both the owner of the vessel and the master who commanded it were Royalists, but they had not been told that it was the king whom they were going to convey. In the bargain which had been made with them, the passengers had been designated simply as two gentlemen of rank who had escaped from the battle of Worcester. When, however, the master of the vessel saw the king, he immediately recognized him, having seen him before in his campaigns under his father. This, however, seemed to make no difference in his readiness to convey the passengers away. He said that hews perfectly willing to risk his life to save that of his sovereign, and the arrangements for the embarkation proceeded. The little vessel—its burden was about sixty tons—was brought into a small cove at Brighthelmstone, a few miles to the eastward from Shoreham, and run upon the beach, where it was left stranded when the tide went down. The king and Lord Wilmot went to it by night, ascended its side by a ladder, went down immediately into the cabin, and concealed themselves there. When the rising tide had lifted the vessel, with its precious burden, gently from the sand, the master made easy sail, and coasted along the English shore toward the Isle of Wight, which was the direction of the voyage which he had originally intended to make. He did not wish the people at Shoreham to observe any alteration of his course, since that might have awakened suspicion, and possibly invited pursuit; so they went on for a time to the westward, which was a course that rather increased than diminished their distance from their place of destination. It was seven o'clock in the morning when they sailed. There was a gentle October breeze from the north, which carried them slowly along the shore, and in the afternoon the Isle of Wight came fully into view. There were four men and a boy on board the ship, constituting the crew. The master came to the king in the cabin, and proposed to him, as a measure of additional security, and to prevent the possibility of any opposition on the part of the sailors to the proposed change in their course which it would now soon be necessary to make, that the king and Lord Wilmot should propose the plan of going to France to them, asking their interest with the captain in obtaining his consent, as it had not yet been mentioned to the captain at all; for the sailors had of course understood that the voyage was only the usual coastwise trip to the port of Pool, and that these strangers were ordinary travelers, going on that voyage. The master, therefore, thought that there would be less danger of difficulty if the king were first to gain the sailors over himself, by promises or rewards, and then all come together to gain the captain's consent, which could then, at last, with apparent reluctance, be accorded. This plan was pursued. The two travelers went to the sailors upon the forecastle, and told them, with an air of honest confidence, that they were not what they seemed. They were merchants, they said, and were unfortunately a little in debt, and under the necessity of leaving England for a time. They had some money due to them in Rouen, in France, and they wanted very much to be taken across the Channel to Dieppe, or some port near Rouen. They made known their condition to the sailors, they said, because they wanted their intercession with the captain to take them over, and they gave the sailors a good generous present in money for them to spend in drink; not so generous, however, as to cast suspicion upon their story of being traders in distress. Sailors are easily persuaded by arguments that are enforced by small presents of money. They consented to the plan, and then the king and Lord Wilmot went to express their wishes to the captain. He made many objections. It would delay him on his voyage, and lead to many inconveniences. The passengers, however, urged their request, the sailors seconding them. The wind was fair, and they could easily run across the Channel, and then, after they landed, the captain could pursue his course to the place of his destination. The captain finally consented; the helm was altered, the sails were trimmed, and the little vessel bore away toward its new destination on the coast of France. It was now five o'clock in the afternoon. The English coast soon disappeared from the horizon, and the next morning, at daylight, they could see the French shore. They approached the land at a little port called Fecamp. The wind, however, failed them before they got quite to the land, and they had to anchor to wait for a turn of the tide to help them in. In this situation, they were soon very much alarmed by the appearance of a vessel in the offing, which was coming also toward the shore. They thought it was a Spanish privateer, and its appearance brought a double apprehension. There was danger that the privateer would capture them, France and Spain being then at war. There was danger, also, that the master of their vessel, afraid himself of being captured, might insist on making all haste back again to the English coast; for the wind, though contrary so long as they wished to go on into their harbor, was fair for taking them away. The king and Lord Wilmot consulted together, and came to the conclusion to go ashore in the little boat. They soon made a bargain with the sailors to row them, and, hastily descending the vessel's side, they entered the boat, and pushed off over the rolling surges of the Channel. They were two miles from the shore, but they reached it in safety. The sailors went back to the vessel. The privateer turned out to be a harmless trader coming into port. The English vessel recrossed the Channel, and went on to its original port of destination; and Lord Wilmot and the king, relieved now of all their anxieties and fears, walked in their strange English dress up into the village to the inn. IX.. — THE RESTORATION As the readers of a tale are generally inclined to sympathize with the hero of it, both in his joys and in his sorrows, whether he is deserving of sympathy or not, they who follow the adventures of Charles in his wanderings in England after the unfortunate battle of Worcester, feel ordinarily quite a strong sensation of pleasure at finding him at last safely landed on the French shore. Charles himself doubtless experienced at first an overwhelming emotion of exultation and joy at having thus saved himself from the desperate dangers of his condition in England. On cool reflection, however, he soon perceived that there was but little cause for rejoicing in his condition and prospects. There were dangers and sufferings enough still before him, different, it is true, from those in which he had been involved, but still very dark and threatening in character. He had now, in fact, ten years of privation, poverty, and exile before him, full of troubles from beginning to end. The new series of troubles began to come upon him, too, very soon. When he and his companion went up to the inn, on the morning of their landing, dressed as they were in the guise of Englishmen of humble rank, and having been put ashore, too, from a vessel which immediately afterward sailed away, they were taken for English thieves, or fugitives from justice, and refused admission to the inn. They sent to some gentlemen of the neighborhood, to whom they made themselves known, so that this difficulty was removed, their urgent wants were supplied, and they were provided with the means of transportation to Paris. Of course, the mother of the fugitive monarch, yet almost a boy, was rejoiced to welcome him, but he received no very cordial welcome from any one else. Now that Charles had finally abandoned England, his adherents there gave up his cause, of course, as totally lost. The Republicans, with Cromwell at their head, established a very firm and efficient government, which the nations of the Continent soon began to find that it would be incumbent on them to respect. For any foreign court to harbor a pretender to the British crown, when there was an established government in England based on a determination of the people to abrogate royalty altogether, was to incur very considerable political danger. Charles soon found that, under these circumstances, he was not likely to be long a very welcome guest in the French palaces. He remained, however, in Paris for a short time, endeavoring to find some way to retrieve his ruined fortunes. Anne Maria was still there, and he attempted to renew his suit to her. She listened to the entertaining stories which he told of his dangers and escapes in England, and for a time, as Charles thought, encouraged his attentions. In fact, at one time he really believed that the affair was all settled, and began to assume that it was so in speaking with her upon the subject. She, however, at length undeceived him, in a conversation which ended with her saying that she thought he had better go back to England, and "either get his head broken, or else have a crown upon it." The fact was, that Anne Maria was now full of a new scheme for being married to Louis XIV. himself, who, though much younger than she, had attained now to a marriageable age, and she had no intention of regarding Charles in any other light than as one of the ordinary crowd of her admirers. She finally extinguished all his hopes by coolly requesting him not to visit her so frequently. In addition to his other sources of discomfort. Charles disagreed with his mother. She was a very decided Catholic, and he a Protestant, from policy it is true, and not principle, but he was none the less rigid and inflexible on that account. He and his mother disagreed in respect to the education of the younger children. They were both restricted in their means, too, and subject to a thousand mortifications from this cause, in the proud and haughty circle in which they moved. Finally, the king decided to leave Paris altogether, and try to find a more comfortable refuge in Holland. His sister and her husband, the Prince of Orange, had always treated him, as well as all the rest of the family, with great kindness and attention; but now, to complete the catalogue of his disasters, the Prince of Orange died, the power of the government passed into other hands, and Mary found herself deprived of influence and honor, and reduced all at once to a private station. She would have been glad to continue her protection to her brother, but the new government feared the power of Cromwell. Cromwell sent word to them that England would consider their harboring of the fugitive as tantamount to a declaration of war; so they notified Charles that he must leave their dominions, and find, if he could, some other place of retreat. He went up the Rhine to the city of Cologne, where it is said he found a widow woman, who received him as a lodger without pay, trusting to his promise to recompense her at some future time. There is generally little risk in giving credit to European monarchs, expelled by the temporary triumph of Republicanism from their native realms. They are generally pretty certain of being sooner or later restored to their thrones. At any rate, Charles was restored, and his restoration was effected in a manner wholly unexpected to all mankind. In order that the circumstances may be clearly understood, the reader must recall it to mind that Charles the First had been deposed and beheaded by the action of a Parliament, and that this Parliament was, of course, at his death the depository of sovereign power in England. In a short time, however, the army, with Cromwell at its head, became too strong for the Parliament. Cromwell assumed the supreme power under the name of the Protector. He dissolved Parliament, and expelled the members from their seats. He governed the country as protector for many years, and when at length he died, his son Richard Cromwell attempted to take his place. Richard did not, however, possess the talent and energy of his father, and he soon found himself totally inadequate to manage the affairs of government in such stormy times. He was deposed, and the old Parliament which Cromwell had broken up was restored. There followed, then, a new contest between the Parliament and the army, with an officer named Lambert at the head of the latter. The army proved the strongest. Lambert stationed guards in the streets leading to the Parliament House one day when the members were about to assemble, and turned the members all back as they came. When the speaker arrived in his carriage, he ordered his soldiers to take hold of the horses' heads and turn them round, and lead them home again. Thus there was no actual outward violence, but the members of Parliament were intimidated, and gave up the attempt to exercise their power, though they still reserved their claim, and their party was busy all over the kingdom in attempting to restore them to their functions. In the mean time, the army appointed a sort of council, which they invested with supreme authority. It does not come within the scope and design of this volume to give a full account of the state of public affairs during the interregnum between the death of Charles I. and the Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II., nor of the points of controversy at issue among the various parties formed. The reader, however, must not suppose that, during this period, there was at any time what could, with any propriety, be called a republic. A true republic exists only where the questions of government are fairly and honorably submitted to the whole population, with a universal disposition to acquiesce peaceably in the decision of the majority, when that is ascertained. There probably has never been any such state of things as this in any country of Europe since the Christian era. There certainly was no such state of things in England in the time of the Commonwealth. There were a great many persons who wished to have it so, and who called themselves Republicans; but their plan, if that were indeed their plan, was never tried. Very likely it was not practicable to try it. At any rate, it certainly was not tried. The sovereignty taken from the Stuart dynasty in the person of Charles I. was never vested in the people at large. It was seized forcibly by the various powers already existing in the state, as they found themselves, one after another, able to seize it. The Parliament took, it from Charles. The army took it from Parliament. Then Oliver Cromwell took it from the army. He found himself strong enough to hold it as long as he lived, and when he died he delivered it to his son Richard. Richard could not hold it. The Parliament rose to a sort of supplementary existence, and took it from Richard, and then the army took it from Parliament again. Finally, General Monk appeared upon the stage in Scotland, as we shall presently see, marched down through England, and, with the help of thousands and thousands who were tired of these endless changes, took it from the army and restored it once more to the Parliament, on condition of their placing it back again in the hands of the king. Thus there was no republic at all, from beginning to end. Nor is it at all certain that there ought to have been. The difficulties of really, truly, and honestly laying the national sovereignty in the hands of the whole population of such a realm as England, and of so organizing the population that its decisions shall actually control the legislation of the country and the public administration of its affairs, are all but insuperable. The English people found the tyranny and oppression of royalty intolerable. They arose and set royalty aside. It devolved, then, on the next strongest power in the state to assume the authority thus divested; this was the Parliament, who governed, just as the king had done, by the exercise of their own superior power, keeping the mass of the community just where they were before. It is true that many individuals of very low rank rose to positions of great power; but they represented only a party, and the power they wielded was monarchical power usurped, not Republican power fairly conferred upon them. Thus, though in the time of the Commonwealth there were plenty of Republicans, there was never a republic. It has always been so in all European revolutions. In America, Legislatures and executive officers of state are only agents, through whom the great population itself quietly executes its will, the two millions of votes in the great elections being the real power by which every thing is controlled. But Cromwell, Napoleon, Lamartine, Cavaignac, and all the others, whatever formalities of voting may have attended their induction into office, have always really held their power by force of bayonets, not of ballots. There is great danger that it will continue so in Europe for a long time to come. But to return. It was in 1659 when the army, with Lambert at its head, expelled the Parliament. All England was now divided into parties, some for the Parliament, some for the army, some for the king. There was a distinguished general in Scotland at this time named Monk. He had been left there by Cromwell in command of the military forces in that country. He was a man considerably advanced in life, and of great circumspection, prudence, and steadiness of character. All parties wished to gain his influence, but he kept his own counsel, and declared openly for neither. He, however, began to get together his forces, and to make preparations to march into England. People asked him what he intended to do, but he would give no definite answer. He was six weeks getting ready for his expedition, during which time many deputations were sent to him from the various parties, making different propositions to him, each party being eager to obtain his adhesion to their cause. He received all their deputations, heard what they had to say, made no definite reply to any of them, but went on quietly with his work. He got the various divisions of his army at length together, made provisional arrangements for the government of Scotland during his absence, and set out on his march. He entered England in January, 1660, and advanced toward London. The English army was scattered all over the kingdom; but Monk opened negotiations with the leaders of it, and also with the members of Parliament, and, without committing himself absolutely to either party, he managed to have the Parliament restored. They assembled peaceably in London, and resumed their functions. A part of the English army was there for their protection. Monk, as he approached London, sent word to Parliament asking that quarters might be provided for him and his army there. Parliament, desirous of conciliating him and securing his co-operation in sustaining their power, acceded to this request. The other troops were removed; Monk entered London in triumph, and took possession of all the strong holds there, holding them nominally under Parliamentary authority Monk still kept his ultimate designs profoundly secret. No party very strongly opposed him, for no party knew whether to regard him as an enemy or a friend. The Royalists, however, all over the kingdom, took new courage, and a general expectation began to pervade the minds of men that the monarchy was to be restored. The Parliament rescinded the votes which had been most decisive against the house of Stuart and monarchical rule. The most prominent Republicans were dismissed from office under various pretexts, and men known to be loyal were appointed in their place. Finally, the Parliament itself was dissolved, and writs were issued for the election of a new one, more in accordance with the ancient forms. When at length this new Parliament assembled, the public mind was in a great fever of excitement, there being a vague expectation every where that the monarchy was to be restored, while yet the Restoration was openly spoken of by no one. The first votes which were taken in the House of Commons indicated a very favorable state of feeling toward monarchy; and at length, a few days after the opening of the session, it was announced that there was a messenger at the door with a communication from the king. The announcement was received with the wildest acclamations of joy. The messenger was immediately ordered to enter. The communication was read, the vast assembly listening with breathless attention. It contained, in the first place, a letter, in which the king stated that, having heard that the people of England had restored the Parliament according to the ancient forms, he hoped that now the Parliament would go on and complete the good work which had been begun, and heal the distractions of the kingdom by reinstating him as sovereign in the ancient rights and prerogatives of the crown. The second part of the king's communication, and by far the most important part, was what was called his Declaration, a document in which he announced formally what his intentions were in case he were restored to the throne. One of these assurances was, that he was ready to forgive and forget the past, so far as he might himself be supposed to have cause of complaint against any of his subjects for the part they had taken in the late transactions. He professed his readiness to grant a free pardon to all, excepting those who should be expressly excluded from such pardon by the Parliament itself. The Declaration also set forth that, inasmuch as there was prevailing throughout the country a great diversity of religious opinion, the king, if restored to his throne, whatever his own religious views or those of his government might be, would agree that his subjects should be allowed full liberty of conscience in all respects, and that nobody should be molested in any way on account of his religious faith or usages of worship. And, finally, the Declaration contained a covenant on the part of the king, that whereas there had been great changes of property, arising from fines and confiscations for political offenses during the period of the Revolution, he would not himself disturb the existing titles to property, but would leave them to be settled on such principles and in such a way as Parliament should direct. The letter from the king, and especially the Declaration, gave the utmost satisfaction. The latter disarmed those who would otherwise have opposed the return of the king, by quieting their fears of being disturbed in respect to their liberty or their property. Immediately after these papers were read, they were ordered to be published, and were sent every where throughout the kingdom, awakening, wherever they went the greatest demonstrations of joy. The Parliament passed a vote that the ancient Constitution of the kingdom, of government by king, Lords, and Commons, ought to be restored, and they went forth in a body into the public places of the city to proclaim Charles II. king. Parliament voted immediately a grant of fifty thousand pounds, a sum equal to more than two hundred thousand dollars, for the king's immediate use, with large sums besides for the other members of the family, and sent a committee of noblemen to Holland to carry the money and to invite the king back to his dominions. As soon as tidings of these events reached the Continent, every body hastened to pay their court to his majesty. From being neglected, destitute, and wretched, he suddenly found himself elevated to the highest pinnacle of prosperity and fame. Every body offered him their aid; his court was thronged, and all were ready to do him honor. The princely mother of one of the young ladies who had rejected the offer of his hand in the day of his adversity, sent him an intimation that the offer would be accepted if he would renew it now. A fleet crossed the Channel to receive the king and convey him to London. His brother James, the Duke, of York, was placed in command of it as Lord High Admiral of England. The fleet sailed for Dover. General Monk went to Dover to receive the king at his landing. He escorted him to London, where the monarch, returning from his long exile, arrived on the twenty-ninth of May, the very day when he became thirty years of age. A Portrait-Drawing of Charles II. General Monk, whose talent, skill, and consummate management had been the means of effecting this great change without violence or bloodshed, was rewarded by being made Duke of Albermarle. This was a very great reward. In fact, no American imagination can conceive of the images of glory and grandeur which are connected in the mind of an Englishman with the idea of being made a duke. A duke lives in a palace; he is surrounded by a court; he expends princely revenues; he reigns, in fact, often, so far as the pomp and pleasure of reigning are concerned, over quite a little kingdom, and is looked up to by the millions beneath his grade with a reverence as great, at least, as that with which the ancients looked up to their gods. He is deprived of nothing which pertains to power but the mere toil, and care, and responsibility of ruling, so that he has all the sweetness and fragrance of sovereignty without its thorns. In a word, the seat of an English duke, so far as earthly greatness and glory are concerned, is undoubtedly the finest which ambition, wealth, and power combined have ever succeeded in carving out for man. It is infinitely better than a throne. Some historians maintain that Monk acted on a secret understanding with Charles from the commencement; that the general was to restore the king, and was then to receive a dukedom for his reward. Others say that he acted from a simple sense of duty in all that he did, and that the lofty elevation to which he was raised was a very natural and suitable testimonial of the royal gratitude. The reader will embrace the one or the other of the two theories, according to the degree of readiness or of reluctance with which he believes in the existence of conscientious principles of patriotism and loyalty among the great men who rule the world. X. — THE MARRIAGE During the period of King Charles's days of adversity he made many fruitless attempts to obtain a wife. He was rejected by all the young ladies to whom he made proposals. Marriages in that grade of society are almost always mere transactions of business, being governed altogether by political and prudential considerations. In all Charles's proposals he was aiming simply at strengthening his own position by means of the wealth or family influence of the bride, supposing as he did that the honor of being even nominally a queen would be a sufficient equivalent to the lady. The ladies themselves, however, to whom he addressed himself, or their friends, thought that the prospect of his being really restored to his throne was very remote and uncertain, and, in the mean time, the empty name of queen was not worth as much as a rich and powerful heiress, by becoming his bride, would have to pay for it. After his restoration, however, all this was changed. There was no longer any difficulty. He had now only to choose. In fact, one or two who had refused him when he was a fugitive and an exile thought differently of the case now that he was a king, and one of them, as has already been said, gave him intimations, through her friends, that if he were inclined to renew his suit, he would be more successful. Charles rejected these overtures with indignant disdain. The lady whom he ultimately married was a Portuguese princess. Her father was King of Portugal, but before his accession to the throne his title had been the Duke of Braganza. The name of his daughter was Catharine. She is thus known generally in history by the name of Catharine of Braganza. It is said that the plan of this marriage originated with Queen Henrietta Maria, and that a prominent motive with her in promoting the measure was her desire to secure for Charles a Catholic wife. Catharine of Braganza was a Catholic. Henrietta Maria was deeply interested, and no doubt conscientiously so, in bringing back her own family and their descendants, and the realm of England, if possible, to the ancient faith: and this question of the marriage of her son she justly considered would have a very important bearing on the result. Queen Henrietta is said to have laid her arrangements in train for opening the negotiation with the Portuguese princess, at a visit which she made to England in 1660, very soon after her son's restoration. The Restoration took place in May. The queen's visit to her son was in October. Of course, after all the long years of danger, privation, and suffering which this family had endured, the widowed mother felt an intense emotion of joy at finding her children once more restored to what she considered their just hereditary rights. Charles was on the English throne. James, the Duke of York, was Lord High Admiral of England, that is, the commander-in-chief of the naval forces of the realm; and her other children, those who were still living, were in peace and safety. Of course, her heart was full of maternal pride and joy. Her son James, the Lord High Admiral, went across the Channel to Dover, with a fleet of the finest ships that he could select from the whole British navy, to escort his mother to England. The queen was to embark at Calais.* The queen came down to the port from Paris, attended by many friends, who sympathized with her in the return of her prosperity, and were attracted, besides, by the grand spectacle which they thought would be presented by the appearance and maneuvers of the English ships, and the ceremony of the embarkation. [* Footnote: For a view of the famous Calais pier, see History of Mary Queen of Scots, page 105.] The waters of the English Channel are disturbed by almost perpetual agitations, which bleak winds and rapid tides, struggling continually together, combine to raise; and many a traveler, who passes in comfort across the Atlantic, is made miserable by the incessant restlessness of this narrow sea. At the time, however, when Henrietta Maria crossed it, the waters for once were calm. The people who assembled upon the pier to witness the embarkation looked over the expanse before them, and saw it lying smooth, every where, as glass, and reflecting the great English ships which lay at a little distance from the shore as if it were a mirror. It was a bright and beautiful October morning. The air seemed perfectly motionless. The English ships were adorned with countless flags in honor of the occasion, but they all hung down perfectly lifeless upon the masts and rigging. Scarcely a ripple rolled upon the beach; and so silent and still was the morning air, that the voices and echoes came from vast distances along the shore, and the dip of the oars of the boats gliding about in the offing sent its sound for miles around over the smooth surface of the sea; and when the grand salute was fired at the embarkation of the queen, the reverberation of the guns was heard distinctly, it was said, at Dover, a distance of thirty miles. Even in such a calm as this, however, uncommon as it is, the atmosphere is not perfectly still. When the royal party were on board the vessels and the sails were set, the fleet did begin to glide, almost imperceptibly, it is true, away from the shore. In the course of the day they had receded several miles from the land, and when the dinner hour arrived they found that the lord admiral had provided a most sumptuous banquet on board. Just before the time, however, for setting down to the table, the duke found that it was a Catholic fast day, and that neither his mother nor any of her attendants, being, as they were, all Catholics, could eat any thing but fish; and, unfortunately, as all James's men were Protestants, they had not thought of the fast, and they had no fish on board. They, however, contrived to produce a sturgeon for the queen, and they sat down to the table, the queen to the dish provided for her, and the others to bread and vegetables, and such other food as the Catholic ritual allowed, while the duke himself and his brother officers disposed, as well as they could, of the more luxurious dainties which they had intended for their guests. With a fair wind, three hours is sufficient for the run from Calais to Dover. It took the Duke of York two days to get his fleet across in this calm. At length, however, they arrived. The king was on the pier to receive his mother. Rejoiced as her majesty must have been to be welcomed by her son under such circumstances, she must have thought mournfully of her departed husband at the time of her landing, for it was here that he had taken leave of her some years before, when the troubles of her family were beginning. Charles conducted his mother to the castle. All the inhabitants of Dover, and of the country around, had assembled to witness the arrival, and they welcomed the mother back to the land of her husband and her sons with long and loud acclamations. There was a great banquet at Dover Castle. Here all the members of the royal family were present, having been assembled for the occasion. Of course, it was an occasion of great family rejoicing, mingled undoubtedly, on the part of the queen, with many mournful thoughts and bitter recollections. The fast was past, and there was, consequently, no difficulty now about partaking of the food that had been provided; but another difficulty arose, having the same origin, viz., the question whether the divine blessing should be implored upon the food by a Catholic priest or an Episcopal chaplain. Neither party could conscientiously acquiesce in the performance of the service by the other. They settled the important question, or rather it settled itself at last, in the following manner: When the guests were ready to take their places at table, the king, instead of asking his mother's spiritual guide to officiate, as both Christian and filial courtesy required him to have done, called upon his own chaplain. The chaplain said grace. Immediately afterward, the Catholic priest, thinking that fidelity to his own religious faith required him to act decidedly, repeated the service in the Catholic form, ending with making the sign of the cross in a very conspicuous manner over the table. The gentry of Dover, who had been admitted as spectators of this banquet, were greatly scandalized at this deed. They regarded the gesture as an act of very wicked and vary dangerous idolatry. From Dover the queen proceeded with her children to London. Her sons did every thing in their power to honor their mother's visit; they received her with great parade and pomp, assigned her a sumptuous residence, and studied every means of amusing her, and of making her visit a source of pleasure. But they did not succeed. The queen was very unhappy. Every place that she visited recalled to her mind the memory of her husband, and awakened afresh all her sorrows. She was distressed, too, by some domestic troubles, which we have not here time to describe. Then the religious differences between herself and her children, and the questions which were arising out of them continually, gave her a great deal of pain; she could not but perceive, moreover, that she was regarded with suspicion and dislike by the people of England on account of her Catholic faith. Then, besides, notwithstanding her English husband and her English children, she was herself a French woman still in character, thought, feeling, and language, and she could not feel really at home north of the Channel. After remaining, therefore, a few months in London, and arranging some family and business affairs which required her attention, she determined to return. The king accompanied her to Portsmouth, where she set sail, taking the little princess Henrietta with her, and went back to France. Among the family affairs, however, which she arranged, it is said that the marriage of her son, the king, was a special object of her attention, and that she secretly laid the train which resulted in his espousing Catharine of Braganza. According to the accounts given in the chronicles of the times, the negotiations were opened in the following manner: One day the Portuguese ambassador at London came to a certain high officer of the king's household, and introduced the subject of his majesty's marriage, saying, in the course of the conversation, that he thought the Princess Catharine of Portugal would be a very eligible match, and adding moreover, that he was authorized to say that, with the lady, very advantageous terms could be offered. Charles said he would think of it. This gave the ambassador sufficient encouragement to induce him to take another step. He obtained an audience of Charles the next day, and proposed the subject directly for his consideration. The ambassador knew very well that the question would turn, in Charles's mind, on the pecuniary and political advantages of the match; so he stated at once what they would be. He was authorized to offer, he said, the sum of five hundred thousand pounds as the princess's portion, and to surrender to the English crown various foreign possessions, which had, till then, belonged to the Portuguese. One of the principal of these was the island of Bombay in the East Indies. Another was Tangier, a port in Africa. The English did not, at that time, hold any East Indian territories. He likewise offered to convey to the English nation the right of trading with the great South American country of Brazil, which then pertained to the Portuguese crown. Charles was very much pleased with these proposals. He immediately consulted his principal minister of state, Lord Clarendon, the celebrated historian, and soon afterward called a meeting of his privy council and laid the case before them. Clarendon asked him if he had given up all thoughts of a Protestant connection. Charles said that he did not know where to look for a Protestant wife. It was true, in fact, that nearly all the royal families of Europe were Catholics, and royal bridegrooms must always have royal brides. There were, however, Protestant princesses in Germany; this was suggested to his majesty, but he replied, with an expression of contempt, that they were all dull and foggy, and he could not possibly have one of them for a wife. The counselors then began to look at the pecuniary and political advantages of the proposed bargain. They got out their maps, and showed Charles where Bombay, and Tangier, and the other places offered with the lady as her dowry lay. The statesmen were quite pleased with the prospect of these acquisitions, and Charles was particularly gratified with the money item. It was twice as much, they said, as any English king had ever before received as the marriage portion of a bride. In a word, the proposition was unanimously considered as in every respect entirely satisfactory, and Charles authorized his ministers to open the negotiations for the marriage immediately. All this time Charles had never seen the lady, and perhaps had never heard of her before. Her own individual qualifications, whether of mind or of person, seem to have been considered a subject not worth inquiring about at all. Nor ought we to be at all surprised at this. It was not Charles's object, in seeking a wife, to find some one whom he was to cherish and love, and who was to promote his happiness by making him the object of her affection in return. His love, so far as such a soul is capable of love, was to be gratified by other means. He had always some female favorite, chosen from among the ladies of his court, high in rank, though not high enough to be the wedded wife of the king. These attachments were not private in any sense, nor was any attempt made to conceal them, the king being in the habit of bestowing upon the objects of them all the public attentions, as well as the private intimacy which pertain to wedded life. The king's favorite at the present time was Lady Castlemaine. She was originally a Mrs. Palmer, but the king had made her husband Lord Castlemaine for the purpose of giving a title to the wife. Some years afterward he made her a duchess. She was a prominent lady in the court, being every where received and honored as the temporary wife of the king. He did not intend, in marrying the Princess Catharine, to disturb this state of things at all. She was to be in name his wife, but he was to place his affections where he pleased. She was to have her own palace, her own household, and her own pleasures, and he, on the other hand, was to continue to have his. Notwithstanding this, however, Charles seemed to have had some consideration for the personal appearance of his proposed bride, after all. The Spanish government, as soon as Charles's plan of espousing Catharine became known, attempted to prevent the match, as it would greatly increase the strength and influence of Portugal by giving to that country so powerful an ally. Spain had plenty of money, but no princess in the royal family; and the government therefore proposed to Charles, that if he would be content to take some Protestant lady for a wife, they would endow her, and with a portion as great as that which had been offered with Catharine. They, moreover, represented to Charles that Catharine was out of health, and very plain and repulsive in her personal appearance, and that, besides, it would be a great deal better for him, for obvious political reasons, to marry a Protestant princess. The other party replied that Catharine was not ugly by any means, and they showed Charles her portrait, which, after looking at it a few minutes, he said was not unhandsome. They reminded him, also, that Catharine was only the third in succession from the crown of Portugal, so that the chance of her actually inheriting that realm was not at all to be disregarded. Charles thought this a very important consideration, and, on the whole, decided that the affair should go on; and commissioners were sent to make a formal proposal of marriage at the Portuguese court. Charles wrote letters to the mother of the young lady, and to the young lady herself, expressing the personal interest he felt in obtaining the princess's hand. The negotiations thus commenced went on for many months, with no other obstruction than the complication and intricacy which attend all matrimonial arrangements where the interests of kingdoms, as well as the personal happiness of the wedded pair, are involved in the issue. Ambassadors were sent, and contracts and treaties were drawn up, discussed, modified, and finally signed. A formal announcement of the proposed marriage was made to the English Parliament, and addresses congratulatory were voted and presented in reply. Arrangements were made for transferring the foreign possessions promised to the British crown; and, lastly, the money intended for the dower was collected, tied up in bags, sealed, and deposited safely in the strong room of the Castle at Lisbon. In fact, every thing went on prosperously to the end, and when all was thus finally settled, Charles wrote the following letter to his expected bride. "London, 2d July, 1661 MY LADY AND WIFE Already the ambassador has set off for Lisbon; for me the signing of the marriage has been great happiness; and there is about to be dispatched at this time, after him, one of my servants, charged with what would appear necessary, whereby may be declared on my part the inexpressible joy of this felicitous conclusion, which, when received, will hasten the coming of your majesty. I am going to make a short progress into some of my provinces. In the mean time, while I am going further from my most sovereign good, yet I do not complain as to whither I go; seeking in vain tranquility in my restlessness, looking to see the beloved person of your majesty in these realms already your own; and that with the same anxiety with which, after my long banishment, I desired to see myself within them, and my subjects desiring also to behold me among them. The presence of your serenity is only wanting to unite us, under the protection of God, in the health and content I desire. The very faithful husband of her majesty, whose hand he kisses. CHARLES REX. The letter was addressed "To the QUEEN OF GREAT BRITAIN, my wife and lady, whom God preserve." Whoever reads this letter attentively will see in it that infallible criterion of hypocrisy and pretense in professions of regard, viz., extravagant ideas feebly and incoherently expressed. When the heart dictates what is said, the thoughts are natural, and the language plain; but in composition like the above, we see a continual striving to say something for effect, which the writer invents by his ingenuity as he goes on, without any honest impulses from the heart to guide him. He soars one minute and breaks down the next, in absurd alternations of the sublime and the ridiculous. How honest Charles was in such professions, and what was the kind of connubial happiness which he was preparing for his bride, is shown by the fact that he was even now spending all his time with Lady Castlemaine; and, to reconcile her to his marriage with Catharine, he had promised her that he would make her one of the ladies of the queen's bed chamber as soon as she arrived in London, which would give him constant opportunities of being in her society. We have made very little allusion to Catharine herself, thus far, in the account of these transactions, because she has had, thus far, nothing to do with them. Every thing has been arranged for her by her mother, who was an ambitious and masculine woman, and at this time the queen regent of Portugal. Catharine had been kept shut up, all her days, in the most strict seclusion, and in the most rigorous subjection to her mother's will. It is said that she had hardly been ten times out of the palace in her life, since her return to it from the convent where she had been educated. The innocent and simple hearted maiden looked forward to her marriage as to a release from a tedious and intolerable bondage. They had shown her King Charles's picture, and had given her an account of his perilous adventures and romantic escapes, and of the courage and energy which he had sometimes displayed. And that was all she knew. She had her childlike ideas of love and of conjugal fidelity and happiness, and believed that she was going to realize them. As she looked forward, therefore, to the period of her departure for England, she longed impatiently for the time to come, her heart bounding at every thought of the happy hour with eager anticipations of delight. An English nobleman—the Earl of Sandwich—was sent with a squadron to bring the bride to England. He was received, when he entered the Tagus, with great ceremony. A Portuguese minister went down the river to meet him in a magnificent barge. The nobleman descended to the lowest step of the ladder which led down the side of the ship, to receive the minister. They ascended the ladder together, while the ship fired a salute of twenty or thirty guns. They went into the cabin, and took seats there, with great ceremony. The minister then rose and made an address of welcome to the English commander. Lord Sandwich replied, and there was then another thundering salute of cannon. All this parade and ceremony was, in this case, as it often is, not an expression of real cordiality, good will, and good faith, but a substitute for them. The English commander, who had been specially instructed to bring over the money as well as the bride, found, to his great astonishment and perplexity, that the queen regent had spent a considerable portion of the money which had been put away so safely in the bags, and she wished to pay now a part of the dowry in merchandise, at such prices as she thought reasonable, and to have a year's credit for the remainder. There was thus thrown upon Lord Sandwich the very heavy responsibility of deciding whether to give up the object of his expedition, and go back to England without the bride, or to take her without the money. After very anxious hesitation and suspense, he decided to proceed with his enterprise, and the preparations were made for the princess's embarkation. The Bridal Party at Lisbon. When the day arrived, the queen descended the grand staircase of the palace, and at the foot of it took leave of her mother. Neither mother nor daughter shed a tear. The princess was conducted through the streets, accompanied by a long cavalcade and a procession of splendid carriages, through long lines of soldiers, and under triumphal arches, and over paths strewed with flowers, while bands of music, and groups of dancers, at various distances along the way, expressed the general congratulation and joy. When they reached the pier there was a splendid brigantine or barge ready to receive the bride and her attendants. The Earl of Sandwich, and other English officers of high rank belonging to the squadron, entered the barge too. The water was covered with boats, and the shipping in the river was crowded with spectators. The barge moved on to the ship which was to convey the bridal party, who ascended to the deck by means of a spacious and beautiful stair constructed upon its side. Salutes were fired by the English ships, and were echoed by the Portuguese forts on the shore. The princess's brother and the ladies who had accompanied her on board, to take leave of her there, now bade her farewell, and returned by the barge to the shore, while the ships weighed anchor and prepared to put to sea. The wind was, however, contrary, and they were compelled to remain that night in the river; and as soon as the darkness came on, the whole shore became resplendent with illuminations at the windows in the city, and with rockets, and fire balls, and fireworks of every kind, rising from boats upon the water, and from the banks, and heights, and castle battlements all around upon the land. This gay and splendid spectacle beguiled the night, but the wind continued unfavorable all the next day, and confined the squadron still to the river. Catharine's mother sent out a messenger during the day to inquire after her daughter's health and welfare. The etiquette of royalty did not allow of her coming to see her child. The fleet, which consisted of fourteen men-of-war, put to sea on the second day. After a long and stormy passage, the squadron arrived off the Isle of Wight; the Duke of York came out to meet it there, with five other ships, and they all entered the harbor of Portsmouth together. As soon as Catharine landed, she wrote immediately to Charles to notify him of her arrival. The news produced universal excitement in London. The bells were rung, bonfires were made in the streets, and houses were illuminated. Every body seemed full of joy and pleasure except the king himself. He seemed to care little about it. He was supping that night with Lady Castlemaine. It was five days before he set out to meet his bride, and he supped with Lady Castlemaine the night before he commenced his journey. Some of Charles's best friends were very much grieved at his pursuing such a course; others were very indignant; but the majority of the people around him at court were like himself in character and manners, and were only led to more open irregularity and vice themselves by this public example of their sovereign. In the mean time, the king moved on to Portsmouth, escorted by a body of his Life Guards. He found that his intended bride was confined to her bed with a sort of slow fever. It was the result, they said, of the roughness and discomforts of the voyage, though we may certainly imagine another cause. Charles went immediately to the house where she was residing, and was admitted to visit her in her chamber, the many attendants who were present at the interview watching with great interest every word and look on either side by which they might judge of the nature of the first impression made by the bride and bridegroom upon each other. Catharine was not considered beautiful, and it was natural that a degree of curiosity should be manifested to learn how Charles would regard her. The following representation of the queen is from a picture painted during her lifetime. Catharine of Braganza. There are two apparently contradictory accounts of the impression made upon Charles by this his first sight of his intended bride. Charles wrote a letter to Lord Clarendon, in which he expressed himself very well satisfied with her. He admitted that she was no beauty, but her countenance was agreeable, he said, and "her conversation," he added, "as far as I can perceive, is very good; for she has wit enough, and a very agreeable voice. You would be surprised to see how well we are acquainted already. In a word, I think myself very happy, and I am confident that we shall agree very well together. I have not time to say any more. My lord lieutenant will tell you the rest." At the same time, while writing this in his official communication to his minister, he said privately to one of his companions on leaving the presence of his bride, that, "upon his word, they had sent him a bat instead of a woman." The royal couple were married the next day, first very privately in the Catholic form, and afterward more openly, in a great hall, and before a large assembly, according to the ritual of the Church of England. The bride was attired in the English style, her dress being of rose color, trimmed with knots of blue ribbon. These knots were, after the ceremony, detached from the dress, and distributed among the company as wedding favors, every lady eagerly pressing forward to get a share. Magnificent presents were made to the groomsmen and bridesmaids, and the company dispersed. The queen, still indisposed, went back to her bed and her supper was served to her there, the king and other members of the household partaking it with her, seated at the bedside. A day or two afterward the royal party proceeded to London, in a long train composed of Life Guards, carriages, horsemen, baggage wagons, and attendants of every grade. The queen's heart was full of anticipations of happiness. The others, who knew what state of things she was to find on her arrival there, looked forward to scenes of trouble and woe. XI. — CHARACTER AND REIGN Some of the traits of character for which King Charles II. has been most noted among mankind are well illustrated by his management of the affair of Lady Castlemaine, when the queen arrived at her new home in Hampton Court. Hampton Court is a very spacious and beautiful palace on the banks of the Thames, some miles above London, splendidly built, and very pleasantly situated at a graceful bend of the river. It was magnificently fitted up and furnished for Catharine's reception. Her suite of apartments were supplied and adorned in the most sumptuous manner. Her bed, which was a present to Charles, at the time of his restoration, from the States of Holland, was said to have cost, with all the appurtenances, a sum equal to between thirty and forty thousand dollars. The hangings were an embroidery of silver on crimson velvet. The other articles of furniture in the apartment, the mirrors, the richly inlaid cabinets, the toilet service of massive gold, the canopies, the carved chairs, the curtains, the tapestries, and the paintings, corresponded in magnificence with the bed, so that Catharine, when she was introduced to the scene, felt that she had attained to the very summit of human grandeur. For a few weeks Catharine neither saw nor heard any thing of Lady Castlemaine. She was confined to her house at the time by the care of an infant, born a few days after the arrival of the queen. Her husband had the child baptized soon after its birth as his son and heir; but the mother soon afterward had it baptized again as the son of the king, Charles himself standing sponsor on the occasion. A violent quarrel followed between Lady Castlemaine and her husband. She left the house, taking with her all her servants and attendants, and all the plate and other valuables which she could carry away. The husband, overwhelmed with wretchedness and shame, abandoned every thing, and went to France, in voluntary exile. His wife then came and took up her residence at Richmond, which is not far from Hampton Court, so as to be near the king. In all these proceedings the king himself gave her his continued countenance, encouragement, and aid. Although Catharine, in the confiding simplicity of her character, had fully believed, in coming to London, that Charles would be to her a true and faithful husband, still she had heard the name of Lady Castlemaine before she left Lisbon. Her mother had once briefly alluded to the subject, and gave her a warning, charging her to remember the name, and to be on her guard against the lady herself, and never to tolerate her in her presence on any pretext. Things were in this state, when, one day, after Catharine had been about six weeks in her new home, Charles brought in a list of ladies whom he proposed that she should make the ladies of her household. Catharine took the list, and there, to her surprise and indignation, she saw the dreaded name of Lady Castlemaine at the head of it. Very much agitated, she began to prick out the name, and to declare that she could not listen to any such proposition. Charles was angry, and remonstrated. She persisted, and said that he must either yield to her in that point, or send her back to Lisbon. Charles was determined to have his way, and Catharine was overwhelmed with anguish and grief. This lasted two days, when Charles made his peace with his wife by solemnly promising to give up Lady Castlemaine, and to have from that time forward nothing more to do with her. King Charles II. has always been famed for his good nature. This was a specimen of it. He never liked to quarrel with any body, and was always ready to give up his point, in appearance and form at least, for the sake of peace and good humor. Accordingly, when he found how immovably averse his wife was to having Lady Castlemaine for an inmate of her family, instead of declaring that she must and should submit to his will, he gave up himself, and said that he would think no more about it, without, however, having the remotest idea of keeping his word. He was only intending, since he found the resistance so decided on this side of the citadel, to try to find some other approach. Accordingly, a short time after this, one evening when the queen was holding a sort of levee in a brilliant saloon, surrounded by her Portuguese ladies, and receiving English ladies, as they were one after another presented to her by the king, the company were astonished at seeing Lady Castlemaine appear with the rest, and, as she advanced, the king presented her to the queen. To the surprise of every one, Catharine received her as graciously as the rest, and gave her her hand. The fact was, that Catharine, not being familiar with the sound and pronunciation of English words, had not understood the name. One of the Portuguese ladies who stood near her whispered to inquire if she knew that that was Lady Castlemaine. Catharine was stunned and staggered by the words as by a blow. The blood gushed from her nose, she fell over into the arms of her attendants in a fainting fit, and was borne out of the room. There followed, after this scene, a long and dreadful quarrel. Charles accused his wife of unreasonable and foolish jealousy, and of putting a public insult upon one of the ladies of his court, whom she was bound to treat with civility and respect, since he chose to have it so. She, on the other hand, declared that he was cruel and tyrannical in making such demands upon her, and that she would go back to Portugal rather than submit to such an intolerable indignity. She criminated Charles, and Charles recriminated and threatened her, and for one night the palace was filled with the noise and uproar of the quarrel. The ladies and gentlemen of the household were very glad, they said, that they were not in London, where there would have been so many more witnesses of the scene. Some of Charles's counselors and ministers of state were disposed at first to remonstrate with him for laying commands on his wife, with which, as they expressed it, flesh and blood could not comply. He, however, peremptorily silenced all their expostulations, and required them, as they valued his favor, to aid him in effecting his purposes. Good natured as he was, his determination was fully aroused, and he was now resolved to compel the queen to submit. He wrote a letter to Lord Clarendon, in which he declared his absolute and unalterable determination to make Lady Castlemaine "of the queen's bed chamber," and hoped he might be miserable in this world and in the world to come if he failed in the least degree in what he had undertaken; and if any one of his friends attempted to thwart or impede him in it in any way, he would make him repent of it as long as he lived. The king concluded his letter with asking Clarendon to show it to some others concerned, that they might all understand distinctly what they were to expect. Of course, every body, after this, took sides against the queen, and all who had access to her urged her to comply with the wishes of the king. She begged and prayed to be spared such an indignity. She remonstrated, sometimes with impetuous passion, and sometimes with silent grief and bitter tears. She wanted to go back again to Portugal; but this, of course, could not be. The end of it was, that she was worn out at last. Lady Castlemaine was admitted, and remained an inmate of her family as long as she retained her place in the king's regard. Lady Castlemaine was a proud and imperious beauty, who abused the power which she soon found that she possessed over the king, in a manner to make her an object of hatred to every one else. She interfered with every thing, and had a vast influence even over the affairs of state. The king was sometimes out of patience, and attempted resistance, but she soon reduced him to submission. There was once some question about sending a certain nobleman, who was charged with some political offenses, to the Tower. She declared that he should not be sent there. The king rebuked her interference, and they got into a high dispute on the subject, the king telling her, in the end, that she was an impertinent jade, that meddled with things she had nothing to do with. To which she replied that he was a great fool, that let fools have the management of his affairs, and sent his faithful servants to prison. In the end, the lady gained the victory, and the nobleman went free. Violent quarrels of this kind were very frequent between these high life lovers, and they always ended in the triumph of Lady Castlemaine. She used to threaten, as a last resort, that if the king came to an open rupture with her, she would print the letters that he had written to her, and this always brought him to terms. These incidents indicate a very extraordinary freedom and familiarity of manners on the part of Charles, and he probably appears, in all these transactions, to much greater disadvantage in some respects than he otherwise would have done, on account of the extreme openness and frankness of his character. He lived, in fact, on the most free and familiar terms with all around him, jesting continually with every body, and taking jests, with perfect good nature, from others in return. In fact, his jests, gibes, and frolics kept the whole court continually in a condition of frivolous gayety and fun, which would have excited the astonishment of all the serious portion of mankind, if the extreme and universal dissipation and vice which prevailed had not awakened a far deeper emotion. In fact, there seemed to be no serious element whatever in the monarch's character. He was, for instance, very fond of dogs, and cultivated a particular breed, since called King Charles's spaniels, which he kept at one time in great numbers, and in all stages of age and condition, in his palace, and in his very bed chamber, making all the apartments around very disagreeable by the effluvia. Rewards were constantly offered for certain of the king's dogs which had escaped. They were always escaping. He was attended by these dogs wherever he went, and at his meetings with his council, while the gravest and most momentous national interests were under discussion, he would amuse himself by playing with them under the table. He read his speeches at Parliament, that is, the brief messages with which the sovereign usually opens the session, in a ridiculous manner, and at church, instead of attending to the service, he would play at peep with Lady Castlemaine between the curtains which separated his box from that of the ladies of the household. And yet he pretended to be a firm believer in Christianity; and while he had no objection to any extreme of vice, he discountenanced infidelity. On one occasion, when a philosophical skeptic had been enlarging for some time on his objections to the Christian faith, Charles replied by saying, "My lord, I am a great deal older than your grace, and have heard more arguments in favor of atheism than you, but I have lived long enough to see that there is nothing in them, and I hope your grace will." Charles spent most of his time, at some periods of his reign, in idle amusements, lounging about his palace, playing at tennis in the tennis court like a boy, and then weighing himself afterward to see how much he was gaining. In the afternoons and evenings he would loiter in the rooms of his favorites while they were finishing their dressing, gamble at cards, and often would get very much intoxicated at wild midnight carousals. He would ramble in the mall and in the parks, and feed the aquatic birds upon the ponds there, day after day, with all the interest and pleasure of a truant schoolboy. He roamed about thus in the most free and careless manner, and accosted people far beneath him in rank in what was considered a undignified way for a king. His brother James, the Duke of York, sometimes remonstrated with him on this subject. James was, of course, so long as the queen, Charles's lawful wife, had no children, the next heir to the crown. He spent most of his life in the court of his brother, and they were generally very warm friends to each other. On one of Charles's frolicking excursions, when he was away far from his palace, without any suitable attendants or guards, James told him that he really thought his life was not safe in such exposures. Charles replied by telling James not to give himself any uneasiness. "You may depend upon it," said he, "that nobody will ever think of killing me to make you king." The king was not unwilling, too, to take, himself, such jests as he gave. One day, in conversation with a dissolute member of the court, after they had been joking each other for some time, he said, "Ah! Shaftesbury, I verily believe you are the wickedest dog in my dominions." "Yes," replied Shaftesbury, "for a subject, I think I am." There was a mischievous and unmanageable goat in one of the palace courtyards, whose name was Old Rowley, and the courtiers considered the beast as affording so just an emblem of the character of the king, that they gave the king his name. Charles, instead of resenting it, entered into the jest; and one day, as he was going into the apartment of some of the ladies, be heard them singing a song, in which he figured ridiculously as the goat. He knocked at the door. They asked who was there. "Only Old Rowley," said the king. The king's repartees were some of them really good, and he obtained in his day the reputation of being quite a wit, while yet all his actions, and the whole of his management of his affairs, were so utterly unwise and so wholly unworthy of his station, that every one was struck with the contrast. One of the wits of his court one day wrote an epitaph for him, over his door, as follows: "Here lies our sovereign lord the king, Whose word no man relies on, Who never said a foolish thing, And never did a wise one." When the king came and saw this inscription, he stopped to read it, and said, "Yes, that is very true; and the reason is, my doings are those of my ministers, while my sayings are my own." Charles had, in fact, very little to do with the public affairs of his kingdom. He liked to build palaces and ships, and he expended vast sums, not very judiciously, on these plans. Sir Christopher Wren, the famous architect, planned one of these palaces, and Charles, when he went to see it, complained that the rooms were too small. Sir Christopher walked about with a self-important air, looking up at the ceiling, and said that he thought they were high enough. Sir Christopher was very small in stature. Charles accordingly squatted down as well as he could, to get his head in as low a position as the architect's, and walked about the room in that ridiculous attitude, looking up in mimicry of Sir Christopher's manner, and then said, "Oh, yes, now I think they are high enough." These building plans, and other similar undertakings, together with the vast amounts which the king lavished upon his numerous female favorites, exhausted his resources, and kept him in continual straits for money. He was always urging Parliament to make new grants, and to lay more taxes, until, as he said himself, he was ashamed to look his Parliament in the face, he was so continually begging them for supplies. The people caricatured him by the representation of a poverty stricken man, with his pockets turned inside out, and begging money. At another time the caricature took the form of a man led along against his will by two women, and threatened by a third, wearing all the time a countenance expressive of helplessness and distress. The king bore all these things with the utmost good nature, satisfied, apparently, if he could only enjoy the pleasures of dissipation and vice, and continue, in his palaces, a perpetual round of reckless merriment and fun. Some of the stories which are gravely told by the historians of the day are scarcely credible. For instance, it is said that a thief one day found his way, in the guise of a gentleman, into one of the royal drawing rooms, and contrived to get a gold snuff box out of the pocket of one of the noblemen there. Just as he had successfully accomplished his object, unobserved, as he supposed, he looked up, and saw the king's eyes fastened upon him. Knowing his majesty's character, the thief had the presence of mind to give him a wink, with a sly gesture enjoining secrecy. The king nodded assent, and the thief went away with his prize. When the nobleman missed his snuff box, the king amused himself some time with his perplexity and surprise, and then told him that it was of no use for him to search for his snuff box, for a thief had gone off with it half an hour ago. "I saw him," said the king, with a countenance full of fun, "but I could not do any thing. The rascal made me his confidant, and, of course, you know, I could not betray him." Under the government of such a sovereign, it could not be expected that the public affairs of the realm would have gone on very prosperously. Still, however, they might have been conducted with ordinary success by his ministers, and perhaps they were, in fact, managed as well as was usual with the governments of Europe in those days. It happened, however, that three great public calamities occurred, all of a most marked and signal character, which were, perhaps, not owing at all to causes for which Charles was responsible, but which have nevertheless connected such associations in men's minds with this unfortunate reign, as that Englishmen have since looked back upon it with very little pleasure. These three calamities were the plague, the fire, and the Dutch invasion. There have been a great many seasons of plague in London, all inconceivably dreadful; but as King Charles's fire was first among conflagrations, so his plague was the greatest pestilence that ever ravaged the city. London was, in those days, in a condition which exactly adapted it to be the easy prey of pestilence, famine, and fire. The people were crowded together in vast masses, with no comforts, no cleanliness, no proper organization. The enormous vegetable and animal accumulations of such a multitude, living more like brutes than men, produced a continual miasma, which prepared the constitutions of thousands for any infection which might chance to light among them. Pestilence is, in fact, the rude and dreadful remedy which nature provides for the human misery which man himself can not or will not cure. When the dictates of reason and conscience are neglected or disobeyed, and the ills which they might have averted sink the social state into a condition of degradation and wretchedness so great that the denser accumulations of the people become vast and corrupted swarms of vermin instead of organized communities of men, then plague and fever come in as the last resort—half remedy, half retribution—devised by that mysterious principle which struggles perpetually for the preservation of the human race, to thin off the excessive accumulation by destroying a portion of the surplus in so frightful a way as to drive away the rest in terror. The great plague of London took place in 1665, one year before the fire. The awful scenes which the whole city presented, no pen can describe. A hundred thousand persons are said to have died. The houses where cases of the plague existed were marked with a red cross and shut up, the inmates being all fastened in, to live or die, at the mercy of the infection. Every day carts rolled through the otherwise silent and desolate streets, men accompanying them to gather up with pitchforks the dead bodies which had been dragged out from the dwellings, and crying "Bring out your dead" as they went along.* Thousands went mad with their uncontrollable terror, and roamed about the streets in raving delirium, killing themselves, and mothers killing their children, in an insane and frenzied idea of escaping by that means, somehow or other, from the dreadful destroyer. [* Footnote: Sometimes the living were pitched into the cart by mistake instead of the dead. There is a piece of sculpture in the Tottenham Court road in London intended to commemorate the following case. A Scotch piper, who had been wandering in homeless misery about the streets, with nothing but his bagpipes and his dog, got intoxicated at last, as such men always do, if they can, in times of such extreme and awful danger, and laid down upon the steps of a public building and went to sleep. The cart came along in the night, by torchlight, and one of the men who attended it, inserting the point of his fork under the poor vagabond's belt, tossed him into the cart, bagpipes and all. The dog did all he could to defend his master, but in vain. The cart went thundering on, the men walking along by its side, examining the ways for new additions to their load. The piper, half awakened by the shock of his precipitation into the cart, and aroused still more by the joltings of the road, sat up, attempted in vain to rally his bewildered faculties, looked about him, wondering where he was, and then instinctively began to play. The men, astonished and terrified at such sounds from a cart loaded with the dead, fled in all directions, leaving the cart in the middle of the street alone. What a mysterious and inconsistent principle is fear. Here are men braving, unconcerned and at their ease, the most absolutely appalling of all possible human dangers, and yet terrified out of their senses at an unexpected sound.] Every body whose reason remained to them avoided all possible contact or communication with others. Even in the country, in the exchange of commodities, a thousand contrivances were resorted to, to avoid all personal connection. In one place there was a stone, where those who had any thing to sell placed their goods and then retreated, while he who wished to buy came up, and, depositing his money on the stone in the place of the merchandise, took what he had thus bought away. The Broadstone. The great fire took place in 1666, about a year after the plague, and burned a very large part of London. It commenced accidentally in a baker's shop, where a great store of fagots had been collected, and spread so rapidly among the buildings which surrounded the spot that it was soon entirely beyond control. The city of London was then composed of an immense mass of mean buildings, crowded densely together, with very narrow streets intervening, and the wind carried the flames, with inconceivable rapidity, far and wide. The people seemed struck universally with a sense of terror and despair, and nothing was to be heard but shrieks, outcries, and wild lamentations. The sky was one vast lurid canopy, like molten brass, day and night, for four days, while the whole city presented a scene of indescribable and awful din; the cracking and thundering of the flames, the frenzied screams of the women and children, the terrific falling of spires, towers, walls, and lofty battlements, the frightful explosions of the houses, blown up by gunpowder in the vain hope of stopping the progress of the flames, all formed a scene of grandeur so terrific and dreadful, that they who witnessed the spectacle were haunted by the recollection of it long afterward, as by a frightful dream. A tall monument was built upon the spot where the baker's shop stood, to commemorate the calamity. The fire held, in fact, in the estimation of mankind, the rank of the greatest and most terrible of all conflagrations, until the burning of Moscow, in the time of Napoleon, in some degree eclipsed its fame. The Monument. The Dutch invasion was the third great calamity which signalized King Charles's unfortunate reign. The ships of the enemy came up the Thames and the Medway, which is a branch of the Thames; they took possession of a fort at Sheerness, near the mouth of the river, and, after seizing all the military stores, which had been collected there to an enormous amount, they set fire to the powder magazine, and blew up the whole fortress with a terrific explosion. The way was now open to them to London, unless the English could contrive some way to arrest their progress. They attempted to do this by sinking some ships in the river, and drawing a strong chain across from one sunken vessel to the other, and fastening the ends to the shores. The Dutch, however, broke through this obstruction. They seized an opportunity when the tide was setting strongly up the river, and a fresh wind was blowing; their ships, impelled thus by a double force, broke through the chains, passed safely between the sunken ships, and came on in triumph up the river, throwing the city of London into universal consternation. There were several English ships of war, and several Dutch ships, which had been captured and brought up the Thames as prizes, lying in the river; these vessels were all seized by the Dutch, and burned; one of the English ships which they thus destroyed was called the Royal Oak. Of course, there was now a universal scene of confusion and terror in London. Every body laid the blame of the calamity upon the king; the money which he had received for building ships, and other national defenses, he had squandered, they said, upon his guilty pleasures; then the war, which had resulted in this invasion, was caused by the political mismanagement of his reign. While the people, however, thus loudly condemned the conduct of their monarch, they went energetically at work to arrest the progress of their invaders; they sunk other ships in greater numbers, and built platforms, on which they raised batteries of cannon. At length the further progress of the enemy was stopped, and the ships were finally compelled to retire. Among the other events which occurred during the reign of King Charles the Second, and which tended to connect unfavorable associations with the recollection of it in the minds of men, was a very extraordinary affair, which is known in history by the name of Titus Oates's Popish Plot. It was the story of a plot, said to have been formed by the Catholics, to put King Charles to death, and place his brother James, who, it will be recollected, was a Catholic, upon the throne in his stead. The story of this plot was told by a man named Titus Oates, and as it was at first generally believed, it occasioned infinite trouble and difficulty. In after times, however, the whole story came to be regarded as the fabrication of Oates, without there being any foundation for it whatever; hence the name of Titus Oates's Popish Plot, by which the affair has always since been designated in history. The circumstances were these: Among his other various accomplishments, King Charles was quite a chemist and philosopher. He had a laboratory where he amused himself with experiments, having, of course, several persons associated with him, and attendant upon him in these researches. Among these was a man named Kirby. Mr. Kirby was an intelligent man, of agreeable manners, and of considerable scientific attainments. Charles devoted, at some periods of his life, a considerable portion of his time to these researches in experimental philosophy, and he took, likewise, an interest in facilitating the progress of others in the same pursuits. There was a small society of philosophers that was accustomed to meet sometimes in Oxford and sometimes in London. The object of this society was to provide apparatus and other facilities for making experiments, and to communicate to each other at their meetings the result of their investigations. The king took this society under his patronage, and made it, as it were, his own. He gave it the name of THE ROYAL SOCIETY, and granted it a charter, by which it was incorporated as a permanent organization, with the most ample powers. This association has since become one of the most celebrated learned societies in the world, and its establishment is one of the very few transactions of King Charles's reign which have been since remembered with pleasure. But to return to Mr. Kirby. One day, when the king was walking in the park with a party of companions and attendants, who were separated more or less from him, as was usual on such occasions, Mr. Kirby came up to him, and, with a mysterious and earnest air, begged the king not to allow himself to be separated from the company, for his life, he said, was in danger. "Keep with your company, sir," said he, "your enemies have a design upon your life. You may be suddenly shot on this very walk." Charles was not easily frightened, and he received this announcement with great composure. He asked an explanation, however, and Mr. Kirby informed him that a plot had been formed by the Catholics to destroy him; that two men had been engaged to shoot him; and, to make the result doubly sure, another arrangement had been made to poison him. The queen's physician was the person, he said, who was charged with this latter design. Mr. Kirby said, moreover, that there was a clergyman, Dr. Tong, who was fully acquainted with all the particulars of the plot, and that, if the king would grant him an interview that evening, he would make them all known. The king agreed to this, and in the evening Dr. Tong was introduced. He had a budget of papers which he began to open and read, but Charles had not patience to hear them; his mind was full of a plan which he was contemplating of going to Windsor the next day, to look at some new decorations which he had ordered for several of the apartments of the palace. He did not believe in the existence of any plot. It is true that plots and conspiracies were very common in those days, but false rumors and unfounded tales of plots were more common still. There was so much excitement in the minds of the community on the subject of the Catholic and Protestant faith, and such vastly extended interests depended on whether the sovereign belonged to one side or the other on this question, that every thing relating to the subject was invested with a mysterious awe, and the most wonderful stories were readily circulated and believed. The public mind was always particularly sensitive and excitable in such a case as that of Charles and his brother James at the time of which we are writing, where the reigning monarch, Charles, was of one religious faith, and his brother James, the next heir, was of the other. The death of Charles, which might at any time take place, would naturally lead to a religious revolution, and this kept the whole community in an exceedingly excitable and feverish state. There was a great temptation to form plots on the one hand, and a great eagerness to discover them on the other; and any man who could tell a story of treasonable schemes, whether his tale was true or fabricated, became immediately a personage of great importance. Charles was well aware of these things, and was accordingly disposed to pay very little attention to Dr. Tong's papers. He said he had no time to look into them, and so he referred the whole case to the Lord Treasurer Danby, an officer of his court, whom he requested to examine into the affair. Dr. Tong, therefore, laid his papers before Danby, while the king went off the next day to Windsor to examine the new fresco paintings and the other decorations of the palace. Danby was disposed to regard the story in a very different light from that in which it had appeared to the king. It is said that there were some charges about to be brought forward against himself for certain malpractices in his office, and that he was very much pleased, accordingly, at the prospect of having something come up to attract public attention, and turn it away from his own misdemeanors. He listened, therefore, with great interest to Dr. Tong's account of the plot, and made many minute and careful inquiries. Dr. Tong informed him that he had himself no personal knowledge of the conspiracy; that the papers, which contained all the information that he was possessed of, had been thrown into the hall of his house from the front door, and that he did not certainly know by whom, though he suspected, he said, one Titus Oates, who had formerly been a Catholic priest, and was still so far connected with the Catholics as to have very favorable opportunities to become acquainted with their designs. Soon after this Dr. Tong had another interview with the lord treasurer, and informed him that his surmise had proved true; that it was Titus Oates who had drawn up the papers, and that he was informed in regard to all the particulars of the plot, but that he did not dare to do any thing openly in revealing them, for fear that the conspirators would kill him. The lord treasurer communicated the result of his inquiries to the king, and urged the affair upon his attention as one of the utmost possible importance. The king himself, however, was very skeptical on the subject. He laughed at the lord treasurer's earnestness and anxiety. The lord treasurer wished to have a meeting of the council called, that the case might be laid before them, but Charles refused. Nobody should know any thing about it, he said, not even his brother. It would only create excitement and alarm, and perhaps put it into somebody's head to murder him, though nobody at present had any such design. But, notwithstanding the king's determination not to give publicity to the story of the plot, rumors of it gradually transpired, and began to excite attention. The fact that such stories were in circulation soon came to the knowledge of the Duke of York, and, of course, immediately arrested his earnest attention. As he was himself a Catholic, and the heir to the crown, any suspicion of a Catholic plot formed to dethrone his brother necessarily implicated him. He demanded an examination into the case. In a short time, vague but exaggerated rumors on the subject began to circulate through the community at large, which awakened, of course, a very general anxiety and alarm. So great was the virulence of both political and religious animosities in those days, that no one knew to what scenes of persecution or of massacre such secret conspiracies might tend Oates, whose only object was to bring himself into notice, and to obtain rewards for making known the plot which he had pretended to discover, now found, to his great satisfaction, that the fire which he had kindled was beginning to burn. The meeting of the council was called, and he was summoned to attend it. Before the time arrived, however, he went to a justice of the peace, and laid the evidence before him of the existence of the conspiracy, and of all the details respecting it which he pretended to have discovered. The name of this justice was Sir Edmondsbury Godfrey. A remarkable circumstance afterward occurred in respect to him, as will presently be related, which greatly increased and extended the popular excitement in relation to the pretended plot. The plot, as Oates invented and detailed it, was on the most magnificent scale imaginable. The pope himself was at the head of it. The pope, he said, had laid the subject before a society of learned theologians at Rome, and they had decided that in such a case as that of England, where the sovereign and a majority of the people had renounced the true religion, and given themselves up to avowed and open heresy, the monarch lost all title to his crown, and the realms thus fallen from the faith lapsed to the pope, and were to be reclaimed by him by any mode which it seemed to him expedient to adopt. Under these circumstances, the pope had assumed the sovereignty over England, and had commissioned the society of the Jesuits—a very powerful religious society, extending over most of the countries of Europe—to take possession of the realm; that, in the prosecution of this plan, the king was to be assassinated, and that a very large sum of money had been raised and set apart, to be paid to any person who would kill the king; that an offer of ten thousand pounds had been made to the queen's physician if he would poison him. The physician had insisted upon fifteen thousand for so great a service, and this demand had finally been acceded to; and five thousand had actually been paid him in advance. Besides the murder of the king, a general assassination of the Protestants was to take place. There were twenty thousand Catholics in London, for instance, who, according to Oates's account of the plan, were to rise on a preconcerted night, and each one was to kill five Protestants, which it was thought they could easily do, as the Protestants would be taken wholly by surprise, and would be unarmed. The revolution being thus effected, the crown was to be offered to Charles's brother, the Duke of York, as a gift from the pope, and, if he should refuse to accept it on such conditions as the pope might see fit to impose, he was himself to be immediately assassinated, and some other disposal to be made of the kingdom. Oates was examined before the council very closely, and he contradicted himself so much, and made so many misstatements about absent persons, and the places where he pretended that certain transactions had taken place, as to prove the falseness of his whole story. The public, however, knew little or thought little of these proofs. They hated the Catholics, and were eager to believe and to circulate any thing which tended to excite the public mind against them. The most extravagant stories were accordingly circulated, and most excessive and universal fears prevailed, increasing continually by the influence of mutual action and reaction, and of sympathy, until the whole country was in a state of terror. A circumstance now occurred which added tenfold to the excitement, and produced, in fact, a general consternation. This circumstance was the sudden and mysterious death of Sir Edmondsbury Godfrey, the justice who had taken the depositions of Oates in respect to the conspiracy. He had been missing for several days, and at length his body was found in a trench, by the side of a field, in a solitary place not far from London. His own sword had been run into his body, and was remaining in the wound. His watch and his money were safe in his pocket, showing that he had not been killed by robbers. This event added greatly to the excitement that prevailed. The story was circulated that he had been killed by the Catholics for having aided in publishing the discovery of their plot. They who wished to believe Oates's story found in the justice's death most ample confirmation of it. The body was brought forward and exhibited to the public gaze in a grand procession, which moved through the streets of London; and at the funeral guards were stationed, one on each side of the preacher, while he was delivering the funeral discourse, to impress the people with a sense of the desperate recklessness of Catholic hate, by the implication that even a minister of the Gospel, in the exercise of the most solemn of his functions, was not safe without an effectual guard. From this time the excitement and commotion went on increasing at a very rapid rate. Oates himself, of course, became immediately a man of great importance; and to maintain himself in his new position, he invented continually new stories, each more terrible than the preceding. New informers, too, began to appear, confirming Oates's statements, and adding new details of their own, that they might share his distinctions and rewards. These men became continually more and more bold, in proportion to the increasing readiness of the people to receive their inventions for truths. They accused persons of higher and higher rank, until at last they dared to implicate the queen herself in their charges. They knew that, as she was a Catholic, she was unpopular with the nation at large, and as Charles had so many other lady favorites, they concluded that he would feel no interest in vindicating her from false aspersions. They accordingly brought forward accusations against the queen of having joined in the conspiracy, of having been privy to the plan of murdering the king, and of having actually arranged and directed the assassination of the justice, Sir Edmondsbury. These charges produced, of course, great excitement. The people of the country were generally predisposed to believe them true. There were various investigations of them, and long protracted examinations of the witnesses before the council and before judicial commissions appointed to inquire into and decide upon the case. These inquisitions led to debates and disputes, to criminations and recriminations without number, and they threw the whole court and the whole nation into a state of extreme excitement, some taking sides against, and some in favor of the queen. Although the popular sentiment was against her, every fair and candid mind, that attended carefully to the evidence, decided unhesitatingly in her favor. The stories of the witnesses were utterly inconsistent with each other, and in many of their details impossible. Still, so great was the public credulity, and so eager the desire to believe every thing, however absurd, which would arouse and strengthen the anti-Catholic feeling, that the queen found herself soon the object of extreme and universal odium. The king, however, much to his credit, refused all belief of these accusations against Catharine, and strongly defended her cause. He took care to have the witnesses cross examined, and to have the inconsistencies in their testimony, and the utter impossibility that their statements could be true, pointed out. He believed, he said, that she was entirely innocent, and that the whole plan was a conspiracy to effect her destruction. "They think, I suppose," said the king, "that I should like a new wife, but I will not suffer an innocent woman to be wronged." He also told one of the ministers of state, in speaking of the subject, that, considering how hardly he had treated his wife, and how much reason she had for just complaints against him, it would be an atrocious thing for him to abandon her in such an extremity. A volume might be filled with stories of the strange and exciting incidents that grew out of this pretended popish plot. Its consequences extended disastrously through many years, and involved a vast number of innocent persons in irretrievable ruin. The true character of Oates and his accomplices was, however, at length fully proved, and they themselves suffered the fate at last which they had brought upon others. The whole affair was a disgrace to the age. There is no circumstance connected with it which can be looked upon with any pleasure except King Charles's fidelity to his injured wife in refusing to abandon her, though he no longer loved her. His defense of her innocence, involving, as it did, a continuance of the matrimonial tie, which bound them together when all the world supposed that he wished it sundered, seems to have resulted from a conscientious sense of duty, and implies certain latent traits of generosity and nobleness in Charles's character, which, though ordinarily overpowered and nullified by the influences of folly and vice, still always seem to have maintained their hold, and to come out to view from time to time, in the course of the gay monarch's life, whenever any emergency occurred sufficient to call them into action. The reign of King Charles the Second was signalized by many other untoward and disastrous events besides those which we have enumerated. There were unfortunate wars, great defeats in naval battles, unlucky negotiations abroad, and plots and conspiracies, dangerous and disgraceful, at home. The king, however, took all these things very good naturedly, and allowed them to interfere very little with his own personal pleasures. Whatever troubles or embarrassments affected the state, he left the anxiety and care which pertained to them to his ministers and his council, banishing all solicitude from his own mind, and enjoying himself all the time with his experiments, his ladies, his dogs, and his perpetual fun. XII. — THE CONCLUSION Time rolled on, and the gay and pleasure-loving king passed through one decade after another of his career, until at length he came to be over fifty years of age. His health was firm, and his mental powers vigorous. He looked forward to many years of strength and activity yet to come, and thus, though he had passed the meridian of his life, he made no preparations to change the pursuits and habits in which he had indulged himself in his early years. He died suddenly at last, at the age of fifty-four. His death was almost as sudden as that of his father, though in a widely different way. The circumstances of his last sickness have strongly attracted the attention of mankind, on account of the manner in which the dying king was affected, at last, by remorse at the recollection of his life of reckless pleasure and sin, and of the acts to which this remorse led him upon his dying bed. The vices and crimes of monarchs, like those of other men, may be distinguished into two great types, characterized by the feelings of heart in which they take their origin. Some of these crimes arise from the malignant passions of the soul, others from the irregular and perverted action of the feelings of kindness and affection. The errors and follies of Charles, ending at last, as they did, in the most atrocious sins, were of the latter class. It was in feelings of kindness and good will toward friends of his own sex that originated that spirit of favoritism, so unworthy of a monarch, which he so often evinced; and even his irregular and unhallowed attachments of another kind seem to have been not wholly selfish and sensual. The course of conduct which he pursued through the whole course of his life toward his female companions, evinced, in many instances, a sincere attachment to them, and an honest desire to promote their welfare; and in all the wild recklessness of his life of pleasure and vice, there was seen coming out continually into view the influence of some conscientious sense of duty, and of a desire to promote the happiness of those around him, and to do justice to all. These principle were, indeed, too feeble to withstand the temptations by which they were assailed on every side; still, they did not cease to exist, and occasions were continually occurring when they succeeded in making their persuasions heard. In a word, King Charles's errors and sins, atrocious and inexcusable as they were, sprang from ill-regulated and perverted feelings of love and good will, and not from selfishness and hate; from the kindly, and not from the malignant propensities of the soul. It is very doubtful whether this is really any palliation of them, but, at any rate, mankind generally regard it so, judging very leniently, as they always do, the sins and crimes which have such an origin. It is probable that Charles derived whatever moral principle and sensitiveness of conscience that he possessed from the influence of his mother in his early years. She was a faithful and devoted Catholic; she honestly and firmly believed that the rites and usages of the Catholic Church were divinely ordained, and that a careful and honest conformity to them was the only way to please God and to prepare for heaven. She did all in her power to bring up her children in this faith, and in the high moral and religious principles of conduct which were, in her mind, indissolubly connected with it. She derived this spirit, in her turn, from hermother, Mary de Medici, who was one of the most extraordinary characters of ancient or modern times. When Henrietta Maria was married to Charles I. and went to England, this Mary de Medici, her mother, wrote her a letter of counsel and of farewell, which we recommend to our readers' careful perusal. It is true, we go back to the third generation from the hero of this story to reach the document, but it illustrates so well the manner in which maternal influence passes down from age to age, and throws so much light on the strange scenes which occurred at Charles's death, and is, moreover, so intrinsically excellent, that it well merits the digression. The queen-mother, Mary de Medici, to the young Queen of England, Henrietta Maria. 1625, June 25. MY DAUGHTER,—You separate from me, I can not separate myself from you. I retain you in heart and memory and would that this paper could serve for an eternal memorial to you of what I am; it would then supply my place, and speak for me to you, when I can no longer speak for myself. I give you it with my last adieu in quitting you, to impress it the more on your mind, and give it to you written with my own hand, in order that it may be the more dear to you, and that it may have more authority with you in all that regards your conduct toward God, the king your husband, his subjects, your domestics, and yourself. I tell you here sincerely, as in the last hour of our converse, all I should say to you in the last hour of my existence, if you should be near me then. I consider, to my great regret, that such can never be, and that the separation now taking place between you and me for a long time, is too probably an anticipation of that which is to be forever in this world. On this earth you have only God for a father; but, as he is eternal, you can never lose him. It is he who sustains your existence and life; it is he who has given you to a great king; it is he who, at this time, places a crown on your brow, and will establish you in England, where you ought to believe that he requires your service, and there he means to effect your salvation. Remember, my child, every day of your life, that he is your God, who has put you on earth intending you for heaven, who has created you for himself and for his glory. The late king, your father, has already passed away; there remains no more of him but a little dust and ashes, hidden from our eyes. One of your brothers has already been taken from us even in his infancy; God withdrew him at his own good pleasure. He has retained you in the world in order to load you with his benefits; but, as he has given you the utmost felicity, it behooves you to render him the utmost gratitude. It is but just that your duties are augmented in proportion as the benefits and favors you receive are signal. Take heed of abusing them. Think well that the grandeur, goodness, and justice of God are infinite, and employ all the strength of your mind in adoring his supreme puissance, in loving his inviolable goodness; and fear his rigorous equity, which will make all responsible who are unworthy of his benefits. Receive, my child, these instructions of my lips; begin and finish every day in your oratory,* with good thoughts and, in your prayers, ask resolution to conduct your life according to the laws of God, and not according to the vanities of this world, which is for all of us but a moment, in which we are suspended over eternity, which we shall pass either in the paradise of God, or in hell with the malign spirits who work evil. [* Footnote: An oratory is a little closet furnished appropriately for prayer and other exercises of devotion.] Remember that you are daughter of the Church by baptism, and that this is, indeed, the first and highest rank which you have or ever will have, since it is this which will give you entrance into heaven; your other dignities, coming as they do from the earth, will not go further than the earth; but those which you derive from heaven will ascend again to their source, and carry you with them there. Render thanks to heaven each day, to God who has made you a Christian; estimate this first of benefits as it deserves, and consider all that you owe to the labors and precious blood of Jesus our Savior; it ought to be paid for by our sufferings, and even by our blood, if he requires it. Offer your soul and your life to him who has created you by his puissance, and redeemed you by his goodness and mercy. Pray to him, and pray incessantly to preserve you by the inestimable gift of his grace, and that it may please him that you sooner lose your life than renounce him. You are the descendant of St. Louis. I would recall to you, in this my last adieu, the same instruction that he received from his mother, Queen Blanche, who said to him often 'that she would rather see him die than to live so as to offend God, in whom we move, and who is the end of our being'. It was with such precepts that he commenced his holy career; it was this that rendered him worthy of employing his life and reign for the good of the faith and the exaltation of the Church. Be, after his example, firm and zealous for religion, which you have been taught, for the defense of which he, your royal and holy ancestor, exposed his life, and died faithful to him among the infidels. Never listen to, or suffer to be said in your presence, aught in contradiction to your belief in God and his only Son, your Lord and Redeemer. I entreat the Holy Virgin, whose name you bear, to deign to be the mother of your soul, and in honor of her who is mother of our Lord and Savior, I bid you adieu again and many times. I now devote you to God forever and ever; it is what I desire for you from the very depth of my heart. Your very good and affectionate mother, MARIA. From Amiens, the 10th of June, 1625. The devout sense of responsibility to Almighty God, and the spirit of submission and obedience to his will, which this letter breathes, descended from the grandmother to the mother, and were even instilled, in some degree, into the heart of the son. They remained, however, latent and dormant through the long years of the monarch's life of frivolity and sin, but they revived and reasserted their dominion when the end came. The dying scene opened upon the king's vision in a very abrupt and sudden manner. He had been somewhat unwell during a certain day in February, when he was about fifty-four years of age. His illness, however, did not interrupt the ordinary orgies and carousals of his palace. It was Sunday. In the evening a very gay assembly was convened in the apartments, engaged in deep gaming, and other dissolute and vicious pleasures. The king mingled in these scenes, though he complained of being unwell. His head was giddy—his appetite was gone—his walk was unsteady. When the party broke up at midnight, he went into one of the neighboring apartments, and they prepared for him some light and simple food suitable for a sick man, but he could not take it. He retired to his bed, but he passed a restless and uneasy night. He arose, however, the next morning, and attempted to dress himself, but before he finished the work he was suddenly struck by that grim and terrible messenger and coadjutor of death—apoplexy—as by a blow. Stunned by the stroke, he staggered and fell. The dreadful paroxysm of insensibility and seeming death in a case of apoplexy is supposed to be occasioned by a pressure of blood upon the brain, and the remedy, according to the practice of those days, was to bleed the patient immediately to relieve this pressure, and to blister or cauterize the head, to excite a high external action as a means of subduing the disease within. It was the law of England that such violent remedies could not be resorted to in the case of the sovereign without authority previously obtained from the council. They were guilty of high treason who should presume to do so. This was a case, however, which admitted of no delay. The attendants put their own lives at hazard to serve that of the king. They bled him with a penknife, and heated the iron for the cautery. The alarm was spread throughout the palace, producing universal confusion. The queen was summoned, and came as soon as possible to the scene. She found her husband sitting senseless in a chair, a basin of blood by his side, his countenance death-like and ghastly, while some of the attendants were attempting to force the locked jaws apart, that they might administer a potion, and others were applying a red hot iron to the patient's head, in a desperate endeavor to arouse and bring back again into action the benumbed and stupefied sensibilities. Queen Catharine was so shocked by the horrid spectacle that she sank down in a fit of fainting and convulsions, and was borne immediately away back to her own apartment. In two hours the patient's suspended faculties began to return. He looked wildly about him, and asked for the queen. They sent for her. She was not able to come. She was, however, so far restored as to be able to send a message and an apology, saying that she was very glad to hear that he was better, and was much concerned that she could not come to see him; she also added, that for whatever she had done in the course of her life to displease him, she now asked his pardon, and hoped he would forgive her. The attendants communicated this message to the king. "Poor lady!" said Charles, "she beg my pardon! I am sure I beg hers, with all my heart." Apoplexy fulfills the dread behest of its terrible master Death by dealing its blow once with a fatal energy, and then retiring from the field, leaving the stunned and senseless patient to recover in some degree from the first effect of the stroke, but only to sink down and die at last under the permanent and irretrievable injuries which almost invariably follow. Things took this course in the case of Charles. He revived from the stupor and insensibility of the first attack, and lay afterward for several days upon his bed, wandering in mind, helpless in body, full of restlessness and pain, and yet conscious of his condition. He saw, dimly and obscurely indeed, but yet with awful certainty, that his ties to earth had been suddenly sundered, and that there only remained to him now a brief and troubled interval of mental bewilderment and bodily distress, to last for a few more hours or days, and then he must appear before that dread tribunal where his last account was to be rendered; and the vast work of preparation for the solemn judgment was yet to be made. How was this to be done? Of course, the great palace of Whitehall, where the royal patient was lying, was all in confusion. Attendants were hurrying to and fro. Councils of physicians were deliberating in solemn assemblies on the case, and ordaining prescriptions with the formality which royal etiquette required. The courtiers were thunderstruck and confounded at the prospect of the total revolution which was about to ensue, and in which all their hopes and prospects might be totally ruined. James, the Duke of York, seeing himself about to be suddenly summoned to the throne, was full of eager interest in the preliminary arrangements to secure his safe and ready accession. He was engaged night and day in selecting officers, signing documents, and stationing guards. Catharine mourned in her own sick chamber the approaching blow, which was to separate her forever from her husband, deprive her of her consequence and her rank, and consign her, for the rest of her days to the pains and sorrows, and the dreadful solitude of heart which pertains to widowhood. The king's other female intimates, too, of whom there were three still remaining in his court and in his palace, were distracted with real grief. They may have loved him sincerely; they certainly gave every indication of true affection for him in this his hour of extremity. They could not appear at his bedside except at sudden and stolen interviews, which were quickly terminated by their being required to withdraw; but they hovered near with anxious inquiries, or else mourned in their apartments with bitter grief. Without the palace the effects were scarcely less decisive. The tidings spread every where throughout the kingdom, arresting universal attention, and awakening an anxiety so widely diffused and so intense as almost to amount to a terror. A Catholic monarch was about to ascend the throne, and no one knew what national calamities were impending. In the mean time, the dying monarch lay helpless upon his bed, in the alcove of his apartment, distressed and wretched. To look back upon the past filled him with remorse, and the dread futurity, now close at hand, was full of images of terror and dismay. He thought of his wife, and of the now utterly irreparable injuries which he had done her. He thought of his other intimates and their numerous children, and of the condition in which they would be left by his death. If he had been more entirely sensual and selfish in his attachments, he would have suffered less; but he could not dismiss these now wretched participators in his sins from his mind. He could do very little now to promote their future welfare, or to atone for the injury which he had done them; but his anxiety to do so, as well as his utter helplessness in accomplishing his desire, was evinced by his saying, in his last charge to his brother James, just before he died, that he hoped he would be kind to his children, and especially not let poor Nelly* starve. [Footnote: Eleanor Gwyn. She was an actress when Charles first became acquainted with her.] Troubled and distressed with these thoughts, and still more anxious and wretched at the prospect of his own approaching summons before the bar of God, the fallen monarch lay upon his dying bed, earnestly desiring, but not daring to ask for, the only possible relief which was now left to him, the privilege of seeking refuge in the religious hopes and consolations which his mother, in years now long gone by, had vainly attempted to teach him to love. The way of salvation through the ministrations and observances of the Catholic service was the only way of salvation that he could possibly see. It is true that he had been all his life a Protestant, but Protestantism was to him only a political faith, it had nothing to do with moral accountability or preparation for heaven. The spiritual views of acceptance with God by simple personal penitence and faith in the atoning sacrifice of his Son, which lie at the foundation of the system of the Church of England, he never conceived of. The Church of England was to him a mere empty form; it was the service of the ancient Catholic faith, disrobed of its sanctions, despoiled of its authority, and deprived of all its spirit and soul. It was the mere idle form of godless and heartless men of the world, empty and vain. It had answered his purpose as a part of the pageantry of state during his life of pomp and pleasure, but it seemed a mockery to him now, as a means of leading his wretched and ruined soul to a reconciliation with his Maker. Every thing that was sincere, and earnest, and truly devout, in the duties of piety were associated in his mind with the memory of his mother; and as death drew nigh, he longed to return to her fold, and to have a priest, who was clothed with the authority to which her spirit had been accustomed to bow, come and be the mediator between himself and his Maker, and secure and confirm the reconciliation. But how could this be done? It was worse than treason to aid or abet the tainting of the soul of an English Protestant king with the abominations of popery. The king knew this very well, and was aware that if he were to make his wishes known, whoever should assist him in attaining the object of his desire would hazard his life by the act. Knowing, too, in what abhorrence the Catholic faith was held, he naturally shrank from avowing his convictions; and thus deterred by the difficulties which surrounded him, he gave himself up to despair, and let the hours move silently on which were drawing him so rapidly toward the grave. There were, among the other attendants and courtiers who crowded around his bedside, several high dignitaries of the Church. At one time five bishops were in his chamber. They proposed repeatedly that the king should partake of the sacrament. This was a customary rite to be performed upon the dying, it being considered the symbol and seal of a final reconciliation with God and preparation for heaven. Whenever the proposal was made, the king declined or evaded it. He said he was "too weak," or "not now," or "there will be time enough yet;" and thus day after day moved on. In the mean time, the anxious and unhappy queen had so far recovered that she came to see the king, and was often at his bedside, watching his symptoms and mourning over his approaching fate. These interviews were, however, all public, for the large apartment in which the king was lying was always full. There were ladies of the court, too, who claimed the privilege which royal etiquette accorded them of always accompanying the queen on these visits to the bedside of her dying husband. She could say nothing in private; and then, besides, her agitation and distress were so extreme, that she was incapable of any thing like calm and considerate action. Among the favorite intimates of the king, perhaps the most prominent was the Duchess of Portsmouth. The king himself had raised her to that rank. She was a French girl, who came over, originally, from the Continent with a party of visitors from the French court. Her beauty, her wit, and her accomplishments soon made her a great favorite with the king, and for many years of his life she had exerted an unbounded and a guilty influence over him. She was a Catholic. Though not allowed to come to his bedside, she remained in her apartment overwhelmed with grief at the approaching death of her lover, and, strange as it may seem, she was earnestly desirous to obtain for him the spiritual succors which, as a Catholic, she considered essential to his dying in peace. After repeated and vain endeavors made in other ways to accomplish her object, she at length sent for the French ambassador to come to her rooms from the king's chamber, and urged him to do something to save the dying sinner's soul. "He is in heart a Catholic," said she. "I am sure he wishes to receive the Catholic sacraments. I can not do any thing, and the Duke of York is so full of business and excitement that he does not think of it. But something must be done." The ambassador went in pursuit of the Duke of York. He took him aside, and with great caution and secrecy suggested the subject. "You are right," said the duke, "and there is no time to lose." The duke went to the king's chamber. The English clergymen had just been offering the king the sacrament once more, and he had declined it again. James asked them to retire from the alcove, as he wished to speak privately to his majesty. They did so, supposing that he wished to communicate with him on some business of state. "Sire," said the duke to his dying brother, "you decline the sacraments of the Protestant Church, will you receive those of the Catholic?" The countenance of the dying man evinced a faint though immediate expression of returning animation and pleasure at this suggestion. "Yes," said he, "I would give every thing in the world to see a priest." "I will bring you one," said James. "Do," said the king, "for God's sake, do; but shall you not expose yourself to danger by it?" "I will bring you one, though it cost me my life," replied the duke. This conversation was held in a whisper, to prevent its being overheard by the various groups in the room. The duke afterward said that he had to repeat his words several times to make the king comprehend them, his sense of hearing having obviously begun to fail. There was great difficulty in procuring a priest. The French and Spanish priests about the court, who were attached to the service of the ambassadors and of the queen, excused themselves on various pretexts. They were, in fact, afraid of the consequences to themselves which might follow from an act so strictly prohibited by law. At last an English priest was found. His name was Huddleston. He had, at one time, concealed the king in his house during his adventures and wanderings after the battle of Worcester. On account of this service, he had been protected by the government of the king, ever since that time, from the pains and penalties which had driven most of the Catholic priests from the kingdom. They sent for Father Huddleston to come to the palace. He arrived about seven o'clock in the evening. They disguised him with a wig and cassock, which was the usual dress of a clergyman of the Church of England. As the illegal ceremony about to be performed required the most absolute secrecy, it became necessary to remove all the company from the room. The duke accordingly informed them that the king wished to be alone for a short period, and he therefore requested that they would withdraw into the ante-room. When they had done so, Father Huddleston was brought in by a little door near the head of the bed, which opened directly into the alcove where the bed was laid. There was a narrow space or alley by the side of the bed, within the alcove, called the ruelle;* with this the private door communicated directly, and the party attending the priest, entering, stationed themselves there, to perform in secrecy and danger the last solemn rites of Catholic preparation for heaven. It was an extraordinary scene; the mighty monarch of a mighty realm, hiding from the vigilance of his own laws, that he might steal an opportunity to escape the consequences of having violated the laws of heaven. [*Footnote: Ruelle is a French word, meaning little street or alley. This way to the bed was the one so often referred to in the histories of those times by the phrase "the back stairs".] They performed over the now helpless monarch the rites which the Catholic Church prescribes for the salvation of the dying sinner. These rites, though empty and unmeaning ceremonies to those who have no religious faith in them, are full of the most profound impressiveness and solemnity for those who have. The priest, having laid aside his Protestant disguise, administered the sacrament of the mass, which was, according to the Catholic views, a true and actual re-enacting of the sacrifice of Christ, to inure to the special benefit of the individual soul for which it was offered. The priest then received the penitent's confession of sin, expressed in a faint and feeble assent to the words of contrition which the Church prescribes, and this was followed by a pardon—a true and actual pardon, as the sinner supposed, granted and declared by a commissioner fully empowered by authority from heaven both to grant and declare it. Then came the "extreme unction", or, in other words, the last anointing, in which a little consecrated oil was touched to the eyelids, the lips, the ears, and the hands, as a symbol and a seal of the final purification and sanctification of the senses, which had been through life the means and instruments of sin. The extreme unction is the last rite. This being performed, the dying Catholic feels that all is well. His sins have been atoned for and forgiven, and he has himself been purified and sanctified, soul and body. The services in Charles's case occupied three quarters of an hour, and then the doors were opened and the attendants and company were admitted again. The night passed on, and though the king's mind was relieved, he suffered much bodily agony. In the morning, when he perceived that it was light, he asked the attendants to open the curtains, that he might see the sun for the last time. It gave him but a momentary pleasure, for he was restless and in great suffering. Some pains which he endured increased so much that it was decided to bleed him. The operation relieved the suffering, but exhausted the sufferer's strength so that he soon lost the power of speech, and lay afterward helpless and almost insensible, longing for the relief which now nothing but death could bring him. This continued till about noon, when he ceased to breathe.	i don't know
Which English football league team are nicknamed The Irons'?	Origins of Nicknames for 20 Premier League Clubs - World Soccer Talk Origins of Nicknames for 20 Premier League Clubs Origins of Nicknames for 20 Premier League Clubs James Beckett November 15, 2010 Leagues: EPL 33 Comments Supporters of Premier League clubs often pride themselves on their nicknames, but do you really know the origin of them? Do you know the origins of the Baggies, Gunners, Red Devils, Toffees, Trotters, Hammers, Lilywhites and Citizens? Let’s take a closer at look some of the interesting stories behind each of Premier League club’s nicknames. Arsenal – The Gunners Like many, Arsenal’s nickname goes right back to when the club was originally founded. Way back in 1886, workers at Woolwich Arsenal Armament Factory decided to form a football club called Dial Square. The club would be renamed as Woolwich Arsenal before dropping the prefix in 1913, but their original connection with the armament industry would remain and the names Gunners is now synonymous with the club. Aston Villa – Villans Not the most fascinating story behind this one. Formed when a local cricket team Villa Cross needed something to occupy themselves during the winter months, the name Villa inevitably evolved to Villans. Blackburn Rovers – Rovers Again not the most imaginable nickname. Rovers is a common team name for a side which is willing to travel distances for victory. Logically fans shortened the clubs name to Rovers. Birmingham City – Blues When the club was formed as Small Heath Alliance they decided the club would play in a dark blue shirt. The club would stick with these colors and the nickname Blues was born. Blackpool – Seasiders/ Tangerines One of several clubs to have multiple nicknames. The term Seasiders relates to the popularity of the town as a tourist resort on the North West coast, while Tangerines relates to the color of the clubs home kit. The club picked up the colors after been impressed when a club official saw a Netherlands side play. Bolton Wanderers – Trotters There are a few reported explanations for this one. One explanation claims that like Rovers, the term Wanderers implies a side is willing to travel great distances for victory. The term Trotters is simply a variation. Another explanation claims that the Trotters nickname originates because people from Bolton have a reputation for being practical jokers. Pranksters are known locally as Trotters. The most bizarre explanation claims that an old ground was built next to a pig farm and stray balls would end up with the pigs. Chelsea – Pensioners The nickname comes from the well known Chelsea Pensioners – war veterans living in a nearby hospital. In 1905 the club adopted the crest of the Chelsea pensioners, and the nickname followed on. Everton – The Toffees The famous nickname comes after a local sweet shop known as Mother Noblett’ sold and advertised the Everton mint. The sweet shop is located opposite Prince Rupert’s Tower, which forms the majority of the Everton crest. Fulham – Cottagers This nickname originates from the famous cottage which is an iconic part of Fulham’s Craven Cottage ground. Liverpool – The Reds Another nickname which doesn’t take two much explanation. When Liverpool adopted the city’s color of red as the color of their strip, the nickname of the Reds simply followed on. Manchester City – Citizens/ The Blues Again not the most fascinating story behind this nickname, the name Citizens has simply evolved from the term City, where as The Blues has obvious connections with the clubs home colors. Manchester United – The Red Devils A few conflicting stories describe the Red Devils nickname. One rumor suggests that during a tour of France in the 1960s the club were branded the Red Devils due to their red kit and Sir Matt Busby liked the name so much he asked for the club to incorporate a devil in the badge. Another story suggests it stems from local rugby Salford. The rugby club were nicknamed the Red Devils and with United formally training in Salford the nickname transferred over. Newcastle United – Magpies / The Toon The name Magpies originates from the clubs iconic black and white striped kit, where as ‘The Toon’ comes from a local pronunciation of town. Stoke City – Potters A fairly straightforward nickname that originates from the large connection with the pottery industry in North Staffordshire. Sunderland – The Black Cats In 1997 when Sunderland moved to the Stadium of Light the clubs supporters were also given the opportunity to vote on the clubs official nickname. With 11,000 votes the club announced their official nickname as ‘The Black Cats’. The historical link with black cats goes way back to the 1800’s with a River Weir artillery base named “Black Cat Battery”. This name reportedly developed after a member of the local militia who was manning the station fled after thinking a black cat was a devil incarnate because of the howling wind and full moon at the time. Fast-track to 1905 and a black cat was pictured sitting on a football next to the club chairman at the time, and three years later a black cat would appear in the clubs team photo. The fans believed that the animal brought them good luck and in 1937 Sunderland fan Billy Morris took a black cat to Wembley in his pocket, Sunderland would win their first FA Cup trophy that year. The connection grew even further in the 1960s when a black cat lived at Sunderland’s Roker Park ground and was cared for by the club. Tottenham Hotspur – Spurs/ Lilywhites Spurs is obviously a shortened version of Hotspur which comes from the clubs connection with Shakespeare character Harry Hotspur. Lilywhites simply comes from the color of Tottenham’s home shirt. West Brom – Baggies One of the most debated nicknames around is West Brom’s. The popular belief is that the name originated from the baggie shorts that the players wore around in the early 1900s. But club historian Toby Matthews claims: “In its early days The Hawthorns had only two entrances, one behind each goal. On match days the gatekeepers would gather up the takings at each end and be escorted by policemen along the sides of the pitch to the centre line where there was a small office under the stand. “The gate money, mostly in pennies, amounted to a considerable sum and was carried in large cloth bags. It wasn’t long before some wag in the crowd started shouting “Here come the bag men!” at their appearance in front of the main stand, and this developed into a chant of “Here come the Baggies,” giving the team its nickname. West Ham – Hammers West Ham’s nickname originates from the Thames Ironwork Football Club, a team from which they developed. The West Ham crest features two crossed rivet hammers and the club has been known has the Hammers ever since Wigan Athletic – Latics Wigan are not on their own with this nickname with League 1 side Oldham Athletic also claiming it. Latics is simply a corruption of the world Athletic. Wolverhampton Wanderers – Wolves Probably the most unimaginative nickname out of the bunch, but the most commonly used. Most football fans will know the Midlands club as Wolves, and there is no prize guessing why!	Scunthorpe United F.C.
Who plays Fred's mother-in-law in the 1994 film The Flintstones'?	Up the Irons - Barack Obama is West Ham fan - Telegraph Up the Irons - Barack Obama is West Ham fan Altogether now, 'I'm forever blowing bubbles' By Vicki Hodges 9:21AM GMT 28 Jan 2008 The key question hagning over Barack Obama's White House credentials has been answered - the Democrat has been revealed to be a West Ham United fan. Football fans' forum As the 46-year-old's campaign to become America's first black president moves into overdrive, Obama has declared his fondness for the Claret and Blues quarter of east London. According to reports, the US senator has been a fan of the Hammers ever since a trip to England five years ago and watches Premier League games whenever his busy schedule allows. Obama's revelation could stir up tensions with Democrat rival Hillary Clinton further as the 60-year-old and her husband Bill are keen Manchester United followers. Mr Obama has joined a host of world figures to nail their colours to the mast by revealing his passion for his adopted club. First there was Osama bin Laden's association with Arsenal, which led to the north Londoners reportedly banning the terrorist from attending any future games. Bin Laden was apparently on the terraces as Arsenal side reached the final of the European Cup Winners Cup in 1994 season. The man behind the Sept 11 attack was rumoured to be so smitten with the Gunners that he bought a replica kit for his eldest son. Her Majesty the Queen also counts herself among the Gunners faithful and has been a following for some 50 years ever since clapping her eyes on former player Denis Compton. The red half of Manchester can also count on support from former South Africa president Nelson Mandela who was handed an 850-page dossier on the club's history on his 89th birthday by Sir Alex Ferguson. Number 10 Downing Street has seen it's fair share of football fanatics - once the removal vans confirmed Margaret Thatcher's departure. John Major was a Chelsea supporter long before Roman Abramovich's riches arrived at Stamford Bridge before Tony Blair arrived waving his Newcastle scarf from the roof tops. And what of the current incumbent, Gordon Brown? The PM has not forgotten his roots and remains dedicated to Scottish outfit Raith Rovers. In fact the former Chancellor made his early pennies by selling programmes for the team in his youth.	i don't know
In which battle did Edward the Black Prince 'win his spurs'?	Edward, the Black Prince - Renowned Military Commander Edward, the Black Prince Edward, the Black Prince Renowned Military Commander Image of Edward, the Black Prince from the Bruges Garter Book, c. 1340. Public Domain; courtesy of Wikimedia This profile of Edward, the Black Prince is part of Who's Who in Medieval History Edward, the Black Prince was also known as: Edward of Woodstock, Prince of Wales, Prince d'Aquitaine, Duke of Cornwall, Earl of Chester Edward, the Black Prince was known for: Scoring several notable victories during the Hundred Years' War. He was the eldest son and heir apparent of King Edward III , but he did not live to become king. Occupations: Victorious at Battle of Crécy: Aug. 26 , 1346 Victorious at Battle of Poitiers: Sept. 19 , 1356 Married Joan Plantagenet: Oct. 10 , 1361 Victorious at Battle of Nájera: April 3 , 1367 Died: June 8 , 1376 About Edward, the Black Prince: In 1337, Edward became the first Duke to be created in England when he was given the title Duke of Cornwall. In his first campaign, at the age of 16, he "won his spurs" at the Battle of Crécy in 1346. continue reading below our video What are the Seven Wonders of the World It was at this time that he acquired the mottoes homout; ich dene ("Courage; I serve"), which have been used by the Princes of Wales ever since. Edward became one of the original Knights of the Garter, and was given an independent command of forces in France in 1355. Edward won his most famous victory at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, where King John II of France was taken captive. He treated his prisoner with undeniable courtesy, but the king still had to pay a ransom of 3 million gold crowns and negotiate the treaties of Brétigny and Calais, through which Aquitaine became English territory. In 1361 Edward married Joan Plantagenet, "The Fair Maid of Kent," his divorced and widowed cousin. In 1362 he was created Prince of Aquitaine, and in 1363 he left England to take up his duties there. His rule in Aquitaine was a failure for several reasons: as a foreign conqueror, he was too extravagant, and he allowed French loyalties to strengthen; his relationships with the bishops of the area were not good, while some of the nobles of the region were downright hostile; and he levied too many taxes. Edward attempted to restore Peter the Cruel of Castile to his throne, and he won a notable victory at the Battle of Nájera. However, the campaign adversely affected his health, he used up a great deal of his treasury, and he suffered setbacks in Aquitaine as a result. In 1368, the nobles of Aquitaine appealed against him to King Charles V of France, who informed Edward that he must answer to the appellants before the parlement of Paris. Edward replied that he would appear with 60,000 men at his back. But, in addition to alienating the French nobility, he had also fared poorly with the townspeople and peasantry in Aquitaine, and a revolt ensued that he was unable to put down. He returned to England and in January, 1371, formally surrendered the principality to his father. At home in England, Edward enjoyed a reputation for chivalry and valor, and he spent some time jousting, falconing, and hunting. He was literate, conventionally religious, generous to his friends, and possessed of artistic sensibilities and an appreciation for fine jewels. In the last year of his life, when he knew he was dying, he may have supported the commons in the Good Parliament of April, 1376 in an attempt to secure the succession for his eldest surviving son, Richard . Edward died that June, and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. There are no known contemporary records for Edward's sobriquet "Black Prince." It is believed to refer to black armor he may have worn, although another theory attributes it to his dark temper. The first recorded use of the nickname is in the 1568 publication, The Chronicle of England by Richard Grafton. More Edward, the Black Prince Resources: Edward, the Black Prince on the Web Edward, the Black Prince in Print The links below will take you to an online bookstore, where you can find more information about the book to help you get it from your local library. This is provided as a convenience to you; neither Melissa Snell nor About is responsible for any purchases you make through these links.	Battle of Crécy
Traditionally how many bells are sounded on board ship to herald in the New Year?	Healing Philosophy: The Black Prince The Black Prince Healinks Where did all the links go? Here . Why? What is Healinks? Healinks is the links page of Healing Philosophy where you will find links to the best philosophy on the web. Go to Healinks The Black Prince As I crossed the street from Leeds Station my eye fell on a striking equestrian statue some distance on the left. I went over to have a look at it. Now I must have crossed that street a dozen times in all my trips to England but never once did I seem to notice this statue, an amazing lack of observation on my part that I cannot explain. It was a statue of the Black Prince, no less. The Black Prince was the son of Edward III, the victor of the Battle of Crécy, where a small English army destroyed a large French one by the use of the medieval equivalent of the tactical nuclear weapon: the longbow. The prince ‘won his spurs’ (became a knight) at the age of 16 at that battle. There is a passage in Froissart that tells us something about the way the prince won his spurs and the sang froid and hard love of Edward III. In the morning, the day of the battle, certain Frenchmen and Germans perforce broke through the archers of the prince’s battalion, and came and fought with the men-of-arms hand to hand. Then the second battalion of the Englishmen came to succour the prince’s battalion, the which was time, for they had then much ado; and those with the prince sent a messenger to the king, who was on the little windmill hill. Then the knight said to the king, “Sir, the Earl of Warwick and the Earl of Stafford, Sir Reginald Cobham, and other such as be about the prince your son, are fiercely fought withal, and are sore handled: wherefore they desire you that you and your battalion will come and aid them, for if the Frenchmen increase, as they doubt they will, your son and they shall have much ado.” Then the king said, “Is my son dead, or hurt, or on the earth felled?” “No, Sir,” said the knight, “but he is hardly matched; wherefore he hath need of your aid.” “Well,” said the king, “return to him and to them that sent you hither, and say to them that they send no more to me, whatever adventure befalleth, as long as my son is alive; and also say to them, that they suffer him this day to win his spurs, for if God be pleased, I will that this day’s work be his, and the honour thereof, and to them that be about him.” Then the knight returned again to them, and showed the king’s words, the which greatly encouraged them; and they repented in that they had sent to the king as they did. Thus the Black Prince won his spurs that day and went on to defeat the French himself at the Battle at Poitiers, fulfilling all his father’s hopes for him. And such was Edward III in a time when a good king could bring glory and prosperity to his people and a bad king utter ruin. Soon the powers of kings would be curtailed by parliament, which is in effect an insurance policy against the consequences of having a bad king. Looking at the economic mess we are in today, some might prefer taking their chances with a king. The Black Prince is buried in Canterbury Cathedral and what seems to be (I have not been there) a magnificent gilded copper effigy rests above his tomb, portraying the prince as the epitome of the chivalric knight. David Green (in his book The Black Prince) notes that the tomb undoubtedly retained an aura many years after the prince’s death, for Shakespeare/De Vere has the archbishop of Canterbury say to Henry V: Look back into your mighty ancestors: Go, my dread lord, to your great-grandsire’s tomb, From whom you claim; invoke his warlike spirit, And your great-uncle’s, Edward the Black Prince, Who on the French ground play’d a tragedy, Making defeat on the full power of France, While his most mighty father on a hill Stood smiling to behold his lion’s whelp Forage in blood of French nobility. Photo of tomb effigy from Wikimedia	i don't know
Which famous Jewish fortress was besieged and captured by the Roman 6th Legion in 73 AD?	Masada \| ancient fortress, Israel \| Britannica.com ancient fortress, Israel 1-13-2010 Alternative Title: H̱orvot Meẕada Masada, Hebrew H̱orvot Meẕada (“Ruins of Masada”), ancient mountaintop fortress in southeastern Israel , site of the Jews’ last stand against the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 ce. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2001. Aerial view of the ruins at Masada, Israel. © Richard T. Nowitz Masada occupies the entire top of an isolated mesa near the southwest coast of the Dead Sea . The rhomboid-shaped mountain towers 1,424 feet (434 metres) above the level of the Dead Sea. It has a summit area of about 18 acres (7 hectares). Some authorities hold that the site was settled at the time of the First Temple ... (100 of 667 words) MEDIA FOR:	Masada
Which six letter word is the alternative name for the European bison?	fortress « See The Holy Land Jordan The hilltop fortress of Machaerus, on the eastern side of the Dead Sea and 53 kilometres southwest of Amman, is recorded as the place where John the Baptist was imprisoned and beheaded. Herod’s stronghold of Machaerus (© Visitjordan) John preached a baptism of repentance at the Jordan River and foretold the coming of Jesus the Messiah, who was his cousin. He also criticised Herod Antipas, the governor of Galilee and Perea, for unlawfully marrying his half-brother’s wife, Herodias — thereby earning her enmity. Herod Antipas imprisoned John, but Mark’s Gospel says he protected him, “knowing that he was a righteous and holy man”, and “liked to listen to him” (6:20). The governor’s birthday banquet for the leaders of Galilee gave Herodias her opportunity to get rid of John. Her daughter, Salome, danced for the gathering and so enthralled Herod that he offered her whatever she wanted — “even half of my kingdom” (6:23). Salome with the Head of John the Baptist, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1531 (The Yorke Project) Salome, who was probably no older than 14 (so her dance might not have been the erotic performance usually imagined), sought her mother’s advice and then asked for John the Baptist’s head. Herod, “deeply grieved”, gave the order. John was executed and his head brought in “on a platter”. John’s disciples took away his body for burial. (6:26-29) According to the historian Josephus , John’s execution took place at Machaerus. An early Christian tradition says his body was buried at Sebastiya in Samaria, which Orthodox Christians believe was also the venue for the banquet. Herod built ‘breathtaking’ palace Machaerus (the name means “black fortress”) was one of a series of hilltop strongholds established by Herod the Great — the father of Antipas — along the edge of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea. Ruins of Herod’s palace on Machaerus (© Dan Gibson) Protected on three sides by deep ravines, it afforded seclusion and safety in times of political unrest. Fire signals linked Machaerus to Herod’s other fortresses and to Jerusalem . On top of the mountain, more than 1100 metres above the Dead Sea, Herod erected a fortress wall with high corner towers. In the centre he built a palace that was “breathtaking in size and beauty”, according to Josephus. Numerous cisterns were dug to collect rainwater. When Herod the Great died in 4 BC, Machaerus passed to his son Herod Antipas, who ruled Galilee and Perea (an area on the eastern side of the Jordan River) until AD 39. Jesus appeared before Antipas Herod Antipas had married Phasaelis, daughter of King Aretas of Nabatea, the kingdom whose capital was Petra . But while visiting Rome in AD 26 he stayed with his half-brother Herod Philip I and fell in love with Philip’s wife Herodias. When Phasaelis learnt that Antipas intended to divorce her and marry Herodias, she obtained permission to visit Machaerus and from there fled to her father in Nabatea. Herod Antipas, by James Tissot (Brooklyn Museum) Antipas’s rejection of Phasaelis added a personal note to existing disputes with King Aretas over the boundary of Perea and Nabatea. In AD 36 Aretas attacked Antipas and completely destroyed his army. According to Josephus, some of the Jews saw this devastating defeat as divine retribution for killing John the Baptist. Some time before the war with Aretas, Jesus was arrested in Jerusalem and brought before Pontius Pilate . When Pilate learnt that Jesus came from Galilee, he sent him to Herod Antipas, who was also in Jerusalem at the time. Luke’s Gospel says Antipas “had been wanting to see him for a long time” and “was hoping to see him perform some sign”. He questioned Jesus at length, but Jesus gave no answer. Antipas then mocked Jesus and sent him back to Pilate in an elegant robe. (23:8-11) Romans captured fortress by deception In AD 39 Herod Antipas was accused of conspiring against the Roman emperor Caligula, who exiled him to Gaul. At the time of the First Jewish Revolt (AD 66-73), Machaerus was in the hands of Jewish rebels. Roman forces took the fortress only by deception — they captured a young Jewish defender and threatened to crucify him if the rebels did not surrender. Columns from Herod’s palace on Machaerus (© Dan Gibson) When the rebels agreed to abandon Machaerus, the Romans systematically dismantled the Herodian fortifications. Excavations at the site have uncovered remains of Herod’s palace, including rooms designed around a central courtyard, an elaborate bath and floor mosaics . Below the hilltop ruins on the eastern side is the village of Mukawir, where excavations have found evidence of three Byzantine churches built in the 6th century. Herod Antipas executes John the Baptist: Mark 6:14-29; Matthew 14:1-12; Luke 3:18-20 Jesus appears before Herod Antipas: Luke 23:8-11 Salome with the Head of John the Baptist, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1531 (The Yorke Project) Columns from Herod’s palace on Machaerus (© Dan Gibson) Herod’s stronghold of Machaerus (© Visitjordan) Herod Antipas, by James Tissot (Brooklyn Museum) Ruins of Herod’s palace on Machaerus (© Dan Gibson) Machaerus with Dead Sea in background (© Visitjordan) Road to Machaerus, with Dead Sea in background (© Dan Gibson) Aqueduct footings and water cisterns can be seen on right of road to Machaerus (© Dan Gibson) Reconstructed columns of Herod’s palace on Machaerus (© Stanislao Lee / Custodia Terrae Sanctae) References Brisco, Thomas: Holman Bible Atlas (Broadman and Holman, 1998) Cox, Ronald: The Gospel Story (CYM Publications, 1950) Eber, Shirley, and O’Sullivan, Kevin: Israel and the Occupied Territories: The Rough Guide (Harrap-Columbus, 1989) Kilgallen, John J.: A New Testament Guide to the Holy Land (Loyola Press, 1998) Maier, Paul L. (trans.): Josephus: The Essential Writings (Kregel Publications, 1988) Meyers, Carol L., Craven, Toni, and Kraemer, Ross S. (eds): Women in Scripture: A Dictionary of Named and Unnamed Women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books and New Testament (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2001) Rainey, Anson F., and Notley, R. Steven: The Sacred Bridge: Carta’s Atlas of the Biblical World (Carta, 2006) Israel View from Masada to the Dead Sea (Tom Callinan / Seetheholyland.net) The rocktop fortress of Masada overlooking the Dead Sea has been invested with a quasi-religious significance as a symbol of resistance for the people of Israel. Once a palatial refuge for Herod the Great , this massive plateau on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert is better known as the location of a Roman siege against Jewish rebels in AD 74. The story of 960 defenders choosing self-inflicted death rather than surrender has achieved legendary status for the Jewish people, though scholars have questioned its credibility. Masada’s symbolic status was boosted by a poem by Yitzchak Lamdan, published in 1927, and by extensive excavations by soldier-archaeologist Yigael Yadin. Masada’s summit may be reached by a tortuous “snake path” (which takes a fit person 45 minutes), by a path up the Roman siege ramp (15 minutes) or by a modern cable car. The view across the Dead Sea 450 metres below is spectacular. After Jerusalem , Masada is Israel’s most popular tourist attraction. Herod lived in luxury Bathhouse with under-floor heating (Seetheholyland.net) Masada’s flat-topped shape has been aptly described by Jerome Murphy-O’Connor as “curiously like an aircraft-carrier moored to the western cliffs of the Dead Sea”. The north-facing prow of this warship consists of the ruins of Herod’s luxurious residential palace. Elaborately designed and decorated, it cascaded in three tiers down the cliff face, each tier connected by a rock-cut staircase. On the western side of the warship’s 550m by 275m deck are the remains of Herod’s ceremonial palace and administrative centre. The largest building on Masada, it covered nearly half a hectare. Herod planned Masada as a palace stronghold and desert foxhole, and fortified it with walls, gates and towers. He wanted a place of refuge in case the Jews should rebel against him, or the Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra (who coveted Judea) should try to have him killed. Herod’s creature comforts include bathhouses and a swimming pool. The most elaborate bathhouse had a hot room with the floor suspended on low pillars. Hot air from a furnace was circulated under the floor and through clay pipes in the walls. To supply water in this arid setting, a sophisticated system channelled winter rainfall from nearby wadis into huge cisterns quarried low into the northwest of the mountain. Water was then carried by men and beasts of burden up winding paths to reservoirs on the summit. The lower cisterns alone are estimated to have a capacity of 38,000 cubic metres. Romans besieged the fortress Seige ramp at Masada (Seetheholyland.net) In AD 66, at the beginning of the Great Jewish Revolt against Rome, a group of Jewish extremists called Sicarii overran the Roman garrison stationed on Masada. By then, Herod had been dead for 70 years. According to the historian Josephus , the Sicarii were unlikely heroes who attacked local villages. In a night raid for food on the Jewish settlement of En-Gedi, 17km away, he says the Sicarii killed more than 700 Jewish settlers, including women and children, during Passover. The Roman governor Lucius Flavius Silva waited until Jerusalem had fallen before taking the Tenth Legion to Masada in 72-73. Laying siege to the fortress, he established eight fortified camps linked by a ditch and wall around Masada, then built a ramp on top of a natural bedrock spur to reach the summit. Up the ramp the Romans rolled an iron-sheathed siege tower, with rapid-firing catapults and a huge battering ram to breach the fortress wall. According to Josephus, when defeat was inevitable the leader of the Sicarii, Eleazar ben Ya’ir, gave two impassioned speeches persuading his companions to cast lots to kill each other rather than be taken prisoner. He argued “it is still an eligible thing to die after a glorious manner, together with our dearest friends . . . let us bestow that glorious benefit upon one another mutually, and preserve ourselves in freedom, as an excellent funeral monument for us”. When the Romans stormed the summit, they found the bodies of 960 occupants. The only survivors were two women and five children who had hidden in a cistern. Josephus’ account is questioned The only account of the fall of Masada and the mass suicide of its occupants comes from Josephus. Surprisingly, the Jewish rabbis who wrote the Talmud did not record the event. A former Jewish rebel who joined the Romans after he was captured, Josephus lived through the Great Jewish Revolt and knew Silva personally. Like other historians of antiquity, however, he was known for his literary embellishments, and scholars have questioned the credibility of his dramatic account. Would there have been time for Eleazar’s speeches, the drawing of lots and the organized killings as Masada fell? Would the survivors have been able to repeat the speeches verbatim to the Romans? More pertinently, modern historians point to parallels between Eleazar’s second oration and a speech Josephus himself gave in similar circumstances when the fortified village of Jotapata, in northern Galilee, fell to the Romans after a siege and bloody battle in AD 67. Josephus, who commanded the Jewish rebels in Galilee in that battle, tells of hiding in a cave with other survivors who drew lots to kill each other rather than surrender. One of the last two men standing — “should one say by fortune or by the providence of God?” — was the wily Josephus, who persuaded his companion to join him in surrendering. Rather than accept the rhetoric of Josephus, modern historians favour a more chaotic climax at Masada, with some Sicarii fighting to the death, some taking their own lives and others trying to hide. Restored buildings can be seen Many of the buildings on Masada’s summit have been restored, including Herod’s bathhouses (a black line on the walls indicates where restoration began). Some have mosaic floors. Remains of a synagogue used by the Sicarii and a church built by Byzantine monks in the 5th century have also been excavated. The monks lived in cells dispersed round the summit. Silva’s siege works and ramp, including remains of the Roman wall and camps, can still be seen. The skeletons of 28 people excavated in the 1960s — whether Sicarii or Roman soldiers is not proven — were given a state funeral at Masada with full military honours in 1969. In the early decades of the Jewish state, recruits to Israel’s armed forces — in which service is compulsory for most citizens, male or female — climbed the snake path for a torchlight swearing-in ceremony ending with the declaration: “Masada shall not fall again!” The ceremony was abandoned in 1986, according to Rabbi Lawrence Hoffman, because “Its underlying message of heroes who commit suicide no longer captured the imagination of a Jewish state which emphasised life, not death, and victory rather than defeat”. Administered by: Israel National Parks Authority Tel.: 08-658-4207/8 Open: April–September 8 A.M.–5 P.M. October–March 8 A.M– 4 P.M. Fridays and holiday eves, site closes one hour earlier than above. Cable-car hours: Sat.–Thurs.: 8 A.M.–4 P.M.; Friday and holiday eves 8 A.M.–2 P.M.; Yom Kippur eve 8 A.M.–noon. Israel Museum impression of what Herod’s residential palace would have looked like (Seetheholyland.net) Snake path and cablecar ropes (Charles Meeks) Seige ammunition at Masada (Seetheholyland.net) View from Masada to the Dead Sea (Tom Callinan / Seetheholyland.net) Remains of middle terrace of Herod’s palace (Seetheholyland.net) Mosaic repairs in Byzantine church on Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Lowest level of Herod’s three-tiered palace (Charles Meeks) Model showing Herod’s three-tiered palace on Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Byzantine church on Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Remains of mural in bath house (Seetheholyland.net) Mosaic at Masada (© Tom Callinan / Seetheholyland.net) Seige ramp at Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Snake path to top of Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Line marking where reconstruction began (Seetheholyland.net) Looking from Masada towards the Dead Sea (© Israel Ministry of Tourism) Inside Byzantine church on Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Mosaic floor at Masada (© Tom Callinan / Seetheholyland.net) Reconstructed storerooms on Masada (Seetheholyland.net) Mosaic floor at Masada (Picturesfree.org) Bathhouse with under-floor heating (Seetheholyland.net) Notice at Byzantine church on Masada (Seetheholyland.net) References Brownrigg, Ronald: Come, See the Place: A Pilgrim Guide to the Holy Land (Hodder and Stoughton, 1985) Charlesworth, James H.: The Millennium Guide for Pilgrims to the Holy Land (BIBAL Press, 2000) Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P.: The Holy Land: A Pilgrim’s Guide to Israel, Jordan and the Sinai (Continuum Publishing, 1996) Hoffman, Lawrence A.: Israel: A Spiritual Travel Guide (Jewish Lights Publishing, 1998) McCormick, James R.: Jerusalem and the Holy Land (Rhodes & Eaton, 1997) Maier, Paul L. (trans.): Josephus: The Essential Writings (Kregel Publications, 1988) Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome: The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700 (Oxford University Press, 2005) Rainey, Anson F., and Notley, R. Steven: The Sacred Bridge: Carta’s Atlas of the Biblical World (Carta, 2006) Walker, Peter: In the Steps of Jesus (Zondervan, 2006) Wareham, Norman, and Gill, Jill: Every Pilgrim’s Guide to the Holy Land (Canterbury Press, 1996) External links	i don't know
In terms of population, Tripoli is the second largest city in which middle-eastern country?	Libya - Gentile Nations Gentile Nations ), officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الإشتراكية العظمى ‎ Al-Jamāhīriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Lībiyyah aš-Šaʿbiyyah al-Ištirākiyyah al-ʿUẓmā ( help · info ) ), is a country located in North Africa . Bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya lies between Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres (700,000 sq mi), 90% of which is desert, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world . [3] The capital , Tripoli , is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 5.7 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania , the Fezzan and Cyrenaica . The name "Libya" is an indigenous (i.e. Berber ) one, which is attested in ancient Egyptian texts as [ citation needed ], R'bw (= Libu). The latter refers to one of the tribes of Berber peoples living west of the Nile . In Greek , the tribesmen were called Libyes and their country became "Libya", although in ancient Greece the term had a broader meaning, encompassing all of North Africa west of Egypt (see Ancient Libya ). Later on, at the time of Ibn Khaldun , the same big tribe was known as Lawata. [4] Libya has the fifth highest GDP ( PPP ) per capita of Africa, behind Botswana , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon and Seychelles . This is largely due to its large petroleum reserves and low population. [5] [6] The Libyan flag is the only national flag in the world with just one color - green - and no design, insignia, or other details. Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Main article: Ancient Libya Archaeological evidence indicates that from as early as the 8,000 BC, the coastal plain of Ancient Libya was inhabited by a Neolithic people, the Berbers , who were skilled in the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops. [7] 1890 portrayal of a Berber family crossing a ford - H. B. Scammel Later, the area known in modern times as Libya also was occupied by a series of other peoples, with the Phoenicians , Carthaginians , Greeks , Romans , Vandals , and Byzantines ruling all or part of the area. Although the Greeks and Romans left ruins at Cyrene , Leptis Magna , and Sabratha , little other evidence remains of these ancient cultures. [8] Some cultural and religious exchanges occurred with the Ancient Egyptians , especially in the northern portion containing the delta of the Nile, that is called Lower Egypt. The prehistoric evidence is fragmentary, but historical records later document continued influences. Pockets of Berber population remain in modern Libya, but dispersal of Berbers north as far as Ireland and Scandinavia is documented in genetic markers studied by physical anthropologists and dispersal in Africa from the Atlantic coast to the Siwa oasis in Egypt, seems to have followed climatic changes causing increasing desertification . Now the greatest number of Berbers in Africa is in Morocco (about 42% of the population) and in Algeria (about 27% of the population), as well as Tunisia and Libya, but exact statistics are not available [2] ; see Berber languages . [ edit ] Phoenicians The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya, when the merchants of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon ) developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials. [9] [10] By the fifth century BC the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage , had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic , came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (Tripoli), Libdah ( Leptis Magna ) and Sabratha . All these were in an area that later was called, Tripolis , or "Three Cities". Libya's current-day capital Tripoli takes its name from this. [ edit ] Greeks The Greeks conquered Eastern Libya when, according to tradition, emigrants from the crowded island of Thera were commanded by the oracle at Delphi to seek a new home in North Africa. In 630 BC, they founded the city of Cyrene . [11] Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area: Barce ( Al Marj ); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day Benghazi ); Teuchira (later Arsinoe, present-day Tukrah); and Apollonia (Susah), the port of Cyrene. Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities). Arch of Roman emperor Lucius Septimius Severus (AD 146-211) in Leptis Magna. The Romans unified all three regions of Libya. Tripolitania and Cyrenaica became prosperous Roman provinces and remained so for more than six hundred years. [12] Roman ruins, such as those of Leptis Magna , which is seen in the photograph displayed to the right, attest to the vitality of the region during the Roman occupation. At the time, populous cities and even small towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life consistent with those in Rome. Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa , but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek. Main article: History of Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica This section requires expansion . Libya was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 644 and fully conquered in 655, forming part of the Ummayad Caliphate . This was superseded by the Abbasids in 750, but in practice Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty. Arab soldiers, spreading their new religion of Islam, entered Cyrenaica in 642 and occupied Tripoli in 643. A succession of Arab and Berber dynasties then controlled what is now Libya. The culture of northwestern Libya developed along with the political units just west of it, while development in the east was strongly influenced by neighboring Egypt. [13] [ edit ] Ottoman Turks 16th Century Women's dress in Tripoli, when Libya was part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century, and the three States or " Wilayat " of Tripolitania , Cyrenaica and Fezzan (which make up Libya) remained part of their empire with the exception of the virtual autonomy of the Karamanlis . The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, but had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid 18th century. This constituted a first glimpse in recent history of the united and independent Libya that was to re-emerge two centuries later. Ironically, reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion ( Italo-Turkish War , 1911-1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. [14] Main article: Italian Libya From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies run by Italian governors, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania . During this Italian colony period, between 20% and 50% of the Libyan population died in the struggle for independence, and mainly in prison camps.[ citation needed ] Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly one-fifth of the total population. [15] In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa , except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three Provinces of Cyrenaica , Tripolitania and Fezzan ). King Idris I , Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two World Wars. Between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through starvation in camps)." [16] From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. [17] Omar Mukhtar (1858–1931) was the leader of the Libyan uprising against Italian occupation. [ edit ] United Kingdom of Libya On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya , a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East . [ edit ] Coup of Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 27-year-old army officer Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi staged a coup d’état against King Idris. [8] At the time, Idris was in Turkey for medical treatment. His nephew, Crown Prince Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi as-Sanussi , became King. It was clear that the revolutionary officers who had announced the deposition of King Idris did not want to appoint him over the instruments of state as King. Sayyid quickly found that he had substantially less power as the new King than he had earlier had as a mere Prince. Before the end of September 1, Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida had been formally deposed by the revolutionary army officers and put under house arrest. Meanwhile, revolutionary officers abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Gaddafi was, and is to this day, referred to as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official press. [18] Main article: Politics of Libya There are two branches of government in Libya. The "revolutionary sector" comprises Revolutionary Leader Gaddafi, the Revolutionary Committees and the remaining members of the 12-person Revolutionary Command Council, which was established in 1969. [19] The historical revolutionary leadership is not elected and cannot be voted out of office; they are in power by virtue of their involvement in the revolution. Constituting the legislative branch of government, this sector comprises Local People's Congresses in each of the 1,500 urban wards, 32 Sha'biyat People's Congresses for the regions, and the National General People's Congress . These legislative bodies are represented by corresponding executive bodies (Local People's Committees, Sha'biyat People's Committees and the National General People's Committee/Cabinet). Every four years, the membership of the Local People's Congresses elects their own leaders and the secretaries for the People's Committees, sometimes after many debates and a critical vote. The leadership of the Local People's Congress represents the local congress at the People's Congress of the next level. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the members of the National General People's Committee (the Cabinet ) at their annual meeting. The government controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media. In cases involving a violation of "certain taboos", the private press, like The Tripoli Post , has been censored, [20] although articles that are critical of policies have been requested and intentionally published by the revolutionary leadership itself as a means of initiating reforms. Political parties were banned by the 1972 Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71. [21] According to the Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) is allowed. However, because they are required to conform to the goals of the revolution, their numbers are small in comparison with those in neighbouring countries. Trade unions do not exist, [22] but numerous professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third pillar, along with the People's Congresses and Committees. These associations do not have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate. Main article: Foreign relations of Libya Foreign Minister Abd al-Rahman Shalgam with his US counterpart U.S. Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice . Libya is keen to shake off its pariah status and rejoin the international community. Libya's foreign policies have undergone much fluctuation and change since the state was proclaimed on December 24, 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, yet was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day Arab League ), of which it became a member in 1953. [23] The government was in close alliance with Britain and the United States ; both countries maintained military base rights in Libya. Libya also forged close ties with France , Italy , Greece , and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955. Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered an essentially conservative course at home. [24] After the 1969 coup , Gaddafi closed American and British bases and partially nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West, especially the United States, to end support for Israel. Gaddafi rejected both Eastern (Soviet) communism and Western (United States) capitalism and claimed he was charting a middle course for his government. [25] In the 1980s, Libya increasingly distanced itself from the United States,based on the principle of non-alignment and the adoption of a middle path between democracy and communism referred to as " The Third theory " [26] . The animosity was deepened due to Gaddafi ’s support for groups, like PLO , who were considered at the time terrorist, and his flirtation with the Soviet, which at the time represented the sole challenger to the US. Secretary Haig considered Libya as “a Soviet satellite” and a “Soviet-run terrorist training network". When Libya intervened in Chad in 1980 it was perceived by the American authorities as the Soviet’s attempt to spread control in Africa. In addition to this, Gaddafi ’s clear opposition to Israel, an American ally and considered to be the only democratic state in the region, were enough reasons to have it considered by the US as an enemy. Consequently, Reagan administration began its campaign of assisting Libya’s neighbors militarily to be able to respond to any Libyan attempt to invade them. Tunisia was given some fifty-four M-604 tanks plus $15 million in military credits, while other countries like Sudan and Egypt were given an increase in military credits and training with a full-fledged promise of support in face of Libyan threats. These strategies aimed at isolating Libya and pressure it to reconsider its policies towards the US. [27] The first confrontation with the US was when Gaddafi had declared two hundred miles of the Gulf of Sidra to be restricted of any international usage; having defied such declaration Libyan air force fired a missile at a US Boeing EC-135 flight. Even though the attack did not cause any damages to the aircraft, Jimmy Carter , the US President at that time, failed to respond to such an attack, which was seen as yet another demonstration of weakness in his foreign policies. [28] . Allegedly, Gaddafi had secretly ordered the burning down of the US embassy in Tripoli as his fight against "The Great Satan", The US. In response Reagan had the "Libyan People's Bureau" closed, and oil imports banned from North African States. Reagan also contested the restricted area defined by Gaddafi based on a 1958 convention that stated that countries were allowed to claim twenty four miles of width from their coasts. [29] . On August 19, 1981 [30] the navy was sent close to Libya's coast which resulted in a confrontation where two of the SU-22 fighters supplied to Libya by the Soviet were shot down. [31] . Following this, Libya was implicated in committing mass acts of state-sponsored terrorism. When CIA allegedly intercepted two messages implying Libyan complicity in the Berlin discothèque terrorist bombing that killed two American servicemen, the United States found a good enough reason to launch an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986. [32] The Attack, Operation El Dorado Canyon , was not solicited by France and Spain, who refused to allow US F-111 bombers to fly over their territories, and resulted in death of several civilians, including Gaddafi 's two-year old adopted daughter. [33] In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the U.S. and Scotland for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 . Six other Libyans were put on trial in absentia for the 1989 bombing of UTA Flight 772 . The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSC Resolution 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993. [34] In 1999, less than a decade after the sanctions were put in place, Libya began to make dramatic policy changes in regard to the Western world , including turning over the Lockerbie suspects for trial. This diplomatic breakthrough followed years of negotiation, including a visit by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to Libya in December 1998, and personal appeals by Nelson Mandela. Eventually UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook persuaded the Americans to accept a trial of the suspects in the Netherlands under Scottish law, with the UN Security Council agreeing to suspend sanctions as soon as the suspects arrived in the Netherlands for trial. [8] In response to 9/11 attacks Gaddafi condemned the attacks as an act of terrorism and urged Libyans to donate blood for the US victims. However, the US was still not willing to remove the sanctions of Libya yet. After the invasion of Iraq based on allegations that it had WMD programs violating non-proliferation treaty, and the fall of Saddam in 2003, the Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion US dollars in compensation to the families of Pan Am flight 103 as well as UTA Flight 772. [35] According to some sources Gaddafi had privately phoned Italian Premier Silvio Berlusconi expressing his fear that his regime will meet the same fate if he did not take such steps. [36] The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step for Libya toward rejoining the international community. [37] Since 2003 the country has made efforts to normalize its ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides.By 2004 Bush lifts the economic sanctions on Libya and official relations resume between Libya and the United States and Libya opens a Liaison office in Washington, DC and the United States opens an office in Tripoli. And in January 2004, Congressman Tom Lantos leads the first official Congressional delegation visit to Libya. [38] An event considered pivotal by many in Libyan-Western relations is the HIV trials (1999–2007) of five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor. Their release is seen as marking a new stage in Libyan-Western relations. On May 15, 2006 the United States State Department announced it would fully restore diplomatic relations with Libya if it dismantled its weapons programs. The State Department also removed Libya from their state sponsored terrorism list which it had been on for 27 years. This move has also been attributed to the pressures of oil companies lobbying the Congress. In addition to that the fall of the Soviet power, the prominent role that Libya plays in the African Continent, and the assistance it could provide to the US in its war on terror are among the other considerations that were factored in. [39] In August 2008 a motion was introduced in the 110th Congress known as S 3370 or the “Libyan Claims Resolution Act” to exempt Libya from the infamous section 1083 clause of the National Defense Authorization Act . The motion passed both the House of Representatives and the Senate by unanimous consent, and is signed into law by President George W. Bush on the 4th of August. After Libya payed a final portion of $1.8 billion global settlement fund for American victims it became formally exempted from section 1083. Following that Libyan families received $300 million for casualties suffered due to the 1986 airstrikes led by the United States. In November the same year, the United States Senate confirmed Gene A. Cretz as the first US Ambassador to Libya in over 35 years. The final step in the process of rebuilding the relations between the two countries came in January 2009 when Ali Suleiman Aujali presented his letters of credentials to President George W. Bush as Ambassador Extraordinaire and Plenipotentiary of Libya to the United States of America, and Gene A. Cretz presents his letter of credentials before the General People’s Congress; currently both are serving as Ambassadors to their respective countries. [40] On October 16, 2007, Libya was voted to serve on the United Nations Security Council for two years starting January 2008. [41] In February 2009, Libya's leader al-Gaddafi was selected to be chairman of the African Union for one year. Main article: Human rights in Libya According to the U.S. Department of State’s annual human rights report for 2007, Libya’s authoritarian regime continued to have a poor record in the area of human rights. [42] Some of the numerous and serious abuses on the part of the government include poor prison conditions, arbitrary arrest and prisoners held incommunicado, and political prisoners held for many years without charge or trial. The judiciary is controlled by the government, and there is no right to a fair public trial. Libyans do not have the right to change their government. Freedom of speech , press , assembly , association , and religion are restricted. Independent human rights organizations are prohibited. Ethnic and tribal minorities suffer discrimination, and the state continues to restrict the labor rights of foreign jobs. In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Libya as "7" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "7" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free". [43] Main article: Districts of Libya Historically the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), Tripolitania in the northwest, Barka (Cyrenaica) in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest. It was the conquest by Italy in the Italo-Turkish War that unitied them in a single political unit. Under the Italians Libya, in 1934, was divided into four provinces and one territory (in the south): Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi, Derna, and the Territory of the Libyan Sahara. [44] After independence, Libya was divided into three governorates ( muhafazat ) [45] and then in 1963 into ten governorates. [46] [47] The governorates were legally abolished in February 1975, and nine "control bureaus" were set up to deal directly with the nine areas, respectively: education, health, housing, social services, labor, agricultural services, communications, financial services, and economy, each under their own ministry. [48] However, the courts and some other agencies continued to operate as if the governorate structure were still in place. [48] In 1983 Libya was split into forty-six districts ( baladiyat ), then in 1987 into twenty-five. [49] [50] [51] In 1995, Libya was divided into thirteen districts ( shabiyah ), [52] , in 1998 into twenty-six districts, and in 2001 into thirty-two districts. [53] These were then further rearranged into twenty two districts in 2007. For the current list see Districts of Libya: Shabiyat . Main article: Geography of Libya Map of Libya The Jabal Al Akdhar near Benghazi is Libya's wettest region. Annual rainfall averages at between 400 and 600 millimetres (15-24 inches). [54] Libya extends over 1,759,540 square kilometres (679,182 sq. mi ), making it the 17th largest nation in the world by size . Libya is somewhat smaller than Indonesia , and roughly the size of the US state of Alaska . It is bound to the north by the Mediterranean Sea , the west by Tunisia and Algeria , the southwest by Niger , the south by Chad and Sudan and to the east by Egypt . At 1770 kilometres (1100 miles), Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean. [55] [56] The portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is often called the Libyan Sea . The climate is mostly dry and desertlike in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate . Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden sirocco (known in Libya as the gibli). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also dust storms and sandstorms . Oases can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are Ghadames and Kufra . Satellite image of Libya, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library The Libyan Desert , which covers much of eastern Libya, is one of the most arid places on earth. [8] In places, decades may pass without rain , and even in the highlands rainfall happens erratically, once every 5–10 years. At Uweinat, the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998. [57] There is a large depression , the Qattara Depression , just to the south of the northernmost scarp, with Siwa oasis at its western extremity. The depression continues in a shallower form west, to the oases of Jaghbub and Jalo. Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan desert can be extreme; in 1922, the town of Al 'Aziziyah , which is located Southwest of Tripoli , recorded an air temperature of 57.8 ° C (136.0 ° F ), generally accepted as the highest recorded naturally occurring air temperature reached on Earth. [58] There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases , usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and Kufra. [57] Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan Borders. Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat and Kissu. These granite mountains are very ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Aïr Mountains . Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west. [57] The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive aquifer underneath much of the country. The water in this aquifer pre-dates the last ice ages and the Sahara desert itself. [59] The country is also home to the Arkenu craters , double impact craters found in the desert. Main article: Economy of Libya The infrastructure of Libya's capital Tripoli has benefited from the country's oil wealth. The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which constitute practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of gross domestic product ( GDP ). In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its GNP per capita was higher than that of countries such as Italy, Singapore, South Korea, Spain and New Zealand. [60] Today, high oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest GDPs per person in Africa and have allowed the Libyan state to provide an extensive level of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and education. [61] Many problems still beset Libya's economy however; unemployment is the highest in the region at 21% according to the latest census figures. [62] Tripoli's Old City (El-Madina El-Kadima), situated in the city centre, is one of the classical sites of the Mediterranean and an important tourist attraction. Compared to its neighbours, Libya enjoys a low level of both absolute and relative poverty . Libyan officials in the past three years have carried out economic reforms as part of a broader campaign to reintegrate the country into the global capitalist economy. [63] This effort picked up steam after UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003, and as Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction. [64] Libya has begun some market-oriented reforms. Initial steps have included applying for membership of the World Trade Organization , reducing subsidies , and announcing plans for privatisation . [65] The non-oil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals , iron , steel and aluminium . Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food. [63] Water is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000. [66] The Great Manmade River project is tapping into vast underground aquifers of fresh water discovered during the quest for oil, and is intended to improve the country's agricultural output. Under the previous Prime Minister, Shukri Ghanem , and current prime minister Baghdadi Mahmudi , Libya is undergoing a business boom. Many government-run industries are being privatised. Many international oil companies have returned to the country, including oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil . [67] Tourism is on the rise, bringing increased demand for hotel accommodation and for capacity at airports such as Tripoli International . A multi-million dollar renovation of Libyan airports has recently been approved by the government to help meet such demands. [68] At present 130,000 people visit the country annually; the Libyan government hopes to increase this figure to 10,000,000 tourists. [69] Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi , the oldest son of Muammar al-Gaddafi, is involved in a green development project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which seeks to bring tourism to Cyrene and to preserve Greek ruins in the area. [70] Main article: Demographics of Libya A map indicating the ethnic composition of Libya. Libya has a small population residing in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per km² (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica , but falls to less than one person per km² (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi . 50% of the population is estimated to be under age 15. Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs and Berbers . Small Tuareg and Tebu tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or seminomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians ), and Sub- Saharan Africans. Libya has a small Italian minority . Previously, there was a visible presence of Italian settlers, but many left after independence in 1947 and much more left after the rule of Muammar al-Gaddafi in 1970. The main language spoken in Libya is Arabic by 97% of the libyans , and which is also the official language. Tamazight (i.e. Berber languages), which do not have official status, are spoken by Libyan Berbers in some pockets beside arabic language . [71] Berber speakers live above all in the Jebel Nafusa region ( Tripolitania ), the town of Zuwarah on the coast, and the city-oases of Ghadames , Ghat and Awjila . In addition, Tuaregs speak Tamahaq , the only known Northern Tamasheq language , also ( Toubou language ) are spoken by Toubou in some pockets in (qatroun village) and (koffra city) . Italian and English are sometimes spoken in the big cities, although Italian speakers are mainly among the older generation. Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of which live in apartment blocks and other independent housing units, with precise modes of housing depending on their income and wealth. Although the Libyan Arabs traditionally lived nomadic lifestyles in tents, they have now settled in various towns and cities. [72] Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in industry and services , and a small percentage is in agriculture . According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Libya hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 16,000 in 2007. Of this group, approximately 9,000 persons were from the Former Palestine , 3,200 from Sudan , 2,500 from Somalia and 1,100 from Iraq . [73] Libya reportedly deported thousands of illegal entrants in 2007 without giving them the opportunity to apply for asylum. Refugees faced discrimination from Libyan officials when moving in the country and seeking employment. [73] [ edit ] Education The Benghazi campus of the former University of Libya (Al-Jami'a al-Libiya), Libya's first university. Libya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the tertiary level . [74] Education in Libya is free for all citizens, [75] and compulsory up until secondary level . The literacy rate is the highest in North Africa; over 82% of the population can read and write. [76] After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university, the University of Libya, was established in Benghazi. [77] In academic year 1975/76 the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. As of 2004, this number has increased to more than 200,000, with an extra 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector. [74] The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education. Since 1975 the number of universities has grown from two to nine and after their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes currently stands at 84 (with 12 public universities). [74] Libya's higher education is financed by the public budget. In 1998 the budget allocated for education represented 38.2% of the national budget. [77] The main universities in Libya are: Main article: Religion in Libya By far the predominant religion in Libya is Islam with 97% of the population associating with the faith. [78] The vast majority of Libyan Muslims adhere to Sunni Islam , which provides both a spiritual guide for individuals and a keystone for government policy, but a minority (between 5 and 10%) adhere to Ibadism (a branch of Kharijism ), above all in the Jebel Nefusa and the town of Zuwarah. Mosque in Ghadames , close to the Tunisian and Algerian border. About 97% of Libyans are followers of Islam. Before the 1930s, the Sanusi Movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaayaa (lodges) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan , but Sanusi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica . Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Sanusi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose. [79] This Islamic movement, which was eventually destroyed by both Italian invasion and later the Gaddafi government, [79] was very conservative and somewhat different from the Islam that exists in Libya today. Gaddafi asserts that he is a devout Muslim, and his government is taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam. [80] A Libyan form of Sufism is also common in parts of the country. [81] Other than the overwhelming majority of Sunni Muslims, there are also small foreign communities of Christians . Coptic Orthodox Christianity , which is the Christian Church of Egypt, is the largest and most historical Christian denomination in Libya . There are over 60,000 Egyptian Copts in Libya, as they comprise over 1% of the population. [82] There is also a small Anglican community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli; it is part of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. [83] There is also an estimated 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two Bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in Benghazi (serving the Maltese community). Libya was until recent times the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC. [84] A series of pogroms beginning in November 1945 lasted for almost three years, drastically reducing Libya's Jewish population. [85] In 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country. Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated. After the Suez Crisis in 1956, all but about 100 Jews were forced to flee. (See History of the Jews in Libya .) Main article: Culture of Libya The Libyan flag decorates a street in the Tripoli Medina; September 1st (Revolution Day) sees an increase in Libyan flags and ceremonial lights to celebrate the national holiday Coastline of Benghazi, Libya's second largest city. With the longest Mediterranean coastline among African nations, Libya's mostly unspoilt beaches are a social gathering place. Libya is culturally similar to its neighboring Maghrebian states . Libyans consider themselves very much a part of a wider Arab community. The Libyan state tends to strengthen this feeling by considering Arabic as the only official language, and forbidding the teaching and even the use of the Berber language. Libyan Arabs have a heritage in the traditions of the nomadic Bedouin and associate themselves with a particular Bedouin tribe. As with some other countries in the Arab world, Libya boasts few theatres or art galleries. [87] [88] Conversely, for many years there have been no public theatres, and only a few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad. The main output of Libyan television is devoted to showing various styles of traditional Libyan music. Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south. Libyan television programmes are mostly in Arabic with a 30-minute news broadcast each evening in English and French. The government maintains strict control over all media outlets. A new analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists has found Libya’s media the most tightly controlled in the Arab world. [20] To combat this, the government plans to introduce private media, an initiative intended to bring the country's media in from the cold. [89] Many Libyans frequent the country's beaches. They also visit Libya's beautifully-preserved archaeological sites—especially Leptis Magna , which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world. [90] The nation's capital, Tripoli , boasts many good museums and archives; these include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Jamahiriya Museum, built in consultation with UNESCO , may be the country's most famous. It houses one of the finest collections of classical art in the Mediterranean. [91] [ edit ] Contemporary travel The most common form of public transport between cities is bus, but many people do travel by automobile. [92] There is no train service in Libya. [92] Libyan cuisine is generally simple, and is very similar to Sahara cuisine. [93] In many undeveloped areas and small towns, restaurants may be nonexistent, and food stores may be the only source to obtain food products. [93] Some common Libyan foods include couscous , bazin , which is a type of unsweetened cake, and shurpa , which is soup. [93] Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and macaroni. [93] Alcohol consumption is illegal in the entire country, and this law is enforced in Libya. [94]	Lebanon
Which football team from Barcelona played home matches at the 1992 Olympic Stadium until 2009 when they moved to the 'Estardi Cornella-El Prat'?	How Realistic Is Libya as an Islamic State “Fallback”? \| Combating Terrorism Center at West Point How Realistic Is Libya as an Islamic State “Fallback”? March 17, 2016 Author(s): Geoff D. Porter Abstract: As the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria comes under pressure from the international anti-Islamic State coalition, there are increasing expectations that it is trying to develop its affiliate in Libya as a “fallback” option. The particular characteristics of the Libyan landscape and the Islamic State’s limitations there make this unlikely. Nonetheless, the Islamic State in Libya will still be a dangerous threat to North Africa and beyond, including across the Mediterranean. In the September 2015 issue of Dabiq, the Islamic State’s monthly English-language propaganda publication, the editors interviewed Abu al-Mughirah al-Qahtani, the leader of the Islamic State’s provinces (wilayat) in Libya.[1] In the interview, al-Qahtani emphasized the importance of the Islamic State’s Libyan provinces and recounted the group’s vanquishing of other jihadi organizations there. In addition, he broadcasted the Islamic State in Libya’s need for personnel, including doctors, legal specialists, bureaucrats, and fighters, and encouraged them to make hijrah (to immigrate) to Libya.[2] The timing of the Dabiq interview was not happenstance. The Islamic State had established a beachhead in Libya less than a year earlier, and by 2015 it controlled Sirte, a small Libyan city, and a long stretch of surrounding coastline. As pressure from the anti-Islamic State coalition in Iraq and Syria intensified,[3] it appeared that Islamic State leadership in Mosul was attempting to develop its Libyan territory as a “fallback” option.[4] The dominant media narrative is that the Islamic State is expanding quickly in Libya, a view reinforced by a United Nations report last month that stated that “the relative ease with which groups such as ISIL have expanded their spheres of control and influence over the past few months is a matter of grave concern.”[5] But the Islamic State in Libya’s momentum is slowing, including setbacks in Derna, Benghazi, and Sabratha. Moreover, recent attempts to expand the territory under its control have failed as it runs up against territory controlled by powerful, violent non-state actors. Libya also lacks many of the attributes that the Islamic State has exploited in Iraq and Syria. The Islamic State’s slowing momentum, its inability to expand, and the differences between the Iraqi/Syrian and Libyan landscape all beg the question of just how feasible it would be for the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria to shift to Libya. While there is no doubt that the Islamic State would remain a violent threat in Libya and elsewhere were it to be degraded in Iraq and Syria, it would be a poorer and more constrained organization, deprived of personnel, revenue, and the fundamental narrative tropes of governance and sectarianism that it has used to “remain and expand” (bâqîya wa tatamaddad) in Iraq and Syria.[6] Evolution of the Islamic State in Libya In the immediate aftermath of Libya’s 2011 revolution and even before Libya’s full-blown civil war broke out in 2014, a multitude of jihadi organizations started to emerge. Some, like the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, had historical antecedents that pre-dated the fall of Muammar Qadhafi’s government. Others like the Islamic State were mash-ups of local jihadi groups and ideologues and fighters tied to the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria. The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria’s first forays into Libya came shortly after its leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, announced the formation of the group. As early as 2013, al-Baghdadi sent an emissary to evaluate the possibility of exploiting the accommodating jihadi environment in Derna, an eastern Libyan city that had been associated with jihadi fighters for at least the last decade.[7] Less than a year later, the Shura Council of Islamic Youth, composed of members of disparate jihadi organizations, pledged allegiance to the Islamic State.[8] Al-Baghdadi signaled the importance of Derna by sending senior Islamic State leadership from Iraq and Syria to manage the newly allied group, who then tried to govern the city in the same way they had in cities in Syria and Iraq.[9] At the same time, the Islamic State was expanding elsewhere in Libya, most notably in the central coastal city of Sirte, which it controlled by June 2015. It also managed to gain a foothold in some neighborhoods in Benghazi, Libya’s second-largest city, as well as secure an outpost in the western city of Sabratha.[10] The Islamic State’s ideology and methods, however, provoked a backlash from other jihadi organizations in Derna, and in June 2015, a group of jihadis united under the Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna and launched a campaign against the Islamic State that ultimately led to its withdrawal from the city.[11] More recently, a combination of forces under the leadership of General Khalifa Haftar with alleged support from French Special Forces drove the Islamic State from some neighborhoods in Benghazi[12] and a U.S. airstrike followed by a Libyan militia offensive squeezed the Islamic State in Sabratha.[13] The center of the group’s presence in Libya, then, has been reduced to Sirte and some smaller nearby towns. How Big Is the Islamic State in Libya? Assessing the size of the Islamic State in Libya is difficult. When the group first appeared in Libya, it was allegedly composed of fewer than 800 fighters.[14] In December 2014, General David Rodriguez, commander of United States Africa Command (AFRICOM), said there could be “a couple of hundred” Islamic State fighters in training camps in Libya, implying that these were in addition to fighters already on the battlefield.[15] Estimates from February 2015 put the number between 1,000 and 3,000.[16] The United Nations maintained in November 2015 that the Islamic State in Libya had 2,000 to 3,000 fighters.[17] But by January 2016, some U.S. assessments suggested that it had grown to between 5,000 and 6,000 fighters.[18] French sources believe that the group is much stronger, with as many as 12,000 members.[19] Even at the upper end of the range, the Islamic State in Libya still has fewer fighters than the most conservative estimates of the number of Islamic State fighters in Iraq and Syria, which is around 18,000 fighters.[20] Late 2014 CIA estimates put the number between 20,000 and 31,500.[21] More sensationalist analysts have argued that it probably has nearly 100,000 fighters in Iraq and Syria.[22] Thus, the average assessment of the number of Islamic State fighters in Libya is roughly 30 percent of the average assessment of the number of Islamic State fighters in Iraq and Syria. And this is in a country four times the size of Iraq (and three times the size of Iraq and Syria combined). While the concentration of Islamic State fighters in Libya is undeniably large, its size in comparison to the size of the organization in Iraq and Syria and relative to the enormity of Libya casts doubt on the group’s ability to expand without additional manpower, a point that was highlighted by the U.N. in a recent report and which is precisely what al-Qahtani was calling for.[23] Where the Islamic State in Libya’s fighters come from differs as well. The first Islamic State fighters in Libya were Libyans returning from Iraq and Syria.[24] That core group was placed under the command of non-Libyans from the Middle East and has been augmented by fighters coming from other North African and sub-Saharan countries. One report indicated that approximately 70 percent of the Islamic State’s fighters in Libya were non-Libyans, with the majority coming from Tunisia and the remainder from Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan.[25] An overtly anti-Islamic State TV channel based in Jordan claims the Islamic State had 3,000 fighters in Sirte alone in December 2015, of which only 12 percent were Libyans and 20 percent came from non-Maghreb nationalities.[26] It remains unclear whether sub-Saharan fighters were members of Boko Haram or Islamic State sympathizers from elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.[27] By February 2016, the Islamic State in Libya had begun to attract new European recruits, including some 70 men and women from France and Belgium.[28] Importantly, according to one report, the Islamic State in Libya is paying fighters, particularly sub-Saharan Africans, to come, which would indicate that al-Qahtani’s call may be falling on deaf ears and that it is missing its recruitment targets despite reports that the number of Islamic State fighters in Libya may be increasing.[29] This is in marked contrast to the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria. Not only are there more foreign fighters in Iraq and Syria, but they have distinctly different backgrounds. For example, while there are hardly any Europeans fighting alongside the Islamic State in Libya, there were as many as 4,000 Western Europeans among a range of jihadi groups in Syria and Iraq, including the Islamic State.[30] In addition, there were roughly 3,000 from countries of the former Soviet Union and a further 1,200 from South and Southeast Asia.[31] Lastly, there were almost 10,000 fighters from throughout the Arab world, including Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Tunisia, and Yemen.[32] One source indicated that there were only 100 Sudanese fighters in Iraq and Syria. It did not identify any other sub-Saharan fighters who had joined the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.[33] Three Libyan Provinces? Not only does the Islamic State in Libya have significantly fewer fighters than the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria but the Islamic State in Libya controls less territory than the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria. To be sure, Libya and its current state of affairs shares some characteristics with Iraq and Syria and affords the Islamic State a fertile environment in which to grow. Since 2014, the country has been embroiled in a simmering civil war, with militias allied with one or the other of Libya’s two rival governments in Tobruk and Tripoli fighting each other and other non-Islamic State jihadi groups like Ansar al-Sharia, constellations of militias allied with the old Libyan Islamic Fighting Group or al-Qa`ida, or the salafi Special Deterrent Forces.[a] As in Iraq and Syria, though, these groups have been overwhelmingly preoccupied with fighting each other rather than confronting the Islamic State. This created an opening in Libya into which the Islamic State has inserted itself. Ironically, the existence of the very forces whose tit-for-tat struggle for power allowed for the arrival of the Islamic State will ultimately limit the extent to which the Islamic State can expand in Libya. Shortly after pledging allegiance to al-Baghdadi, the Islamic State announced the creation of three provinces in Libya: Wilaya Barqa (Cyrenaica), Wilaya Tarabulus (Tripolitania), and Wilaya Fezzan. These, however, are provinces in name only and the Islamic State in Libya is constrained to a thin coastal strip on either side of Sirte totaling under 200 miles.[34] While Wilaya Barqa was the Islamic State’s first hub in Libya, Wilaya Tarabulus is now the group’s epicenter and Wilaya Fezzan appears to be more aspirational than actual. As noted above, the Islamic State in Libya was pushed out of Derna, its initial foothold in the country, and is now sporadically active in small pockets in the city and in its surrounding hills, but unable to capture and hold territory, let alone govern.[35] Similarly, it has been pushed out of its strongholds in Benghazi and while it is still trying to counter the recent offensive, it does not hold territory there either. In short, although the Islamic State in Libya is still fighting in what it calls Wilaya Barqa, it does not control, hold, or administer any territory or population there. The Islamic State may also have some members in Wilaya Fezzan in southern Libya where it may have access to a smuggling chokepoint outside of Sabha,[36] but it neither controls nor governs any cities or towns there. In fact, the only territory it holds and administers is on the eastern edge of what it calls Wilaya Tarabulus. Its territory here consists of Sirte and the neighboring towns of Harawa, al-Nawfaliyah, and Bin Jawad to the east and up to the outskirts of Abu Qrayn to the west. In addition, it had maintained some operations in Sabratha, 40 miles to the west of Tripoli, but it did not control or administer territory there. In total then, the Islamic State in Libya may be able to maneuver within roughly 4,550 square miles, and it imposes some form of control, though not complete governance, over approximately 110,000 people (the estimated combined populations of Sirte, Harawa, al-Nawfaliyah, and Bin Jawad). This is in comparison with the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, which at its peak controlled as much as 35,000 square miles, exerting uncontested authority over roughly 12,000 square miles. Some 6.2 million people lived under some degree of Islamic State influence in Iraq and Syria, about the size of the entire Libyan population. Several factors limit the Islamic State’s expansion in Libya. The simplest is geography. Libya is an enormous country—equal in size to Mongolia—and much of it beyond the littoral is open desert. Deserts, in Libya and elsewhere, present violent non-state actors with a paradox. On the one hand, they are relatively navigable and sparsely populated, making territory easy to capture. On the other hand, they offer violent actors no refuge and the same characteristics that make territory easy to capture make it difficult to hold. This is not to say that Libya’s southern deserts are undesirable for the Islamic State—after all, some of Libya’s larger oil fields are located there as are many lucrative smuggling routes—but it is simply hard for the Islamic State to do much in them beyond episodic attacks. Second, Libyans have strong municipal and tribal affiliations. These affiliations most clearly manifested themselves in the uprising against the Qadhafi government in 2011 when militias representing different regions like the Nafusa Mountains, or cities, like Misrata, or even neighborhoods, like Souq al-Jumaa in Tripoli arose. Libya’s tribes are also important, with tribal affiliations bleeding into politics and violent conflict alike. For example, the Awlad Suleiman have had violent turf wars with the Tebu in southern Libya and the U.N.-brokered Government of National Accord is loosely structured along tribal lines.[37] This is not to overemphasize the role that these affiliations can play. Tribal loyalties do not always count. For example, the head of the Petroleum Facilities Guard, a member of the Magharba tribe, refused to follow the Magharba tribal leaders’ demands that he end his blockade of Libyan oil terminals in 2013.[38] Likewise, being from Misrata or Benghazi or Tripoli does not prevent one from living in other cities or towns. Many families in Tripoli claim origins in other Libyan towns and do not have allegiance to them above anywhere else in Libya. But Libya’s open spaces and its intensely contested landscape leave little room for the Islamic State. In fact, the Islamic State was only able to establish itself in Sirte because the city was largely unwanted by other groups.[39] Sirte was Qadhafi’s hometown and was consequently vilified by many Libyans after the 2011 revolution. Libya’s most powerful militias did not lay claim to it and focused their efforts on Libya’s bigger prizes like Tripoli or Benghazi or the nearby oil-rich regions. When the Islamic State has tried to expand beyond Sirte to the east and to the west, it has run into towns that are controlled by other militias that rebuff them, such as Abu Qrayn in the west and Ajdabiya in the east. In a recent interview, the Islamic State’s new leader in Libya, identified as Abdul Qadr al-Naajdi, acknowledged as much, saying that “the number of factions [in Libya] and their disputes” had prevented the Islamic State from expanding its control beyond Sirte.[40] Libya: A Ward of the [Islamic] State The inability to control territory and govern populations has limited the Islamic State in Libya’s independent financial viability. The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria’s wealth and diverse revenue streams have been widely reported. The group has robbed banks of a reported total of US$1 billion. It engages in oil sales (both crude smuggled outside the Islamic State’s territory and retail sales of refined products within the area it controls) that allegedly earned it as much as US$500 million. It has trafficked in antiquities. It has raised almost an additional US$1 billion by taxing the population under its control and imposing tariffs on goods entering or leaving its territory. It also engages in extortion and kidnap-for-ransom operations to generate funds, totaling between US$35 million and US$45 million. And finally, it has relied heavily on donations from abroad.[41] The Islamic State in Libya’s finances are less well-documented, but even by rough estimates they are nowhere near the levels of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria. Like the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, it has attempted to impose sharia-compliant taxes in Sirte and, according to Islamic State propaganda, all shops in Sirte were paying taxes by the end of August 2015.[42] In addition, it is allegedly collecting tariffs on goods and vehicles on the coastal highway that runs east and west of the Sirte as well as on the highway heading out of town to the south.[43] It is also involved in smuggling, including potentially human trafficking, selling antiquities, and the resale of the “spoils of war (al-anfâl).”[44] Lastly, the Islamic State in Libya may be able to make money from small amounts of oil that it is able to bunker from nearby pipelines, but it is in no way involved in high-volume oil sales.[45] There are several reasons why the Islamic State in Libya has been unable to exploit Libya’s hydrocarbons resources. First, other powerful groups laid claim to different parts of the sector before the arrival of the Islamic State, and it is difficult for the Islamic State to oust them. Second, Libya’s oil infrastructure is spread out over an enormous area with terminals and storage facilities often hundreds of miles from the wellhead. While crude could be bunkered from pipelines, Libya does not have mom-and-pop teapot refineries that could refine crude into retail products.[46] Neither does Libya have a history of smuggling networks that could transport crude to markets outside the country.[47] Although these may develop in time, with crude trucked across the border into Egypt or Tunisia, this has not happened yet, and it is unlikely that the Islamic State would be the first beneficiary of them. Ultimately, a November 2015 U.N. report concluded that “[Islamic State] operations in Libya do not generate revenue, nor are they currently organized, to the same extent as its operations in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic.”[48] In short, were the Islamic State to lose ground in Iraq and Syria, it seems unlikely that it would be able to replace lost Iraqi and Syrian revenue with revenue from Libya, nor would a sole Libyan Islamic State be able to support itself. The Narrative’s Collapse The significance of the Islamic State in Libya’s shortcomings in comparison with the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria—fewer fighters, less territory, not much governance, and little revenue – is greater than the sum of their parts. A fundamental Islamic State narrative is that unlike its other jihadi rivals—and most importantly, al-Qa`ida—the Islamic State walks the walk. It governs.[49] While al-Qa`ida is engaged in a Trotsky-esque permanent jihad, the Islamic State is building the caliphate, and instead of just talking about social justice in Islam, it is implementing it.[50] But in Libya, it barely governs. Worse, contrary to its mantra of “remain and expand” (bâqîya wa tatamaddad), it has begun to lose ground and is shrinking in the face of counter-offensives from disparate Libyan armed groups that surround it, including other jihadi groups. It has lost its beachhead in Derna, and it recently lost its strongholds in Benghazi to forces grouped under the banner of Operation Dignity and its outpost in Sabratha to militias allied with the city-state of Misrata. Its inability to govern and to live up to its own slogan poses existential challenges for the Islamic State in Libya. In addition to being unable to leverage its claims to govern, the Islamic State in Libya is also unable to exploit a second narrative that is central to the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, namely Islam’s sectarian divide. The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria has framed its fight as a sectarian struggle. It is not fighting just to advance its own salafi jihadi interpretation of Sunni Islam, but more importantly, it is fighting to eliminate adherents to Shi`a interpretations of Islam. In fact, for the Islamic State, Shi`a interpretations of Islam are not Islam at all and the Islamic State’s struggle should be the struggle of all Muslims.[51] There are, however, no Shi`a in Libya. Consequently, the Islamic State in Libya is unable to prey upon sectarian divisions in order to rally support. In lieu of the Shi`a, it has turned its ire toward Sufi interpretations of Islam, which are widespread throughout Libya.[52] Jihadis are hostile to Sufi practices, but Libya’s Sufis are nonetheless Sunni. In addition, unlike the Middle East’s Shi`a, Libya’s Sufis are not supported by any state and cannot be easily depicted as proxies for those states. As a result, it is more difficult to frame the fight in Libya around them than it is around the Shi`a of Iraq and Syria. Alternately, the Islamic State in Libya has tried to frame its fight as one against injustice. But there are already plenty of groups in Libya claiming to wage the same battle, including other jihadi groups and salafi Islamist groups, and some of them are confronting the Islamic State directly, like the Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna. The battlespace for “commanding the right and forbidding the wrong” (al-‘amr bi al-ma`rûf wa al-nahî `an al-munkar) is crowded and the Islamic State has to compete with other groups not only for supporters but for its very raison d’être. Conclusion Minus sufficient manpower, revenue, and its two fundamental narrative tropes—governance and sectarianism—the ability of Libya to be a “fallback” for the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria is doubtful. Thus far, the Islamic State in Libya has only demonstrated a limited capacity to capture and hold territory, and it cannot fund itself. If large enough numbers heed al-Qahtani’s call, this could change, with new fighters allowing the Islamic State in Libya to launch new offensives that could restore its ability to seize cities and thereby restore its ability to generate revenue and one of its central narratives. But with al-Qahtani’s hijrah invitation now some six months old and the Islamic State in Libya’s numbers increasing only incrementally, this does not appear to be the most likely outcome. But the Islamic State in Libya does not have to be a replica of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria to be dangerous and disruptive for Libya and it neighbors. In early February, clashes between the Islamic State and the Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna resulted in at least two deaths. Islamic State members murdered 17 police officers in the aftermath of the U.S. airstrike in Sabratha, and it is still in control of Sirte where it is meting out unconscionable violence on the city’s inhabitants.[53] And even though it is unlikely that Islamic State leadership in Iraq and Syria will be able to transplant its Middle Eastern project to the shores of the Mediterranean, the Islamic State in Libya is still al-Baghdadi’s most potent affiliate. Even though the Islamic State has been unable to hold territory that it has captured with the exception of Sirte, the reach of its attacks throughout the country is expanding. In addition, it has already demonstrated the capacity to use Libya to strike other countries, having undertaken two devastating attacks in Tunisia in 2015 and mounted an assault on the Tunisian border town of Ben Gardane in March 2016 that resulted in the death of 12 army and security officers and seven civilians.[b] In the aftermath of the latter attack, several large arms caches allegedly belonging to the Islamic State were found in the town, indicating that the Islamic State had a long-standing presence there and was able to move freely across the border to Libya.[54] There also remains the very real possibility that the Islamic State in Libya could serve as a springboard for attacking Europe. The November 2015 Paris attacks showed that Islamic State in Iraq and Syria is able to move its supporters back and forth from its territory to Europe, and it will likely attempt the same thing in Libya. In February, French Minister of Defense Jean-Yves Le Drian warned of just such an eventuality. As summer months bring warmer weather and calmer seas, crossing the Mediterranean by boat becomes easier, and Le Drian fears that jihadis from Libya are likely to try to blend in with the increased refugee flows departing Libya’s shores.[55] And the Islamic State does not need to have three wilayat to do that. Dr. Geoff D. Porter is the president of North Africa Risk Consulting, the political and security risk consulting firm specializing in North Africa. Follow @geoffdporter Substantive Notes [a] The Special Deterrent Forces is a Tripoli-based radical salafi militia, but it is not a salafi jihadi militia. [b] The Islamic State-linked gunmen who carried out the attacks on the Bardo museum in March 2015 and a beach in Sousse in June 2015 trained together in Sabratha, Libya. Greg Botelho and Barbara Starr, “49 killed in U.S. airstrike targeting terrorists in Libya,” CNN, February 20, 2016. Citations [1] Dabiq, Issue 11, September 2015, p. 60. [2] Ibid., p. 63. [3] Andrew Beatty, “The anti-ISIS coalition is stepping up its bombing campaign in Syria,” Agence France Presse, September 10, 2015. [4] David D. Kirkpatrick, Ben Hubbard, and Eric Schmitt, “ISIS’ Grip on Libyan City Gives It a Fallback Option,” New York Times, November 28, 2015. [5] Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Support Mission in Libya, United Nations Security Council, February 25, 2016, p. 16. [6] Ibrahim Darwish, “`âm `ala al-khilâfa: al-dawla al-islâmîya, hal hiya bâqîya wa tatamaddad?” al-Quds al-Arabî, July 4, 2015. [7] “Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to paragraph 13 of the Security Council resolution 2214 (2015) concerning the terrorism threat in Libya posed by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant, Ansar al Charia, and all other Al-Qaida associates,” United Nations Security Council, November 19, 2015, p. 8; Brian Fishman and Joseph Felter, Al-Qa’ida’s Foreign Fighters in Iraq: A First Look at the Sinjar Records (West Point, NY: Combating Terrorism Center, 2007), p. 7. [8] Wolfram Lacher, “Libya: A Jihadist Growth Market,” in Guido Steinberg and Annette Weber eds., Jihadism in Africa, Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik Research Paper, June 2015, p. 41. [9] Frederic Wehrey and Ala’ Alrababa’h, Rising Out of Chaos: The Islamic State in Libya, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, March 5, 2015. [10] “Rafik Chelli: l’autuer de l’attentat de Sousse s’est entrainé à Sabratha,” MosaïqueFM, July 1, 2015. [11] Essam Zuber “Libya officials: Jihadis driving IS from eastern stronghold,” Associated Press, July 30, 2015. [12] Nathalie Guibert “La guerre secrete de la France en Libye,” Le Monde, February 24, 2016. [13] Ahmed Elumami “Libyan forces battle Islamic State in Sabratha, three killed,” Reuters, February 25, 2016. [14] Darwish, pg. 8. [15] “Islamic State setting up Libya training camps, US says,” BBC, December 4, 2014. [16] Kate Brannen and Keith Johnson, “The Islamic State of Libya Isn’t Much of a State,” Foreign Policy, February 17, 2015. [17] United Nations Security Council, p. 9. [18] “The US Military in Libya,” North Africa Risk Consulting, February 9, 2016. [19] Issandr El Amrani “How Much of Libya Does the Islamic State Control,” Foreign Policy, February 18, 2016. [20] Barbara Starr, “U.S. officials say 6,000 ISIS fighters killed in battles,” CNN, February 22, 2015. [21] “ISIS driving up fighter numbers in Iraq, Syria: CIA,” Agence France Presse, September 12, 2014. [22] Claims that the Islamic State had close to 100,000 fighters or double that number are investigated in Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, “How many fighters does the Islamic State really have?” War on the Rocks, February 9, 2015. [23] United Nations Security Council, p. 11. [24] Ibid., p. 14. [25] Colin Freeman, “Isil recruiting migrant ‘army of the poor’ with $1,000 sign-up bonuses,” Telegraph, February 1, 2016. [26] YouTube, “Sirte alati Yusaytir `alayha Da`ish mundhu Qurabat al-Sana.” [Sirte that has been Under Da`ish Control for Close to a Year], December 8, 2015. [27] Jacob Zenn “Wilayat West Africa Reboots for the Caliphate,” CTC Sentinel 8:8 (2015). [28] Nicolas Beau, “Syrte, une cinquantaine de français aux cotés de Daech,” MondeAfrique, February 12, 2016. [29] United Nations Security Council; Jim Sciutto, Barbara Starr, and Kevin Liptak, “ISIS fighters in Libya surge as group suffers setbacks in Syria, Iraq,” CNN, February 4, 2016. [30] Peter R. Neumann, “Foreign fighter total in Syria/Iraq now exceeds 20,000; surpasses Afghanistan conflict in the 1980s,” International Centre for the Study of Radicalization, January 26, 2015. [31] Ibid.	i don't know
'The Sunshine Tour' is a men's professional golf tour where most of the events are staged in which country?	Sunshine Tour - The Full Wiki The Full Wiki Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles . From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents 5 External links The Sunshine Tour is a men's professional golf tour based in Southern Africa. For much of its history it was known either as the South African Tour or the FNB Tour, but it rebranded itself in an attempt to broaden its appeal. A large majority of the tour events are still staged in South Africa . The tour is one of the six leading men's tours which make up the International Federation of PGA Tours , but it offers much less prize money than some of the leading tours, and leading Southern African golfers always prefer to play on the PGA Tour or the European Tour if they can qualify to do so, typically returning to play in Sunshine Tour events a couple of times a year. The tour's three leading official money events, the South African Open , the Alfred Dunhill Championship , and the Joburg Open are co-sanctioned with the European Tour in order to attract stronger fields. Each season is scheduled across two calendar years and concludes with a tour championship in late February. The 2005/06 season included 21 official money events. The South African Open and the Dunhill Championship had purses of € 1 million each and the other 19 had purses designated in South African Rand and ranging from 250,000 rand to 2 million rand. The tour also co-sanctions the US$ 5 million HSBC Champions Tournament in China, but it is not an official money event. There was at least one tournament every month of the year except July, but the main events took place in the South African summer from November to February. There are separate qualifying schools in March and in late October/early November, effectively dividing the tour into two series of events. The March to October series is a developmental program for emerging, mainly local, players, held when all the leading Southern African players are plying their trade in other parts of the world. The November to February series attracts almost all the top South Africans, even if only for one or two events, and also some good quality international players. The tour has been open to non-White players since 1991. The first three Black winners were John Mashego at the 1991 Bushveld Classic, Lindani Ndwandwe at the 2001 Western Cape Classic and Tongoona Charamba at the 2006 SAA Pro-Am Invitational. [1] The richest golf tournament in South Africa is the Nedbank Golf Challenge , an unofficial money but Sunshine Tour-recognized tournament. Schedule Main article: 2010 Sunshine Tour The Sunshine Tour consists of two distinct parts, commonly referred to as the "Summer Swing" and "Winter Swing". Tournaments held during the Summer Swing generally have much higher prize funds, attract stronger fields, and are the only tournaments on the tour to carry world ranking points. The Winter Swing runs from March to November, dividing the Summer Swing in two. Tournament prize funds do not count directly towards the Order of Merit. The richest events on the tour, are those that are co-sanctioned with the European Tour . Order of Merit winners The Order of Merit winners are shown below. Players are required to play in a minimum number of tournaments to qualify for the Order of Merit. As the richest events on the tour (those co-sanctioned by the European Tour) tend to be won by players who don't play enough events to qualify, in recent years the Order of Merit winner has often not actually been the player who won most money in Sunshine Tour sanctioned events. This list is incomplete.	South Africa
Disregarding Australia as it's a continental land mass, which is the largest island crossed by the Tropic of Capricorn?	Sunshine Tour : definition of Sunshine Tour and synonyms of Sunshine Tour (English) SunshineTour.com The Sunshine Tour is a men's professional golf tour based in Southern Africa. For much of its history it was known either as the South African Tour or the FNB Tour, but it rebranded itself in an attempt to broaden its appeal. A large majority of the tour events are still staged in South Africa . The tour is one of the six leading men's tours which before 2009 made up the membership of the International Federation of PGA Tours , but it offers much less prize money than some of the leading tours, and leading Southern African golfers always prefer to play on the PGA Tour or the European Tour if they can qualify to do so, typically returning to play in Sunshine Tour events a couple of times a year. The tour's three leading official money events, the South African Open , the Alfred Dunhill Championship , and the Joburg Open are co-sanctioned with the European Tour in order to attract stronger fields. Each season is scheduled across two calendar years and concludes with a tour championship in late February. The 2005/06 season included 21 official money events. The South African Open and the Dunhill Championship had purses of € 1 million each and the other 19 had purses designated in South African Rand and ranging from 250,000 rand to 2 million rand. The tour also co-sanctions the US$ 5 million HSBC Champions in China, but it is not an official money event. There was at least one tournament every month of the year except July, but the main events took place in the South African summer from November to February. There are separate qualifying schools in March and in late October/early November, effectively dividing the tour into two series of events. The March to October series is a developmental program for emerging, mainly local, players, held when all the leading Southern African players are plying their trade in other parts of the world. The November to February series attracts almost all the top South Africans, even if only for one or two events, and also some good quality international players. The tour has been open to non-White players since 1991. The first three Black winners were John Mashego at the 1991 Bushveld Classic, Lindani Ndwandwe at the 2001 Western Cape Classic and Tongoona Charamba at the 2006 SAA Pro-Am Invitational. [1] The current richest golf tournament in South Africa is the Nedbank Golf Challenge , an unofficial money but Sunshine Tour-recognized tournament. Starting in 2012, the Sunshine Tour will host a new World Golf Championships event to be known as the Tournament of Hope, which is planned to have a purse of US$10 million, the richest in the sport. [2] Contents Main article: 2012 Sunshine Tour The Sunshine Tour consists of two distinct parts, commonly referred to as the "Summer Swing" and "Winter Swing". Tournaments held during the Summer Swing generally have much higher prize funds and attract stronger fields. The Winter Swing runs from March to November, dividing the Summer Swing in two. Tournament prize funds do not count directly towards the Order of Merit. The richest events on the tour are those that are co-sanctioned with the European Tour . Order of Merit winners The winner of the Sunshine Tour Order of Merit is awarded the Sid Brews Trophy. The Order of Merit winners are shown below. Players are required to play in a minimum number of tournaments to qualify for the Order of Merit. As the richest events on the tour (those co-sanctioned by the European Tour) tend to be won by players who don't play enough events to qualify, in recent years the Order of Merit winner has often not actually been the player who won most money in Sunshine Tour sanctioned events. This list is incomplete.	i don't know
At the 2009 'Oscars' ceremony, which film received 10 nominations and won 8 awards?	Oscars: 10 nominations for Slumdog Millionaire \| Film \| The Guardian Close This article is 7 years old The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, the curious movie about a man who ages backwards, headed the Oscar nominations announced today in Los Angeles. Slumdog Millionaire , Danny Boyle's Mumbai-set tale, which took best drama at this month's Golden Globes, continued its own rags-to-riches story with a total of 10 nominations. For another British hopeful, the nominations were a mixed tale: Kate Winslet, heavily tipped to be nominated for both best actress and best supporting actress following her Globes triumph, received just one nod from the academy. Curiously, her best actress nomination was for The Reader, the film for which she won best supporting actress at the Globes. The Reader's British director, Stephen Daldry , received a nomination for best director. Her omission for Revolutionary Road means that Oscar viewers will have to settle for the possibility of just one gushing acceptance speech from the actress. The other leading British contender was Frost/Nixon, which received five nominations including best picture. "It's very good timing for this film," said Working Title's Eric Fellner, the producer of Frost/Nixon, which opens in the UK on Friday. "This will give it the pedigree that will hopefully propel it into another dimension. I'm really proud of this film; I think it's brilliant." Other than Winslet missing out for Revolutionary Road, the morning's big surprise was the omission of Clint Eastwood's Gran Torino. The film had been tipped as a strong contender in the major categories, its themes and star considered a likely favourite among the members of the Academy of Motion Pictures. The Dark Knight also missed out in the major picture categories, although Heath Ledger did receive a nod as best supporting actor for his performance as the Joker. The announcement came a year to the day after the Australian actor's death from an overdose at the age of 28. Nevertheless, The Dark Knight did receive eight nominations, mainly in technical categories. Milk, Gus Van Sant's biopic of the gay rights campaigner Harvey Milk starring Sean Penn , also received eight nominations, including best film, director, actor and supporting actor. "It's just as good as the first time," said Van Sant. "Well, almost as good. It's huge that we were able to get so many nominations for a story that we felt was so important. It's really great for the movie and for the progress of Harvey's efforts as a gay politician." But the early morning announcement was dominated by Button. The film snagged 13 nominations including best film, best director for David Fincher, best actor for Brad Pitt and best supporting actress for Taraji Henderson. Pitt will be accompanied to the ceremony by his wife, Angelina Jolie , who received a best actress nomination for The Changeling. She is joined by awards veteran Meryl Streep, who consolidated her position as the most-nominated actress in Oscar history with another nomination. Other nominees include Anne Hathaway for Rachel Getting Married and Melissa Leo for Frozen River. The best actor category features a quartet of heavy hitters and an outsider. Sean Penn, Frank Langella and Mickey Rourke were all expected to be nominated alongside Pitt, but the inclusion of Richard Jenkins for his performance as a college professor in The Visitor was a surprise. Another surprise was the best supporting actor nomination for Michael Shannon for his standout performance in Revolutionary Road. Winslet and her co-star Leonardo DiCaprio had been tipped for nominations for the Sam Mendes-directed drama, but both missed out. Elsewhere the nominations went to form: WALL-E will be favourite in the animated feature section and Waltz With Bashir will be strongly tipped in the foreign language category. The team behind Slumdog was ecstatic at the news of the film's 10 nominations. "Secretly – and sometimes not so secretly – this is the nomination that floats in every screenwriter's dreams," said writer Simon Beaufoy. "I am fantastically happy and honoured – not just for myself but for Vikas Swarup's wonderful novel without which I would have never started my journey to the world's Maximum City, Mumbai." One of the film's young stars, Dev Patel, concurred. "It's just amazing," he said. "For Slumdog Millionaire to be included in the nominations for the Oscars is a huge honour. When we first began working on the film I don't think any of us ever imagined that we might end up attending the Oscars ceremony as a result." The Oscars ceremony takes place on 22 February in Los Angeles, hosted this year by the Australian actor Hugh Jackman . David Thomson: The morning after its seven-Bafta triumph, here are 10 reasons why Danny Boyle's crowdpleaser is unsurpassable in the race for the little gold men Published: 9 Feb 2009 Bollywood actor Anil Kapoor on why Slumdog Millionaire is a feelgood movie with a difference and why the future belongs to India Published: 18 Feb 2009 Oscar-tipped film's creators accused of paying their child actors paltry sums Published: 30 Jan 2009 Charles Gant: Week-on-week takings for Danny Boyle's melodrama jump 44%, while Seven Pounds fails to cash in Published: 20 Jan 2009	Slumdog Millionaire
In which continent was the 'Songhai Empire', one of the largest empires in history?	The Academy Awards through the years - Timelines - Los Angeles Times The Academy Awards through the years By Los Angeles Times Staff Feb. 26, 2016 10:56 a.m. The first ceremony made the Los Angeles Times’ front page under the headline “Film-Merit Trophies Awarded.” Coverage was all of one photograph and two paragraphs. Since then, the Academy Awards have become an event watched around the world. Scroll down for a year-by-year look at the Oscars. Related Shrine May 16, 1929 The first Academy Awards at the Hollywood Roosevelt's Blossom Room (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) Before a large gathering of motion-picture celebrities and other notables, the first Academy Awards ceremony is held at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. Academy President Douglas Fairbanks handed out 15 statuettes for outstanding achievement in 1927 and 1928. Best picture: “Wings” Actor: Emil Jannings , “The Last Command” and “The Way of all Flesh” Actress: Janet Gaynor , “Seventh Heaven,” “Street Angel” and “Sunrise” Director: Frank Borzage , “Seventh Heaven” Tagged as Other April 3, 1930 "Broadway Melody" was released in 1929 and took top honors at the Academy Awards the next year. (MGM) The Academy Awards are announced during a banquet attended by 300 academy members and their guests at the Ambassador Hotel. Academy President William C. deMille presents seven gold statuettes. Best picture: “The Broadway Melody” Nov. 5, 1930 Norma Shearer with her statuette for "The Divorcee." (Associated Press) Conrad Nagel, vice president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, presents the statuettes at the third awards ceremony. The 600 attendees watch “Artistic and Otherwise,” a “sound recording film” by Thomas A. Edison on the industry’s progress in the last decade. Best picture: “All Quiet on the Western Front” Actress: Norma Shearer , “The Divorcee” Director: Lewis Milestone , “All Quiet on the Western Front” Tagged as Nov. 10, 1931 Marie Dressler and Lionel Barrymore after their wins. (Associated Press) The notables of Filmland gather at the Biltmore Hotel for the annual banquet. U.S. Vice President Charles Curtis tells the 2,000 gathered: “To my mind, the motion-picture industry is one of man’s greatest benefactors — it is great in size, in reputation and in worth.” Best picture: “Cimarron” Biltmore Nov. 18, 1932 Wallace Beery, left, and Jackie Cooper starred in "The Champ." (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) Lionel Barrymore is the toastmaster at the annual awards banquet at the Ambassador Hotel. Walt Disney is given a special award for his series of Mickey Mouse cartoons. As the ballots are turned in they are dropped into a special machine and tabulated “in full view of the assembled guests.” Best picture: “Grand Hotel” Actor: Fredric March , “Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde” and Wallace Beery , “The Champ” Actress: Helen Hayes , “The Sin of Madelon Claudet” Director: Frank Borzage , “Bad Girl” Tagged as March 16, 1934 Douglas Fairbanks Jr. with Katharine Hepburn in a scene from "Morning Glory" (Associated Press) Katharine Hepburn, still a newcomer to Hollywood, wins her first Academy Award for her work in “Morning Glory.” “Little Women,” in which she also stars, finishes third in the race for best production behind “A Farewell to Arms” and the winner, a film adaptation of playwright Noel Coward’s “Calvacade.” Best picture: “Cavalcade” Feb. 27, 1935 Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert in "It Happened One Night." (Columbia Pictures) The humorist Irvin S. Cobb presents the gold statuettes at the Biltmore Hotel. In “a radical departure from all previous elections,” the balloting is done in the open and write-ins are allowed. Although she doesn’t win, Bette Davis receives the most write-in votes for her work in “Of Human Bondage.” Best picture: “It Happened One Night” Actor: Clark Gable , “It Happened One Night” Actress: Claudette Colbert , “It Happened One Night” Director: Frank Capra , “It Happened One Night” Tagged as March 5, 1936 Bette Davis, center, with Victor McLaglen, left, and D.W. Griffith (Los Angeles Times) Bette Davis and Victor McLaglen win by wide margins at the eighth film awards. Despite a boycott by the writers’ and actors’ guilds, the banquet reservations are sold-out two weeks earlier, according to Frank Capra, the academy president. Best picture: “Mutiny on the Bounty” Director: John Ford , “The Informer” Tagged as March 4, 1937 Jean Arthur and Gary Cooper in "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town" (File photo) Luise Rainer and Paul Muni, both Austrians, are accorded Hollywood’s highest acting honors at the academy banquet at the Biltmore Hotel. The academy for the first time recognizes supporting performances. Best picture: “The Great Ziegfeld” Actor: Paul Muni , “The Story of Louis Pasteur” Actress: Luise Rainer , “The Great Ziegfeld” Supporting actor: Walter Brennan , “Come and Get It” Supporting actress: Gale Sondergaard, “Anthony Adverse” Director: Frank Capra , “Mr. Deeds Goes to Town” Tagged as March 10, 1938 Gale Sondergaard and Joseph Schildkraut star in "The Life of Emile Zola" (Warner Bros.) Spencer Tracy wins for his role in “Captains Courageous” but misses the festivities — he is recuperating from surgery at Good Samaritan Hospital. Luise Rainer wins for the second year in a row. The academy presents its first Irving Thalberg Memorial Award to producer Darryl Zanuck . Best picture: “The Life of Emile Zola” Director: Billy Wilder , “The Lost Weekend” Tagged as March 13, 1947 Harold Russell holds his two Oscars. (File photo) Harold Russell, who had lost both hands in an Army training exercise, earns two Oscars, supporting actor and a special award, for his performance as a veteran struggling to adapt in “The Best Years of Our Lives.” Jack Benny serves as master of ceremonies. Best picture: “The Best Years of Our Lives” Actor: Fredric March , “The Best Years of Our Lives” Actress: Olivia de Havilland , “To Each His Own” Supporting actor: Harold Russell , “The Best Years of Our Lives” Supporting actress: Anne Baxter , “The Razor’s Edge” Director: William Wyler , “The Best Years of Our Lives” Tagged as Shrine March 20, 1948 Celeste Holm and director John Stahl at the Mocambo nightclub after her win. (Los Angeles Times) Loretta Young’s unexpected win for lead actress is a “major upset,” according to The Times’ coverage. Overall, the night brings few other surprises, with the exception of a man arriving in a gorilla suit and making his way into the Shrine Auditorium before law enforcement intervenes. Best picture: “Gentleman’s Agreement” Supporting actress: Claire Trevor , “Key Largo” Director: John Huston , “The Treasure of the Sierra Madre” Tagged as Other March 23, 1950 Mercedes McCambridge, center left, John Ireland and Broderick Crawford, center right, in "All the King's Men" (Columbia Pictures) Character actor Paul Douglas hosts of the 22nd Academy Awards. Though “All the King’s Men” takes the top award, “The Heiress” is the night’s biggest winner, taking home four of the eight Oscars for which it was nominated. Best picture: “All the King’s Men” Actor: Broderick Crawford , “All the King’s Men” Actress: Olivia de Havilland , “The Heiress” Supporting actor: Dean Jagger , “12 O’Clock High” Supporting actress: Mercedes McCambridge , “All the King’s Men” Director: Joseph L. Mankiewicz , for “A Letter to Three Wives” Tagged as March 29, 1951 Judy Holliday starred with Broderick Crawford, center, and William Holden in "Born Yesterday." (File photo) Fred Astaire is host and the RKO Pantages Theatre is the venue, but the night of the 23rd Academy Awards is all about “All About Eve.” The inside Hollywood tale enters the evening with a record 14 nominations. It ultimately wins six. Best picture: “All About Eve” Director: Joseph L. Mankiewicz , “All About Eve” Tagged as March 20, 1952 Kim Hunter as Stella in "A Streetcar Named Desire." (Warner Bros.) Singer, dancer, comedian Danny Kaye, the evening’s host, is in the midst of his film career. The night’s top winner, “An American in Paris” is only the second best picture to be in color. The first, “Gone With the Wind” had won the top prize 12 years earlier. Best picture: “An American in Paris” Actor: Humphrey Bogart , for “The African Queen” Actress: Vivien Leigh , “A Streetcar Named Desire” Supporting actor: Karl Malden , “A Streetcar Named Desire” Supporting actress: Kim Hunter , “A Streetcar Named Desire” Director: George Stevens , “A Place in the Sun” Tagged as Pantages March 19, 1953 Shirley Booth laughs heartily as actor Fredric March prepares to give her a kiss on the cheek after she was presented with an Oscar. (AP Photo) The first televised ceremony is close to a three-ring circus. The show spans the continent, with Bob Hope hosting in Hollywood and Fredric March in New York at the NBC Century Theatre. Cecil B. DeMille’s circus movie beats the favored nominee, “High Noon.” Many consider DeMille’s film to be the worst movie to ever win best picture. Best picture: “The Greatest Show on Earth” Director: John Ford , “The Quiet Man” Tagged as Pantages March 25, 1954 Frank Sinatra and Donna Reed win for their performances in "From Here to Eternity." (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) The second ceremony to be televised on NBC is again a bi-coastal affair, with Donald O’Connor hosting from the Pantages and Fredric March hosting at the NBC Century Theatre in NYC. Both the lead actor and lead actress awards were presented remotely by Gary Cooper and Shirley Booth, with O’Connor announcing the winners in L.A. Best picture: “From Here to Eternity” Actress: Audrey Hepburn , “Roman Holiday” Supporting actor: Frank Sinatra , “From Here to Eternity” Supporting actress: Donna Reed , “From Here to Eternity” Director: Fred Zinnemann , “From Here to Eternity” Tagged as March 30, 1955 Eva Marie Saint and Marlon Brando from a scene in "On the Waterfront" (Sony Repertory) Bob Hope hosts the televised ceremony from Hollywood and Thelma Ritter hosts in New York. A rematch for lead actor between Humphrey Bogart and Marlon Brando, who were both up for the award three years earlier, ends with Brando getting his first Oscar, for his role in “On the Waterfront.” Best picture: “On the Waterfront” March 26, 1958 Alec Guinness in "The Bridge on the River Kwai" (Columbia Pictures) The first Oscar ceremony broadcast live on TV is an L.A.-only affair, featuring multiple hosts, including Bob Hope, Rosalind Russell, David Niven, James Stewart, Jack Lemmon and Donald Duck. “Peyton Place” is notorious for having nine nominations, but no wins. Best picture: “The Bridge on the River Kwai” Actor: Alec Guinness , “The Bridge on the River Kwai” Actress: Joanne Woodward , “The Three Faces of Eve” Supporting actor: Red Buttons , “Sayonara” Supporting actress: Miyoshi Umeki, “Sayonara” Director: David Lean, “The Bridge on the River Kwai” Tagged as April 6, 1959 Susan Hayward wipes the brow of fellow winner David Niven. (Los Angeles Times) The telecast from the Pantages Theatre is noted for its shortness. In fact, the broadcast ends 20 minutes earlier than expected, leaving host Jerry Lewis attempting to fill time. This marks the last time anyone says the Oscars ceremony is too short. Best picture: “Gigi” Director: Billy Wilder , “The Apartment” Tagged as April 9, 1962 Sophia Loren, left, in "Two Women" (Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences) Bob Hope hosts the awards for the seventh time. The ceremony lasts over two hours, a first. Lax security allows a New York City cab driver to get up on stage and award Hope with his own homemade Oscar statuette. Best picture: “West Side Story” Actor: Maximilian Schell, “Judgment at Nuremberg” Actress: Sophia Loren , “Two Women” Supporting actor: George Chakiris, “West Side Story” Supporting actress: Rita Moreno , “West Side Story” Director: Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins, “West Side Story” Tagged as April 8, 1963 Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch in "To Kill a Mockingbird" (Universal Studios) Frank Sinatra hosts the awards from the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium, but he almost doesn’t make it into the building. The singer forgets his parking sticker and is turned away from the parking lot by security. He has to park his own car and hustle over to the auditorium. Best picture: “Lawrence of Arabia” Actor: Gregory Peck , “To Kill a Mockingbird” Actress: Anne Bancroft , “The Miracle Worker” Supporting actor: Ed Begley, “Sweet Bird of Youth” Supporting actress: Patty Duke , “The Miracle Worker” Director: David Lean, “Lawrence of Arabia” Tagged as April 13, 1964 Sidney Poitier and Lilia Skala in "Lilies of the Field" (File photo) Jack Lemmon hosts in Santa Monica. “Tom Jones” picks up best picture and is the only film in history to get three supporting actress nominations. Sidney Poitier’s win is greeted with a roar of approval. Best picture: “Tom Jones” Director: George Cukor , “My Fair Lady” Tagged as April 18, 1966 Shelley Winters as the abusive mother in "A Patch of Blue" (MGM) The Oscars are broadcast in color for the first time. Bob Hope hosts again. The two most nominated films, “Doctor Zhivago” and “The Sound of Music,” are also two of the biggest box-office hits of all time. Best picture: “The Sound of Music” Actor: Lee Marvin, “Cat Ballou” Actress: Julie Christie, “Darling” Supporting actor: Martin Balsam, “A Thousand Clowns” Supporting actress: Shelley Winters , “A Patch of Blue” Director: Robert Wise , “The Sound of Music” Tagged as April 10, 1967 Walter Matthau with presenter Shelley Winters (File photo) A strike by the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) threatens to derail the Oscars, but is settled with just hours to spare. Bob Hope is back for his 16th time as host and quips when the show returns from commercial without a cue: “I’m not ready for another crisis.” Best picture: “A Man for All Seasons” Actor: Paul Scofield, “A Man for All Seasons” Actress: Elizabeth Taylor , “Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?” Supporting actor: Walter Matthau , “The Fortune Cookie” Supporting actress: Sandy Dennis, “Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?” Director: Fred Zinnemann , “A Man for All Seasons” Tagged as Santa Monica April 10, 1968 Sidney Poitier and Rod Steiger in a scene from "In the Heat of the Night" (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) Hollywood is changing and the Oscars ceremony reflects it. While lavish holdovers of the previous era are still in evidence (“Doctor Dolittle”), they seem out of place with the crop of New Hollywood productions, including “The Graduate” and “Bonnie and Clyde.” Bob Hope hosts again. Best picture: “In the Heat of the Night” Actor: Rod Steiger , “In the Heat of the Night” Actress: Katharine Hepburn , “Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner” Supporting actor: George Kennedy , “Cool Hand Luke” Supporting actress: Estelle Parsons, “Bonnie and Clyde” Director: Mike Nichols, “The Graduate” Tagged as April 14, 1969 Oscar winner Barbra Streisand sports a transparent bell bottom jumpsuit. (Associated Press) It’s a tie! The academy awards the lead actress Oscar to Barbra Streisand for “Funny Girl” and to Katharine Hepburn for “The Lion in Winter.” It’s the first time the ceremony has been held at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in downtown Los Angeles. Best picture: “Oliver!” Chandler April 7, 1970 John Wayne accepts his Oscar as presenter Barbra Streisand looks on. (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) The Oscars are held at Dorothy Chandler Pavilion. The show is picketed by blacks protesting the lack of black musicians in the orchestra and Latinos upset about portrayals in “Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid.” John Wayne picks up his first Oscar, for “True Grit,” and comments: “I should have put on that eye patch 35 years ago.” Best picture: “Midnight Cowboy” Actor: John Wayne , “True Grit” Actress: Maggie Smith, “The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie” Supporting actor: Gig Young , “They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?” Supporting actress: Goldie Hawn, “Cactus Flower” Director: John Schlesinger, “Midnight Cowboy” Tagged as Chandler April 15, 1971 George C. Scott is seen in a 20th Century Fox handout photo from the 1970 movie "Patton." (AP Photo / 20th Century Fox) “Patton” makes what The Times calls an “astonishing” sweep, earning eight Oscars, including lead actor for George C. Scott, who had previously said he would refuse the honor. The ceremony introduces an award for original song score, which goes to the Beatles for “Let it Be.” Best picture: “Patton” April 2, 1974 A man later identified as Robert Opel streaks behind host David Niven. (Associated Press) Tatum O’Neal, 9, gets a sustained ovation for her unexpected win. Katharine Hepburn , a three-time winner, makes her first appearance at the awards in order to present the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award to producer Lawrence Weingarten. David Niven is at the podium when a streaker makes his way across the stage. Best picture: “The Sting” Actor: Jack Lemmon , “Save the Tiger” Actress: Glenda Jackson, “A Touch of Class” Supporting actor: John Houseman, “The Paper Chase” Supporting actress: Tatum O’Neal, “Paper Moon” Director: George Roy Hill, “The Sting” Tagged as April 8, 1975 Robert De Niro as Vito Corleone in "The Godfather Part II" (Paramount Pictures) Wins by Art Carney and Ellen Burstyn are crowd-pleasers. Carney gets an extra ovation when he thanks his agent for urging him to take the role with the advice: “Do it! You are old!” Francis Ford Coppola has a big night, personally taking home three Oscars for “The Godfather Part II.” Best picture: “The Godfather Part II” Actor: Art Carney , “Harry and Tonto” Actress: Ellen Burstyn, “Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore” Supporting actor: Robert De Niro, “The Godfather Part II” Supporting actress: Ingrid Bergman , “Murder on the Orient Express” Director: Francis Ford Coppola, “The Godfather Part II” Tagged as Chandler March 29, 1976 R.P. McMurphy (Jack Nicholson) and Nurse Ratched (Louise Fletcher) in “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest” (Fantasy Films) “Cuckoo’s Nest” sweeps the Oscars, marking the first time since 1934’s “It Happened One Night” that one film claims four top awards — best picture, lead actress, lead actor and director. Octogenarian Mary Pickford accepts a special Oscar in a segment filmed earlier at her famed estate Pickfair. Best picture: “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest” Actor: Jack Nicholson , “One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest” Actress: Louise Fletcher, “One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest” Supporting actor: George Burns , “The Sunshine Boys” Supporting actress: Lee Grant, “Shampoo” Director: Milos Forman, “One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest” Tagged as March 28, 1977 "Rocky" star and screenwriter Sylvester Stallone at the Dorothy Chandler Pavillion. (Ron Galella / WireImage) Peter Finch becomes the first actor to win a posthumous Oscar, for his role in “Network.” During the show, Sylvester Stallone, who wrote and starred in best picture winner “Rocky,” jokingly spars on stage with boxing great Muhammad Ali, who kids him about “stealing my script.” Best picture: “Rocky” Supporting actor: Jason Robards, “All the President’s Men” Supporting actress: Beatrice Straight, “Network” Director: John G. Avildsen, “Rocky” Tagged as April 3, 1978 Woody Allen and Diane Keaton in "Annie Hall" (File photo) Box-office blockbuster “Star Wars” fails to take any top awards but does secure six regular and one special Oscar. Woody Allen is a no-show and Vanessa Redgrave’s fiery, political acceptance speech draws boos and hisses. Best picture: “Annie Hall” Actor: Richard Dreyfuss , “The Goodbye Girl” Actress: Diane Keaton, “Annie Hall” Supporting actor: Jason Robards, “Julia” Supporting actress: Vanessa Redgrave, “Julia” Director: Woody Allen, “Annie Hall” Tagged as April 9, 1979 Jon Voight and Jane Fonda (Los Angeles Times) Two controversial films about dealing with the war in Vietnam win top honors. Jane Fonda speaks in sign language during her acceptance speech. John Wayne and Laurence Olivier, both in poor health, get standing ovations when they appear on stage. Best picture: “The Deer Hunter” Actor: Jon Voight, “Coming Home” Actress: Jane Fonda, “Coming Home” Supporting actor: Christopher Walken, “The Deer Hunter” Supporting actress: Maggie Smith, “California Suite” Director: Michael Cimino, “The Deer Hunter” Tagged as April 14, 1980 Jack Lemmon, Meryl Streep and presenter Cloris Leachman (Los Angeles Times) “Kramer vs. Kramer” wins five Oscars, including best picture, director, lead actor and supporting actress — Meryl Streep’s first Oscar win. She beats out fellow “Kramer vs. Kramer” actress Jane Alexander for the award. Johnny Carson hosts. Best picture: “Kramer vs. Kramer” Actor: Dustin Hoffman, “Kramer vs. Kramer” Supporting actor: Melvyn Douglas , “Being There” Supporting actress: Meryl Streep , “Kramer vs. Kramer” Tagged as March 31, 1981 Robert De Niro holds his best actor Oscar for "Raging Bull." ( AP Photo) The ceremony, hosted by Johnny Carson, is scheduled for March 30 but postponed a day after the assassination attempt on President Ronald Reagan. The acting winners are all under 40. De Niro declines to talk about any connection between “Taxi Driver” and the attempt on the president’s life. Best picture: “Ordinary People” Actor: Robert De Niro, “Raging Bull” Actress: Sissy Spacek , “Coal Miner’s Daughter” Supporting actor: Timothy Hutton, “Ordinary People” Supporting actress: Mary Steenburgen , “Melvin and Howard” Director: Robert Redford, “Ordinary People” Tagged as March 29, 1982 Henry Fonda and Katharine Hepburn in "On Golden Pond" (Universal Studios) “Chariots of Fire” beats out “Reds,” “Raiders of the Lost Ark,” “On Golden Pond” and “Atlantic City” for best picture. Henry Fonda wins lead actor for “On Golden Pond” at age 76, setting a record as the oldest winner in the category. His only previous acting nomination was four decades prior for “The Grapes of Wrath.” Johnny Carson hosts. Best picture: “Chariots of Fire” Chandler April 9, 1984 James Brooks, left, Shirley MacLaine and Jack Nicholson won awards for "Terms of Endearment." (Los Angeles Times) “Terms of Endearment” wins five of its 11 nomination categories, including best picture. Linda Hunt wins the supporting actress Oscar for “The Year of Living Dangerously,” in which she played a male photographer. It’s the first time an actor wins an Oscar for portraying a character of the opposite sex. Johnny Carson is back as host. Best picture: “Terms of Endearment” Actress: Shirley MacLaine , “Terms of Endearment” Supporting actor: Jack Nicholson , “Terms of Endearment” Supporting actress: Linda Hunt, “The Year of Living Dangerously” Director: James Brooks, “Terms of Endearment” Tagged as March 25, 1985 Haing Ngor, right, and Sam Waterston in "The Killing Fields" “Amadeus” wins the top prize, but the ceremony is best remembered for Sally Field’s acceptance speech: “The first time I didn’t feel it, but this time I feel it, and I can’t deny the fact that you like me, right now, you like me!” Jack Lemmon hosts. Best picture: “Amadeus” Chandler March 24, 1986 Cher presented Don Ameche with the supporting actor Oscar for his performance in "Cocoon." (Lennox McLendon / Associated Press) “Out of Africa,” nominated in 11 categories, wins seven Oscars, including best picture and best director. The night’s big story is the total shut out of “The Color Purple,” also was nominated in 11 categories. Jane Fonda, Alan Alda and Robin Williams co-host. Best picture: “Out of Africa” Actor: William Hurt, “Kiss of the Spider Woman” Actress: Geraldine Page, “The Trip to Bountiful” Supporting actor: Don Ameche , “Cocoon” Supporting actress: Anjelica Huston , “Prizzi’s Honor” Director: Sydney Pollack, “Out of Africa” Tagged as March 30, 1987 Tom Cruise, left, and Paul Newman in "The Color of Money" (Fox Broadcasting Co.) Chevy Chase, Goldie Hawn and Paul Hogan co-host the event — the last ceremony to have multiple hosts for 20 years. “Platoon” wins best picture, director, and two other Oscars. Oliver Stone thanks everyone for “this Cinderella ending.” Best picture: “Platoon” Director: Bernardo Bertolucci , “The Last Emperor” Tagged as March 29, 1989 Tom Cruise, left, and Dustin Hoffman in a scene from "Rain Man" (United Artists) “Rain Man,” the story of man whose autistic savant brother inherits their father’s fortune, takes four of the eight Oscars for which it is nominated. The producers change the traditional line “And the winner is…” to “And the Oscar goes to…” But the show goes down in infamy for an opening act that featured Rob Lowe singing with Snow White. Best picture: “Rain Man” Actor: Dustin Hoffman, “Rain Man” Actress: Jodie Foster, “The Accused” Supporting actor: Kevin Kline , “A Fish Called Wanda” Supporting actress: Geena Davis, “The Accidental Tourist” Director: Barry Levinson, “Rain Man” Tagged as March 26, 1990 Brenda Fricker kisses Oscar at the 62nd Annual Academy Awards. (Ron Galella / WireImage) Billy Crystal hosts the ceremony for the first time. The show is held at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, half the size of the Shrine Auditorium, and producer Gil Cates has to limit the number of tickets for Academy members. Best picture: “Driving Miss Daisy” Actor: Daniel Day-Lewis, “My Left Foot” Actress: Jessica Tandy , “Driving Miss Daisy” Supporting actor: Denzel Washington, “Glory” Supporting actress: Brenda Fricker, “My Left Foot” Director: Oliver Stone , “Born on the Fourth of July” Tagged as March 25, 1991 Kevin Costner in "Dances With Wolves" (Ben Glass / Orion Pictures Corp.) Billy Crystal hosts for the second time (he even won two Emmys for the gig). Reba McEntire performs, dedicating the song to her road manager and seven band members who died in a car crash earlier that month. “Dances With Wolves” wins seven Oscars, including best picture. Best picture: “Dances With Wolves” Actor: Jeremy Irons, “Reversal of Fortune” Actress: Kathy Bates, “Misery” Director: Kevin Costner , “Dances with Wolves” Tagged as Shrine March 30, 1992 Billy Crystal, in a mask like Hannibal Lecter was forced to wear, greets Anthony Hopkins on stage. (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) Billy Crystal hosts for the third consecutive telecast. “The Silence of the Lambs” sweeps the top five categories, including best picture, actor, actress, director and adapted screenplay. Jack Palance, 72, surprises the audience by doing push-ups on stage. Best picture: “The Silence of the Lambs” Actor: Anthony Hopkins , “The Silence of the Lambs” Actress: Jodie Foster, “The Silence of the Lambs” Supporting actor: Jack Palance , “City Slickers” Supporting actress: Mercedes Ruehl, “The Fisher King” Director: Jonathan Demme, “The Silence of the Lambs” Tagged as March 29, 1993 Gene Hackman and Marisa Tomei (Al Seib / Los Angeles Times) “Unforgiven” wins four Academy Awards, including a best director Oscar for Clint Eastwood — his first. Some criticize the theme, “Women and the Movies,” as hypocritical. Considering it’s also the year of “Basic Instinct,” one female screenwriter suggests “year of the psychotic woman” as more appropriate. Best picture: “Unforgiven” Director: Robert Zemeckis , “Forrest Gump” Tagged as Shrine March 25, 1996 Mel Gibson, left, Bruce Davey, center, and Alan Ladd Jr. with their Oscars for "Braveheart." (Los Angeles Times) In what was considered a wide-open year for best picture contenders, “Braveheart” beats out an eclectic slate of films, “Apollo 13,” “Babe,” “Sense and Sensibility” and “The Postman (Il Postino).” The awards came amid a political protest by African American activists led by the Rev. Jesse Jackson, seeking greater minority representation in Hollywood Best picture: “Braveheart” Actress: Susan Sarandon , “Dead Man Walking” Supporting actor: Kevin Spacey , “The Usual Suspects” Supporting actress: Mira Sorvino, “Mighty Aphrodite” Director: Mel Gibson for “Braveheart” Tagged as March 24, 1997 Cuba Gooding Jr. won for "Jerry Maguire." (Los Angeles Times) Cuba Gooding Jr. wins as expected for supporting actor in “Jerry Maguire.” But Lauren Bacall, 72, is upset in the race for supporting actress, losing to Juliette Binoche. Bacall’s nomination was the first of her 53-year career and came for her performance in “The Mirror has Two Faces.” Best picture: “The English Patient” Actor: Geoffrey Rush, “Shine” Supporting actor: Cuba Gooding Jr. , “Jerry Maguire” Supporting actress: Juliette Binoche, “The English Patient” Director: Anthony Minghella, “The English Patient” Tagged as Shrine March 23, 1998 James Cameron won three awards for "Titanic," for director, best picture (as producer) and film editing. (Reed Saxon / Associated Press) It is a night to remember for “Titanic.” The epic drama continues its passage into film history by winning best picture and 10 other Oscars, tying 1959’s “Ben-Hur” as the most honored film in Academy Awards history. The wins come not long after the film supplants “Star Wars” as the highest-grossing film in Hollywood history. Best picture: “Titanic” Director: Steven Spielberg , “Saving Private Ryan” Tagged as March 26, 2000 Michael Caine and Kevin Spacey (Los Angeles Times) “American Beauty” wins five Oscars: best picture, actor, director, original screenplay and cinematography. It is the first best picture Oscar for DreamWorks, the studio founded in 1994 by Steven Spielberg, Jeffrey Katzenberg and David Geffen. Best picture: “American Beauty” Actor: Kevin Spacey , “American Beauty” Actress: Hilary Swank , “Boys Don’t Cry” Supporting actor: Michael Caine, “The Cider House Rules” Supporting actress: Angelina Jolie, “Girl, Interrupted” Director: Sam Mendes, “American Beauty” Tagged as March 25, 2001 Presenter Angelina Jolie poses backstage with Benicio Del Toro. (Los Angeles Times) Steven Soderbergh wins the directing Oscar for “Traffic.” It marks only the fifth time that a director not honored by his peers in the Directors Guild of America nabs the Academy Award. Best picture: “Gladiator” Director: Ron Howard , “A Beautiful Mind” Tagged as Kodak March 23, 2003 Adrien Brody surprises presenter Halle Berry with a kiss. (Brian van der Brug / Los Angeles Times) Wins for Adrien Brody and director Roman Polanski for the Holocaust drama “The Pianist” shock, drawing gasps and sustained applause from the audience. The tall, lanky Brody gives a long, passionate kiss to the previous year’s lead actress Oscar winner, Halle Berry, who presents him with the award. Best picture: “Chicago” Actress: Nicole Kidman , “The Hours” Supporting actor: Chris Cooper, “Adaptation” Supporting actress: Catherine Zeta-Jones, “Chicago” Director: Roman Polanski, “The Pianist” Tagged as Kodak Feb. 29, 2004 Renée Zellweger, left, and Charlize Theron pose with their Oscar statuettes. (Lawrence K. Ho / Los Angeles Times) “The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King,” the final installment of the hugely successful trilogy, makes a clean sweep of all its 11 nominations. Voting came after an abbreviated awards season that cut short Oscar campaigning by a month. Best picture: “The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King” Actor: Sean Penn, “Mystic River” Supporting actress: Cate Blanchett , “The Aviator” Director: Clint Eastwood, “Million Dollar Baby” Tagged as March 5, 2006 Ang Lee director of "Brokeback Mountain." (Kevork Djansezian / Associated Press) “Brokeback Mountain,” among the year’s best-reviewed and most controversial films, wins an Oscar for director Ang Lee, the first non-white director to win. But “Crash” proves the spoiler for best picture. Jon Stewart hosts. Best picture: “Crash” Actress: Reese Witherspoon , “Walk the Line” Supporting actor: George Clooney, “Syriana” Supporting actress: Rachel Weisz, “The Constant Gardener” Director: Ang Lee, “Brokeback Mountain” Tagged as Kodak Feb. 25, 2007 Forest Whitaker accepts his Oscar for lead actor for his performance as Idi Amin in "The Last King Of Scotland." (Mark Boster / Los Angeles Times) Forest Whitaker makes a clean sweep of the 2007 awards season, winning an Oscar, Golden Globe and a BAFTA award for his portrayal of the brutal Ugandan dictator Idi Amin. But Martin Scorsese’s “The Departed” steals the spotlight, snagging best picture, director, adapted screenplay and film editing. Best picture: “The Departed” Director: Martin Scorsese , “The Departed” Tagged as Feb. 24, 2008 Daniel Day-Lewis, Tilda Swinton, Marion Cotillard and Javier Bardem (Lawrence K. Ho / Los Angeles Times) For the first time since 1964, all four acting awards go to non-American thespians. Brits Tilda Swinton and Daniel Day-Lewis take home supporting actress and lead actor, and French actress Marion Cotillard and Spanish actor Javier Bardem secure lead actress and supporting actor. Best picture: “No Country for Old Men” Actor: Daniel Day-Lewis, “There Will Be Blood” Actress: Marion Cotillard, “La Vie en Rose” Supporting actor: Javier Bardem , “No Country for Old Men” Supporting actress: Tilda Swinton, “Michael Clayton” Director: Joel Coen and Ethan Coen, “No Country for Old Men” Tagged as Feb. 22, 2009 Kate Winslet, left, Sean Penn and Penélope Cruz (Lawrence K. Ho / Los Angeles Times) Health Ledger’s family accepts his posthumous award for supporting actor as the Joker in “The Dark Knight” a little more than a year after he died at 28 of a prescription drug overdose. Kate Winslet finally wins — it is her sixth nomination — and tells the audience she’s been dreaming of the moment for years. Best picture: “Slumdog Millionaire” Actress: Kate Winslet , “The Reader” Supporting actor: Heath Ledger, “The Dark Knight” Supporting actress: Penélope Cruz , “Vicky Cristina Barcelona” Director: Danny Boyle, “Slumdog Millionaire” Tagged as March 7, 2010 Mo'Nique accepts her Oscar for her performance in "Precious." (Robert Gauthier / Los Angeles Times) James Cameron’s blockbuster “Avatar” loses the best picture race in an upset to Cameron’s ex-wife Kathryn Bigelow’s film “The Hurt Locker.” “Precious” actress Mo’Nique thanks the academy for honoring the performance “not the politics” and pays tribute to the late Hattie McDaniel. Best picture: “The Hurt Locker” Supporting actor: Christoph Waltz , “Inglourious Basterds” Supporting actress: Mo’Nique, “Precious: Based on the Novel ‘Push’ by Sapphire” Director: Kathryn Bigelow, “The Hurt Locker” Tagged as Feb. 27, 2011 Christian Bale, Natalie Portman, Melissa Leo and Colin Firth (Allen J. Schaben / Los Angeles Times) “The King’s Speech” takes home top honors, beating out nine other heavyweight contenders. Colin Firth experiences “stirrings” that might become dance moves and Melissa Leo releases an “F-bomb” that rocks the censors. Best picture: ‘The King’s Speech’ Actor: Colin Firth , “The King’s Speech” Actress: Natalie Portman, “Black Swan” Supporting actor: Christian Bale, “The Fighter” Supporting actress: Melissa Leo, “The Fighter” Director: Tom Hooper, “The King’s Speech” Tagged as Kodak Feb. 26, 2012 Colin Firth presents Meryl Streep with her first Oscar since 1983. (Al Seib / Los Angeles Times) For the first time, a French filmmaker, Michel Hazanavicius, wins the directing Oscar; he made the black-and-white film “The Artist.” Christopher Plummer, at 82 the oldest winner to date, holds the statuette aloft and says: “You’re only two years older than me, darling, where have you been all my life?” Best picture: “The Artist”	i don't know
In which two colours is IKEA branding typically seen?	Tips For Creating Memorable Logos \| Elegant Themes Blog Tips For Creating Memorable Logos Posted on January 30, 2015 by Jacqueline Thomas in Tips & Tricks \| 47 comments Have you ever noticed that some of the world’s top logos make no sense? At least not at first glance. Although you may admire the simple colors, a cleverly drawn graphic, or an innovative use of typography, most logos seem to ignore their brand identity completely. Observe: What does the Good Year have to do with tires? What does the Chiquita logo have to do with bananas? And, in keeping with the blue and yellow theme, what does the Ikea logo have to do with a Scandinavian furniture superstore? Logos don’t need to make sense to be memorable– at least not on a conscious level. What makes a logo memorable is primarily color choice and then a magical combination of cleverness, subliminal association, and editing. But, before we begin, let’s tackle brand identity. Finding Your Brand Identity in Two Words Your brand identity is your point of view. So, what makes you different? Perhaps you build websites for nonprofits exclusively, or you provide social media marketing consultation for mommy bloggers. Be sure to get specific. And, it doesn’t matter if your business is slightly generic. Although what you offer may not be unique, how you offer it will be unique. Before you begin designing your logo, ask yourself this question: how do you define your brand in two words. Is it empower women, or passionate hope, or serious banking? Give yourself time to think of the two most powerful and accurate words to describe your brand. Once you’ve come up with them, write them down, and then read the next section. The Psychology of Color It’s a well known marketing strategy to attract customers with color. Color evokes strong emotions and associations inside of our brains. Above, we looked at three very popular logos. Why did these companies choose the colors blue and yellow? The yellow is obvious. That’s because yellow is optimistic and attention grabbing. Most road signs are yellow because the color instantly grabs your attention and shouts, “look at me!” On the other hand, blue indicates trust and dependability. Although most companies want to be considered trustworthy, a company that sells tires or fruit or furniture has a particular need to come across as dependable and secure. This is also why companies like American Express, Bank of America, and PayPal choose blue as their dominant logo color. Let’s take a closer look at how the colors break down: Red- Energetic, Exciting, Immediacy Red is intense, dynamic, passionate, and energetic. Unless colorblind, it’s impossible to ignore red. That’s because red creates a sense of urgency in our brains. Think of how stop signs and fire extinguishers grab your attention. Red is also an appetite stimulate. It’s often used with yellow to make you feel hungry. KFC, Coca Cola, Kellogg’s, Chick-Fil-A, McDonalds, Wendy’s, Pizza Hut, and the list goes on, all use red to encourage appetite. Red is best when used sparingly. A full sign in red may be sensory overload, and not as successful as red type against a contrasting background. This color is awesome for brands related to action, adventure, and just plain doing stuff, such as Honda, Toyota, Canon, Red Bull, YouTube, and CNN. Orange- Aggressively Friendly, Confident, Fun Love it or hate it, it’s hard to stay neutral with the color orange. Combining the energy of red and the unwavering optimism of yellow, orange is bright and playful. It’s the color of choice for friendly brands, such as Amazon, Etsy, Bit.ly, Shutterfly, and Blogger. These brands communicate enthusiasm and user friendliness. Orange works for brands geared towards fun and entertainment. It won’t make the best impression for more serious businesses, such as those in financial or wellness sectors. However, its friendliness will work if your brand appeals to youth (Nickelodeon) or community (Blogger, Harley-Davidson). Yellow- Happy, Optimistic, Youthful Nothing stimulates quite like yellow. The preferred color for caution signs and Post-It notes, yellow is definitely attention grabbing. But it’s also the color of optimism and happiness. Lemon wedges, afternoons drenched in golden sunlight, baby ducklings waddling behind each other– what can be happier than yellow? This is why so many brands choose to associate themselves with this color. Yellow elicits spontaneity. Think about well known brands that use yellow effectively in their logos. Mcdonald’s, Best Buy, Ikea, Burger King– all appeal to an impulsive customer who prefers immediate gratification. Yellow is also preferable for restaurants because, along with red, this color is an appetite stimulant. (Note: Many yellow logos combine with black to convey a message of friendly authority.) Green- Fresh, Healthy, Growth Green is soothing, natural, and fresh. It’s so relaxing because it’s the easiest color for the human eye to process. When you want to communicate eco-consciousness, vibrancy, serenity, wellness, or renewal, green is a great choice. If your brand concerns anything natural, green is the perfect color choice. It’s one of the most assertive colors in nature. Health spas, whole food products, and all things animal can benefit from a green logo. Because it suggests rejuvenation, green was a no brainer color for Starbucks. Blue- Trust, Dependable, Loyal Blue is the most dependable of all the colors. Just like we can trust the color of the sky to remain the same, we associate brands with blue logos to be dependable and secure. Blue is a favorite logo color for this reason. Brands likely to excel with a blue logo include finance and safety. American Express, PayPal, Twitter, and Facebook all use blue to suggest trustworthiness and dependability. Purple- Creative, Luxurious, Wise As a combination of two primary colors, purple is a balance between red’s passion and blue’s confidence. The color exudes sophistication, creativity, and imagination. Brands such as SyFy, Hallmark, Curves, and Yahoo! use purple in their logo to convey ingenuity and originality. Purple works great for companies with a creative edge, or those that are reimagining a product or service. Black- Rich, Authoritative, Power When you want to convey authority, class, or luxury, black is an easy choice. While not as flamboyant as some color choices, a black logo can really stand out in its simplicity. Think of the understated Nike swoosh, of the interlocking Cs in Chanel’s logo. If you choose a black logo, it’s important to balance it with white or negative space. A dominance of black can convey the wrong message. While black can be mysterious, too much of it can imply sadness, loneliness, and emptiness. Few logo styles are quite as beautiful as the dynamic dance of white and black. This yin and yang combination really soars when you use negative space to create an optical illusion. Color Makes An Impact You cannot over-emphasize the importance of color in your logo design. A study by the University of Loyola, Maryland found that color boosts brand recognition by a whooping 80%. A Kaleidoscope of Competing Colors? A lot of people get scared when they read the word “color.” Are you imagining an overly precious rainbow. Aside from a few isolated examples, most successful logos are one or two colors. Let’s look at notable examples to the two color rule: Toys R Us is a popular kids toy store. Its colorful logo is playful and fun. The backwards “R” indicates childhood. The “R” is also the standout character, and is blue, indicating dependability. In other words, this logo says: We make toys that kids will love because we understand them, but parents can also trust us because we’re dependable. The Google logo is colorful and slightly off. The blue, red, and yellow colors are all primary. But then there’s that rebel green in the Google “L” that elevates this logo into a brand message. Ruth Kedar, the graphic designer responsible for Google’s popular logo, used the secondary green color in the “L” to indicate that Google doesn’t follow the rules. Everyone’s favorite bidding site, eBay, uses multiple colors in its logo. The colors here illustrate the assorted eBay community. The touching letters show that the eBay community is connected with each other. The iconic National Broadcasting Company (NBC) logo shows a peacock with six colored feathers. Each color represents the company’s six divisions: News, Sports, Entertainment, Stations, Network, and Productions. Although multiple colors can make the best choice for some companies, it’s hard to pull off. Unless your brand is particularly whimsical, steer clear of using more than two colors to establish your identity. Simplicity is king when it comes to color choice. Considering the central theme of your brand message (those two words, remember?), choose one or two colors to tell that story. If you want to exude authority, luxury, or power, go with black. If you want to project passion or boldness, embrace red. Colors are instant mood-setters. Your color choice conveys exactly who you are and how to feel about you. Get to the Point Quickly The perfect logo is ruthlessly edited. If you can erase elements from your logo without taking away from the message, you should do it. The simplest logos are always the ones that make the most impact. Consider: The Apple logo is clearly an apple. But not a whole apple– there’s a byte missing. Get it? The logo itself is a pun. But that’s not why it’s memorable. The Apple logo is so simple that you can draw it with your eyes closed. It’s easy to understand and very scalable. No complex shadows or gradients. And it’s not even red, it’s black, which suggests that Apple considers itself an authority. Well, duh. The golden arches in the McDonald’s logo are simple and instantly recognizable the whole world over, but did you know that they may have a subliminal meaning? Back in the 60s, McDonalds wanted to get rid of their now-iconic logo but psychologist and design consultant Louis Cheskin persuaded them against doing so. He noted that the rounded “M” resembles mammary glands and that customers would associate McDonald’s with nourishment. Good luck trying to forget that tidbit of information. The Beats by Dr. Dre logo is a simple read circle with a white-space letter “b.” It’s extremely simple, but at second glance (or 57th, if you’re me), you notice that the “b” is also the headphone. Very clever. And it can’t get any simpler. Each of the above logos display their message quickly. There’s no need to read a message or accompanying slogan. Each logo tells a story. Let’s Get Subconscious Without getting too spooky, a lot of solid logo design relies on hidden messages or optical illusions. Observe: Dessert shop Baskin Robbins is known for its 31 ice cream flavors (one for every day of the month). Cleverly, the logo alludes to its popular slogan by isolating “31” from the Baskin Robbins’ initials. Which do you see first– the lowercase “g” or the smiley face? Bonus points if you see two smiley faces in the above logo. And, if you’re tilted like me, the larger “g” will always look like a smiley face, no matter how long you squint. And miraculously, the smaller “g” looks like a letter and not a smiley face. Herein lies the brilliance of simplicity. I’m embarrassed to admit that I never noticed the hidden message in the FedEx logo. Can you guess? There’s an arrow wedged between the letters “E” and “X.” It indicates forward motion. If you can find a way to sneak more of your brand identity into your logo (without crowding the design), do it. Use White Space to Your Advantage White space can elevate your logo from average to stellar. This was masterfully done in the FedEx logo above. The World Wildlife Fund uses the endangered panda bear to convey its message of wildlife conservation. The white space works perfectly with the panda. Basic cable tv network USA makes magic happen with its smart placement of “S.” The Girl Scouts of America show fresh, youthful faces– two of which are carved against negative space. Think about the ways you can add white space to your logo. Take inspiration from the USA logo and let one letter stand out in negative space. It can have a bold impact on your logo. That’s because our minds are drawn to puzzles. A logo with white space is similar to a puzzle. Our brains will try to figure out what’s missing. The result? A memorable logo because the brain has lingered. What Your Logo is Not Your logo is not going to reveal the entire story of your brand. It’s impossible. Your logo should be a hint of what your brand’s about. That’s why your color story is so important. Color gives the tone: my brand is happy, or serious, or passionate, or youthful, or healthy. Will It Pass the Child Test? Before humans can read, they can recognize logos. Three year olds recognize McDonald’s, Toys R Us, and Disney before they can read the word “cat.” This is because the brand behind the logo consistently delivers a reward that the kid can understand and appreciate. All humans, no matter the age, operate on this same basic reward system. A logo is made memorable by the experience you can consistently deliver. Although it’s important to get the design right, if the experience falls flat, your logo may be memorable for the wrong thing. Avoid the temptation to muddy the waters with too much frill. Instead, design your logo as if you were designing for a child. It should be clear and simple. And, when in doubt, edit it out. Thumbnail image by brainpencil / shutterstock.com	Blue and Yellow
Which baseball team play home games at Atlanta's 1996 Olympic Stadium that was converted and renamed 'Turner Field'?	Color Theory- The Elements of Art-Color By Matt Fussell Color is the element of art that refers to reflected light. Color theory is defined as a theory because it cannot be proved. Theories are generally accepted, despite the fact that they cannot be proven. Laws are accepted because they can be proven. There are volumes and volumes of information available about color. This page, while thorough, will present color theory in an "easy to understand" fashion. It is an exciting, ever-changing science. Color has an affect over how we feel about objects, how we behave, and how our bodies react to circumstances. To learn more about this click here> Some Interesting Facts About Color . See also: The Interactive Color Wheel What is color theory? If color theory is simplified, it can be broken down into 3 parts- The color wheel, color value, and color schemes. Each part of color theory builds on the previous. Understanding each section of color theory fully, will help you better understand its importance in the creation of art. Color Theory Part 1- The Color Wheel The color wheel was developed by Sir Isaac Newton by taking the color spectrum and bending it into a circle. If you follow around the color wheel, you will find the same order of the color spectrum- red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo(blue-violet), and violet. Some remember it by the acronym ROY G. BIV. The color wheel is made up of three different types of colors - Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. The primary colors are red, yellow, and blue. They are called primary for a couple of reasons. First, no two colors can be mixed to create a primary color. In other words, primary colors can only be created through the use of natural pigments. Secondly, all other colors found on the color wheel can be created by mixing primary colors together. The secondary colors are orange, green, and purple. Secondary colors are created by mixing equal parts of any two primary colors. Yellow and blue will give you green. Red and blue will create purple(violet). Red and yellow will give you orange. Tertiary colors are created by mixing equal parts of a secondary color and a primary color together. There are six tertiary colors- red-purple, red-orange, blue-green, yellow-green, blue-purple, and yellow-orange. Notice that the proper way to refer to tertiary colors is by listing the primary color first and the secondary color, second. Click on the image below to check out The Interactive Color Wheel... Color Theory Part 2 - Color Values The second part of color theoery deals with color values. Value is the darkness or lightness of a color . When dealing with pure color (hue), value can be affected by adding white or black to a color. Adding white to a color produces a tint... Adding black to a color produces a shade... When grays are added to the color, the intensity of the color is affected. Intensity is related to value. Color Theory Part 3-Color Schemes Color schemes are ways colors are put together in an intelligent way Monochromatic- literally means one (mono) color (chroma). So a monochromatic color scheme is made up of one color and it’s shades and tints. Analogous colors- are colors that are next to each other on the color wheel. When used as a color scheme, analogous colors can be dramatic. Ex. Blue, blue-green, green, and yellow-green; red, red-purple, purple, blue-purple Complementary colors- are colors found directly across from each other on the color wheel. Complementary color scheme provide strong contrast. Ex. Blue and orange, red and green, yellow-green and red-purple. Color triads- consist of three colors found on the color wheel that are equally spaced apart from each other. Ex. Red, blue and yellow or orange, green and purple. Split complementary- color schemes are made up of a color and it’s complements closest analogous colors. Ex Blue, yellow-orange and red-orange. Red-orange, red-purple, green. Warm colors- colors that are usually associated with warm things. Ex. Red, yellow, orange Cool colors- colors that are usually associated with cool things. Ex. Blue, purple, green Color Theory Terms and Definitions Color - Element of art derived from reflected light. We see color because light waves are reflected from objects to your eyes. Color wheel - color spectrum bent into a circle. Primary colors - The most basic colors on the color wheel, red, yellow and blue. These colors cannot be made by mixing Secondary colors - colors that are made by mixing two primary colors together. Orange, green and violet (purple) Tertiary colors - colors that are made by mixing a primary color with a secondary color Hue - the name of the color Intensity - the brightness or dullness of a color. DO NOT CONFUSE INTENSITY WITH VALUE. Color value - the darkness or lightness of a color. Ex pink is a tint of red Tints - are created by adding white to a color Shades - are created by adding black to a color Optical color - color that people actually perceive- also called local color. Arbitrary color - colors chosen by the artist to express feelings or mood.	i don't know
What is the largest island crossed by the Arctic Circle?	Arctic Map / Map of the Arctic - Facts About the Arctic and the Arctic Circle - Worldatlas.com Arctic Photographs Arctic Map The Arctic is a region of the planet, north of the Arctic Circle, and includes the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Baffin Island, other smaller northern islands, and the far northern parts of Europe, Russia (Siberia), Alaska and Canada. The Arctic Circle, incidentally, is an imaginary line located at 66º, 30'N latitude, and as a guide defines the southernmost part of the Arctic. The climate within the Circle is very cold and much of the area is always covered with ice. In the mid winter months, the sun never rises and temperatures can easily reach lows of - 50º F in the higher latitudes. In the summer months (further south), 24 hours of sunlight a day melts the seas and topsoil, and is the main cause of icebergs breaking off from the frozen north and floating south, causing havoc in the shipping lanes of the north Atlantic. The primary residents of the Arctic include the Eskimos (Inuits), Saami and Russians, with an overall population (of all peoples) exceeding 2 million. The indigenous Eskimos have lived in the area for over 9,000 years, and many have now given up much of their traditional hunting and fishing to work in the oil fields and the varied support villages. The first explorers of the Arctic were Vikings. Norwegians visited the northern regions in the 9th century, and Erik the Red (Icelander) established a settlement in Greenland in 982. In 1909, after numerous attempts by regional explorers, Robert E. Peary reached the North Pole. Arctic Links	Greenland
Which US state has nicknames including 'The Birthplace of Aviation' and 'The Buckeye State'?	Flightless bird with giant head roamed swampy Arctic 53m years ago \| Science \| The Guardian Fossils Flightless bird with giant head roamed swampy Arctic 53m years ago Gastornis was also discovered in Wyoming but scientists confirm finding of fossils on Ellesmere island as bird thought to migrate during dark Arctic winters Scientists said the discovery of Gastornis on Ellesmere island provided a better understanding of the consequences of a changed climate. Photograph: Marlin Peterson Saturday 13 February 2016 08.00 EST Last modified on Monday 15 February 2016 06.05 EST Close This article is 12 months old A giant, flightless bird with a head the size of a horse’s roamed the Arctic 53m years ago when the icy wilderness was more like a swamp, scientists have confirmed. A joint study by American and Chinese institutions found that the massive beast, known as Gastornis, existed on what is now known as Ellesmere island, found above the Arctic circle. It’s estimated the bird was 6ft tall and weighed several hundred pounds. The evidence for Gastornis’s presence in the Arctic comes from a single fossil toe bone, found by researchers in the 1970s. Scientists have now finally confirmed that the bone matches that of a fossilized Gastornis of similar age found in Wyoming. “I couldn’t tell the Wyoming specimens from the Ellesmere specimen, even though it was found roughly 4,000km (2,500 miles) to the north,” said Prof Thomas Stidham of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. Stidham and his colleague Jaelyn Eberle, of the University of Colorado Boulder, matched the bones through techniques such as studying where muscle attachments lay. The research has been published in Scientific Reports . The research raises some interesting questions over the behavior of Gastornis. The giant bird may have migrated south during winters in the Arctic, where darkness envelops the region for months at a time. The species was originally thought to be a formidable carnivore but recent research suggests that Gastornis was probably a vegan, using its huge beak to munch through leaves, nuts, seeds and fruit. Eberle said bird fossils found in the Arctic are “extremely rare” and that the researchers aren’t sure whether Gastornis lived in the area year round. “There are some sea ducks today that spend the winter in the cold, freezing Arctic, and we see many more species of waterfowl that are only in the Arctic during the relatively warmer spring and summer months,” she said. Canada’s Ellesmere island is the 10th largest island in the world and lies adjacent to Greenland. Riven with fjords and attached to vast aprons of ice, Ellesmere is one of the coldest, driest and most remote places on Earth. Temperatures can reach -40C (-40F) in winter. It was a very different place 53m years ago, however, during the Eocene epoch . During this time, Antarctica was still attached to Australia and global temperatures were unusually warm, which meant the world was mostly ice-free. Ellesmere island would have been covered in the sort of cypress swamps now found much farther south in the US, with evidence that the area hosted turtles, alligators, primates and even large hippo-like and rhino-like mammals. While apes and alligators won’t be returning to Ellesmere any time soon, the researchers said that the discovery of Gastornis provided a better understanding of the consequences of a changed climate. “Permanent Arctic ice, which has been around for millennia, is on track to disappear,” Eberle said. “I’m not suggesting there will be a return of alligators and giant tortoises to Ellesmere island any time soon. But what we know about past warm intervals in the Arctic can give us a much better idea about what to expect in terms of changing plant and animal populations there in the future.”	i don't know
Ayatollah Khomeini pronounced a death sentence in 1989 on Salman Rushdie as a result of what book, published the previous year?	The Disappeared - The New Yorker The Disappeared How the fatwa changed a writer’s life. By The author, photographed in London in 1994, five years after Ayatollah Khomeini’s death sentence forced him into hiding.CreditPhotograph by Richard Avedon / “Salman Rushdie, London, England, September 26, 1994” / © 1994 The Richard Avedon Foundation 1989 Afterward, when the world was exploding around him, he felt annoyed with himself for having forgotten the name of the BBC reporter who told him that his old life was over and a new, darker existence was about to begin. She called him at home, on his private line, without explaining how she got the number. “How does it feel,” she asked him, “to know that you have just been sentenced to death by Ayatollah Khomeini?” It was a sunny Tuesday in London, but the question shut out the light. This is what he said, without really knowing what he was saying: “It doesn’t feel good.” This is what he thought: I’m a dead man. He wondered how many days he had left, and guessed that the answer was probably a single-digit number. He hung up the telephone and ran down the stairs from his workroom, at the top of the narrow Islington row house where he lived. The living-room windows had wooden shutters and, absurdly, he closed and barred them. Then he locked the front door. It was Valentine’s Day, but he hadn’t been getting along with his wife, the American novelist Marianne Wiggins. Five days earlier, she had told him that she was unhappy in the marriage, that she “didn’t feel good around him anymore.” Although they had been married for only a year, he, too, already knew that it had been a mistake. Now she was staring at him as he moved nervously around the house, drawing curtains, checking window bolts, his body galvanized by the news, as if an electric current were passing through it, and he had to explain to her what was happening. She reacted well and began to discuss what they should do. She used the word “we.” That was courageous. A car arrived at the house, sent by CBS Television. He had an appointment at the American network’s studios, in Bowater House, Knightsbridge, to appear live, by satellite link, on its morning show. “I should go,” he said. “It’s live television. I can’t just not show up.” Later that morning, a memorial service for his friend Bruce Chatwin, who had died of AIDS , was to be held at the Greek Orthodox church on Moscow Road, in Bayswater. “What about the memorial?” his wife asked. He didn’t have an answer for her. He unlocked the front door, went outside, got into the car, and was driven away. Although he did not know it then—so the moment of leaving his home did not feel unusually freighted with meaning—he would not return to that house, at 41 St. Peter’s Street, which had been his home for half a decade, until three years later, by which time it would no longer be his. At the CBS offices, he was the big story of the day. People in the newsroom and on various monitors were already using the word that would soon be hung around his neck like a millstone. “Fatwa.” I inform the proud Muslim people of the world that the author of the “Satanic Verses” book, which is against Islam, the Prophet and the Koran, and all those involved in its publication who were aware of its content, are sentenced to death. I ask all the Muslims to execute them wherever they find them. Somebody gave him a printout of the text as he was escorted to the studio for his interview. His old self wanted to argue with the word “sentenced.” This was not a sentence handed down by any court that he recognized, or that had any jurisdiction over him. But he also knew that his old self’s habits were of no use anymore. He was a new self now. He was the person in the eye of the storm, no longer the Salman his friends knew but the Rushdie who was the author of “Satanic Verses,” a title that had been subtly distorted by the omission of the initial “The.” “The Satanic Verses” was a novel. “Satanic Verses” were verses that were satanic, and he was their satanic author. How easy it was to erase a man’s past and to construct a new version of him, an overwhelming version, against which it seemed impossible to fight. He looked at the journalists looking at him and he wondered if this was how people looked at men being taken to the gallows or the electric chair. One foreign correspondent came over to him to be friendly. He asked this man what he should make of Khomeini’s pronouncement. Was it just a rhetorical flourish, or something genuinely dangerous? “Oh, don’t worry too much,” the journalist said. “Khomeini sentences the President of the United States to death every Friday afternoon.” On air, when he was asked for a response to the threat, he said, “I wish I’d written a more critical book.” He was proud, then and always, that he had said this. It was the truth. He did not feel that his book was especially critical of Islam, but, as he said on American television that morning, a religion whose leaders behaved in this way could probably use a little criticism. When the interview was over, he was told that his wife had called. He phoned the house. “Don’t come back here,” she said. “There are two hundred journalists on the sidewalk waiting for you.” “I’ll go to the agency,” he said. “Pack a bag and meet me there.” His literary agency, Wylie, Aitken & Stone, had its offices in a white-stuccoed house on Fernshaw Road, in Chelsea. There were no journalists camped outside—evidently the press hadn’t thought he was likely to visit his agent on such a day—but when he walked in every phone in the building was ringing and every call was about him. Gillon Aitken, his British agent, gave him an astonished look. He found that he couldn’t think ahead, that he had no idea what the shape of his life would now be. He could focus only on the immediate, and the immediate was the memorial service for Bruce Chatwin. “My dear,” Gillon said, “do you think you ought to go?” Bruce had been his close friend. “Fuck it,” he said, “let’s go.” Marianne arrived, a faintly deranged look on her face, upset about having been mobbed by photographers when she left the house. She didn’t say much. Neither of them did. They got into their car, a black Saab, and he drove it across the park to Bayswater, with Gillon, his worried expression and long, languid body folded into the back seat. “You will always be a hero, but you will never be a superhero.” Buy a cartoon His mother and his youngest sister lived in Karachi, in Pakistan. What would happen to them? His middle sister, long estranged from the family, lived in Berkeley, California. Would she be safe there? His oldest sister, Sameen, his “Irish twin,” was in Wembley, with her family, not far from the stadium. What should be done to protect them? His son, Zafar, just nine years and eight months old, was with his mother, Clarissa, in their house near Clissold Park. At that moment, Zafar’s tenth birthday felt far, far away. The service at the Cathedral of St. Sophia of the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain, built and lavishly decorated a hundred and ten years earlier to resemble one of the grand cathedrals of old Byzantium, was all sonorous, mysterious Greek. Blah-blah-blah Bruce Chatwin, the priests intoned, blah-blah Chatwin blah-blah. They stood up, they sat down, they knelt, they stood, and then sat again. The air was full of the stink of holy smoke. He and Marianne were seated next to Martin Amis and his wife, Antonia Phillips. “We’re worried about you,” Martin said, embracing him. “I’m worried about me,” he replied. Blah Chatwin blah Bruce blah. Paul Theroux was sitting in the pew behind him. “I suppose we’ll be here for you next week, Salman,” he said. There had been a couple of photographers on the sidewalk outside when he arrived. Writers didn’t usually draw a crowd of paparazzi. As the service progressed, however, journalists began to enter the church. When it was over, they pushed their way toward him. Gillon, Marianne, and Martin tried to run interference. One persistent gray fellow (gray suit, gray hair, gray face, gray voice) got through the crowd, shoved a tape recorder toward him, and asked the obvious questions. “I’m sorry,” he replied. “I’m here for my friend’s memorial service. It’s not appropriate to do interviews.” “You don’t understand,” the gray fellow said, sounding puzzled. “I’m from the Daily Telegraph. They’ve sent me down specially.” “Gillon, I need your help,” he said. Gillon leaned down toward the reporter from his immense height and said, firmly, and in his grandest accent, “Fuck off.” “You can’t talk to me like that,” the man from the Telegraph said. “I’ve been to public school.” After that, there was no more comedy. When he got out onto Moscow Road, journalists were swarming like drones in pursuit of their queen, photographers climbing on one another’s backs to form tottering hillocks bursting with flashlight. He stood there blinking and directionless, momentarily at a loss. There was no chance that he’d be able to walk to his car, which was parked a hundred yards down the road, without being followed by cameras and microphones and men who had been to various kinds of school and who had been sent down specially. He was rescued by his friend Alan Yentob, a filmmaker and a senior executive at the BBC. Alan’s BBC car pulled up in front of the church. “Get in,” he said, and then they were driving away from the shouting journalists. They circled around Notting Hill for a while until the crowd outside the church dispersed and then went back to where the Saab was parked. He and Marianne got into the car, and suddenly they were alone. “Where shall we go?” he asked, even though they both knew the answer. Marianne had recently rented a small basement apartment in the southwest corner of Lonsdale Square, in Islington, not far from the house on St. Peter’s Street, ostensibly to use as a work space but actually because of the growing strain between them. Very few people knew that she had this apartment. It would give them space and time to take stock and make decisions. They drove to Islington in silence. There didn’t seem to be anything to say. It was midafternoon, and on this day their marital difficulties felt irrelevant. On this day there were crowds marching down the streets of Tehran carrying posters of his face with the eyes poked out, so that he looked like one of the corpses in “The Birds,” with their blackened, bloodied, bird-pecked eye sockets. That was the subject today: his unfunny Valentine from those bearded men, those shrouded women, and that lethal old man, dying in his room, making his last bid for some sort of murderous glory. Now that the school day was over, he had to see Zafar. He called his friend Pauline Melville and asked her to keep Marianne company while he was gone. Pauline, a bright-eyed, flamboyantly gesticulating, warmhearted, mixed-race actress full of stories about Guyana, had been his neighbor in Highbury Hill in the early nineteen-eighties. She came over at once, without any discussion, even though it was her birthday. When he got to Clarissa and Zafar’s house, the police were already there. “There you are,” an officer said. “We’ve been wondering where you’d gone.” “What’s going on, Dad?” His son had a look on his face that should never visit the face of a nine-year-old boy. “I’ve been telling him,” Clarissa said brightly, “that you’ll be properly looked after until this blows over, and it’s going to be just fine.” Then she hugged her ex-husband as she had not hugged him since they separated five years before. “We need to know,” the officer was saying, “what your immediate plans might be.” He thought before replying. “I’ll probably go home,” he said, finally, and the stiffening postures of the men in uniform confirmed his suspicions. “No, sir, I wouldn’t recommend that.” Then he told them, as he had known all along he would, about the Lonsdale Square basement, where Marianne was waiting. “It’s not generally known as a place you frequent, sir?” “No, Officer, it is not.” “That’s good. When you do get back, sir, don’t go out again tonight, if that’s all right. There are meetings taking place, and you will be advised of their outcome tomorrow, as early as possible. Until then, you should stay indoors.” He talked to his son, holding him close, deciding at that moment that he would tell the boy as much as possible, giving what was happening the most positive coloring he could; that the way to help Zafar deal with the event was to make him feel on the inside of it, to give him a parental version that he could hold on to while he was being bombarded with other versions in the school playground or on television. “Will I see you tomorrow, Dad?” He shook his head. “But I’ll call you,” he said. “I’ll call you every evening at seven. If you’re not going to be here,” he told Clarissa, “please leave me a message on the answering machine at home and say when I should call.” This was early 1989. The terms “P.C.,” “laptop,” “mobile phone,” “Internet,” “WiFi,” “SMS,” and “e-mail” were either uncoined or very new. He did not own a computer or a mobile phone. But he did own a house, and in the house there was an answering machine, and he could call in and interrogate it, a new use of an old word, and get, no, retrieve, his messages. “Seven o’clock,” he repeated. “Every night, O.K.?” Zafar nodded gravely. “O.K., Dad.” “Yes, son, it’s true. You’re adopted.” Buy a cartoon He drove home alone and the news on the radio was all bad. Khomeini was not just a powerful cleric. He was a head of state, ordering the murder of a citizen of another state, over whom he had no jurisdiction; and he had assassins at his service, who had been used before against “enemies” of the Iranian Revolution, including those who lived outside Iran. Voltaire once said that it was a good idea for a writer to live near an international frontier, so that, if he angered powerful men, he could skip across the border and be safe. Voltaire himself left France for England, after he gave offense to an aristocrat, the Chevalier de Rohan, and remained in exile for almost three years. But to live in a different country from one’s persecutors was no longer a guarantee of safety. Now there was “extraterritorial action.” In other words, they came after you. The night in Lonsdale Square was cold, dark, and clear. There were two policemen in the square. When he got out of his car, they pretended not to notice him. They were on short patrol, watching the street near the flat for a hundred yards in each direction, and he could hear their footsteps even when he was indoors. He realized, in that footstep-haunted space, that he no longer understood his life, or what it might become, and he thought, for the second time that day, that there might not be very much more of life to understand. Marianne went to bed early. He got into bed beside his wife and she turned toward him and they embraced, rigidly, like the unhappily married couple they were. Then, separately, lying with their own thoughts, they failed to sleep. 1966 He was in his second year of reading history at Cambridge when he learned about the “Satanic Verses.” In Part Two of the History Tripos, he was expected to choose three “special subjects,” from a wide selection on offer. He decided to work on Indian history during the period of the struggle against the British, from the 1857 uprising to Independence Day, in August, 1947; the extraordinary first century or so of the history of the United States, from the Declaration of Independence to the end of Reconstruction; and a third subject, offered that year for the first time, titled “Muhammad, the Rise of Islam and the Early Caliphate.” He was supervised by Arthur Hibbert, a medievalist, a genius, who, according to college legend, had answered the questions he knew least about in his own history finals so that he could complete the answers in the time allotted. At the beginning of their work together, Hibbert gave him a piece of advice he never forgot. “You must never write history,” he said, “until you can hear the people speak.” He thought about that for years, and it came to feel like a valuable guiding principle for fiction as well. If you didn’t have a sense of how people spoke, you didn’t know them well enough, and so you couldn’t—you shouldn’t—tell their story. The way people spoke, in short, clipped phrases or long, flowing rambles, revealed so much about them: their place of origin, their social class, their temperament, whether calm or angry, warmhearted or cold-blooded, foulmouthed or polite; and, beneath their temperament, their true nature, intellectual or earthy, plainspoken or devious, and, yes, good or bad. If that had been all he learned at Arthur’s feet, it would have been enough. But he learned much more than that. He learned a world. And in that world one of the world’s great religions was being born. They were nomads who had just begun to settle down. Their cities were new. Mecca was only a few generations old. Yathrib, later renamed Medina, was a group of encampments around an oasis, without so much as a city wall. They were still uneasy in their urbanized lives. A nomadic society was conservative, full of rules, valuing the well-being of the group more highly than individual liberty, but it was also inclusive. The nomadic world had been a matriarchy. Under the umbrella of its extended families, even orphaned children had been able to find protection and a sense of identity and belonging. All that was changing. The city was a patriarchy, and its preferred family unit was nuclear. The crowd of the disenfranchised grew larger and more restive every day. But Mecca was prosperous, and its ruling elders liked it that way. Inheritance now followed the male line. This, too, the governing families preferred. Outside the gates of the city stood temples to three goddesses, al-Lat, al-Manat, and al-Uzza. Each time the trading caravans that brought the city its wealth left the city gates or came back through them, they paused at one of the temples and made an offering. Or, to use modern language, paid a tax. The richest families in Mecca controlled the temples, and much of their wealth came from these offerings. The goddesses were at the heart of the economy of the new city, of the urban civilization that was coming into being. The building known as the Kaaba, or Cube, in the center of town, was dedicated to a deity named Allah, meaning “the god,” just as al-Lat was “the goddess.” Allah was unusual in that he didn’t specialize. He wasn’t a rain god or a wealth god or a war god or a love god; he was just an everything god. This failure to specialize may explain his relative unpopularity. People usually made offerings to gods for specific reasons: the health of a child, the future of a business enterprise, a drought, a quarrel, a romance. They preferred gods who were experts in their field to this nonspecific all-rounder of a deity. The man who would pluck Allah from near-obscurity and become his Prophet—transforming him into the equal, or at least the equivalent, of the Old Testament God “I Am” and the New Testament’s Three-in-One—was Muhammad ibn Abdullah of the Banu Hashim clan. His family had, in his childhood, fallen upon hard times; he was orphaned and lived in his uncle’s house. Muhammad ibn Abdullah earned a reputation as a skilled merchant and an honest man, and at the age of twenty-five he received a marriage proposal from an older, wealthier woman, Khadijah. For the next fifteen years, he was successful in business and happy in his marriage. However, he was also a man with a need for solitude, and for many years he spent weeks at a time living like a hermit in a cave on Mt. Hira. When he was forty, the Angel Gabriel disturbed his solitude there and ordered him to recite the verses that would eventually form a new holy book, the Koran. Naturally, Muhammad believed that he had lost his mind and fled. He returned to hear what the Angel had to say only after his wife and close friends convinced him that it might be worth a return trip up the mountain, just to check if God was really trying to get in touch. It was easy to admire much of what followed, as the merchant transformed himself into the Messenger of God, easy to sympathize with his persecution, and to respect his rapid evolution into a respected lawgiver, an able ruler, and a skilled military leader. The ethos of the Koran, the value system it endorses, was, in essence, the vanishing code of nomadic Arabs, the matriarchal, more caring society that did not leave orphans out in the cold, orphans like Muhammad, whose success as a merchant, he believed, should have earned him a place in the city’s ruling body, and who was denied such preferment because he didn’t have a powerful family to fight for him. British Muslims in Birmingham display a photograph of Ayatollah Khomeini at a demonstration against “The Satanic Verses.” Photograph by Abbas / Magnum Here was a fascinating paradox: an essentially conservative theology, looking backward with affection toward a vanishing culture, became a revolutionary idea, because the people it attracted most strongly were those who had been marginalized by urbanization—the disaffected poor, the street mob. This, perhaps, was why Islam, the new idea, felt so threatening to the Meccan élite; why it was persecuted so viciously; and why its founder may—just may—have been offered an attractive deal, designed to buy him off. The historical record is incomplete, but most of the major collections of hadith, or stories about the life of the Prophet—those compiled by Ibn Ishaq, Waqidi, Ibn Sa’d, and Tabari—recount an incident that later became known as the incident of the “Satanic Verses.” The Prophet came down from the mountain one day and recited verses from what would become Surah—or chapter—No. 53. It contained these words: “Have you thought on al-Lat and al-Uzza, and, thirdly, on Manat, the other? They are the Exalted Birds, and their intercession is desired indeed.” At a later point—was it days or weeks, or months?—Muhammad returned to the mountain and came down, abashed, to state that he had been deceived on his previous visit: the Devil had appeared to him in the guise of the Archangel, and the verses he had been given were therefore not divine but satanic and should be expunged from the Koran at once. The Archangel had, on this occasion, brought new verses from God, which were to replace the “Satanic Verses” in the great book: “Have you thought on al-Lat and al-Uzza, and, thirdly, on Manat, the other? Are you to have the sons, and He the daughters? This is indeed an unfair distinction! They are but names which you and your fathers have invented: God has vested no authority in them.” And in this way the recitation was purified of the Devil’s work. But the questions remained: Why did Muhammad initially accept the first, “false” revelation as true? And what happened in Mecca during the period between the two revelations, satanic and angelic? This much was known: Muhammad wanted to be accepted by the people of Mecca. “He longed for a way to attract them,” Ibn Ishaq wrote. And when the Meccans heard that he had acknowledged the three goddesses “they were delighted and greatly pleased.” Why, then, did the Prophet recant? Western historians (the Scottish scholar of Islam W. Montgomery Watt, the French Marxist Maxime Rodinson) proposed a politically motivated reading of the episode. The temples of the three goddesses were economically important to the city’s ruling élite, an élite from which Muhammad had been excluded—unfairly, in his opinion. So perhaps the deal that was offered ran something like this: If Muhammad, or the Archangel Gabriel, or Allah, agreed that the goddesses could be worshipped by followers of Islam—not as the equals of Allah, obviously, but as secondary, lesser beings, like, for example, angels, and there already were angels in Islam, so what harm could there be in adding three more, who just happened to be popular and lucrative figures in Mecca?—then the persecution of Muslims would cease, and Muhammad himself would be granted a seat on the city’s ruling council. And it was perhaps to this temptation that the Prophet briefly succumbed. Then what happened? Did the city’s grandees renege on the deal, reckoning that by flirting with polytheism Muhammad had undone himself in the eyes of his followers? Did his followers refuse to accept the revelation about the goddesses? Did Muhammad himself regret having compromised his ideas by yielding to the siren call of acceptability? It’s impossible to say for sure. But the Koran speaks of how all the prophets were tested by temptation. “Never have We sent a single prophet or apostle before you with whose wishes Satan did not tamper,” Surah No. 22 says. And if the incident of the “Satanic Verses” was the Temptation of Muhammad it has to be said that he came out of it pretty well. He both confessed to having been tempted and repudiated that temptation. Tabari quotes him thus: “I have fabricated things against God and have imputed to Him words which He has not spoken.” After that, the monotheism of Islam remained unwavering and strong, through persecution, exile, and war, and before long the Prophet had achieved victory over his enemies and the new faith spread like a conquering fire across the world. Good story, he thought, when he read about it at Cambridge. Even then he was dreaming of being a writer, and he filed the story away in the back of his mind for future consideration. Twenty-three years later, he would find out exactly how good a story it was. 1984 There was a novel growing in him, but its exact nature eluded him. It would be a big book, he knew that, ranging widely over space and time. A book of journeys. That felt right. He had dealt, as well as he knew how, with the worlds from which he had come. Now he needed to connect those worlds to the very different world in which he had made his life. He was beginning to see that this, rather than India or Pakistan or politics or magic realism, would be his real subject, the one he would worry away at for the rest of his career: the great question of how the world joins up—not only how the East flows into the West and the West into the East but how the past shapes the present even as the present changes our understanding of the past, and how the imagined world, the location of dreams, art, invention, and, yes, faith, sometimes leaks across the frontier separating it from the “real” place in which human beings mistakenly believe they live. This was what he had: a bunch of migrants, or, to use the British term, “immigrants,” from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, through whose personal journeys he could explore the joinings-up and also the disjointednesses of here and there, then and now, reality and dreams. He had the beginnings of a character named Salahuddin Chamchawala, Anglicized to Saladin Chamcha, who had a difficult relationship with his father and had retreated into Englishness. Chamcha would be a portrait of a deracinated man, fleeing from his father and his country, from Indianness itself, toward an Englishness that wasn’t really letting him in, an actor with many voices who did well as long as he remained unseen, performing on radio or doing TV voice-overs, a man whose face was, despite his Anglophilia, “the wrong color for their color TVs.” “Winning isn’t everything, Josh. Not being the reason your team loses is everything.” Buy a cartoon And opposite Chamcha . . . well, a fallen angel, perhaps. In 1982, the actor Amitabh Bachchan, the biggest star of the Bombay cinema, had suffered a near-fatal injury to his spleen while doing his own movie stunts in Bangalore. In the months that followed, his hospitalization was daily front-page news. As he lay close to death, the nation held its breath; when he rose again, the effect was almost Christlike. There were actors in southern India who had attained almost godlike status by portraying the gods in movies called mythologicals. Bachchan had become semi-divine even without such a career. But what if a god-actor, afflicted with a terrible injury, had called out to his god in his hour of need and heard no reply? What if, as a result of that appalling divine silence, such a man were to begin to question, or even to lose, the faith that had sustained him? Might he, in such a crisis of the soul, begin to lose his mind as well? And might he in his dementia flee halfway around the world, forgetting that when you run away you can’t leave yourself behind? What would such a falling star be called? The name came to him at once, as if it had been waiting for him to capture it. Gibreel. The Angel Gabriel, Gibreel Farishta. Gibreel and Chamcha: two lost souls in the roofless continuum of the unhoused. They would be his protagonists. The journeys multiplied. Here was a fragment from somewhere else entirely. In February, 1983, thirty-eight Shia Muslims, followers of a young woman named Naseem Fatima, were convinced by her that God would part the waters of the Arabian Sea at her request, so that they could make a pilgrimage across the ocean floor from Karachi to the holy city of Karbala, in Iraq. They followed her into the waters and many of them drowned. The most extraordinary part of the incident was that some of those who survived claimed, despite all the evidence to the contrary, to have witnessed the miracle. He had been thinking about this story for more than a year now. He didn’t want to write about Pakistan, or Shias, so in his imagination the believers became Sunni, and Indian. As Sunnis, they wanted to go to Mecca, not Karbala, but the idea of the parting of the sea was still at the heart of the tale. Other fragments crowded in, many of them about the “city visible but unseen,” immigrant London in the Age of Thatcher. The London neighborhoods of Southall, in West London, and Brick Lane, to the east, where Asian immigrants lived, merged with Brixton, south of the river, to form the imaginary central London borough of Brickhall, in which a Muslim family of orthodox parents and rebellious teen-age daughters ran the Shaandaar Café, its name a thinly disguised Urdu-ing of the real Brilliant Restaurant, in Southall. In this borough, interracial trouble was brewing, and soon, perhaps, the streets would burn. He remembered hearing an Indian politician on TV talking about the British Prime Minister and being unable to pronounce her name properly. “Mrs. Torture,” he kept saying. “Mrs. Margaret Torture.” This was unaccountably funny, even though, or perhaps because, Margaret Thatcher was not a torturer. If this was to be a novel about Mrs. T.’s London, maybe there was room—comic room—for this variant of her name. In his notebook, he wrote, “How does newness enter the world?” “The act of migration,” he wrote, “puts into crisis everything about the migrating individual or group, everything about identity and selfhood and culture and belief. So if this is a novel about migration it must be that act of putting in question. It must perform the crisis it describes.” And he wrote, “The Satanic Verses.” The book took more than four years to write. Afterward, when people tried to reduce it to an “insult,” he wanted to reply, “I can insult people a lot faster than that.” But it did not strike his opponents as strange that a serious writer should spend a tenth of his life creating something as crude as an insult. This was because they refused to see him as a serious writer. In order to attack him and his work, they had to paint him as a bad person, an apostate traitor, an unscrupulous seeker of fame and wealth, an opportunist who “attacked Islam” for his own personal gain. This was what was meant by the much repeated phrase “He did it on purpose.” Well, of course he had done it on purpose. How could one write a quarter of a million words by accident? The problem, as Bill Clinton might have said, was what one meant by “it.” The ironic truth was that, after two novels that engaged directly with the public history of the Indian subcontinent, he saw this new book as a more personal exploration, a first attempt to create a work out of his own experience of migration and metamorphosis. To him, it was the least political of the three books. And the material derived from the origin story of Islam was, he thought, essentially respectful toward the Prophet of Islam, even admiring of him. It treated him as he always said he wanted to be treated, not as a divine figure (like the Christians’ “Son of God”) but as a man (“the Messenger”). It showed him as a man of his time, shaped by that time, and, as a leader, both subject to temptation and capable of overcoming it. “What kind of idea are you?” the novel asked the new religion, and suggested that an idea that refused to bend or compromise would, in all likelihood, be destroyed, but conceded that, in very rare instances, such ideas became the ones that changed the world. His Prophet flirted with compromise, then rejected it, and his unbending idea grew strong enough to bend history to its will. When he was first accused of being offensive, he was truly perplexed. He thought he had made an artistic engagement with the phenomenon of revelation—an engagement from the point of view of an unbeliever, certainly, but a genuine one nonetheless. How could that be thought offensive? The thin-skinned years of rage-defined identity politics that followed taught him, and everyone else, the answer to that question. 1988 The British edition of “The Satanic Verses” came out on Monday, September 26, 1988, and, for a brief moment that fall, the publication was a literary event, discussed in the language of books. Was it any good? Was it, as Victoria Glendinning suggested in the London Times, “better than ‘Midnight’s Children,’ because it is more contained, but only in the sense that the Niagara Falls are contained,” or, as Angela Carter said in the Guardian, “an epic into which holes have been punched to let in visions . . . [a] populous, loquacious, sometimes hilarious, extraordinary contemporary novel”? Or was it, as Claire Tomalin wrote in the Independent, a “wheel that would not turn,” or, in Hermione Lee’s even harsher opinion, in the Observer, a novel that went “plunging down, on melting wings toward unreadability”? How large was the membership of the apocryphal Page 15 Club of readers who could not get past that point in the book? Soon enough, the language of literature would be drowned in the cacophony of other discourses—political, religious, sociological, postcolonial—and the subject of quality, of artistic intent, would come to seem almost frivolous. The book that he had written would vanish and be replaced by one that scarcely existed, in which Rushdie referred to the Prophet and his companions as “scums and bums” (he didn’t, though he did allow the characters who persecuted the followers of his fictional Prophet to use abusive language), and called the wives of the Prophet whores (he hadn’t—although whores in a brothel in his imaginary city, Jahilia, take on the names of the Prophet’s wives to arouse their clients, the wives themselves are clearly described as living chastely in the harem). This nonexistent novel was the one against which the rage of Islam would be directed, and after that few people wished to talk about the real book, except, usually, to concur with Hermione Lee’s negative assessment. “I love your gloat.” Buy a cartoon When friends asked what they could do to help, he pleaded, “Defend the text.” The attack was very specific, yet the defense was often a general one, resting on the mighty principle of freedom of speech. He hoped for, felt that he needed, a more particular defense, like those made in the case of other assaulted books, such as “Lady Chatterley’s Lover,” “Ulysses,” or “Lolita”—because this was a violent attack not on the novel in general, or on free speech per se, but on a particular accumulation of words, and on the intentions and integrity and ability of the writer who had put those words together. He did it for money. He did it for fame. The Jews made him do it. Nobody would have bought his unreadable book if he hadn’t vilified Islam. That was the nature of the attack, and so for many years “The Satanic Verses” was denied the ordinary life of a novel. It became something smaller and uglier: an insult. And he became the Insulter, not only in Muslim eyes but in the opinion of the public at large. But for those few weeks in the fall of 1988 the book was still “only a novel,” and he was still himself. “The Satanic Verses” was short-listed for the Booker Prize, along with novels by Peter Carey, Bruce Chatwin, Marina Warner, David Lodge, and Penelope Fitzgerald. Then, on Thursday, October 6th, his friend Salman Haidar, who was Deputy High Commissioner of India in London, called to tell him formally, on behalf of his government, that “The Satanic Verses” had been banned in India. The book had not been examined by any properly authorized body, nor had there been any semblance of judicial process. The ban came, improbably, from the Finance Ministry, under Section 11 of the Customs Act, which prevented the book from being imported. Weirdly, the Finance Ministry stated that the ban “did not detract from the literary and artistic merit” of his work. Thanks a lot, he thought. On October 10th, the first death threat was received at the London offices of his publisher, Viking Penguin. The day after that, a scheduled reading in Cambridge was cancelled by the venue because it, too, had received threats. The year ended badly. There was a demonstration against “The Satanic Verses” in Bolton, in the northwest of England, where the book was burned, on December 2nd. On December 3rd, Clarissa received her first threatening phone call. On December 4th, there was another one; a voice said, “We’ll get you tonight, Salman Rushdie, at 60 Burma Road.” That was her home address. She called the police, and officers stayed at the house overnight. Nothing happened. The tension ratcheted up another notch. On December 28th, there was a bomb scare at Viking Penguin. Then it was 1989, the year the world changed. 1989 Two thousand protesters was a small crowd in Pakistan. Even the most modestly potent politico could put many more thousands on the streets just by clapping his hands. That only two thousand “fundamentalists” could be found to storm the U.S. Information Center in the heart of Islamabad on February 12th was, in a way, a good sign. Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto was on a state visit to China at the time, and it was speculated that destabilizing her administration had been the demonstrators’ real aim. Religious extremists had long suspected her of secularism, and they wanted to put her on the spot. Not for the last time, “The Satanic Verses” was being used as a football in a political game that had little or nothing to do with it. Bricks and stones were thrown at security forces, and there were screams of “American dogs!” and “Hang Salman Rushdie!”—the usual stuff. None of this fully explained the police’s response, which was to open fire, using rifles, semiautomatic weapons, and pump-action shotguns. The confrontation lasted for three hours, and, despite all that weaponry, demonstrators reached the roof of the building and the American flag was burned, as were effigies of “the United States” and him. On another day, he might have asked himself what factory supplied the thousands of American flags that were burned around the world each year. But, on this day, everything else that happened was dwarfed by a single fact: five people were shot dead. Blood will have blood, he thought. Here was a mortally ill old man, lying in a darkened room. Here was his son, telling him about Muslims shot dead in India and Pakistan. It was that book that caused this, the son told the old man, the book that is against Islam. A few hours later, a document was brought to the offices of Iranian radio and presented as Khomeini’s edict. A fatwa, or edict, is usually a formal document, signed and witnessed and given under seal at the end of a legal proceeding, but this was just a piece of paper bearing a typewritten text. Nobody ever saw the formal document, if one existed. The piece of paper was handed to the station newsreader and he began to read. It was Valentine’s Day. “Threat” was a technical term, and it was not the same as “risk.” The threat level was general, but risk levels were specific. The level of threat against an individual might be high—and it was for the intelligence services to determine this—but the level of risk attached to a particular action by that individual might be much lower, for example, if nobody knew what he was planning to do, or when. Risk assessment was the job of the police-protection team. These were concepts that he would have to master, because threat and risk assessments would, from now on, shape his daily life. The Special Branch officer who came to see him on the morning of February 15th was Wilson, and the intelligence officer was Wilton, and they both answered to the name of Will. Will Wilson and Will Wilton: it was like a music-hall joke, except that there was nothing funny about anything that day. He was told that because the threat against him was considered to be extremely serious—it was at Level 2, which meant that he was considered to be in more danger than anyone in the country, except, perhaps, the Queen—and, because he was being menaced by a foreign power, he was entitled to the protection of the British state. Protection was formally offered and accepted. It was explained that he would be allocated two protection officers, two drivers, and two cars. The second car was in case the first one broke down. It was explained that, because of the unique nature of the assignment and the imponderable risks involved, all the officers protecting him would be volunteers. He was introduced to his first “prot” team: Stanley Doll and Ben Winters. (Names and some details have been changed for this account.) Stanley was one of the best tennis players on the police force. Benny was one of the few black officers in the Branch and wore a chic tan leather jacket. They were both strikingly handsome, and packing heat. The Branch were the stars of the Metropolitan Police, the double-O élite. He had never met anyone who was actually licensed to kill, and Stan and Benny were presently licensed to do so on his behalf. Regarding the matter at hand, Benny and Stan were reassuring. “It can’t be allowed,” Stan said. “Threatening a British citizen. It’s not on. It’ll get sorted. You just need to lie low for a couple of days and let the politicians sort it out.” “You can’t go home, obviously,” Benny said. “That wouldn’t be too kosher. Is there anywhere you’d like to go for a few days?” “Pick somewhere nice,” Stan said, “and we’ll just whiz you off there for a stretch until you’re in the clear.” “I’m warning you, I have a cold!” Buy a cartoon He wanted to believe in their optimism. Maybe the Cotswolds, he thought. Maybe somewhere in that picture-postcard region of rolling hills and golden-stone houses. There was a famous inn in the Cotswold village of Broadway called the Lygon Arms. He had long wanted to go there for a weekend but had never made it. Would the Lygon Arms be a possibility? Stan and Benny looked at each other, and something passed between them. “I don’t see why not,” Stan said. “We’ll look into it.” He wanted to see his son again before diving for cover, he said, and his sister Sameen, too. They agreed to “set it up.” Once it was dark, he was driven to Burma Road in an armored Jaguar. The armor plating was so thick that there was much less headroom than in a standard car. The doors were so heavy that if they swung shut accidentally and hit you they could injure you quite seriously. The fuel consumption of an armored Jaguar was around six miles to the gallon. It weighed as much as a small tank. He was given this information by his first Special Branch driver, Dennis (the Horse) Chevalier, a big, cheerful, jowly, thick-lipped man—“one of the older fellows,” he said. “Do you know the technical term for us Special Branch drivers?” Dennis the Horse asked him. He did not know. “The term is O.F.D.s,” Dennis said. “That’s us.” And what did O.F.D. stand for? Dennis gave a throaty, slightly wheezing laugh. “Only Fucking Drivers,” he said. He would grow accustomed to police humor. One of his other drivers was known throughout the Branch as the King of Spain, because he once left his Jag unlocked while he went to the tobacconist’s and returned to find that it had been stolen. Hence the nickname, because the King of Spain’s name was—you had to say it slowly—Juan Car-los. He told Zafar and Clarissa what the prot team had said: “It will be over in a few days.” Zafar looked immensely relieved. On Clarissa’s face were all the doubts he was trying to pretend he didn’t feel. He hugged his son tightly and left. Sameen, a lawyer (though no longer a practicing one—she worked in adult education), had always had a sharp political mind and had a lot to say about what was going on. The Iranian Revolution had been shaky ever since Khomeini was forced, in his own words, to “drink the cup of poison” and accept the unsuccessful end of his Iraq war, which had left a generation of young Iranians dead or maimed. The fatwa was his way of regaining political momentum, of reënergizing the faithful. It was her brother’s bad luck to be the dying man’s last stand. As for the British Muslim “leaders,” whom, exactly, did they lead? They were leaders without followers, mountebanks trying to make careers out of her brother’s misfortune. For a generation, the politics of ethnic minorities in Britain had been secular and socialist. This was the mosques’ way of getting religion into the driver’s seat. British Asians had never splintered into Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh factions before. Somebody needed to answer these people who were driving a sectarian wedge through the community, she said, to name them as the hypocrites and opportunists that they were. She was ready to be that person, and he knew that she would make a formidable representative. But he asked her not to do it. Her daughter, Maya, was less than a year old. If Sameen became his public spokesperson, the media would camp outside her house and there would be no escape from the glare of publicity; her private life, her daughter’s life, would become a thing of klieg lights and microphones. Also, it was impossible to know what danger it might draw toward her. He didn’t want her to be at risk because of him. Reluctantly, she agreed. One of the unforeseen consequences of this decision was that as the “affair” blazed on, and he was obliged to be mostly invisible—because the police urged him not to further inflame the situation, advice he accepted for a time—there was nobody who loved him speaking for him, not his wife, not his sister, not his closest friends, the ones he wanted to continue to see. He became, in the media, a man whom nobody loved but many people hated. “Death, perhaps, is a bit too easy for him,” Iqbal Sacranie, of the U.K. Action Committee on Islamic Affairs, said. “His mind must be tormented for the rest of his life unless he asks for forgiveness from Almighty Allah.” (In 2005, this same Sacranie was knighted at the recommendation of the Blair government for his services to community relations.) On the way to the Cotswolds, the car stopped for gas. He needed to go to the toilet, so he opened the door and got out. Every head in the gas station turned to stare at him. He was on the front page of every newspaper—Martin Amis said, memorably, that he had “vanished into the front page”—and had, overnight, become one of the most recognizable men in the country. The faces looked friendly—one man waved, another gave the thumbs-up sign—but it was alarming to be so intensely visible at exactly the moment that he was being asked to lie low. At the Lygon Arms, the highly trained staff could not prevent themselves from gawping. He had become a freak show, and he and Marianne were both relieved when they reached the privacy of their beautiful old-world room. He was given a “panic button” to press if he was worried about anything. He tested the panic button. It didn’t work. On his second day at the hotel, Stan and Benny came to see him with a piece of paper in their hands. Iran’s President, Ali Khamenei, had hinted that if he apologized “this wretched man might yet be spared.” “It’s felt,” Stan said, “that you should do something to lower the temperature.” “Yeah,” Benny assented. “That’s the thinking. The right statement from you could be of assistance.” Felt by whom, he wanted to know; whose thinking was this? “It’s the general opinion,” Stan said opaquely. “Upstairs.” Was it a police opinion or a government opinion? “They’ve taken the liberty of preparing a text,” Stan said. “By all means, read it through.” “By all means, make alterations if the style isn’t pleasing,” Benny said. “You’re the writer.” “I should say, in fairness,” Stan said, “that the text has been approved.” The text he was handed was craven, self-abasing. To sign it would have been to admit defeat. Could this really be the deal he was being offered—that he would receive government support and police protection only if, abandoning his principles and the defense of his book, he fell to his knees and grovelled? Stan and Benny looked extremely uncomfortable. “As I say,” Benny said, “you’re free to make alterations.” “Then we’ll see how they play,” Stan said. And supposing he chose not to make a statement at all at this time? “It’s mine-and I’d appreciate your not looking out of it.” Buy a cartoon “It’s thought to be a good idea,” Stan said. “There are high-level negotiations taking place on your behalf. And then there are the Lebanon hostages to consider, and Mr. Roger Cooper in jail in Tehran. Their situation is worse than yours. You’re asked to do your bit.” (In the nineteen-eighties, the Lebanese Hezbollah group, funded by Tehran, had captured ninety-six foreign nationals from twenty-one countries, including several Americans and Britons. Cooper, a British businessman, had been seized in Iran.) It was an impossible task: to write something that could be received as an olive branch without giving way on what was important. The statement he came up with was one he mostly loathed: As author of “The Satanic Verses” I recognize that Muslims in many parts of the world are genuinely distressed by the publication of my novel. I profoundly regret the distress that publication has occasioned to sincere followers of Islam. Living as we do in a world of many faiths this experience has served to remind us that we must all be conscious of the sensibilities of others. His private, self-justifying voice argued that he was apologizing for the distress—and, after all, he had never wanted to cause distress—but not for the book itself. And, yes, we should be conscious of the sensibilities of others, but that did not mean we should surrender to them. That was his combative, unstated subtext. But he knew that, if the statement was to be effective, it had to be read as a straightforward apology. That thought made him feel physically ill. It was a useless gesture, rejected, then half accepted, then rejected again, both by British Muslims and by the Iranian leadership. The strong position would have been to refuse to negotiate with intolerance. He had taken the weak position and was therefore treated as a weakling. The Observer defended him—“neither Britain nor the author has anything to apologize for”—but his feeling of having made a serious misstep was soon confirmed. “Even if Salman Rushdie repents and becomes the most pious man of all time, it is incumbent on every Muslim to employ everything he has got, his life and his wealth, to send him to hell,” the dying imam said. The protection officers said that he should not spend more than two nights at the Lygon Arms. He was lucky the media hadn’t found him yet, and in a day or so they surely would. This was when another harsh truth was explained: it was up to him to find places to stay. The police’s advice was that he could not return to his home, because it would be impossible (which was to say, very expensive) to protect him there. But “safe houses” would not be provided. If such places existed, he never saw them. Most people, trained by spy fiction, firmly believed in the existence of safe houses, and assumed that he was being protected in one such fortress at the public’s expense. Criticisms of the money spent on his protection would grow more vociferous with the passing weeks: an indication of a shift in public opinion. But, on his second day at the Lygon Arms, he was told that he had twenty-four hours to find somewhere else to stay. A colleague of Clarissa’s offered a night or two at her country cottage, in the village of Thame, in Oxfordshire. From there, he made phone calls to everyone he could think of, without success. Then he checked his voice mail and found a message from Deborah Rogers, his former literary agent. “Call me,” she said. “I think we may be able to help.” Deb and her husband, the composer Michael Berkeley, invited him to their farm in Wales. “If you need it,” she said simply, “it’s yours.” He was deeply moved. “Look,” she said, “it’s perfect, actually, because everyone thinks we’ve fallen out, and so nobody would ever imagine you’d be here.” The next day, his strange little circus descended on Middle Pitts, a homely farmhouse in the hilly Welsh border country. “Stay as long as you need to,” Deb said, but he knew he needed to find a place of his own. Marianne agreed to contact local estate agents and start looking at rental properties. They could only hope that her face would be less recognizable than his. As for him, he could not be seen at the farm or its safety would be “compromised.” A local farmer looked after the sheep for Michael and Deb, and at one point he came down off the hill to talk to Michael about something. “You’d better get out of sight,” Michael told him, and he had to duck behind a kitchen counter. As he crouched there, listening to Michael try to get rid of the man as quickly as possible, he felt a deep sense of shame. To hide in this way was to be stripped of all self-respect. Maybe, he thought, to live like this would be worse than death. In his novel “Shame,” he had written about the workings of Muslim “honor culture,” at the poles of whose moral axis were honor and shame, very different from the Christian narrative of guilt and redemption. He came from that culture, even though he was not religious. To skulk and hide was to lead a dishonorable life. He felt, very often in those years, profoundly ashamed. Both shamed and ashamed. The news roared in his ears. Members of the Pakistani parliament had recommended the immediate dispatch of assassins to the United Kingdom. In Iran, the most powerful clerics fell into line behind the imam. “The long black arrow has been slung, and is now travelling toward its target,” Khamenei said, during a visit to Yugoslavia. An Iranian ayatollah named Hassan Sanei offered a million dollars in bounty money for the apostate’s head. It was not clear whether this ayatollah possessed a million dollars, or how easy it would be to claim the reward, but these were not logical days. The British Council’s library in Karachi—a drowsy, pleasant place he’d often visited—was bombed. On February 22nd, the day the novel was published in America, there was a full-page advertisement in the Times, paid for by the Association of American Publishers, the American Booksellers Association, and the American Library Association. “Free People Write Books,” it said. “Free People Publish Books, Free People Sell Books, Free People Buy Books, Free People Read Books. In the spirit of America’s commitment to free expression we inform the public that this book will be available to readers at bookshops and libraries throughout the country.” The PEN American Center, passionately led by his beloved friend Susan Sontag, held readings from the novel. Sontag, Don DeLillo, Norman Mailer, Claire Bloom, and Larry McMurtry were among the readers. He was sent a tape of the event. It brought a lump to his throat. Long afterward, he was told that some senior American writers had initially ducked for cover. Even Arthur Miller had made an excuse—that his Jewishness might be a counterproductive factor. But within days, whipped into line by Susan, almost all of them had found their better selves and stood up to be counted. “Where the hell did that come from?” Buy a cartoon When the book was in its third consecutive week as No. 1 on the New York Times best-seller list, John Irving, who found himself stuck at No. 2, quipped that, if that was what it took to get to the top spot, he was content to be runner-up. He himself well knew, as did Irving, that scandal, not literary merit, was driving the sales. He also knew, and much appreciated, the fact that many people bought copies of “The Satanic Verses” to demonstrate their solidarity. While all this and much more was happening, the author of “The Satanic Verses” was crouching in shame behind a kitchen counter to avoid being seen by a sheep farmer. Marianne found a house to rent, a modest white-walled cottage with a pitched slate roof called Tyn-y-Coed, “the house in the woods,” a common name for a house in those parts. It was near the village of Pentrefelin, in Brecon, not far from the Black Mountains and the Brecon Beacons. There was a great deal of rain. When they arrived, it was cold. The police officers tried to light the stove and, after a good deal of clanking and swearing, succeeded. He found a small upstairs room where he could shut the door and pretend to work. The house felt bleak, as did the days. Thatcher was on television, understanding the insult to Islam and sympathizing with the insulted. Commander John Howley, of the Special Branch, came to see him in Wales. It now looked as though he would be at risk for a considerable time, and that was not what the Special Branch had foreseen, Howley told him. It was no longer a matter of lying low for a few days to let the politicians sort things out. There was no prospect of his being allowed (allowed?) to resume his normal life in the foreseeable future. He could not just decide to go home and take his chances. To do so would be to endanger his neighbors and place an intolerable burden on police resources, because an entire street, or more than one street, would need to be sealed off and protected. He had to wait until there was a “major political shift.” What did that mean? he asked. Until Khomeini died? Or never? Howley did not have an answer. It was not possible for him to estimate how long it would take. He had been living with the threat of death for a month. There had been further rallies against “The Satanic Verses” in Paris, New York, Oslo, Kashmir, Bangladesh, Turkey, Germany, Thailand, the Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, and West Yorkshire. The toll of injuries and deaths had continued to rise. The novel had by now also been banned in Syria, Lebanon, Kenya, Brunei, Thailand, Tanzania, Indonesia, and elsewhere in the Arab world. In Tyn-y-Coed, on the Ides of March, he was flung without warning into the lowest circle of Orwellian hell. “You asked me once,” O’Brien said, “what was in Room 101. I told you that you knew the answer already. Everyone knows it. The thing that is in Room 101 is the worst thing in the world.” The worst thing in the world is different for every individual. For Winston Smith, in Orwell’s “1984,” it was rats. For him, in a cold Welsh cottage, it was an unanswered phone call. He had his daily routine with Clarissa: At seven o’clock every evening, he would call to say hello to Zafar. If Clarissa couldn’t be at home with Zafar at seven, she would leave a message on the St. Peter’s Street answering machine telling him when they would be back. He called the Burma Road house. There was no reply. He left a message on Clarissa’s machine and then interrogated his own. She had not left a message. Oh, well, he thought, they’re a little late. Fifteen minutes later, he called again. Nobody picked up. He called his own machine again: nothing there. Ten minutes later, he made a third call. Still nothing. It was almost seven-forty-five on a school night. It wasn’t normal for them to be out so late. He called twice more in the next ten minutes. No response. Now he began to panic. He called Burma Road repeatedly, dialling and redialling like a madman, and his hands began to shake. He was sitting on the floor, wedged up against a wall, with the phone in his lap, dialling, redialling. Stan and Benny noticed their “principal” ’s agitated phone activity and came to ask if everything was all right. He said no, it didn’t seem to be. Clarissa and Zafar were now an hour and a quarter late for their phone appointment with him and had left no word of explanation. Stan’s face was serious. “Is this a break in routine?” he asked. Yes, it was a break in routine. “O.K.,” Stan said, “leave it with me. I’ll make some inquiries.” A few minutes later, he came back to say that he had spoken to Metpol—the London Metropolitan Police—and a car would be sent to the address to do a “drive-by.” After that, the minutes moved as slowly and coldly as glacial ice, and when the report came it froze his heart. “The car drove by the premises just now,” Stan told him, “and the report, I’m sorry to say, is that the front door is open and all the lights are on.” He was unable to reply. “Obviously the officers did not attempt to go up to the house or enter,” Stan said. “In the situation as it is, they wouldn’t know what they might encounter.” He saw bodies sprawled on the stairs in the front hall. He saw the brightly lit rag-doll corpses of his son and his first wife drenched in blood. Life was over. He had run away and hidden like a terrified rabbit, and his loved ones had paid the price. “Just to inform you on what we’re doing,” Stan said. “We will be going in there, but you’ll have to give us approximately forty minutes. They need to assemble an army.” Maybe they were not both dead. Maybe his son was alive and had been taken hostage. “You understand,” he said to Stan, “that if they have him and they want a ransom, they want me to exchange myself for him, then I’m going to do that, and you guys can’t stop me doing it.” Stan took a slow, dark pause, like a character in a Pinter play. Then he said, “That thing about exchanging hostages, that only happens in the movies. In real life, I’m sorry to tell you, if this is a hostile intervention they are both probably dead already. The question you have to ask yourself is, Do you want to die as well?” Marianne sat facing him, unable to provide comfort. He had no more to say. There was only the crazy dialling, every thirty seconds, the dialling and then the ring tone and then Clarissa’s voice asking him to leave a message. There was no message worth leaving. “I’m sorry” didn’t begin to cover it. He hung up and redialled, and there was her voice again. And again. “I’ve heard mitigating things about you!” Buy a cartoon After a very long time, Stan came and said quietly, “Won’t be long now. They’re just about ready.” He nodded and waited for reality to deal him what would be a fatal blow. He was not aware of weeping but his face was wet. He went on dialling Clarissa’s number. As if the telephone possessed occult powers, as if it were a Ouija board that could put him in touch with the dead. Then, unexpectedly, there was a click. Somebody had picked up the receiver at the other end. “Hello?” he said, his voice unsteady. “Dad?” Zafar’s voice said. “What’s going on, Dad? There’s a policeman at the door and he says there are fifteen more on the way.” Relief cascaded over him and momentarily tied his tongue. “Dad? Are you there?” “Yes,” he said, “I’m here. Is your mother all right? Where were you?” They had been at a school drama performance that had run very late. Clarissa came on the phone and apologized. “I’m sorry, I should have left you a message. I just forgot. I’m sorry.” “But what about the door?” he asked. “Why was the front door open and all the lights left on?” It was Zafar on the other end again. “It wasn’t, Dad,” he said. “We just got back and opened the door and turned the lights on and then the policeman came.” “It would seem,” Stan said, “that there has been a regrettable error. The car we sent to have a look looked at the wrong house.” Bookstores were firebombed—Collets and Dillons in London, Abbey’s in Sydney. Libraries refused to stock the book, chains refused to carry it, a dozen printers in France refused to print the French edition, and more threats were made against publishers. Muslims began to be killed by other Muslims if they expressed non-bloodthirsty opinions. In Belgium, the mullah who was said to be the “spiritual leader” of the country’s Muslims, the Saudi national Abdullah al-Ahdal, and his Tunisian deputy, Salem el-Behir, were killed for saying that, whatever Khomeini had said for Iranian consumption, in Europe there was freedom of expression. “I am gagged and imprisoned,” he wrote in his journal. “I can’t even speak. I want to kick a football in a park with my son. Ordinary, banal life: my impossible dream.” Friends who saw him in those days were shocked by his physical deterioration, his weight gain, the way he had let his beard grow out into an ugly bulbous mass, his sunken stance. He looked like a beaten man. In a very short time, he grew extremely fond of his protectors. He appreciated the way they tried to be upbeat and cheerful in his company to raise his spirits, and their efforts at self-effacement. They knew that it was difficult for “principals” to have policemen in the kitchen, leaving their footprints in the butter. They tried very hard, and without any rancor, to give him as much space as they could. And most of them, he quickly understood, found the confinement of this particular prot more challenging, in some ways, than he did. These were men of action, their needs the opposite of those of a sedentary novelist trying to hold on to what remained of his inner life, the life of the mind. He could sit still and think in a room for hours and be content. They went stir-crazy if they had to stay indoors for any length of time. On the other hand, they were able to go home after two weeks and have a break. Several of them said to him, with worried respect, “We couldn’t do what you’re doing,” and that knowledge earned him their sympathy. In the months and years that followed, they sometimes broke the rules to help him. At a time when they were forbidden to take him into any public spaces, they took him to the movies, going in after the lights went down and taking him out before they went up again. And they did what they could to assist his work as a father. They took him and Zafar to police sports grounds and formed impromptu rugby teams so that he could run with them and pass the ball. On holidays, they sometimes arranged visits to amusement parks. One day, at such a park, Zafar saw a soft toy being offered as a prize at a shooting gallery and decided that he wanted it. One of the protection officers, known as Fat Jack, heard him. “You fancy that, do you?” he said, and pursed his lips. “Hmm hmm.” He went up to the booth and put down his money. The carny handed him the usual pistol with deformed gun sights and Fat Jack nodded gravely. “Hmm hmm,” he said, inspecting the weapon. “All right, then.” He began to shoot. Boom boom boom boom—the targets fell one by one while the carny watched with gold-toothed mouth hanging wide. “Yes, that should do nicely,” Fat Jack said, putting down the weapon and pointing at the soft toy. “We’ll have that, thanks.” They weren’t perfect. There were mistakes. There was the time that he was taken to his friend Hanif Kureishi’s house. At the end of the evening, he was about to be driven away when Hanif sprinted out into the street, waving a large handgun in its leather holster above his head. “Oy!” he shouted, delightedly. “Hang on a minute. You forgot your shooter.” But they took great pride in their work. Many of them said to him, always using the same words, “We’ve never lost anyone. The Americans can’t say that.” They disliked the American way of doing things. “They like to throw bodies at the problem,” they said, meaning that an American security detail was usually very large, dozens of people or more. Every time an American dignitary visited the United Kingdom, the security forces of the two countries had the same arguments about methodology. “We could take the Queen in an unmarked Ford Cortina down Oxford Street in the rush hour and nobody would know she was there,” they said. “With the Yanks, it’s all bells and whistles. But they lost one President, didn’t they? And nearly lost another.” He needed a name, the police told him in Wales. His own name was useless; it was a name that could not be spoken, like Voldemort in the not yet written Harry Potter books. He could not rent a house with it, or register to vote, because to vote you needed to provide a home address and that, of course, was impossible. To protect his democratic right to free expression, he had to surrender his democratic right to choose his government. “I’ve never forgiven him for that thing I made up in my head.” Buy a cartoon He needed to choose a new name “pretty pronto,” and then talk to his bank manager and get the bank to agree to accept checks signed with the false name, so that he could pay for things without being identified. The new name was also for the benefit of his protectors. They needed to get used to it, to call him by it at all times, when they were with him and when they weren’t, so that they didn’t accidentally let his real name slip when they were walking or running or going to the gym or the supermarket and blow his cover. The prot had a name: Operation Malachite. He did not know why the job had been given the name of a green stone, and neither did they. They were not writers, and the reasons for names were not important to them. But now it was his turn to rename himself. “Probably better not to make it an Asian name,” Stan said. “People put two and two together sometimes.” So he was to give up his race as well. He would be an invisible man in whiteface. He thought of writers he loved and tried combinations of their names. Vladimir Joyce. Marcel Beckett. Franz Sterne. He made lists of such combinations, but all of them sounded ridiculous. Then he found one that did not. He wrote down, side by side, the first names of Conrad and Chekhov, and there it was, his name for the next eleven years. Joseph Anton. “Jolly good,” Stan said. “You won’t mind if we call you Joe.” In fact, he did mind. He soon discovered that he detested the abbreviation, for reasons he did not fully understand—after all, why was Joe so much worse than Joseph? He was neither one, and they should have struck him as equally phony or equally suitable. But Joe grated on him almost from the beginning. Nevertheless, that monosyllable was what the protection officers found easiest to master and remember. So Joe it had to be. He had spent his life naming fictional characters. Now, by naming himself, he had turned himself into a sort of fictional character as well. Conrad Chekhov wouldn’t have worked. But Joseph Anton was someone who might exist. Who now did exist. Conrad, the translingual creator of wanderers, of voyagers into the heart of darkness, of secret agents in a world of killers and bombs, and of at least one immortal coward, hiding from his shame; and Chekhov, the master of loneliness and of melancholy, of the beauty of an old world destroyed, like the trees in a cherry orchard, by the brutality of the new, Chekhov, whose “Three Sisters” believed that real life was elsewhere and yearned eternally for a Moscow to which they could not return: these were his godfathers now. It was Conrad who gave him the motto to which he clung, as if to a lifeline, in the long years that followed. In the now unacceptably titled “The Nigger of the Narcissus,” the hero, a sailor named James Wait, stricken with tuberculosis on a long sea voyage, is asked by a fellow-sailor why he came aboard, knowing that he was unwell. “I must live till I die—mustn’t I?” Wait replies. In his present circumstances, the question felt like a command. “Joseph Anton,” he told himself, “you must live till you die.” ♦ Salman Rushdie has written twelve novels, including “Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-eight Nights,” which will be published in September.	Satanic Verses
'Fox River State Penitentiary' and the 'Federal Penitentiary of Sona' in Panama feature in which American serial drama television series?	Iranian mullah revives death fatwa against Salman Rushdie over Satanic Verses \| Daily Mail Online comments The Iranian clergy has revived Salman Rushdie's death fatwa 25 years after it was issued over his 'blasphemous' Satanic Verses. On February 14, 1989, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini called on all Muslims to murder the award-winning author and anyone involved in the publication of his work. This Friday, senior cleric Ahmad Khatami reminded worshippers at the Tehran Friday prayer that the 'historical fatwa' is 'as fresh as ever'. Threat: Cleric Ahmad Khatami (left) reminded Muslims the $3.3m bounty on Salman Rushdie's head still stands He added that even if Rushdie repents, it will not affect the sentence. The religious ruling forced the award-winning writer into hiding, and Britain's ties with the Islamic republic were severely damaged just a few years after collaborating on a UN resolution between Iraq and Iran. Hitoshi Igarashi, the Japanese translator, was stabbed to death in the face at work, a Norwegian publisher shot and an Italian publisher knifed. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share Thousands took to the streets to burn copies of the book and thirty-seven people were massacred in Sivas, Turkey, in a 1993 attack intended to target Aziz Nesin, the book's Turkish translator. More than two decades later, Rushdie has emerged from hiding and is regularly seen at public events. Fled: The award-winning author, pictured with the book, was forced into hiding after Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini vowed to kill him, anyone involved in the book's publication, and anyone close to him Crisis: The outrage and widespread chaos has lasted 25 years. Here Pakistani Muslims are pictured protesting against Salman Rushdie and Britain in 2007. Five years later, the bounty was raised Pages of the book were burned in street protests across the Middle East and three publishers were murdered People of all ages and nationalities took to the streets with placards calling for his assassination However, this week cleric Khatami implored followers not to abandon their attacks. He said: 'The important thing is that this fatwa is as fresh as ever for Muslims. Faithful Muslims are looking for an opportunity to implement Imam's fatwa. 'Our enemies thought that with the acceptance of the resolution, Imam had retreated from his principles. 'Then this incident happened. It showed the world that the revered Imam had not retreated one bit.' The Satanic Verses, Rushdie's fourth novel, propelled the Indian-born writer into a storm of controversy that forced him into hiding for the best part of a decade. Rushdie, pictured right with his ex-wife Padma Lakshmi, has been seen out and about numerous times since emerging from hiding. In 2007, he was knighted and appeared publicly to receive the honour from the Queen Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Khomeini, reminds Rushdie every year that the fatwa still stands The title refers to the so-called 'satanic verses', a group of alleged Qur'anic verses that allow intercessory prayers to be made to three Pagan Meccan goddesses. The book's publication in 1988 sparked a wave of protest and condemnation from Muslims who accused it of blasphemy and mocking their faith. The following year, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, then Supreme Leader of Iran, issued a fatwā, or religious ruling, calling for Rushdie's death. The British government gave the writer round-the-clock police protection. Rushdie has received notices every year since the publication reminding him of the religious ruling. In 2012, Hassan Sanei, the head of the state-funded 15 Khordad, raised the bounty on Rushdie's head by $500,000 to $3.3million ($2million). He said Islamaphobic literature and films would not have been made if it weren't for the Satanic Verses. 'Surely if the sentence of the Imam had been carried out, the later insults in the form of caricatures, articles and the making of movies would not have occurred,' he said in a statement. 'I am adding another $500,000 to the reward for killing Salman Rushdie and anyone who carries out this sentence will receive the whole amount immediately.' Also in 2012, Rushdie became the subject of a computer game in Iran called The Stressful Life Of Salman Rushdie And Implementation Of His Verdict. The programme is intended to teach the younger generation about the 'highly important' fatwa.	i don't know
From which Greek word for a plant cultivated in the Nile delta does the word 'paper' derive?	The River Nile Facts Home The Nile River in Ancient Egypt The Nile River in Ancient Egypt The Nile River has certainly played a critical role in the history of ancient Egypt. Famous as the longest river in the world, the river got its name from the Greek word Neilos, which means valley. The Nile floods the lands in Egypt, leaving behind black sediment. That's why the ancient Egyptians named the river Ar, meaning black. "A land won by the Egyptians and given them by the Nile." -Greek historian Herodotus (circa 500 B.C.) The story of the Nile River begins not in the lush coastal lagoons of its Mediterranean mouth, nor at its headwaters high in the cloud forests of Rwanda, but in the Western Desert of Egypt. Here, there is no Nile. There is no water. It is a Martian landscape, inhabitable except for a few scattered oases. It is a Saharan playground for dust storms and locusts, where shovel-snouted lizards dance on two feet to avoid the scorching sands of mid-day. This is Egypt without the Nile. Small wonder, then, that the Ancient Egyptians prized and venerated the Nile River. It was their umbilical cord. Even today, a common Egyptian blessing is: "May you always drink from the Nile." From its cooling waters came perch fish bigger than the fisherman. From its loamy riverbanks came mud used for bricks and papyrus for books and boats. Every year, when the Nile River flooded and saturated the parched land in water and life-giving silt, the Egyptian farmers thanked the god Hapy and began their calendar anew. ©Jiseon Shin - View of the Nile and the desert banks A Satellite View of the Nile River Were you to hitchhike a ride on a satellite, you could see the Nile River in its entirety. For almost 4,250 miles the While Nile snakes through nine countries, from the Delta region of Lower Egypt all the way to Lake Victoria, the biggest of the African Great Lakes. The Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana, Ethiopia, and joins the White Nile south of Egypt in Khartoum, Sudan. Together, they make up the longest river in the world, the blue thread that binds Africa. When you think of Ancient Egypt, you probably imagine the Great Sphinx and the limestone pyramids of the Giza Plateau. You picture the towering obelisks of Memphis and the ochre domes of Cairo. These cities were the nerve center of Ancient Egypt. They lay just 20 miles South of where the Nile cleaves into the many channels and canals of the fertile Nile Delta. © NASA - Satellite view of the Nile River The fan-shaped Delta is flat as a pancake and green as a leprechaun. At its farthest reaches sat the great port city of Alexandria , home to the lighthouse Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Beyond the Nile Delta is nothing but the salt solution of the Mediterranean and past that, Europe. At the opposite end of Egypt, where the Nile snakes into the country, was the gateway city of the country: Aswan. It was small, hot, a garrison town for the Egyptian armies. Trade and Transportation on the Nile River You might be tempted to ignore the stubby structures of frontier Aswan, known in Ancient Egypt as Swenett. You might focus on the more impressive pillars of Cairo and the temples of Giza – but there would be no pyramids and no shrines without little ol' Aswan and the Nile River. Dhow on the Nile River near Aswan Aswan is hot. It receives essentially no rain. Ever. Daytime temperatures hover over 100 degrees six months out of twelve. The only source of water is the Nile, less than half a mile in width. But Ancient Egypt considered Aswan indispensable for its special granite, a rock called Syenite. Rough-hewn blocks were chiseled from raw stone, loaded onto barges, and shipped down the placid Nile River to the halls of the god-king pharaohs. During flood season, this trip would take about two weeks, for there was not a single cataract to delay the trip. During the dry season, the same trip would take about two months. Ships would return bearing cargo and men, their sails fattened by northern trade winds. The Nile River was Ancient Egypt's highway. There were no semi-trucks, no Amazon Prime 1-day shipping offers. There was only water. No bridges spanned the Nile's girth in ancient times. Only boats could plow the surface and skim across the channel measuring 20-40 feet deep. Around 4,000 B.C., the Ancient Egyptians first lashed bundles of papyrus stalks together to make rafts. Later, craftsmen learned to build wooden ships using local acacia wood. Some of these boats could carry cargo up to 500 tons. That's as much as 125 elephants! Where boats could no travel over desert sands, Egyptians rode camels from one hidden cistern to another. © Jerzy Strzelecki - Boats on the Nile Flora and Fauna of the Riverbanks Animals Of course, most Egyptians rarely saw the Nile from its center. The farmer of the Middle Kingdom would have stood at the water's edge and peered across two miles of silvery blue. In the summer, those two miles might expand to five or ten. Torrential spring rains in Ethiopia and sub-Saharan Africa would cause the Egyptian Nile to overflow its banks for 4-6 months, inundating the surrounding flood plain in black silt. The Nile River plain was a suitable living environment for a variety of animals . The two largest herbivores are the hippopotamus and black rhinoceroses, both of which are now nearing extinction. Blue herons and white ibis birds scope out the shallow waters for small fish, eels and snakes. The Nile River contains more than 30 species of snakes, and more than half are venomous. Not for nothing did Cleopatra , the great Queen of Egypt, die from the bite of an asp. © Lucas - Depictions of Snakes, Wadjet Amulet This annual flooding cycle enticed water-loving amphibians, reptiles and birds to come dwell in the Nile. The most common reptile is the Nile crocodile, a grayish beast that grows up to 1,500 pounds. It waylays unsuspecting gazelles and small mammals who come to feed at the riverbanks. Nile Crocodile Facts - The Nile Crocodile has been a major component of the Egyptian culture and way of life since the first Egyptians settled along the fertile banks of the Nile. Most Nile Crocodiles are approximately 4 meters in length, although some have been reported as longer. They make their nests along the banks of the Nile River, where the female may lay up to 60 eggs at one time. Some three months later the babies are born and are taken to the water by their mother. They will remain with her for at least two years before reaching maturity. © Cloudtall - Nile Crocodiles Farming and Food Although Ancient Egyptians relied on fish for animal protein, they obtained most of their food from the earth. The rich topsoil of the Nile basin can measure up to 70 feet deep. It is a farmer's utopia. After Ahket, the season of Inundation, villages planted the first seeds. During Peret, the growing season, which lasted October-February, farmers tended their fields. Shemu was the season of harvest and abundance. They would either carry water by hand, by camel, or would dig irrigation canals from the Nile River to water the rich black kemet of the fields. Farmers cultivated all manner of crops: barely for beer, cotton for clothing, melons and pomegranates and figs for an evening meal. But three crops stood out: wheat, flax, and papyrus. Wheat was ground into bread, flax was spun into linen, and papyrus dried into a paper substitute. © GoShows - Harvest Season Spirituality and World View The Nile River, for all its importance to the Ancient Egyptian, had no deity. It didn't even have a name. Most simply called it "the river," or "aur," which means black. The closest thing to a god assigned to the Nile was Hapy, the god of the Inundation. Hapy had no temple. He was a fat, jubilant deity praised at the beginning of every flood cycle and mentioned only in passing the rest of the year. Yet even though the Nile did not play a central part in Ancient Egyptian spirituality, it was the center of their social world view They oriented themselves in reference to the south, from whence the river came. The east bank, where the sun rose, was the side of birth. The west bank, where the sun set, was the side of death. All Ancient Egyptian tombs and pyramids were constructed on the west side of the Nile. To Egyptians, flooding was normal; rain was weird. They called the downpours of other cultures "the Inundation in the sky". Their 365-day calendar rose and fell with the waters of the Nile. In fact, a poor man was symbolized as having no boat. And when a Pharaoh was entombed, a small boat or model of a boat would be buried with him so that he might "pass to the other side", that the cold waters of the Nile would bear him, the symbol of Egypt, in death as they had in life. © KOMUnews - Nile Flooding River Nile Facts How long is the Nile River? The Nile River is actually 6695 kilometers (4184 miles) long. With such a long length, the Nile River is speculated to be the longest river in the world. It winds from Uganda to Ethiopia, flowing through a total of nine countries. While the Nile River is often associated with Egypt, it actually touches Ethiopia, Zaire, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and Sudan, as well as Egypt. It's only recent that the first known navigation team successfully followed the river from beginning to its end. How did the ancient Egyptians use the Nile River? The Nile River has played an extremely important role in the civilization, life and history of the Egyptian nation. One of the most well known river Nile facts is the river's ability to produce extremely fertile soil, which made it easy for cities and civilizations to spring up alongside the banks of the Nile. The fertile soil is created by the annual spring floods, when the Nile River overflows onto the banks. Much of the Egyptian nation consists of dry desert land. Throughout most of the year, very little rain falls on Egyptian deserts. This has remained true for thousands of years. The abundant Nile River provided much needed irrigation, even in ancient times. This waterway also provided a source of drinking water, as well as papyrus reeds that could be used for a variety of purposes such as paper and building materials. Today, exotic and sophisticated cities like Cairo grace the banks of the Nile River, as they have for thousands of years. Individuals interested in experiencing the Nile up close and personal can journey along the famous river aboard riverboat cruises that depart from numerous cities along the bank.	Papyrus
'Cold Mountain Penitentiary' features in which book and film? In the book it is in Maine, but in the film it is in Louisiana?	Words, words, words… Mice, Dolphins, and Stars It is a real stretch, but Germanic mouse, Latin muscle, mussel, muscatel, and Sanskrit musk are all related. Mouse the animal is the real word; all else is metaphor. In Latin a muscle is a “little mouse”, since the apparent movement under the skin reminded people of a mouse under a piece of cloth. The exact same thought led to Sanskrit muska, testicle, due to its movement within the scrotum. Musk is a scent produced by glands near the scrotum of various animals, and the Muscat grape allegedly has a musky odor, as does the nutmeg. The musk ox is quite smelly, but the muskrat is due to folk etymology (see below) and has nothing to do with either musk or rat. Meanwhile, The mussel is another “mouse” word, this time from the shape and color reminding someone of a crouching mouse. A computer programmer is an organism that metabolizes caffeine and excretes software and bad puns, and so the official unit of cursor control is the “mickey”, as in “The user moved the mouse three mickies to the left.” A gland is named for its appearance—glans was the Latin word for “acorn”. This is still seen in the medical glans penis for the head of the penis. One of the more obscure words in English has to be glandaceous, having the yellow-brown color of an acorn. Consider Wall Street bulls and bears. One can perhaps see why a bull would be regarded as aggressive and therefore a symbol of a market optimist, but why should such a dangerous animal as a bear be the emblem of a pessimist who thinks the market is about to decline? The answer is that the allusion is not to the animal itself, but to the phrase “bearskin jobber”, in reference to the old saw that one should not sell a bearskin before one has caught the bear. “Bears” try to make money in a declining market by selling stock they do not own, gambling that when the delivery date comes, the transaction can be covered by purchasing shares at a lower price. It is too bad that the NFL’s Miami Dolphins don’t move north and become the Philadelphia Dolphins, because the last half of the city name and the ocean creature are from the same word! Greek delphos actually meant “womb”, and adelphos meant “brother”, originally in the phrase phrater adelphos — brother of the same womb, as opposed to a brother-in-law, monastic brother, etc. The thing with fins was evidently named the “wombfish” because, unlike other “fish” known to the Greeks, it was a mammal. The Phil- part of the city name means “love” in Greek, and at various times “brotherly love” has been used as the name of a city in what is now Turkey (mentioned in the Bible), a personal name, the name of several Christian sects, and finally the city in Pennsylvanania. The flower called a delphinium is named for the shape of the buds, and the famous Greek shrine and oracle at Delphi was because Apollo supposedly appeared there in the guise of a dolphin. Delphic as a synonym for “ambiguous” is because the pronouncements of the oracle were notoriously cryptic. A famous example is a king who asked the oracle what would happen if he took a certain action. “You will be happy,” he was told. In the event, he was killed, but the Greeks had a proverb, “Count no man happy until he dies,” so the oracle could get credit either way. A similar answer was the one given to Croesus, king of Lydia, when he asked what would happen if he attacked the Persians. “You will destroy a great empire,” was the response. In the event, the Persians utterly defeated the Lydians and annexed Croesus’s empire. Another well-known prophecy was given to a Spartan who asked if he would be killed in an upcoming battle. The priestess’s reply was, “You Will Go You Will Return Not In War Shall You Die.” This has two very different meanings depending on where one places the punctuation, not to mention the fact that ancient Greek didn’t even have punctuation. A 2,500-year-old cliché is also due to the Delphic oracle. Someone asked how to find a treasure which had been lost on a certain battlefield and was told, “Leave no stone unturned.” While on the subject of the Spartans, they were notorious for being extremely taciturn, never using more words than necessary. A famous example is when Philip of Macedon invaded Greece, he sent a message to the Spartans: “Surrender, for if I win this war, you will be slaves forever.” (Another version of the message is “Surrender, for if I capture your city, I will raze it to the ground.”) Either way, the Spartans replied, “If”. Sparta was the largest city of the Greek region called Lacedaemon, and their terseness has been immortalized in the word laconic. When a Spartan mother ceremonially presented a shield to her son, she said, “Return with it or on it.” (The implication was that her son would never shame her by dropping his shield in battle, but would die first.) Someone once ridiculed a Spartan soldier for having a short sword. The reply was, “Step closer.” 01Mar16 Another famous laconicism is traditionally associated with Leonides, the leader of the Spartans at Thermopylae. When the Persian king Xerxes demanded that the Spartans surrender their weapons, he allegedly said Μολὼν λαβέ, "Come and get them." Clichés are extremely tenacious, persisting for hundreds or even thousands of years. As a result, they often refer to obsolete items or institutions, mystifying anyone who tries to analyze their meanings instead of just accepting. Consider a steamroller as a symbol of inexorable power. In reality there haven’t been any steam rollers for a hundred years now. From that same period we have “mile-a-minute” to mean extremely fast. That’s sixty miles per hour, and on Texas highways and German autobahns one can be arrested for driving that slowly. (Note that full steam ahead technically is still OK, since that cliché seems to refer to steam sailing ships, and even modern nuclear-powered warships are still powered by steam turbines.) “Tip of the iceberg” will probably be around hundreds of years after the last iceberg has melted from global warming, and the only White Christmas will be in Antarctica. For that matter, ice cubes have almost never been cubes — they were rectangular prisms for a long time, and now ice machines all emit crescents instead. How many hundred years has it been since anyone encountered an actual wolf at the door? How long since anyone was literally “thrown to the wolves” from a sleigh? It’s safe to say that the world’s last loose cannon happened about 1850, and that’s probably about the same time the last person got shackled with a ball and chain. Even so, that’s undoubtedly later than the last person who was actually forced to walk the plank. It is also safe to say that nobody has been hauled over the coals in hundreds of years, even though it once was a common punishment for witches and heretics. How many people now alive have ever been nipped in the hind end by an actual goose? If I send an e-mail message to two people, this is indicated with a cc: abbreviation. That stands for carbon copy, presumably mystifying the under-40 people who have never seen carbon paper. Similarly, I am currently typing this sentence on my computer, despite the fact that there might not be a typewriter for twenty miles in any direction. (Purists are trying to replace “typing” with keyboarding, without much luck.) Why do they still call it dialing a telephone when the mechanism is demonstrably rectangular? Sticking to telephones, think about “hanging up” on someone. Very few people now alive have ever used a telephone (except maybe a pay phone) where it was possible to literally hang up the receiver. People who own a DVR but have never seen a VCR routinely talk about taping shows to view later. Last but not least, cliché itself has far outlived the stereotype machine which produced that sound. Speaking of typewriters, they might be making a comeback in certain circles. Recent revelations of how pervasive electronic intelligence gathering has become are so distressing to those in charge of top secrets that some agencies have ordered that highly sensitive documents not be prepared on or saved in computers, period. They have ordered manual typewriters and keep their paper documents in safes again. (Note I said manual typewriters; modern espionage can decipher what is being typed on an electric typewriter in the next office by its characteristic electronic emissions.) Greek phil- has become a general additive in English to describe a lover of anything, leading to words like bibliophile, (books), videophile, Francophile (France), philanthropist (mankind), and more arriving daily. Among the less obvious uses, Philip is Greek phil-hippos, lover of horses, and a hemophiliac, rather gruesomely, “loves to bleed”. Pythagoras seems to have been the first to call himself a philosopher, lover of wisdom, because he thought it was less arrogant than the usual term sophos, wise man. A few paragraphs back, I mentioned Germanic womb. The Greek word for womb was hystera, while the Latin version was uterus. A hysterectomy is surgical removal of the womb. Severe depression or agitation was once regarded as a purely female complaint, and so English has hysteria, hysterics and hysterical. The change in the latter word’s meaning to “extremely funny” is only recorded in 1969, presumably from the mentally disturbed being subject to laughing or crying jags. As late as 1900, removal of the ovaries was the approved medical treatment for a severely agitated woman. Eventually the medical profession decided this didn’t work and progressed to outright torture — electric shock, insulin shock, and/or lobotomy to remove part of the brain. At least the resulting vegetables didn’t give their caretakers any trouble. Incidentally, electrical hysteresis is not related to hysteria. That one is from a Greek word that means “later”. In grammar, hysteron proteron (last first) is the practice of reversing terms or clauses for emphasis — placing the more important item first. “I put on my shoes and socks”, for instance, instead of socks and shoes. Vergil has the line “Let us die, and charge into the thick of the fight.” Novels that start with the climax and then tell the entire story in flashback use the same technique. An Indo-European root da- really meant to divide, and hence to share or apportion. This was the original meaning of deal, but that has pretty well disappeared except for the dealer who shares out cards and in the phrases “a good deal of” and “a great deal of”, a good or large share, respectively. It also hangs on in the more common use of “deal” for “bargain” and “dealer” for “merchant”. As mentioned below, time and tide are Germanic “divide up” words, connected by Grimm’s Law. Very early on, “share” changed to “what is deserved” and “what is ordained by fate”, so an ordeal was a judgement of any kind. Latin damnum had the double meaning of a judgement and an injury. The verb to damn got more or less taken over by the preachers, so it now has a strong connotation of sending someone to Hell, also a strong element in damned (whether used of a sinner, a nuisance, or a Yankee), damnation, etc. from the idea of God’s judgement, but it was also used for secular decisions. Once upon a time, the virtuous could be damned to Heaven, but obviously most people were more worried about the judgement going the other way. To condemn also has a strong sense of a judgement, but two other relatives still have the “injury” sense — to damage and to indemnify. (The word “indemn” has gone out of use, but it is “un-damn”, to free someone from a previous injury, to make reparations, which is exactly what indemnify and its noun indemnity still mean.) It is rather interesting that “[May] God bless you” and “[May] God be with you” (shortened these days to goodbye) are regarded as short prayers, whereas the exactly similar prayer, “[May] God damn you!” is not. This brings to mind Ambrose Bierce’s sardonic definition of excommunication: “A solemn ecclesiastical rite damning some poor sinner forever and forbidding God to save him.” Arabic kismet, destiny or fate, is also a “portion” word; it’s from qasama, to divide. A paper clip has no association with a film clip. The former is an old Germanic word that originally meant to hug or embrace. “Cleppeth and kysseth” was a poetic cliché down to the time of Shakespeare and beyond. (One of the final lines of Antony and Cleopatra is “She shall be buried by her Antony. No grave upon the earth shall clip in it a pair so famous,” where the sense is clearly “hold” or “embrace”.) The current sense of a mechanical fastener is from an intermediate sense of “hold tightly”, also seen in the ammunition clip — several rounds bonded together so they can be loaded as a unit. Clasp is a relative; the form is metathesis from the original claps, a form of “clip“. The other clip is a verb that seems to be from the sound of a pair of scissors snapping shut. Newspaper clippings, nail clippers, and the football fifteen-yard penalty for clipping (i.e., cutting the legs out from under another player) are from the verb. Snip is another verb that is probably from the sound of scissors, and both “snip” and “clip” have a nice, definite, cut-short sound that suits their meaning quite well. As an aside, cliché is another echoic word, since it is simply a French version of “click”. The current meaning comes from 19th-century printers’ slang. The new-fangled Stereotype machine could generate a common word or phrase with a single keystroke, and to French ears, cliché was the sound the machine made when activated! It took many years to get into public usage. Note that a stereotyped phrase or idea is an exact synonym of cliché, both having the connotation that something is generated automatically and without thought. Indo-European has a considerable collection of echoic words beginning with /CL/ or /CR/ — in addition to click, cliche, and clip, consider clack, cluck, clunk, clap, crack, and crackle. Clank and clang are the heavier versions of clink, and all three are the “ringing” versions of click and clack. See the discussion of creaking cranes, below, for a bunch more onomatopoeic relatives. As a proper noun, the notorious Clink Prison in London became so proverbial that “in the clink” was generalized to residing in any jail. The Clink was in operation from 1151 to 1780, when it was burned down by rioters. There is debate whether the name comes from the sound (either a key in a lock or a jail door closing) or if it is a completely unrelated word. London’s Fleet Prison, used mainly for debtors in later years, was in use from 1197 to 1844. That name, in turn, has little to do with the navy. It is the Old English name for a creek or tidal inlet —it’s a “flow” word —, and the prison was built along the Fleet River, which used to flow through London before being confined underground. The Fleet was so bad that one 18th-century prison governor was actually convicted of mistreating prisoners, an event that must have had the average citizen thinking the world was about to end. Presumably for his own safety, he served his sentence in a different prison! A further diversion: paper and taper are the same word. Paper is of course from the Egyptian papyrus reed, and a single stalk of papyrus made a good candle wick. Papur was the Old English word for “candle”, but clear back in oe , the initial /P/ was changed to /T/ for some reason, and “taper” is still a synonym for candle. The verb “to taper” is from the shape of a candle; it didn’t come along until hundreds of years later. (Candle is Latin, related to candidate, q.v.) In the previous item I mentioned embrace. This is ultimately from an Indo-European root that meant “short”. That sense led to English brief, abridge, and abbreviate, as well as a bunch of esoteric Greek scientific terms in brachy-, of which the best known is brachycephalic, broad-headed. In Greek the word also came to mean the upper arm (shorter than the forearm), and then “arm” in general, French bras. From this latter sense we acquired, in addition to embrace, brace, bracelet, and brassiere (literally, “arm guard”). Germanic provides pretzel (from an image of folded arms), and Spanish includes the bracero who works with his arms and the Brazos River, q.v. Brachiation is the scientific name for locomotion by swinging by the arms through trees, like orangutans and gibbons. The huge brachiosaurus dinosaur is the “arm lizard” because of its very long front legs . Note the very similar body structure to a giraffe ; both animals having a very long neck and very long front legs for the same reason — to browse vegetation that other animals could not reach. The extremely elongated neck of the dinosaur required a long heavy tail for balance. P.S. — the opposite of brachycephalic is dolichocephalic, from a Greek word for “long”. (Brachycephalic people do not like to be called fatheads, for some reason, even if their skulls are wider than the usual. As a card-carrying brachycephalic, I can testify that there’s a problem with things like eyeglasses and football helmets that are designed for more slender heads.) It can be proved that merry and mirth are also members of the “brief” family! It used to be something like “mberry”, and the meaning seems to have gone from “short” to “a short time” to “that which passes the time” to “entertaining” or “pleasant”. Cf. pastime and German Kurzweil, entertainment, which is literally a “short (curt) while”. The reinforcing bracket looks like it ought to be a “brace” word, but it’s from the other end of the body instead. It is a derivative of brak-, the Germanic and Keltic word for trousers. (The toga-wearing Romans had no native term for this cold-weather garment.) Breeches and brogues are descendants, while the structural sense of a bracket, filling in the angle where two timbers meet, seems to come from Spanish bragueta, which meant codpiece. The “buttocks” sense of a breech (breech birth, etc.) is the part of the body covered by breeches; cf. a breech-clout. From there, just like butt, it was generalized to the back end or thick end of something, as in the breech of a gun. Everyone assumes that a geological fault is a defect in the rock, but in fact the meaning of the fol- root was to slide, or make slide. Since that’s exactly what the San Andreas Fault does, the geologists knew their Latin. Other relatives include fail, false, fallible, fallacy, and default, most of them from the metaphorical sense of “deceive”. An infallible person like Ye Author has “no faults”. Unlike some other states, California is quite fallible, and Los Angeles and Tokyo are very faulty cities. (My house, in Austin, Texas, is actually directly on top of a geological feature called the Balcones Fault, but since it hasn’t moved in twenty million years, my insurance company is not very worried.) One very unlikely derivative is faucet. One medieval sense of “fail” was to pierce, and a faucet was originally the bung of a cask. (By the way, the /L/ didn’t appear in “fault” until maybe 1400 as an attempt to restore the Latin spelling (in Middle English the word was spelled “faut”) and the /L/ wasn’t pronounced until almost 1800.) I’ve been waiting for you to ask, “But, but… How about fall?” Yup, that’s the same word, via Germanic. The gravitational fall is directly from the “slide” sense, but “Adam’s fall” was a failure. “Fall” as a season is short for “Fall of the Leaf”. “Folly” is not related, though. As mentioned below, that’s a “fool” word, from the Latin for “bellows”. Speaking of Adam, Shipley points out that macadamized pavement is a perfect example of the mongrel quality of English, because the single word has elements of four language families — mac- (Keltic, “son of”), -adam- (Hebrew, “man”), -ize- (Greek, “make”), and -ed, the weak Germanic verb ending. A bellows is not connected to a bellow. A bellows is a member of the “belly” family, q.v., but bellow is a “loud noise” word, related to bell, bawl, belch, bleat, and blare. Feeble is an unlikely relative by way of Latin — it’s from flere, to weep. Boxwood was never used to make boxes. The Box tree is the older sense in English, borrowed from Latin buxus (the modern species name), but the container is evidently a modification of Latin pyxis instead. with the same sense. (Cf. sandalwood, which has nothing to do with sandals.) Despite sound and meaning, rough and ruffian are not connected. The latter word is Italian ruffiano, a pimp, even if that entrepreneur should be quite gentle with his employees and customers. Rough is a member of the ragged family, as mentioned elsewhere. Both cove and alcove mean a hollowed-out area, but they are unrelated. “Cove” is a Germanic word that originally meant “hut”, generalized to “small chamber”. A cubby, as in cubbyhole, seems to be related. “Alcove”, on the other hand, is Arabic al-qobbah, the arch. Arch is from Latin arcus, bow. This produced archery and arrow, as well as the curved arc. An arcade is a group of arches. The American Osage Orange tree is often called the Bois d’arc (pronounced “bow dark”) because the Indians used the wood to make bows. The tip of something isn’t connected to tipping something over, and probably isn’t related to giving something to a waitress, either. The first “tip” is a cousin of top. By way of “topknot”, it produced toupee. To tip over, however, is a Scandinavian word meaning to fall, and someone who is tipsy is likely to topple. The gratuity, meanwhile, is a third word; the original meaning was “light touch”, i.e., a tap. It’s possibly derived from the first “tip” via gently touching something with the tip of a finger. At the race track, a tip is provided by a tout, but that seems to be a different word which meant to spy. Some young ladies whose antics are featured in the tabloids might not agree that decorative should be closely related to decorum, but ’tis so. Latin decere meant “fitting, suitable”, a definition most obvious in decorous or dignified behavior. Decent is the French form of “decorous”. Decorate (and French décor) come from the idea of “appropriate appearance”. Dainty is the French version of “dignity” — the definition went from “worthy” to “honor” to “joy” to “luxurious” to “delightful” to “delicately pretty”. The original meaning of “fitting” is more obvious in scorning an unworthy object or person with disdain, Latin dedignare. (Note the more or less obsolete deign, to think it worthy of oneself, to condescend, the French version of dignare.) The dexter words (on the right hand), mentioned elsewhere, also come from “fitting”. “The lady had a fit because her gown didn’t fit.” Yup, they are the same word. The original meaning of “fit” was “an equal contest”. By way of phrases like “a fit match”, it developed the sense of suitable, leading to fitting circumstances, the fit of clothes, physical fitness, and so on. Going the other way, it meant a conflict or struggle, as in “fit of passion”. Note the dual sense of match — a boxing match and a color match. French can modify Latin words beyond recognition, which is how Latin cucumber is the same as French gourd. (The root is Latin cucurbita — botanists lump cucumbers, gourds, and melons as family Cucurbitaceae.) Latin aequus is the source of English equal. The Latin term seems to be an orphan; no relatives are known elsewhere. The words with an equi- prefix are mostly obvious — equinox is “equal night”, equilibrium is “equal balance”, equivalent is “equal strength”, and so on. Equivocal, as the structure implies, originally meant “called the same”. People added “…but not really the same” under their breath, leading to the modern sense of ambiguous. Other obvious derivatives are equation and equator (the line where day and night are “equalized”). Much less obvious is adequate, which originally meant “just sufficient”, “equal to what is needed”. Another well-disguised relative is iniquity, the same word as inequality. Egalitarian is from French égalitaire, equality. Canopy and canapé are the same word, believe it or not. The original meaning of a canopy was a bed or sofa with a mosquito netting attached, and it seems to derive from Canopus, a city in the Nile delta which certainly would have had its share of mosquitoes. Canapé was borrowed from French about 1890. The French word means “sofa”, but perhaps either the Americans apprehended it as meaning a “spread”, or the cracker underneath as the “bed” of the snack. Astute readers with a minimal knowledge of Greek probably assume that the existence of mastitis and mastectomy implies a masto- root that means “breast”. They would be right, but almost certainly that warm glow of accomplishment wouldn’t help in establishing the relationship to the extinct elephant called a mastodon. The name should really be “mastodont”, Greek for “breast tooth”, so-named because the animal had huge complex molar teeth that looked like a group of nipples . The mastoid bone that projects behind the ear is also named because it is “breast-like”, and mastoplasty is a quite obscure way of saying “boob job”. (By the way, another extinct elephant, the mammoth, seems to mean “earth-horn” in a non- ie language of the Urals. The meaning of “huge” is from the animal.) Here are three unlikely cognates from the same source: bruise, brittle, and brothel. Indo-European bhreu- meant to crush or break up. Bruise and brittle are then straightforward. The odd one, brothel, originally meant something ruined, either a tumbledown building or a prostitute. Originally brothels lived in a brothel-house, but the simple “brothel” has referred to the structure since about 1700. A related bher- meant cut or pierce, producing Germanic bore, Latin perforate (pierce through), and the Slavic name Boris (fighter, stabber). Indo-European bhreue- meant to boil, bubble, or burn. The most obvious English derivatives are brew and its noun broth. Much less obvious are brood and breed, both from the sense of to warm or hatch. (The “worry” sense of to brood is from the female bird’s attitude toward her eggs.) Going even further afield, German bratwurst and brawn both mean “roasted meat”, something that might be done by braising on a brazier. To burn in a fire is not related — that’s a furnace/fornicate word, mentioned elsewhere — but burn as an archaic or Scottish word for a spring or stream is a derivative, from the “bubble” sense. The culinary sense of broil is also a “furnace” word, but there is a second broil, to fight, now obsolete except for embroil. (Brawl looks like it ought to be connected, but it is not.) Barm is an old word for yeast, more often seen these days in the adjective barmy. By Grimm’s Law, the Latin cousins begin with /F/, leading to ferment, fervent, fervor, and effervescent, all with the sense of “boiling”. Given the “yeast” and “ferment” definitions, most authorities list bread as a prominent Germanic relative of bhreue-, but the oed violently disagrees, pointing out that in Old English the meaning of “bread” was bit, morsel, or snack, none of which had anything to do with brewing and bubbling. The Anglo-Saxon word for bread in the modern sense was loaf, q.v. The current meanings of the two words took hold about 1200. The literal meaning of entice seems to be “add fuel to the fire” — Latin titio meant firebrand. A busy prosecutor’s office might have an index of all their indictments, and in fact they are the same word. Latin indicare meant to point at or single out, and indicate still has the literal meaning. The original meaning of index was the index finger, the “pointing finger”. Index and indict are two of the many, many descendants of the Indo-European root deik-, to show or proclaim. All of the Latin words in -dict-, having to do with speaking out, are relatives — dictate, contradict (speak out against), edict, diction, the dictionary which demonstrates good speech, abdicate, predicate, dedicate, benediction (good speaking), verdict (true speaking), predict (speak out beforehand), ditty, ditto (Italian for “said”, used to keep from repeating the same term over and over), etc. English has a pair of words indite and the more recent indict. Both mean “write down”, but the re-spelled “indict” has been restricted to writing down a legal charge. Note that the Latinate spelling change did not affect the pronunciation. Condition is literally the result of people “talking together” or “agreeing upon”, later modified to “situation” or “status”. Judicial is “proclaiming the law” (Latin ius) as a judge, and prejudice is pre-ju-dice, speaking the law beforehand. Germanic teach is another descendant; it originally meant “show” in the generic sense, and the first recorded meaning of teacher in English was the index finger! More Latin and Greek cousins are the doc- words — doctor, doctrine, document, orthodox, heterodox, dogma, etc. Meanwhile, such assorted terms as digit, toe, dactyl, date (the fruit), token, syndicate, [insurance] policy, preach, and vendetta can also be demonstrated to come from deik-. There’s nothing more common these days than a digital calculator, and it shows how far we’ve come since the Romans that those two words mean “finger” and “pebble” in Latin — the most primitive methods of counting. (Computer also had a humble origin — both it and count are from a Latin word that meant to cut a notch, so they’re related to amputate, to cut around.) As mentioned elsewhere, to score a touchdown is another “cut a notch” metaphor. (See calcium and chalk for more “pebble” words.) Before the late 20th century, a personal computer meant your accountant. Computer was a recognized job title for a person employed to handle numbers. Some important scientific advances were made by female computers at various universities; if they were lucky, they even got credit for their discoveries. (Until recent times women were not admitted as students, let alone faculty, at institutions of higher learning, since it was scientifically well-established that too much knowledge was injurious to the weak female brain. Early 20th-century biology had some fascinating ideas about brains, including the “fact” that the brain’s grey matter was composed of clotted semen, and that evil women (i.e., those who enjoyed sex) were trying to steal this precious fluid from unsuspecting men. This was the logic behind the whole Theda Bara-style “vamp” stereotype. It’s also behind the old cliché that too much sex rotted men’s brains.) One personal computer who did become famous was Caroline Lucretia Herschel, the younger sister of and assistant to the English astronomer Sir William Herschel. She stayed by her brother’s side all night writing down observations dictated while he kept his eye to the telescope, and then she did the mathematical work during the day to convert them into proper sky positions for publication. She remarked in her diary that she loved English weather, because if were not for the clouds and rain, her obsessive brother would be at his telescope every single night, and she’d never get any sleep. In this drawing of the Herschels at work, note that Caroline is standing, not sitting — she was extremely tiny, only four-foot-three. Also note there is a chronometer on the desk in front of her so she could record exact times. Miss Herschel was the first female to ever get a government stipend for scientific endeavors — when her brother married, King George III gave her a pension to establish her own household down the block. Whenever William was out of town she confiscated his telescopes, and so she’s credited with the discovery of several comets and many nebulae on her own. Caroline outlived her brother by almost thirty years. She died at 98, still cataloging the results of her nephew Sir John Herschel, who had taken himself and his telescopes off to South Africa to observe the portion of the sky not visible from England. (Sir John was home-schooled — take a wild guess whether it was his father or Aunt Lina who taught him mathematics and astronomy.) She has a lunar crater (C. Herschel) and an asteroid (281 Lucretia) named for her. William Herschel gratefully acknowledged the patronage of the king by naming the new planet he had discovered “George”. Eventually wiser heads prevailed and it received the mythical name Uranus instead, matching the other known planets. (Although everybody else used “Uranus” by 1790, the British Naval Observatory almanac didn’t abandon Georgium Sidus until 1850!) Herschel was not the first or last astronomer who tried to pull this off — Edmund Halley (he of the famous comet) named a new southern constellation Robur Carolinium (Charles’s Oak), but nobody except Charles II himself paid much attention. The discoverer of the first asteroid (now the dwarf planet Ceres) called it “Ferdinand”. (The English, however, did get away with naming all the moons of Uranus for characters in British literature by Shakespeare and Pope — Titania, Oberon, Ariel, Miranda, Umbriel, Caliban, Ophelia, Portia, etc. These are the only solar system satellites which don’t have classical names.) See Norma for more on the naming of southern constellations. England, where the Herschels lived, would not seem to be the ideal spot for astronomical observations, but it was the 20th century before astronomers had the money to put their telescopes on top of mountains in a dry climate above much of the atmosphere. For sixty years in the 19th century, the largest telescope in the world (with a mirror 72 inches in diameter) was owned by Lord Rosse on his private estate in Ireland, where on average the sky was clear only one day a week. Before Rosse, the largest telescope in history had been the Herschels’ 50-inch mirror near Windsor, built in 1790, where the weather wasn’t much better. Optical astronomers curse the name of Edison, for the “world lit by fire” was a much darker and friendlier place before the 20th century. Several large observatories (on Mount Wilson near Los Angeles and Mount Hamilton near San Jose, for example) have become almost useless as suburbs inexorably move closer, not to mention the original Greenwich observatory, which is now in the middle of London. The telescope I used in college , then located about 25 miles east of Cleveland, has since been relocated to Arizona, and its twin has moved from Ann Arbor, Michigan to Chile. The largest telescope ever built in England, the 100-inch Isaac Newton telescope, was later relocated to the Canaries, although the scientists admitted later it probably would have been cheaper to build a new instrument from scratch. The entire island of Hawaii has restrictive regulation of streetlights, porch lights, advertising signs, etc. to protect the cluster of big telescopes at the summit of Mauna Kea, and in the southern hemisphere, most big observatories are in the uninhabitable desert of Chile. Of the 55 largest optical telescopes on Earth, 40 are in only four high and dark areas: the volcanic peaks of Hawaii, Chile, and the Canary Islands , and the Arizona-New Mexico- West Texas desert. The Hubble telescope in low Earth orbit certainly benefits from the lack of neon in the vicinity. One of NASA’s other telescopes, the Spitzer Infrared Telescope, is in an orbit far from Earth, though, because the planet itself glows too brightly in the infrared. (I refuse to get into the attitude of radio astronomers towards television, radar, cell phones, wireless Internet, garage door openers, and other sources of rogue radiation. It’s ugly. They won’t be happy until they can place their antennas on the back side of the Moon.) Actually, the largest current telescope not attached to the Earth’s surface is a 2.5m (100-inch) instrument called SOFIA, which NASA somehow crammed into a modified 747 . (The acronym is “Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy”.) On the other hand, the main invention that has made life easier for astronomers is the Internet, which makes it possible for them to do research from the comfort of their offices without ever being within a thousand miles of an actual telescope. Many proposals for future telescopes envision completely unmanned observatories — after all, if the Hubble can do it, then it certainly should be possible to park telescopes in Antarctica, on top of Mount Everest, on the Moon, or wherever, and control them via the net. (Sending out a maintenance worker to the most inaccessible site on Earth would certainly be cheaper than repairing the Hubble!) Some of the existing observatories in the Atacama desert of Chile are at almost 17,000 feet. For example, the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA), at 16,600 ft. is the world’s sharpest telescope; many times more accurate than the Hubble. Here’s a picture of that itty-bitty yellow truck in the foreground, showing the real size of the transporter and an antenna. The truck cab is pressurized just like an airplane cabin to provide enough oxygen for the driver, and workers at the site have to wear oxygen masks. A proposed large telescope nearby would be at 18,500 feet. Even at Mauna Kea, where the summit is “only” 13,500 feet, the control rooms for the big scopes are further down the mountain where out-of-shape astronomers find it easier to breathe and think. Further update: Several of the big scopes now have their control rooms down at sea level, and in fact there is no reason for most astronomers to ever go to Hawaii anymore. This undoubtedly aggravates them and brightens the day of university treasurers. On the other hand, they don’t have to go to the Chilean desert, either. The world’s largest scientific instrument is now in full operation at the South Pole. Called Ice Cube, it is a cubic kilometer of ice studded with neutrino detectors. (All neutrino detectors are huge, because neutrinos notoriously do not interact with ordinary matter, and one must observe a monstrous number of atoms to occasionally see a collision. Similarly, they are all far underground; the Earth acts as a shield for other forms of radiation but not neutrinos. In fact, the South Pole instrument is pointed downward, using the entire planet to screen out cosmic rays. (There is more than a kilometer of ice above the detectors, so the deepest ones are two miles below the surface.) There will only be a couple of hardy (and well-paid) maintenance personnel at the pole — all the scientists will be comfy and warm in their own homes and offices. Antarctica already has two good-sized microwave telescopes and some unmanned small optical scopes being used to test seeing conditions for proposed big ones. Ice Cube might be tied for the “world’s biggest instrument” title in a few years. On the other side of the planet, a consortium of European nations is planning to build a similar cubic kilometer neutrino observatory on the bottom of the Mediterranean, two miles down. In general, astronomers do not expect to take out patents and become billionaires from their discoveries, and so there is a willingness to share data with others in the field. Professional astronomers (and even amateurs) with no access to a big telescope can now use the Internet and large computers to make discoveries. All major observatories from the Hubble downward routinely digitize their images and put them on the net for anyone to download without charge, so some high school science teacher in Zimbabwe, for example, is perfectly free to study those images and try to spot interesting stuff that his or her better-known colleagues have missed. (The only restriction is usually an embargo to give the astronomer who actually commissioned the images a chance to publish first, although there could be a shouting match when the original astronomer didn’t publish fast enough and got “scooped” by a colleague — see the next paragraph.) Well, astronomers don’t necessarily want to get rich, but they sure would like to be famous. We have a nasty astronomical fight going on right now because of the above scenario. The European team that owns the HARPS planet-finding interferometer releases its raw data after two years. Unfortunately for them, an outsider team analyzing the released HARPS data found the first unambiguous “Goldilocks” planet — rocky and in the liquid-water zone around its star, so it might be able to support Earth-like life — and published first! The HARPS team says “big deal we found it first!” The outsider team says “nonsense, you took those measurements years ago and didn’t even know what you had until we told you!” The HARPS team says “We paid for it, dammit,” and on and on, as you can imagine. (The planet is Gliese 667Cc if you want to Google for the gory details.) With real luck, something new might get the name of the discoverer, so he or she could become immortal. Astronomy is full of things like Halley’s Comet, Barnard’s Star, Comet Shoemaker-Levy, and the Herbig-Haro and Wolf-Rayet star types, while this perfect ring is Hoag’s Object and this weird vision is known throughout the universe as Gomez’s Hamburger. An even better illustration of my point is McNeil’s Nebula , found a few years ago by a backyard astronomer in Kentucky at a spot in the sky where nothing had been visible a few months before. (Combing the archives, astronomers realized that McNeil’s Nebula had occasionally been photographed before. Evidently it is illuminated by a star which is subject to episodes of extreme brightening. Between outbursts, the nebula is invisible.) Hoag’s Object is an example of a ring galaxy, usually explained as the result of a head-on collision between two normal galaxies. They are extremely rare, which means it is quite surprising that the image above shows a second ring galaxy in the background, showing through the gap in the foreground galaxy at about the 1 o’clock position. 27Oct16 In the past year, a peculiar object known formally as KIC 8462852 and informally as Tabby’s Star has gotten a fair amount of press. Named for Tabetha Boyajian, a Yale astronomer who was the lead author of the paper describing it, the star has unexplained large and small irregular dips in its light output. Since their timing seems to be random, it doesn’t look like it could be some sort of eclipse phenomenon, with the result that possible explanations currently range from the mundane (a hypothetical large collection of comets and/or planets with huge rings surrounding the star) to the fanciful (an alien megastructure, perhaps a Dyson Swarm under construction.) A “Dyson Swarm” refers to a paper written over 50 years ago by physicist Freeman Dyson, pointing out that a technological civilization has an exponential need for more and more energy, so that a sufficiently advanced civilization might reach the stage where they needed more than their planet could possibly generate. A possible solution would be harvesting the power put out by its sun. This could be “easily” accomplished by building more and more power satellites in different solar orbits until the swarm was intercepting most of the star’s energy. (Tabby herself obviously has a sense of humor — the title of her paper was “Where’s The Flux”, leading to the star’s alternate name, the WTF? Star.) Most comets, supernovae, and other ephemera are discovered by amateurs, simply because in the aggregate they have many more eyeballs than the professional astronomers. For twenty years the SOHO observatory has continually watched the Sun from its vantage point at L1, a million miles from Earth, and many amateurs spend their spare time watching SOHO’s continuously-updated web site, trying to be the first to spot a new so-called Kreutz sungrazer comet falling into the Sun. (SOHO finds another new sungrazer comet every two or three days — over 3,000 by now.) Several obsessive-compulsive types have discovered over a hundred. Approximately half of all known comets are due to SOHO. This was not part of the observatory’s mission; nobody knew there were so many sungrazers because very few had ever been seen — the vast majority had been hidden by the Sun’s glare. Occasionally there is a really big Kreutz Sungrazer which becomes visible before it ever gets close to the Sun; the most notable was 1965’s Comet Ikeya-Seki (Ikeya is another amateur; Seki is a professional astronomer), which may have been the brightest comet of the last thousand years and was visible in full daylight beside the Sun.) Among the professional astronomers who actually still use telescopes, an Australian named Robert McNaught is credited with 56 comet discoveries at last report, including the Comet McNaught of 2007, the brightest comet since Ikeya-Seki. The other famous comet of recent times, Shoemaker-Levy 9 , which broke apart and then slammed into Jupiter, should I suppose have been named Shoemakers-Levy. The husband-and-wife team of Gene and Carolyn Shoemaker were professional astronomers, but David Levy is an amateur; he has a PhD in English literature. McNaught has not been resting on his laurals — he was the first to spot the comet Siding Spring (C2013 A1), which was in the news when it made a very close fly-by of Mars in November, 2014. The entire planet was within the comet’s coma, and NASA took precautions with its rovers and satellites just in case there was a major meteor storm. Nothing got damaged, but the Mars rovers did get to see a lot of meteors. (PS — The Siding Spring observatory in Australia is McNaught’s employer.) Sky-watchers were keeping their fingers crossed in 2013, because a very large sungrazing comet called C/2012 S1 was on the way in from the Dark, scheduled to make its closest approach to the Sun on November 28, 2013. Orbital calculations said it would be only one solar radius above the Sun’s surface at perhelion. Predictions of comet brightness are notoriously shaky, but the last comet in that orbit, in 1680, was about the brightness of the full moon. Everyone was hoping that it wouldn’t break up rounding the sun, and if it stayed intact it might have been quite spectacular. Despite the hype and hopes, the comet was a flop — it did break up as it whipped around the sun, and the fragments were barely visible. (BTW, this comet is not a member of the Kreutz family, having a very different orbit. All the Kreutz comets seem to be fragments of a really big comet that broke up in the distant past, and they all still follow the track of the parent comet. Kreutz was the astronomer who, in the late 19th century, recognized that several bright sungrazing comets of the last thousand years all had the same orbit but couldn’t be reappearances of the same object.) By the way, the recent publicity about the Rosetta mission to a comet is another example of the “El Greco syndrome” — if you have a difficult name, you don’t get famous. Almost no newspaper articles mention that the Rosetta spacecraft and its Philae probe are at Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko, named for the Soviet astronomers who found it 45 years ago. 06Jan17 Another example was in the news in late 2016; the so-called “New Years Comet” (only visible with binoculars, unfortunately) is formally known as Comet 45P/Honda-Mrkos-Pajdušáková. (Anton Mrkos and Ludmilla Pajdušáková may or may not have been another husband-and-wife team; sources vary on whether they were married.) Sigh… Now I have to explain “L1”. There are five nearly stable orbits relative to two much larger orbiting bodies, called the Lagrange points and numbered L1 through L5. At each point, the gravity of the two larger bodies and orbital centrifugal force balance out. 06Jan17 (They are “nearly stable” because the orbits eventually get perturbed by other planets and satellites. If they were alone in the universe, they’d stay in sync forever.) The Earth-Sun L1 point, directly in line between Sun and Earth, is ideal for SOHO because it has a clear view, and the Sun is always in the same direction. (SOHO was the first observatory at that location, but now there are at least four. One of them (the Deep Space Climate Observatory, aka DSCOVR) is pointed outward to give a 24/7 view of the sunlit side of the Earth. All are actually in what are called “halo orbits” around L1 itself; if they were at L1 then radio communication would be difficult because they would always be directly in front of the Sun as seen from Earth.) L2 is home to at least three orbiting observatories which need to be far away from Earth to avoid infrared or radio emissions. 29Sep16 The upcoming James Webb Space Telescope (aka the JWST, NASA’s bigger successor to the Hubble) will also be located at L2, meaning they have to get it right the first time, since it will be much too far away to be human-serviced or upgraded like the Hubble. 17Nov16 PS — the observatories at L2 are also, by definition, in Earth’s shadow, keeping them nice and cold for infrared work. (The mirrors of telescopes on Earth (and the Hubble) glow brightly in the far infrared, making them useless for observations in that spectral band.) 17Nov16 Deep-space observations require telescopes that can see well into the infrared because the “red shift” due to the expansion of the universe means that even light that started out in the ultraviolet is in the infrared by the time it gets to Earth. Even if you could keep an Earth-bound telescope immersed in liquid Nitrogen or whatever, it wouldn’t help, because Earth’s atmosphere is very good at absorbing infrared. (This, of course, is the famous “greenhouse effect”; the infrared emitted by the sun-warmed surface of the Earth gets absorbed by the atmosphere instead of escaping back into space.) L3 is useless because it is always behind the Sun as seen from Earth. 17Nov16 Advocates of space habitats usually recommend L4 and L5, at the leading and trailing 60-degree points in the same orbit as Earth, for three reasons: It doesn’t take much energy to get to them. They don’t move relative to Earth. They are, by definition, in the “Goldilocks Zone”, suitable for life. L4 and L5 are called the Trojan points because large asteroids named Hector, Agamemnon, Odysseus, Ajax, Achilles, etc. are in the Sun-Jupiter L4 and L5 positions. Most other planets and even some large moons have small bodies at their respective Trojan points; Mars has eight, and in 2010 astronomers spotted Earth’s first known Trojan asteroid. 02Jan17 Jupiter has such a large gravitational effect that astronomers believe there are as many Jupiter Trojans as there are main-body asteroids, and Neptune might have as many as Jupiter. 02Jan17 By the way, the official naming astronomical community has always looked with disfavor on the term asteroid — they obviously are not “small stars”. The preferred name for many years was “minor planet”, but given the redefinition of a planet, the new term is a is a Small Solar System Body, or SSSB. Over 700,000 are now known, with thousands being discovered each month. Out of those 700,000, only about 20,000 have names, despite SSSB’s being named for astronomers’ spouses, significant others, pets, hometowns, and so on. Two thirds have official numbers, indicating that their orbits are more or less well-known, while the other third only have provisional numbers. Speaking of the DISCOVR earth-facing satellite camera, here’s an interesting movie from NASA showing the Moon crossing in front of the Earth as seen from DISCOVR, a million miles away at L1. Note that both Earth and Moon are in full sunlight! Most people think the Moon is white, but as you can see it is actually dirt brown, similar to Mexico and Australia in the background. Another amateur immortalized! This odd green something-or-other was found by a Dutch schoolteacher named Hanny van Arkel in 2007 while engaged in a volunteer effort to scan and classify digitized images. She knew it couldn’t be a normal galaxy, a nebula, or Kermit the Frog, so she shrugged and simply announced she had found a voorwerp. That’s Dutch for “object”, although there’s a temptation to translate it as “What the Hell Is That?” 30Oct16 Cf. Hoag’s Object and Tabby’s WTF Star, other apparitions which at the time completely mystified their discoverers. Voorwerp is in fact a Germanic translation of “object”, since the Latin word means “throw against” — see the section on injected jets — and werp is the Dutch version of the “throw” root seen in warp. Cf. versatile and vermin for many, many more words from this root. Astronomers promptly named the whatever-it-is Hanny’s Voorwerp. It got scientific attention because there is nothing in the universe that color, and so astronomers were begging for major telescope time to investigate Ms Van Arkel’s discovery. For instance, it was on the schedule for the Hubble space telescope when it went back into full operation after its May, 2009 servicing. (Every second of its time had been booked until the Shuttle arrived, just in case something went wrong.) The astronomers had already found that Hanny’s Voorwerp is at the same distance as the galaxy above it, which meant that whatever it might be, it is huge. (When I say there is nothing in the universe that color, what I mean is that the color is from very highly-ionized oxygen and neon, which would require a monstrous energy source on the order of a supernova or quasar. That would be a billion times brighter than the Voorwerp and totally drown it out. But yet there it is.) FLASH! The Voorwerp finally got to the top of the Hubble queue, and its site has now released a far more detailed picture , along with a current best guess of what is going on. It seems that what we are seeing is a “light echo”. About a billion years ago the galaxy above the Voorwerp (IC 2497) “ate” a smaller galaxy, leaving a huge amount of debris surrounding the crime. Infalling matter caused the black hole at the center of the galaxy to “turn on” as a quasar, putting out powerful jets of ultraviolet and x-ray light in opposite directions. One of those cones illuminated a portion of the turbulent gaseous debris, fluorescing it and causing the green glow of Hanny’s Voorwerp. The “hole” in the Voorwerp seems to be a shadow of something in the galaxy. The quasar turned off again (presumably because it ran out of fuel) only about 70,000 years ago. The Voorwerp, which is about 200,000 light years from the center of IC 2497, is still illuminated by the expanding outburst of light, and in fact the energy is causing new stars to form in the portion nearest the galaxy (the yellow area). This implies that the green glow will go dark from top to bottom in the next hundred thousand years or so, leaving behind the newly-formed stars floating in space unattached to a galaxy, unless IC 2497’s gravity has hauled them in. Note that IC 2497 is only about 700 million light years away, less than half the distance to the closest-known active quasar. The small distance between the galactic core and the Voorwerp also caused astrophysicists to have to revise theories of quasars, because it had not been thought that one could shut off that quickly. By the way, the American Astronomical Society invited Hanny to their 2011 meeting in Seattle where the above picture was unveiled. Here’s a touristy picture of the young lady herself at the top of the Space Needle, lifted from her blog. ANOTHER FLASH! Once the light echo explanation was accepted, astronomers figured that, even though they are transient, there must be similar objects out there somewhere, since there are a hell of a lot of former quasars in the Universe. Now that they knew what to look for, namely that odd shade of green, a spectroscopic search of 15,000 galaxies known to host quasars eventually turned up eight more of them, all much dimmer and further away than Hanny’s discovery and hence called “voorwerpjes”, small objects. Here’s a composite of Hubble’s images of the new voorwerpjes . They are different shapes, but all are separated from their associated galaxies which no longer host bright quasars, and all are glowing that same green. Light echoes are not uncommon after an outburst. In 1987 a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud went supernova; in this image the inner bright ring is debris thrown out by the explosion, but the outer rings are light echoes, illuminating gas which already surrounded the doomed star. Since the rings are expanding at the speed of light, watching how fast the rings seem to grow as seen from Earth gives a very accurate distance to the [former] star and by extension, to the galaxy in which it resided. Here’s another recent one. About ten years ago a previously unknown star now called V838 Monocerotis somehow produced a huge light flash and temporarily became one of the brightest stars in the galaxy. One guess is that it “ate” a companion star — observation showed it wasn’t a nova or supernova. Astronomers could easily track the light echo as it expanded through surrounding gas. Bright galaxies and nebulae are known either by their NGC or IC number. The NGC ( New General Catalog	i don't know
Which study in magic and religion by James George Frazer took its name from an incident in 'The Aeneid'?	Sir James Frazer Sir James Frazer Location of death: Cambridge, England Cause of death: unspecified Remains: Buried, Ascension Parish Burial Ground, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England Gender: Male Nationality: Scotland Executive summary: The Golden Bough Sir James Frazer was a British anthropologist, folklorist, and classical scholar, best remembered as the author of the The Golden Bough. A classic in anthropology as well as in studies of comparative religion, magic, and folklore, the work has also had a tremendous impact on the fields of literature, psychology, and anthropology. In addition to introducing the world to a rich sampling of the world's cultural diversity, it also made readers profoundly aware of the parallels and commonalities existing between the religions and mythologies of various cultures, including between pagan beliefs and early Christianity. His work was a primary source material for the neo-pagan movement and influenced such notables as Carl Jung , Sigmund Freud , James Joyce , and T. S. Eliot . James George Frazer was born January 1, 1854 in Glasgow, Scotland. His father was a pharmacist and his mother was descended from George Bogle, the famous British envoy to Tibet. In 1774 Bogle had, under the auspices of the East India Company, become one of the first British citizens to journey into that insular land. Young James grew up steeped in tales of travel, but also in the doctrines of the Free Church of Scotland, under the influence of his father. As a youth he learned Latin and Greek, expanding on this later at Glasgow University, where he also studied physics under the direction of the legendary Lord Kelvin . He subsequently studied the Classics tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1878. Frazer's dissertation on Plato earned him the Title Alpha Fellowship the following year, an honor that would be repeatedly renewed over the years. Nonetheless, he was constantly urged by his father to find a "real" profession. And in response he took up the study of Law, moving to London to study at the Middle Temple. He was called to the bar four years later. With this out of his way he returned to Cambridge, immersing himself in the work he loved, researching customs and mythology. And he never did take up the practice of law. Instead he undertook the translation and commentary upon Paesanias, a second century Greek travel writer. So massive was the project however, that its six volumes did not appear until 1898. In the meanwhile, inspired by Edward Tylor 's Primitive Culture, he had already begun the work for which he would eventually become famous: his survey of primitive customs and beliefs. Frazer sent letters of enquiry abroad to as many missionaries, doctors, and civil servants as he could find contact information for, querying them about the indigenous peoples with which they were in contact. He then combined the wealth of information this netted him with what he had managed to glean from ancient texts (such as the work of Paesanias) as well as from books and other reports generated by more recent travelers and explorers. The first published product of this work was Totemism, published by him in 1887. But in 1890 he produced The Golden Bough, an impressive tome which compiled a wealth of information on the myths, religions, social taboos, and customs of a broad array of cultures. It presented a rich, exotic diversity of customs and beliefs, whose novelty provoked startling new insights about the nature of society and humanity. But it also highlighted the existence of key themes -- such as birth, growth, death, and rebirth -- and it underscored their importance and their commonality across broad cultural divides. Naturally, the impact on literature and the arts was huge, influencing James Joyce , T. S. Eliot , William Butler Yeats , D. H. Lawrence , Ezra Pound , Robert Graves , and Mary Renault to name but a few. But it also tackled the subject of religion in a way that was relatively new � that is, as a subject for secular study. And it led readers to consider the parallels between earlier forms of Christianity and the rituals and beliefs of various primitive tribes. But it so scandalized the public that he should include the story of Christ and the crucifixion along side "heathen" tales with similar themes, that the material had to be removed to an appendix in later editions. And in fact an abridged version removed the offending material altogether. But Sigmund Freud meanwhile found the work rich with literal and symbolic information relevant to his developing psychoanalytic theories. And Swiss psychologist Carl Jung was very impressed by Frazer's observations, using them as a stepping-stone to the creation of his spiritually oriented theory of the collective unconscious, especially as it pertained to what he called the universal religious impulse within mankind. Joseph Campbell , the modern icon of comparative mythology, certainly drew on Frazer (along with Max Muller and Sir Edward Tylor ) in formulating his influential insights into the role of mythology, for society and the psyche. Meanwhile philosopher Ren� Girard built on Frazer's The Golden Bough to create his theory of mimesis. And of course, whole generations of anthropologists have been inspired by the work of Frazer, in one way or another, to better document and study the religions, myths, and social forms of primitive peoples -- in search of an ever more accurate picture of our differences and commonalities, and of the underlying forces that shape us and are shaped by us. In the intervening years, since the publication of the Golden Bough and its later expanded editions (which at one point filled some 12 volumes), anthropology has disproved a good deal of Frazer's treasured assumptions and conclusions. Archaeology refutes his claim for the annual killing of the �Year King� within ancient cultures. And cultural anthropology has shown that human societies do not follow one singular path of development-- as the paradigm of Social Darwinism had led Frazer to assume. In addition, the ethnographic material upon which he based his various conclusions has shown to be prohibitively incomplete and skewed by the bias of the white colonialists who collected it. Many of his ideas about the role and purpose of sympathetic magic remain in use today. Beyond all of this however, Frazer's magnificent undertaking, including The Golden Bough, must be acknowledged for the sheer brilliance and audacity of its scope, and for the ingenuity that underlay its inception. Frazer himself must further be acknowledged for having the willingness to scrutinize his own culture -- and hold it up for intelligent, sympathetic comparison to other belief systems -- at a time when the general opinion was that other customs and belief systems were merely inferior institutions in need of eradication. Given the fervor with which Christian missionaries sought to wipe out other spiritual traditions, it is ironic then that it was Frazer's work with The Golden Bough which aided and inspired the rebirth of paganism. Frazer's detailed ethnography of non-Christian tribal cultures, along with his analysis of the ancient European rituals and customs once associated with nature and goddess worship, became primary source material for those seeking to reconstitute what the agents of Christianity had obliterated. Thus in the 1950s, years after Frazer's passing, Gerald Gardner and Aleister Crowley (drawing also on the work of H. P. Blavatsky and of the The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn ) layed the foundations for Wicca and other branches of neopaganism. Despite the scandal that his work initially drew among the small-minded, James Frazer was knighted in 1915 for his contributions to the science of anthropology. Firmly ensconced at Cambridge University, and assured of the significance of his work, he continued to write and research unabated until his final years. Even a terrible incident in 1930, in which his eyes filled with blood and left him virtually blind failed to slow him down. Instead he became dependent upon secretaries and other helpers to do the work of his eyes and hands. And always he was aided by his devoted wife Lilly, who spent their years together encouraging and promoting his work. Sir James Frazer died May 7, 1941. Lilly, or Lady Frazer, died but a few hours later. They were interred together, side by side, in St. Gile's Cemetery, Cambridge. Father: Daniel K. Frazer The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (1890, anthropology) Psyche's Task (1909, nonfiction) Totemism and Exogamy (1910, anthropology) The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead, Volume I (1913, anthropology) Folk-lore in the Old Testament (1918, anthropology) Apollodorus: the Library (1921, nonfiction) The Worship of Nature (1926, anthropology) The Gorgon's Head and other Literary Pieces (1927, fiction) Man, God, and Immortality (1927, nonficton) Myths of the Origin of Fire (1930, nonfiction) The Growth of Plato's Ideal Theory (1930, nonfiction) Garnered Sheaves (1931, nonfiction) Condorcet on the Progress of the Human Mind (1933, nonfiction) The Fear of the Dead in Primitive Religion, Volume I (1933, anthropology) Creation and Evolution in Primitive Cosmogenies, and Other Pieces (1935, collection) Magic and Religion (1944, anthropology) Do you know something we don't?	The Golden Bough
Before being replaced with the 118 numbers, what three digit number was used for Directory Enquiries for domestic numbers?	The Golden Bough : Wikis (The Full Wiki) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Golden Bough J. M. W. Turner 's painting of the Golden Bough incident in the Aeneid Author Publication date 1890 The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion is a wide-ranging, comparative study of mythology and religion , written by Scottish anthropologist Sir James George Frazer (1854–1941). It first was published in two volumes in 1890; the third edition, published 1906–15, comprised twelve volumes. It was aimed at a broad literate audience raised on tales as told in such publications as Thomas Bulfinch 's The Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods and Heroes (1855). It offered a modernist approach to discussing religion, treating it dispassionately [1] as a cultural phenomenon rather than from a theological perspective. The impact of The Golden Bough on contemporary European literature was substantial. Contents 9 External links Subject matter The Golden Bough attempts to define the shared elements of religious belief. Its thesis is that old religions were fertility cults that revolved around the worship of, and periodic sacrifice of, a sacred king . This king was the incarnation of a dying and reviving god , a solar deity who underwent a mystic marriage to a goddess of the Earth, who died at the harvest, and was reincarnated in the spring. Frazer claims that this legend is central to almost all of the world's mythologies. The Judgment of Paris - an Etruscan bronze-handled mirror of the fourth or third century BC that relates the often misunderstood myth as interpreted by Frazer, showing the three goddesses giving their apple or pomegranate to the new king who must kill the old king - Campana Collection, Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities, Sully The germ for Frazer's thesis was the pre-Roman priest-king at the fane of Nemi , who was murdered ritually by his successor: "When I first put pen to paper to write The Golden Bough I had no conception of the magnitude of the voyage on which I was embarking; I thought only to explain a single rule of an ancient Italian priesthood." (Aftermath p vi) The book's title was taken from an incident in the Aeneid , illustrated by the British artist Joseph Mallord William Turner : Aeneas and the Sibyl present the golden bough to the gatekeeper of Hades in order to gain admission. Reception The book scandalized the British public upon its first publication, because it included the Christian story of Jesus in its comparative study, thus inviting an agnostic reading of the Lamb of God as a relic of a pagan religion. Frazer removed his analysis of the Crucifixion to a speculative appendix for the third edition, and it was entirely missing from the single-volume abridged edition. Its influence on the emerging discipline of anthropology was pervasive and undeniable. For example, Bronisław Malinowski , stricken with tuberculosis shortly after receiving his doctorate in physics and mathematics, read Frazer's work in the original English to distract himself from his illness. "No sooner had I read this great work than I became immersed in it and enslaved by it. I realized then that anthropology, as presented by Sir James Frazer, is a great science, worthy of as much devotion as any of her elder and more exact studies and I became bound to the service of Frazerian anthropology." [2] Despite whatever controversy the work may have generated, and its critical reception amongst other scholars, The Golden Bough had a tremendous effect on the literature of the period. Robert Graves adapted Frazer's concept of the dying king who is sacrificed for the good of the kingdom to the romantic idea of the poet's necessary suffering for the sake of his Muse-Goddess in his Frazer-esque book on poetry, rituals, and myths, The White Goddess , which was published in 1948. William Butler Yeats makes reference to it in his poem, " Sailing to Byzantium ." H. P. Lovecraft mentions the book in his short story " The Call of Cthulhu ." T. S. Eliot acknowledged indebtedness to Frazer in his first note to his poem The Waste Land . William Carlos Williams references it as well in Book Two, part two, of his extended poem in five books, Paterson . James Joyce , Ernest Hemingway , D. H. Lawrence , Aleister Crowley , Ezra Pound , Mary Renault , Joseph Campbell , Naomi Mitchison (in her The Corn King and the Spring Queen), and Camille Paglia are but a few authors deeply influenced by The Golden Bough. Its literary impact has given it continued life, even as its direct influence in anthropology has waned. Critical analysis of The Golden Bough The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein returned time and again to The Golden Bough, often enough that his commentaries have been compiled as Remarks on Frazer's Golden Bough, edited by Rush Rhees, originally published in 1967, with the English edition following in 1971. [3] He writes, "Frazer is much more savage than most of these savages." [4] Weston LaBarre made the observation that Frazer was "the last of the scholastics", and wrote The Golden Bough "as an extended footnote to a line in Virgil he felt he did not understand." [5] Some modern criticism sets Frazer in the broader context of the history of ideas , for example, Robert Ackerman in his The Myth and Ritual School: J. G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists. The myth and ritual school includes scholars Jane Harrison , Gilbert Murray , F. M. Cornford , and A.B. Cook , who were connecting the new discipline of myth theory and anthropology with traditional literary classics at the end of the nineteenth century. This school was an important influence on a great deal of Modernist literature . Quotations "If the test of truth lay in a show of hands or a counting of heads, the system of magic might appeal, with far more reason than the Catholic Church, to the proud motto, Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus ["Always, everywhere, and by all"], as the sure and certain credential of its own infallibility." (Chapter 4, " Magic and Religion ".) "The danger, however, is not less real because it is imaginary; imagination acts upon man as really as does gravitation, and may kill him as certainly as a dose of prussic acid ." (Chapter 21, " Tabooed Things ".) In popular culture The M. R. James short story "Casting The Runes", references The Golden Bough. Stephen King has a character refer to The Golden Bough as a demonology text in " The Mangler ". The book is mentioned several times in Albert Sánchez Piñol 's Cold Skin . The book is heavily referred to in the novel The First Verse by Barry McCrea . In Grant Morrison 's graphic novel Arkham Asylum, psychotherapist Dr. Amadeus Arkham reads The Golden Bough as his mental health deteriorates. The book plays a role in Mary Stewart 's 1956 mystery novel Wildfire at midnight involving ritual murders on the Scottish Isle of Skye. The Golden Bough is seen in the film Apocalypse Now in the stack of reading material for Colonel Kurtz, along with Jessie Weston 's From Ritual to Romance . In the first note to his poem, The Waste Land , T.S. Eliot acknowledges a debt to both books. Information from The Golden Bough was used extensively for the 1973 film The Wicker Man . The titular myth forms the basis of Stuart MacRae and Simon Armitage 's opera The Assassin Tree, which premiered at the Edinburgh International Festival on 25 August 2006. In the Japanese anime series Eureka Seven , two characters, Holland Novak and Colonel Dewey Novak,are seen reading The Golden Bough, and it is a symbol for one of the anime's fictional organizations. Frazer's theme of the sacrificial king is prominent throughout the series. Jim Morrison 's song " Not to Touch the Earth ," begins, "Not to touch the earth, not to see the sun...," which are subchapters of chapter 60, "Between Heaven and Earth," with subchapter 1, "Not to Touch the Earth," and subchapter 2, "Not to See the Sun". The Golden Bough is mentioned in Robert A. Heinlein 's novel Stranger in a Strange Land when Valentine Michael Smith is trying to learn about human religions. The Golden Bough is referenced in the 2002 video game, Eternal Darkness , by one of the characters - a psychiatrist, Dr. Edward Roivas. He makes reference to Frazer's work as well as others such as Carl Jung in the context of the game's psychological themes. See also Editions of The Golden Bough First edition, 2 vols., 1890. (Vol. I - II ) Second edition, 3 vols., 1900. (Vol. I - II - III ) Third edition, 12 vols., 1906-15. The last volume (1915) is an index. (Vol. V , VI , XII ) Abridged edition, 1 vol., 1922. This edition abridges Frazer's references to Christianity. 1995 Touchstone edition, ISBN 0-684-82630-5 2002 Dover reprint of 1922 edition, ISBN 0-486-42492-8 Aftermath : A supplement to the golden Bough, 1937 Abridged edition, edited by Robert Fraser for Oxford University Press, 1994. It restores the material on Christianity purged in the first abridgement. ISBN 0-19-282934-3 Secondary texts Ackerman, Robert. The Myth and Ritual School: J. G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists (Theorists of Myth) 2002. ISBN 0-415-93963-1 Csapo, Eric. Theories of Mythology (Blackwell Publishing, 2005), pp 36-43, pp 44-67. ISBN-631-23248-6 Fraser, Robert. The Making of The Golden Bough: The Origins and Growth of an Argument (Macmillan, 1990; re-issued Palgrave 2001) Smith, Jonathan Z. "When the Bough Breaks," in Map is not territory, page 208-239 (The University of Chicago Press, 1978). References ^ Chapter 4., Magic and Religion: 'The dispassionate observer, whose studies have led him to plumb its depths, can hardly regard it otherwise than as a standing menace to civilisation.' ^ Hays, From Ape to Angel: An Informal History of Social Anthropology, p. 314, cited in L. L. Langness, The Study of Culture (Corte Madera: Chandler & Sharp, 1974), p. 75 ^ Wittgenstein, Ludwig , Remarks on Frazer's Golden Bough, p. 131 ^ The Human Animal (Chicago, 1954), cited in Langness, The Study of Culture, pp. 24f External links	i don't know
Initially known as 'The Peter Jackson Tour', the golf tour that started in 1970 is now named after which country?	PGA Tour Canada - WOW.com PGA Tour Canada Canadian Professional Golf Tour ( 1986 – 2012 ) Sport Canada TV partner(s) Formerly broadcast on the Golf Channel and can now be seen in the form of a 30 minute highlight show that airs on both Global TV (Canada) and TSN2 during the season. A total of 11 shows aired in 2013. Official website pgatourcanada.com PGA Tour Canada is a men's professional golf tour headquartered in Oakville, Ontario . It was formally started in 1970 and was initially known as the Peter Jackson Tour, and became the Canadian Professional Golf Tour in 1986. The U.S. PGA Tour took over operation of the tour on November 1, 2012, at which time it was renamed PGA Tour Canada. [1] Historically, it has been commonly known as the Canadian Tour. Contents 7 External links History In 1970, Imperial Tobacco Canada , under the Peter Jackson brand, signed on as title sponsor and brought scattered Canadian professional events under one umbrella. The Peter Jackson Tour hosted a series of seven or eight tournaments each season with each purse eventually averaging $25,000. The Tour developed predominantly Canadian touring pros but also warmly welcomed players from around the world. Canadian Golf Hall of Fame members Dave Barr and Dan Halldorson – both two-time PGA Tour winners – competed on the circuit in the 1970s and made several appearances once they were established on the big tour. Fellow Canadians and PGA Tour winners Al Balding and George Knudson also returned home several times in their career to play the circuit. As the 1970s continued, government legislation began restricting the amount of advertising and sponsorship that tobacco companies were allowed to participate in. In 1978, anticipating future legislation that would ban tobacco advertising and sponsorship in Canada, Imperial Tobacco withdrew its title sponsorship of the circuit. Several tournaments disappeared and although a few carried on, there was no longer any cohesion to the circuit. However, in 1982, Canadian touring pros formed the Tournament Players Division (TPD) within the Canadian Professional Golfers Association (CPGA) and proposed a reorganized circuit under the guidance of Ken Tarling. In 1985, TPD members selected touring pro Bob Beauchemin as president with the mandate to "build, promote and conduct tournaments of the Canadian Tour to develop Canadian professional golfers to a world-class level." The reborn circuit began play in 1985 and had six events. Nevertheless, the Tour was still linked with the CPGA (PGA of Canada). In January 1986, Beauchemin convinced the CPGA's Board of Directors to grant the TPD status within the CPGA and to be responsible for its own funding. The next step involved organizing tournaments in such a way as to maximize the benefit for the players. At the time, most tournaments were 36- or 54-hole events and several were pro-am formats. To prepare players for the PGA Tour, they set a goal for all tournaments to be 72 holes with no pro-ams during the actual competition. Prize money, exemptions and draws would need to mimic the format used on the PGA Tour and European Tour . Although it took until 1989 for all tournaments to play 72 holes, the Canadian Tour began attracting players from not only the United States, but from around the world in the mid-1980s. PGA Tour Canada graduates who have won on the Web.com Tour and played the PGA Tour include Scott Dunlap , Jon Mills , Omar Uresti , Erik Compton , and Jeff Quinney . Players from all over the globe continue to apprentice on PGA Tour Canada. Though the tour is North American-based, Asians, Europeans, and Latin Americans are using PGA Tour Canada as their North American springboard. The former Canadian Tour became an associate member of what was at the time the trade body of the world's main men's tours, the International Federation of PGA Tours , in 2000. In 2009, it became a full member when the Federation expanded to include all of the main women's tours. It is one of a number of lower-level tours at which Official World Golf Ranking points are available, with a minimum of six given to the winner and points to the top six plus ties. The Canadian Open , which is the richest golf event in Canada , is a PGA Tour event. The top three from the PGA Tour Canada Order of Merit the week before the Canadian Open are given entry. The prize money does not count toward Order of Merit earnings. PGA Tour Canada offices are at Golf House in Oakville, Ontario , on the grounds of the Glen Abbey Golf Course . The Jack Nicklaus -designed course has hosted more than 20 Canadian Opens since 1977. In 2011, the Canadian Tour made history when Isabelle Beisiegel became the first woman to earn a Tour card on a men's professional golf tour. [2] In October 2012, the PGA Tour acquired the Canadian Tour, renaming it PGA Tour Canada effective November 1, 2012, for first use in the 2013 season. Under the new system, the top five players on the PGA Tour Canada Order of Merit earn Web.com Tour cards, with the money leader fully exempt and those 2nd-5th conditionally exempt. Players ranked 2nd through 10th are exempt through to the finals of qualifying school and those who finish 11th–20th are admitted to the second stage. The re-tooled tour offered at least eight tournaments per season, with total purses of about $150,000 apiece. [1] [3] For 2015, the purses were increased to $175,000 for the first eleven events. Those who finish in the Top 60 earn entry into season-ending Freedom 55 Financial Championship , with a $200,000 purse and are guaranteed at minimum full PGA Tour Canada status for the next season. Like many smaller tours, PGA Tour Canada has its own series of qualifying schools at various sites. The medalist at each site is fully exempt for the season. Those in the top 16 (not including ties) are exempt through the first four events, when a reshuffle occurs. In the event of a tie, a playoff determines the final exempt position. Those in the top 40 including ties are conditionally exempt. [4] In 2015, Mackenzie Investments became the tour's umbrella sponsor. For the next six years, the tour was named Mackenzie Tour – PGA Tour Canada. [5] 2016 schedule	canada canadian professional golf tour
In which continent was the 'Kushan Empire' one of the largest empires in history?	PGA Tour Canada - WOW.com PGA Tour Canada Canadian Professional Golf Tour ( 1986 – 2012 ) Sport Canada TV partner(s) Formerly broadcast on the Golf Channel and can now be seen in the form of a 30 minute highlight show that airs on both Global TV (Canada) and TSN2 during the season. A total of 11 shows aired in 2013. Official website pgatourcanada.com PGA Tour Canada is a men's professional golf tour headquartered in Oakville, Ontario . It was formally started in 1970 and was initially known as the Peter Jackson Tour, and became the Canadian Professional Golf Tour in 1986. The U.S. PGA Tour took over operation of the tour on November 1, 2012, at which time it was renamed PGA Tour Canada. [1] Historically, it has been commonly known as the Canadian Tour. Contents 7 External links History In 1970, Imperial Tobacco Canada , under the Peter Jackson brand, signed on as title sponsor and brought scattered Canadian professional events under one umbrella. The Peter Jackson Tour hosted a series of seven or eight tournaments each season with each purse eventually averaging $25,000. The Tour developed predominantly Canadian touring pros but also warmly welcomed players from around the world. Canadian Golf Hall of Fame members Dave Barr and Dan Halldorson – both two-time PGA Tour winners – competed on the circuit in the 1970s and made several appearances once they were established on the big tour. Fellow Canadians and PGA Tour winners Al Balding and George Knudson also returned home several times in their career to play the circuit. As the 1970s continued, government legislation began restricting the amount of advertising and sponsorship that tobacco companies were allowed to participate in. In 1978, anticipating future legislation that would ban tobacco advertising and sponsorship in Canada, Imperial Tobacco withdrew its title sponsorship of the circuit. Several tournaments disappeared and although a few carried on, there was no longer any cohesion to the circuit. However, in 1982, Canadian touring pros formed the Tournament Players Division (TPD) within the Canadian Professional Golfers Association (CPGA) and proposed a reorganized circuit under the guidance of Ken Tarling. In 1985, TPD members selected touring pro Bob Beauchemin as president with the mandate to "build, promote and conduct tournaments of the Canadian Tour to develop Canadian professional golfers to a world-class level." The reborn circuit began play in 1985 and had six events. Nevertheless, the Tour was still linked with the CPGA (PGA of Canada). In January 1986, Beauchemin convinced the CPGA's Board of Directors to grant the TPD status within the CPGA and to be responsible for its own funding. The next step involved organizing tournaments in such a way as to maximize the benefit for the players. At the time, most tournaments were 36- or 54-hole events and several were pro-am formats. To prepare players for the PGA Tour, they set a goal for all tournaments to be 72 holes with no pro-ams during the actual competition. Prize money, exemptions and draws would need to mimic the format used on the PGA Tour and European Tour . Although it took until 1989 for all tournaments to play 72 holes, the Canadian Tour began attracting players from not only the United States, but from around the world in the mid-1980s. PGA Tour Canada graduates who have won on the Web.com Tour and played the PGA Tour include Scott Dunlap , Jon Mills , Omar Uresti , Erik Compton , and Jeff Quinney . Players from all over the globe continue to apprentice on PGA Tour Canada. Though the tour is North American-based, Asians, Europeans, and Latin Americans are using PGA Tour Canada as their North American springboard. The former Canadian Tour became an associate member of what was at the time the trade body of the world's main men's tours, the International Federation of PGA Tours , in 2000. In 2009, it became a full member when the Federation expanded to include all of the main women's tours. It is one of a number of lower-level tours at which Official World Golf Ranking points are available, with a minimum of six given to the winner and points to the top six plus ties. The Canadian Open , which is the richest golf event in Canada , is a PGA Tour event. The top three from the PGA Tour Canada Order of Merit the week before the Canadian Open are given entry. The prize money does not count toward Order of Merit earnings. PGA Tour Canada offices are at Golf House in Oakville, Ontario , on the grounds of the Glen Abbey Golf Course . The Jack Nicklaus -designed course has hosted more than 20 Canadian Opens since 1977. In 2011, the Canadian Tour made history when Isabelle Beisiegel became the first woman to earn a Tour card on a men's professional golf tour. [2] In October 2012, the PGA Tour acquired the Canadian Tour, renaming it PGA Tour Canada effective November 1, 2012, for first use in the 2013 season. Under the new system, the top five players on the PGA Tour Canada Order of Merit earn Web.com Tour cards, with the money leader fully exempt and those 2nd-5th conditionally exempt. Players ranked 2nd through 10th are exempt through to the finals of qualifying school and those who finish 11th–20th are admitted to the second stage. The re-tooled tour offered at least eight tournaments per season, with total purses of about $150,000 apiece. [1] [3] For 2015, the purses were increased to $175,000 for the first eleven events. Those who finish in the Top 60 earn entry into season-ending Freedom 55 Financial Championship , with a $200,000 purse and are guaranteed at minimum full PGA Tour Canada status for the next season. Like many smaller tours, PGA Tour Canada has its own series of qualifying schools at various sites. The medalist at each site is fully exempt for the season. Those in the top 16 (not including ties) are exempt through the first four events, when a reshuffle occurs. In the event of a tie, a playoff determines the final exempt position. Those in the top 40 including ties are conditionally exempt. [4] In 2015, Mackenzie Investments became the tour's umbrella sponsor. For the next six years, the tour was named Mackenzie Tour – PGA Tour Canada. [5] 2016 schedule	i don't know
From which grape variety are almost all Chablis wines made?	Chardonnay \| Wine grapes \| JancisRobinson.com Chardonnay Chardonnay The most famous vine variety of all. So powerful is the C-word on a wine label that, like Cabernet Sauvignon , Chardonnay has virtually no synonyms - although in Styria in southern Austria some winemakers persist with the tradition of calling it Morillon . In the 1980s something extremely important to the history of wine happened: 'Chardonnay' became a name more familiar to the world's wine buyers than any of the geographically-named wines this vine variety had for centuries produced, such as Chablis, Corton-Charlemagne, or Montrachet. When the emerging New World wine industries introduced varietal labelling - calling wines by the name of their principal grape variety - it was Chardonnay that made the most friends. Wine drinkers find it flatteringly easy to enjoy, with its broad, exuberant charms, relatively high alcohol and low acidity, and lack of powerful scent. Vine growers find it easy to grow productively and profitably (it can yield well, ripen usefully early, although buds rather too early for frost-free comfort in cool climates). And winemakers revel in the range of different winemaking techniques to which Chardonnay readily submits: not just a wide range of dry white wines with more weight than most, but delicate sparkling wines and even a few extremely successful sweet white wines made with the benefit of 'noble rot'. All over the world, producing Chardonnay has been seen as a rite of passage in new wine regions. Almost any wine producer with ambitions to belong to the great international club of wine grown-ups has to prove that he or she can make a Chardonnay, preferably a Chardonnay fermented and matured in new(ish) oak barrels the Burgundian way, with the best of them. The fact is that most of this sort of wine is far more a product made in the cellar than in the vineyard. Or, to put it another way, skilfully-made barrel-fermented Chardonnays tend to taste very much the same wherever they are made. Indeed when many people say they like the taste of Chardonnay, what they often mean is that they like the taste of oak, or at least the qualities of oak maturation. So, although in terms of total area planted Chardonnay lags well behind such workhorse varieties as Spain's Airén and Italy's Trebbiano , it is more widely distributed than any other grape variety - probably even more widely than its red wine counterpart Cabernet Sauvignon, which needs more sunshine to ripen it than Chardonnay. Chardonnay mania, of which French coopers have been the major beneficiaries, was a phenomenon of the 1980s and 1990s but in the early 1970s it was hardly grown outside its Burgundian homeland and Champagne. It accounted for only a tiny proportion of all vines grown in California and Australia, for example, whereas by the early 1990s it had become the most planted white wine grape in both. At times demand for Chardonnay grapes from wine producers has been so much greater than supply (Australia in the mid 1990s springs to mind) that Chardonnay has been blended with one or two other varieties. Semillon -Chardonnay ('SemChard') and Chardonnay- Colombard blends became the pragmatic solution to an industry's problem. The Chardonnay vine is nothing if not adaptable. Commercially acceptable Chardonnay can be produced in really quite hot wine regions such as the hot interiors of California, South Africa and Australia where clever winemaking can give it tropical fruit flavours and even some suggestion of oakiness, often using oak chips. In cooler wine regions such as Chablis, Carneros and Tasmania, on the other hand, it can produce apple-crisp juice which, in less ripe years, can have rapier-like acidity. The best examples can benefit from five or even more years in bottle to soften that acidity and develop rounder flavours to balance it - although less concentrated examples produced in cool years may simply taste even leaner as the bloom of youth fades. Excluding premier cru and grand cru burgundy, Chardonnay does not make wines for seriously long ageing. Perhaps Chardonnay's most distinctive role in cooler climate regions is as a vital ingredient in top-quality sparkling wine, especially champagne. Although in most champagne it is blended with Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier , Blanc de Blancs champagne which is made exclusively of Chardonnay shows that it can produce elegant, lively, savoury fizz all by itself. (What the dark-skinned Pinots tend to add is not colour but ballast, or body.) Ambitious producers of sparkling wine the world over tend to depend on Chardonnay to add class to their wines. There is something about the elusive flavours of Chardonnay that marries particularly well with the traditional champagne-making process, involving extended ageing with the residues of a second fermentation in bottle, making a much deeper, denser sparkling wine than one based on, say, Chenin Blanc (as in the Loire) or Riesling (as in some top quality Sekt). The wines of Chablis in northern Burgundy, one of France's coolest wine regions, have a very particular flavour. It reminds me of wet stones, with some suggestion of very green fruit, but without the strong aroma and lean build of a Sauvignon Blanc . Because of its latitude, Chablis does not easily ripen the Chardonnay on which it exclusively depends. The wines are much higher in acidity and lighter in body than those made on the Côte d'Or to the south. Oak and malolactic fermentation are exceptional and - partly as a result - Chablis can age superbly. Sappy and refreshing in youth, it typically goes through a rather awkward adolescent stage where it can take on some odd wet wool odours and then, in glorious maturity at about 10 to 15 years old, it is an extraordinarily appetising drink reminiscent of wet stones and oatmeal. In more temperate climates Chardonnay can yield some of the finest dry white wine in the world. The heartland of Burgundy, the Côte d'Or, is effectively the nerve centre of this style of wine: savoury, dense, the grape a transparent medium through which different vineyards (and winemakers) can communicate their own individual styles, often only after many years in bottle. Indeed, the truly thrilling thing about Chardonnay grown on the Cote d'Or is that here, as nowhere else, it can express a sense of place, even if winemaking - which for top-quality Chardonnay produced anywhere almost invariably includes fermentation and maturation in different sorts of oak barrels; a second, softening malolactic fermentation; and different levels of stirring, or 'batonnage', of the lees at the bottom of the barrel - inevitably superimposes itself too - sometimes too much. Oak can be tasted in clumsier examples in the form of a certain toastiness, char - or even vanilla flavours in the case of American rather than the more normal French oak favoured by Burgundian wine producers. Montrachet, Puligny-Montrachet, Chassagne-Montrachet, Meursault and Corton-Charlemagne are some of the most famous names. Typical Meursault tends to be butter-golden and a little heavier and earlier-maturing than a typical wine from 'The Montrachets' (as the villages would doubtless be called in Britain) which has more lean, pure, nuanced character capable of developing for up to a decade in bottle, while Corton-Charlemagne can be nutty, almost almond-flavoured. But 'typical' burgundy hardly exists. Wines here are made with exasperatingly varied levels of skill, so that one winemaker's basic Bourgogne Blanc, the most basic appellation, may be better than another's Montrachet, even though it costs a fraction of the price. The name of the producer is generally more important than the name of the appellation. The Mâconnais tends to produce a more New World style of Chardonnay: plump, open, user-friendly wines that can taste of melon, or apples warmed by the sun. Most of these wines, particularly Mâcon Blanc and St-Véran, are designed to be drunk within two or three years of the vintage, although the most ambitious producers in the region, notably in Pouilly-Fuissé, are increasingly making wines to rival those of the Côte d'Or, without Côte d'Or prices. Chardonnay grown between the Mâconnais and the Côte d'Or in the Côte Chalonnaise tends to taste somewhere between the two styles. These are France's traditional Chardonnay vine strongholds but the variety's influence has been spreading within France as elsewhere. Wine producers in the Loire valley have embraced this fashionable grape so enthusiastically that the laws have to explicitly ban more than 20% of the variety in blends for sparkling Saumur and the dry whites of Anjou and Touraine in order to preserve the Loire's own traditional character. Some Muscadet producers have also been experimenting with oaked Chardonnays. And several of France's more cosmopolitan producers in distinctly non-Chardonnay territory have quietly planted a row or two for their own interest. Within the appellation system Chardonnay has invaded Limoux with the blessing of the authorities, to add finesse to the local sparkling Crémant de Limoux as well as producing rather fine, lemony barrel-fermented still wine. Vast amounts of Chardonnay are also grown on the lower, flatter vineyards of the Languedoc to produce generic IGP Pays d'Oc. As one would expect in an area known as France's New World, the quality of these wines varies according to the position of the vineyard(s) (for many of them are blends) and the quality and style of the winemaking. Price offers a fairly good guide. The cheapest Chardonnay d'Oc is simply a relatively full-bodied dry white wine, while the very best, usually given full oak treatment in the winery, can offer some of the class of Burgundy. Thanks to an extraordinary boom in plantings, Chardonnay has become synonymous with white wine in California and is responsible for a remarkably homogenous ocean of off-dry, golden, quite alcoholic, easy-to-drink liquid. While the most commercial examples are usually deliberately slightly sweetened to give them wide appeal, the key to serious quality in a California Chardonnay is climate. Wherever coastal fogs reliably slow down the ripening process, extending the growing season of this early ripening variety, and yields are kept in check, then California can produce some very fine wines indeed, with considerable Burgundian savour to them, but without the Old World surliness in youth. Carneros, and much of Sonoma and the Central Coast, have all produced some fine Chardonnay made very much in the mould of a good Meursault. The variety is also grown almost everywhere in North America where it has even half a chance of thriving, including the cool wine regions of Canada and New York state (where Long Island has proved rather successful) as well as Washington and Oregon which may respectively be better suited to Riesling and Pinot Gris - although Oregon's Chardonnay is improving thanks to better clones. Australia's strong suit is the reliable quality and varied character of her middle-range Chardonnays. They have been hugely successful commercially with their obvious, simple fruitiness, perked up with (usually added) acid and, often, oak chips. The overall style has changed considerably from rich, oaky and alcoholic to something much leaner and, in the better cases, more appetising and refreshing. Mudgee has produced some fine Chardonnay from a rare clone of the variety that locals believe was imported in the nineteenth century, decades before Chardonnay mania hit Australia in the early 1980s. Cooler areas of Australia can produce more subtle Chardonnay, more reminiscent of Côte d'Or wine in structure if not flavour. Tasmania makes the leanest examples, some so lean they are snapped up by Australia's sparkling wine industry. The Adelaide Hills, Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, cooler parts of New South Wales and the southern vineyards of Western Australia have all proved themselves capable of making top quality Chardonnays whose higher acidity levels can preserve them for several years in bottle (whereas most commercial Australian Chardonnay should be drunk as young as possible and ideally before its second birthday). Such names as Giaconda, Petaluma Tiers Vineyard and Leeuwin prove that Australians can make Chardonnays with real finesse. Australian producers may envy the high acid levels that their counterparts in New Zealand can hardly avoid, while New Zealanders would probably be happier with more reliable ripeness. Despite New Zealand's reputation for Sauvignon Blanc, the country can also make fine Chardonnay. Winemaking standards have been varied but those prepared to restrain yields and oak influence can produce subtle, sometimes exciting wines. Gisborne Chardonnay has long had its followers but there have been dramatic examples from wineries all over the North and South Islands. Experimentation with the world's favourite grape variety in South Africa was severely hampered in the 1980s by the fact that the original official planting stock was seriously inferior, but the quality can be truly inspiring. The vineyards of South America have also been invaded by Chardonnay. The vine has shown real promise (and value) in Chile's burgeoning cooler wine regions. Argentina has a smaller proportion of its extensive vineyards planted to Chardonnay, but almost exact reproductions of California Chardonnay have been produced under the Catena label and investors from a host of different countries have been establishing cooler, higher vineyards such as those at Tupungato. In the Old World Spain has relatively limited plantings of Chardonnay for the variety tends to ripen too fast there, and its affinity with the prevailing American oak has been less obvious (although Australians and Californians have provided some excellent examples). Portugal has some experimental plantings but its own array of indigenous vine varieties is reason enough to resist the international invader. Italy made some of the earliest varietal Chardonnays and pretty vapid they were too, but it is now possible to find some ambitious wines made with great care. Chardonnay has long been grown in the north-east of the country and can be found, often in simpler, unoaked varietal versions in Friuli, Trentino and Alto Adige, although much of the fruit is siphoned off for the spumante industry. After the break-up of the Soviet bloc British wine consumers were treated to an ocean of eastern European wines labelled Chardonnay, but relatively few have so far demonstrated much varietal character and the first wave of oak-aged examples were often oily and heavy. Keeping yields down to a level at which interesting flavours develop has been a serious problem, although the fiercely artisanal producers of Slovenia and parts of Croatia are a noble exception. Quality will doubtless rise in Bulgaria, Hungary, Moldova and Romania. Austria and Switzerland have proved they belong to the international fine winemaking club by producing some excellent, concentrated barrel-fermented Chardonnays. The variety is also responsible for some very fine botrytized sweet wines in Austria's Burgenland, sometimes blended with Welschriesling for additional acidity and aroma. Other excellent sweet wines made from nobly rotten Chardonnay grapes have come from the Mâconnais in France, Romania, New Zealand and Coonawarra in Australia, proving yet another of Chardonnay's attributes. Join and gain access to wine reviews and much more MOST POPULAR	Chardonnay
Paper is one of the 'Four Great Inventions' of which country?	New Year's Sale: Riedel Sommeliers Chablis/chardonnay Wine Glass Crystal Riedel Sommeliers Chablis/chardonnay Wine Glass Crystal at Amazon In the New World, especially, Chardonnay's popularity stems from its creamy structure, which balances oakey, buttery flavors with ...low acidity. The variety produces wines of high alcoholic content, often aged in small oak barrels. Winemakers sometimes add tartaric acid to adjust for its low acidity. The Riedel Sommeliers Chablis-Chardonnay glass is designed so that this low acidity is delivered in a way that sets off the alcohol and rich flavors of the wine, highlighting its velvety, supple texture, emphasizing the fruit and ensuring a long, balanced finish. This classic Riedel shape allows young wines to express all their invigorating freshness, while more mature wines are encouraged to deliver the nutty, spicy, mineral flavors so typical of the variety. Recommended for: Albariño, Bourgogne Aligoté, White Bordeaux , White Burgundy , Chablis, Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Gris , Viognier, etc read more at Amazon Riedel's newest introduction, the Sommeliers Black Tie series, marks the celebration of Claus Josef Riedel's unveiling of the firs...t Sommeliers Burgundy Grand Cru glass in 1958. Riedel's varietal specific wine glass concept has changed the world of wine drinking around the globe, by highlighting the effect that size and shape have on the aroma and flavor perception of the wine. This special new Black Tie series incorporates the Sommeliers line's classic shapes into gorgeous mouth-blown stemware, all accented in black. This Riedel Black Tie Montrachet/Chardonnay glass features the same classic shape of its Sommelier series counterpart, perfectly capturing the nuances of the fine wine it was designed for. The bowl rests on a clear stem, accented by a beautiful black base, creating an elegant dressed up appeal, and is packed in a handsome single gift tube. read more at Amara US Every perfectly shaped glass from Riedel is designed around the exceptional characteristics of each grape variety, which in turn d...etermines the shape, size & rim diameter of the bowl. These sleek, stunning glasses, made specifically for Chablis and Chardonnay wines, belong to Riedel's Vinum range, introduced in 1986. Vinum was the first machine-made series of glasses in history to be based exclusively on the characteristics of grape varieties. Vinum, functional, high in quality, reasonably priced and widely distributed, has had a permanent impact on the globe's wine glass culture. For more information on Riedel glass and care instructions, please see our buying guide here. Key features: * Set of 2 wine glasses * Material: lead crystal * Dimensions: H19.8cm * Capacity: 350ml * Machine made * Dishwasher safe * Grape variety specific * Perfect gift for any wine lover read more	i don't know
Elected in 2007, the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament has what name, almost identical to that of a famous football manager?	Official Report - Parliamentary Business : Scottish Parliament Parliamentary Business back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): Welcome back. It is good to be back with you once more. The first item of business is time for reflection. Our time for reflection leader this afternoon is Matt Oliver, the chief executive of More Than Gold 2014. Mr Matt Oliver (More Than Gold 2014): In a little under a year, 71 nations and territories that make up the Commonwealth will descend on Scotland for the 20th Commonwealth games. The Christian church in Scotland, united under the banner of More Than Gold, will seek to serve the games in a variety of ways. Building on the success of 2012, hundreds of churches will be opening their doors to show the games live on big screens to their communities and provide refreshments. One thousand people from around the world will assist the church in its activities, bringing with them cultural engagement programmes of dance, music and drama. The Salvation Army will distribute 250,000 bottles of cold water to spectators and, in partnership with the Scottish Government, we will provide free accommodation to over 400 members of athletes’ families and to official volunteers. Many of the nations that are competing next year will be able to trace the Christian roots of their countries directly to the great missionaries of the past, many of whom came from this great nation. People such as David Livingstone, Mary Slessor and James Chalmers all contributed to the spread of Christianity throughout the world. However, for an old sportsman such as me, it is Eric Liddell, the Olympic athlete who famously refused to run in the 100m heats as they were due to be run on a Sunday, who epitomises the common values of sport and the gospel. In the film “Chariots of Fire”, Eric famously says: “God made me for a purpose, but he also made me fast. And when I run I feel his pleasure”. Liddell would be given a sporting lifeline when given a place in the 400m, in which he would go on to become an Olympic champion. For Liddell, serving and honouring God was truly worth more than gold. It is the prayer of the team at More Than Gold 2014 that, as Glasgow prepares to host the world’s third-largest sporting event, it will feel God’s pleasure; that, as the church in Scotland rises in unison in acts of service, hospitality and outreach, it will feel God’s pleasure; and that you, as you go about your business in this place today, will feel God’s pleasure. Business Motion The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is consideration of business motion S4M-07570, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on behalf of the Parliamentary Bureau, setting out a business programme. Motion moved, That the Parliament agrees the following programme of business— Tuesday 3 September 2013 2.00 pm Time for Reflection followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions followed by Motion of Condolence followed by Topical Questions (if selected) followed by First Minister’s Statement on the Scottish Government’s Programme for Government 2013-14 followed by Scottish Government Debate: Scottish Government’s Programme for Government 2013-14 followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.45 pm Decision Time 11.40 am Parliamentary Bureau Motions 11.40 am General Questions 12.00 pm First Minister’s Questions 12.30 pm Members’ Business 2.30 pm Parliamentary Bureau Motions 2.30 pm Equal Opportunities Committee Debate: Where Gypsy/Travellers Live followed by Standards, Procedures and Public Appointments Committee Debate: Report on 6th Report 2013, Draft Code of Practice for Ministerial Appointments to Public Bodies in Scotland followed by Legislative Consent Motion: High Speed Rail (Preparation) Bill – UK Legislation followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.00 pm Decision Time 2.00 pm Time for Reflection followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions followed by Topical Questions (if selected) followed by Scottish Government Debate: Scotland’s Historic Environment – The Way Forward followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.00 pm Decision Time 11.40 am Parliamentary Bureau Motions 11.40 am General Questions 12.00 pm First Minister’s Questions 12.30 pm Members’ Business 2.30 pm Parliamentary Bureau Motions 2.30 pm Scottish Government Business followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.00 pm Decision Time—[Joe FitzPatrick.] Motion agreed to. back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is one that we would prefer not to be holding: a motion of condolence in the name of Ruth Davidson, following the death of David McLetchie MSP. I remind members that a book of condolence will be available for them to sign in the black and white corridor for the rest of the week. I would like to welcome Sheila and James and all of the McLetchie family to the gallery as Parliament pays its own tributes to David McLetchie. Thank you for being with us today. On behalf of all of us who were at the funeral, I say to James that the eulogy he gave was the finest eulogy from a son to a father that I have ever heard. David and I started together as part of the first intake of MSPs in 1999. In those early days, I would come into the chamber when I knew that David was due to speak. He was always witty, clever and a great debater, and I wished that I could be like him. I had a great personal relationship with David. We were often on opposite sides of an issue, and we both served on the first Scotland Bill Committee. It is fair to say that that committee was more than occasionally fraught and regularly robust, and David and I were often at the heart of that. However, through that long process, we used to pass notes to each other commenting on the day’s business, and we always maintained good humour and total respect for each other’s point of view. Despite failing health, David played a full part in parliamentary business way beyond the time that some of us thought he should. Those contributions were as robust and erudite as any of his previous contributions over the years. That was the mark of the man, and it demonstrates his commitment to the Parliament. David always shone brightly in the chamber in particular, which I know he loved. We will all miss his contributions. This place will be that bit dimmer without David McLetchie. 14:06 Ruth Davidson (Glasgow) (Con): The best of parliamentarians and the best of men—the death of David McLetchie leaves a hole that we will struggle to fill. I knew David for only a few short years; others in the chamber—those from the class of 99—knew him far better and far longer than I did. Among my colleagues on the Conservative benches, there were friendships with him that lasted half a lifetime. As we remember David’s political achievement and remark on the size of his contribution to the life of the chamber and the democracy of our country, we must remember that politics was not his first love; it was not even a close second. David’s priority first, last and always was his family. Our condolences go out to his wife, Sheila, his son, James, his mother, Rena, and their wider family, many of whom we welcome to the chamber gallery today. David was a man who was shaped and forged by his family, background and city. He was an Edinburgh boy who was brought up near Meadowbank. He started out at Leith academy primary school before he won a bursary for George Heriot’s. There he attended the literary and debating society, although it was a portent of things to come that he claimed that his membership was only an excuse to sneak out to the nearby Captains Bar for a pint after. David then did law at the University of Edinburgh—he was the first of his family to receive a higher education. In 1975, he was selected as the Conservative candidate in Edinburgh Central. A general election was anticipated in the following year, but that election would not come for another four years, of course. That gave David the opportunity to work with his Labour opponent—the MP Robin Cook—on the no campaign of 1979. David never tired of highlighting the irony of that in later years. David completed his legal training at Shepherd and Wedderburn and joined Tods Murray in 1980, where he became a partner and established himself as a highly regarded expert in the field of tax planning, trusts and estates. David brought to the Parliament when it was established in 1999 that legal training, intellectual rigour, attention to detail and discipline. My colleague Mary Scanlon speaks for all of us when she says that she always felt like a 10-year-old taking her jotters to the headmaster and waiting to see whether a red pen would be scored across the page. Indeed, I fear that there is a great irony and—dare I say—an impropriety in Parliament’s tribute today. I can almost feel the spirit of David, who was always quick to castigate those who worship the false god of consensus, clamouring for an amendment to the motion, if only to correct a grammatical error. Since David’s death, much has been made of his contribution to the party and Parliament as Conservative leader; the strength that he showed in 1997 after our electoral wipe-out in stooping to build up our party with worn-out tools; the resilience to keep speaking his truth clearly, knowing that there was a space and a need for a right-of-centre voice in public debate; the reward of outperforming pundits’ predictions in 1999 and establishing a sizeable Conservative group in the Parliament; and the personal pride that he rightly took four years later in winning his own Edinburgh Pentlands constituency under first past the post. Despite the other leaders having parliamentary experience that far exceeded his, David was a debater of the first order who would often come out on top. A personal highlight for me as a young journalist who followed the fledgling Parliament was his contribution on the appointment of Des McNulty as a junior minister in 2002. During his speech, David managed to remind members that there were but 123 reshuffling days left until dissolution; console the mere seven Labour members who had not yet been given a job in government; comment on the illegitimacy of John Reid, as remarked on in a taped conversation between Henry McLeish and Helen Liddell; score several substantive points on the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill; and crack a fine joke about Jim and Dr Richard’s Wallace-Simpson partnership leading to an abdication. He did all that in less than two minutes; it was a tour de force. David’s contribution did not stop when he resigned the leadership. Indeed, his period as chief whip and business manager during the previous parliamentary session tested his political gifts. His robust but honest approach gathered him many plaudits. David played with a straight bat; he always did what he said he would do. It was in no small part David’s skill, judgment, ability to work with others and determination that this Parliament and this legislative process should proceed that ensured that the fragility of a minority Government did not result in political paralysis. During that period, his long-standing personal assistant, Ann, would often hear him speaking on the telephone to other business managers, eloquently and logically outlining the Conservative Party position and, consequently, how he would vote. In the very next breath he would continue, “And may I say that your voting position on this is totally at odds with your policy,” and a lecture on inconsistency would follow. David was not above trying to whip the other parties either. Once he was sure that his group was accounted for, he would ask the other business managers whether all their MSPs were present and correct. Given David’s propensity for checking every detail, he often questioned the assurances that he was given. He would ask, “What about so-and-so? I thought that they were away for the day.” On more than one occasion, he dispatched his parliamentary researcher, Martin, behind enemy lines to chat with friends on other corridors just to make sure. In many respects, David was the first-ever cross-party chief whip. David’s contribution to Parliament was not just in the chamber or the committee rooms, as significant as those contributions were. He was clubbable, personable, generous with his time, anecdotes and stories, and generous with a drink at the bar and a friendly conversation with someone whom he may well have just eviscerated in the chamber. He added to the life of the Parliament, not just its business. David was no machine politician; he also had a life and interests outside of this place, including his family, golf and his beloved Heart of Midlothian. A regular Tynecastle attender, he would gently tease opponents such as the First Minister and John Swinney for being so-called plastic Jambos by asking when was the last time they had made it to a game. At David’s death, the Hearts message boards were filled with tributes. My favourite said: “he came across as a great Jambo and a real gentleman.” The message was right on both counts. I was thinking of the best words in which to describe David: intelligent, forensic, principled, generous, humorous, loyal, pedantic, irascible, curmudgeonly and combative. However, he had a charm and warmth that drew people to him and took people with him. I settle on brave as the word best to describe him. David was brave to pick up the reins of the defeated party; he was brave to stand his ground, speak his truth and defy consensus; he was brave to bear the death of his wife and to give strength to his then teenage son; he was brave to love again; and he was brave in the face of his illness. I know that David would not want today to pass without due recognition given to the Presiding Officer and the parliamentary staff whose support allowed him to attend this place until so recently, and long past the time that many would have been able to do so. That attendance and service took a bravery and strength, too. I thank you for allowing that to happen. I thank also the many members of this Parliament, past and present, who have contacted me and my Conservative colleagues to give their sympathies and share their memories of David. He had friends on all sides of the chamber, and it is a mark of his decency and generosity that some of the warmest tributes have come from his fiercest political opponents. In David’s death, the Conservatives have lost a leader and MSPs have lost a colleague. We have all lost a friend. David McLetchie was the best of parliamentarians and the best of men, and this Parliament and country is the poorer for his passing. It is with great sadness but with great pride that I move, That the Parliament expresses its deep regret and sadness at the death of David McLetchie CBE MSP; offers its sympathy and condolences to David’s family and friends; recognises the high regard in which he was held by so many colleagues; appreciates his significant contribution to civic life through his legal career, and acknowledges his distinguished record of service, both in this Parliament and to his constituents in the Lothians. [Applause.] 14:14 The First Minister (Alex Salmond): On behalf of the Scottish National Party and the Scottish Government, let me join in supporting the motion from Ruth Davidson paying fond tribute to David McLetchie and, of course, expressing our condolences to his family who are here with us today—his first love, as Ruth Davidson put it. David was a founding member of the Parliament. He was a respected, intelligent and witty advocate for his party. His political achievements were considerable. He led the Conservatives from a wipe-out in 1997 to a secure footing in this Parliament and, I think by general acknowledgement, allowed the Conservative Party to punch well above its numerical weight in this Parliament. I rather liked David’s description of his decision to become a parliamentary leader under such unpromising circumstances. He said: “it was a combination of a mid-life career change and a mid-life crisis.” Whatever it was, he served this Parliament and his constituents as a man of character, experience and persistence. As we have heard, David was a gifted debater, and in seven years as a party leader he proved himself to be a worthy opponent for First Ministers and leading figures across the chamber. Whatever the issue—and he pursued many, from the Holyrood building project to education reforms to housing—David would draw on his legal skills to produce an effective cross-examination, which always climaxed in a devastating political punchline. Like Ruth Davidson, I was drawn to the parliamentary masterpieces that were his speeches on what are fairly mundane matters and were fairly regular matters in those days: governmental changes. David managed to turn them into parliamentary classics. A speech in a debate in 2002 illustrates that very well. This is how David opened it: “Here we are again with another ministerial reshuffle. Sometimes, it seems that there are more drop-outs in the Scottish Executive than there were at Woodstock.” I am not sure whether David was personally at Woodstock; nonetheless, the point was well made. In the same speech, he went on to deliver the absolute classic. He acknowledged that 3 per cent of Scots believed that he was the Deputy First Minister. This is how he responded to that. He said: “That is a worrying statistic. It means that, as we speak, 150,000 people are walking around Scotland blaming me for Jim Wallace’s mistakes. I would like to take this opportunity to state categorically for the Official Report that I take absolutely no responsibility for such failures.”—[Official Report, 8 May 2002; c 8622, 23.] That was classic McLetchie. He was never shy in holding the Government or his opponents to account; equally, he rarely lost the respect or friendship of any. It was a measure of the man that he never allowed a political disagreement to become just a personal disagreement. When Donald Dewar died in October 2000, David McLetchie paid tribute to him with characteristic eloquence. He made the point that “One does not have to be of the same political persuasion as another to recognise in them someone who has ability, sincerity and conviction.”—[Official Report, 13 October 2000; c 1081.] The same words stand also for David himself. He was equally committed to serving his constituents and his country. It is a goal that we all share, even if we differ on what the means should be. David and I shared two great loves—not just Heart of Midlothian Football Club but golf—but I would say that it was not until he served as Tory business manager during the period of minority government that I got to know him best. There, I think, his talents truly excelled. He always negotiated hard, in his party’s interest but also in the interests of the Parliament and effective government, and his word was absolutely his bond. In my estimation, that performance marks David as an outstanding politician of the devolution era. There is no question but that, when the history of this Parliament comes to be written, David McLetchie’s place will be assured. He had many, many qualities. He fought hard and passionately in everything that he did—in politics and, personally, in his final battle with cancer. This Parliament is poorer—much poorer—without David McLetchie. [Applause.] 14:14 Johann Lamont (Glasgow Pollok) (Lab): This is another sad day for the Scottish Parliament as we gather to reflect on the loss of David McLetchie, whose untimely death we deeply regret. On behalf of the Scottish Labour Party, I not only offer our sincerest condolences to his family and friends, who must feel his loss most fiercely, but recognise that David was a man who had a huge impact on people across this chamber and far beyond. As has been said, David was another of the 1999 group of MSPs who were given the task of lifting the Scottish Parliament from the dry words of a parliamentary act to a living, breathing part of Scotland’s political, economic and social landscape, and he was a key player in helping the Scottish Parliament become that place. Again, as has been said, David was a great parliamentarian, fierce in debate and unrelenting in deconstructing arguments that might have displayed any hint of inconsistency. He was logical and rational, with a devastating turn of phrase. I still remember to this day the feeling of stress when, serving as a minister, I would see him rise to his feet in that languid way of his to deliver what we all feared would be the killer question. Although his wit and withering scorn were his greatest weapons, I believe that he deployed them not to belittle but to make his case. Yes, he was tough in debate, but it was always the argument, not the person, he was pursuing. Of course, David McLetchie was far more than simply a debater. In committee, his passion to make the Parliament work, interrogate legislation and develop policy was at its most evident. Always willing to do the heavy lifting, he took his job seriously, regardless of whether that work would be recognised or heralded by others. I believe that he simply wanted to make a difference. David McLetchie always made you think. It was rather unsettling for a Tory to do this, but I often found him challenging me to test my own assumptions rather than to presume them to be a self-evident truth. It is a useful lesson for us all, I think. I recall his capturing in a wonderful phrase the weakness of some of us in Scotland’s political environment when he said that we may now be living in a Scotland where that which is not banned will be compulsory. David was a man of intellect and wit with interests far beyond politics, and his life and legacy are hard to describe fully. What do I think when I think of David? At heart, when I think of David, I smile. For all our political differences, his humanity, compassion and interest in people were far stronger. He valued people, listened and revealed a warmth and friendship that could never be limited by party boundaries. Across this chamber, we shall miss his wisdom, his commitment and his love for life. In conclusion, I want to echo the words of the Presiding Officer. If there were ever a testimony to the person David McLetchie was beyond this place, the man who was not simply a politician, it was to be found in the words of his son James who, at his funeral, bravely and compellingly described what David meant to his family through tough and happy times. It is testament to the way that this man—this husband, father and son—lived his life that those who knew him best could speak so powerfully of his goodness and love for them. We shall miss David and our thoughts today are for this good man taken too soon and for those for whom this loss is so much greater still. [Applause.] 14:23 Willie Rennie (Mid Scotland and Fife) (LD): Every morning on my way to my son’s school, I would meet J T Murphy out for his morning stroll. As an old Fife coal miner from deep working class roots in Lochore, J T was not someone one would imagine to be a natural Conservative supporter. However, he was a David McLetchie supporter. J T liked his straight talking and forensic style and, every single day, he would tell me how good David was. Such was David’s widespread appeal. I, too, liked David. I only really got to know him as a fellow member of the Scotland Bill Committee. James Kelly, Richard Baker and I would work closely with David, tapping into his knowledge and understanding of the territory. Often, we would subconsciously—and physically—look to David at committee meetings when faced with an unexpectedly tricky issue, and I am sure that our collective sighs of relief were audible when he came up with an inspired response to a difficult question. Occasionally, however, he would say nothing, with a wicked glint in his eye. We would scrabble around and, panicking, attempt to conjure up some kind of answer that would pale into significance beside David’s own answer. Such was David’s sense of humour. Earlier this year, we paid tribute to another pillar of this Parliament, Brian Adam, who was credited with helping to make minority government work for the first time in Holyrood when all had expected it to fail. David McLetchie deserves equal praise for his role in ensuring that it worked. As the business manager for the Conservatives, he was able to reach out and build relationships with others that ensured that the business could get done. That feat was even more remarkable because he had previously been in regular combat with the SNP as the leader of the Scottish Conservatives. Such were David’s versatility and intelligence. David was a towering figure who changed the future for the Scottish Conservatives and Scottish politics. Such were David’s widespread appeal, his versatility and his intelligence. Such were David’s many talents that he helped to change Scotland. What will we do without David McLetchie? J T Murphy passed away a couple of years ago. David never had the opportunity to meet J T down here, but I like to think that he will get to meet him up there and that they will have a drink and a laugh together. 14:26 Margo MacDonald (Lothian) (Ind): I first met the man when I was just a young cub reporter and I was doing an interview with him—I do not have the faintest idea what it was about, but I remember thinking, “There’s a good guy. Too bad there are strikes against him: he’s a Tory and he’s a Jambo.” [Laughter.] I later had reason to change my mind about him. Just before we came here, we were both at a yee-haw concert by Reba McEntire—he was as big a country fan as me. We started to talk about that and found that we had a great deal in common at that level. Although David was a wonderful debater—none better has graced this Parliament—he never let me in, and I had a slight girn about that. However, I am very grateful for something that he once told me. I do not know whether members will remember, but we had an unseemly row—I think that it was in the first Parliament—about whether we were worthy of our wages. Scottish Television had conducted an opinion poll and found that the Scots thought that we were not. Well, quelle surprise! I advised the Parliament to ignore all of that because rules had been laid down that we should stick to, or else we would not be able to ensure that other people would stick to the rules that we laid down. David came up to me after the debate and said, “I think you did the Parliament a good turn today.” The fact that he knew and recognised that and told me about it was worth a great deal to me. I will miss him and so will we all. 14:27 Annabel Goldie (West Scotland) (Con): I thank the Presiding Officer, the party leaders and Margo MacDonald for all the kind and touching remarks that they have made this afternoon, spoken with affection and grace. I know that David McLetchie’s family will have been much comforted by all that has been said. My first recollection of David McLetchie, at a party meeting many years ago, is hardly an extensive encapsulation of either his character or his talents: I noted him simply as that good-looking big Edinburgh lawyer chap with the glasses. Mind you, coming from a then Glasgow lawyer, that was in the realms of high praise. [Laughter.] Even then, David made an immediate impression, leavening the universally dry fodder that was so characteristic of the business meetings of all parties. Not only was he analytical and forensic in his approach to all issues, he was dogged in his pursuit of what he believed to be right. Those attributes, in conjunction with an approach to political issues derived from basic principle and an unshakeable commitment to his political beliefs, made him the effective and formidable political operator that he was. In politics, working relationships between colleagues in the same party are routine and we could not function without them. However, real friendships within parties are perhaps a little less common, and across parties they are rarer still. Yet, in politics, David McLetchie cultivated and established all those different relationships. That is not easy to do, but, as we have heard from the speeches this afternoon, even among his political opponents he elicited respect and affection. When David became leader of the Scottish Conservatives, those personal strengths of character served his party and his colleagues well. His first ever speech to the Parliament in 1999 had clarity, vision and his trademark acerbity. He began by saying: “I am well aware that, unless there is a sudden, widespread and highly unlikely outbreak of common sense, my candidacy for First Minister will not succeed this afternoon.”—[Official Report, 13 May 1999; c 19.] He then articulated his vision for the Scottish Conservatives: he said that we should be a constructive Opposition in the Parliament, dedicated to making it a success, and that we should aspire to Government in Scotland again some day. That is still the vision for my party—it was endorsed by me and Ruth Davidson as his successors. David was unflagging in his endeavours to realise those ambitions. When I succeeded David, I could not have asked for a more supportive colleague. His counsel was sound and any confidence that I shared with him remained with him; he knew how solitary leadership can be. His friendship was comforting and reassuring, and his integrity manifest. The one word that I knew never to mention in David’s presence was “consensus”. To him, “consensus” was synonymous with fudge, dilution of intellectual rigour and impairment of political purity. However, he was pragmatic. As others have said, in 2007, when the Parliament first experienced minority government, there was a need for party business managers with honed political skills, razor-sharp minds and acutely sensitive political antenna who were astute in judgment and skilled in negotiation. I could not have been better served than I was by David McLetchie. He excelled, and not only his party, but the Parliament, were the beneficiaries. The touching and eloquent tributes that we have heard this afternoon reflect David McLetchie’s enormous contribution to Scottish politics and our sorrow as politicians at the loss of a colleague, a gentleman and a friend. [Applause.] The Presiding Officer: I will allow a short period of suspension before we move to the rest of this afternoon’s business. I suspend the meeting until 2.50. 14:32 Meeting suspended. back to top Mark McDonald (Aberdeen Donside): 1. To ask the Scottish Government what discussions it has had with the offshore industry regarding the impact on the oil and gas industry in Scotland of the recent Super Puma tragedy. The Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth (John Swinney): First of all, I express on behalf of the Scottish Government, and I know all of Parliament, our condolences to the families of the four people who lost their lives when the Super Puma helicopter crash took place on 23 August. I also express our sympathy to the other individuals who were on board the flight for the ordeal that they endured. Since the crash, the Scottish Government has worked closely with the United Kingdom Government, the offshore industry and other key stakeholders in managing the consequences of the incident in relation to the impact on the oil and gas industry in Scotland. Officials have been fully engaged in the helicopter safety steering group meetings that were held on Saturday, Wednesday and Thursday following the incident. Officials have also participated in the oil and gas leaders meetings at which all operators in the North Sea were present. I have spoken to Malcolm Webb, the chief executive of Oil & Gas UK, which is the representative body for the UK offshore oil and gas industry, and I have also had discussions in relation to the incident with Jake Molloy of the RMT and both John Taylor and Pat Rafferty of Unite. On Friday, I visited the police gold command in Aberdeen to speak with the emergency services, who deserve our grateful thanks and acknowledgement for the excellent rescue operation that resulted in the saving of 14 lives. Subject to the Parliament’s agreement, I will make a full statement on the issue tomorrow. Mark McDonald: I thank the cabinet secretary for his answer and I echo his expressions of condolence. Those of us who have family, friends and constituents who work in the offshore sector will know how difficult this period has been for many individuals across Scotland. Will the cabinet secretary advise in what ways the Scottish Government is able and stands ready to support an industry review of helicopter safety? John Swinney: I confirm to the Parliament that the Government will co-operate in all the ways we can with the industry in relation to the review of safety and the encouragement of safe utilisation of modes of transport in transporting individuals to the North Sea oil and gas sector. As I said in my initial response, Government officials participated in helicopter safety steering group meetings held during the past week. Those proceedings were, in my opinion, a model of how dialogue should be conducted in partnership between employers and the trade unions that are involved, with a willingness to consider and address the serious issues and concerns that are relevant to members of oil and gas staff who are concerned about the circumstances that they face. The Government will certainly actively work to facilitate and encourage that review of safety. Mark McDonald: The cabinet secretary will also be aware that, as we have discussed, there are concerns among not just workers but their families around the continuing safety of helicopter flights to offshore installations. Can he confirm that his view is that there needs to be a careful dialogue between operators, the unions, the workforce and the wider oil and gas family—family members and so on—in order to restore some of the confidence that has been damaged by the recent incident and other incidents over the past five years? John Swinney: That dialogue is crucial. It is vital that the industry engages in dialogue, as took place at the helicopter safety steering group, between employers and trade unions as representatives of the workforce. In observing closely the proceedings of the helicopter safety steering group over the period, I saw the way in which information and advice were marshalled for the employer and trade union representatives, which enabled a considered judgment to be arrived at to enable the temporary suspension of the utilisation of some of the Super Puma fleet to be overcome. That was achieved because of evidence-based discussion involving all parties, and it represents how we can try to address the legitimate anxiety of members of the public about ensuring that, in all circumstances, individuals are able to be transported to the oil and gas sector safely and reliably. That must be an objective for us all. Lewis Macdonald (North East Scotland) (Lab): The cabinet secretary will know the difference that was made to offshore health and safety on rigs and platforms in the North Sea by the Cullen inquiry, which was established following the Piper Alpha disaster. Given the high number of serious helicopter incidents in the UK sector of the North Sea compared with other parts of the same province, will the cabinet secretary support calls for a public inquiry into helicopter transport in the UK sector—one that would go beyond an internal industry review and would follow the model that was set by Cullen—in order to give the workforce the same confidence in helicopter transport in the North Sea as they have in safety on rigs and platforms following Cullen? John Swinney: I am obviously familiar with the issues that have been raised in connection with helicopter safety. I think that the most effective thing that we can do is wait until we have the full outcome of the inquiry into this particular circumstance before we decide whether there is merit in taking forward that wider inquiry. I say that because, if we look at the experience of helicopter safety, we can see that over the past couple of years there has been a rising tide of confidence in helicopter safety in the North Sea. A point of very great regret about the incident that took place on 23 August is that that confidence has clearly been undermined. I think that before we form a judgment as to whether a full inquiry is required, we should allow the investigation of this incident to take its course and hear the outcome of the work that has been undertaken by the air accident investigation branch, which lies at the heart of the investigative role. The points raised by Mr Macdonald can quite properly be considered in that context. Food Banks Jackie Baillie (Dumbarton) (Lab): 2. To ask the Scottish Government what action it is taking to support food banks. The Minister for Housing and Welfare (Margaret Burgess): I congratulate Jackie Baillie on her new role shadowing the welfare portfolio. Like my health colleagues in the past, I look forward to some lively spats. The Scottish Government supports access to affordable, healthy and sustainable food for all and acknowledges that, with the current economic climate, welfare reform and increasing food prices, that access is becoming a greater concern for many people. The Scottish Government has provided an additional £9.2 million to the Scottish welfare fund, which means that we are providing the capacity to award an additional 5,600 community care grants and more than 100,000 crisis grants in this financial year. That fund will provide people with emergency support, so the necessity for food banks should be reduced. However, my concern is that the United Kingdom Government benefits reform programme unfairly impacts on some of the most vulnerable members of our society. In particular, I am concerned that the cuts and changes to the welfare system will undermine the long-term approach that we are taking to tackle the causes of poverty. The solution is for the Scottish Parliament to have control over welfare matters so that we can devise policies for the benefit of the Scottish people. Jackie Baillie: I thank the minister for welcoming me to my new portfolio. I hope that, in a few weeks’ time, she does not regret doing so. I am most interested in the powers that the Scottish Government already has—powers that it should be exercising to protect the most vulnerable. Frankly, I am appalled that, in 21st century Scotland, we have food banks in our communities. According to the Trussell Trust, the number of Scots accessing emergency food banks over the past year has increased by 150 per cent, to more than 14,000 people. Almost one third of those people were children, which should concern us all. What more can the Scottish Government do specifically to help children who are experiencing such extremes of poverty that they have to depend on food banks? Margaret Burgess: The Scottish Government has taken forward a number of actions to reduce child poverty in Scotland—an issue that is of great concern for me and for the Scottish Government. As I said, we have put in place a number of activities to provide support, including the Scottish welfare fund, our social wage—the social wage helps families that are struggling—and free prescriptions. We are against the UK Government’s welfare cuts, as Jackie Baillie well knows. As I laid out, if we had our own welfare system and were in charge of our own economy, we could ensure that our policies in health, housing and welfare were integrated to ensure that we could deliver the best possible opportunity for all the people of Scotland, and particularly our children. Jackie Baillie: There is no disagreement on this side of the chamber about the impact of the UK Government’s welfare cuts, but despite the actions that she has outlined we still see children queuing for assistance at food banks. The minister will be aware that, since the Scottish welfare fund was introduced to provide crisis grants, there has been a significant underspend in that budget. That goes against everything that we know about the level of need that exists in our communities—there is even anecdotal evidence that, having been refused crisis loans, people are being referred to food banks. What action will the Scottish Government take to ensure that, instead of there being an underspend in that budget, the people who need them most can access crisis grants? Margaret Burgess: Rather than criticise the Scottish Government on the Scottish welfare fund, Jackie Baillie should congratulate us on establishing that fund and topping it up by £9.2 million. The Scottish welfare fund, which came in in April this year, is a new fund that has not bedded in yet, but we are doing everything that we can to encourage people to use it. I spent the summer recess travelling up and down Scotland speaking to local authorities, third sector organisations and community groups to promote the fund and to encourage take-up. An officer within the Scottish Government is monitoring the fund for consistency and to look at how we can do things better. Jackie Baillie should join us in promoting the fund and, rather than criticise us, congratulate us on introducing a fund that protects our poorest people. Stuart McMillan (West Scotland) (SNP): Yesterday, I had a meeting with the food bank in Inverclyde, where I was informed that, since opening up last September, it has fed 2,500 people, including 750 children. Those figures are worsening, despite the fact that we have not yet felt the full effects of welfare reform. Can the minister inform me what discussions are taking place with the UK Government to inform it that its wider economic agenda is not working and that there are many people and families whose lives are being devastated as a consequence? Margaret Burgess: There is regular correspondence with the UK Government on those issues. The Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth wrote to the Chancellor of the Exchequer in March, ahead of the UK Government’s budget statement, to set out the Scottish Government’s concerns about the failure of the UK Government to grow the economy. I share the finance secretary’s concern about the cuts to benefit incomes for families across the country at a time when many are having to deal with sharp rises in the cost of living. I will continue to raise those issues with UK Government ministers at every opportunity, both in person and in writing. As I said, the solution is for Scotland to have control of its own economy and welfare system. We might then see a reduction in food banks in this country. Elaine Smith (Coatbridge and Chryston) (Lab): Does the minister agree that it is unacceptable that unaffordable water charges are acting as a barrier to the setting up of a food bank in Coatbridge? Is charitable exemption under the Government’s scheme an option to allow that desperately needed facility to open? Margaret Burgess: As set out in the current statement on charging for water for 2010 to 2015, the exemption is available only to those organisations that received an exemption in 1999, so it is not currently available to new organisations. However, Scottish Water recognises the issues that that creates and is working with the Scottish Government to look at introducing a revised scheme from 2015 that would be open to all small charities. Therefore, I accept the point that Elaine Smith has made. The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): I apologise to Margo MacDonald, who wanted to ask a supplementary question, but we need to move on to the next item of business. Programme for Government 2013-14 back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is a statement by Alex Salmond on the Scottish Government’s programme for government for 2013-14. The First Minister’s statement will be followed by a debate, so there should be no interventions or interruptions. 15:04 The First Minister (Alex Salmond): It is better for all of us if decisions about Scotland’s future are taken by those who care most about Scotland—that is, the people who choose to live and work in our country. That is the simple but, I think, compelling truth at the heart of the case for independence, and the best evidence of it lies in the record of this Parliament. It is now 16 years since the people of this country, in a referendum, had the confidence and belief to bring this Parliament into existence. In doing so, we as a country and as a people made a choice between two futures and between those who argued that Westminster should decide for Scotland how our schools, universities and hospitals should be run, and those who maintained that we would all benefit if decisions about Scotland were taken here in Scotland. We now know, beyond peradventure, that taking decisions in Scotland works for individuals, families and communities. The Parliament has demonstrated our concern for the most vulnerable in society. Free personal care for the elderly directly helps more than 77,000 people across Scotland and our legislation on homelessness is seen as an example round the world. We have started to tackle Scotland’s shameful health inequalities through the ban on smoking in public places and legislation on minimum pricing for alcohol. We have helped hard-pressed families by freezing the council tax, by ending charges for prescriptions and eye and dental checks and by ending bridge tolls. We have revived and protected the ancient and proud Scottish commitment to education by reintroducing free university and college tuition. As confirmed this very day in the first Police Scotland statistics, we have recognised communities’ concerns about crime by adding more than 1,000 additional officers and thus we have seen crime fall to its lowest level for 39 years. All those measures, and many more, demonstrate that this Parliament is delivering for communities across the country. Conversely, we also know—also beyond peradventure—that there is a heavy cost when we leave decisions in the hands of Westminster. We get Governments that we did not vote for; we get the bedroom tax; we get cuts to capital spending in the teeth of a recession; we get attacks on the poor and on people with disabilities; and we get weapons of mass destruction on the River Clyde. A poll published yesterday, which is confirmed by the social attitudes survey, asked people whether they trust the Scottish Parliament or the United Kingdom Parliament to take decisions for Scotland and found that 60 per cent of people in Scotland trust Holyrood compared to just 16 per cent who trust Westminster. The contrast and the choice that face the people next year could not be clearer. This year’s legislative programme, with 13 bills in total, will continue that strong track record not just of the Government but of the Parliament. Of course, not everything that matters can be addressed through legislation, but legislation does matter. All 13 of the bills in this year’s programme will make a genuine difference to people in Scotland. They demonstrate effective governance. One of the opportunities that is provided by devolution is to reform Scotland’s public bodies and public services to make them more efficient and better at their true role, which is serving the public. When we took office, there were 199 public bodies in Scotland; now, there are 113, which is a reduction of more than 40 per cent. The public sector landscape is less cluttered but more focused and therefore more effective. This year, we will introduce legislation to merge Historic Scotland and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, which will enable those bodies to operate more efficiently and will enhance our ability to preserve and protect our heritage. The focus of public authorities can be really important, especially if a vacuum is developing at UK level. In 2010, the UK Government controversially deprived the Food Standards Agency of its responsibilities for nutrition and labelling. That move was subsequently seen by Westminster’s Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee as contributing to the UK’s poor handling of the horsemeat scandal. Therefore, the food standards (Scotland) bill will establish a new body to take over all of the FSA’s old functions. The new body will ensure that the industry and public in Scotland can have full confidence in the safety and provenance of our food. Several other bills this year draw on expert reviews and will ensure that our laws are up to date and that our public services are responsive and efficient. The mental health and adults with incapacity bill will implement recommendations made by the McManus review group and others. It will improve the efficiency of mental health legislation. Importantly, for the first time, victims of mentally disordered offenders will be notified if the person who has committed a crime against them is being released from custody. Therefore, they will be able to make representations to the Mental Health Tribunal for Scotland. The damages bill will reform key aspects of the law relating to damages for personal injury, enacting recommendations made by the Scottish Law Commission. The conclusion of contracts bill will make it easier for contracts to be agreed electronically, helping to ensure that Scotland is an attractive place to do business. The bankruptcy consolidation bill will make Scottish bankruptcy law more accessible. The courts reform bill will enable civil cases to be resolved more quickly. It will implement the proposals from Lord Gill’s Scottish civil courts review, including the establishment of a new sheriff appeal court and a specialist personal injury court. It will ensure that cases are dealt with at the right level, recognising the Court of Session’s historic role as the apex of our civil courts and delivering faster, fairer justice right across the system. It represents the most radical set of changes to the civil courts for more than a century. One other change to the justice system will be of interest to the Parliament. We have all now accepted the need to end the system of automatic early release that was brought in by the Conservative Government in 1993 and left in place by the Labour and Liberal Democrat coalition here at Holyrood. It does not command public confidence. We are now in a position to end automatic early release for sexual offenders who are sentenced to more than four years and for serious violent offenders. That follows the work to stabilise the prison population and then reduce it over time by implementing other recommendations of the McLeish commission, such as introducing strong community-based sentences for less serious offenders. Further steps will follow as we continue the successful implementation of our justice reform programme. The things that I mentioned—the action on food standards, the new rights for victims of mentally disordered offenders and the major improvements to the justice system—are the fruits of having our own Parliament. I can tell members from 23 years’ experience of Westminster that that Parliament only rarely had the time or inclination to respond to specific Scottish challenges or priorities. However, those bills—that pattern of legislation—are also part of a larger story. This Parliament listens to evidence and seeks consensus where possible. It has used its powers to create opportunities for people across the country. Through the programme for government that we publish today, it will, over the course of this year, empower communities, create a fairer Scotland, accelerate economic recovery and mitigate the impact of Westminster austerity. One of the most important bills of the next period is the community empowerment and renewal bill. The bill will strengthen community planning, simplify the operation of the community right to buy and make it easier for communities to buy public sector land and buildings. One of this Parliament’s great early achievements was the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003, which was introduced by a coalition Government with support from across the chamber. The Government has given new momentum to the right-to-buy provisions of that legislation. We launched the Scottish land fund, established the land reform review group and, earlier in the summer, announced a new ambition that, by 2020, the amount of land owned by the communities of Scotland would double to an impressive total of 1 million acres. In June, we approved an application to register a community interest in land at Cape Wrath, next to the famous lighthouse. There are, in fact, two famous lighthouses at the north and south tips of our west coast. The southern one, at Mull of Galloway, came into community ownership this year; the land at Cape Wrath is now on its way to community ownership. With due respect to the Ministry of Defence, I suspect that most people in Scotland would rather that the stunning walkways of Cape Wrath—including the northern end of the new Scottish national trail—were in community ownership and freely accessible to the people than that they were an extension to a bombing range. This year’s summer Cabinets saw additional steps to empower communities. In July, in Shetland, we established a working group to consider greater powers for the island councils. Two weeks ago, in Hawick, we facilitated the borderlands initiative, which sees Scottish Borders Council and Dumfries and Galloway Council working with northern English local authorities. Last week, in Campbeltown, we announced the establishment of a rural parliament to give greater weight to the needs and priorities of remote and rural communities. This morning, in Dundee, I saw the importance of community empowerment in urban areas. St Mary’s community centre was created by people in the local area. They created a board, raised the funding and drove the project through. I saw one of the art workshops that the centre provides. Everyone I met was passionate about the benefits of the centre and the importance of the work that is done by the community to help itself. When the Cabinet was in Campbeltown, I spoke about how independence offers an opportunity to renew democracy at all levels in Scotland. That is true at a national level—we can draft a written constitution affirming the most treasured values of our newly independent nation—but it also applies at a local level. Independence is not just about national institutions; it is about releasing the potential of our people and our local communities. Our licensing bill is a further example of our commitment to stronger local powers. It improves and extends powers for local authorities in areas such as the regulation of metal dealers—a move that will help to tackle metal theft—and the licensing of taxis and private hire cars. The bill will introduce a new offence of supplying alcohol to people under the age of 18. It will also introduce a new licensing system for air weapons. Following the tragic death of Andrew Morton some years ago, there was wide support in this chamber for devolving the regulation of such weapons. Now, this Parliament can finally meet public concern over the issue and find a Scottish solution to a Scottish priority. This Government recognises that strong public services are a bedrock on which communities and individuals rely. They are an essential part of our vision for a fairer Scotland. Since the start of the Scottish patient safety programme in 2008, standardised mortality in hospitals has fallen by almost 12 per cent. Don Berwick, who was President Obama’s adviser on healthcare and recently advised the UK Government on how to deal with the problems in the health service south of the border, said that the programme is “without doubt one of the most ambitious patient safety initiatives in the world—national in scale, bold in aims, and disciplined in science … aligned toward a common vision, making Scotland the safest nation on earth from the viewpoint of health care”. The programme is an outstanding example of how devolution has enabled us to protect the national health service as a genuine public national health service. Housing is another example. The Homelessness etc (Scotland) Act 2003 is one of the most significant commitments ever made by any Parliament anywhere to assist homeless people. In 2002, 10,000 homeless households were classed as non-priority cases, with no right to settled accommodation. This year, the figure is zero. All people who are made unintentionally homeless now have a right to settled accommodation. The housing bill that we will introduce next year is a further step towards making decent housing available for everyone. By removing right-to-buy entitlements, the bill will protect social housing stock. It will also strengthen protection for tenants in the private rented sector by introducing new measures to deal with housing disputes and to regulate the letting industry. The legislation forms part of a broader commitment from this Government to make decent housing accessible and affordable. During the five years of this session of Parliament, we intend to build 30,000 affordable homes, at least 5,000 of which will be council houses. For those who are interested in statistics—I suspect that that includes the whole chamber—that represents a 66,500 per cent increase on the rate of council house construction under the previous Government, when, famously, six council houses were built in four years, all of them in Shetland. Those commitments—a truly national health service, decent affordable housing—are part of a wider vision of society that is based on cohesion, not division and on social inclusion, not stigma. That philosophy explains why we have made certain services universally available. Pensioners benefit from free bus travel—that is all pensioners. All of us have the reassurance of free personal care being available when we are older. In 2007, we established that there were actually 600,000 people earning below £16,000 a year who were liable to pay prescription charges. Many people had to choose which prescribed medicine they could take until the Government restored a national health service free at the point of need. Students have the right to free education, which enables them to earn and then contribute to society through a fair taxation system. Those advances are what we like to call the social wage. Services are available to everyone, because everyone contributes to society. The same spirit has influenced other Government policies: no compulsory redundancies in the public sector; the introduction of a living wage; and the council tax freeze to help hard-pressed families. Some people see the price of such policies, not their value. They say that those social gains are not sustainable. I say that what makes them sustainable is that they are universal—part of a social wage. If they were not universal, those in receipt of the social benefit would be separated and stigmatised, exactly as is happening with the UK Government’s welfare agenda. Far from being a something-for-nothing culture, the social wage is a contract that we have with the people of Scotland. To suggest that that is something for nothing is to mimic the bankrupt ideology that prevails in the Westminster Parliament. The social wage also has an economic benefit. By helping to provide a secure, stable and inclusive society, the public sector will nurture and encourage the talent and ambition of the people. Scotland will be a place in which people want to invest, work and live. The social wage helps to show that prosperity and fairness gang thegither. There is no trade-off between living in a wealthy country and living in a good society. The social wage is part of the distinctive approach that the Government has taken to supporting recovery in recent years. The Budget (Scotland) Bill will maintain that approach while continuing to drive recovery and long-term economic growth. We will continue to protect our infrastructure investment programme in the face of the 26 per cent real-terms cut that the UK Government has made to the capital budget. We are supporting more than £10 billion of investment from 2012 to 2015; we are continuing to support key sectors of the economy, such as renewable energy, food and drink, life sciences and tourism; and we are investing in skills. We delivered more than 25,000 modern apprenticeships last year. Ninety-two per cent of those who complete an apprenticeship are still in work six months later. The success of modern apprenticeships is one reason—just one—why youth unemployment has fallen from 113,000 to 77,000 since Angela Constance was appointed as Europe’s only youth employment minister. The figure is still far too high, but we now have one of the better rates in Europe. Across Scotland, central Government, local government, the third sector and the private sector are making young people our business. The approach that we have taken so far is working. Last month, Ernst & Young reported that our exports are expected to grow at six times the rate of the rest of the UK over the next four years. Our recession was shallower than the UK’s, and Scotland is performing better than the rest of the UK on all the major employment measures. The number of inward investment projects that Scotland secured increased by 49 per cent last year. This summer, Ernst & Young commented on the “ongoing rise in Scotland’s relative attractiveness for” foreign direct investment “compared to most other areas of the UK.” Members will remember that that is exactly the opposite of George Osborne’s infamous prediction in November 2011. Then, he said that the prospect of independence would deter inward investors. He maintained his disastrous record of economic forecasting earlier this week by suggesting that Canada—which has the best-performing economy in the developed world—was somehow disadvantaged by its independence in comparison with the UK, which has the second-worst-performing economy in the G7. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is in Aberdeen today, continuing that dismal record of forecasting. This morning, I heard him on the radio claiming that Scotland’s gross domestic product would be 4 per cent higher in 30 years’ time if we stayed under Westminster control. In fact, as an independent country, Scotland’s GDP will be 17 per cent higher in three years’ time, when our oil and gas reserves will be counted for the first time in our GDP statistics. That would place us in the top 10 of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries with the highest wealth per head of population. However, within the UK we are severely limited in the measures that we can take to assist recovery and boost GDP. Key fiscal levers such as public capital investment, corporation tax and air passenger duty remain outside our control. We have shown the potential for a different approach to taxation. A first step of this Government was to establish the most competitive business rates regime anywhere in the UK. We have legislated to replace stamp duty with a more progressive land and buildings transaction tax. We have also introduced the Landfill Tax (Scotland) Bill. The revenue Scotland and tax powers bill will establish revenue Scotland to collect those taxes from 2015. The bill will also put in place a framework that will apply to all devolved taxes. Over the period to 2020, we estimate that the start-up and operational costs in setting up revenue Scotland will be significantly lower than had we had asked Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs to perform the same duties. That could be a sign of the UK’s diseconomies of scale. However, that further makes the case for tax powers being controlled and administered from this Parliament. The establishment of revenue Scotland will be an historic step, but it is only a first step. After all, those devolved taxes—which are the most on offer from Westminster if we stay in the UK—mean that from 2015 Scotland will collect 15 per cent of all taxation revenue, rather than the present 7 per cent. This Parliament would still be a spending rather than a revenue-raising chamber. That is deeply harmful to Scotland; it means that we cannot use fiscal powers to grow our economy. As I said, the Scottish economy has performed better than the rest of the UK in recent years. In the first quarter of this year, our economy was 2 per cent below its peak output level of 2008, while the UK economy was 3.9 per cent below. It is worth noting that Canada, which, by implication, George Osborne thinks should merge with the United States of America, was 6.4 per cent above its pre-recession peak. The contrast between Scotland and the UK and those international ratings demonstrate a truth: this Parliament can mitigate the impact of UK Government policies. Our growth levels can be slightly higher and our employment figures a bit better, but mitigation is what it is. We cannot stop capital spending being slashed; we cannot use taxation policies to encourage business; and we cannot harness all our natural and human resources to build a richer and fairer society. A further reason why we need independence is that, by next year, the UK Government’s welfare reforms will reduce household incomes in Scotland by almost £2 billion a year. Much of that money is taken out of the pockets of those in work and earning low wages. However, last year, the UK Government announced £350 million more spending on the next stage of Trident renewal. That money is barely one third of 1 per cent of the estimated £100,000 million lifetime total cost of the decision to replace the Trident system. How can any Government choose to embark on expenditure of £100,000 million to renew Europe’s largest concentration of weapons of mass destruction while reducing benefits for the poorest households across the country? As Margaret Lynch, the chief executive of Citizens Advice Scotland, asked when she spoke of the impact of the cuts on her organisation: “How is it possible, in the 21st century, in an advanced capitalist economy ... that we have to have volunteer advisers trained in suicide awareness because the welfare state has been ripped asunder?”—[Official Report, Welfare Reform Committee, 22 January 2013; c 471.] This Government is providing almost £8 million of support to advice centres across Scotland, so that they can cope as people in extremis come to them for help. That is one of a number of steps that we have taken to mitigate Westminster’s welfare cuts. We have already, jointly with the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities, agreed this year to meet the cost of the UK Government’s cut in funding for council tax benefit successor arrangements. That protects more than half a million people on low incomes across Scotland. This year, we are providing an additional £9 million towards the new Scottish welfare fund, bringing a total of £33 million. The fund helps vulnerable people in a financial emergency and enables people to get household goods to set up home or to remain in their community rather than go into care. In this session, the Scottish welfare fund bill will put the new fund on to a secure and statutory footing, establishing a safety net for vulnerable people across the entire country. There is a hugely important point there. I talked earlier about how devolution has protected the national health service in Scotland. When we look at the chaos and fragmentation that has been brought about by health reform south of the border, is there anyone who seriously thinks that Westminster should run our health service? When we see the misery and suffering that is being brought about by welfare changes, is there anyone who wants Westminster to retain control of welfare? An independent Scotland will have the wit to develop a welfare system that lets work pay without reducing people to penury or despair. In addition to the 13 bills that we are introducing this year, the Parliament will consider the Referendum (Scotland) Bill, which provides the legal underpinning for the vote on 18 September next year, when the people of Scotland will decide this country’s future. Either a yes vote or a no vote has consequences for the future. The real debate is about how to create a prosperous country and a just society. It is about our attitude towards the disadvantaged and the vulnerable, our welcome for people who want to settle here, our relationship with Europe and the rest of the world, and our strength as a society to which we all contribute and from which we all benefit. Even more fundamental, independence is about who decides on those questions. The problem for the no campaign is that it will have to explain why an independent Scotland would be uniquely incapable of taking those decisions for ourselves. Why should we rely on a Westminster system to take decisions—many of which, like the bedroom tax, have been utterly misguided—when we have proved over the past 14 years that we, as a Parliament, are more than capable of delivering real progress for the people of Scotland? In the months ahead, we may well debate our particular views about education, health, employment and welfare reform. However, one thing that the record of this Parliament demonstrates and on which we should all agree is that it is better to decide things for ourselves than to have others decide for us. In my view, the logic of that—completing the powers of this Parliament, that is, independence—is what the people will vote for in 380 days’ time. The value of Scotland’s Parliament is demonstrated by this programme for government. That is why I commend it to members. [Applause.] Programme for Government 2013-14 The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is a debate on the Scottish Government’s programme for government. 15:32 Johann Lamont (Glasgow Pollok) (Lab): The First Minister’s statement was so uplifting that I almost felt like reaching into Jackie Baillie’s handbag for a saltire. [Laughter.] The Presiding Officer: Order. Johann Lamont: I imagined that during the recess the First Minister might like to re-engage with the real world but he is, on the evidence of his statement today, as distant and delusional about what Scotland is like as he was on the day that he left for the recess. Despite Andy Murray’s best efforts, the summer did not get off to the best of starts for the First Minister. He has kept himself busy by making a series of speeches—each one more ludicrous than the last. We, too, could be like the Isle of Man: independent, but still part of five unions—everything changing, but nothing changing. In his statement, the First Minister said that it is better for us to make decisions ourselves than to let other people do so, yet he is happy to cede economic policy, fiscal policy and monetary policy to a Westminster Treasury team. He knows that that does not make sense, and the members who sit behind him know it even better. Over the recess, Alex Salmond made clear what his one priority is. It is not health, not education and not economic growth, but a referendum on independence— Members: Where were you? Johann Lamont: I will tell members where I was: I was listening—[Interruption.] You see, the difference is that when someone listens to people and understands what is happening in their lives, it informs their politics—not a project that they have been interested in for the past 40 years. It is not about talking to people, but about listening to their lived experience. The First Minister’s priority is just a referendum on independence. [Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer (John Scott): Can we have a little bit of calm, please? Johann Lamont: I know that that is the line that SNP members have been given and they have done very well at shouting it. Let us get on. Today was an opportunity for the First Minister to draw a line under that summer of woe and to show us that we could take him seriously as Scotland’s First Minister. He could have done that by bringing forward a legislative programme that met one crucial test: to put the interests of the people of Scotland before the Scottish National Party’s interests. With this unambitious, lacklustre and moribund programme, he has completely failed. This morning, Nicola Sturgeon described the programme as “radical”. I can think only that she has led a very sheltered life. I bow to no one in my interest in a bill on electronic signatures, and I am as interested in merging Historic Scotland as the next person, but nobody can pretend that such measures are “radical”. As the First Minister often reminds us, he won an unprecedented majority in May 2011, but he uses that power to put Scotland on pause. We no longer have a Government—we have a campaign. It is a campaign that will do anything not to rock the boat ahead of next year’s vote, despite the challenges that we face, as a country. As I have said, the First Minister made a series of speeches this summer. None of them spoke about the pressures on our health service and his plan to ensure that our care is not affected as a result of those. Indeed, listening to and reflecting on what the First Minister said in the passage in his statement on promoting fairness in the NHS and its safety programme, I was trying to work out whether he was totally insensitive, whether he was complacent or whether he actually lives in the real world at all. There was no mention of the concerns of staff and patients about hospital mortality rates—especially the concerns of the staff and patients in the constituency of his Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing. The First Minister waxes lyrical about his vision for Scotland, but he does not do the basic job of Government in addressing those problems. This week, teachers have warned us that pressure on school resources will impact on education standards—in particular for people from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, we know the Scottish Government’s solution; Mike Russell has told us that he cannot do a thing to improve our schools until after independence. The Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning (Michael Russell): I did not say that. Johann Lamont: We want the Government to address the concerns of people in the real world—I point out to Mike Russell that he went to the University of Glasgow and said in a press release that he could not do anything about schools until after independence. He ought not to deny that now. On care, when I exposed the scandal of 15-minute care visits, the minister who is responsible, Michael Matheson, told me that it was an “old chestnut”. Since then, care workers have spoken out about the pressures that they face in being told to task and go, and not to speak to elderly people who are isolated in their homes. It turns out that Michael Matheson is partly right about 15-minute visits; in some areas, the visits are down to seven minutes. That is a scandal and an affront to all of us, and it should be the business of Government to address it. Instead of telling us that everything is fantastic, it should use the powers that it has to make a difference. When are we going to face up to this challenge? Not any time soon, by the sounds of it. John Mason (Glasgow Shettleston) (SNP): Will Johann Lamont give way? Johann Lamont: I will take Mr Mason in a moment. On childcare, although we welcome the move to 600 hours, we would also welcome money for local authorities to deliver them—or we would welcome, at least, John Swinney outlining for us what our councils will have to cut from their budgets to pay for that promise. However, we know that that will not be enough to make a difference to families’ lives. How do we know that? The First Minister has told us that we will get a childcare revolution, but only after—you guessed it—independence. We have to address concerns right now. On the bedroom tax, which was dreamed up by the Tories—[Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order! Johann Lamont: Cue noises off. The depressing thing is that the SNP has not lifted a finger to help people. It would take only £50 million to protect the most vulnerable tenants in Scotland from that unfair and unjust tax, but again we must wait until after independence. We have offered to work with the Scottish Government on the matter, but it has rejected us. Today, Wonga has announced profits of £62.5 million. Where are the funds for a loan guarantee fund to stop people falling into the hands of the extortionate legal money lenders? Young people are looking for the skills and qualifications that are needed in a tough jobs market. Where is the plan for our colleges, which have been decimated by the Government over the past few years? For the young people who depend on it, it will ring very hollow that the First Minister believes that we have free education in Scotland. If a person does not have access to a place, there is not much at all that is free about education. Nicola Sturgeon said this morning that there is a programme for economic growth. I am sorry: the Government must do more than just say that for it to happen. A feature of the SNP Government is that it tells us that it is doing things, but it lives with a different world out there. There are unacceptable levels of unemployment, there is underemployment, people are stuck on low wages and there are zero-hours contracts. Where in the programme is the action to help people? What could the Government do now to make a difference to people’s lives, instead of spending all its energy, enthusiasm and commitment in persuading people to vote for independence? If its members were to remember that they are parliamentarians rather than nationalists, they might know where to start. Jenny Marra wants to produce measures to tackle the shame of human trafficking. Drew Smith is proposing an opt-out organ-donation system that could save many Scottish lives. Patricia Ferguson proposes to reform our fatal accident inquiry system to ensure that families are looked after when they lose a loved one. Iain Gray proposes to regulate our buses so that those who rely on public transport can get a bus when they need it. Richard Simpson is proposing a raft of measures to save lives by tackling Scotland’s unhealthy relationship with alcohol. Neil Findlay is taking steps to give people confidence in our politics again by reforming lobbying rules. Mark Griffin is proposing changes to help British Sign Language users. The First Minister, with Scotland’s devolved powers, has the ability to do so much more, but his Government turns the other way. He is always telling us what he cannot do, rather than what he can do. He talks positively about devolution but either does not understand it or does not want it. He wants to frame the debate as though the choice is between Scotland and the Tories. The First Minister denies that one of the great successes of devolution was when a Labour Government funded record levels of public services, which we were then allowed to deliver in our communities. He is a man who lacks even self-awareness. He tells us that Parliament listens to evidence and seeks consensus where possible. If only that were true. If it were true, his ludicrous, ill-thought-through and dangerous proposals for independence would have been flung out long ago. The First Minister says that his referendum will give the people of Scotland the chance to finish our home rule journey. He takes for himself—ironically—the successes of devolution, which were delivered by those who are committed to staying in the United Kingdom, not by those who want to leave it. The strange thing is that neither the First Minister nor the SNP were ever on that home rule journey. They would not sign the claim of right—I know because I was there. Alex Salmond stood outside the Scottish Constitutional Convention and had nothing to do with the Calman commission. I signed the claim of right; he absented himself from it. The truth is that Alex Salmond and the SNP refused to be part of the journey that set up the Parliament. They stood apart from the will of the Scottish people and those of us who fought for devolution. The irony is that those who are driven by a desire to take power closer to people through devolution are now witnessing a Scottish Government that pulls power to itself instead of empowering people. Why so timid on community empowerment? The SNP again stands apart from the will and ambitions of the Scottish people. If there was any doubt that the SNP does not believe in devolution and this Parliament, it is its legislative programme. There is nothing in it to address the real needs of the Scottish people, there is nothing progressive, there is nothing radical and there is no attempt to exploit the Parliament’s full powers. Why is that? It is because it is not in Alex Salmond’s interests to prove what the Parliament can currently do, or to show that our lives can be improved by devolution. We all know that week in, week out, minister after minister says, “Well, that’s a very interesting problem. We’ll solve it after independence.” They damn themselves with their own words. All Scotland knows that Alex Salmond will always put his own interests ahead of those of the people of Scotland. The First Minister puts his referendum ahead of Scotland’s needs. That is why the legislative programme is as thin as his case for separation. The First Minister has decided that Scotland must wait until after the referendum for any of our needs to be addressed. His back benchers must ask themselves whether they are parliamentarians or placemen and placewomen, because surely they can see that they are standing up for Salmond, rather than standing up for Scotland. The depressing fact is that Scotland is on pause while we wait for Alex Salmond’s referendum, and families across my constituency and across the country are having to wait for action until the referendum comes. That is a denial of the First Minister’s responsibilities. I remind him that this battle is Scotland versus Salmond, and Scotland is going to win. 15:46 Ruth Davidson (Glasgow) (Con): Perhaps we should not be surprised that in the same breath as the First Minster celebrates the success in tackling unemployment in Scotland, he claims that the UK Government’s approach, which is fundamental to delivering economic growth, is all wrong for Scotland. The UK delivers for Scotland, yet it chokes the First Minster to admit that we are moving in the right direction, thanks to the action of the coalition in Whitehall. Despite that, in the same breath he said that he would keep the economic underpinnings of the pound sterling and the Bank of England. It is with deep irony that a legislative programme has been presented that will mean that the parliamentary year will be marked not by the introduction of new laws to materially improve the lives of Scots, but by the Scottish Government’s obsession with the break-up of the United Kingdom and its white paper on independence, so this parliamentary session will be dominated by something that could not possibly be considered until more than a year from now. Clearly, I hope that it will never be considered. We await the white paper’s appearance with interest. Planning for the break-up of the most successful political, economic and social union that the world has ever seen will take some time, but from the evidence of the Government’s programme, there has been time for little else, and the governance of Scotland is all but on hold. For unionists like me, that is the great tragedy of the referendum campaign, because at a time when we should be getting on with the job that the vast majority of the people of Scotland want us to do—working together to make Scotland a better place—valuable Government time is being spent on planning for something that even large numbers of SNP voters reject. If we glance back at the SNP’s manifesto for the 2011 election, it shows us how many promises the party still has to honour. We should remember that we are talking about an Administration that has an overall majority that allows it to do anything that it wants with the powers at its disposal. What happened to the grandiose promises to help to create new retail banks and to support social banking? Nothing. What about the promise to create the UK’s most competitive business taxation system? It has resulted in a new retail tax that will instead burden Scottish businesses with a £95 million disadvantage. There was also a pledge to create a simple town centre regeneration fund. I am sorry, but that is still under generation. What about the promise to increase Scottish exports by 50 per cent in six years? The daddy of them all is the non-profit distributing scheme, which, it was promised, would in its first two years deliver up to £500 million of investment in building projects such as schools and hospitals, but which has so far produced only about £20 million of investment. From what I can see from the programme that has been presented today, there is no intention to make good on those pledges any time soon. Instead, we have two new bills about the governance of public bodies and four bills on technical changes to the administration of law. The proposed community empowerment and renewal bill makes great play of strengthening community voices, but will that mean that the Scottish Government will stop riding roughshod over communities when it comes to wind farm applications? Although the bill talks about streamlining community right to buy in the accompanying housing bill, that right is being taken away from individuals. In fact, in that housing bill we will see the abolition of the right to buy, which was the most empowering legislation passed in this country for a generation and which created a property-owning democracy. The First Minster talks about what is democratically right for this country, yet he seeks to deny its people the one thing that gave them real economic and social freedom. Thanks to the Conservative Party, thousands of people took control of their own lives, unshackled as they were from the whims of local authorities’ determination to control every aspect of their lives. Indeed, it is also thanks in large part to the Conservative Party that the proposed revenues Scotland and tax powers bill is necessary to establish a system for dealing with the new tax-raising powers that will come to the Scottish Parliament in 2015. That is in response to the Scotland Act 2012 and the biggest transfer of fiscal powers for 300 years, which has been enacted by a Conservative-led UK Government. It is thanks, too, to the Scottish Conservatives that we have those 1,000 police officers of which the First Minister spoke. It is also thanks to the Scottish Conservatives that the council tax freeze happened. We also called for action to improve the care for pre-school children and we are glad to see some recognition of the problems in that crucial phase of life in the continuing passage of the Children and Young People (Scotland) Bill. It is therefore to be regretted that amidst the rhetoric about a commitment to education there is nothing in the programme that directly addresses the continuing underachievement of the thousands of young people who are leaving the education system unable to read, write or count properly. It is a stain on this country, with its once proud reputation for educational excellence, that approximately a fifth of our young people leave school functionally illiterate. Apart from improving life chances and employability by putting in more effort to tackle illiteracy, it would make us better able to tackle the challenges that are faced by the police and justice system in dealing with offenders. Today, we have learned from the First Minister that the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill will now include the abolition of automatic early release for serious offenders. He rightly says that that practice no longer commands public respect. It is something about which the Scottish Conservatives have been ceaseless in our criticism. Unfortunately, despite promises not just in the First Minister’s 2011 manifesto but in his 2007 manifesto, the change will not extend to all offenders. Indeed, long-term sentences of over four years, which the First Minister talked about, accounted for just 3 per cent of sentences handed down last year. So, when 97 per cent of custodial sentences will be untouched by the change, it should be no surprise to the First Minister that we will continue to argue that the reduction of prison terms passed by our courts should in principle be a reward and not a right. As one welcome measure is introduced—albeit taking baby steps—a fundamental liberty could be at risk from another bill. It is the plan under the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill to abolish the safeguard of corroboration in criminal trials without a full review of the law of evidence—something that we believe is essential if the change is not to lead to miscarriages of justice in the future. The precious principle of innocent until guilt is proved must be protected, but there is a real risk that it will be sacrificed to secure more convictions, in particular for sex crimes. Of course, we all want all offenders to be caught and punished, but the price must not be the removal of liberty from the blameless. I urge the First Minister, if he will not listen to members of this Parliament, to listen to the Scottish legal profession. The Law Society of Scotland and the Faculty of Advocates have argued that the proposal will lead to miscarriages of justice without significant change in criminal procedure. Removal of corroboration from Scots law will potentially leave Scotland with one of the lowest levels of protection against wrongful conviction in the western world. So, we urge the Scottish Government not to introduce the change without undertaking a wider review of the law of evidence. The First Minister says in his programme’s foreword: “It is now time to extend the advantages of self-government”. I agree with that but, sadly, the programme is notable not for what it achieves but for what it does not achieve. It does little to extend the advantages that he has, because it is not in his interests to make devolution work as we believe it can. It is in his narrow self-interest to hold back this country, to limit its ambitions within the framework of the United Kingdom and to present a deliberately negative and uninspiring picture of Scotland. We do not recognise his view of a nation that is trodden on by its bigger neighbour, but we do see a thriving nation that is playing a crucial and enthusiastic role in the continued development of the fully integrated family of nations of these islands. The First Minister says that he is ambitious for Scotland but, sadly, this programme shows that that ambition is more for him than for his country. 15:55 Willie Rennie (Mid Scotland and Fife) (LD): With more than 50,000 incidents a year, domestic violence is far too prevalent in Scotland. Too many women and men suffer behind closed doors, and often in silence. On this first day of the new parliamentary term, we should signal our renewed determination to root out the problem. I would welcome new proposals from the Government on how we can do more to tackle domestic violence in our country, on education to help people to identify abusive relationships, on reviewing guidelines on prosecution for domestic violence, and on funding for the range of organisations and facilities that support people who find themselves in abusive relationships. I am pleased that the Scottish Parliament will be given an early opportunity to vote on equal marriage. It is a mark of a modern, open, tolerant and liberal society that those who wish to get married can do so. Churches will have the power and the right not to participate in such ceremonies. Individuals will also be protected if they do not wish to conduct such ceremonies, even if their church wants to. John Mason: Is Willie Rennie assured by the reassurances that have been given that ministers, clerics and even denominations will not be dragged through the courts because the European Court of Human Rights can make the ultimate decision? Willie Rennie: I am. The appropriate measures will be taken at Westminster to introduce changes to the Equality Act 2010, which will protect the individuals about whom John Mason talked. We need to ensure that Scotland joins the nations of the world that have equal marriage on the statute book, because it is a mark of the modern society that I want Scotland to become. I would like the Scottish Parliament to match what is happening on childcare in England. This week, thousands of two-year-olds in England will get the chance—the right—to have 15 hours of nursery education each week. The First Minister has denied Scottish children that, but he could change all that. He could concede that Professor James Heckman is right when he says that the best education investment takes place before the age of three. There is an opportunity to improve young people’s life chances through education. If the First Minister wanted to, he could include such a proposal in his legislative programme. In his statement, the First Minister spent much time on outlining new—and sometimes old—initiatives on community empowerment, which is close to my heart. I am sure that we will look carefully at the proposals that he makes, and that we will support measures to give communities more powers. However, the reality and the record are something different, after the centralisation of our police and fire services, which was one of the biggest transfers of power from local government to central Government since devolution—so much for community empowerment. Recent news has shown that the economy is on the mend and that we are moving towards recovery. This morning, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development gave a positive assessment of growth. Substantial progress has been made on the UK Government’s plan to cut the deficit, which has since 2010 reduced by a third as a percentage of gross domestic product. Significant progress has been made in the past year on job creation and reducing unemployment. Although the Scottish figures wobble from month to month, it is clear that we are benefiting from the 1 million new private sector jobs that have been created across the UK. The challenges that are faced by the hundreds of thousands of people in Scotland who are still out of work need to be met by our two Governments working together. I support much of what the Scottish Government does on growth and employment, but it is important that it and its agencies promote the UK schemes that are available in Scotland, too. For example, the UK Commission for Employment and Skills survey shows that there are fewer companies in Scotland with apprentices than there are in the rest of the UK. Scottish businesses will get £2,000 off their national insurance from next April because of the changes that the UK Government is making. I want ministers in both Governments to promote that so that small businesses think about using the savings to take on an apprentice or another employee. I also want to hear Scottish ministers telling Scottish companies about the £1 billion youth contract that provides businesses with up to £2,275 per person for a job, training or work experience, and about the funding-for-lending scheme and the business bank, which will provide billions of pounds of low-cost capital. There is also the UK enterprise capital fund, which is worth £200 million, and the annual investment allowance for plant and machinery, which is being increased from £25,000 to £250,000 for two years. The UK Green Investment Bank, which is based in Edinburgh, has £3.8 billion-worth of UK Government money to help to unblock the financing of renewables projects. It is my hope that the Scottish Government will work closely with the UK Government to maximise those opportunities for Scotland. The next 12 months will set the course of this country for the next 300 years and more. The power that is vested in the hands of the people who live in our great nation is immense. I am in no doubt that everyone in this chamber wants the best for Scotland; we just disagree on how we want to achieve it. My support for a strong Scottish Parliament with home rule in a strong partnership with the United Kingdom is on the record. The stakes are high and the risks are great, but the opportunity of a renewed constitutional settlement within the UK is within our grasp. 16:01 Alison Johnstone (Lothian) (Green): I thank the Government for advance sight of the First Minister’s statement, much of which concentrated on the referendum next year. It is quite right that both sides continue to make arguments to further their case and Greens will continue to argue for the principle of decentralisation: that decisions should be made as close as possible to those whom they affect. I hope that we can all make our arguments with the mutual respect that best facilitates the debate among us and among all those in Scotland outside the Parliament who will really decide. It is important, however, that we spend time making the best use of the powers that we already have. The way in which we develop the economy is extremely important, and I am pleased to hear the First Minister make the argument that looking after the health and wellbeing of Scotland’s people and creating an inclusive society in which the maximum number of people can participate is key to making Scotland flourish. When Professor Stiglitz spoke to the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee in February he emphasised the importance of using a dashboard of indicators to measure a society’s success. We must aim not to create growth in the economy purely for growth’s sake. People want high-quality, meaningful, secure and well-paid jobs with full employment rights; warm, secure homes with secure tenancies; first-class education and health services; and a clean environment in which to live—not an extra percentage point on GDP that benefits only a few. Scotland’s national performance framework gives us hope that we can lose the tunnel vision that GDP imposes and emphasise the things that make people’s lives better and more fulfilling. Measuring median household income is one practical change that we could easily make to help to ensure that our economic policy benefits more people. Government is expected to deliver across a wide spectrum of social, environmental and economic outcomes; public procurement accounts for £9 billion of spending a year and should be expected to do the same. We are constrained by European Union procurement rules, but we must not use that as an excuse for not making progress with the forthcoming procurement bill. It is our responsibility to make Scottish procurement work hard for Scottish society and for our environment and economy. It is very important that our small and microbusinesses are better able to access public procurement contracts and compete for work. Small, locally owned businesses create a resilient economy and they are more likely to hold on to and value staff and less likely to disappear off seeking the next big tax break or subsidy. Ministers might not get to stand in front of the latest new thing cutting the ribbon, but there is substantial evidence to support the wisdom of investing in smaller local-level infrastructure projects as the best way to help people to create jobs and to help the economy. I will be interested to look in more detail at today’s statement and at the impacts of the planned bills on women and children. We need to understand how a legislative programme or a policy change benefits different sections of society. We already know that the coalition Government is imposing a gendered austerity on Britain. The cuts affect men and women, but it is women who are chiefly being hit—hit through the loss of benefits, hit through the loss of public sector jobs and hit as they are expected to fill the gap left by underfunded care and community services. The Scottish Government published its own gender analysis of the UK cuts last week. I hope that that will be replicated for other areas of policy. A gender analysis of this year’s budget would be a welcome addition. Gender comes into play across almost all areas of society, including starkly in health and sport. Last month’s British Medical Journal reported that only 38 per cent of seven-year-old girls in Scotland engage in an hour’s worth of physical activity each day, compared with 63 per cent of boys. Significantly more men than women cycle, and only proper investment in safe junctions and segregated cycle lanes will convince more people that cycling will improve, not endanger, their health. The Government must increase spend on cycling and walking infrastructure or the target of 10 per cent of journeys to be made by bike by 2020 will remain a vague and unsupported vision. Many people in Scotland cannot afford to or do not want to have to rely on a private car. They want transport justice and they want investment in public transport to be increased to ensure that the Government does not continue to miss climate targets. The First Minister also talked of decentralisation and building strong local democracy. So far, the Government has failed to convince me and many others that it is really committed in this area. I find it deeply ironic that a Government that is campaigning for full independence has, in effect, removed local authorities’ ability to raise the revenue that they need to fund local services properly. We do not want a mini-Westminster here. Devolution must not stop here in Holyrood. The community empowerment and renewal bill should help clubs such as Musselburgh Windsor to take over the changing facilities that it needs. It should allow input from and engagement with those who want to contribute to improving and running local activities, to working with the NHS on hospital community gardens and to using vacant land for allotments, working alongside local authorities and others. However, we need to ensure that communities have sufficient capacity and support to make that a reality. Scottish Greens look forward to progress on equal marriage and on childcare, which is much needed. The proposed bills on welfare additions, food standards and housing are welcome, too. I do not have time to cover everything that I would like to, but I look forward to listening to the rest of the debate. The Deputy Presiding Officer: We move to the open debate. I call Mark McDonald, to be followed by James Kelly. Speeches should be six minutes or thereby, please. 16:07 Mark McDonald (Aberdeen Donside): This is my first speech in the Parliament since the Donside by-election. [Applause.] It is important that I begin by paying tribute to my predecessor, Brian Adam, who, as we all know, had tributes paid to him in the Parliament at the time of his passing. Brian was a great source of encouragement and inspiration for me during my time as an activist and then as a city councillor, when I worked closely with him. He was a man who always put the communities of his constituency at the forefront, and that is something that I aim to do in following in his footsteps. The Aberdeen Donside constituency is something of a microcosm for many of the issues that affect the wider Scotland. Its social dynamics, which members will have seen as they came to campaign, range from the affluent to the areas of poverty that still exist within what is regarded outside Aberdeen as a rich city. We still have what my colleague Kevin Stewart has oft described as poverty amidst plenty within the city of Aberdeen. I spent the summer going round my constituency and talking to various groups in the community about issues that affect them and, turning to the legislative programme that lies before us, I note that much in it will be of interest and benefit to the communities that I represent. It was interesting to note Johann Lamont claiming that Scotland is now on pause. I think that it is worth noting that Ms Lamont seemed to spend the entire summer on mute. The community empowerment and renewal bill will offer significant opportunities for community groups and organisations across Scotland. I echo some of what Alison Johnstone said about that. I hope that it will allow, for example, the development of community gardens and play facilities, and allow sports clubs to come together to develop facilities on land that is currently unused. Those are the kind of opportunities that we want to see being unlocked, because there often seems to be far too much bureaucratic process lying in the way of that happening. I hope that legislation can be introduced that will allow such groups to take control of resources within their communities and operate them for the benefit of people in their communities. One of the other interesting and very welcome elements of the legislative programme is the airgun licensing. I encountered that issue during my time in Aberdeen as a parliamentary researcher and latterly as a councillor. It was being pushed very hard by Norman Collie, a Labour councillor at that time, in relation to a potential City of Aberdeen byelaw to deal with the issue. I was delighted to receive Norman Collie’s backing and endorsement during the course of the Donside by-election campaign and I am sure that he would be equally delighted to learn of the progress that is being made on airgun licensing in this Parliament. It is a demonstration of this Parliament taking action in Scotland to deal with priorities that have been identified within Scotland. I noticed George Osborne’s visit to my constituency today. He trotted out the claim that we do not need to look at taking control of oil in Scotland because it is already benefiting Scotland, apparently. If he took the time while visiting my constituency to go and knock the doors in areas such as Middlefield and Cummings Park, he would encounter many individuals who are feeling the sharp end of his welfare reform and austerity agenda. What we need to do is less of the taking away of the benefits from people and more to ensure that those who are in work— Ruth Davidson: Will the member take an intervention? Mark McDonald: No, no, no. We need to do more to ensure that those who are in work and who rely on in-work benefits because of poor pay are lifted out of that depressing cycle. That is a way to reduce the benefit bill and improve the lot of people. It would be far better if we saw George Osborne acting on that, rather than coming to preach to Scotland. That is why the legislative underpinning of the welfare fund is welcome—albeit depressing, because it highlights the idea that pervades the unionist parties that the function of the chamber should be to mitigate bad decisions taken at Westminster using only the small array of tools at our disposal. If that lack of self-belief and vision is so inherent in the no campaign, it is little wonder that its supporters cannot lift their eyes to the horizon and look at the future that Scotland could see and could realise, were the chamber possessed of the full powers of independence to take decisions on behalf of the people who elect us. Jackie Baillie (Dumbarton) (Lab): Will the member take an intervention? Mark McDonald: Very briefly. Jackie Baillie: I thank the member for taking an intervention. The Scottish welfare fund has of course been devolved to Scotland by the UK Government. How can the member explain the fact that the Scottish Government cannot seem to spend it? Mark McDonald: In an interesting twist of fate, the Scottish welfare fund is also being administered via Scotland’s local authorities. I am sure that the member will welcome that, given that she is so concerned about giving powers to local authorities. Perhaps if the member gets on the blower to her local Labour council and gets it to do more to promote the welfare fund, she might find that it would start to spend some of that money on the people who need it the most. The eyes of the world will be on us over the next 12 months as we shape up for the independence referendum. We stand ready to join the family of nations as a full member, but again we find self-belief and vision so lacking as Alistair Darling claims that Scotland would struggle on the world stage and would not have the reputation of the UK in international affairs. I am not entirely sure that that is necessarily a bad thing, but it is worth pausing to look at nations around us. If we look at the pivotal role played by Norway during the course of the Middle East peace process and at the exemplary record of Ireland when it comes to contributions to United Nations peacekeeping missions, we see that being a big country waving its guns around and swaggering on the world stage does not necessarily make that country a key contributor to world affairs. All too often, the UK’s reputation is that of one who hides behind the playground bully and occasionally peeks out to say “Yeah” in support. That is not the reputation that I want for Scotland on the international stage. We can do better; we will do better. 16:14 James Kelly (Rutherglen) (Lab): You would think that ministers, in considering the programme for Government, might have taken some time over the recess to exit their offices to look at what is actually happening in the country. If they had done so, they would have seen the cost-of-living crisis due to the 6.4 per cent real-terms drop in wages that workers are having to suffer, the 25 per cent drop in the number of homes built, resulting in a housing crisis with a potential shortfall of 160,000 homes in 2035, and the scandal of zero-hours contracts whereby workers are being exploited. Mark McDonald: Will the member give way? James Kelly: Let me make some progress. None of those issues is addressed in the programme for Government. The SNP Government and its back benchers have become a team of one-trick ponies, the record stuck on continually playing the tune of independence. The procurement bill—legislation that is being introduced—does not exactly inspire confidence. As Alison Johnstone quite rightly said, we need to look at how the £9 billion that is spent on public procurement could be spent advantageously for local economies. However, we can hardly be inspired with confidence when we see that Sir Peter Housden is being required to appear before the Public Audit Committee tomorrow to explain £500 million of unreported cost—£0.5 billion is hardly an amount of money that might be lost down the back of the settee. How can we have confidence in procurement when there is no control and transparency in key transport projects? Mark McDonald: Will the member give way? James Kelly: I will give way to Mark McDonald, who is no doubt fresh from the Haudagain roundabout. He probably had to leave last Tuesday to reach the Parliament today. Mark McDonald: I thank the member for giving way. He mentioned zero-hours contracts, pay and conditions and expenditure on housing. Can he remind us where, in relation to this Parliament, decisions on employment and capital spending are taken? James Kelly: On the issue of what this Parliament is responsible for, the member might want to look at the Borders rail project and some of the examples of zero-hours contracts there. That is a Scottish Government responsibility. In the procurement bill, the Scottish Government should be looking at addressing some of those issues. How can we introduce a living wage to some of the contracts that are being handed out by the Scottish Government? How can we tackle the issue of blacklisting—something that SNP MSPs were silent on before the recess? It is an absolute scandal that trade unionists should be penalised for their activities by being blacklisted. We should be examining that issue closely. We should also look seriously at how we can support apprenticeships and training programmes not only to help businesses, but to support young people and the economy. Labour will examine those issues in the procurement bill. There is a complete absence from the programme of anything to do with buses, which are a big issue in local communities. We know why that is. The SNP Government has cut the reimbursement rates for concessionary travel, so routes are being cut—bus operators in my constituency have told me that. That means that pensioners and people in local communities are being left stranded without bus services. SNP members’ attitude to that is to shut their eyes and to pretend that it is not happening. Some of the proposals in Iain Gray’s proposed bus regulation (Scotland) bill would help to tackle those issues. The tragedy is that the SNP’s obsession with independence has undermined our ability as a Parliament to deal with the issues that affect hundreds of thousands of Scots. While we were mired in a housing crisis, the Parliament was taking time to debate the 10-year anniversary of the Iraq war. While thousands of food parcels are handed out in communities every week, the First Minister and his Government have armies of civil servants looking at the independence referendum. While pensioners are stranded as a result of bus routes being axed, the Government rushes out yet another consultation. To sum up, the SNP Government is too busy talking to itself instead of standing up for Scotland. This is not the time for a time out. The Scottish Government needs a plan of action now that addresses the anxieties and problems of Scotland’s communities in 2013. 16:20 Christina McKelvie (Hamilton, Larkhall and Stonehouse) (SNP): As we look on, virtually helpless, we see Iain Duncan Smith and his coalition colleagues damning the most vulnerable to a future of hopelessness and financial misery. While the bankers and Tory donors are bought off with tax dispensations and bonuses, the poor, the sick and the struggling must be made to pay for that. In the post-war years, with the national health service and family allowance coming on stream, there was a belief that Government was beginning to turn around the great divide between rich and poor and north and south. Now, we should look at what has happened in the space of just a few months. Not only has any sort of movement towards equality and a real diminution of child poverty—an issue that the Scottish Parliament has made good efforts to tackle since its instigation—been arrested but the tide has been reversed. It can hardly come as a surprise to the UK Government’s leaders that women and families are disproportionately affected by that Government’s benefit reform programme. Patrick Harvie (Glasgow) (Green): I agree with much of what the member says, but the change has not been over a few months; instead, it has been decades since the post-war consensus was thrown out. Arguments such as those for tax competition have been a big part of the reason why we have moved away from the trend towards equality. Should not Scotland reject such arguments rather than attempt a new generation of the same thing? Christina McKelvie: Patrick Harvie makes a relevant point, but the points that I will go on to outline are about the changes in the past few months. I take on board completely what the member says about the past decades, but the changes that I will talk about have happened in the past few months. Last week, a National Children’s Bureau report showed that up to 1.5 million more children are growing up in poor households now than in 1973. That is UK progress for us. We have the freeze on child benefit; the benefit cap; the reduction in the proportion of childcare costs that are covered by working tax credit; the increase in the taper rate for all tax credits; the removal of the baby element of child tax credits; the requirement for lone parents on income support with a youngest child aged five to move to jobseekers allowance; and the abolition of the health in pregnancy grant. That is all before the assault of the bedroom tax on families who have the audacity to give their two children separate rooms or, for those with disabilities, space for special equipment. Those are all attacks on equality for women in our society. As the Deputy First Minister, Nicola Sturgeon, said last week, the Scottish Government is doing all that it can to mitigate the problem using the resources and powers that are available to it. So we have the tale of two Governments and the choice of two futures. We are at a crossroads for our nation. One choice is an SNP Government that is providing an extra £9.2 million towards the new £33 million Scottish welfare fund. That fund has already helped more than 20,000 people and it has the capacity to support about 200,000 people. We should all be promoting that fund with our local authorities. I commend the fact that the welfare fund is being put on a statutory footing. However, our powers are limited. Only with a yes vote can Scotland’s Government set about creating a fair, caring and compassionate welfare system that does not punish those who are sick, poor or vulnerable. Our approach will, I believe, be positive, constructive and supportive, rather than one that implies blame or that labels people as benefit scroungers. Everyone will be working for and will be supported by the Scottish common weal. As colleagues in the Parliament are aware, I have a close and very personal interest in the lives of those who suffer from motor neurone disease. On average, victims of MND live for 14 months from diagnosis. Those sufferers, having been assaulted in 2008 by the work capability assessment, now have to be put through the mill of Department for Work and Pensions welfare benefits assessments, questionnaires and appeals as well as the worry that they might not be able to support themselves financially through such a traumatic time. It seems downright malevolent to force a terminally ill person to go through that, and that is to say nothing of the waste of taxpayers’ money. People with MND do not get better; they get worse and they die, but the Westminster Government believes that, unless someone is likely to die within six months, they are not terminally ill and they might well be considered fit for work—as many MND sufferers have been told—and have their benefits withdrawn. Then there is the bedroom tax. They lose their jobs because they are no longer physically capable of work. They need special adaptations to cope at home. They need kit like a wheelchair or breathing equipment to keep them safe overnight and it all takes up a lot of space in their bedrooms. Not surprisingly, their carers—who are probably their spouses—have to give up their work to look after them and need a second room to catch up on the much-needed sleep that they require to care for the person through the day. For that privilege, the family is expected to pay £12 a week. Lord Freud—members know him: he was employed by the Tories on the other side of the chamber and continued in employment by the Tories on this side of the chamber—said in a letter to me this week that the options that people have “in some cases could include taking in a lodger, finding work or increasing their hours of work.” How disgustingly out of touch he is. Not only that, he directly contradicted his Prime Minister. It does not take a rocket scientist to work out that child poverty and discrimination against the most vulnerable and poorest in our society increase the gap between rich and poor. The no parties need to ask themselves whether they really want to back policies that are designed to militate against the most needy and to reward the wealthiest. With independence comes the responsibility and freedom for Scotland to make its own choices and to introduce policies that do not condemn to social exclusion those who are already struggling. At the last count, we were talking about 80,000 of Scotland’s most vulnerable families. The UK is the fourth most unequal country in the developed world. An independent Scotland would be the fourth most equal, resting alongside other small independent nations such as Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Finland. What does the no campaign have to offer? It offers a continuation of the increasing divergences between the rich, who get richer, and the poor, who get poorer. We have a choice of two futures. I say choose independence and choose a fairer Scotland. 16:26 Ken Macintosh (Eastwood) (Lab): Dare I say that it is good to be back? The summer recess is often our only opportunity to pause, take stock and come back with fresh ideas—although I admit that I ended up with a little more time than I expected. There is much in the Government’s programme that my Labour colleagues and I welcome. Although the Children and Young People (Scotland) Bill could go further, it will, we hope, make a difference to the provision of care for three and four-year-olds. The Public Bodies (Joint Working) (Scotland) Bill will bring to the fore once again the discussion about how we deliver social care. The proposed community empowerment and renewal bill could provide an opportunity to involve local communities in their own decision making. However, that does not feel like the sort of legislative programme that will tackle the major problems that face Scotland—the economy, the cost of living and inequality—or create the sort of modern Scotland that many, if not most, members wish to see. The countdown clocks in SNP headquarters may be clicking over the 380 days to next September, but the legislative programme suggests that many have forgotten that there are still 1,000 days left in government. That is 1,000 days to modernise our education system, to get young people off the dole and into work and to rebuild confidence in our besieged college sector. It is 1,000 days to change the way in which business is conducted in Scotland, to support small businesses and not multinationals, to protect workers from zero-hours contracts and to introduce a strategic plan to create a living wage programme. It is 1,000 days to implement radical land reform the likes of which we saw in the early days of the Parliament, to promote community ownership, to encourage new co-operative and collaborative ways of delivering the rail system and to protect bus users with robust regulation. I admit to having a little laugh at my career trajectory from Government supporter to shadow minister to Opposition back bencher. However, I suggest to SNP colleagues who may believe that they are enjoying the political good times that one is never more conscious of the opportunity to make a difference than when that opportunity is taken away. By that, I simply mean that they should make the most of their time in Government. They should not put all their political eggs in the basket of independence and be disappointed when they break. There is much that we can do right here and right now to help the people of Scotland. Mr Brown, the Minister for Transport and Veterans, is currently presiding over the allocation of the Scottish rail passenger franchise. At more than £2.5 billion pounds, it is one of the biggest contracts that the Scottish Government handles, and I know that I am not alone in believing that we could get better value and a better service for that money. We can agree across this chamber that it is neither fair nor right that a Dutch or German Government-owned firm can bid for the franchise but that a Scottish Government-owned firm cannot. However, where we seem to part company is that l believe that we can do more than just rail—pardon the pun—against the iniquities of rail privatisation and an unsympathetic Tory Government; I believe that we can do something about it. The power to award the franchise lies with this Government here in Scotland and this Parliament here in Holyrood. In the next few weeks, the Co-operative Party and others, including the Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen—ASLEF—intend to publish a document highlighting the many benefits that would flow to the Scottish public, rail passengers and our industry and transport infrastructure if only we were to pursue a more collaborative and co-operative approach to the running of this public service. I ask only that Mr Brown, his ministerial colleagues and the many SNP MSPs who I believe will be sympathetic look at the document with a view to shaping the way in which they award the new passenger franchise. It is a decision that is likely to be in place for the next 10 years. Once taken, it is unlikely that the referendum—whatever way the vote goes—will affect it, so why not start shaping the new Scotland right now? Jamie Hepburn (Cumbernauld and Kilsyth) (SNP): I have not read the document but it sounds like I might be sympathetic to that argument. However, does Mr Macintosh agree that, although the awarding of the franchise is devolved, the terms of the franchise are hugely encumbered by the fact that they are set by Westminster at this moment in time? Ken Macintosh: Mr Hepburn emphasises the very point that I am trying to make. Why does the SNP always look at things that it cannot do rather than things that it can do? It can shape the franchise and it can promote social enterprise, community benefit and worker co-operation. All of those things are within its power. It could run a not-for-profit company in relation to the franchise, if it had the political will. We have the political will, and we would join the SNP in supporting that. Tomorrow evening I hope to join John Wilson and others in the SNP and across the chamber in welcoming and debating Oxfam’s report on the economy. Scotland often prides itself on being a more progressive country than the rest of the UK—more altruistic and less selfish in our politics and our voting intentions. Today, I am conscious that David McLetchie would describe that claim as a moot point, but it is an issue that I would like the Government to pursue and explore. Why can we not set an example in pursuing a more ethical economy? If we believe that it is morally right for people and companies to pay their taxes in order to pay for the schools and hospitals that we all need, is there not more that the Scottish Government could do to support that culture of social responsibility? The minister knows how strongly I and my colleagues feel about our handing over millions of pounds to companies such as Amazon. However, rather than excuse or explain how we ended up subsidising that immensely profitable multinational, can we not introduce a set of criteria that favours local small businesses? Government procurement is not the most radical reforming agenda but, as Alison Johnstone and James Kelly have already pointed out, it could provide an opportunity for the Government to make a statement about the economic values that it holds dear. Why not use it to promote not just small Scottish businesses but good working practices, union recognition or the living wage? People do not want to have dead-end or exploitative jobs and they do not want zero-hours contracts. This Government and this Parliament could do something about that right now. I was going to make a point about education, but I will move to my conclusion. I worry that, today, we are debating the platform of a Government with only one objective—independence—and that, in the meantime, Scotland is on hold. If this Government could see beyond the referendum, it would see that the issues that are on people’s minds are to do with their jobs and livelihoods and the education and future prospects of their children, not constitutional change. We did not need independence to deliver the smoking ban, to rebuild all our schools or to introduce free personal care and the free bus pass for the elderly. We do not need it to oppose privatisation of the NHS. We did all of those things through devolution, and it is through devolution—through the powers and the political will of this Parliament—that we can build the new, progressive Scotland. 16:34 Bruce Crawford (Stirling) (SNP): I am very pleased to have been asked to contribute to this important debate on the Government’s programme. Those members who have had ministerial experience will know that the content of a Government’s programme is the culmination of months of hard work. Behind the scenes, many dedicated and committed individuals—whether they be ministers, special advisers or civil servants—have been working away hard. On the document itself, I know from experience that the minister responsible will be feeling some relief that it is finally printed and at the back of the chamber. They, the First Minister and other ministers should also take some satisfaction from still delivering so effectively on behalf of the Scottish people after more than eight years in government. The Government continues to demonstrate that it is an experienced team that works together on behalf of the people of Scotland and always puts Scotland first. It has a record to be proud of and is still driving forward positively to improve the quality of life of our citizens. Most important of all, it has a vision for the future that is about hope, aspiration and taking Scotland forward—a future in which the people of Scotland will gain from having responsibility for the political and economic direction that the nation takes. With just over a year to go until the referendum, this debate is not only an opportunity to consider some of the Government’s significant proposals in the programme—in particular, I welcome the announcements on the housing bill, the community empowerment and renewal bill and the courts reform bill—it is also a chance for us to have a quick look back at the gains that the Parliament has brought to the people of Scotland since the advent of devolution. Those gains would simply never have been achievable if decisions in those areas had been left to Westminster. I pay tribute to the former Labour and Liberal coalition of the first eight years of devolution, which, as we have already heard other members suggest, ushered in leading legislation on land reform and ensured free care for the elderly in Scotland, for instance. Similar tribute can be paid to the Parliament and an SNP Government that swept away tuition fees, scrapped prescription charges and kept its promises to deliver an extra 1,000 police officers. None of those gains would have been possible had the reins of responsibility remained at Westminster. There are many more demonstrations of how Scotland is making more appropriate choices for its future as a result of responsibility resting here in Edinburgh. Perhaps the most notable relates to Scotland’s national health service, which the First Minister alluded to. Scotland’s national health service is what it says on the tin; it is not the fragmented organisation south of the border that is in danger of meltdown as a result of Westminster’s flawed policy choices. On health matters, I am also pleased to see the mental health and adults with incapacity bill in the programme. That bill is important to protect vulnerable people. I am not making these comments to applaud the actions of any one party or any one organisation in the Parliament; I do so for this institution—this place called “Holyrood”. I do so for the Parliament of Scotland. Over the years, the direction that Parliament has set for Scotland has served only to deepen my belief about who the best people are to make the decisions about our future. By that, I mean the people who happen to live and work in Scotland. They self-evidently have more invested in Scotland’s future and are therefore much more likely to make the appropriate decisions and better choices. The creation of the Parliament has demonstrated beyond doubt that Scotland has gained through having more responsibility in her own hands. The revenue Scotland and tax powers bill is a historic but small first step, as the First Minister described it. However, it is now time to put responsibility for the full range of powers in the hands of the people I mentioned. It is time to give the people of Scotland the opportunity to create new gains and make better choices through setting their own direction, and to give them the opportunity, for instance, to decide for themselves, if they so choose, to say no to a new generation of weapons of mass destruction based on the Clyde. It is time to give Scotland the opportunity to gain hugely from not having to take part in what is no more than a vanity project that is unjustifiable using moral, environmental, strategic or economic arguments. Unfortunately, however, all unionist parties are now committed to throwing untold billions of pounds at a new generation of nuclear weapons based in Scotland. As the First Minister said earlier, last year the UK Government announced £350 million more of spending on the next stage of Trident renewal. That sum is barely one third of one per cent of the £100 billion of the total lifetime cost of replacing Trident. I cannot understand for the life of me why we are having this argument and why Scotland cannot make its own decision. We have a Government in Westminster committed not only to spending all that money on Trident but to bringing in the bedroom tax and welfare cuts, which are creating much misery in so many of our homes. The one undeniable fact is that most people and Scottish parliamentarians are opposed to those abhorrent weapons. Irrespective of that, it is Westminster that will decide whether to commit billions of pounds on a project that is not worth the pennies that are spent on it. The evidence is clear for everyone to see: the only democratic means by which we can halt the madness of siting a new generation of nuclear weapons only a few miles from our largest city, Glasgow, is independence. I hope and I pray that, when we get to September next year, Scotland will deliver that. 16:41 Gavin Brown (Lothian) (Con): There have been times when members could have been forgiven for not realising that we were debating the Scottish Government’s legislative programme for 2013-14, although occasionally they may have realised that that was the case. Most members on the SNP benches do not want to talk about the Government’s legislative programme. We listened carefully to the bills that were outlined in minute detail during the First Minister’ statement. We on this side of the chamber will happily support some of the bills, we will want to examine and amend some of them and I am sure that we will ultimately reject others. However, the totality of the programme on offer is relatively thin for a Government with an in-built majority that could make fundamental reforms to a whole range of systems. Let us focus on some of the details that we have heard about. One of today’s big announcements was about automatic early release. That was a case of classic Scottish Government speak. It ignored the fact that the Conservative Party had formal plans to reverse automatic early release, it blamed the former UK Government and the previous Liberal-Labour Scottish Executive for not reversing it, but it conveniently ignored the fact that, for six years in power, it failed to reverse the policy. We had a statement of fine principle: “We have now all accepted the need to end the system of automatic early release ... It does not command public confidence.” However, moments later, it was made clear that it will be ended only for some people. We welcome any reversal of automatic early release. Jamie Hepburn: For the benefit of the record, will Gavin Brown remind us who introduced automatic early release? Gavin Brown: That has been put on the record a number of times. I have just mentioned it, but I will say it again. It was introduced in 1993 by the Conservative Government, which, in 1997, sought to reverse it. The reality is that, despite that fine statement of principle, the Scottish Government is only reversing automatic early release for a minority of offenders. The Government needs to explain what percentage of offenders will be dealt with under the proposal and why, if there is such a strong principle—a principle with which we agree—it will apply only to such a small number of offenders. We heard from the First Minister about the courts reform bill. That is another bill that we will examine in detail. Lord Gill’s initial report was a weighty one. An element of that bill—the Cabinet Secretary for Justice may want to respond to this—is that it gives far more work to sheriff courts. We are giving the sheriff courts more work to do tomorrow, but the slight problem is that we shut many sheriff courts yesterday. Perhaps the justice minister will explain how we can give sheriff courts far more work while shutting them at the same time. The First Minister said, in relation to the UK Government, that some people see the price of policies and not their value. That applies equally to the Scottish Government’s decision to close down numerous sheriff courts across the country. We heard the usual hyperbole. The Scottish Government is creating a quango by the name of revenue Scotland—indeed, it already exists—which will be responsible for the collection of the landfill tax and the land and buildings transaction tax. The Scottish Government says that establishing revenue Scotland is “an historic step”. If setting up a tax quango to pick up two taxes—in fact, it is not even collecting the taxes but overseeing their collection, which is a minor detail—is an historic step, I do not want to see something that is not an historic step. Perhaps the Government or any SNP member can explain what is happening with the procurement reform bill. We welcomed the proposal when it was announced in 2011 and when it was re-announced in 2012, but I heard nothing about the bill from the Government today, and when I checked this morning it had not been introduced. The bill seems to have been delayed, rather like most of the Scottish Government’s procurement projects, which is ironic. During the past few years, we have heard numerous bits of new language to describe the consequences of the recession. A zombie debtor is an indebted consumer who is able to pay only the debt interest each month. A zombie company is one that does the bare minimum that is needed if it is to exist as a company. We now have, with the SNP, a zombie Government—a Government that is so focused on the referendum campaign that it does the bare minimum that is needed to exist as a Government. That is what we heard from the Government today. 16:47 Aileen McLeod (South Scotland) (SNP): I am delighted to speak in support of the Government’s programme. Today marks the beginning of a parliamentary year that will take us to within touching distance of the biggest decision that Scotland will take in 300 years. In next September’s referendum, people in Scotland will be asked to choose between two futures. One is the status quo, whereby the power to determine Scotland’s future will be retained in Westminster and exercised by a Government that Scotland’s voters did not elect and which imposes on Scotland economic and social policies that our people do not support and that harm the weakest and most vulnerable in our society. The bedroom tax, which many members mentioned, is just one example of the unfair and unjust measures that a Westminster Government has imposed on Scotland. The alternative future, which I believe the people in Scotland will support, is one in which our people are governed from a Scottish Parliament that they elected and which represents their interests. It is a Parliament that since 1999 has demonstrated its ability to deliver policies that reflect the values of Scottish society, as Bruce Crawford said in his excellent speech. It is a Parliament whose policies underline what has been, to date, a shared commitment to protecting the weak and vulnerable in our society and to creating a dynamic economy that can generate jobs and prosperity for our people. It is a Parliament that adheres to the principle of universality in delivering essential public services that reflect the strong moral and ethical underpinning of our collective approach to the government of Scotland. Today’s programme for government embodies and reflects those objectives and values. Although we are debating the Government’s programme for the future, it is appropriate to reflect on what this Parliament has achieved with the limited powers that are at its disposal. For example, we introduced the ban on smoking in public places, we retained universal benefits in the form of free personal and nursing care for the elderly, benefiting more than 77,000 older people, we introduced free eye examinations for all and we abolished prescription charges. In doing all that, this Parliament has delivered a national health service for the people in Scotland that remains free at the point of need and that has not begun—and I hope never will begin—a process that many people think will mean that the NHS south of the border is increasingly driven by the dictates of the marketplace and not patients’ needs or the decisions that are made in general practitioners’ consulting rooms or hospital wards. It is clear from those examples that people in Scotland benefit the most when decisions about Scotland are taken in Scotland. The programme for government set out today by the First Minister will build on the achievements so far—and nowhere more than in relation to our public health. This parliamentary year will see the passage of the Public Bodies (Joint Working) (Scotland) Bill to permit the integration of health and social care services, which will improve greatly the health and wellbeing of our people and which, along with the prioritisation of preventative spending, demonstrates this Government’s commitment to adhere to the principles set out by the Christie commission in its report on the future of public service delivery. That agenda will be taken forward under the programme for government through legislation to improve the operation and efficiency of mental health legislation for service users and practitioners—the mental health and adults with incapacity bill—which I welcome greatly and which will help to protect our vulnerable, and through provision to establish Scotland’s own food safety and standards body called food standards Scotland, which will help us to address the significant food-related health challenges that Scotland faces, with consumer protection being paramount. I am also particularly pleased that, unlike the Westminster Government, the Scottish Government will continue to move forward with its plans to introduce plain packaging for cigarettes and other tobacco products. I firmly believe that to be one of the most important public health measures that can be taken in this country. It is a matter of some regret that the UK Government has decided not to proceed with legislation on that. Our nation’s health and wellbeing is one of the most important matters for which this Parliament has legislative responsibility. I believe that it is one in which the Parliament has had a genuinely impressive track record throughout the period since 1999. The measures outlined by the First Minister in the programme for government will build on that track record and demonstrate that this Government and this Parliament can continue to deliver for the people in Scotland. It remains the case that if this Parliament is to build fully on those successes and be in a position to tackle all the underlying causes of our public health problems, not least the considerable inequality in income that has come to characterise this country under successive Westminster Governments, this Parliament must have access to the full range of economic and social policy powers. That is what independence is all about. It is not about empowering the SNP or this Government; rather, it is about empowering this Parliament to take the decisions and make the policies that are right for the people in Scotland. It is about putting the people first and ensuring that the politicians for whom they vote have the powers that they need to deliver the policies that they want and to create the type of Scotland in which they want to live. I welcome the Scottish Government’s programme and am looking forward to 18 September next year, when we will have the opportunity as a nation to take control of our own destiny and to begin to build a Scotland that reflects our values, our aspirations and our principles. The Deputy Presiding Officer (Elaine Smith): I remind members that there is a little bit of time in hand if they wish to take interventions. 16:53 Jenny Marra (North East Scotland) (Lab): Last week, The Courier in Dundee reported a 37 per cent rise in shoplifting in our city—people shoplifting food to survive. Meanwhile, food banks in our cities are inundated with hungry people driven to desperation and to bear the indignity of asking for food to feed their families. Last week, the Trussell Trust, which, sadly, has become familiar to all of us through its food bank operation, reported that the use of food banks has gone up by 120 per cent in my city and by 400 per cent across Scotland. Rising domestic energy prices, constantly rising food prices and a freeze in wages have made it difficult for some and impossible for others—even those in work—to survive. We all know that for those out of work things are more difficult. Our young people are still struggling desperately to find work. The number of 18 to 24-year-olds claiming jobseekers allowance in Scotland has gone up by 78 per cent in the past year. The First Minister said this afternoon that our Parliament has demonstrated concern for the most vulnerable people in our society. I contend that this legislative programme does not match that assertion. He listed previous Administrations’ achievements as the hallmark of the Parliament’s success and then presented us with a thin and uninspiring legislative programme that is supposed to match his bold assertions for our country. It falls woefully short. It does nothing to address the problems that families going through the doors of food banks this afternoon are facing, and it does nothing to address the scandalous waste of young people who are out of work. Under my new brief, I will shadow the Bankruptcy and Debt Advice (Scotland) Bill. I sincerely hope that the minister, Fergus Ewing, will produce a bill that will help, and not penalise, the financially marginalised in our communities. Less than a year ago in the Justice Committee, I asked John Swinney, the finance secretary, to justify his new fees for bankruptcy. He doubled the bankruptcy fees for people with low incomes and low assets from £100 to £200 despite warnings from Labour and from Citizens Advice Scotland that those people would turn to payday lenders to find their bankruptcy fees. Maybe the finance secretary did not get the acronym and did not realise that LILA stood for low income, low assets. I really hope that the Bankruptcy and Debt Advice (Scotland) Bill will be a bit more progressive. There is absolutely nothing in the programme for government on the scandal of payday loans in our communities. Perhaps that is not surprising, as Fergus Ewing’s views on payday loans are clear. Over the summer, my colleague Kezia Dugdale has been doing a power of work with my Labour colleagues, including Anne McTaggart, in campaigning hard on the issue. However, in a letter to Kezia Dugdale, the minister called payday loans “legal, fair and transparent”. I will give him the fact that they are legal, but debt is devolved into his hands and he holds the cards on it: are they fair and transparent? I imagine that Anne McTaggart would tell me that the people to whom she has spoken in her community have not told her that payday loans are fair and transparent. Patrick Harvie: That is an issue on which, once again, we should all be able to find some common ground. However, those who are on the no side of the independence debate must acknowledge that, with responsibility for debt but no power to regulate credit, we are in a bind. What is the solution to the problem if we do not have the ability to regulate the provision of credit? Jenny Marra: Patrick Harvie brings me neatly on to my next point, which is on Labour’s asks. Johann Lamont kindly gave us some ideas for how the Scottish Government could fill out its legislative programme. Labour has three key asks on this topic. The first is that the Government use the planning system to say no to payday loan shops in our communities. The second—[Interruption.] If members will let me give the ideas— Bob Doris (Glasgow) (SNP): They are back-door solutions. The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order, please. Jenny Marra: The second ask is that the Scottish Government set up a loan guarantee fund to help credit unions to offer an alternative, and the third ask is that the Government run a public awareness campaign on the dangers of those loans. Bob Doris calls those ideas back-door solutions, but I call them using the powers that are vested in this Parliament to make a difference to people in our communities now. Margo MacDonald (Lothian) (Ind): Will the member give way? Jenny Marra: No, thank you. Johann Lamont gave the First Minister a list of initiatives that Labour would take to make a difference to people’s lives now. Iain Gray’s bus bill is desperately needed in the communities that I represent, as is Labour’s living wage bill and Richard Simpson’s nutrition bill, which would prevent ill health before it starts. My bill on human trafficking is designed to use the powers of the Parliament to make Scotland a no-go destination for traffickers. So much can be done with the powers that we have in this building, and they are not back-door solutions—they are powerful solutions. World-leading experts on trafficking have said that the proposals in our consultation are some of the most radical and progressive in the world, but they are achievable with the powers vested in this Parliament. This summer, the British Government adopted a private member’s bill at Westminster that was very similar to Labour’s proposals and committed to driving it through the House of Commons. I am surprised that the Scottish Government is not taking the same approach, given that other devolved Administrations within the UK are taking the initiative on human trafficking. The Scottish Government is rapidly falling behind on modern-day slavery in our communities. I had hoped that we would see a bill today, but perhaps the Cabinet Secretary for Justice will think again and change his mind. 17:00 Jamie Hepburn (Cumbernauld and Kilsyth) (SNP): I welcome today’s debate and the Government’s programme that has been laid before us. I also welcome the First Minister’s statement that set out that programme. I thought that it was interesting to hear Johann Lamont suggest that it is not in the First Minister’s interests to state what the Parliament can do. I presume that she was not listening to the First Minister because his statement was entirely imbued with the achievements of the Parliament. Perhaps her rhetoric does not match the reality. I will focus on a couple of the bills that have been specifically mentioned today. As a member of the Finance Committee, I undertook scrutiny of the Land and Buildings Transaction Tax (Scotland) Bill and the Landfill Tax (Scotland) Bill, which formed the first legislation on taxation that the Parliament has ever considered. I therefore welcome the proposed new revenue Scotland and tax powers bill, which will establish revenue Scotland as the tax authority that is responsible for Scotland’s devolved taxes from 1 April 2015. That is an important first step in taking on greater responsibility for setting and collecting taxes in Scotland. It is entirely unclear to me why Gavin Brown does not think that that is the case—and now that we know that he is not interested in the issue of revenue Scotland, I look forward to him disengaging from any thorough and rigorous assessment of the proposed bill when it comes before the Finance Committee. Gavin Brown: I will take a very keen interest in the bill, but I thought that describing the setting up of a quango as a historic moment was slight overkill. Jamie Hepburn: It is all about different opinions, is it not, Mr Brown? The fact that this is the first time that the Scottish Parliament has had the chance to enact legislation on taxation could be described as historic. That is my perspective on the matter. We know that the proposed bill will include provisions for resolving tax disputes quickly and efficiently, thus providing the public with confidence in the taxes that we are establishing. Crucially, the bill will include provisions on tax avoidance. Too often we see people trying to avoid paying the taxes that they should pay, so it is important that it is set out in legislation how we avoid that scenario. In the same way as Mr Brown, I look forward to scrutinising the proposed legislation at the Finance Committee. The Scottish Government is also using the powers of the Parliament for the proposed Scottish welfare fund bill. As the deputy convener of the Welfare Reform Committee, I have a clear interest in that proposed legislation. We know that the Scottish Government has already taken measures to support mitigation of the welfare reforms. Working with COSLA, the Scottish Government has plugged Westminster’s £40 million cut to the council tax benefit budget for this year. Ruth Davidson: This summer, I read that the First Minister was backing a benefit cap. The point had quotation marks around it and it was in the Sunday Post. Will the member tell us when the Government will bring in a benefit cap, how much it will be and for which Scots it will be implemented? Jamie Hepburn: That was an interesting intervention when I was talking about council tax benefit. The point that I was going to make is that 560,000 people in Scotland will not be impacted by the cut from the Westminster Government, which Ms Davidson supports. Professor Steve Fothergill from Sheffield Hallam University told the Welfare Reform Committee that people in Scotland are comparatively better off as a consequence of that move. We have also seen around £8 million being set aside to support advice agencies, and we have had assurances of the continuity of the payment of passported benefits. Those are important measures that will protect people in Scotland. The Scottish welfare fund will be another important part of the Scottish Government’s work to use the powers of this Parliament to mitigate the effects of welfare reform and to plug the gap caused by the cuts imposed by the UK Government. Christina McKelvie made the point that 20,000 people have already been assisted and that we have the capacity to assist around 200,000 people. It is extraordinary to hear the Labour Party criticising the proposed new fund. I would have thought that the Labour Party would get behind the fund and support it, but instead we hear criticism of the Scottish Government establishing a Scottish welfare fund. Jackie Baillie: Will the member take an intervention? Jamie Hepburn: I will let you in in a minute, Ms Baillie. It is particularly peculiar when we see that research by the Children’s Society found that funding for local welfare schemes in England has been cut in real terms by £150 million compared with equivalent funding in 2010, which is not a scenario that we have here in Scotland. Jackie Baillie: Does the member not recognise that it is one thing to have a fund but that if you sit on the money and do not distribute it to those in most need, that is, frankly, extraordinary? [Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order. Jamie Hepburn: I do not see that as a real characterisation of what is happening on the ground. Iain Gray (East Lothian) (Lab): Will the member take an intervention? Jamie Hepburn: I will let you in in a minute, Mr Gray, if you will let me answer Ms Baillie first. I will come to you in a minute, Mr Gray. The Deputy Presiding Officer: Through the chair, please. Jamie Hepburn: I beg your pardon, Presiding Officer. I will come to Mr Gray in a minute. We know that the welfare fund is a new fund that has just been established, but people are becoming more aware of it. It would be better for the Labour Party to get behind the fund instead of criticising it. Iain Gray: Mr Hepburn must remember that we sit together on the Welfare Reform Committee. In that committee, Labour members said the Government’s guidelines for the welfare fund would mean that not enough of the money would get out to the people who need it. In the Western Isles, 90 per cent less has been spent than was spent in the same period last year. We are behind the fund, but what we said is right: it needs to be sorted. Jamie Hepburn: I remind Mr Gray that he is not actually on the Welfare Reform Committee any more, because he has resigned from it. [Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order, please. Jamie Hepburn: I also make the point that this is a new fund and that its funds have to be spent over the entirety of the year, so we will look and see what the position is at the end of the year. We will put the welfare fund on a statutory footing, and I look forward to scrutinising that over the coming period. However, as much as I welcome the measures to mitigate the effects of the welfare reforms, I think that we can surely aspire to do more. When we see £2 billion per annum cut from benefit payments, with a disproportionate impact on women and on families with children, and a bedroom tax hitting tens of thousands of households that was introduced by a Government that people in Scotland did not vote for, surely we can aspire to do more than just mitigation. A letter from Mark Hoban MP, the Minister of State for Employment at Westminster, to Glasgow City Council contains the UK Government’s apparent explanation for the increased reliance on food banks. I quote directly from the letter: “The increased emphasis on reducing food waste may well be one of the drivers for the growth in the number of foodbanks and similar initiatives and, consequently, the increased use by companies.” That is through-the-looking-glass stuff. Why are we allowing those people to determine Scotland’s welfare system for us? I welcome what is being done for mitigation, but I think that we can aspire to do more. That is why I welcome part of the on-going Scottish Government work programme in the form of the Scottish Independence Referendum Bill, through which we will have the chance to put power back into the hands of the Scottish people, complete the powers of this Parliament, do more than just mitigate, and create a better society. 17:07 Sandra White (Glasgow Kelvin) (SNP): I have listened very carefully to all the contributions and speeches, but I am still trying to get my head round some of the Opposition’s contributions, if they can be called that. I must say that I take great umbrage at some of the comments that were made. I intended to start my comments in a very positive manner and I will go on to do that. However, I just want to say to the Opposition, particularly Mr Macintosh, that as an SNP back bencher I did not join the SNP for a career as an MSP. I joined because I thought that the best thing for the people of my country was an independent Scotland. I take great umbrage at what Mr Macintosh said about that. I also wonder where the Opposition members, particularly the Labour members, have been during the summer months. Like many other members, I was out in my constituency talking to people. I know what the people in the Kelvin constituency are thinking and what they want. They want a Government that listens to them, not a Government that talks them down and talks down to them. I put that in as my contribution just now. James Kelly: When the member was going round the Kelvin constituency, did she come across anybody on housing waiting lists, which are getting longer and are failing to be tackled due to the Government’s lack of strategy and its cuts in the housing budget? Sandra White: I am glad that Mr Kelly raised that particular issue. I certainly did come across many people on a housing waiting list. I also came across some very caring and concerned housing associations that cannot place people because of the bedroom tax and the problems coming from Westminster. That seems to be okay for an Opposition party, while the people of Scotland have to do as they are told. That is why I take great umbrage at the Opposition. I will make more positive contributions than Opposition members have. I thank the First Minister for his announcements today. He set out a programme for government that was made in the Scottish Parliament for the Scottish people. I give a positive welcome for the fact that the Scottish Government is still delivering 1,000 extra police officers. We must remember that police numbers in Scotland are unlike those in England and Wales, where police numbers and salaries are falling catastrophically—that is all because of the Winsor report. We must remember that we do not have that problem in Scotland. I thought that the police figures would be welcomed across the chamber. The Scottish people want a Government and a Parliament that work together for them and welcome positive outcomes, and they want a Parliament that can hold the Government to account when that is required. I do not see a problem with welcoming that. As a back bencher, I uphold that approach and I welcome positive contributions from any member. There is much to be welcomed in today’s statement, such as the community empowerment and renewal bill, which is great. The licensing bill, the housing bill, the ending of automatic early release and many more initiatives are all to be welcomed. It is high time that the Opposition parties put aside their opposition for opposition’s sake and worked with the Government to deliver what is best for Scotland and its communities. Although it is not the only factor, the increase in police numbers has undoubtedly contributed to the lowest level of recorded crime for 37 years. We should all be proud of that. I hope that Opposition members would have the maturity to acknowledge that the legislative programme will go further to reduce crime and make our communities much safer. Only last week, the Glasgow Evening Times ran an excellent article on crime in Glasgow. The headlines were staggering. Since 2007, the youth crime rate has almost halved and the number of knife assaults has fallen by 40 per cent—by the way, Glasgow City Council’s Labour leader has welcomed that. The reduction has been credited in part to the Scottish Government’s cashback for communities programme, which £50 million has been put into. We should be proud of that, too. I thank all the people and organisations who have been involved in that not only for making their communities safer but—this is important—for empowering people in those communities to realise their potential. We should look towards that. I have long championed the community empowerment and renewal bill. I echo Alison Johnstone’s comments; the bill has fantastic potential and I will follow its progress with great interest. Like Mark McDonald, I welcome the licensing bill and in particular a new licensing system for airguns. It is a pity that Johann Lamont, the Labour Party leader, did not even have the decency to mention that important bill. I also welcome the inclusion in the licensing bill of a provision to give communities the power to regulate adult entertainment. Some members might recall that I previously tried to introduce a similar provision but, unfortunately, Opposition parties did not support it and voted it down. Perhaps they will support the legislation this time. That is all that I will say on that. Margo MacDonald: Will the member give way? Sandra White: I am sorry, Margo—I do not have time. The Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill, which is working its way through Parliament, puts victims at the heart of the justice system. I look forward to scrutinising it at further stages. As I have said, there are many things to be proud of. We have heard from everyone about what the Parliament can do with the powers that it has and about the successes that it has achieved so far. We have heard from some members about successes that can be achieved in the future, which can only be a good thing. However, I am keenly aware of the areas of our lives that we have no control over and about which decisions are being taken at Westminster by a Government that is neither representative of nor interested in Scotland’s needs. It might come as a wee bit of a surprise to some Opposition members to realise that the Scottish people out there on the doorsteps are also aware of that. The decisions at Westminster are causing further inequality and further hardships for ordinary working folk and they are pushing thousands into poverty. Westminster legislation is doing that—that is the reality of our not having the full powers of a normal Parliament. I hope and believe that most of us in the Parliament want a fairer and more equal society. The debate serves as a reminder that to achieve that—we probably differ on this point—there is only one way forward, which is for all the decisions that affect Scotland and the people of Scotland to be taken here in Scotland. The only way to achieve that is through a yes vote next September. The Deputy Presiding Officer: I remind members to speak through the chair and to use full names when referring to other members. 17:15 Malcolm Chisholm (Edinburgh Northern and Leith) (Lab): I find this rather a difficult speech to make: I had thought that I would be able to say something about a wide range of bills, but I find that there is not a great deal to say. I think that Alex Salmond, the First Minister, found exactly the same difficulty in his speech, because in 14 years I have never heard a legislative programme speech by a First Minister that devoted so little time to the bills. I am sure that somebody will go away and analyse all 15 of those speeches, but I would be prepared to guess—and even to put on a bet—that his speech today had the lowest proportion of any of those speeches of time spent actually dealing with the bills themselves. Of course, the reason for that is absolutely simple: it was a speech about the referendum and a legislative programme about the referendum, from a Government that has transformed itself into a campaign. The programme has been driven by two principles. First, do not rock the boat—if you want to win as many votes as possible in the referendum, you clearly want to annoy as few people as possible in the next 12 months. Secondly, the whole underlying theme of the First Minister’s speech was an attempt to demonstrate what Scotland cannot do rather than what it can. It certainly was not one of Nicola Sturgeon’s finer moments when she said on the radio this morning that the programme was radical and that it was a programme for economic growth. Being a fair-minded person, I will comment briefly on some bills that are interesting and potentially good. I think that everyone who has spoken has mentioned as a first choice the community empowerment and renewal bill, so let us hope that we can make something radical of that. I am not sure whether it is radical in its current form. We debated the consultation paper in Parliament one year ago this month, and people can look up the issues that were raised then. The proposed bill builds, belatedly, on our own historic community right to buy. I hope that that will be extended to urban areas and will become meaningful, because at the moment councils often say that they cannot take an interest in a community group that wants land because that would be against European state aid rules. That issue must be confronted head on. I also rather like the revenue Scotland and tax powers bill, but I gently remind the Administration that it springs directly from the Scotland Act 2012. It is important to me because I want to build on the fiscal powers that we already have to create enhanced devolution, so I think that that is a significant bill. The housing bill is interesting and I have no objection to the abolition of the right to buy. However, if the First Minister really thinks that that will make housing available to all, as he seemed to suggest, I must tell him that the bill is really marginal in that regard. It is investment in new housing that is crucial. Finally, of course I welcome the mental health and adults with incapacity amendment bill, which springs from the McManus review of four years ago and builds on our own historic Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003, which is another jewel in the crown of devolution. Near the beginning of his speech, the First Minister emphasised how the Scottish Parliament had demonstrated concern for the most vulnerable in society, although I do not think that free personal care is necessarily the best example of that. The question for us today is: what have we got for the most vulnerable in society in this programme? Where is the serious drive against health inequalities? Where is the action on payday loans or the living wage? What about legislation on human trafficking? We should thank Jenny Marra for filling that gap with her bill. Where are the further measures against the continuing scourge of domestic abuse, which, for understandable reasons, is very much to the forefront of the Parliament’s and the public’s mind today? We all know what we think in Parliament about one particular individual, but let us not forget the progress that has been made and the further action that is required. There is a courts reform bill that will come before the Parliament, to address other issues to do with the Court of Session and so on, but we all saw the story in The Herald last week about the way in which the great domestic abuse court in Glasgow is now running into difficulties, so let us address that problem. Although I welcome the setting up of a domestic abuse court in Edinburgh, I was discussing with Alison Johnstone a moment ago the fact that that court serves only sections of Edinburgh and not the whole of Edinburgh. Why do not we address those issues, which relate to the protection of victims of domestic abuse? We also need to look at some of the provisions in the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill. Scottish Women’s Aid has put in a long submission that highlights concerns about some of the effects of that legislation on victims. As well as taking action on the member who should not be a member of this Parliament, let us drive forward at the same time and build on the great work that we have done on the issue over the past 14 years. Finally, where is there anything about the bedroom tax, except rhetoric against laws from London? It is the classic example—the best example of all—that emphasises what we cannot do and forgets what we can do. Mark McDonald: Surely Malcolm Chisholm will recognise that, alongside the bedroom tax, there are a range of other welfare reforms that are impacting on his constituents and mine. The simple fact is that, within the fixed budget of the Scottish Government, to select the bedroom tax above other parts of the welfare reform agenda would lead to pressure to move resources to other elements of welfare reform. Would it not be better if we took those decisions here, in this chamber, rather than picking and choosing which welfare reforms we mitigate and which we do not? Malcolm Chisholm: That was a very nice try to deflect us from the issue of the bedroom tax, but the simple fact of the matter is that it is the Scottish Government and the SNP who relentlessly use the bedroom tax as, I would say, almost the number one piece of ammunition against the UK Government. They forget what they could do, as a Scottish Government, to mitigate the effects of that tax. Fortunately, Labour has not forgotten, as Iain Gray made clear yesterday, and I hope that we will hear more about that in due course. 17:21 Rob Gibson (Caithness, Sutherland and Ross) (SNP): I welcome the programme for government, which tackles vital and urgent matters. I remind members that a number of other bills are already in train that do the same. I am glad to serve on the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee, which is considering one of the bills that can bring about major changes in Scotland—one that can allow us to have the powers that we do not have at present. I will concentrate on the questions that affect rural Scotland, which will face the same choice as the rest of the nation next September. With a no vote, we face a future where we are without the powers to transform Scotland, where we will be unable to represent our vital farming, fishing and food interests in Europe, and where the needs of Scotland are seldom the UK Government’s priority. My committee—the Rural Affairs, Climate Change and Environment Committee—heard the UK Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs rub that in when we heard from him last June. With a yes vote, however, we will have the normal powers and responsibilities of an independent nation and a seat at the top table to defend our rural interests. Rural Scotland will welcome the programme for government. With the food standards (Scotland) bill, we, unlike Westminster, will ensure that the vital functions of the Food Standards Agency remain together to ensure that its primary function is consumer protection. Given the horse meat scare, it is all the more important to protect the reputation of Scotland’s booming food and drink industry. The community empowerment and renewal bill can increase participation in decision taking and in the design and delivery of services in local areas; it can also enable public assets to be taken over for local uses through the community right to buy. I have believed in that for many years, and I believe that it can be achieved by this Government. Underpinning that, in a tax, financial and fiscal sense, are the revenue Scotland and tax powers bill and the tax management bill, which create the possibility of a distinctive structure and framework that will apply to all devolved taxes but also, potentially, to more taxes when Scotland demands them—and with independence, it will certainly demand many more. I will give an example of why that is needed. Land reform needs those tax powers and a lot more. Before devolution, the House of Lords in the Westminster Parliament could block the abolition of the feudal system. People recognised that then. Since 1999, Holyrood has abolished the feudal system, codified access laws and reformed crofting and some aspects of tenant farming, but not as much as we would like. This summer, James Hunter and others pointed out in a briefing paper for the House of Commons Scottish Affairs Committee something that highlights the most concentrated pattern of land ownership in Europe: 432 people own half the private land in Scotland. The briefing says: “Adept at maximising flows of public money to their estates, landowners have been equally skilled at minimising the flow of cash in the other direction—helped greatly in this regard by successive”— I would add Westminster— “Governments’ toleration of a series of arrangements intended to reduce greatly, or even eliminate, effective taxation of landed wealth. Those arrangements include: • The various inheritance and capital gains tax reliefs and allowances available to landowners; • The vesting of ownership in companies, foundations and other entities whose beneficiaries are obscured and concealed; • The registration of such entities in offshore tax havens such as Grand Cayman, the British Virgin Islands, Panama and Guernsey;” Those are all reserved matters. We cannot effect radical land reform until we have the powers to do so, and there is no chance in 100 years that Tory, Liberal or Labour Governments—and certainly not if the UK Independence Party is in any future coalitions—will make such a move. The briefing goes on to say—and justify this— “Although there is beginning to be anger in some quarters about such largesse (much of it directed at people of great wealth) at a time of unprecedented stringency in other areas of public spending, those arrangements have attracted surprisingly little scrutiny” in Westminster “and accordingly merit investigation by” the Scottish Affairs Committee. Iain Gray: Like Rob Gibson, I am no great supporter of tax havens. That is why I was a bit puzzled to see, early in the summer, his First Minister making a speech that seemed to imply that Scotland should be a tax haven like Guernsey and the Channel Islands. Rob Gibson: That is very much a diversion from the facts that we face in this legislative programme. Labour, in April, promised radical land reform, but not one piece of flesh has been put on the bones of that promise, either since then or today. Even the Lib Dems are set to discuss land reform at their autumn conference. No doubt they will summon up the Gladstonian spirit and promise more half-measures. The Scottish Affairs Committee can investigate anything it likes, but only independence can deliver the gains of land reform to the Scottish economy, the environment and society. This year’s work by the Scottish Government in the land reform review group, which is part of the programme for government, will lay the proposals for taking those radical steps next year. During this session, the Scottish Government will tackle issues of concern in rural Scotland—I have outlined some of them. Devolution has to be a step along the way, as we have seen. However, in relation to all the issues in the programme for government that I have outlined, we need the full powers of independence to ensure a fairer and more successful Scotland. We need to make sure that we get better than devolution because devolution is a limited offer that is not up to Scotland’s needs. The Deputy Presiding Officer: I call Margo MacDonald, who has a very generous six minutes, to be followed by Kenny MacAskill. 17:28 Margo MacDonald (Lothian) (Ind): Six minutes! Thank you so much, Presiding Officer. Where will I start? First, let me put a few people right on a few things. Johann Lamont should remember that it was not because Labour got gubbed and had to find a way of coming back to some prominence and some usefulness in Scotland that we started with devolution. Some of us have wanted devolution and then transfer of power to Scotland for 40 years. Along the way, we have managed to join in and help with the UCS campaign, the housing campaigns and any number of other campaigns that I could mention. I have the battle scars from those campaigns too, because for me they are indivisible from the means that we are trying to find to best govern ourselves. We have to look at the totality. There must be an awful lot of members in the chamber with fairies living at the bottom of their garden if they thought that they could get through this year and completely separate the Government’s programme from the principle that we have to decide. That is why I would not have done it the way that Alex Salmond did it—I told him that a while ago, but we are where we are. The Government’s programme looks thin in places, but it shows potential in other places. Folk such as those on the front benches, who have come up with some pretty good ideas during today’s debate, could use that potential to ensure that those ideas get into the legislative programme. The Government should be magnanimous enough to say, “That’s a good idea.” I thought that the no campaign figured far too large in much of what has been said by members on the other side of the chamber. From what I have heard, some members just seem to parrot what Scotland could not do. They say that we need broad shoulders so that we can make the same mistakes as have been made by London—no, we could do that with shoulders like sauce bottles. James Kelly complained about civil servants working for the Scottish Government to produce ideas for the white paper. What does he say about half of Whitehall being tied up finding things for the other side? Before I come on to what I wanted to talk about, I want to say how much I agreed with the Tories on the issue of corroboration. I think that we need to hold on to the requirement for corroboration, which is one of the jewels of the Scottish system. Perhaps we should also consider whether, instead of “guilty” or “not guilty”, the verdict should be “proved” or “not proved”. That would also take care of the third verdict. My colleague Alison Johnstone, who talked about the lack of attention to physical activity in the Government’s programme, spoke the truth. She, too, could do a great deal, because she has loads of good ideas on how to get communities involved in promoting physical activity. I make no apologies for saying that the white paper will be the most important paper ever to come before this Parliament. Therefore, I think that we are entitled to look at it in a somewhat different light. For that reason, the Government must understand that, although white papers usually signal a Government’s intention as regards implementing its policies, this white paper must be better than that. The white paper will need to hold out the various options that the Scots might choose in several different policy areas. For example, the First Minister has said—I have often heard him say it—that we will be a monarchy, but I think, “Mebbes aye and mebbes no.” That is a decision that should be taken by the Scots individually. What sort of head of state do they want? Do they want a monarchy? Do they want the monarchy that they have got? Do they want a president? Do they want a senate? Do they want to choose someone from the senate? Do they want a head of state at all? Those are options—all of them legitimate—and I think that the white paper should encompass them. I have talked about the monarchy, so let me now talk about the difficult things. We will need to control our borders. We will need to determine who comes into and out of Scotland, and we should be quite blunt about that. We are very stupid if we say otherwise, because south of our border there is going to be a huge debate about how population is controlled. Any country has the right to say who comes to live within its boundaries, how many people should be able to come in any one year and so on. We can do that without being racist and without being exclusive. We should be honest about it, but everyone is beginning to duck out in case they are labelled extremist and racist. Those are a couple of the things that we might look at and consider how they should be presented in the white paper. The white paper should be not merely about the Government’s position. The Government can say which option it prefers or advises, but it should also say what the choices are. People have been asking for information—that is what folk on the other side of the chamber do not seem to realise. A look at any opinion poll shows that the majority of folk are saying, “I do not know enough about this.” Well, the way to find out about it is to look at the normal business of government and to hold that up against the options for change that are being suggested. The Labour Party says that it is suggesting options for change, too. Labour should not be a stick in the mud about it: let us see them and let us hear them. Labour could roll out a white paper as well. The Labour Party is supposed to want maximalist devolution—fine, let us see that in a paper. I am not in any way afraid of that, because I think that the Scots will realise that, if they vote no, on the day after that, the whole place will realise what a wound it has inflicted on the body of Scotland. They will not do that. We have come too far for us to stall or turn back. That is why I think that, at the end of the day, the Scots will vote yes. They will be full of doubts and complaints and there will be terrific jokes against ourselves, because that is us, but I think that we will vote to move on, because if we vote to stick in the same place, we will be a laughing stock. In the Parliament in London, they will say that we are all mouth and no kilts. Those of us who lived through the 1979 referendum can visualise that. That referendum had a much smaller goal, but people realised what they had done to themselves in the time immediately following it. It took us a wee while to lift up politics in Scotland—that did not happen until the UCS came along and that sort of heart came back into Scotland. We cannot afford to do that. Right now, extra revenue is available to any Scottish treasury and we should use that money productively. I do not care that people say that we could not possibly have enough money coming in to fund the things that we want. Who is kidding who? Why are they trying to hold on to us? The Deputy Presiding Officer: Could you conclude, please? Margo MacDonald: Oh yes—I was just noticing the time, Presiding Officer. I ask the Government to take on board what I have said about the breadth of the white paper. 17:36 The Cabinet Secretary for Justice (Kenny MacAskill): The Scottish Government is committed to helping to create a fairer and safer Scotland for all our people. We will continue our distinctive and highly effective approach to justice, which is focused on doing the right thing for the people of Scotland and putting their interests and, as members have mentioned, values first. That approach has, for example, led to our policy of ensuring that we have 1,000 extra police officers keeping our communities safe—a matter that was again confirmed today. That policy is bearing fruit and the results are clear. As the First Minister mentioned, recorded crime is at a 39-year low. Further, knife crime is down by 60 per cent since we took office in 2007 and violent crime is down by one fifth in the past year alone and by nearly half since we came to office. All that is in a climate in which Westminster budget cuts continue to create massive financial challenges across the justice sector, as is the case in every sector. However, we are focused on continuing to make Scotland’s communities safer, which is why we have today announced the end of automatic early release for dangerous prisoners. Automatic early release was introduced by the then UK Conservative Government in 1993. It remained unaltered throughout the period of devolved Labour and Liberal Democrat coalition Government, and this SNP Administration will end it. We are taking action to make Scotland safer. Gavin Brown: The cabinet secretary used the expression “dangerous prisoners”. Can he give the Parliament absolute clarity on to whom the measure will apply? So that we have clarity, will he say exactly which criminals and what length of sentences will be involved? Kenny MacAskill: We are making it clear that the measure will apply to dangerous prisoners who would cause harm, which obviously includes those who perpetrate violent offences. Clearly, the period is 10 years, which would encapsulate offences such as culpable homicide and other serious matters. As a matter of interest, given some of the points that Mr Brown made earlier, I do not know whether he knows that 10 years is the period that was introduced south of the border under the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012. Chris Grayling has effected that and set that date. We are targeting serious, dangerous offenders who would cause harm in our communities. It is essential that we ensure that we have the power to keep them in for the period that is necessary for their sentences and allow them to be released only if the body that is charged with looking after the interests of the public—namely, the Parole Board for Scotland—is satisfied. Gavin Brown: What about serious, dangerous criminals who would do us harm and are sentenced for shorter periods? Kenny MacAskill: As the First Minister kindly helped me out by saying, the proposal also relates to those who commit a sexual offence because we realise the consequences of such offences. For them, the tariff is set at four years. Given that Mr Brown and his colleagues have been calling for the abolition of automatic early release, I hope that they will now welcome the action that the Government is taking. We will address automatic early release for dangerous offenders, such as violent offenders who are sentenced to 10 years or more and sexual offenders who are sentenced to four years or more in prison. The Parole Board for Scotland will be empowered to consider risks to the public for those prisoners. If a prisoner poses an unacceptable risk to the public, that prisoner will stay in prison and serve their entire sentence. We will introduce amendments to our Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill. If they are approved by Parliament—I hope they will be approved unanimously—that will provide the protection that the public seek and to which they are entitled. Parliament is already considering important reforms through the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill, including corroborated evidence no longer routinely being required. The Lord Justice Clerk has said that quality, not quantity, of evidence is necessary. We are clear that strong cases—cases that could be taken forward under other countries’ systems—should not be denied a hearing under our system because of the requirement for corroboration. Christine Grahame (Midlothian South, Tweeddale and Lauderdale) (SNP): As the cabinet secretary is aware, I have huge concerns about the abolition of corroboration. I maintain that position and ask him to consider the position of many of us in the Parliament—perhaps even among SNP members—with regard to considering corroboration in the context of reviewing the position on the not proven, proven and guilty verdicts, rather than taking it on its own. Kenny MacAskill: We have taken on board the understandable concerns that some people have, which is why we are increasing the majority that is necessary for a guilty verdict and why we are taking on board views that we received when we asked for safeguards for the recommendations given by our most senior judges. However, the reform is also about providing a voice for those who have suffered in silence—often vulnerable men, women and children who have experienced abuse behind closed doors, where there are no eyewitnesses. In addition to the existing bills, three new justice bills will be introduced in the year ahead. That builds upon what we are already doing in the Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill, as Ms Grahame will know. Our courts reform bill will take forward the recommendations of Scotland’s most senior judge, Lord Gill, who was appointed by my predecessors to make recommendations to help to improve the public’s access to justice and to provide a court system fit for the 21st century. The damages bill and licensing bill will also improve matters in those areas and provide necessary changes. We will also have a conclusion of contracts bill, which will be a candidate for the new parliamentary procedures. Those bills will make Scotland safer and stronger. We have delivered record police numbers and a 39-year low in recorded crime. We are now ending what the public have regarded as an injustice for far too long: automatic early release. The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The debate on the Scottish Government’s programme for government 2013-14 will continue tomorrow afternoon. Business Motions back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is consideration of business motion S4M-07528, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on behalf of the Parliamentary Bureau, setting out a stage 1 timetable for the Marriage and Civil Partnership (Scotland) Bill. Motion moved, That the Parliament agrees that consideration of the Marriage and Civil Partnership (Scotland) Bill at stage 1 be completed by 6 December 2013.—[Joe FitzPatrick.] Motion agreed to. The Presiding Officer: The next item of business is consideration of business motion S4M-07529, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on behalf of the Parliamentary Bureau, setting out a stage 2 timetable for the Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill. Motion moved, That the Parliament agrees that consideration of the Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill at stage 2 be completed by 22 November 2013.—[Joe FitzPatrick.] Motion agreed to. back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is consideration of three Parliamentary Bureau motions. I ask Joe FitzPatrick to move motion S4M-07530, on committee membership; motion S4M-07568, on substitution on committees; and motion S4M-07531, on the office of the clerk. Motions moved, That the Parliament agrees that— Hanzala Malik be appointed to replace Rhoda Grant as a member of the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee; Jayne Baxter be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as a member of the Education and Culture Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Mary Fee as a member of the Equal Opportunities Committee; Rhoda Grant be appointed to replace Drew Smith as a member of the Health and Sport Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Mary Fee be appointed to replace Elaine Murray as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Elaine Murray be appointed to replace Jenny Marra as a member of the Justice Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as a member of the Justice Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; Hugh Henry be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Lewis Macdonald be appointed to replace Patricia Ferguson as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Drew Smith be appointed to replace James Kelly as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Margaret McDougall be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Standards, Procedures and Public Appointments Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Hanzala Malik as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; and Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Welfare Reform Committee. That the Parliament agrees that— Kezia Dugdale be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Education and Culture Committee; Patricia Ferguson be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the European and External Relations Committee; Jackie Baillie be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Equal Opportunities Committee; Iain Gray be appointed to replace Mary Fee as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Finance Committee; Malcolm Chisholm be appointed to replace Jayne Baxter as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Health and Sport Committee; James Kelly be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Graeme Pearson be appointed to replace Margaret McDougall as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Justice Committee; Sarah Boyack be appointed to replace Richard Simpson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Neil Bibby as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Audit Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Petitions Committee; and Mary Fee be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee. That the Parliament agrees that, between 5 January 2014 and 31 January 2015, the Office of the Clerk will be open on all days except: Saturdays and Sundays, 18 and 21 April 2014, 5 May 2014, 23 May and 26 May 2014, St Andrew’s Day (28 November 2014), 24 December (pm), 25 and 26 December 2014 and 1 and 2 January 2015.—[Joe FitzPatrick.] The Presiding Officer: The questions on the motions will be put at decision time. Decision Time The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): There are four questions to be put as a result of today’s business. The first question is, that motion S4M-07499, in the name of Ruth Davidson, a motion of condolence, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament expresses its deep regret and sadness at the death of David McLetchie CBE MSP; offers its sympathy and condolences to David’s family and friends; recognises the high regard in which he was held by so many colleagues; appreciates his significant contribution to civic life through his legal career, and acknowledges his distinguished record of service, both in this Parliament and to his constituents in the Lothians. The Presiding Officer: The next question is, that motion S4M-07530, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on committee membership, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament agrees that— Hanzala Malik be appointed to replace Rhoda Grant as a member of the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee; Jayne Baxter be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as a member of the Education and Culture Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Mary Fee as a member of the Equal Opportunities Committee; Rhoda Grant be appointed to replace Drew Smith as a member of the Health and Sport Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Mary Fee be appointed to replace Elaine Murray as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Elaine Murray be appointed to replace Jenny Marra as a member of the Justice Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as a member of the Justice Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; Hugh Henry be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Lewis Macdonald be appointed to replace Patricia Ferguson as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Drew Smith be appointed to replace James Kelly as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Margaret McDougall be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Standards, Procedures and Public Appointments Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Hanzala Malik as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; and Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Welfare Reform Committee. The Presiding Officer: The next question is, that motion S4M-07568, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on substitution on committees, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament agrees that— Kezia Dugdale be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Education and Culture Committee; Patricia Ferguson be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the European and External Relations Committee; Jackie Baillie be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Equal Opportunities Committee; Iain Gray be appointed to replace Mary Fee as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Finance Committee; Malcolm Chisholm be appointed to replace Jayne Baxter as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Health and Sport Committee; James Kelly be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Graeme Pearson be appointed to replace Margaret McDougall as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Justice Committee; Sarah Boyack be appointed to replace Richard Simpson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Neil Bibby as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Audit Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Petitions Committee; and Mary Fee be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee. The Presiding Officer: The next question is, that motion S4M-07531, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on the office of the clerk, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament agrees that, between 5 January 2014 and 31 January 2015, the Office of the Clerk will be open on all days except: Saturdays and Sundays, 18 and 21 April 2014, 5 May 2014, 23 May and 26 May 2014, St Andrew’s Day (28 November 2014), 24 December (pm), 25 and 26 December 2014 and 1 and 2 January 2015. Dalbeattie High School (Da Vinci Challenge) The Deputy Presiding Officer (John Scott): The final item of business is a members’ business debate on motion S4M-07061, in the name of Alex Fergusson, on the da Vinci challenge, to be tackled by Dalbeattie high school. Motion debated, That the Parliament notes that the Da Vinci Challenge will be held in Milan from 2 to 4 October 2013; acknowledges that this is the first time since its inception in 2005 that the challenge will be held outside Australia; understands that it comprises a mental and educational decathlon that places particular emphasis on higher-order thinking skills, problem solving and creativity; notes that students will work in teams and aim to complete a range of tasks that encompass engineering, mathematics, philosophy, codebreaking, cartography, art and poetry, science, English and creativity; commends Dalbeattie High School, which will send the only team from Scotland to take on the challenge, and wishes the pupils, parents, staff and everyone involved in what it sees as this exciting initiative every possible success as the team prepares for what it considers a truly daunting international competition. 17:47 Alex Fergusson (Galloway and West Dumfries) (Con): In 2001, a teacher at Knox grammar school in Sydney, Australia, co-ordinated a series of three events, held over three consecutive days, that were collectively designed to provide a wide range of mentally stimulating challenges to teams of pupils from schools in New South Wales. It proved to be an extremely popular concept, to the extent that, in 2004, schools from several states were invited to take part in the inaugural national da Vinci decathlon. Gradually, the competition became so popular that each state now runs its own annual contest, with the winners and host schools of each state being invited to take part in the national decathlon, which is still held at Knox grammar over a three-day period every year. Clearly, the concept was one in which interest was bound to spread and, with further interest being shown from overseas, 2012 saw the inaugural international da Vinci decathlon, tested on the host schools in Australia, run simultaneously in several countries with links via Skype. Further, just as the original concept started in one state and expanded across a nation, the international concept of the challenge will take a huge leap forward this year when the first international da Vinci decathlon takes place in Milan, Italy, on 2, 3 and 4 October. Leonardo da Vinci was, of course, one of the world’s great thinkers and scholars and, back in the 15th century, it was he who identified a cerebral interconnection between the arts, anatomy, architecture, engineering and mathematics and astronomy, and the challenges of the decathlon that has been named after him are designed to bring the concept of that interconnection to life in a way that is relevant to us in the 21st century. The competition therefore places particular emphasis on higher-order thinking skills, problem solving and creativity, and it does so by setting each participating team a series of 10 tasks, which encompass art and poetry, cartography, code-breaking, creative producers, English, engineering, mathematics and chess, philosophy, science and general knowledge. To me, the whole thing sounds every bit as exciting as it does challenging, and I am sure that none of us would want to do anything other than encourage the further development of that great initiative. However, had it not been for the eagle-eyed observation of a young teacher at Dalbeattie high school in Dumfries and Galloway, I would certainly never have heard of the competition, and I suspect that many of the rest of us would never have heard of it either. A couple of years ago, I had the pleasure of visiting Dalbeattie high school at the invitation of that teacher—Mr Butler—to present the prizes at the end of a day of thought-provoking challenges that he had put together for the pupils, every one of whom had obviously been enthused and motivated by the tasks that had been set. It was clearly Mr Butler’s penchant for that type of activity that drew him to the da Vinci decathlon. Completely undaunted at the thought of having to raise at least £7,000 in the last four months—never mind dealing with the logistics of getting a team of 10 pupils and accompanying adults to and from Milan in October—the team from Dalbeattie high was duly entered for the decathlon and it is, I am told, the only school from the whole of Europe that is taking part in the competition. I thought that it was just the only school from the UK. It is also the only state school that will take part. It will take on teams from Australia, the USA, India and South Africa. One of the reasons why I wanted to bring the debate to the Parliament was simply to emphasise that that type of event does not involve just the individual participating school. Over the summer, the whole town of Dalbeattie witnessed a series of events and activities that involved, absorbed and intrigued the entire community. Over £8,000—not just £7,000—has been raised, and I believe that a final fundraising quiz night is to come this Thursday. Some £2,500 has been raised through grants; the rest has come through a wide variety of activities, such as packing bags in a local supermarket, a weekly sale of cakes made by the pupils—they make good cakes in Dalbeattie; that alone has raised £350—a coffee morning, work in local charity shops, quiz sheets, individual donations and so on. It surely says everything about our local communities that, even in these most difficult of times, they will dig deep into their pockets for a cause that they believe in. That also says a huge amount about the benefits of education beyond the classroom, the benefits of teamwork, the stimulus of competition and the unforgettable experience and benefit of social interaction between people of different nationalities and cultures. I have no doubt at all that those benefits will be heaped in abundance on the intrepid team of secondary 2, 3 and 4 pupils who will shortly leave the safe shores of Dumfries and Galloway to take on the world in Milan, and I am quite certain that—win, lose or draw—they will be different people simply as a result of having undergone the experience. I hope and feel certain that they will enthuse future generations of Dalbeattie’s pupils to follow in their footsteps; indeed, I would love to think that they will enthuse other Scottish, British and European schools to organise their own decathlons. Who knows? Perhaps it will not be long before Dalbeattie plays host to the international da Vinci challenge. That is very much for the future, of course. For now, I simply offer the good wishes of all members to the team and its supporting adults who, I am delighted to say, have been able to join us in the gallery. I am truly delighted to have put the motion to members. 17:53 Aileen McLeod (South Scotland) (SNP): I congratulate Alex Fergusson on bringing a fantastic challenge to the chamber and thereby securing the Parliament’s recognition of Dalbeattie high school students and staff for taking part in that unique challenge, in which they will represent Scotland in a competition of truly international proportions. I am also delighted that students from Dalbeattie have made it to the Parliament and are here to listen to the debate. I join Alex Fergusson in welcoming them to the chamber. I am sure that most of us will not have heard much about the da Vinci decathlon before, because it originated in Australia and made its way to Dalbeattie through an exchange programme, as Alex Fergusson said. That seems to have been one of those fortunate coincidences that has opened up a new opportunity for students. In starting to find out a bit more about the da Vinci decathlon, one of the things that struck me was the sheer breadth of knowledge and skill that it requires competitors to demonstrate. As Alex Fergusson mentioned, each team of eight students must complete tasks in art and poetry, cartography, code breaking, English, engineering, mathematics and chess, philosophy, science and general knowledge, as well as being tested on whether they are creative producers. That list is more than a little daunting. Every team member has to play a part in each task, so they all require a good working knowledge of all the subjects. To my mind, that makes the challenge all the more difficult. I am not entirely sure how many of us would necessarily excel if faced with such a task list. That underlines my admiration for the school: not only is it prepared to try something new, but its students will, in effect, be representing the whole of Scotland in October. This is not just a good competition in its own right. In adopting the da Vinci decathlon, Dalbeattie high school has found an intellectual competition and an ethos that fits well with our curriculum for excellence and the future direction of Scottish education. After all, curriculum for excellence has at its core the promotion of a broad general education and interdisciplinary learning and it instils in our young people the transferable skills that they are likely to need in a world in which many people switch careers regularly and the job for life has become increasingly rare. The idea that people should be familiar with a wide variety of knowledge is perfectly captured by the event’s title. Naming any academic event after Leonardo da Vinci—the original Renaissance man and probably the greatest polymath in history—is ambitious to say the least. The ambition that that represents is very much in line with our aspirations to have an education system that is internationally respected. The da Vinci decathlon is something that other Scottish schools should consider for the future. I applaud Dalbeattie high school for being the first to try it, but it is a competition and the more competitors there are the better. I hope to visit Dalbeattie high school soon. I am sorry that I have not got there sooner because I know that the da Vinci challenge is not the only exciting initiative that the school is working on. When I do so, I very much hope that the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning will join me. I join everyone in congratulating Sue Bain and Piers Butler at Dalbeattie high school for taking on the decathlon challenge. Most of all, I wish the very best of luck to the high school students who will be taking part in October in Milan. We are all rooting for them. 17:57 Anne McTaggart (Glasgow) (Lab): I congratulate Alex Fergusson on securing today’s debate. I am pleased to hear that Dalbeattie high school will be involved in such an exciting challenge and wish them all the best with their endeavours. I, too, welcome our guests to the Scottish Parliament. I take this opportunity to mention the different learning styles that are available to not only children and young people, but adults living in communities across Scotland. Given my background and my degree qualification in community education, I will highlight the roles that community learning and development play in complementing the formal education sector through a community development approach. I set the scene by referring to the historical context and the origins and development of the formal education sector in Scotland. The formal school sector has long enjoyed an international reputation as part of one of the best educated societies in the world. That tradition is being advanced by Dalbeattie high school’s participation in the da Vinci challenge. The Education Act 1696, which was an act of the Parliament of Scotland, saw the establishment and development of schools that were open to all boys and girls, regardless of their status. It was not until the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 that schooling was made compulsory for children aged five to 13 years of age, which laid the basis of the modern education system. Why the history lesson? The openness of the education system in Scotland and the quality of provision have been the subjects of much myth making. Alex Fergusson’s motion shows what young people in Scotland can achieve if they are given the right support. In April, in my region, Glasgow City Council’s education service established the employability and skills partnership team, which helps young people in the city to access vocational education while they are at school. The introduction of comprehensive education, in legislation in 1965, improved access to education. An attempt was made to provide an adequate standard for all children in Scotland. Community learning and development can play a key role in not only complementing but supplementing the formal education sector. It is a way of working to support communities to increase the skills, confidence, networks and resources that they need if they are to tackle problems and grasp opportunities. In short, it is a distinct sector of education, alongside school and further and higher education. The application of the community development approach to the creation of learning opportunities can support: the identification of the local population’s educational needs; the planning of provision to meet and support those needs; the promotion of alternative programmes; and the monitoring and evaluation of the planned programmes. Those four points are taken from a paper that Ted Milburn—a former lecturer of mine, who became a professor of community education—delivered some 26 years ago. What Ted Milburn said more than a quarter of a century ago is more than relevant today. The community learning and development approach is important, not just in its ability to complement and supplement the formal education sector but as a way of taking forward social and economic initiatives, to tackle the poverty and social deprivation that are, unfortunately, still prevalent in too many communities in Scotland. We therefore need to share examples of good practice, such as the vocational training programme that Glasgow City Council is running and the initiative at Dalbeattie high school. We wish the pupils of Dalbeattie high school well in their endeavours; I hope that they will come back and tell us that they are champions. 18:02 Liz Smith (Mid Scotland and Fife) (Con): I congratulate Alex Fergusson on securing the debate, and I congratulate the staff and pupils of Dalbeattie high school, who are off on an exciting adventure. Good luck to you all. I had heard of the da Vinci decathlon from a former pupil of mine who is out in Australia on a gap year, but I did not know much of the detail until I was prompted by the debate and the initiative that the school has shown to find out more. Leonardo da Vinci said that the “Principles for the Development of a Complete Mind” are to “Study the science of art. Study the art of science. Develop your senses ... learn how to see. Realise that everything connects to everything else.” He was, of course, one of the world’s great polymaths: a painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, inventor, writer, cartographer—the list goes on. He was an all-round genius because he understood the world’s interconnections in their most complex detail. He was a true renaissance man. He might even have been the first proponent of the curriculum for excellence. Who knows? Probably the most attractive aspect of Leonardo da Vinci’s life was his ever-present quest for knowledge and for a deeper understanding of the human behaviours and emotions that go with it. Learning would never end and would constantly be enriched. Not for him was contentment with teaching according to the principles of orthodoxy; closed minds were not inquiring minds. When the young people from Dalbeattie high school fly off to Italy in October they will face an unusual and rigorous challenge, which will test their skills to the limit. The da Vinci decathlon began in 2005 as an exciting offshoot of the successful da Vinci programme for gifted and talented students at Knox grammar school in Sydney. The challenge, which is designed to test and celebrate the higher-level academic gifts in a competitive environment, is of course run in the true spirit of the Olympic decathlon—the competition that is the ultimate test for athletes across many disciplines. It is a test of skill, resilience, mental and physical stamina and, of course, character. The success of the da Vinci decathlon in Australia has been hugely impressive and it has clearly caught the imagination of the young people in Australia, as well as their parents and, I understand, many businesses. For them, the competition has proved to be such a success because of the rounded approach to learning that it brings to challenge young people. As a member of the Education and Culture Committee of this Parliament, I am acutely aware of the constant refrain from employers in this country that we must do more to equip young people with the skills that cross several boundaries and disciplines, most especially in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, which have become known as the STEM subjects. We need many more Scottish pupils to look to future careers in engineering and the sciences. The da Vinci challenge promotes exactly the sort of subjects that we need to encourage more enthusiastically. One of the strong characteristics of the tradition of Scottish inventors is the appreciation that to understand engineering, one needs to understand how many other subjects interconnect with it. That is something that da Vinci would have appreciated very much. Some would argue that there are very good reasons for making engineering a compulsory subject; I can see the logic in that. In the past few years there has been a very pleasing increase in the number of schools that are making a determined effort to develop slightly different extracurricular activities. I know from my time as a teacher the benefits that such activities bring, especially if they are that little bit different and most especially if they involve a trip abroad. The Dalbeattie high school pupils and teachers are to be very warmly congratulated on their initiative and on their fundraising efforts, which Alex Fergusson has described. They have clearly put in a power of work on that and it is a great honour for them to be not just the only Scottish school but the only one from Europe taking part. I wish them every success and hope that this might be the start of a much wider uptake of the da Vinci challenge among Scottish schools. The Deputy Presiding Officer: I now call on the Scottish Parliament’s very own renaissance man, the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, Mike Russell. 18:06 The Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning (Michael Russell): How very kind of you, Presiding Officer. I am delighted to respond to the motion and to congratulate Alex Fergusson on having secured the debate. I am particularly delighted to congratulate the team that is going to Milan from Dalbeattie. As a former South of Scotland member of the Scottish Parliament, I know that we can learn a great deal from the south of Scotland. I also know that the baking in Dalbeattie is very good, although I regret that none has been brought here for us to sample today. I am certainly astonished to discover the amazing range of challenges that the young people will have to overcome when they go to Milan. It is appropriate that we commend all of them and that we wish them the best of luck. With your permission, Presiding Officer, I will give them a name check. They are Jenna Miller, Matthew Campbell, Amy Scobie, Georgina Murray, Emma Forsyth, Ailsa O’Donoghue, Rhiannon Gerrard, Isla Parker, Catherine Kellett and Alex Lammie. The team leaders who are going to Milan are Piers Butler and Samantha Campbell. The observant among us will notice that there are nine girls and one boy in the team. No doubt in time there will be members on our benches who will argue for gender balance in the da Vinci competition, but that is a very good start and I commend the team for it. I have to say that I was unaware of the challenge, but so were my officials when the debate was announced. It is fascinating that such an idea should come by means of an exchange teacher to Dalbeattie—one Zak Inward. I could not believe the name, but it was Zak Inward who brought the idea to Dalbeattie and encouraged the school to take part. The idea of an exchange from Knox academy—a wonderfully named school—to Dalbeattie and a trip on to Milan says something about the interconnected nature of the world in which they live. Our education system in Scotland is an interconnected one. It focuses on higher-order thinking skills, problem solving, teamwork and creativity, which is precisely what the team will have to show and undertake when they are in Milan. Their tasks will range from engineering to philosophy to code breaking to cartography, taking in science, English, art and poetry. They will carry out all those tasks to compete and, we hope—as Anne McTaggart said—to win. It is a wonderful reflection on Dalbeattie that its young people are going, and a wonderful reflection on Scotland that our curriculum can support that type of activity. When I think of da Vinci, as I am sure all of us in the chamber do from time to time, I think of his logo, “The Vitruvian Man”—the man in two different positions. Perhaps that should be the logo for curriculum for excellence because it is about perfect proportion, interchangeability and connections. I thank him for drawing our attention to that and for reminding us of the importance of interconnectivity within our education system. Nigel Don (Angus North and Mearns) (SNP): Presiding Officer, Da Vinci’s challenge we are told is clearly for the bright and bold; Not only must you read a map, you’ll need to be a thinking chap. Can the Cab Sec let me know which way he thinks the thing will go? Are we all in time to find our schools thus test each eager mind? Michael Russell: I am not entirely sure that Mr Don is going to win the da Vinci challenge with that poetry, although he might win another challenge with it. However, he is quite right to say that there is a lesson for us all to learn, which I will draw briefly. Our curriculum reforms in Scotland are driving essential change, with the learning journey from the age of 3 to 18 and beyond. Anne McTaggart was right to remind us of the role of community learning in that process; it is vital. The process of transformation that is required to deliver curriculum for excellence in full, and to improve Scottish education, continues. We are committed to finishing the job of delivering a curriculum that is fit for the challenges of our modern world—even that most intensive challenge that Dalbeattie high school has stepped up to the plate to take. It is an unprecedented programme of transformation—curriculum for excellence is not quite like anything that takes place elsewhere. Lots of people are looking to Scotland to try to understand the system and how it may benefit them. The purpose is to improve children’s and young people’s achievements, attainment levels and life chances through nurturing every individual young person as a successful learner, a confident individual, a responsible citizen and an effective contributor. That underpinning strength of curriculum for excellence will, I believe, benefit every school and young person in Scotland. Liz Smith is right to draw attention to the STEM subjects and to engineering. In relation to science, we must ensure not just that our young people have those skills, but that our teachers are keen to impart those skills. They must see the importance of the STEM subjects—of science and engineering—as connecting subjects within schools and be keen to take them forward. We must see other things, too, including the vision that the Government has for language learning and teaching, which are important. We are the first part of these islands to commit ourselves to the Barcelona system of learning one’s own language and two others. Over two school generations, we will roll that out so that Scotland’s experience of languages will be transformed. If Italian has not yet reached Dalbeattie high school, there will be some to be learned during the October break. All across Scotland, curriculum for excellence is energising learning and teaching. It is making education more relevant to the modern world and is giving young people the skills and knowledge that they need to succeed in learning, life and work. I hope that it is also inculcating ambition, which is a wonderful thing. For Dalbeattie high school to have the ambition to compete and take part in something that no Scottish school—indeed, no school in these islands or in Europe, apparently—has yet taken part in is a tremendous achievement. In Dalbeattie, as in the rest of Scotland, it is the learners who are the greatest natural resource. They are the investment for the future and are what the future will be. Curriculum for excellence is designed to support them, to take them forward and to allow them, through schools and other learning providers, to focus on individual need in the context—which we in Parliament should never forget—of education’s having not just an individual benefit but a societal benefit. By investing in education, we invest in the whole future of our country. I am grateful to Alex Fergusson for having brought this matter to Parliament, and I am grateful to the members who have spoken in the debate. Most of all, I am grateful to the team from Dalbeattie high school, who will have heard all the praise and excitement today. I hope that they enjoy the challenge, but they have a lot of hard work to do; they have a lot of research and learning to do, and they have a lot to work on in the next six weeks. We should not, therefore, talk any longer; we should let them get on with it. Meeting closed at 18:14.	Alex Fergusson
Which US state has nicknames including 'The Cyclone State', 'The Land Of The Rolling Prairies' and 'The Hawkeye State'?	Official Report - Parliamentary Business : Scottish Parliament Parliamentary Business back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): Welcome back. It is good to be back with you once more. The first item of business is time for reflection. Our time for reflection leader this afternoon is Matt Oliver, the chief executive of More Than Gold 2014. Mr Matt Oliver (More Than Gold 2014): In a little under a year, 71 nations and territories that make up the Commonwealth will descend on Scotland for the 20th Commonwealth games. The Christian church in Scotland, united under the banner of More Than Gold, will seek to serve the games in a variety of ways. Building on the success of 2012, hundreds of churches will be opening their doors to show the games live on big screens to their communities and provide refreshments. One thousand people from around the world will assist the church in its activities, bringing with them cultural engagement programmes of dance, music and drama. The Salvation Army will distribute 250,000 bottles of cold water to spectators and, in partnership with the Scottish Government, we will provide free accommodation to over 400 members of athletes’ families and to official volunteers. Many of the nations that are competing next year will be able to trace the Christian roots of their countries directly to the great missionaries of the past, many of whom came from this great nation. People such as David Livingstone, Mary Slessor and James Chalmers all contributed to the spread of Christianity throughout the world. However, for an old sportsman such as me, it is Eric Liddell, the Olympic athlete who famously refused to run in the 100m heats as they were due to be run on a Sunday, who epitomises the common values of sport and the gospel. In the film “Chariots of Fire”, Eric famously says: “God made me for a purpose, but he also made me fast. And when I run I feel his pleasure”. Liddell would be given a sporting lifeline when given a place in the 400m, in which he would go on to become an Olympic champion. For Liddell, serving and honouring God was truly worth more than gold. It is the prayer of the team at More Than Gold 2014 that, as Glasgow prepares to host the world’s third-largest sporting event, it will feel God’s pleasure; that, as the church in Scotland rises in unison in acts of service, hospitality and outreach, it will feel God’s pleasure; and that you, as you go about your business in this place today, will feel God’s pleasure. Business Motion The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is consideration of business motion S4M-07570, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on behalf of the Parliamentary Bureau, setting out a business programme. Motion moved, That the Parliament agrees the following programme of business— Tuesday 3 September 2013 2.00 pm Time for Reflection followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions followed by Motion of Condolence followed by Topical Questions (if selected) followed by First Minister’s Statement on the Scottish Government’s Programme for Government 2013-14 followed by Scottish Government Debate: Scottish Government’s Programme for Government 2013-14 followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.45 pm Decision Time 11.40 am Parliamentary Bureau Motions 11.40 am General Questions 12.00 pm First Minister’s Questions 12.30 pm Members’ Business 2.30 pm Parliamentary Bureau Motions 2.30 pm Equal Opportunities Committee Debate: Where Gypsy/Travellers Live followed by Standards, Procedures and Public Appointments Committee Debate: Report on 6th Report 2013, Draft Code of Practice for Ministerial Appointments to Public Bodies in Scotland followed by Legislative Consent Motion: High Speed Rail (Preparation) Bill – UK Legislation followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.00 pm Decision Time 2.00 pm Time for Reflection followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions followed by Topical Questions (if selected) followed by Scottish Government Debate: Scotland’s Historic Environment – The Way Forward followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.00 pm Decision Time 11.40 am Parliamentary Bureau Motions 11.40 am General Questions 12.00 pm First Minister’s Questions 12.30 pm Members’ Business 2.30 pm Parliamentary Bureau Motions 2.30 pm Scottish Government Business followed by Business Motions followed by Parliamentary Bureau Motions 5.00 pm Decision Time—[Joe FitzPatrick.] Motion agreed to. back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is one that we would prefer not to be holding: a motion of condolence in the name of Ruth Davidson, following the death of David McLetchie MSP. I remind members that a book of condolence will be available for them to sign in the black and white corridor for the rest of the week. I would like to welcome Sheila and James and all of the McLetchie family to the gallery as Parliament pays its own tributes to David McLetchie. Thank you for being with us today. On behalf of all of us who were at the funeral, I say to James that the eulogy he gave was the finest eulogy from a son to a father that I have ever heard. David and I started together as part of the first intake of MSPs in 1999. In those early days, I would come into the chamber when I knew that David was due to speak. He was always witty, clever and a great debater, and I wished that I could be like him. I had a great personal relationship with David. We were often on opposite sides of an issue, and we both served on the first Scotland Bill Committee. It is fair to say that that committee was more than occasionally fraught and regularly robust, and David and I were often at the heart of that. However, through that long process, we used to pass notes to each other commenting on the day’s business, and we always maintained good humour and total respect for each other’s point of view. Despite failing health, David played a full part in parliamentary business way beyond the time that some of us thought he should. Those contributions were as robust and erudite as any of his previous contributions over the years. That was the mark of the man, and it demonstrates his commitment to the Parliament. David always shone brightly in the chamber in particular, which I know he loved. We will all miss his contributions. This place will be that bit dimmer without David McLetchie. 14:06 Ruth Davidson (Glasgow) (Con): The best of parliamentarians and the best of men—the death of David McLetchie leaves a hole that we will struggle to fill. I knew David for only a few short years; others in the chamber—those from the class of 99—knew him far better and far longer than I did. Among my colleagues on the Conservative benches, there were friendships with him that lasted half a lifetime. As we remember David’s political achievement and remark on the size of his contribution to the life of the chamber and the democracy of our country, we must remember that politics was not his first love; it was not even a close second. David’s priority first, last and always was his family. Our condolences go out to his wife, Sheila, his son, James, his mother, Rena, and their wider family, many of whom we welcome to the chamber gallery today. David was a man who was shaped and forged by his family, background and city. He was an Edinburgh boy who was brought up near Meadowbank. He started out at Leith academy primary school before he won a bursary for George Heriot’s. There he attended the literary and debating society, although it was a portent of things to come that he claimed that his membership was only an excuse to sneak out to the nearby Captains Bar for a pint after. David then did law at the University of Edinburgh—he was the first of his family to receive a higher education. In 1975, he was selected as the Conservative candidate in Edinburgh Central. A general election was anticipated in the following year, but that election would not come for another four years, of course. That gave David the opportunity to work with his Labour opponent—the MP Robin Cook—on the no campaign of 1979. David never tired of highlighting the irony of that in later years. David completed his legal training at Shepherd and Wedderburn and joined Tods Murray in 1980, where he became a partner and established himself as a highly regarded expert in the field of tax planning, trusts and estates. David brought to the Parliament when it was established in 1999 that legal training, intellectual rigour, attention to detail and discipline. My colleague Mary Scanlon speaks for all of us when she says that she always felt like a 10-year-old taking her jotters to the headmaster and waiting to see whether a red pen would be scored across the page. Indeed, I fear that there is a great irony and—dare I say—an impropriety in Parliament’s tribute today. I can almost feel the spirit of David, who was always quick to castigate those who worship the false god of consensus, clamouring for an amendment to the motion, if only to correct a grammatical error. Since David’s death, much has been made of his contribution to the party and Parliament as Conservative leader; the strength that he showed in 1997 after our electoral wipe-out in stooping to build up our party with worn-out tools; the resilience to keep speaking his truth clearly, knowing that there was a space and a need for a right-of-centre voice in public debate; the reward of outperforming pundits’ predictions in 1999 and establishing a sizeable Conservative group in the Parliament; and the personal pride that he rightly took four years later in winning his own Edinburgh Pentlands constituency under first past the post. Despite the other leaders having parliamentary experience that far exceeded his, David was a debater of the first order who would often come out on top. A personal highlight for me as a young journalist who followed the fledgling Parliament was his contribution on the appointment of Des McNulty as a junior minister in 2002. During his speech, David managed to remind members that there were but 123 reshuffling days left until dissolution; console the mere seven Labour members who had not yet been given a job in government; comment on the illegitimacy of John Reid, as remarked on in a taped conversation between Henry McLeish and Helen Liddell; score several substantive points on the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill; and crack a fine joke about Jim and Dr Richard’s Wallace-Simpson partnership leading to an abdication. He did all that in less than two minutes; it was a tour de force. David’s contribution did not stop when he resigned the leadership. Indeed, his period as chief whip and business manager during the previous parliamentary session tested his political gifts. His robust but honest approach gathered him many plaudits. David played with a straight bat; he always did what he said he would do. It was in no small part David’s skill, judgment, ability to work with others and determination that this Parliament and this legislative process should proceed that ensured that the fragility of a minority Government did not result in political paralysis. During that period, his long-standing personal assistant, Ann, would often hear him speaking on the telephone to other business managers, eloquently and logically outlining the Conservative Party position and, consequently, how he would vote. In the very next breath he would continue, “And may I say that your voting position on this is totally at odds with your policy,” and a lecture on inconsistency would follow. David was not above trying to whip the other parties either. Once he was sure that his group was accounted for, he would ask the other business managers whether all their MSPs were present and correct. Given David’s propensity for checking every detail, he often questioned the assurances that he was given. He would ask, “What about so-and-so? I thought that they were away for the day.” On more than one occasion, he dispatched his parliamentary researcher, Martin, behind enemy lines to chat with friends on other corridors just to make sure. In many respects, David was the first-ever cross-party chief whip. David’s contribution to Parliament was not just in the chamber or the committee rooms, as significant as those contributions were. He was clubbable, personable, generous with his time, anecdotes and stories, and generous with a drink at the bar and a friendly conversation with someone whom he may well have just eviscerated in the chamber. He added to the life of the Parliament, not just its business. David was no machine politician; he also had a life and interests outside of this place, including his family, golf and his beloved Heart of Midlothian. A regular Tynecastle attender, he would gently tease opponents such as the First Minister and John Swinney for being so-called plastic Jambos by asking when was the last time they had made it to a game. At David’s death, the Hearts message boards were filled with tributes. My favourite said: “he came across as a great Jambo and a real gentleman.” The message was right on both counts. I was thinking of the best words in which to describe David: intelligent, forensic, principled, generous, humorous, loyal, pedantic, irascible, curmudgeonly and combative. However, he had a charm and warmth that drew people to him and took people with him. I settle on brave as the word best to describe him. David was brave to pick up the reins of the defeated party; he was brave to stand his ground, speak his truth and defy consensus; he was brave to bear the death of his wife and to give strength to his then teenage son; he was brave to love again; and he was brave in the face of his illness. I know that David would not want today to pass without due recognition given to the Presiding Officer and the parliamentary staff whose support allowed him to attend this place until so recently, and long past the time that many would have been able to do so. That attendance and service took a bravery and strength, too. I thank you for allowing that to happen. I thank also the many members of this Parliament, past and present, who have contacted me and my Conservative colleagues to give their sympathies and share their memories of David. He had friends on all sides of the chamber, and it is a mark of his decency and generosity that some of the warmest tributes have come from his fiercest political opponents. In David’s death, the Conservatives have lost a leader and MSPs have lost a colleague. We have all lost a friend. David McLetchie was the best of parliamentarians and the best of men, and this Parliament and country is the poorer for his passing. It is with great sadness but with great pride that I move, That the Parliament expresses its deep regret and sadness at the death of David McLetchie CBE MSP; offers its sympathy and condolences to David’s family and friends; recognises the high regard in which he was held by so many colleagues; appreciates his significant contribution to civic life through his legal career, and acknowledges his distinguished record of service, both in this Parliament and to his constituents in the Lothians. [Applause.] 14:14 The First Minister (Alex Salmond): On behalf of the Scottish National Party and the Scottish Government, let me join in supporting the motion from Ruth Davidson paying fond tribute to David McLetchie and, of course, expressing our condolences to his family who are here with us today—his first love, as Ruth Davidson put it. David was a founding member of the Parliament. He was a respected, intelligent and witty advocate for his party. His political achievements were considerable. He led the Conservatives from a wipe-out in 1997 to a secure footing in this Parliament and, I think by general acknowledgement, allowed the Conservative Party to punch well above its numerical weight in this Parliament. I rather liked David’s description of his decision to become a parliamentary leader under such unpromising circumstances. He said: “it was a combination of a mid-life career change and a mid-life crisis.” Whatever it was, he served this Parliament and his constituents as a man of character, experience and persistence. As we have heard, David was a gifted debater, and in seven years as a party leader he proved himself to be a worthy opponent for First Ministers and leading figures across the chamber. Whatever the issue—and he pursued many, from the Holyrood building project to education reforms to housing—David would draw on his legal skills to produce an effective cross-examination, which always climaxed in a devastating political punchline. Like Ruth Davidson, I was drawn to the parliamentary masterpieces that were his speeches on what are fairly mundane matters and were fairly regular matters in those days: governmental changes. David managed to turn them into parliamentary classics. A speech in a debate in 2002 illustrates that very well. This is how David opened it: “Here we are again with another ministerial reshuffle. Sometimes, it seems that there are more drop-outs in the Scottish Executive than there were at Woodstock.” I am not sure whether David was personally at Woodstock; nonetheless, the point was well made. In the same speech, he went on to deliver the absolute classic. He acknowledged that 3 per cent of Scots believed that he was the Deputy First Minister. This is how he responded to that. He said: “That is a worrying statistic. It means that, as we speak, 150,000 people are walking around Scotland blaming me for Jim Wallace’s mistakes. I would like to take this opportunity to state categorically for the Official Report that I take absolutely no responsibility for such failures.”—[Official Report, 8 May 2002; c 8622, 23.] That was classic McLetchie. He was never shy in holding the Government or his opponents to account; equally, he rarely lost the respect or friendship of any. It was a measure of the man that he never allowed a political disagreement to become just a personal disagreement. When Donald Dewar died in October 2000, David McLetchie paid tribute to him with characteristic eloquence. He made the point that “One does not have to be of the same political persuasion as another to recognise in them someone who has ability, sincerity and conviction.”—[Official Report, 13 October 2000; c 1081.] The same words stand also for David himself. He was equally committed to serving his constituents and his country. It is a goal that we all share, even if we differ on what the means should be. David and I shared two great loves—not just Heart of Midlothian Football Club but golf—but I would say that it was not until he served as Tory business manager during the period of minority government that I got to know him best. There, I think, his talents truly excelled. He always negotiated hard, in his party’s interest but also in the interests of the Parliament and effective government, and his word was absolutely his bond. In my estimation, that performance marks David as an outstanding politician of the devolution era. There is no question but that, when the history of this Parliament comes to be written, David McLetchie’s place will be assured. He had many, many qualities. He fought hard and passionately in everything that he did—in politics and, personally, in his final battle with cancer. This Parliament is poorer—much poorer—without David McLetchie. [Applause.] 14:14 Johann Lamont (Glasgow Pollok) (Lab): This is another sad day for the Scottish Parliament as we gather to reflect on the loss of David McLetchie, whose untimely death we deeply regret. On behalf of the Scottish Labour Party, I not only offer our sincerest condolences to his family and friends, who must feel his loss most fiercely, but recognise that David was a man who had a huge impact on people across this chamber and far beyond. As has been said, David was another of the 1999 group of MSPs who were given the task of lifting the Scottish Parliament from the dry words of a parliamentary act to a living, breathing part of Scotland’s political, economic and social landscape, and he was a key player in helping the Scottish Parliament become that place. Again, as has been said, David was a great parliamentarian, fierce in debate and unrelenting in deconstructing arguments that might have displayed any hint of inconsistency. He was logical and rational, with a devastating turn of phrase. I still remember to this day the feeling of stress when, serving as a minister, I would see him rise to his feet in that languid way of his to deliver what we all feared would be the killer question. Although his wit and withering scorn were his greatest weapons, I believe that he deployed them not to belittle but to make his case. Yes, he was tough in debate, but it was always the argument, not the person, he was pursuing. Of course, David McLetchie was far more than simply a debater. In committee, his passion to make the Parliament work, interrogate legislation and develop policy was at its most evident. Always willing to do the heavy lifting, he took his job seriously, regardless of whether that work would be recognised or heralded by others. I believe that he simply wanted to make a difference. David McLetchie always made you think. It was rather unsettling for a Tory to do this, but I often found him challenging me to test my own assumptions rather than to presume them to be a self-evident truth. It is a useful lesson for us all, I think. I recall his capturing in a wonderful phrase the weakness of some of us in Scotland’s political environment when he said that we may now be living in a Scotland where that which is not banned will be compulsory. David was a man of intellect and wit with interests far beyond politics, and his life and legacy are hard to describe fully. What do I think when I think of David? At heart, when I think of David, I smile. For all our political differences, his humanity, compassion and interest in people were far stronger. He valued people, listened and revealed a warmth and friendship that could never be limited by party boundaries. Across this chamber, we shall miss his wisdom, his commitment and his love for life. In conclusion, I want to echo the words of the Presiding Officer. If there were ever a testimony to the person David McLetchie was beyond this place, the man who was not simply a politician, it was to be found in the words of his son James who, at his funeral, bravely and compellingly described what David meant to his family through tough and happy times. It is testament to the way that this man—this husband, father and son—lived his life that those who knew him best could speak so powerfully of his goodness and love for them. We shall miss David and our thoughts today are for this good man taken too soon and for those for whom this loss is so much greater still. [Applause.] 14:23 Willie Rennie (Mid Scotland and Fife) (LD): Every morning on my way to my son’s school, I would meet J T Murphy out for his morning stroll. As an old Fife coal miner from deep working class roots in Lochore, J T was not someone one would imagine to be a natural Conservative supporter. However, he was a David McLetchie supporter. J T liked his straight talking and forensic style and, every single day, he would tell me how good David was. Such was David’s widespread appeal. I, too, liked David. I only really got to know him as a fellow member of the Scotland Bill Committee. James Kelly, Richard Baker and I would work closely with David, tapping into his knowledge and understanding of the territory. Often, we would subconsciously—and physically—look to David at committee meetings when faced with an unexpectedly tricky issue, and I am sure that our collective sighs of relief were audible when he came up with an inspired response to a difficult question. Occasionally, however, he would say nothing, with a wicked glint in his eye. We would scrabble around and, panicking, attempt to conjure up some kind of answer that would pale into significance beside David’s own answer. Such was David’s sense of humour. Earlier this year, we paid tribute to another pillar of this Parliament, Brian Adam, who was credited with helping to make minority government work for the first time in Holyrood when all had expected it to fail. David McLetchie deserves equal praise for his role in ensuring that it worked. As the business manager for the Conservatives, he was able to reach out and build relationships with others that ensured that the business could get done. That feat was even more remarkable because he had previously been in regular combat with the SNP as the leader of the Scottish Conservatives. Such were David’s versatility and intelligence. David was a towering figure who changed the future for the Scottish Conservatives and Scottish politics. Such were David’s widespread appeal, his versatility and his intelligence. Such were David’s many talents that he helped to change Scotland. What will we do without David McLetchie? J T Murphy passed away a couple of years ago. David never had the opportunity to meet J T down here, but I like to think that he will get to meet him up there and that they will have a drink and a laugh together. 14:26 Margo MacDonald (Lothian) (Ind): I first met the man when I was just a young cub reporter and I was doing an interview with him—I do not have the faintest idea what it was about, but I remember thinking, “There’s a good guy. Too bad there are strikes against him: he’s a Tory and he’s a Jambo.” [Laughter.] I later had reason to change my mind about him. Just before we came here, we were both at a yee-haw concert by Reba McEntire—he was as big a country fan as me. We started to talk about that and found that we had a great deal in common at that level. Although David was a wonderful debater—none better has graced this Parliament—he never let me in, and I had a slight girn about that. However, I am very grateful for something that he once told me. I do not know whether members will remember, but we had an unseemly row—I think that it was in the first Parliament—about whether we were worthy of our wages. Scottish Television had conducted an opinion poll and found that the Scots thought that we were not. Well, quelle surprise! I advised the Parliament to ignore all of that because rules had been laid down that we should stick to, or else we would not be able to ensure that other people would stick to the rules that we laid down. David came up to me after the debate and said, “I think you did the Parliament a good turn today.” The fact that he knew and recognised that and told me about it was worth a great deal to me. I will miss him and so will we all. 14:27 Annabel Goldie (West Scotland) (Con): I thank the Presiding Officer, the party leaders and Margo MacDonald for all the kind and touching remarks that they have made this afternoon, spoken with affection and grace. I know that David McLetchie’s family will have been much comforted by all that has been said. My first recollection of David McLetchie, at a party meeting many years ago, is hardly an extensive encapsulation of either his character or his talents: I noted him simply as that good-looking big Edinburgh lawyer chap with the glasses. Mind you, coming from a then Glasgow lawyer, that was in the realms of high praise. [Laughter.] Even then, David made an immediate impression, leavening the universally dry fodder that was so characteristic of the business meetings of all parties. Not only was he analytical and forensic in his approach to all issues, he was dogged in his pursuit of what he believed to be right. Those attributes, in conjunction with an approach to political issues derived from basic principle and an unshakeable commitment to his political beliefs, made him the effective and formidable political operator that he was. In politics, working relationships between colleagues in the same party are routine and we could not function without them. However, real friendships within parties are perhaps a little less common, and across parties they are rarer still. Yet, in politics, David McLetchie cultivated and established all those different relationships. That is not easy to do, but, as we have heard from the speeches this afternoon, even among his political opponents he elicited respect and affection. When David became leader of the Scottish Conservatives, those personal strengths of character served his party and his colleagues well. His first ever speech to the Parliament in 1999 had clarity, vision and his trademark acerbity. He began by saying: “I am well aware that, unless there is a sudden, widespread and highly unlikely outbreak of common sense, my candidacy for First Minister will not succeed this afternoon.”—[Official Report, 13 May 1999; c 19.] He then articulated his vision for the Scottish Conservatives: he said that we should be a constructive Opposition in the Parliament, dedicated to making it a success, and that we should aspire to Government in Scotland again some day. That is still the vision for my party—it was endorsed by me and Ruth Davidson as his successors. David was unflagging in his endeavours to realise those ambitions. When I succeeded David, I could not have asked for a more supportive colleague. His counsel was sound and any confidence that I shared with him remained with him; he knew how solitary leadership can be. His friendship was comforting and reassuring, and his integrity manifest. The one word that I knew never to mention in David’s presence was “consensus”. To him, “consensus” was synonymous with fudge, dilution of intellectual rigour and impairment of political purity. However, he was pragmatic. As others have said, in 2007, when the Parliament first experienced minority government, there was a need for party business managers with honed political skills, razor-sharp minds and acutely sensitive political antenna who were astute in judgment and skilled in negotiation. I could not have been better served than I was by David McLetchie. He excelled, and not only his party, but the Parliament, were the beneficiaries. The touching and eloquent tributes that we have heard this afternoon reflect David McLetchie’s enormous contribution to Scottish politics and our sorrow as politicians at the loss of a colleague, a gentleman and a friend. [Applause.] The Presiding Officer: I will allow a short period of suspension before we move to the rest of this afternoon’s business. I suspend the meeting until 2.50. 14:32 Meeting suspended. back to top Mark McDonald (Aberdeen Donside): 1. To ask the Scottish Government what discussions it has had with the offshore industry regarding the impact on the oil and gas industry in Scotland of the recent Super Puma tragedy. The Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth (John Swinney): First of all, I express on behalf of the Scottish Government, and I know all of Parliament, our condolences to the families of the four people who lost their lives when the Super Puma helicopter crash took place on 23 August. I also express our sympathy to the other individuals who were on board the flight for the ordeal that they endured. Since the crash, the Scottish Government has worked closely with the United Kingdom Government, the offshore industry and other key stakeholders in managing the consequences of the incident in relation to the impact on the oil and gas industry in Scotland. Officials have been fully engaged in the helicopter safety steering group meetings that were held on Saturday, Wednesday and Thursday following the incident. Officials have also participated in the oil and gas leaders meetings at which all operators in the North Sea were present. I have spoken to Malcolm Webb, the chief executive of Oil & Gas UK, which is the representative body for the UK offshore oil and gas industry, and I have also had discussions in relation to the incident with Jake Molloy of the RMT and both John Taylor and Pat Rafferty of Unite. On Friday, I visited the police gold command in Aberdeen to speak with the emergency services, who deserve our grateful thanks and acknowledgement for the excellent rescue operation that resulted in the saving of 14 lives. Subject to the Parliament’s agreement, I will make a full statement on the issue tomorrow. Mark McDonald: I thank the cabinet secretary for his answer and I echo his expressions of condolence. Those of us who have family, friends and constituents who work in the offshore sector will know how difficult this period has been for many individuals across Scotland. Will the cabinet secretary advise in what ways the Scottish Government is able and stands ready to support an industry review of helicopter safety? John Swinney: I confirm to the Parliament that the Government will co-operate in all the ways we can with the industry in relation to the review of safety and the encouragement of safe utilisation of modes of transport in transporting individuals to the North Sea oil and gas sector. As I said in my initial response, Government officials participated in helicopter safety steering group meetings held during the past week. Those proceedings were, in my opinion, a model of how dialogue should be conducted in partnership between employers and the trade unions that are involved, with a willingness to consider and address the serious issues and concerns that are relevant to members of oil and gas staff who are concerned about the circumstances that they face. The Government will certainly actively work to facilitate and encourage that review of safety. Mark McDonald: The cabinet secretary will also be aware that, as we have discussed, there are concerns among not just workers but their families around the continuing safety of helicopter flights to offshore installations. Can he confirm that his view is that there needs to be a careful dialogue between operators, the unions, the workforce and the wider oil and gas family—family members and so on—in order to restore some of the confidence that has been damaged by the recent incident and other incidents over the past five years? John Swinney: That dialogue is crucial. It is vital that the industry engages in dialogue, as took place at the helicopter safety steering group, between employers and trade unions as representatives of the workforce. In observing closely the proceedings of the helicopter safety steering group over the period, I saw the way in which information and advice were marshalled for the employer and trade union representatives, which enabled a considered judgment to be arrived at to enable the temporary suspension of the utilisation of some of the Super Puma fleet to be overcome. That was achieved because of evidence-based discussion involving all parties, and it represents how we can try to address the legitimate anxiety of members of the public about ensuring that, in all circumstances, individuals are able to be transported to the oil and gas sector safely and reliably. That must be an objective for us all. Lewis Macdonald (North East Scotland) (Lab): The cabinet secretary will know the difference that was made to offshore health and safety on rigs and platforms in the North Sea by the Cullen inquiry, which was established following the Piper Alpha disaster. Given the high number of serious helicopter incidents in the UK sector of the North Sea compared with other parts of the same province, will the cabinet secretary support calls for a public inquiry into helicopter transport in the UK sector—one that would go beyond an internal industry review and would follow the model that was set by Cullen—in order to give the workforce the same confidence in helicopter transport in the North Sea as they have in safety on rigs and platforms following Cullen? John Swinney: I am obviously familiar with the issues that have been raised in connection with helicopter safety. I think that the most effective thing that we can do is wait until we have the full outcome of the inquiry into this particular circumstance before we decide whether there is merit in taking forward that wider inquiry. I say that because, if we look at the experience of helicopter safety, we can see that over the past couple of years there has been a rising tide of confidence in helicopter safety in the North Sea. A point of very great regret about the incident that took place on 23 August is that that confidence has clearly been undermined. I think that before we form a judgment as to whether a full inquiry is required, we should allow the investigation of this incident to take its course and hear the outcome of the work that has been undertaken by the air accident investigation branch, which lies at the heart of the investigative role. The points raised by Mr Macdonald can quite properly be considered in that context. Food Banks Jackie Baillie (Dumbarton) (Lab): 2. To ask the Scottish Government what action it is taking to support food banks. The Minister for Housing and Welfare (Margaret Burgess): I congratulate Jackie Baillie on her new role shadowing the welfare portfolio. Like my health colleagues in the past, I look forward to some lively spats. The Scottish Government supports access to affordable, healthy and sustainable food for all and acknowledges that, with the current economic climate, welfare reform and increasing food prices, that access is becoming a greater concern for many people. The Scottish Government has provided an additional £9.2 million to the Scottish welfare fund, which means that we are providing the capacity to award an additional 5,600 community care grants and more than 100,000 crisis grants in this financial year. That fund will provide people with emergency support, so the necessity for food banks should be reduced. However, my concern is that the United Kingdom Government benefits reform programme unfairly impacts on some of the most vulnerable members of our society. In particular, I am concerned that the cuts and changes to the welfare system will undermine the long-term approach that we are taking to tackle the causes of poverty. The solution is for the Scottish Parliament to have control over welfare matters so that we can devise policies for the benefit of the Scottish people. Jackie Baillie: I thank the minister for welcoming me to my new portfolio. I hope that, in a few weeks’ time, she does not regret doing so. I am most interested in the powers that the Scottish Government already has—powers that it should be exercising to protect the most vulnerable. Frankly, I am appalled that, in 21st century Scotland, we have food banks in our communities. According to the Trussell Trust, the number of Scots accessing emergency food banks over the past year has increased by 150 per cent, to more than 14,000 people. Almost one third of those people were children, which should concern us all. What more can the Scottish Government do specifically to help children who are experiencing such extremes of poverty that they have to depend on food banks? Margaret Burgess: The Scottish Government has taken forward a number of actions to reduce child poverty in Scotland—an issue that is of great concern for me and for the Scottish Government. As I said, we have put in place a number of activities to provide support, including the Scottish welfare fund, our social wage—the social wage helps families that are struggling—and free prescriptions. We are against the UK Government’s welfare cuts, as Jackie Baillie well knows. As I laid out, if we had our own welfare system and were in charge of our own economy, we could ensure that our policies in health, housing and welfare were integrated to ensure that we could deliver the best possible opportunity for all the people of Scotland, and particularly our children. Jackie Baillie: There is no disagreement on this side of the chamber about the impact of the UK Government’s welfare cuts, but despite the actions that she has outlined we still see children queuing for assistance at food banks. The minister will be aware that, since the Scottish welfare fund was introduced to provide crisis grants, there has been a significant underspend in that budget. That goes against everything that we know about the level of need that exists in our communities—there is even anecdotal evidence that, having been refused crisis loans, people are being referred to food banks. What action will the Scottish Government take to ensure that, instead of there being an underspend in that budget, the people who need them most can access crisis grants? Margaret Burgess: Rather than criticise the Scottish Government on the Scottish welfare fund, Jackie Baillie should congratulate us on establishing that fund and topping it up by £9.2 million. The Scottish welfare fund, which came in in April this year, is a new fund that has not bedded in yet, but we are doing everything that we can to encourage people to use it. I spent the summer recess travelling up and down Scotland speaking to local authorities, third sector organisations and community groups to promote the fund and to encourage take-up. An officer within the Scottish Government is monitoring the fund for consistency and to look at how we can do things better. Jackie Baillie should join us in promoting the fund and, rather than criticise us, congratulate us on introducing a fund that protects our poorest people. Stuart McMillan (West Scotland) (SNP): Yesterday, I had a meeting with the food bank in Inverclyde, where I was informed that, since opening up last September, it has fed 2,500 people, including 750 children. Those figures are worsening, despite the fact that we have not yet felt the full effects of welfare reform. Can the minister inform me what discussions are taking place with the UK Government to inform it that its wider economic agenda is not working and that there are many people and families whose lives are being devastated as a consequence? Margaret Burgess: There is regular correspondence with the UK Government on those issues. The Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth wrote to the Chancellor of the Exchequer in March, ahead of the UK Government’s budget statement, to set out the Scottish Government’s concerns about the failure of the UK Government to grow the economy. I share the finance secretary’s concern about the cuts to benefit incomes for families across the country at a time when many are having to deal with sharp rises in the cost of living. I will continue to raise those issues with UK Government ministers at every opportunity, both in person and in writing. As I said, the solution is for Scotland to have control of its own economy and welfare system. We might then see a reduction in food banks in this country. Elaine Smith (Coatbridge and Chryston) (Lab): Does the minister agree that it is unacceptable that unaffordable water charges are acting as a barrier to the setting up of a food bank in Coatbridge? Is charitable exemption under the Government’s scheme an option to allow that desperately needed facility to open? Margaret Burgess: As set out in the current statement on charging for water for 2010 to 2015, the exemption is available only to those organisations that received an exemption in 1999, so it is not currently available to new organisations. However, Scottish Water recognises the issues that that creates and is working with the Scottish Government to look at introducing a revised scheme from 2015 that would be open to all small charities. Therefore, I accept the point that Elaine Smith has made. The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): I apologise to Margo MacDonald, who wanted to ask a supplementary question, but we need to move on to the next item of business. Programme for Government 2013-14 back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is a statement by Alex Salmond on the Scottish Government’s programme for government for 2013-14. The First Minister’s statement will be followed by a debate, so there should be no interventions or interruptions. 15:04 The First Minister (Alex Salmond): It is better for all of us if decisions about Scotland’s future are taken by those who care most about Scotland—that is, the people who choose to live and work in our country. That is the simple but, I think, compelling truth at the heart of the case for independence, and the best evidence of it lies in the record of this Parliament. It is now 16 years since the people of this country, in a referendum, had the confidence and belief to bring this Parliament into existence. In doing so, we as a country and as a people made a choice between two futures and between those who argued that Westminster should decide for Scotland how our schools, universities and hospitals should be run, and those who maintained that we would all benefit if decisions about Scotland were taken here in Scotland. We now know, beyond peradventure, that taking decisions in Scotland works for individuals, families and communities. The Parliament has demonstrated our concern for the most vulnerable in society. Free personal care for the elderly directly helps more than 77,000 people across Scotland and our legislation on homelessness is seen as an example round the world. We have started to tackle Scotland’s shameful health inequalities through the ban on smoking in public places and legislation on minimum pricing for alcohol. We have helped hard-pressed families by freezing the council tax, by ending charges for prescriptions and eye and dental checks and by ending bridge tolls. We have revived and protected the ancient and proud Scottish commitment to education by reintroducing free university and college tuition. As confirmed this very day in the first Police Scotland statistics, we have recognised communities’ concerns about crime by adding more than 1,000 additional officers and thus we have seen crime fall to its lowest level for 39 years. All those measures, and many more, demonstrate that this Parliament is delivering for communities across the country. Conversely, we also know—also beyond peradventure—that there is a heavy cost when we leave decisions in the hands of Westminster. We get Governments that we did not vote for; we get the bedroom tax; we get cuts to capital spending in the teeth of a recession; we get attacks on the poor and on people with disabilities; and we get weapons of mass destruction on the River Clyde. A poll published yesterday, which is confirmed by the social attitudes survey, asked people whether they trust the Scottish Parliament or the United Kingdom Parliament to take decisions for Scotland and found that 60 per cent of people in Scotland trust Holyrood compared to just 16 per cent who trust Westminster. The contrast and the choice that face the people next year could not be clearer. This year’s legislative programme, with 13 bills in total, will continue that strong track record not just of the Government but of the Parliament. Of course, not everything that matters can be addressed through legislation, but legislation does matter. All 13 of the bills in this year’s programme will make a genuine difference to people in Scotland. They demonstrate effective governance. One of the opportunities that is provided by devolution is to reform Scotland’s public bodies and public services to make them more efficient and better at their true role, which is serving the public. When we took office, there were 199 public bodies in Scotland; now, there are 113, which is a reduction of more than 40 per cent. The public sector landscape is less cluttered but more focused and therefore more effective. This year, we will introduce legislation to merge Historic Scotland and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, which will enable those bodies to operate more efficiently and will enhance our ability to preserve and protect our heritage. The focus of public authorities can be really important, especially if a vacuum is developing at UK level. In 2010, the UK Government controversially deprived the Food Standards Agency of its responsibilities for nutrition and labelling. That move was subsequently seen by Westminster’s Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee as contributing to the UK’s poor handling of the horsemeat scandal. Therefore, the food standards (Scotland) bill will establish a new body to take over all of the FSA’s old functions. The new body will ensure that the industry and public in Scotland can have full confidence in the safety and provenance of our food. Several other bills this year draw on expert reviews and will ensure that our laws are up to date and that our public services are responsive and efficient. The mental health and adults with incapacity bill will implement recommendations made by the McManus review group and others. It will improve the efficiency of mental health legislation. Importantly, for the first time, victims of mentally disordered offenders will be notified if the person who has committed a crime against them is being released from custody. Therefore, they will be able to make representations to the Mental Health Tribunal for Scotland. The damages bill will reform key aspects of the law relating to damages for personal injury, enacting recommendations made by the Scottish Law Commission. The conclusion of contracts bill will make it easier for contracts to be agreed electronically, helping to ensure that Scotland is an attractive place to do business. The bankruptcy consolidation bill will make Scottish bankruptcy law more accessible. The courts reform bill will enable civil cases to be resolved more quickly. It will implement the proposals from Lord Gill’s Scottish civil courts review, including the establishment of a new sheriff appeal court and a specialist personal injury court. It will ensure that cases are dealt with at the right level, recognising the Court of Session’s historic role as the apex of our civil courts and delivering faster, fairer justice right across the system. It represents the most radical set of changes to the civil courts for more than a century. One other change to the justice system will be of interest to the Parliament. We have all now accepted the need to end the system of automatic early release that was brought in by the Conservative Government in 1993 and left in place by the Labour and Liberal Democrat coalition here at Holyrood. It does not command public confidence. We are now in a position to end automatic early release for sexual offenders who are sentenced to more than four years and for serious violent offenders. That follows the work to stabilise the prison population and then reduce it over time by implementing other recommendations of the McLeish commission, such as introducing strong community-based sentences for less serious offenders. Further steps will follow as we continue the successful implementation of our justice reform programme. The things that I mentioned—the action on food standards, the new rights for victims of mentally disordered offenders and the major improvements to the justice system—are the fruits of having our own Parliament. I can tell members from 23 years’ experience of Westminster that that Parliament only rarely had the time or inclination to respond to specific Scottish challenges or priorities. However, those bills—that pattern of legislation—are also part of a larger story. This Parliament listens to evidence and seeks consensus where possible. It has used its powers to create opportunities for people across the country. Through the programme for government that we publish today, it will, over the course of this year, empower communities, create a fairer Scotland, accelerate economic recovery and mitigate the impact of Westminster austerity. One of the most important bills of the next period is the community empowerment and renewal bill. The bill will strengthen community planning, simplify the operation of the community right to buy and make it easier for communities to buy public sector land and buildings. One of this Parliament’s great early achievements was the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003, which was introduced by a coalition Government with support from across the chamber. The Government has given new momentum to the right-to-buy provisions of that legislation. We launched the Scottish land fund, established the land reform review group and, earlier in the summer, announced a new ambition that, by 2020, the amount of land owned by the communities of Scotland would double to an impressive total of 1 million acres. In June, we approved an application to register a community interest in land at Cape Wrath, next to the famous lighthouse. There are, in fact, two famous lighthouses at the north and south tips of our west coast. The southern one, at Mull of Galloway, came into community ownership this year; the land at Cape Wrath is now on its way to community ownership. With due respect to the Ministry of Defence, I suspect that most people in Scotland would rather that the stunning walkways of Cape Wrath—including the northern end of the new Scottish national trail—were in community ownership and freely accessible to the people than that they were an extension to a bombing range. This year’s summer Cabinets saw additional steps to empower communities. In July, in Shetland, we established a working group to consider greater powers for the island councils. Two weeks ago, in Hawick, we facilitated the borderlands initiative, which sees Scottish Borders Council and Dumfries and Galloway Council working with northern English local authorities. Last week, in Campbeltown, we announced the establishment of a rural parliament to give greater weight to the needs and priorities of remote and rural communities. This morning, in Dundee, I saw the importance of community empowerment in urban areas. St Mary’s community centre was created by people in the local area. They created a board, raised the funding and drove the project through. I saw one of the art workshops that the centre provides. Everyone I met was passionate about the benefits of the centre and the importance of the work that is done by the community to help itself. When the Cabinet was in Campbeltown, I spoke about how independence offers an opportunity to renew democracy at all levels in Scotland. That is true at a national level—we can draft a written constitution affirming the most treasured values of our newly independent nation—but it also applies at a local level. Independence is not just about national institutions; it is about releasing the potential of our people and our local communities. Our licensing bill is a further example of our commitment to stronger local powers. It improves and extends powers for local authorities in areas such as the regulation of metal dealers—a move that will help to tackle metal theft—and the licensing of taxis and private hire cars. The bill will introduce a new offence of supplying alcohol to people under the age of 18. It will also introduce a new licensing system for air weapons. Following the tragic death of Andrew Morton some years ago, there was wide support in this chamber for devolving the regulation of such weapons. Now, this Parliament can finally meet public concern over the issue and find a Scottish solution to a Scottish priority. This Government recognises that strong public services are a bedrock on which communities and individuals rely. They are an essential part of our vision for a fairer Scotland. Since the start of the Scottish patient safety programme in 2008, standardised mortality in hospitals has fallen by almost 12 per cent. Don Berwick, who was President Obama’s adviser on healthcare and recently advised the UK Government on how to deal with the problems in the health service south of the border, said that the programme is “without doubt one of the most ambitious patient safety initiatives in the world—national in scale, bold in aims, and disciplined in science … aligned toward a common vision, making Scotland the safest nation on earth from the viewpoint of health care”. The programme is an outstanding example of how devolution has enabled us to protect the national health service as a genuine public national health service. Housing is another example. The Homelessness etc (Scotland) Act 2003 is one of the most significant commitments ever made by any Parliament anywhere to assist homeless people. In 2002, 10,000 homeless households were classed as non-priority cases, with no right to settled accommodation. This year, the figure is zero. All people who are made unintentionally homeless now have a right to settled accommodation. The housing bill that we will introduce next year is a further step towards making decent housing available for everyone. By removing right-to-buy entitlements, the bill will protect social housing stock. It will also strengthen protection for tenants in the private rented sector by introducing new measures to deal with housing disputes and to regulate the letting industry. The legislation forms part of a broader commitment from this Government to make decent housing accessible and affordable. During the five years of this session of Parliament, we intend to build 30,000 affordable homes, at least 5,000 of which will be council houses. For those who are interested in statistics—I suspect that that includes the whole chamber—that represents a 66,500 per cent increase on the rate of council house construction under the previous Government, when, famously, six council houses were built in four years, all of them in Shetland. Those commitments—a truly national health service, decent affordable housing—are part of a wider vision of society that is based on cohesion, not division and on social inclusion, not stigma. That philosophy explains why we have made certain services universally available. Pensioners benefit from free bus travel—that is all pensioners. All of us have the reassurance of free personal care being available when we are older. In 2007, we established that there were actually 600,000 people earning below £16,000 a year who were liable to pay prescription charges. Many people had to choose which prescribed medicine they could take until the Government restored a national health service free at the point of need. Students have the right to free education, which enables them to earn and then contribute to society through a fair taxation system. Those advances are what we like to call the social wage. Services are available to everyone, because everyone contributes to society. The same spirit has influenced other Government policies: no compulsory redundancies in the public sector; the introduction of a living wage; and the council tax freeze to help hard-pressed families. Some people see the price of such policies, not their value. They say that those social gains are not sustainable. I say that what makes them sustainable is that they are universal—part of a social wage. If they were not universal, those in receipt of the social benefit would be separated and stigmatised, exactly as is happening with the UK Government’s welfare agenda. Far from being a something-for-nothing culture, the social wage is a contract that we have with the people of Scotland. To suggest that that is something for nothing is to mimic the bankrupt ideology that prevails in the Westminster Parliament. The social wage also has an economic benefit. By helping to provide a secure, stable and inclusive society, the public sector will nurture and encourage the talent and ambition of the people. Scotland will be a place in which people want to invest, work and live. The social wage helps to show that prosperity and fairness gang thegither. There is no trade-off between living in a wealthy country and living in a good society. The social wage is part of the distinctive approach that the Government has taken to supporting recovery in recent years. The Budget (Scotland) Bill will maintain that approach while continuing to drive recovery and long-term economic growth. We will continue to protect our infrastructure investment programme in the face of the 26 per cent real-terms cut that the UK Government has made to the capital budget. We are supporting more than £10 billion of investment from 2012 to 2015; we are continuing to support key sectors of the economy, such as renewable energy, food and drink, life sciences and tourism; and we are investing in skills. We delivered more than 25,000 modern apprenticeships last year. Ninety-two per cent of those who complete an apprenticeship are still in work six months later. The success of modern apprenticeships is one reason—just one—why youth unemployment has fallen from 113,000 to 77,000 since Angela Constance was appointed as Europe’s only youth employment minister. The figure is still far too high, but we now have one of the better rates in Europe. Across Scotland, central Government, local government, the third sector and the private sector are making young people our business. The approach that we have taken so far is working. Last month, Ernst & Young reported that our exports are expected to grow at six times the rate of the rest of the UK over the next four years. Our recession was shallower than the UK’s, and Scotland is performing better than the rest of the UK on all the major employment measures. The number of inward investment projects that Scotland secured increased by 49 per cent last year. This summer, Ernst & Young commented on the “ongoing rise in Scotland’s relative attractiveness for” foreign direct investment “compared to most other areas of the UK.” Members will remember that that is exactly the opposite of George Osborne’s infamous prediction in November 2011. Then, he said that the prospect of independence would deter inward investors. He maintained his disastrous record of economic forecasting earlier this week by suggesting that Canada—which has the best-performing economy in the developed world—was somehow disadvantaged by its independence in comparison with the UK, which has the second-worst-performing economy in the G7. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is in Aberdeen today, continuing that dismal record of forecasting. This morning, I heard him on the radio claiming that Scotland’s gross domestic product would be 4 per cent higher in 30 years’ time if we stayed under Westminster control. In fact, as an independent country, Scotland’s GDP will be 17 per cent higher in three years’ time, when our oil and gas reserves will be counted for the first time in our GDP statistics. That would place us in the top 10 of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries with the highest wealth per head of population. However, within the UK we are severely limited in the measures that we can take to assist recovery and boost GDP. Key fiscal levers such as public capital investment, corporation tax and air passenger duty remain outside our control. We have shown the potential for a different approach to taxation. A first step of this Government was to establish the most competitive business rates regime anywhere in the UK. We have legislated to replace stamp duty with a more progressive land and buildings transaction tax. We have also introduced the Landfill Tax (Scotland) Bill. The revenue Scotland and tax powers bill will establish revenue Scotland to collect those taxes from 2015. The bill will also put in place a framework that will apply to all devolved taxes. Over the period to 2020, we estimate that the start-up and operational costs in setting up revenue Scotland will be significantly lower than had we had asked Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs to perform the same duties. That could be a sign of the UK’s diseconomies of scale. However, that further makes the case for tax powers being controlled and administered from this Parliament. The establishment of revenue Scotland will be an historic step, but it is only a first step. After all, those devolved taxes—which are the most on offer from Westminster if we stay in the UK—mean that from 2015 Scotland will collect 15 per cent of all taxation revenue, rather than the present 7 per cent. This Parliament would still be a spending rather than a revenue-raising chamber. That is deeply harmful to Scotland; it means that we cannot use fiscal powers to grow our economy. As I said, the Scottish economy has performed better than the rest of the UK in recent years. In the first quarter of this year, our economy was 2 per cent below its peak output level of 2008, while the UK economy was 3.9 per cent below. It is worth noting that Canada, which, by implication, George Osborne thinks should merge with the United States of America, was 6.4 per cent above its pre-recession peak. The contrast between Scotland and the UK and those international ratings demonstrate a truth: this Parliament can mitigate the impact of UK Government policies. Our growth levels can be slightly higher and our employment figures a bit better, but mitigation is what it is. We cannot stop capital spending being slashed; we cannot use taxation policies to encourage business; and we cannot harness all our natural and human resources to build a richer and fairer society. A further reason why we need independence is that, by next year, the UK Government’s welfare reforms will reduce household incomes in Scotland by almost £2 billion a year. Much of that money is taken out of the pockets of those in work and earning low wages. However, last year, the UK Government announced £350 million more spending on the next stage of Trident renewal. That money is barely one third of 1 per cent of the estimated £100,000 million lifetime total cost of the decision to replace the Trident system. How can any Government choose to embark on expenditure of £100,000 million to renew Europe’s largest concentration of weapons of mass destruction while reducing benefits for the poorest households across the country? As Margaret Lynch, the chief executive of Citizens Advice Scotland, asked when she spoke of the impact of the cuts on her organisation: “How is it possible, in the 21st century, in an advanced capitalist economy ... that we have to have volunteer advisers trained in suicide awareness because the welfare state has been ripped asunder?”—[Official Report, Welfare Reform Committee, 22 January 2013; c 471.] This Government is providing almost £8 million of support to advice centres across Scotland, so that they can cope as people in extremis come to them for help. That is one of a number of steps that we have taken to mitigate Westminster’s welfare cuts. We have already, jointly with the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities, agreed this year to meet the cost of the UK Government’s cut in funding for council tax benefit successor arrangements. That protects more than half a million people on low incomes across Scotland. This year, we are providing an additional £9 million towards the new Scottish welfare fund, bringing a total of £33 million. The fund helps vulnerable people in a financial emergency and enables people to get household goods to set up home or to remain in their community rather than go into care. In this session, the Scottish welfare fund bill will put the new fund on to a secure and statutory footing, establishing a safety net for vulnerable people across the entire country. There is a hugely important point there. I talked earlier about how devolution has protected the national health service in Scotland. When we look at the chaos and fragmentation that has been brought about by health reform south of the border, is there anyone who seriously thinks that Westminster should run our health service? When we see the misery and suffering that is being brought about by welfare changes, is there anyone who wants Westminster to retain control of welfare? An independent Scotland will have the wit to develop a welfare system that lets work pay without reducing people to penury or despair. In addition to the 13 bills that we are introducing this year, the Parliament will consider the Referendum (Scotland) Bill, which provides the legal underpinning for the vote on 18 September next year, when the people of Scotland will decide this country’s future. Either a yes vote or a no vote has consequences for the future. The real debate is about how to create a prosperous country and a just society. It is about our attitude towards the disadvantaged and the vulnerable, our welcome for people who want to settle here, our relationship with Europe and the rest of the world, and our strength as a society to which we all contribute and from which we all benefit. Even more fundamental, independence is about who decides on those questions. The problem for the no campaign is that it will have to explain why an independent Scotland would be uniquely incapable of taking those decisions for ourselves. Why should we rely on a Westminster system to take decisions—many of which, like the bedroom tax, have been utterly misguided—when we have proved over the past 14 years that we, as a Parliament, are more than capable of delivering real progress for the people of Scotland? In the months ahead, we may well debate our particular views about education, health, employment and welfare reform. However, one thing that the record of this Parliament demonstrates and on which we should all agree is that it is better to decide things for ourselves than to have others decide for us. In my view, the logic of that—completing the powers of this Parliament, that is, independence—is what the people will vote for in 380 days’ time. The value of Scotland’s Parliament is demonstrated by this programme for government. That is why I commend it to members. [Applause.] Programme for Government 2013-14 The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is a debate on the Scottish Government’s programme for government. 15:32 Johann Lamont (Glasgow Pollok) (Lab): The First Minister’s statement was so uplifting that I almost felt like reaching into Jackie Baillie’s handbag for a saltire. [Laughter.] The Presiding Officer: Order. Johann Lamont: I imagined that during the recess the First Minister might like to re-engage with the real world but he is, on the evidence of his statement today, as distant and delusional about what Scotland is like as he was on the day that he left for the recess. Despite Andy Murray’s best efforts, the summer did not get off to the best of starts for the First Minister. He has kept himself busy by making a series of speeches—each one more ludicrous than the last. We, too, could be like the Isle of Man: independent, but still part of five unions—everything changing, but nothing changing. In his statement, the First Minister said that it is better for us to make decisions ourselves than to let other people do so, yet he is happy to cede economic policy, fiscal policy and monetary policy to a Westminster Treasury team. He knows that that does not make sense, and the members who sit behind him know it even better. Over the recess, Alex Salmond made clear what his one priority is. It is not health, not education and not economic growth, but a referendum on independence— Members: Where were you? Johann Lamont: I will tell members where I was: I was listening—[Interruption.] You see, the difference is that when someone listens to people and understands what is happening in their lives, it informs their politics—not a project that they have been interested in for the past 40 years. It is not about talking to people, but about listening to their lived experience. The First Minister’s priority is just a referendum on independence. [Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer (John Scott): Can we have a little bit of calm, please? Johann Lamont: I know that that is the line that SNP members have been given and they have done very well at shouting it. Let us get on. Today was an opportunity for the First Minister to draw a line under that summer of woe and to show us that we could take him seriously as Scotland’s First Minister. He could have done that by bringing forward a legislative programme that met one crucial test: to put the interests of the people of Scotland before the Scottish National Party’s interests. With this unambitious, lacklustre and moribund programme, he has completely failed. This morning, Nicola Sturgeon described the programme as “radical”. I can think only that she has led a very sheltered life. I bow to no one in my interest in a bill on electronic signatures, and I am as interested in merging Historic Scotland as the next person, but nobody can pretend that such measures are “radical”. As the First Minister often reminds us, he won an unprecedented majority in May 2011, but he uses that power to put Scotland on pause. We no longer have a Government—we have a campaign. It is a campaign that will do anything not to rock the boat ahead of next year’s vote, despite the challenges that we face, as a country. As I have said, the First Minister made a series of speeches this summer. None of them spoke about the pressures on our health service and his plan to ensure that our care is not affected as a result of those. Indeed, listening to and reflecting on what the First Minister said in the passage in his statement on promoting fairness in the NHS and its safety programme, I was trying to work out whether he was totally insensitive, whether he was complacent or whether he actually lives in the real world at all. There was no mention of the concerns of staff and patients about hospital mortality rates—especially the concerns of the staff and patients in the constituency of his Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing. The First Minister waxes lyrical about his vision for Scotland, but he does not do the basic job of Government in addressing those problems. This week, teachers have warned us that pressure on school resources will impact on education standards—in particular for people from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, we know the Scottish Government’s solution; Mike Russell has told us that he cannot do a thing to improve our schools until after independence. The Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning (Michael Russell): I did not say that. Johann Lamont: We want the Government to address the concerns of people in the real world—I point out to Mike Russell that he went to the University of Glasgow and said in a press release that he could not do anything about schools until after independence. He ought not to deny that now. On care, when I exposed the scandal of 15-minute care visits, the minister who is responsible, Michael Matheson, told me that it was an “old chestnut”. Since then, care workers have spoken out about the pressures that they face in being told to task and go, and not to speak to elderly people who are isolated in their homes. It turns out that Michael Matheson is partly right about 15-minute visits; in some areas, the visits are down to seven minutes. That is a scandal and an affront to all of us, and it should be the business of Government to address it. Instead of telling us that everything is fantastic, it should use the powers that it has to make a difference. When are we going to face up to this challenge? Not any time soon, by the sounds of it. John Mason (Glasgow Shettleston) (SNP): Will Johann Lamont give way? Johann Lamont: I will take Mr Mason in a moment. On childcare, although we welcome the move to 600 hours, we would also welcome money for local authorities to deliver them—or we would welcome, at least, John Swinney outlining for us what our councils will have to cut from their budgets to pay for that promise. However, we know that that will not be enough to make a difference to families’ lives. How do we know that? The First Minister has told us that we will get a childcare revolution, but only after—you guessed it—independence. We have to address concerns right now. On the bedroom tax, which was dreamed up by the Tories—[Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order! Johann Lamont: Cue noises off. The depressing thing is that the SNP has not lifted a finger to help people. It would take only £50 million to protect the most vulnerable tenants in Scotland from that unfair and unjust tax, but again we must wait until after independence. We have offered to work with the Scottish Government on the matter, but it has rejected us. Today, Wonga has announced profits of £62.5 million. Where are the funds for a loan guarantee fund to stop people falling into the hands of the extortionate legal money lenders? Young people are looking for the skills and qualifications that are needed in a tough jobs market. Where is the plan for our colleges, which have been decimated by the Government over the past few years? For the young people who depend on it, it will ring very hollow that the First Minister believes that we have free education in Scotland. If a person does not have access to a place, there is not much at all that is free about education. Nicola Sturgeon said this morning that there is a programme for economic growth. I am sorry: the Government must do more than just say that for it to happen. A feature of the SNP Government is that it tells us that it is doing things, but it lives with a different world out there. There are unacceptable levels of unemployment, there is underemployment, people are stuck on low wages and there are zero-hours contracts. Where in the programme is the action to help people? What could the Government do now to make a difference to people’s lives, instead of spending all its energy, enthusiasm and commitment in persuading people to vote for independence? If its members were to remember that they are parliamentarians rather than nationalists, they might know where to start. Jenny Marra wants to produce measures to tackle the shame of human trafficking. Drew Smith is proposing an opt-out organ-donation system that could save many Scottish lives. Patricia Ferguson proposes to reform our fatal accident inquiry system to ensure that families are looked after when they lose a loved one. Iain Gray proposes to regulate our buses so that those who rely on public transport can get a bus when they need it. Richard Simpson is proposing a raft of measures to save lives by tackling Scotland’s unhealthy relationship with alcohol. Neil Findlay is taking steps to give people confidence in our politics again by reforming lobbying rules. Mark Griffin is proposing changes to help British Sign Language users. The First Minister, with Scotland’s devolved powers, has the ability to do so much more, but his Government turns the other way. He is always telling us what he cannot do, rather than what he can do. He talks positively about devolution but either does not understand it or does not want it. He wants to frame the debate as though the choice is between Scotland and the Tories. The First Minister denies that one of the great successes of devolution was when a Labour Government funded record levels of public services, which we were then allowed to deliver in our communities. He is a man who lacks even self-awareness. He tells us that Parliament listens to evidence and seeks consensus where possible. If only that were true. If it were true, his ludicrous, ill-thought-through and dangerous proposals for independence would have been flung out long ago. The First Minister says that his referendum will give the people of Scotland the chance to finish our home rule journey. He takes for himself—ironically—the successes of devolution, which were delivered by those who are committed to staying in the United Kingdom, not by those who want to leave it. The strange thing is that neither the First Minister nor the SNP were ever on that home rule journey. They would not sign the claim of right—I know because I was there. Alex Salmond stood outside the Scottish Constitutional Convention and had nothing to do with the Calman commission. I signed the claim of right; he absented himself from it. The truth is that Alex Salmond and the SNP refused to be part of the journey that set up the Parliament. They stood apart from the will of the Scottish people and those of us who fought for devolution. The irony is that those who are driven by a desire to take power closer to people through devolution are now witnessing a Scottish Government that pulls power to itself instead of empowering people. Why so timid on community empowerment? The SNP again stands apart from the will and ambitions of the Scottish people. If there was any doubt that the SNP does not believe in devolution and this Parliament, it is its legislative programme. There is nothing in it to address the real needs of the Scottish people, there is nothing progressive, there is nothing radical and there is no attempt to exploit the Parliament’s full powers. Why is that? It is because it is not in Alex Salmond’s interests to prove what the Parliament can currently do, or to show that our lives can be improved by devolution. We all know that week in, week out, minister after minister says, “Well, that’s a very interesting problem. We’ll solve it after independence.” They damn themselves with their own words. All Scotland knows that Alex Salmond will always put his own interests ahead of those of the people of Scotland. The First Minister puts his referendum ahead of Scotland’s needs. That is why the legislative programme is as thin as his case for separation. The First Minister has decided that Scotland must wait until after the referendum for any of our needs to be addressed. His back benchers must ask themselves whether they are parliamentarians or placemen and placewomen, because surely they can see that they are standing up for Salmond, rather than standing up for Scotland. The depressing fact is that Scotland is on pause while we wait for Alex Salmond’s referendum, and families across my constituency and across the country are having to wait for action until the referendum comes. That is a denial of the First Minister’s responsibilities. I remind him that this battle is Scotland versus Salmond, and Scotland is going to win. 15:46 Ruth Davidson (Glasgow) (Con): Perhaps we should not be surprised that in the same breath as the First Minster celebrates the success in tackling unemployment in Scotland, he claims that the UK Government’s approach, which is fundamental to delivering economic growth, is all wrong for Scotland. The UK delivers for Scotland, yet it chokes the First Minster to admit that we are moving in the right direction, thanks to the action of the coalition in Whitehall. Despite that, in the same breath he said that he would keep the economic underpinnings of the pound sterling and the Bank of England. It is with deep irony that a legislative programme has been presented that will mean that the parliamentary year will be marked not by the introduction of new laws to materially improve the lives of Scots, but by the Scottish Government’s obsession with the break-up of the United Kingdom and its white paper on independence, so this parliamentary session will be dominated by something that could not possibly be considered until more than a year from now. Clearly, I hope that it will never be considered. We await the white paper’s appearance with interest. Planning for the break-up of the most successful political, economic and social union that the world has ever seen will take some time, but from the evidence of the Government’s programme, there has been time for little else, and the governance of Scotland is all but on hold. For unionists like me, that is the great tragedy of the referendum campaign, because at a time when we should be getting on with the job that the vast majority of the people of Scotland want us to do—working together to make Scotland a better place—valuable Government time is being spent on planning for something that even large numbers of SNP voters reject. If we glance back at the SNP’s manifesto for the 2011 election, it shows us how many promises the party still has to honour. We should remember that we are talking about an Administration that has an overall majority that allows it to do anything that it wants with the powers at its disposal. What happened to the grandiose promises to help to create new retail banks and to support social banking? Nothing. What about the promise to create the UK’s most competitive business taxation system? It has resulted in a new retail tax that will instead burden Scottish businesses with a £95 million disadvantage. There was also a pledge to create a simple town centre regeneration fund. I am sorry, but that is still under generation. What about the promise to increase Scottish exports by 50 per cent in six years? The daddy of them all is the non-profit distributing scheme, which, it was promised, would in its first two years deliver up to £500 million of investment in building projects such as schools and hospitals, but which has so far produced only about £20 million of investment. From what I can see from the programme that has been presented today, there is no intention to make good on those pledges any time soon. Instead, we have two new bills about the governance of public bodies and four bills on technical changes to the administration of law. The proposed community empowerment and renewal bill makes great play of strengthening community voices, but will that mean that the Scottish Government will stop riding roughshod over communities when it comes to wind farm applications? Although the bill talks about streamlining community right to buy in the accompanying housing bill, that right is being taken away from individuals. In fact, in that housing bill we will see the abolition of the right to buy, which was the most empowering legislation passed in this country for a generation and which created a property-owning democracy. The First Minster talks about what is democratically right for this country, yet he seeks to deny its people the one thing that gave them real economic and social freedom. Thanks to the Conservative Party, thousands of people took control of their own lives, unshackled as they were from the whims of local authorities’ determination to control every aspect of their lives. Indeed, it is also thanks in large part to the Conservative Party that the proposed revenues Scotland and tax powers bill is necessary to establish a system for dealing with the new tax-raising powers that will come to the Scottish Parliament in 2015. That is in response to the Scotland Act 2012 and the biggest transfer of fiscal powers for 300 years, which has been enacted by a Conservative-led UK Government. It is thanks, too, to the Scottish Conservatives that we have those 1,000 police officers of which the First Minister spoke. It is also thanks to the Scottish Conservatives that the council tax freeze happened. We also called for action to improve the care for pre-school children and we are glad to see some recognition of the problems in that crucial phase of life in the continuing passage of the Children and Young People (Scotland) Bill. It is therefore to be regretted that amidst the rhetoric about a commitment to education there is nothing in the programme that directly addresses the continuing underachievement of the thousands of young people who are leaving the education system unable to read, write or count properly. It is a stain on this country, with its once proud reputation for educational excellence, that approximately a fifth of our young people leave school functionally illiterate. Apart from improving life chances and employability by putting in more effort to tackle illiteracy, it would make us better able to tackle the challenges that are faced by the police and justice system in dealing with offenders. Today, we have learned from the First Minister that the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill will now include the abolition of automatic early release for serious offenders. He rightly says that that practice no longer commands public respect. It is something about which the Scottish Conservatives have been ceaseless in our criticism. Unfortunately, despite promises not just in the First Minister’s 2011 manifesto but in his 2007 manifesto, the change will not extend to all offenders. Indeed, long-term sentences of over four years, which the First Minister talked about, accounted for just 3 per cent of sentences handed down last year. So, when 97 per cent of custodial sentences will be untouched by the change, it should be no surprise to the First Minister that we will continue to argue that the reduction of prison terms passed by our courts should in principle be a reward and not a right. As one welcome measure is introduced—albeit taking baby steps—a fundamental liberty could be at risk from another bill. It is the plan under the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill to abolish the safeguard of corroboration in criminal trials without a full review of the law of evidence—something that we believe is essential if the change is not to lead to miscarriages of justice in the future. The precious principle of innocent until guilt is proved must be protected, but there is a real risk that it will be sacrificed to secure more convictions, in particular for sex crimes. Of course, we all want all offenders to be caught and punished, but the price must not be the removal of liberty from the blameless. I urge the First Minister, if he will not listen to members of this Parliament, to listen to the Scottish legal profession. The Law Society of Scotland and the Faculty of Advocates have argued that the proposal will lead to miscarriages of justice without significant change in criminal procedure. Removal of corroboration from Scots law will potentially leave Scotland with one of the lowest levels of protection against wrongful conviction in the western world. So, we urge the Scottish Government not to introduce the change without undertaking a wider review of the law of evidence. The First Minister says in his programme’s foreword: “It is now time to extend the advantages of self-government”. I agree with that but, sadly, the programme is notable not for what it achieves but for what it does not achieve. It does little to extend the advantages that he has, because it is not in his interests to make devolution work as we believe it can. It is in his narrow self-interest to hold back this country, to limit its ambitions within the framework of the United Kingdom and to present a deliberately negative and uninspiring picture of Scotland. We do not recognise his view of a nation that is trodden on by its bigger neighbour, but we do see a thriving nation that is playing a crucial and enthusiastic role in the continued development of the fully integrated family of nations of these islands. The First Minister says that he is ambitious for Scotland but, sadly, this programme shows that that ambition is more for him than for his country. 15:55 Willie Rennie (Mid Scotland and Fife) (LD): With more than 50,000 incidents a year, domestic violence is far too prevalent in Scotland. Too many women and men suffer behind closed doors, and often in silence. On this first day of the new parliamentary term, we should signal our renewed determination to root out the problem. I would welcome new proposals from the Government on how we can do more to tackle domestic violence in our country, on education to help people to identify abusive relationships, on reviewing guidelines on prosecution for domestic violence, and on funding for the range of organisations and facilities that support people who find themselves in abusive relationships. I am pleased that the Scottish Parliament will be given an early opportunity to vote on equal marriage. It is a mark of a modern, open, tolerant and liberal society that those who wish to get married can do so. Churches will have the power and the right not to participate in such ceremonies. Individuals will also be protected if they do not wish to conduct such ceremonies, even if their church wants to. John Mason: Is Willie Rennie assured by the reassurances that have been given that ministers, clerics and even denominations will not be dragged through the courts because the European Court of Human Rights can make the ultimate decision? Willie Rennie: I am. The appropriate measures will be taken at Westminster to introduce changes to the Equality Act 2010, which will protect the individuals about whom John Mason talked. We need to ensure that Scotland joins the nations of the world that have equal marriage on the statute book, because it is a mark of the modern society that I want Scotland to become. I would like the Scottish Parliament to match what is happening on childcare in England. This week, thousands of two-year-olds in England will get the chance—the right—to have 15 hours of nursery education each week. The First Minister has denied Scottish children that, but he could change all that. He could concede that Professor James Heckman is right when he says that the best education investment takes place before the age of three. There is an opportunity to improve young people’s life chances through education. If the First Minister wanted to, he could include such a proposal in his legislative programme. In his statement, the First Minister spent much time on outlining new—and sometimes old—initiatives on community empowerment, which is close to my heart. I am sure that we will look carefully at the proposals that he makes, and that we will support measures to give communities more powers. However, the reality and the record are something different, after the centralisation of our police and fire services, which was one of the biggest transfers of power from local government to central Government since devolution—so much for community empowerment. Recent news has shown that the economy is on the mend and that we are moving towards recovery. This morning, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development gave a positive assessment of growth. Substantial progress has been made on the UK Government’s plan to cut the deficit, which has since 2010 reduced by a third as a percentage of gross domestic product. Significant progress has been made in the past year on job creation and reducing unemployment. Although the Scottish figures wobble from month to month, it is clear that we are benefiting from the 1 million new private sector jobs that have been created across the UK. The challenges that are faced by the hundreds of thousands of people in Scotland who are still out of work need to be met by our two Governments working together. I support much of what the Scottish Government does on growth and employment, but it is important that it and its agencies promote the UK schemes that are available in Scotland, too. For example, the UK Commission for Employment and Skills survey shows that there are fewer companies in Scotland with apprentices than there are in the rest of the UK. Scottish businesses will get £2,000 off their national insurance from next April because of the changes that the UK Government is making. I want ministers in both Governments to promote that so that small businesses think about using the savings to take on an apprentice or another employee. I also want to hear Scottish ministers telling Scottish companies about the £1 billion youth contract that provides businesses with up to £2,275 per person for a job, training or work experience, and about the funding-for-lending scheme and the business bank, which will provide billions of pounds of low-cost capital. There is also the UK enterprise capital fund, which is worth £200 million, and the annual investment allowance for plant and machinery, which is being increased from £25,000 to £250,000 for two years. The UK Green Investment Bank, which is based in Edinburgh, has £3.8 billion-worth of UK Government money to help to unblock the financing of renewables projects. It is my hope that the Scottish Government will work closely with the UK Government to maximise those opportunities for Scotland. The next 12 months will set the course of this country for the next 300 years and more. The power that is vested in the hands of the people who live in our great nation is immense. I am in no doubt that everyone in this chamber wants the best for Scotland; we just disagree on how we want to achieve it. My support for a strong Scottish Parliament with home rule in a strong partnership with the United Kingdom is on the record. The stakes are high and the risks are great, but the opportunity of a renewed constitutional settlement within the UK is within our grasp. 16:01 Alison Johnstone (Lothian) (Green): I thank the Government for advance sight of the First Minister’s statement, much of which concentrated on the referendum next year. It is quite right that both sides continue to make arguments to further their case and Greens will continue to argue for the principle of decentralisation: that decisions should be made as close as possible to those whom they affect. I hope that we can all make our arguments with the mutual respect that best facilitates the debate among us and among all those in Scotland outside the Parliament who will really decide. It is important, however, that we spend time making the best use of the powers that we already have. The way in which we develop the economy is extremely important, and I am pleased to hear the First Minister make the argument that looking after the health and wellbeing of Scotland’s people and creating an inclusive society in which the maximum number of people can participate is key to making Scotland flourish. When Professor Stiglitz spoke to the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee in February he emphasised the importance of using a dashboard of indicators to measure a society’s success. We must aim not to create growth in the economy purely for growth’s sake. People want high-quality, meaningful, secure and well-paid jobs with full employment rights; warm, secure homes with secure tenancies; first-class education and health services; and a clean environment in which to live—not an extra percentage point on GDP that benefits only a few. Scotland’s national performance framework gives us hope that we can lose the tunnel vision that GDP imposes and emphasise the things that make people’s lives better and more fulfilling. Measuring median household income is one practical change that we could easily make to help to ensure that our economic policy benefits more people. Government is expected to deliver across a wide spectrum of social, environmental and economic outcomes; public procurement accounts for £9 billion of spending a year and should be expected to do the same. We are constrained by European Union procurement rules, but we must not use that as an excuse for not making progress with the forthcoming procurement bill. It is our responsibility to make Scottish procurement work hard for Scottish society and for our environment and economy. It is very important that our small and microbusinesses are better able to access public procurement contracts and compete for work. Small, locally owned businesses create a resilient economy and they are more likely to hold on to and value staff and less likely to disappear off seeking the next big tax break or subsidy. Ministers might not get to stand in front of the latest new thing cutting the ribbon, but there is substantial evidence to support the wisdom of investing in smaller local-level infrastructure projects as the best way to help people to create jobs and to help the economy. I will be interested to look in more detail at today’s statement and at the impacts of the planned bills on women and children. We need to understand how a legislative programme or a policy change benefits different sections of society. We already know that the coalition Government is imposing a gendered austerity on Britain. The cuts affect men and women, but it is women who are chiefly being hit—hit through the loss of benefits, hit through the loss of public sector jobs and hit as they are expected to fill the gap left by underfunded care and community services. The Scottish Government published its own gender analysis of the UK cuts last week. I hope that that will be replicated for other areas of policy. A gender analysis of this year’s budget would be a welcome addition. Gender comes into play across almost all areas of society, including starkly in health and sport. Last month’s British Medical Journal reported that only 38 per cent of seven-year-old girls in Scotland engage in an hour’s worth of physical activity each day, compared with 63 per cent of boys. Significantly more men than women cycle, and only proper investment in safe junctions and segregated cycle lanes will convince more people that cycling will improve, not endanger, their health. The Government must increase spend on cycling and walking infrastructure or the target of 10 per cent of journeys to be made by bike by 2020 will remain a vague and unsupported vision. Many people in Scotland cannot afford to or do not want to have to rely on a private car. They want transport justice and they want investment in public transport to be increased to ensure that the Government does not continue to miss climate targets. The First Minister also talked of decentralisation and building strong local democracy. So far, the Government has failed to convince me and many others that it is really committed in this area. I find it deeply ironic that a Government that is campaigning for full independence has, in effect, removed local authorities’ ability to raise the revenue that they need to fund local services properly. We do not want a mini-Westminster here. Devolution must not stop here in Holyrood. The community empowerment and renewal bill should help clubs such as Musselburgh Windsor to take over the changing facilities that it needs. It should allow input from and engagement with those who want to contribute to improving and running local activities, to working with the NHS on hospital community gardens and to using vacant land for allotments, working alongside local authorities and others. However, we need to ensure that communities have sufficient capacity and support to make that a reality. Scottish Greens look forward to progress on equal marriage and on childcare, which is much needed. The proposed bills on welfare additions, food standards and housing are welcome, too. I do not have time to cover everything that I would like to, but I look forward to listening to the rest of the debate. The Deputy Presiding Officer: We move to the open debate. I call Mark McDonald, to be followed by James Kelly. Speeches should be six minutes or thereby, please. 16:07 Mark McDonald (Aberdeen Donside): This is my first speech in the Parliament since the Donside by-election. [Applause.] It is important that I begin by paying tribute to my predecessor, Brian Adam, who, as we all know, had tributes paid to him in the Parliament at the time of his passing. Brian was a great source of encouragement and inspiration for me during my time as an activist and then as a city councillor, when I worked closely with him. He was a man who always put the communities of his constituency at the forefront, and that is something that I aim to do in following in his footsteps. The Aberdeen Donside constituency is something of a microcosm for many of the issues that affect the wider Scotland. Its social dynamics, which members will have seen as they came to campaign, range from the affluent to the areas of poverty that still exist within what is regarded outside Aberdeen as a rich city. We still have what my colleague Kevin Stewart has oft described as poverty amidst plenty within the city of Aberdeen. I spent the summer going round my constituency and talking to various groups in the community about issues that affect them and, turning to the legislative programme that lies before us, I note that much in it will be of interest and benefit to the communities that I represent. It was interesting to note Johann Lamont claiming that Scotland is now on pause. I think that it is worth noting that Ms Lamont seemed to spend the entire summer on mute. The community empowerment and renewal bill will offer significant opportunities for community groups and organisations across Scotland. I echo some of what Alison Johnstone said about that. I hope that it will allow, for example, the development of community gardens and play facilities, and allow sports clubs to come together to develop facilities on land that is currently unused. Those are the kind of opportunities that we want to see being unlocked, because there often seems to be far too much bureaucratic process lying in the way of that happening. I hope that legislation can be introduced that will allow such groups to take control of resources within their communities and operate them for the benefit of people in their communities. One of the other interesting and very welcome elements of the legislative programme is the airgun licensing. I encountered that issue during my time in Aberdeen as a parliamentary researcher and latterly as a councillor. It was being pushed very hard by Norman Collie, a Labour councillor at that time, in relation to a potential City of Aberdeen byelaw to deal with the issue. I was delighted to receive Norman Collie’s backing and endorsement during the course of the Donside by-election campaign and I am sure that he would be equally delighted to learn of the progress that is being made on airgun licensing in this Parliament. It is a demonstration of this Parliament taking action in Scotland to deal with priorities that have been identified within Scotland. I noticed George Osborne’s visit to my constituency today. He trotted out the claim that we do not need to look at taking control of oil in Scotland because it is already benefiting Scotland, apparently. If he took the time while visiting my constituency to go and knock the doors in areas such as Middlefield and Cummings Park, he would encounter many individuals who are feeling the sharp end of his welfare reform and austerity agenda. What we need to do is less of the taking away of the benefits from people and more to ensure that those who are in work— Ruth Davidson: Will the member take an intervention? Mark McDonald: No, no, no. We need to do more to ensure that those who are in work and who rely on in-work benefits because of poor pay are lifted out of that depressing cycle. That is a way to reduce the benefit bill and improve the lot of people. It would be far better if we saw George Osborne acting on that, rather than coming to preach to Scotland. That is why the legislative underpinning of the welfare fund is welcome—albeit depressing, because it highlights the idea that pervades the unionist parties that the function of the chamber should be to mitigate bad decisions taken at Westminster using only the small array of tools at our disposal. If that lack of self-belief and vision is so inherent in the no campaign, it is little wonder that its supporters cannot lift their eyes to the horizon and look at the future that Scotland could see and could realise, were the chamber possessed of the full powers of independence to take decisions on behalf of the people who elect us. Jackie Baillie (Dumbarton) (Lab): Will the member take an intervention? Mark McDonald: Very briefly. Jackie Baillie: I thank the member for taking an intervention. The Scottish welfare fund has of course been devolved to Scotland by the UK Government. How can the member explain the fact that the Scottish Government cannot seem to spend it? Mark McDonald: In an interesting twist of fate, the Scottish welfare fund is also being administered via Scotland’s local authorities. I am sure that the member will welcome that, given that she is so concerned about giving powers to local authorities. Perhaps if the member gets on the blower to her local Labour council and gets it to do more to promote the welfare fund, she might find that it would start to spend some of that money on the people who need it the most. The eyes of the world will be on us over the next 12 months as we shape up for the independence referendum. We stand ready to join the family of nations as a full member, but again we find self-belief and vision so lacking as Alistair Darling claims that Scotland would struggle on the world stage and would not have the reputation of the UK in international affairs. I am not entirely sure that that is necessarily a bad thing, but it is worth pausing to look at nations around us. If we look at the pivotal role played by Norway during the course of the Middle East peace process and at the exemplary record of Ireland when it comes to contributions to United Nations peacekeeping missions, we see that being a big country waving its guns around and swaggering on the world stage does not necessarily make that country a key contributor to world affairs. All too often, the UK’s reputation is that of one who hides behind the playground bully and occasionally peeks out to say “Yeah” in support. That is not the reputation that I want for Scotland on the international stage. We can do better; we will do better. 16:14 James Kelly (Rutherglen) (Lab): You would think that ministers, in considering the programme for Government, might have taken some time over the recess to exit their offices to look at what is actually happening in the country. If they had done so, they would have seen the cost-of-living crisis due to the 6.4 per cent real-terms drop in wages that workers are having to suffer, the 25 per cent drop in the number of homes built, resulting in a housing crisis with a potential shortfall of 160,000 homes in 2035, and the scandal of zero-hours contracts whereby workers are being exploited. Mark McDonald: Will the member give way? James Kelly: Let me make some progress. None of those issues is addressed in the programme for Government. The SNP Government and its back benchers have become a team of one-trick ponies, the record stuck on continually playing the tune of independence. The procurement bill—legislation that is being introduced—does not exactly inspire confidence. As Alison Johnstone quite rightly said, we need to look at how the £9 billion that is spent on public procurement could be spent advantageously for local economies. However, we can hardly be inspired with confidence when we see that Sir Peter Housden is being required to appear before the Public Audit Committee tomorrow to explain £500 million of unreported cost—£0.5 billion is hardly an amount of money that might be lost down the back of the settee. How can we have confidence in procurement when there is no control and transparency in key transport projects? Mark McDonald: Will the member give way? James Kelly: I will give way to Mark McDonald, who is no doubt fresh from the Haudagain roundabout. He probably had to leave last Tuesday to reach the Parliament today. Mark McDonald: I thank the member for giving way. He mentioned zero-hours contracts, pay and conditions and expenditure on housing. Can he remind us where, in relation to this Parliament, decisions on employment and capital spending are taken? James Kelly: On the issue of what this Parliament is responsible for, the member might want to look at the Borders rail project and some of the examples of zero-hours contracts there. That is a Scottish Government responsibility. In the procurement bill, the Scottish Government should be looking at addressing some of those issues. How can we introduce a living wage to some of the contracts that are being handed out by the Scottish Government? How can we tackle the issue of blacklisting—something that SNP MSPs were silent on before the recess? It is an absolute scandal that trade unionists should be penalised for their activities by being blacklisted. We should be examining that issue closely. We should also look seriously at how we can support apprenticeships and training programmes not only to help businesses, but to support young people and the economy. Labour will examine those issues in the procurement bill. There is a complete absence from the programme of anything to do with buses, which are a big issue in local communities. We know why that is. The SNP Government has cut the reimbursement rates for concessionary travel, so routes are being cut—bus operators in my constituency have told me that. That means that pensioners and people in local communities are being left stranded without bus services. SNP members’ attitude to that is to shut their eyes and to pretend that it is not happening. Some of the proposals in Iain Gray’s proposed bus regulation (Scotland) bill would help to tackle those issues. The tragedy is that the SNP’s obsession with independence has undermined our ability as a Parliament to deal with the issues that affect hundreds of thousands of Scots. While we were mired in a housing crisis, the Parliament was taking time to debate the 10-year anniversary of the Iraq war. While thousands of food parcels are handed out in communities every week, the First Minister and his Government have armies of civil servants looking at the independence referendum. While pensioners are stranded as a result of bus routes being axed, the Government rushes out yet another consultation. To sum up, the SNP Government is too busy talking to itself instead of standing up for Scotland. This is not the time for a time out. The Scottish Government needs a plan of action now that addresses the anxieties and problems of Scotland’s communities in 2013. 16:20 Christina McKelvie (Hamilton, Larkhall and Stonehouse) (SNP): As we look on, virtually helpless, we see Iain Duncan Smith and his coalition colleagues damning the most vulnerable to a future of hopelessness and financial misery. While the bankers and Tory donors are bought off with tax dispensations and bonuses, the poor, the sick and the struggling must be made to pay for that. In the post-war years, with the national health service and family allowance coming on stream, there was a belief that Government was beginning to turn around the great divide between rich and poor and north and south. Now, we should look at what has happened in the space of just a few months. Not only has any sort of movement towards equality and a real diminution of child poverty—an issue that the Scottish Parliament has made good efforts to tackle since its instigation—been arrested but the tide has been reversed. It can hardly come as a surprise to the UK Government’s leaders that women and families are disproportionately affected by that Government’s benefit reform programme. Patrick Harvie (Glasgow) (Green): I agree with much of what the member says, but the change has not been over a few months; instead, it has been decades since the post-war consensus was thrown out. Arguments such as those for tax competition have been a big part of the reason why we have moved away from the trend towards equality. Should not Scotland reject such arguments rather than attempt a new generation of the same thing? Christina McKelvie: Patrick Harvie makes a relevant point, but the points that I will go on to outline are about the changes in the past few months. I take on board completely what the member says about the past decades, but the changes that I will talk about have happened in the past few months. Last week, a National Children’s Bureau report showed that up to 1.5 million more children are growing up in poor households now than in 1973. That is UK progress for us. We have the freeze on child benefit; the benefit cap; the reduction in the proportion of childcare costs that are covered by working tax credit; the increase in the taper rate for all tax credits; the removal of the baby element of child tax credits; the requirement for lone parents on income support with a youngest child aged five to move to jobseekers allowance; and the abolition of the health in pregnancy grant. That is all before the assault of the bedroom tax on families who have the audacity to give their two children separate rooms or, for those with disabilities, space for special equipment. Those are all attacks on equality for women in our society. As the Deputy First Minister, Nicola Sturgeon, said last week, the Scottish Government is doing all that it can to mitigate the problem using the resources and powers that are available to it. So we have the tale of two Governments and the choice of two futures. We are at a crossroads for our nation. One choice is an SNP Government that is providing an extra £9.2 million towards the new £33 million Scottish welfare fund. That fund has already helped more than 20,000 people and it has the capacity to support about 200,000 people. We should all be promoting that fund with our local authorities. I commend the fact that the welfare fund is being put on a statutory footing. However, our powers are limited. Only with a yes vote can Scotland’s Government set about creating a fair, caring and compassionate welfare system that does not punish those who are sick, poor or vulnerable. Our approach will, I believe, be positive, constructive and supportive, rather than one that implies blame or that labels people as benefit scroungers. Everyone will be working for and will be supported by the Scottish common weal. As colleagues in the Parliament are aware, I have a close and very personal interest in the lives of those who suffer from motor neurone disease. On average, victims of MND live for 14 months from diagnosis. Those sufferers, having been assaulted in 2008 by the work capability assessment, now have to be put through the mill of Department for Work and Pensions welfare benefits assessments, questionnaires and appeals as well as the worry that they might not be able to support themselves financially through such a traumatic time. It seems downright malevolent to force a terminally ill person to go through that, and that is to say nothing of the waste of taxpayers’ money. People with MND do not get better; they get worse and they die, but the Westminster Government believes that, unless someone is likely to die within six months, they are not terminally ill and they might well be considered fit for work—as many MND sufferers have been told—and have their benefits withdrawn. Then there is the bedroom tax. They lose their jobs because they are no longer physically capable of work. They need special adaptations to cope at home. They need kit like a wheelchair or breathing equipment to keep them safe overnight and it all takes up a lot of space in their bedrooms. Not surprisingly, their carers—who are probably their spouses—have to give up their work to look after them and need a second room to catch up on the much-needed sleep that they require to care for the person through the day. For that privilege, the family is expected to pay £12 a week. Lord Freud—members know him: he was employed by the Tories on the other side of the chamber and continued in employment by the Tories on this side of the chamber—said in a letter to me this week that the options that people have “in some cases could include taking in a lodger, finding work or increasing their hours of work.” How disgustingly out of touch he is. Not only that, he directly contradicted his Prime Minister. It does not take a rocket scientist to work out that child poverty and discrimination against the most vulnerable and poorest in our society increase the gap between rich and poor. The no parties need to ask themselves whether they really want to back policies that are designed to militate against the most needy and to reward the wealthiest. With independence comes the responsibility and freedom for Scotland to make its own choices and to introduce policies that do not condemn to social exclusion those who are already struggling. At the last count, we were talking about 80,000 of Scotland’s most vulnerable families. The UK is the fourth most unequal country in the developed world. An independent Scotland would be the fourth most equal, resting alongside other small independent nations such as Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Finland. What does the no campaign have to offer? It offers a continuation of the increasing divergences between the rich, who get richer, and the poor, who get poorer. We have a choice of two futures. I say choose independence and choose a fairer Scotland. 16:26 Ken Macintosh (Eastwood) (Lab): Dare I say that it is good to be back? The summer recess is often our only opportunity to pause, take stock and come back with fresh ideas—although I admit that I ended up with a little more time than I expected. There is much in the Government’s programme that my Labour colleagues and I welcome. Although the Children and Young People (Scotland) Bill could go further, it will, we hope, make a difference to the provision of care for three and four-year-olds. The Public Bodies (Joint Working) (Scotland) Bill will bring to the fore once again the discussion about how we deliver social care. The proposed community empowerment and renewal bill could provide an opportunity to involve local communities in their own decision making. However, that does not feel like the sort of legislative programme that will tackle the major problems that face Scotland—the economy, the cost of living and inequality—or create the sort of modern Scotland that many, if not most, members wish to see. The countdown clocks in SNP headquarters may be clicking over the 380 days to next September, but the legislative programme suggests that many have forgotten that there are still 1,000 days left in government. That is 1,000 days to modernise our education system, to get young people off the dole and into work and to rebuild confidence in our besieged college sector. It is 1,000 days to change the way in which business is conducted in Scotland, to support small businesses and not multinationals, to protect workers from zero-hours contracts and to introduce a strategic plan to create a living wage programme. It is 1,000 days to implement radical land reform the likes of which we saw in the early days of the Parliament, to promote community ownership, to encourage new co-operative and collaborative ways of delivering the rail system and to protect bus users with robust regulation. I admit to having a little laugh at my career trajectory from Government supporter to shadow minister to Opposition back bencher. However, I suggest to SNP colleagues who may believe that they are enjoying the political good times that one is never more conscious of the opportunity to make a difference than when that opportunity is taken away. By that, I simply mean that they should make the most of their time in Government. They should not put all their political eggs in the basket of independence and be disappointed when they break. There is much that we can do right here and right now to help the people of Scotland. Mr Brown, the Minister for Transport and Veterans, is currently presiding over the allocation of the Scottish rail passenger franchise. At more than £2.5 billion pounds, it is one of the biggest contracts that the Scottish Government handles, and I know that I am not alone in believing that we could get better value and a better service for that money. We can agree across this chamber that it is neither fair nor right that a Dutch or German Government-owned firm can bid for the franchise but that a Scottish Government-owned firm cannot. However, where we seem to part company is that l believe that we can do more than just rail—pardon the pun—against the iniquities of rail privatisation and an unsympathetic Tory Government; I believe that we can do something about it. The power to award the franchise lies with this Government here in Scotland and this Parliament here in Holyrood. In the next few weeks, the Co-operative Party and others, including the Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen—ASLEF—intend to publish a document highlighting the many benefits that would flow to the Scottish public, rail passengers and our industry and transport infrastructure if only we were to pursue a more collaborative and co-operative approach to the running of this public service. I ask only that Mr Brown, his ministerial colleagues and the many SNP MSPs who I believe will be sympathetic look at the document with a view to shaping the way in which they award the new passenger franchise. It is a decision that is likely to be in place for the next 10 years. Once taken, it is unlikely that the referendum—whatever way the vote goes—will affect it, so why not start shaping the new Scotland right now? Jamie Hepburn (Cumbernauld and Kilsyth) (SNP): I have not read the document but it sounds like I might be sympathetic to that argument. However, does Mr Macintosh agree that, although the awarding of the franchise is devolved, the terms of the franchise are hugely encumbered by the fact that they are set by Westminster at this moment in time? Ken Macintosh: Mr Hepburn emphasises the very point that I am trying to make. Why does the SNP always look at things that it cannot do rather than things that it can do? It can shape the franchise and it can promote social enterprise, community benefit and worker co-operation. All of those things are within its power. It could run a not-for-profit company in relation to the franchise, if it had the political will. We have the political will, and we would join the SNP in supporting that. Tomorrow evening I hope to join John Wilson and others in the SNP and across the chamber in welcoming and debating Oxfam’s report on the economy. Scotland often prides itself on being a more progressive country than the rest of the UK—more altruistic and less selfish in our politics and our voting intentions. Today, I am conscious that David McLetchie would describe that claim as a moot point, but it is an issue that I would like the Government to pursue and explore. Why can we not set an example in pursuing a more ethical economy? If we believe that it is morally right for people and companies to pay their taxes in order to pay for the schools and hospitals that we all need, is there not more that the Scottish Government could do to support that culture of social responsibility? The minister knows how strongly I and my colleagues feel about our handing over millions of pounds to companies such as Amazon. However, rather than excuse or explain how we ended up subsidising that immensely profitable multinational, can we not introduce a set of criteria that favours local small businesses? Government procurement is not the most radical reforming agenda but, as Alison Johnstone and James Kelly have already pointed out, it could provide an opportunity for the Government to make a statement about the economic values that it holds dear. Why not use it to promote not just small Scottish businesses but good working practices, union recognition or the living wage? People do not want to have dead-end or exploitative jobs and they do not want zero-hours contracts. This Government and this Parliament could do something about that right now. I was going to make a point about education, but I will move to my conclusion. I worry that, today, we are debating the platform of a Government with only one objective—independence—and that, in the meantime, Scotland is on hold. If this Government could see beyond the referendum, it would see that the issues that are on people’s minds are to do with their jobs and livelihoods and the education and future prospects of their children, not constitutional change. We did not need independence to deliver the smoking ban, to rebuild all our schools or to introduce free personal care and the free bus pass for the elderly. We do not need it to oppose privatisation of the NHS. We did all of those things through devolution, and it is through devolution—through the powers and the political will of this Parliament—that we can build the new, progressive Scotland. 16:34 Bruce Crawford (Stirling) (SNP): I am very pleased to have been asked to contribute to this important debate on the Government’s programme. Those members who have had ministerial experience will know that the content of a Government’s programme is the culmination of months of hard work. Behind the scenes, many dedicated and committed individuals—whether they be ministers, special advisers or civil servants—have been working away hard. On the document itself, I know from experience that the minister responsible will be feeling some relief that it is finally printed and at the back of the chamber. They, the First Minister and other ministers should also take some satisfaction from still delivering so effectively on behalf of the Scottish people after more than eight years in government. The Government continues to demonstrate that it is an experienced team that works together on behalf of the people of Scotland and always puts Scotland first. It has a record to be proud of and is still driving forward positively to improve the quality of life of our citizens. Most important of all, it has a vision for the future that is about hope, aspiration and taking Scotland forward—a future in which the people of Scotland will gain from having responsibility for the political and economic direction that the nation takes. With just over a year to go until the referendum, this debate is not only an opportunity to consider some of the Government’s significant proposals in the programme—in particular, I welcome the announcements on the housing bill, the community empowerment and renewal bill and the courts reform bill—it is also a chance for us to have a quick look back at the gains that the Parliament has brought to the people of Scotland since the advent of devolution. Those gains would simply never have been achievable if decisions in those areas had been left to Westminster. I pay tribute to the former Labour and Liberal coalition of the first eight years of devolution, which, as we have already heard other members suggest, ushered in leading legislation on land reform and ensured free care for the elderly in Scotland, for instance. Similar tribute can be paid to the Parliament and an SNP Government that swept away tuition fees, scrapped prescription charges and kept its promises to deliver an extra 1,000 police officers. None of those gains would have been possible had the reins of responsibility remained at Westminster. There are many more demonstrations of how Scotland is making more appropriate choices for its future as a result of responsibility resting here in Edinburgh. Perhaps the most notable relates to Scotland’s national health service, which the First Minister alluded to. Scotland’s national health service is what it says on the tin; it is not the fragmented organisation south of the border that is in danger of meltdown as a result of Westminster’s flawed policy choices. On health matters, I am also pleased to see the mental health and adults with incapacity bill in the programme. That bill is important to protect vulnerable people. I am not making these comments to applaud the actions of any one party or any one organisation in the Parliament; I do so for this institution—this place called “Holyrood”. I do so for the Parliament of Scotland. Over the years, the direction that Parliament has set for Scotland has served only to deepen my belief about who the best people are to make the decisions about our future. By that, I mean the people who happen to live and work in Scotland. They self-evidently have more invested in Scotland’s future and are therefore much more likely to make the appropriate decisions and better choices. The creation of the Parliament has demonstrated beyond doubt that Scotland has gained through having more responsibility in her own hands. The revenue Scotland and tax powers bill is a historic but small first step, as the First Minister described it. However, it is now time to put responsibility for the full range of powers in the hands of the people I mentioned. It is time to give the people of Scotland the opportunity to create new gains and make better choices through setting their own direction, and to give them the opportunity, for instance, to decide for themselves, if they so choose, to say no to a new generation of weapons of mass destruction based on the Clyde. It is time to give Scotland the opportunity to gain hugely from not having to take part in what is no more than a vanity project that is unjustifiable using moral, environmental, strategic or economic arguments. Unfortunately, however, all unionist parties are now committed to throwing untold billions of pounds at a new generation of nuclear weapons based in Scotland. As the First Minister said earlier, last year the UK Government announced £350 million more of spending on the next stage of Trident renewal. That sum is barely one third of one per cent of the £100 billion of the total lifetime cost of replacing Trident. I cannot understand for the life of me why we are having this argument and why Scotland cannot make its own decision. We have a Government in Westminster committed not only to spending all that money on Trident but to bringing in the bedroom tax and welfare cuts, which are creating much misery in so many of our homes. The one undeniable fact is that most people and Scottish parliamentarians are opposed to those abhorrent weapons. Irrespective of that, it is Westminster that will decide whether to commit billions of pounds on a project that is not worth the pennies that are spent on it. The evidence is clear for everyone to see: the only democratic means by which we can halt the madness of siting a new generation of nuclear weapons only a few miles from our largest city, Glasgow, is independence. I hope and I pray that, when we get to September next year, Scotland will deliver that. 16:41 Gavin Brown (Lothian) (Con): There have been times when members could have been forgiven for not realising that we were debating the Scottish Government’s legislative programme for 2013-14, although occasionally they may have realised that that was the case. Most members on the SNP benches do not want to talk about the Government’s legislative programme. We listened carefully to the bills that were outlined in minute detail during the First Minister’ statement. We on this side of the chamber will happily support some of the bills, we will want to examine and amend some of them and I am sure that we will ultimately reject others. However, the totality of the programme on offer is relatively thin for a Government with an in-built majority that could make fundamental reforms to a whole range of systems. Let us focus on some of the details that we have heard about. One of today’s big announcements was about automatic early release. That was a case of classic Scottish Government speak. It ignored the fact that the Conservative Party had formal plans to reverse automatic early release, it blamed the former UK Government and the previous Liberal-Labour Scottish Executive for not reversing it, but it conveniently ignored the fact that, for six years in power, it failed to reverse the policy. We had a statement of fine principle: “We have now all accepted the need to end the system of automatic early release ... It does not command public confidence.” However, moments later, it was made clear that it will be ended only for some people. We welcome any reversal of automatic early release. Jamie Hepburn: For the benefit of the record, will Gavin Brown remind us who introduced automatic early release? Gavin Brown: That has been put on the record a number of times. I have just mentioned it, but I will say it again. It was introduced in 1993 by the Conservative Government, which, in 1997, sought to reverse it. The reality is that, despite that fine statement of principle, the Scottish Government is only reversing automatic early release for a minority of offenders. The Government needs to explain what percentage of offenders will be dealt with under the proposal and why, if there is such a strong principle—a principle with which we agree—it will apply only to such a small number of offenders. We heard from the First Minister about the courts reform bill. That is another bill that we will examine in detail. Lord Gill’s initial report was a weighty one. An element of that bill—the Cabinet Secretary for Justice may want to respond to this—is that it gives far more work to sheriff courts. We are giving the sheriff courts more work to do tomorrow, but the slight problem is that we shut many sheriff courts yesterday. Perhaps the justice minister will explain how we can give sheriff courts far more work while shutting them at the same time. The First Minister said, in relation to the UK Government, that some people see the price of policies and not their value. That applies equally to the Scottish Government’s decision to close down numerous sheriff courts across the country. We heard the usual hyperbole. The Scottish Government is creating a quango by the name of revenue Scotland—indeed, it already exists—which will be responsible for the collection of the landfill tax and the land and buildings transaction tax. The Scottish Government says that establishing revenue Scotland is “an historic step”. If setting up a tax quango to pick up two taxes—in fact, it is not even collecting the taxes but overseeing their collection, which is a minor detail—is an historic step, I do not want to see something that is not an historic step. Perhaps the Government or any SNP member can explain what is happening with the procurement reform bill. We welcomed the proposal when it was announced in 2011 and when it was re-announced in 2012, but I heard nothing about the bill from the Government today, and when I checked this morning it had not been introduced. The bill seems to have been delayed, rather like most of the Scottish Government’s procurement projects, which is ironic. During the past few years, we have heard numerous bits of new language to describe the consequences of the recession. A zombie debtor is an indebted consumer who is able to pay only the debt interest each month. A zombie company is one that does the bare minimum that is needed if it is to exist as a company. We now have, with the SNP, a zombie Government—a Government that is so focused on the referendum campaign that it does the bare minimum that is needed to exist as a Government. That is what we heard from the Government today. 16:47 Aileen McLeod (South Scotland) (SNP): I am delighted to speak in support of the Government’s programme. Today marks the beginning of a parliamentary year that will take us to within touching distance of the biggest decision that Scotland will take in 300 years. In next September’s referendum, people in Scotland will be asked to choose between two futures. One is the status quo, whereby the power to determine Scotland’s future will be retained in Westminster and exercised by a Government that Scotland’s voters did not elect and which imposes on Scotland economic and social policies that our people do not support and that harm the weakest and most vulnerable in our society. The bedroom tax, which many members mentioned, is just one example of the unfair and unjust measures that a Westminster Government has imposed on Scotland. The alternative future, which I believe the people in Scotland will support, is one in which our people are governed from a Scottish Parliament that they elected and which represents their interests. It is a Parliament that since 1999 has demonstrated its ability to deliver policies that reflect the values of Scottish society, as Bruce Crawford said in his excellent speech. It is a Parliament whose policies underline what has been, to date, a shared commitment to protecting the weak and vulnerable in our society and to creating a dynamic economy that can generate jobs and prosperity for our people. It is a Parliament that adheres to the principle of universality in delivering essential public services that reflect the strong moral and ethical underpinning of our collective approach to the government of Scotland. Today’s programme for government embodies and reflects those objectives and values. Although we are debating the Government’s programme for the future, it is appropriate to reflect on what this Parliament has achieved with the limited powers that are at its disposal. For example, we introduced the ban on smoking in public places, we retained universal benefits in the form of free personal and nursing care for the elderly, benefiting more than 77,000 older people, we introduced free eye examinations for all and we abolished prescription charges. In doing all that, this Parliament has delivered a national health service for the people in Scotland that remains free at the point of need and that has not begun—and I hope never will begin—a process that many people think will mean that the NHS south of the border is increasingly driven by the dictates of the marketplace and not patients’ needs or the decisions that are made in general practitioners’ consulting rooms or hospital wards. It is clear from those examples that people in Scotland benefit the most when decisions about Scotland are taken in Scotland. The programme for government set out today by the First Minister will build on the achievements so far—and nowhere more than in relation to our public health. This parliamentary year will see the passage of the Public Bodies (Joint Working) (Scotland) Bill to permit the integration of health and social care services, which will improve greatly the health and wellbeing of our people and which, along with the prioritisation of preventative spending, demonstrates this Government’s commitment to adhere to the principles set out by the Christie commission in its report on the future of public service delivery. That agenda will be taken forward under the programme for government through legislation to improve the operation and efficiency of mental health legislation for service users and practitioners—the mental health and adults with incapacity bill—which I welcome greatly and which will help to protect our vulnerable, and through provision to establish Scotland’s own food safety and standards body called food standards Scotland, which will help us to address the significant food-related health challenges that Scotland faces, with consumer protection being paramount. I am also particularly pleased that, unlike the Westminster Government, the Scottish Government will continue to move forward with its plans to introduce plain packaging for cigarettes and other tobacco products. I firmly believe that to be one of the most important public health measures that can be taken in this country. It is a matter of some regret that the UK Government has decided not to proceed with legislation on that. Our nation’s health and wellbeing is one of the most important matters for which this Parliament has legislative responsibility. I believe that it is one in which the Parliament has had a genuinely impressive track record throughout the period since 1999. The measures outlined by the First Minister in the programme for government will build on that track record and demonstrate that this Government and this Parliament can continue to deliver for the people in Scotland. It remains the case that if this Parliament is to build fully on those successes and be in a position to tackle all the underlying causes of our public health problems, not least the considerable inequality in income that has come to characterise this country under successive Westminster Governments, this Parliament must have access to the full range of economic and social policy powers. That is what independence is all about. It is not about empowering the SNP or this Government; rather, it is about empowering this Parliament to take the decisions and make the policies that are right for the people in Scotland. It is about putting the people first and ensuring that the politicians for whom they vote have the powers that they need to deliver the policies that they want and to create the type of Scotland in which they want to live. I welcome the Scottish Government’s programme and am looking forward to 18 September next year, when we will have the opportunity as a nation to take control of our own destiny and to begin to build a Scotland that reflects our values, our aspirations and our principles. The Deputy Presiding Officer (Elaine Smith): I remind members that there is a little bit of time in hand if they wish to take interventions. 16:53 Jenny Marra (North East Scotland) (Lab): Last week, The Courier in Dundee reported a 37 per cent rise in shoplifting in our city—people shoplifting food to survive. Meanwhile, food banks in our cities are inundated with hungry people driven to desperation and to bear the indignity of asking for food to feed their families. Last week, the Trussell Trust, which, sadly, has become familiar to all of us through its food bank operation, reported that the use of food banks has gone up by 120 per cent in my city and by 400 per cent across Scotland. Rising domestic energy prices, constantly rising food prices and a freeze in wages have made it difficult for some and impossible for others—even those in work—to survive. We all know that for those out of work things are more difficult. Our young people are still struggling desperately to find work. The number of 18 to 24-year-olds claiming jobseekers allowance in Scotland has gone up by 78 per cent in the past year. The First Minister said this afternoon that our Parliament has demonstrated concern for the most vulnerable people in our society. I contend that this legislative programme does not match that assertion. He listed previous Administrations’ achievements as the hallmark of the Parliament’s success and then presented us with a thin and uninspiring legislative programme that is supposed to match his bold assertions for our country. It falls woefully short. It does nothing to address the problems that families going through the doors of food banks this afternoon are facing, and it does nothing to address the scandalous waste of young people who are out of work. Under my new brief, I will shadow the Bankruptcy and Debt Advice (Scotland) Bill. I sincerely hope that the minister, Fergus Ewing, will produce a bill that will help, and not penalise, the financially marginalised in our communities. Less than a year ago in the Justice Committee, I asked John Swinney, the finance secretary, to justify his new fees for bankruptcy. He doubled the bankruptcy fees for people with low incomes and low assets from £100 to £200 despite warnings from Labour and from Citizens Advice Scotland that those people would turn to payday lenders to find their bankruptcy fees. Maybe the finance secretary did not get the acronym and did not realise that LILA stood for low income, low assets. I really hope that the Bankruptcy and Debt Advice (Scotland) Bill will be a bit more progressive. There is absolutely nothing in the programme for government on the scandal of payday loans in our communities. Perhaps that is not surprising, as Fergus Ewing’s views on payday loans are clear. Over the summer, my colleague Kezia Dugdale has been doing a power of work with my Labour colleagues, including Anne McTaggart, in campaigning hard on the issue. However, in a letter to Kezia Dugdale, the minister called payday loans “legal, fair and transparent”. I will give him the fact that they are legal, but debt is devolved into his hands and he holds the cards on it: are they fair and transparent? I imagine that Anne McTaggart would tell me that the people to whom she has spoken in her community have not told her that payday loans are fair and transparent. Patrick Harvie: That is an issue on which, once again, we should all be able to find some common ground. However, those who are on the no side of the independence debate must acknowledge that, with responsibility for debt but no power to regulate credit, we are in a bind. What is the solution to the problem if we do not have the ability to regulate the provision of credit? Jenny Marra: Patrick Harvie brings me neatly on to my next point, which is on Labour’s asks. Johann Lamont kindly gave us some ideas for how the Scottish Government could fill out its legislative programme. Labour has three key asks on this topic. The first is that the Government use the planning system to say no to payday loan shops in our communities. The second—[Interruption.] If members will let me give the ideas— Bob Doris (Glasgow) (SNP): They are back-door solutions. The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order, please. Jenny Marra: The second ask is that the Scottish Government set up a loan guarantee fund to help credit unions to offer an alternative, and the third ask is that the Government run a public awareness campaign on the dangers of those loans. Bob Doris calls those ideas back-door solutions, but I call them using the powers that are vested in this Parliament to make a difference to people in our communities now. Margo MacDonald (Lothian) (Ind): Will the member give way? Jenny Marra: No, thank you. Johann Lamont gave the First Minister a list of initiatives that Labour would take to make a difference to people’s lives now. Iain Gray’s bus bill is desperately needed in the communities that I represent, as is Labour’s living wage bill and Richard Simpson’s nutrition bill, which would prevent ill health before it starts. My bill on human trafficking is designed to use the powers of the Parliament to make Scotland a no-go destination for traffickers. So much can be done with the powers that we have in this building, and they are not back-door solutions—they are powerful solutions. World-leading experts on trafficking have said that the proposals in our consultation are some of the most radical and progressive in the world, but they are achievable with the powers vested in this Parliament. This summer, the British Government adopted a private member’s bill at Westminster that was very similar to Labour’s proposals and committed to driving it through the House of Commons. I am surprised that the Scottish Government is not taking the same approach, given that other devolved Administrations within the UK are taking the initiative on human trafficking. The Scottish Government is rapidly falling behind on modern-day slavery in our communities. I had hoped that we would see a bill today, but perhaps the Cabinet Secretary for Justice will think again and change his mind. 17:00 Jamie Hepburn (Cumbernauld and Kilsyth) (SNP): I welcome today’s debate and the Government’s programme that has been laid before us. I also welcome the First Minister’s statement that set out that programme. I thought that it was interesting to hear Johann Lamont suggest that it is not in the First Minister’s interests to state what the Parliament can do. I presume that she was not listening to the First Minister because his statement was entirely imbued with the achievements of the Parliament. Perhaps her rhetoric does not match the reality. I will focus on a couple of the bills that have been specifically mentioned today. As a member of the Finance Committee, I undertook scrutiny of the Land and Buildings Transaction Tax (Scotland) Bill and the Landfill Tax (Scotland) Bill, which formed the first legislation on taxation that the Parliament has ever considered. I therefore welcome the proposed new revenue Scotland and tax powers bill, which will establish revenue Scotland as the tax authority that is responsible for Scotland’s devolved taxes from 1 April 2015. That is an important first step in taking on greater responsibility for setting and collecting taxes in Scotland. It is entirely unclear to me why Gavin Brown does not think that that is the case—and now that we know that he is not interested in the issue of revenue Scotland, I look forward to him disengaging from any thorough and rigorous assessment of the proposed bill when it comes before the Finance Committee. Gavin Brown: I will take a very keen interest in the bill, but I thought that describing the setting up of a quango as a historic moment was slight overkill. Jamie Hepburn: It is all about different opinions, is it not, Mr Brown? The fact that this is the first time that the Scottish Parliament has had the chance to enact legislation on taxation could be described as historic. That is my perspective on the matter. We know that the proposed bill will include provisions for resolving tax disputes quickly and efficiently, thus providing the public with confidence in the taxes that we are establishing. Crucially, the bill will include provisions on tax avoidance. Too often we see people trying to avoid paying the taxes that they should pay, so it is important that it is set out in legislation how we avoid that scenario. In the same way as Mr Brown, I look forward to scrutinising the proposed legislation at the Finance Committee. The Scottish Government is also using the powers of the Parliament for the proposed Scottish welfare fund bill. As the deputy convener of the Welfare Reform Committee, I have a clear interest in that proposed legislation. We know that the Scottish Government has already taken measures to support mitigation of the welfare reforms. Working with COSLA, the Scottish Government has plugged Westminster’s £40 million cut to the council tax benefit budget for this year. Ruth Davidson: This summer, I read that the First Minister was backing a benefit cap. The point had quotation marks around it and it was in the Sunday Post. Will the member tell us when the Government will bring in a benefit cap, how much it will be and for which Scots it will be implemented? Jamie Hepburn: That was an interesting intervention when I was talking about council tax benefit. The point that I was going to make is that 560,000 people in Scotland will not be impacted by the cut from the Westminster Government, which Ms Davidson supports. Professor Steve Fothergill from Sheffield Hallam University told the Welfare Reform Committee that people in Scotland are comparatively better off as a consequence of that move. We have also seen around £8 million being set aside to support advice agencies, and we have had assurances of the continuity of the payment of passported benefits. Those are important measures that will protect people in Scotland. The Scottish welfare fund will be another important part of the Scottish Government’s work to use the powers of this Parliament to mitigate the effects of welfare reform and to plug the gap caused by the cuts imposed by the UK Government. Christina McKelvie made the point that 20,000 people have already been assisted and that we have the capacity to assist around 200,000 people. It is extraordinary to hear the Labour Party criticising the proposed new fund. I would have thought that the Labour Party would get behind the fund and support it, but instead we hear criticism of the Scottish Government establishing a Scottish welfare fund. Jackie Baillie: Will the member take an intervention? Jamie Hepburn: I will let you in in a minute, Ms Baillie. It is particularly peculiar when we see that research by the Children’s Society found that funding for local welfare schemes in England has been cut in real terms by £150 million compared with equivalent funding in 2010, which is not a scenario that we have here in Scotland. Jackie Baillie: Does the member not recognise that it is one thing to have a fund but that if you sit on the money and do not distribute it to those in most need, that is, frankly, extraordinary? [Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order. Jamie Hepburn: I do not see that as a real characterisation of what is happening on the ground. Iain Gray (East Lothian) (Lab): Will the member take an intervention? Jamie Hepburn: I will let you in in a minute, Mr Gray, if you will let me answer Ms Baillie first. I will come to you in a minute, Mr Gray. The Deputy Presiding Officer: Through the chair, please. Jamie Hepburn: I beg your pardon, Presiding Officer. I will come to Mr Gray in a minute. We know that the welfare fund is a new fund that has just been established, but people are becoming more aware of it. It would be better for the Labour Party to get behind the fund instead of criticising it. Iain Gray: Mr Hepburn must remember that we sit together on the Welfare Reform Committee. In that committee, Labour members said the Government’s guidelines for the welfare fund would mean that not enough of the money would get out to the people who need it. In the Western Isles, 90 per cent less has been spent than was spent in the same period last year. We are behind the fund, but what we said is right: it needs to be sorted. Jamie Hepburn: I remind Mr Gray that he is not actually on the Welfare Reform Committee any more, because he has resigned from it. [Interruption.] The Deputy Presiding Officer: Order, please. Jamie Hepburn: I also make the point that this is a new fund and that its funds have to be spent over the entirety of the year, so we will look and see what the position is at the end of the year. We will put the welfare fund on a statutory footing, and I look forward to scrutinising that over the coming period. However, as much as I welcome the measures to mitigate the effects of the welfare reforms, I think that we can surely aspire to do more. When we see £2 billion per annum cut from benefit payments, with a disproportionate impact on women and on families with children, and a bedroom tax hitting tens of thousands of households that was introduced by a Government that people in Scotland did not vote for, surely we can aspire to do more than just mitigation. A letter from Mark Hoban MP, the Minister of State for Employment at Westminster, to Glasgow City Council contains the UK Government’s apparent explanation for the increased reliance on food banks. I quote directly from the letter: “The increased emphasis on reducing food waste may well be one of the drivers for the growth in the number of foodbanks and similar initiatives and, consequently, the increased use by companies.” That is through-the-looking-glass stuff. Why are we allowing those people to determine Scotland’s welfare system for us? I welcome what is being done for mitigation, but I think that we can aspire to do more. That is why I welcome part of the on-going Scottish Government work programme in the form of the Scottish Independence Referendum Bill, through which we will have the chance to put power back into the hands of the Scottish people, complete the powers of this Parliament, do more than just mitigate, and create a better society. 17:07 Sandra White (Glasgow Kelvin) (SNP): I have listened very carefully to all the contributions and speeches, but I am still trying to get my head round some of the Opposition’s contributions, if they can be called that. I must say that I take great umbrage at some of the comments that were made. I intended to start my comments in a very positive manner and I will go on to do that. However, I just want to say to the Opposition, particularly Mr Macintosh, that as an SNP back bencher I did not join the SNP for a career as an MSP. I joined because I thought that the best thing for the people of my country was an independent Scotland. I take great umbrage at what Mr Macintosh said about that. I also wonder where the Opposition members, particularly the Labour members, have been during the summer months. Like many other members, I was out in my constituency talking to people. I know what the people in the Kelvin constituency are thinking and what they want. They want a Government that listens to them, not a Government that talks them down and talks down to them. I put that in as my contribution just now. James Kelly: When the member was going round the Kelvin constituency, did she come across anybody on housing waiting lists, which are getting longer and are failing to be tackled due to the Government’s lack of strategy and its cuts in the housing budget? Sandra White: I am glad that Mr Kelly raised that particular issue. I certainly did come across many people on a housing waiting list. I also came across some very caring and concerned housing associations that cannot place people because of the bedroom tax and the problems coming from Westminster. That seems to be okay for an Opposition party, while the people of Scotland have to do as they are told. That is why I take great umbrage at the Opposition. I will make more positive contributions than Opposition members have. I thank the First Minister for his announcements today. He set out a programme for government that was made in the Scottish Parliament for the Scottish people. I give a positive welcome for the fact that the Scottish Government is still delivering 1,000 extra police officers. We must remember that police numbers in Scotland are unlike those in England and Wales, where police numbers and salaries are falling catastrophically—that is all because of the Winsor report. We must remember that we do not have that problem in Scotland. I thought that the police figures would be welcomed across the chamber. The Scottish people want a Government and a Parliament that work together for them and welcome positive outcomes, and they want a Parliament that can hold the Government to account when that is required. I do not see a problem with welcoming that. As a back bencher, I uphold that approach and I welcome positive contributions from any member. There is much to be welcomed in today’s statement, such as the community empowerment and renewal bill, which is great. The licensing bill, the housing bill, the ending of automatic early release and many more initiatives are all to be welcomed. It is high time that the Opposition parties put aside their opposition for opposition’s sake and worked with the Government to deliver what is best for Scotland and its communities. Although it is not the only factor, the increase in police numbers has undoubtedly contributed to the lowest level of recorded crime for 37 years. We should all be proud of that. I hope that Opposition members would have the maturity to acknowledge that the legislative programme will go further to reduce crime and make our communities much safer. Only last week, the Glasgow Evening Times ran an excellent article on crime in Glasgow. The headlines were staggering. Since 2007, the youth crime rate has almost halved and the number of knife assaults has fallen by 40 per cent—by the way, Glasgow City Council’s Labour leader has welcomed that. The reduction has been credited in part to the Scottish Government’s cashback for communities programme, which £50 million has been put into. We should be proud of that, too. I thank all the people and organisations who have been involved in that not only for making their communities safer but—this is important—for empowering people in those communities to realise their potential. We should look towards that. I have long championed the community empowerment and renewal bill. I echo Alison Johnstone’s comments; the bill has fantastic potential and I will follow its progress with great interest. Like Mark McDonald, I welcome the licensing bill and in particular a new licensing system for airguns. It is a pity that Johann Lamont, the Labour Party leader, did not even have the decency to mention that important bill. I also welcome the inclusion in the licensing bill of a provision to give communities the power to regulate adult entertainment. Some members might recall that I previously tried to introduce a similar provision but, unfortunately, Opposition parties did not support it and voted it down. Perhaps they will support the legislation this time. That is all that I will say on that. Margo MacDonald: Will the member give way? Sandra White: I am sorry, Margo—I do not have time. The Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill, which is working its way through Parliament, puts victims at the heart of the justice system. I look forward to scrutinising it at further stages. As I have said, there are many things to be proud of. We have heard from everyone about what the Parliament can do with the powers that it has and about the successes that it has achieved so far. We have heard from some members about successes that can be achieved in the future, which can only be a good thing. However, I am keenly aware of the areas of our lives that we have no control over and about which decisions are being taken at Westminster by a Government that is neither representative of nor interested in Scotland’s needs. It might come as a wee bit of a surprise to some Opposition members to realise that the Scottish people out there on the doorsteps are also aware of that. The decisions at Westminster are causing further inequality and further hardships for ordinary working folk and they are pushing thousands into poverty. Westminster legislation is doing that—that is the reality of our not having the full powers of a normal Parliament. I hope and believe that most of us in the Parliament want a fairer and more equal society. The debate serves as a reminder that to achieve that—we probably differ on this point—there is only one way forward, which is for all the decisions that affect Scotland and the people of Scotland to be taken here in Scotland. The only way to achieve that is through a yes vote next September. The Deputy Presiding Officer: I remind members to speak through the chair and to use full names when referring to other members. 17:15 Malcolm Chisholm (Edinburgh Northern and Leith) (Lab): I find this rather a difficult speech to make: I had thought that I would be able to say something about a wide range of bills, but I find that there is not a great deal to say. I think that Alex Salmond, the First Minister, found exactly the same difficulty in his speech, because in 14 years I have never heard a legislative programme speech by a First Minister that devoted so little time to the bills. I am sure that somebody will go away and analyse all 15 of those speeches, but I would be prepared to guess—and even to put on a bet—that his speech today had the lowest proportion of any of those speeches of time spent actually dealing with the bills themselves. Of course, the reason for that is absolutely simple: it was a speech about the referendum and a legislative programme about the referendum, from a Government that has transformed itself into a campaign. The programme has been driven by two principles. First, do not rock the boat—if you want to win as many votes as possible in the referendum, you clearly want to annoy as few people as possible in the next 12 months. Secondly, the whole underlying theme of the First Minister’s speech was an attempt to demonstrate what Scotland cannot do rather than what it can. It certainly was not one of Nicola Sturgeon’s finer moments when she said on the radio this morning that the programme was radical and that it was a programme for economic growth. Being a fair-minded person, I will comment briefly on some bills that are interesting and potentially good. I think that everyone who has spoken has mentioned as a first choice the community empowerment and renewal bill, so let us hope that we can make something radical of that. I am not sure whether it is radical in its current form. We debated the consultation paper in Parliament one year ago this month, and people can look up the issues that were raised then. The proposed bill builds, belatedly, on our own historic community right to buy. I hope that that will be extended to urban areas and will become meaningful, because at the moment councils often say that they cannot take an interest in a community group that wants land because that would be against European state aid rules. That issue must be confronted head on. I also rather like the revenue Scotland and tax powers bill, but I gently remind the Administration that it springs directly from the Scotland Act 2012. It is important to me because I want to build on the fiscal powers that we already have to create enhanced devolution, so I think that that is a significant bill. The housing bill is interesting and I have no objection to the abolition of the right to buy. However, if the First Minister really thinks that that will make housing available to all, as he seemed to suggest, I must tell him that the bill is really marginal in that regard. It is investment in new housing that is crucial. Finally, of course I welcome the mental health and adults with incapacity amendment bill, which springs from the McManus review of four years ago and builds on our own historic Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003, which is another jewel in the crown of devolution. Near the beginning of his speech, the First Minister emphasised how the Scottish Parliament had demonstrated concern for the most vulnerable in society, although I do not think that free personal care is necessarily the best example of that. The question for us today is: what have we got for the most vulnerable in society in this programme? Where is the serious drive against health inequalities? Where is the action on payday loans or the living wage? What about legislation on human trafficking? We should thank Jenny Marra for filling that gap with her bill. Where are the further measures against the continuing scourge of domestic abuse, which, for understandable reasons, is very much to the forefront of the Parliament’s and the public’s mind today? We all know what we think in Parliament about one particular individual, but let us not forget the progress that has been made and the further action that is required. There is a courts reform bill that will come before the Parliament, to address other issues to do with the Court of Session and so on, but we all saw the story in The Herald last week about the way in which the great domestic abuse court in Glasgow is now running into difficulties, so let us address that problem. Although I welcome the setting up of a domestic abuse court in Edinburgh, I was discussing with Alison Johnstone a moment ago the fact that that court serves only sections of Edinburgh and not the whole of Edinburgh. Why do not we address those issues, which relate to the protection of victims of domestic abuse? We also need to look at some of the provisions in the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill. Scottish Women’s Aid has put in a long submission that highlights concerns about some of the effects of that legislation on victims. As well as taking action on the member who should not be a member of this Parliament, let us drive forward at the same time and build on the great work that we have done on the issue over the past 14 years. Finally, where is there anything about the bedroom tax, except rhetoric against laws from London? It is the classic example—the best example of all—that emphasises what we cannot do and forgets what we can do. Mark McDonald: Surely Malcolm Chisholm will recognise that, alongside the bedroom tax, there are a range of other welfare reforms that are impacting on his constituents and mine. The simple fact is that, within the fixed budget of the Scottish Government, to select the bedroom tax above other parts of the welfare reform agenda would lead to pressure to move resources to other elements of welfare reform. Would it not be better if we took those decisions here, in this chamber, rather than picking and choosing which welfare reforms we mitigate and which we do not? Malcolm Chisholm: That was a very nice try to deflect us from the issue of the bedroom tax, but the simple fact of the matter is that it is the Scottish Government and the SNP who relentlessly use the bedroom tax as, I would say, almost the number one piece of ammunition against the UK Government. They forget what they could do, as a Scottish Government, to mitigate the effects of that tax. Fortunately, Labour has not forgotten, as Iain Gray made clear yesterday, and I hope that we will hear more about that in due course. 17:21 Rob Gibson (Caithness, Sutherland and Ross) (SNP): I welcome the programme for government, which tackles vital and urgent matters. I remind members that a number of other bills are already in train that do the same. I am glad to serve on the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee, which is considering one of the bills that can bring about major changes in Scotland—one that can allow us to have the powers that we do not have at present. I will concentrate on the questions that affect rural Scotland, which will face the same choice as the rest of the nation next September. With a no vote, we face a future where we are without the powers to transform Scotland, where we will be unable to represent our vital farming, fishing and food interests in Europe, and where the needs of Scotland are seldom the UK Government’s priority. My committee—the Rural Affairs, Climate Change and Environment Committee—heard the UK Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs rub that in when we heard from him last June. With a yes vote, however, we will have the normal powers and responsibilities of an independent nation and a seat at the top table to defend our rural interests. Rural Scotland will welcome the programme for government. With the food standards (Scotland) bill, we, unlike Westminster, will ensure that the vital functions of the Food Standards Agency remain together to ensure that its primary function is consumer protection. Given the horse meat scare, it is all the more important to protect the reputation of Scotland’s booming food and drink industry. The community empowerment and renewal bill can increase participation in decision taking and in the design and delivery of services in local areas; it can also enable public assets to be taken over for local uses through the community right to buy. I have believed in that for many years, and I believe that it can be achieved by this Government. Underpinning that, in a tax, financial and fiscal sense, are the revenue Scotland and tax powers bill and the tax management bill, which create the possibility of a distinctive structure and framework that will apply to all devolved taxes but also, potentially, to more taxes when Scotland demands them—and with independence, it will certainly demand many more. I will give an example of why that is needed. Land reform needs those tax powers and a lot more. Before devolution, the House of Lords in the Westminster Parliament could block the abolition of the feudal system. People recognised that then. Since 1999, Holyrood has abolished the feudal system, codified access laws and reformed crofting and some aspects of tenant farming, but not as much as we would like. This summer, James Hunter and others pointed out in a briefing paper for the House of Commons Scottish Affairs Committee something that highlights the most concentrated pattern of land ownership in Europe: 432 people own half the private land in Scotland. The briefing says: “Adept at maximising flows of public money to their estates, landowners have been equally skilled at minimising the flow of cash in the other direction—helped greatly in this regard by successive”— I would add Westminster— “Governments’ toleration of a series of arrangements intended to reduce greatly, or even eliminate, effective taxation of landed wealth. Those arrangements include: • The various inheritance and capital gains tax reliefs and allowances available to landowners; • The vesting of ownership in companies, foundations and other entities whose beneficiaries are obscured and concealed; • The registration of such entities in offshore tax havens such as Grand Cayman, the British Virgin Islands, Panama and Guernsey;” Those are all reserved matters. We cannot effect radical land reform until we have the powers to do so, and there is no chance in 100 years that Tory, Liberal or Labour Governments—and certainly not if the UK Independence Party is in any future coalitions—will make such a move. The briefing goes on to say—and justify this— “Although there is beginning to be anger in some quarters about such largesse (much of it directed at people of great wealth) at a time of unprecedented stringency in other areas of public spending, those arrangements have attracted surprisingly little scrutiny” in Westminster “and accordingly merit investigation by” the Scottish Affairs Committee. Iain Gray: Like Rob Gibson, I am no great supporter of tax havens. That is why I was a bit puzzled to see, early in the summer, his First Minister making a speech that seemed to imply that Scotland should be a tax haven like Guernsey and the Channel Islands. Rob Gibson: That is very much a diversion from the facts that we face in this legislative programme. Labour, in April, promised radical land reform, but not one piece of flesh has been put on the bones of that promise, either since then or today. Even the Lib Dems are set to discuss land reform at their autumn conference. No doubt they will summon up the Gladstonian spirit and promise more half-measures. The Scottish Affairs Committee can investigate anything it likes, but only independence can deliver the gains of land reform to the Scottish economy, the environment and society. This year’s work by the Scottish Government in the land reform review group, which is part of the programme for government, will lay the proposals for taking those radical steps next year. During this session, the Scottish Government will tackle issues of concern in rural Scotland—I have outlined some of them. Devolution has to be a step along the way, as we have seen. However, in relation to all the issues in the programme for government that I have outlined, we need the full powers of independence to ensure a fairer and more successful Scotland. We need to make sure that we get better than devolution because devolution is a limited offer that is not up to Scotland’s needs. The Deputy Presiding Officer: I call Margo MacDonald, who has a very generous six minutes, to be followed by Kenny MacAskill. 17:28 Margo MacDonald (Lothian) (Ind): Six minutes! Thank you so much, Presiding Officer. Where will I start? First, let me put a few people right on a few things. Johann Lamont should remember that it was not because Labour got gubbed and had to find a way of coming back to some prominence and some usefulness in Scotland that we started with devolution. Some of us have wanted devolution and then transfer of power to Scotland for 40 years. Along the way, we have managed to join in and help with the UCS campaign, the housing campaigns and any number of other campaigns that I could mention. I have the battle scars from those campaigns too, because for me they are indivisible from the means that we are trying to find to best govern ourselves. We have to look at the totality. There must be an awful lot of members in the chamber with fairies living at the bottom of their garden if they thought that they could get through this year and completely separate the Government’s programme from the principle that we have to decide. That is why I would not have done it the way that Alex Salmond did it—I told him that a while ago, but we are where we are. The Government’s programme looks thin in places, but it shows potential in other places. Folk such as those on the front benches, who have come up with some pretty good ideas during today’s debate, could use that potential to ensure that those ideas get into the legislative programme. The Government should be magnanimous enough to say, “That’s a good idea.” I thought that the no campaign figured far too large in much of what has been said by members on the other side of the chamber. From what I have heard, some members just seem to parrot what Scotland could not do. They say that we need broad shoulders so that we can make the same mistakes as have been made by London—no, we could do that with shoulders like sauce bottles. James Kelly complained about civil servants working for the Scottish Government to produce ideas for the white paper. What does he say about half of Whitehall being tied up finding things for the other side? Before I come on to what I wanted to talk about, I want to say how much I agreed with the Tories on the issue of corroboration. I think that we need to hold on to the requirement for corroboration, which is one of the jewels of the Scottish system. Perhaps we should also consider whether, instead of “guilty” or “not guilty”, the verdict should be “proved” or “not proved”. That would also take care of the third verdict. My colleague Alison Johnstone, who talked about the lack of attention to physical activity in the Government’s programme, spoke the truth. She, too, could do a great deal, because she has loads of good ideas on how to get communities involved in promoting physical activity. I make no apologies for saying that the white paper will be the most important paper ever to come before this Parliament. Therefore, I think that we are entitled to look at it in a somewhat different light. For that reason, the Government must understand that, although white papers usually signal a Government’s intention as regards implementing its policies, this white paper must be better than that. The white paper will need to hold out the various options that the Scots might choose in several different policy areas. For example, the First Minister has said—I have often heard him say it—that we will be a monarchy, but I think, “Mebbes aye and mebbes no.” That is a decision that should be taken by the Scots individually. What sort of head of state do they want? Do they want a monarchy? Do they want the monarchy that they have got? Do they want a president? Do they want a senate? Do they want to choose someone from the senate? Do they want a head of state at all? Those are options—all of them legitimate—and I think that the white paper should encompass them. I have talked about the monarchy, so let me now talk about the difficult things. We will need to control our borders. We will need to determine who comes into and out of Scotland, and we should be quite blunt about that. We are very stupid if we say otherwise, because south of our border there is going to be a huge debate about how population is controlled. Any country has the right to say who comes to live within its boundaries, how many people should be able to come in any one year and so on. We can do that without being racist and without being exclusive. We should be honest about it, but everyone is beginning to duck out in case they are labelled extremist and racist. Those are a couple of the things that we might look at and consider how they should be presented in the white paper. The white paper should be not merely about the Government’s position. The Government can say which option it prefers or advises, but it should also say what the choices are. People have been asking for information—that is what folk on the other side of the chamber do not seem to realise. A look at any opinion poll shows that the majority of folk are saying, “I do not know enough about this.” Well, the way to find out about it is to look at the normal business of government and to hold that up against the options for change that are being suggested. The Labour Party says that it is suggesting options for change, too. Labour should not be a stick in the mud about it: let us see them and let us hear them. Labour could roll out a white paper as well. The Labour Party is supposed to want maximalist devolution—fine, let us see that in a paper. I am not in any way afraid of that, because I think that the Scots will realise that, if they vote no, on the day after that, the whole place will realise what a wound it has inflicted on the body of Scotland. They will not do that. We have come too far for us to stall or turn back. That is why I think that, at the end of the day, the Scots will vote yes. They will be full of doubts and complaints and there will be terrific jokes against ourselves, because that is us, but I think that we will vote to move on, because if we vote to stick in the same place, we will be a laughing stock. In the Parliament in London, they will say that we are all mouth and no kilts. Those of us who lived through the 1979 referendum can visualise that. That referendum had a much smaller goal, but people realised what they had done to themselves in the time immediately following it. It took us a wee while to lift up politics in Scotland—that did not happen until the UCS came along and that sort of heart came back into Scotland. We cannot afford to do that. Right now, extra revenue is available to any Scottish treasury and we should use that money productively. I do not care that people say that we could not possibly have enough money coming in to fund the things that we want. Who is kidding who? Why are they trying to hold on to us? The Deputy Presiding Officer: Could you conclude, please? Margo MacDonald: Oh yes—I was just noticing the time, Presiding Officer. I ask the Government to take on board what I have said about the breadth of the white paper. 17:36 The Cabinet Secretary for Justice (Kenny MacAskill): The Scottish Government is committed to helping to create a fairer and safer Scotland for all our people. We will continue our distinctive and highly effective approach to justice, which is focused on doing the right thing for the people of Scotland and putting their interests and, as members have mentioned, values first. That approach has, for example, led to our policy of ensuring that we have 1,000 extra police officers keeping our communities safe—a matter that was again confirmed today. That policy is bearing fruit and the results are clear. As the First Minister mentioned, recorded crime is at a 39-year low. Further, knife crime is down by 60 per cent since we took office in 2007 and violent crime is down by one fifth in the past year alone and by nearly half since we came to office. All that is in a climate in which Westminster budget cuts continue to create massive financial challenges across the justice sector, as is the case in every sector. However, we are focused on continuing to make Scotland’s communities safer, which is why we have today announced the end of automatic early release for dangerous prisoners. Automatic early release was introduced by the then UK Conservative Government in 1993. It remained unaltered throughout the period of devolved Labour and Liberal Democrat coalition Government, and this SNP Administration will end it. We are taking action to make Scotland safer. Gavin Brown: The cabinet secretary used the expression “dangerous prisoners”. Can he give the Parliament absolute clarity on to whom the measure will apply? So that we have clarity, will he say exactly which criminals and what length of sentences will be involved? Kenny MacAskill: We are making it clear that the measure will apply to dangerous prisoners who would cause harm, which obviously includes those who perpetrate violent offences. Clearly, the period is 10 years, which would encapsulate offences such as culpable homicide and other serious matters. As a matter of interest, given some of the points that Mr Brown made earlier, I do not know whether he knows that 10 years is the period that was introduced south of the border under the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012. Chris Grayling has effected that and set that date. We are targeting serious, dangerous offenders who would cause harm in our communities. It is essential that we ensure that we have the power to keep them in for the period that is necessary for their sentences and allow them to be released only if the body that is charged with looking after the interests of the public—namely, the Parole Board for Scotland—is satisfied. Gavin Brown: What about serious, dangerous criminals who would do us harm and are sentenced for shorter periods? Kenny MacAskill: As the First Minister kindly helped me out by saying, the proposal also relates to those who commit a sexual offence because we realise the consequences of such offences. For them, the tariff is set at four years. Given that Mr Brown and his colleagues have been calling for the abolition of automatic early release, I hope that they will now welcome the action that the Government is taking. We will address automatic early release for dangerous offenders, such as violent offenders who are sentenced to 10 years or more and sexual offenders who are sentenced to four years or more in prison. The Parole Board for Scotland will be empowered to consider risks to the public for those prisoners. If a prisoner poses an unacceptable risk to the public, that prisoner will stay in prison and serve their entire sentence. We will introduce amendments to our Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill. If they are approved by Parliament—I hope they will be approved unanimously—that will provide the protection that the public seek and to which they are entitled. Parliament is already considering important reforms through the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill, including corroborated evidence no longer routinely being required. The Lord Justice Clerk has said that quality, not quantity, of evidence is necessary. We are clear that strong cases—cases that could be taken forward under other countries’ systems—should not be denied a hearing under our system because of the requirement for corroboration. Christine Grahame (Midlothian South, Tweeddale and Lauderdale) (SNP): As the cabinet secretary is aware, I have huge concerns about the abolition of corroboration. I maintain that position and ask him to consider the position of many of us in the Parliament—perhaps even among SNP members—with regard to considering corroboration in the context of reviewing the position on the not proven, proven and guilty verdicts, rather than taking it on its own. Kenny MacAskill: We have taken on board the understandable concerns that some people have, which is why we are increasing the majority that is necessary for a guilty verdict and why we are taking on board views that we received when we asked for safeguards for the recommendations given by our most senior judges. However, the reform is also about providing a voice for those who have suffered in silence—often vulnerable men, women and children who have experienced abuse behind closed doors, where there are no eyewitnesses. In addition to the existing bills, three new justice bills will be introduced in the year ahead. That builds upon what we are already doing in the Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill, as Ms Grahame will know. Our courts reform bill will take forward the recommendations of Scotland’s most senior judge, Lord Gill, who was appointed by my predecessors to make recommendations to help to improve the public’s access to justice and to provide a court system fit for the 21st century. The damages bill and licensing bill will also improve matters in those areas and provide necessary changes. We will also have a conclusion of contracts bill, which will be a candidate for the new parliamentary procedures. Those bills will make Scotland safer and stronger. We have delivered record police numbers and a 39-year low in recorded crime. We are now ending what the public have regarded as an injustice for far too long: automatic early release. The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The debate on the Scottish Government’s programme for government 2013-14 will continue tomorrow afternoon. Business Motions back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is consideration of business motion S4M-07528, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on behalf of the Parliamentary Bureau, setting out a stage 1 timetable for the Marriage and Civil Partnership (Scotland) Bill. Motion moved, That the Parliament agrees that consideration of the Marriage and Civil Partnership (Scotland) Bill at stage 1 be completed by 6 December 2013.—[Joe FitzPatrick.] Motion agreed to. The Presiding Officer: The next item of business is consideration of business motion S4M-07529, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on behalf of the Parliamentary Bureau, setting out a stage 2 timetable for the Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill. Motion moved, That the Parliament agrees that consideration of the Victims and Witnesses (Scotland) Bill at stage 2 be completed by 22 November 2013.—[Joe FitzPatrick.] Motion agreed to. back to top The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): The next item of business is consideration of three Parliamentary Bureau motions. I ask Joe FitzPatrick to move motion S4M-07530, on committee membership; motion S4M-07568, on substitution on committees; and motion S4M-07531, on the office of the clerk. Motions moved, That the Parliament agrees that— Hanzala Malik be appointed to replace Rhoda Grant as a member of the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee; Jayne Baxter be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as a member of the Education and Culture Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Mary Fee as a member of the Equal Opportunities Committee; Rhoda Grant be appointed to replace Drew Smith as a member of the Health and Sport Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Mary Fee be appointed to replace Elaine Murray as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Elaine Murray be appointed to replace Jenny Marra as a member of the Justice Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as a member of the Justice Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; Hugh Henry be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Lewis Macdonald be appointed to replace Patricia Ferguson as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Drew Smith be appointed to replace James Kelly as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Margaret McDougall be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Standards, Procedures and Public Appointments Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Hanzala Malik as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; and Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Welfare Reform Committee. That the Parliament agrees that— Kezia Dugdale be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Education and Culture Committee; Patricia Ferguson be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the European and External Relations Committee; Jackie Baillie be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Equal Opportunities Committee; Iain Gray be appointed to replace Mary Fee as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Finance Committee; Malcolm Chisholm be appointed to replace Jayne Baxter as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Health and Sport Committee; James Kelly be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Graeme Pearson be appointed to replace Margaret McDougall as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Justice Committee; Sarah Boyack be appointed to replace Richard Simpson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Neil Bibby as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Audit Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Petitions Committee; and Mary Fee be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee. That the Parliament agrees that, between 5 January 2014 and 31 January 2015, the Office of the Clerk will be open on all days except: Saturdays and Sundays, 18 and 21 April 2014, 5 May 2014, 23 May and 26 May 2014, St Andrew’s Day (28 November 2014), 24 December (pm), 25 and 26 December 2014 and 1 and 2 January 2015.—[Joe FitzPatrick.] The Presiding Officer: The questions on the motions will be put at decision time. Decision Time The Presiding Officer (Tricia Marwick): There are four questions to be put as a result of today’s business. The first question is, that motion S4M-07499, in the name of Ruth Davidson, a motion of condolence, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament expresses its deep regret and sadness at the death of David McLetchie CBE MSP; offers its sympathy and condolences to David’s family and friends; recognises the high regard in which he was held by so many colleagues; appreciates his significant contribution to civic life through his legal career, and acknowledges his distinguished record of service, both in this Parliament and to his constituents in the Lothians. The Presiding Officer: The next question is, that motion S4M-07530, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on committee membership, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament agrees that— Hanzala Malik be appointed to replace Rhoda Grant as a member of the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee; Jayne Baxter be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as a member of the Education and Culture Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Mary Fee as a member of the Equal Opportunities Committee; Rhoda Grant be appointed to replace Drew Smith as a member of the Health and Sport Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Mary Fee be appointed to replace Elaine Murray as a member of the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Elaine Murray be appointed to replace Jenny Marra as a member of the Justice Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as a member of the Justice Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; Hugh Henry be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as a member of the Public Audit Committee; Lewis Macdonald be appointed to replace Patricia Ferguson as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Drew Smith be appointed to replace James Kelly as a member of the Referendum (Scotland) Bill Committee; Margaret McDougall be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as a member of the Standards, Procedures and Public Appointments Committee; Margaret McCulloch be appointed to replace Hanzala Malik as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; Richard Baker be appointed to replace John Pentland as a member of the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee; and Ken Macintosh be appointed to replace Iain Gray as a member of the Welfare Reform Committee. The Presiding Officer: The next question is, that motion S4M-07568, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on substitution on committees, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament agrees that— Kezia Dugdale be appointed to replace Mark Griffin as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Education and Culture Committee; Patricia Ferguson be appointed to replace Neil Findlay as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the European and External Relations Committee; Jackie Baillie be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Equal Opportunities Committee; Iain Gray be appointed to replace Mary Fee as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Finance Committee; Malcolm Chisholm be appointed to replace Jayne Baxter as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Health and Sport Committee; James Kelly be appointed to replace Graeme Pearson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee; Graeme Pearson be appointed to replace Margaret McDougall as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Justice Committee; Sarah Boyack be appointed to replace Richard Simpson as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Local Government and Regeneration Committee; John Pentland be appointed to replace Neil Bibby as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Audit Committee; Mark Griffin be appointed to replace Malcolm Chisholm as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Public Petitions Committee; and Mary Fee be appointed to replace Margaret McCulloch as the Scottish Labour Party substitute on the Delegated Powers and Law Reform Committee. The Presiding Officer: The next question is, that motion S4M-07531, in the name of Joe FitzPatrick, on the office of the clerk, be agreed to. Motion agreed to, That the Parliament agrees that, between 5 January 2014 and 31 January 2015, the Office of the Clerk will be open on all days except: Saturdays and Sundays, 18 and 21 April 2014, 5 May 2014, 23 May and 26 May 2014, St Andrew’s Day (28 November 2014), 24 December (pm), 25 and 26 December 2014 and 1 and 2 January 2015. Dalbeattie High School (Da Vinci Challenge) The Deputy Presiding Officer (John Scott): The final item of business is a members’ business debate on motion S4M-07061, in the name of Alex Fergusson, on the da Vinci challenge, to be tackled by Dalbeattie high school. Motion debated, That the Parliament notes that the Da Vinci Challenge will be held in Milan from 2 to 4 October 2013; acknowledges that this is the first time since its inception in 2005 that the challenge will be held outside Australia; understands that it comprises a mental and educational decathlon that places particular emphasis on higher-order thinking skills, problem solving and creativity; notes that students will work in teams and aim to complete a range of tasks that encompass engineering, mathematics, philosophy, codebreaking, cartography, art and poetry, science, English and creativity; commends Dalbeattie High School, which will send the only team from Scotland to take on the challenge, and wishes the pupils, parents, staff and everyone involved in what it sees as this exciting initiative every possible success as the team prepares for what it considers a truly daunting international competition. 17:47 Alex Fergusson (Galloway and West Dumfries) (Con): In 2001, a teacher at Knox grammar school in Sydney, Australia, co-ordinated a series of three events, held over three consecutive days, that were collectively designed to provide a wide range of mentally stimulating challenges to teams of pupils from schools in New South Wales. It proved to be an extremely popular concept, to the extent that, in 2004, schools from several states were invited to take part in the inaugural national da Vinci decathlon. Gradually, the competition became so popular that each state now runs its own annual contest, with the winners and host schools of each state being invited to take part in the national decathlon, which is still held at Knox grammar over a three-day period every year. Clearly, the concept was one in which interest was bound to spread and, with further interest being shown from overseas, 2012 saw the inaugural international da Vinci decathlon, tested on the host schools in Australia, run simultaneously in several countries with links via Skype. Further, just as the original concept started in one state and expanded across a nation, the international concept of the challenge will take a huge leap forward this year when the first international da Vinci decathlon takes place in Milan, Italy, on 2, 3 and 4 October. Leonardo da Vinci was, of course, one of the world’s great thinkers and scholars and, back in the 15th century, it was he who identified a cerebral interconnection between the arts, anatomy, architecture, engineering and mathematics and astronomy, and the challenges of the decathlon that has been named after him are designed to bring the concept of that interconnection to life in a way that is relevant to us in the 21st century. The competition therefore places particular emphasis on higher-order thinking skills, problem solving and creativity, and it does so by setting each participating team a series of 10 tasks, which encompass art and poetry, cartography, code-breaking, creative producers, English, engineering, mathematics and chess, philosophy, science and general knowledge. To me, the whole thing sounds every bit as exciting as it does challenging, and I am sure that none of us would want to do anything other than encourage the further development of that great initiative. However, had it not been for the eagle-eyed observation of a young teacher at Dalbeattie high school in Dumfries and Galloway, I would certainly never have heard of the competition, and I suspect that many of the rest of us would never have heard of it either. A couple of years ago, I had the pleasure of visiting Dalbeattie high school at the invitation of that teacher—Mr Butler—to present the prizes at the end of a day of thought-provoking challenges that he had put together for the pupils, every one of whom had obviously been enthused and motivated by the tasks that had been set. It was clearly Mr Butler’s penchant for that type of activity that drew him to the da Vinci decathlon. Completely undaunted at the thought of having to raise at least £7,000 in the last four months—never mind dealing with the logistics of getting a team of 10 pupils and accompanying adults to and from Milan in October—the team from Dalbeattie high was duly entered for the decathlon and it is, I am told, the only school from the whole of Europe that is taking part in the competition. I thought that it was just the only school from the UK. It is also the only state school that will take part. It will take on teams from Australia, the USA, India and South Africa. One of the reasons why I wanted to bring the debate to the Parliament was simply to emphasise that that type of event does not involve just the individual participating school. Over the summer, the whole town of Dalbeattie witnessed a series of events and activities that involved, absorbed and intrigued the entire community. Over £8,000—not just £7,000—has been raised, and I believe that a final fundraising quiz night is to come this Thursday. Some £2,500 has been raised through grants; the rest has come through a wide variety of activities, such as packing bags in a local supermarket, a weekly sale of cakes made by the pupils—they make good cakes in Dalbeattie; that alone has raised £350—a coffee morning, work in local charity shops, quiz sheets, individual donations and so on. It surely says everything about our local communities that, even in these most difficult of times, they will dig deep into their pockets for a cause that they believe in. That also says a huge amount about the benefits of education beyond the classroom, the benefits of teamwork, the stimulus of competition and the unforgettable experience and benefit of social interaction between people of different nationalities and cultures. I have no doubt at all that those benefits will be heaped in abundance on the intrepid team of secondary 2, 3 and 4 pupils who will shortly leave the safe shores of Dumfries and Galloway to take on the world in Milan, and I am quite certain that—win, lose or draw—they will be different people simply as a result of having undergone the experience. I hope and feel certain that they will enthuse future generations of Dalbeattie’s pupils to follow in their footsteps; indeed, I would love to think that they will enthuse other Scottish, British and European schools to organise their own decathlons. Who knows? Perhaps it will not be long before Dalbeattie plays host to the international da Vinci challenge. That is very much for the future, of course. For now, I simply offer the good wishes of all members to the team and its supporting adults who, I am delighted to say, have been able to join us in the gallery. I am truly delighted to have put the motion to members. 17:53 Aileen McLeod (South Scotland) (SNP): I congratulate Alex Fergusson on bringing a fantastic challenge to the chamber and thereby securing the Parliament’s recognition of Dalbeattie high school students and staff for taking part in that unique challenge, in which they will represent Scotland in a competition of truly international proportions. I am also delighted that students from Dalbeattie have made it to the Parliament and are here to listen to the debate. I join Alex Fergusson in welcoming them to the chamber. I am sure that most of us will not have heard much about the da Vinci decathlon before, because it originated in Australia and made its way to Dalbeattie through an exchange programme, as Alex Fergusson said. That seems to have been one of those fortunate coincidences that has opened up a new opportunity for students. In starting to find out a bit more about the da Vinci decathlon, one of the things that struck me was the sheer breadth of knowledge and skill that it requires competitors to demonstrate. As Alex Fergusson mentioned, each team of eight students must complete tasks in art and poetry, cartography, code breaking, English, engineering, mathematics and chess, philosophy, science and general knowledge, as well as being tested on whether they are creative producers. That list is more than a little daunting. Every team member has to play a part in each task, so they all require a good working knowledge of all the subjects. To my mind, that makes the challenge all the more difficult. I am not entirely sure how many of us would necessarily excel if faced with such a task list. That underlines my admiration for the school: not only is it prepared to try something new, but its students will, in effect, be representing the whole of Scotland in October. This is not just a good competition in its own right. In adopting the da Vinci decathlon, Dalbeattie high school has found an intellectual competition and an ethos that fits well with our curriculum for excellence and the future direction of Scottish education. After all, curriculum for excellence has at its core the promotion of a broad general education and interdisciplinary learning and it instils in our young people the transferable skills that they are likely to need in a world in which many people switch careers regularly and the job for life has become increasingly rare. The idea that people should be familiar with a wide variety of knowledge is perfectly captured by the event’s title. Naming any academic event after Leonardo da Vinci—the original Renaissance man and probably the greatest polymath in history—is ambitious to say the least. The ambition that that represents is very much in line with our aspirations to have an education system that is internationally respected. The da Vinci decathlon is something that other Scottish schools should consider for the future. I applaud Dalbeattie high school for being the first to try it, but it is a competition and the more competitors there are the better. I hope to visit Dalbeattie high school soon. I am sorry that I have not got there sooner because I know that the da Vinci challenge is not the only exciting initiative that the school is working on. When I do so, I very much hope that the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning will join me. I join everyone in congratulating Sue Bain and Piers Butler at Dalbeattie high school for taking on the decathlon challenge. Most of all, I wish the very best of luck to the high school students who will be taking part in October in Milan. We are all rooting for them. 17:57 Anne McTaggart (Glasgow) (Lab): I congratulate Alex Fergusson on securing today’s debate. I am pleased to hear that Dalbeattie high school will be involved in such an exciting challenge and wish them all the best with their endeavours. I, too, welcome our guests to the Scottish Parliament. I take this opportunity to mention the different learning styles that are available to not only children and young people, but adults living in communities across Scotland. Given my background and my degree qualification in community education, I will highlight the roles that community learning and development play in complementing the formal education sector through a community development approach. I set the scene by referring to the historical context and the origins and development of the formal education sector in Scotland. The formal school sector has long enjoyed an international reputation as part of one of the best educated societies in the world. That tradition is being advanced by Dalbeattie high school’s participation in the da Vinci challenge. The Education Act 1696, which was an act of the Parliament of Scotland, saw the establishment and development of schools that were open to all boys and girls, regardless of their status. It was not until the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 that schooling was made compulsory for children aged five to 13 years of age, which laid the basis of the modern education system. Why the history lesson? The openness of the education system in Scotland and the quality of provision have been the subjects of much myth making. Alex Fergusson’s motion shows what young people in Scotland can achieve if they are given the right support. In April, in my region, Glasgow City Council’s education service established the employability and skills partnership team, which helps young people in the city to access vocational education while they are at school. The introduction of comprehensive education, in legislation in 1965, improved access to education. An attempt was made to provide an adequate standard for all children in Scotland. Community learning and development can play a key role in not only complementing but supplementing the formal education sector. It is a way of working to support communities to increase the skills, confidence, networks and resources that they need if they are to tackle problems and grasp opportunities. In short, it is a distinct sector of education, alongside school and further and higher education. The application of the community development approach to the creation of learning opportunities can support: the identification of the local population’s educational needs; the planning of provision to meet and support those needs; the promotion of alternative programmes; and the monitoring and evaluation of the planned programmes. Those four points are taken from a paper that Ted Milburn—a former lecturer of mine, who became a professor of community education—delivered some 26 years ago. What Ted Milburn said more than a quarter of a century ago is more than relevant today. The community learning and development approach is important, not just in its ability to complement and supplement the formal education sector but as a way of taking forward social and economic initiatives, to tackle the poverty and social deprivation that are, unfortunately, still prevalent in too many communities in Scotland. We therefore need to share examples of good practice, such as the vocational training programme that Glasgow City Council is running and the initiative at Dalbeattie high school. We wish the pupils of Dalbeattie high school well in their endeavours; I hope that they will come back and tell us that they are champions. 18:02 Liz Smith (Mid Scotland and Fife) (Con): I congratulate Alex Fergusson on securing the debate, and I congratulate the staff and pupils of Dalbeattie high school, who are off on an exciting adventure. Good luck to you all. I had heard of the da Vinci decathlon from a former pupil of mine who is out in Australia on a gap year, but I did not know much of the detail until I was prompted by the debate and the initiative that the school has shown to find out more. Leonardo da Vinci said that the “Principles for the Development of a Complete Mind” are to “Study the science of art. Study the art of science. Develop your senses ... learn how to see. Realise that everything connects to everything else.” He was, of course, one of the world’s great polymaths: a painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, inventor, writer, cartographer—the list goes on. He was an all-round genius because he understood the world’s interconnections in their most complex detail. He was a true renaissance man. He might even have been the first proponent of the curriculum for excellence. Who knows? Probably the most attractive aspect of Leonardo da Vinci’s life was his ever-present quest for knowledge and for a deeper understanding of the human behaviours and emotions that go with it. Learning would never end and would constantly be enriched. Not for him was contentment with teaching according to the principles of orthodoxy; closed minds were not inquiring minds. When the young people from Dalbeattie high school fly off to Italy in October they will face an unusual and rigorous challenge, which will test their skills to the limit. The da Vinci decathlon began in 2005 as an exciting offshoot of the successful da Vinci programme for gifted and talented students at Knox grammar school in Sydney. The challenge, which is designed to test and celebrate the higher-level academic gifts in a competitive environment, is of course run in the true spirit of the Olympic decathlon—the competition that is the ultimate test for athletes across many disciplines. It is a test of skill, resilience, mental and physical stamina and, of course, character. The success of the da Vinci decathlon in Australia has been hugely impressive and it has clearly caught the imagination of the young people in Australia, as well as their parents and, I understand, many businesses. For them, the competition has proved to be such a success because of the rounded approach to learning that it brings to challenge young people. As a member of the Education and Culture Committee of this Parliament, I am acutely aware of the constant refrain from employers in this country that we must do more to equip young people with the skills that cross several boundaries and disciplines, most especially in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, which have become known as the STEM subjects. We need many more Scottish pupils to look to future careers in engineering and the sciences. The da Vinci challenge promotes exactly the sort of subjects that we need to encourage more enthusiastically. One of the strong characteristics of the tradition of Scottish inventors is the appreciation that to understand engineering, one needs to understand how many other subjects interconnect with it. That is something that da Vinci would have appreciated very much. Some would argue that there are very good reasons for making engineering a compulsory subject; I can see the logic in that. In the past few years there has been a very pleasing increase in the number of schools that are making a determined effort to develop slightly different extracurricular activities. I know from my time as a teacher the benefits that such activities bring, especially if they are that little bit different and most especially if they involve a trip abroad. The Dalbeattie high school pupils and teachers are to be very warmly congratulated on their initiative and on their fundraising efforts, which Alex Fergusson has described. They have clearly put in a power of work on that and it is a great honour for them to be not just the only Scottish school but the only one from Europe taking part. I wish them every success and hope that this might be the start of a much wider uptake of the da Vinci challenge among Scottish schools. The Deputy Presiding Officer: I now call on the Scottish Parliament’s very own renaissance man, the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, Mike Russell. 18:06 The Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning (Michael Russell): How very kind of you, Presiding Officer. I am delighted to respond to the motion and to congratulate Alex Fergusson on having secured the debate. I am particularly delighted to congratulate the team that is going to Milan from Dalbeattie. As a former South of Scotland member of the Scottish Parliament, I know that we can learn a great deal from the south of Scotland. I also know that the baking in Dalbeattie is very good, although I regret that none has been brought here for us to sample today. I am certainly astonished to discover the amazing range of challenges that the young people will have to overcome when they go to Milan. It is appropriate that we commend all of them and that we wish them the best of luck. With your permission, Presiding Officer, I will give them a name check. They are Jenna Miller, Matthew Campbell, Amy Scobie, Georgina Murray, Emma Forsyth, Ailsa O’Donoghue, Rhiannon Gerrard, Isla Parker, Catherine Kellett and Alex Lammie. The team leaders who are going to Milan are Piers Butler and Samantha Campbell. The observant among us will notice that there are nine girls and one boy in the team. No doubt in time there will be members on our benches who will argue for gender balance in the da Vinci competition, but that is a very good start and I commend the team for it. I have to say that I was unaware of the challenge, but so were my officials when the debate was announced. It is fascinating that such an idea should come by means of an exchange teacher to Dalbeattie—one Zak Inward. I could not believe the name, but it was Zak Inward who brought the idea to Dalbeattie and encouraged the school to take part. The idea of an exchange from Knox academy—a wonderfully named school—to Dalbeattie and a trip on to Milan says something about the interconnected nature of the world in which they live. Our education system in Scotland is an interconnected one. It focuses on higher-order thinking skills, problem solving, teamwork and creativity, which is precisely what the team will have to show and undertake when they are in Milan. Their tasks will range from engineering to philosophy to code breaking to cartography, taking in science, English, art and poetry. They will carry out all those tasks to compete and, we hope—as Anne McTaggart said—to win. It is a wonderful reflection on Dalbeattie that its young people are going, and a wonderful reflection on Scotland that our curriculum can support that type of activity. When I think of da Vinci, as I am sure all of us in the chamber do from time to time, I think of his logo, “The Vitruvian Man”—the man in two different positions. Perhaps that should be the logo for curriculum for excellence because it is about perfect proportion, interchangeability and connections. I thank him for drawing our attention to that and for reminding us of the importance of interconnectivity within our education system. Nigel Don (Angus North and Mearns) (SNP): Presiding Officer, Da Vinci’s challenge we are told is clearly for the bright and bold; Not only must you read a map, you’ll need to be a thinking chap. Can the Cab Sec let me know which way he thinks the thing will go? Are we all in time to find our schools thus test each eager mind? Michael Russell: I am not entirely sure that Mr Don is going to win the da Vinci challenge with that poetry, although he might win another challenge with it. However, he is quite right to say that there is a lesson for us all to learn, which I will draw briefly. Our curriculum reforms in Scotland are driving essential change, with the learning journey from the age of 3 to 18 and beyond. Anne McTaggart was right to remind us of the role of community learning in that process; it is vital. The process of transformation that is required to deliver curriculum for excellence in full, and to improve Scottish education, continues. We are committed to finishing the job of delivering a curriculum that is fit for the challenges of our modern world—even that most intensive challenge that Dalbeattie high school has stepped up to the plate to take. It is an unprecedented programme of transformation—curriculum for excellence is not quite like anything that takes place elsewhere. Lots of people are looking to Scotland to try to understand the system and how it may benefit them. The purpose is to improve children’s and young people’s achievements, attainment levels and life chances through nurturing every individual young person as a successful learner, a confident individual, a responsible citizen and an effective contributor. That underpinning strength of curriculum for excellence will, I believe, benefit every school and young person in Scotland. Liz Smith is right to draw attention to the STEM subjects and to engineering. In relation to science, we must ensure not just that our young people have those skills, but that our teachers are keen to impart those skills. They must see the importance of the STEM subjects—of science and engineering—as connecting subjects within schools and be keen to take them forward. We must see other things, too, including the vision that the Government has for language learning and teaching, which are important. We are the first part of these islands to commit ourselves to the Barcelona system of learning one’s own language and two others. Over two school generations, we will roll that out so that Scotland’s experience of languages will be transformed. If Italian has not yet reached Dalbeattie high school, there will be some to be learned during the October break. All across Scotland, curriculum for excellence is energising learning and teaching. It is making education more relevant to the modern world and is giving young people the skills and knowledge that they need to succeed in learning, life and work. I hope that it is also inculcating ambition, which is a wonderful thing. For Dalbeattie high school to have the ambition to compete and take part in something that no Scottish school—indeed, no school in these islands or in Europe, apparently—has yet taken part in is a tremendous achievement. In Dalbeattie, as in the rest of Scotland, it is the learners who are the greatest natural resource. They are the investment for the future and are what the future will be. Curriculum for excellence is designed to support them, to take them forward and to allow them, through schools and other learning providers, to focus on individual need in the context—which we in Parliament should never forget—of education’s having not just an individual benefit but a societal benefit. By investing in education, we invest in the whole future of our country. I am grateful to Alex Fergusson for having brought this matter to Parliament, and I am grateful to the members who have spoken in the debate. Most of all, I am grateful to the team from Dalbeattie high school, who will have heard all the praise and excitement today. I hope that they enjoy the challenge, but they have a lot of hard work to do; they have a lot of research and learning to do, and they have a lot to work on in the next six weeks. We should not, therefore, talk any longer; we should let them get on with it. Meeting closed at 18:14.	i don't know
For which book published in 1981, did Salman Rushdie win Britain's oldest literary award, The James Tait Black Memorial Prize, as well as the Booker Prize?	Quotations on Islam from Notable Non-Muslims - WikiIslam Quotations on Islam from Notable Non-Muslims From WikiIslam, the online resource on Islam Jump to: navigation , search The following sourced quotations are particularly useful, as many apologists like to commit the logical fallacy of appealing to authority by using (very often out-of-context [1] or false) [2] quotes attributed to various noteworthy non-Muslim individuals, in an attempt to propagate their faith . Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi[ edit ] Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī (865 – 925 AD) was a Persian physician, alchemist, chemist, philosopher, and scholar. If the people of this religion [Islam] are asked about the proof for the soundness of their religion, they flare up, get angry and spill the blood of whoever confronts them with this question. They forbid rational speculation, and strive to kill their adversaries. This is why truth became thoroughly silenced and concealed. [3] You claim that the evidentiary miracle is present and available, namely, the Koran. You say: "Whoever denies it, let him produce a similar one." Indeed, we shall produce a thousand similar, from the works of rhetoricians, eloquent speakers and valiant poets, which are more appropriately phrased and state the issues more succinctly. They convey the meaning better and their rhymed prose is in better meter. ... By God what you say astonishes us! You are talking about a work which recounts ancient myths, and which at the same time is full of contradictions and does not contain any useful information or explanation. Then you say: "Produce something like it"?! [3] Adolf Hitler[ edit ] Adolf Hitler (1889 – 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, commonly known as the Nazi Party. You see, it's been our misfortune to have the wrong religion. Why didn't we have the religion of the Japanese, who regard sacrifice for the Fatherland as the highest good? The Mohammedan religion [Islam] too would have been more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness? [4] I can imagine people being enthusiastic about the paradise of Mohammed, but as for the insipid paradise of the Christians! In your lifetime, you used to hear the music of Richard Wagner. After your death, it will be nothing but hallelujahs, the waving of palms, children of an age for the feeding bottle, and hoary old men. The man of the isles pays homage to the forces of nature. But Christianity is an invention of sick brains: one could imagine nothing more senseless, nor any more indecent way of turning the idea of the Godhead into a mockery. A n*** with his taboos is crushingly superior to the human being who seriously believes in transubstantiation. [5] Had Charles Martel not been victorious at Poitiers -already, you see, the world had already fallen into the hands of the Jews, so gutless a thing Christianity! -then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism [Islam], that cult which glorifies the heroism and which opens up the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the Germanic races would have conquered the world. Christianity alone prevented them from doing so. [6] The best thing is to let Christianity die a natural death. A slow death has something comforting about it. The dogma of Christianity gets worn away before the advances of science... The instructions of a hygienic nature that most religions gave, contributed to the foundation of organized communities. The precepts ordering people to wash, to avoid certain drinks, to fast at appointed dates, to take exercise, to rise with the sun, to climb to the top of the minaret — all these were obligations invented by intelligent people. The exhortation to fight courageously is also self-explanatory. Observe, by the way, that, as a corollary, the Moslem was promised a paradise peopled with sensual girls, where wine flowed in streams — a real earthly paradise. The Christians, on the other hand, declare themselves satisfied if after their death they are allowed to sing hallelujahs! ...Christianity, of course, has reached the peak of absurdity in this respect. And that's why one day its structure will collapse. Science has already impregnated humanity. Consequently, the more Christianity clings to its dogmas, the quicker it will decline.! [7] Alexis de Tocqueville[ edit ] Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville (1805 – 1859) was a French political thinker and historian best known for his Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the Revolution. I studied the Quran a great deal. I came away from that study with the conviction that by and large there have been few religions in the world as deadly to men as that of Muhammad. As far as I can see, it is the principal cause of the decadence so visible today in the Muslim world and, though less absurd than the polytheism of old, its social and political tendencies are in my opinion more to be feared, and I therefore regard it as a form of decadence rather than a form of progress in relation to paganism itself. [8] Muhammad professed to derive from Heaven, and he has inserted in the Koran, not only a body of religious doctrines, but political maxims, civil and criminal laws, and theories of science. The gospel, on the contrary, only speaks of the general relations of men to God and to each other - beyond which it inculcates and imposes no point of faith. This alone, besides a thousand other reasons, would suffice to prove that the former of these religions will never long predominate in a cultivated and democratic age, whilst the latter is destined to retain its sway at these as at all other periods. [9] André Servier[ edit ] André Servier was an historian who lived in French Algeria at the beginning of the 20th century. Islam was not a torch, as has been claimed, but an extinguisher. Conceived in a barbarous brain for the use of a barbarous people, it was - and it remains - incapable of adapting itself to civilization. Wherever it has dominated, it has broken the impulse towards progress and checked the evolution of society. [10] Islam is Christianity adapted to Arab mentality, or, more exactly, it is all that the unimaginative brain of a Bedouin, obstinately faithful to ancestral practices, has been able to assimilate of the Christian doctrines. Lacking the gift of imagination, the Bedouin copies, and in copying he distorts the original. Thus Musulman law is only the Roman Code revised and corrected by Arabs; in the same way Musulman science is nothing but Greek science interpreted by the Arab brain; and again, Musulman architecture is merely a distorted imitation of the Byzantine style. [10] The deadening influence of Islam is well demonstrated by the way in which the Musulman comports himself at different stages of his life. In his early childhood, when the religion has not as yet impregnated his brain, he shows a very lively intelligence and remarkably open mind, accessible to ideas of every kind; but, in proportion as he grows up, and as, through the system of his education, Islam lays hold of him and envelops him, his brain seems to shut up, his judgment to become atrophied, and his intelligence to be stricken by paralysis and irremediable degeneration. [10] Islam is by no means a negligible element in the destiny of humanity. The mass of three hundred million believers is growing daily, because in most Musulman countries the birth-rate exceeds the death-rate, and also because the religious propaganda is constantly gaining new adherents among tribes still in a state of barbarism. [10] To sum up: the Arab has borrowed everything from other nations, literature, art, science, and even his religious ideas. He has passed it all through the sieve of his own narrow mind, and being incapable of rising to high philosophic conceptions, he has distorted, mutilated and desiccated everything. This destructive influence explains the decadence of Musulman nations and their powerlessness to break away from barbarism… [10] Islam is a doctrine of death, inasmuch as the spiritual not being separated from the temporal, and every manifestation of activity being subjected to dogmatic law, it formally forbids any change, any evolution, any progress. It condemns all believers to live, to think, and to act as lived, thought and acted the Musulmans of the second century of the Hegira [8th century A.D.], when the law of Islam and its interpretation were definitely fixed. . . . In the history of the nations, Islam, a secretion of the Arab brain, has never been an element of civilization, but on the contrary has acted as an extinguisher upon its flickering light. Individuals under Arab rule have only been able to contribute to the advance of civilization in so far as they did not conform to the Musulman dogma, but they relapsed into Arab barbarism as soon as they were obliged to make a complete submission to these dogmas. . . . Islamized nations, who have not succeeded in freeing themselves from Musulman tutelage, have been stricken with intellectual paralysis and decadence. They will only escape as they succeed in withdrawing themselves from the control of Musulman law. [10] Angela Carter[ edit ] Angela Carter (1940 – 1992) was an English novelist and journalist. In 2008, The Times ranked Carter tenth in their list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945". In 2012, Nights at the Circus was selected as the best ever winner of the James Tait Black Memorial Prize. The kind of power mothers have is enormous. Take the skyline of Istanbul—enormous breasts, pathetic little willies, a final revenge on Islam. I was so scared I had to crouch in the bottom of the boat when I saw it. [11] Anthony Flew[ edit ] Antony Garrard Newton Flew (1923 – 2010) was a British philosopher. He was also known for the development of the no true Scotsman fallacy. I would never regard Islam with anything but horror and fear because it is fundamentally committed to conquering the world for Islam... it is, I think, best described in a Marxian way as the uniting and justifying ideology of Arab imperialism. Between the New Testament and the Qur'an there is (as it is customary to say when making such comparisons) no comparison. Whereas markets can be found for books on reading the Bible as literature, to read the Qur'an is a penance rather than a pleasure. There is no order or development in its subject matter.... The Prophet, though gifted in the arts of persuasion and clearly a considerable military leader, was both doubtfully literate and certainly ill-informed about the contents of the Old Testament and about several matters of which God, if not even the least informed of the Prophet’s contemporaries, must have been cognizant... one thing I’ll say in this comparison is that, for goodness sake, Jesus is an enormously attractive charismatic figure, which the Prophet of Islam most emphatically is not. [12] The Koran calls for belief and consequent obedience. It is, surely, calculated to inspire fear, indeed abject terror, rather than love. [13] Apostolos Euangelou Vacalopoulos[ edit ] The Revolution of 1821 is no more than the last great phase of the resistance of the Greeks to Ottoman domination; it was a relentless, undeclared war, which had begun already in the first years of servitude. The brutality of an autocratic regime, which was characterized by economic spoliation, intellectual decay and cultural retrogression, was sure to provoke opposition. Restrictions of all kinds, unlawful taxation, forced labor, persecutions, violence, imprisonment, death, abductions of girls and boys and their confinement to Turkish harems, and various deeds of wantonness and lust, along with numerous less offensive excesses – all these were a constant challenge to the instinct of survival and they defied every sense of human decency. The Greeks bitterly resented all insults and humiliations, and their anguish and frustration pushed them into the arms of rebellion. There was no exaggeration in the statement made by one of the beys if Arta, when he sought to explain the ferocity of the struggle. He said: ‘We have wronged the rayas [dhimmis] (i.e. our Christian subjects) and destroyed both their wealth and honor; they became desperate and took up arms. This is just the beginning and will finally lead to the destruction of our empire.’ The sufferings of the Greeks under Ottoman rule were therefore the basic cause of the insurrection; a psychological incentive was provided by the very nature of the circumstances [14] At the beginning of the eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks forced their way into Armenia and there crushed the armies of several petty Armenian states. No fewer than forty thousand souls fled before the organized pillage of the Seljuk host to the western part of Asia Minor. From the middle of the eleventh century, and especially after the battle of Malazgirt [Manzikurt] (1071), the Seljuks spread throughout the whole Asia Minor peninsula, leaving error, panic and destruction in their wake. Byzantine, Turkish and other contemporary sources are unanimous in their agreement on the extent of havoc wrought an the protracted anguish of the local population…[The Greek chronicler] Kydones described the fate of the Christian peoples of Asia Minor thus: ‘The entire region which sustained us, from the Hellespont eastwards to the mountains of Armenia, has been snatched away. They [the Turks] have razed cities, pillaged churches, opened graves, and filled everything with blood and corpses…Alas, too, they have even abused Christian bodies. And having taken away their entire wealth they have now taken away their freedom, reducing them to the merest shadows of slaves. And with such dregs of energy as remain in these unfortunate people, they are forced to be the servitors of the Turk’s personal comforts.’ “From the time the Ottoman Turks first set foot in Thrace under Suleiman, son of Orchan, the Empire rapidly disintegrated….From the very beginning of the Turkish onslaught under Suleiman, the Turks tried to consolidate their position by the forcible imposition of Islam. [The Ottoman historian] Sukrullah [maintained] those who refused to accept the Moslem faith were slaughtered and their families enslaved. ‘Where there were bells’, writes the same author, ‘Suleiman broke them up and cast them onto fires. Where there are churches he destroyed them or converted them into mosques. Thus, in place of bells there were now muezzins. Wherever Christian infidels were still found, vassalage was imposed upon their rulers. At least in public they could no longer say ‘kyrie eleison’ but rather “There is no God but Allah; and where once their prayers had been addressed to Christ, they were now to ‘Mohammed, the prophet of Allah.’ [15] Ambedkar, B. R.[ edit ] Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was independent India's first law minister and the principal architect of the Constitution of India. One may well ask if there is any social evil which is found among the Hindus and is not found among the Muslims? … Take child-marriage ... [quoting from 1931 census statistics] Can the position among the Musalmans so far as child-marriage goes, be considered better than the position among the Hindus?” (P. 225-6) “ Take the position of women. It is insisted by Muslims that the legal rights given to Muslim women, ensure them a greater measure of independence than allowed to other Eastern women … the Muslim woman is the most helpless person in the world … her fate is ‘once married, always married’. She cannot escape the marriage tie, however irksome it may be. While she cannot repudiate the marriage, the husband can always do it without having to show any cause. Utter the word ‘Tallak’ and observe continence for three weeks and the woman is cast away … This latitude in the marriage in the matter of divorce destroys that sense of security which is so fundamental for a full, free and happy life for a woman. This insecurity of life, to which a Muslim woman is exposed, is greatly augmented by the right of polygamy and concubinage, which the Muslim law gives to the husband” (P. 226-227) “ Take the caste system. Islam speaks of brotherhood. Everybody infers that Islam must be free from slavery and caste. Regarding slavery nothing needs to be said. It stand abolished now by law. But while it existed much of its support was derived from Islam and Islamic countries … But if slavery has gone, caste among Musalmans has remained ” (P. 228). Dr. Ambedkar then quotes the 1901 census report for Bengal to show that Muslims there have several castes including Arzal or untouchable castes with whom no other Mohamedan would associate and who are forbidden to enter the mosque to use the public burial ground. He also quotes from the same Report about the panchayat system of each caste which extends to social as well as trade matters resulting in castes which are as strictly endogamous as Hindu castes. He concludes, “the Mohamedans observe not only caste but also untouchability” (P. 230) [16] Arthur Jeffery[ edit ] Arthur Jeffery (1892 – 1959) was an Australian professor of Semitic languages first at the School of Oriental Studies in Cairo, and from 1938 until his death jointly at Columbia University and Union Theological Seminary in New York City. He is the author of extensive historical studies of Middle Eastern manuscripts. The early Arabic sources quite plainly and frankly describe the expeditions as military expeditions, and it would never have occurred to anyone at that day to interpret them as anything else.... To the folk of his day there would thus be nothing strange in Muhammad, as the head of the community of those who served Allah, taking the sword to extend the kingdom of Allah, and taking measures to insure the subjection of all who lived within the borders of what he made the kingdom of Allah. [17] Arthur Schopenhauer[ edit ] Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860) was an influential German philosopher, known for his pessimism and philosophical clarity. Temples and churches, pagodas and mosques, in all countries and ages, in their splendor and spaciousness, testify to man's need for metaphysics, a need strong and ineradicable, which follows close on the physical. ... Sometimes it lets itself be satisfied with clumsy fables and fairy-tales. If only they are imprinted early enough, they are for man adequate explanations of his existence and supports for his morality. Consider the Koran, for example; this wretched book was sufficient to start a world-religion, to satisfy the metaphysical need of countless millions for twelve hundred years, to become the basis of their morality and of a remarkable contempt for death, and also to inspire them to bloody wars and the most extensive conquests. In this book we find the saddest and poorest form of theism. Much may be lost in translation, but I have not been able to discover in it one single idea of value. [18] Bhavishya Purana[ edit ] The Bhavishya Purana is one of the eighteen major Hindu Puranas. It is written in Sanskrit and attributed to Rishi Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas. Suta Goswami said: After hearing the king’s prayers, Lord Shiva said: ... There was a mystic demon named Tripura (Tripurasura), whom I have already burnt to ashes, he has come again by the order of Bali. He has no origin but he achieved a benediction from me. His name is Mahamada (Muhammad) and his deeds are like that of a ghost. Therefore, O king, you should not go to this land of the evil ghost. By my mercy your intelligence will be purified. Hearing this the king came back to his country and Mahamada (Muhammad) came with them to the bank of the river Sindhu. He was expert in expanding illusion, so he said to the king very pleasingly: O great king, your god has become my servant. Just see, as he eats my remnants, so I will show you. The king became surprised when he saw this just before them. Then in anger Kalidasa rebuked Mahamada (Muhammad) “O rascal, you have created an illusion to bewilder the king, I will kill you, you are the lowest..." That city is known as their site of pilgrimage, a place which was Madina or free from intoxication. Having a form of a ghost (Bhuta), the expert illusionist Mahamada (Muhammad) appeared at night in front of king Bhojaraja and said: O king, your religion is of course known as the best religion among all. Still I am going to establish a terrible and demoniac religion by the order of the Lord . The symptoms of my followers will be that they first of all will cut their genitals, have no shikha, but having beard, be wicked, make noise loudly and eat everything. They should eat animals without performing any rituals. This is my opinion. They will perform purificatory act with the musala or a pestle as you purify your things with kusha. Therefore, they will be known as musalman, the corrupters of religion. Thus the demoniac religion will be founded by me. After having heard all this the king came back to his palace and that ghost (Muhammad) went back to his place. [19] Benedict XVI[ edit ] Pope Benedict XVI (born Joseph Alois Ratzinger on April 16, 1927) is Pope Emeritus of the Catholic Church, having served as Pope from 2005 to 2013. Islam has a total organization of life that is completely different from ours; it embraces simply everything,...There is a very marked subordination of woman to man; there is a very tightly knit criminal law, indeed, a law regulating all areas of life, that is opposed to our modern ideas about society. One has to have a clear understanding that it is not simply a denomination that can be included in the free realm of a pluralistic society. [20] Bernard Lewis[ edit ] Bernard Lewis, FBA (born May 31, 1916) is a British-American scholar in Oriental studies, and political commentator. He is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He specializes in the history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West, and is especially famous in academic circles for his works on the history of the Ottoman Empire. The golden age of equal rights [in Spain] was a myth, and belief in it was a result, more than a cause, of Jewish sympathy for Islam. The myth was invented by Jews in nineteenth-century Europe as a reproach to Christians. [21] There was a time when scholars and other writers in communist eastern Europe relied on writers and publishers in the free West to speak the truth about their history, their culture, and their predicament. Today it is those who told the truth, no those who concealed or denied it, who are respected and welcomed in these countries. Historians in free countries have a moral and professional obligation not to shrink the difficult issues and subjects that some people would place under a sort of taboo; not to submit to voluntary censorship, but to deal with these matters fairly, honestly, without apologetics, without polemic, and, of course, competently. Those who enjoy freedom have a moral obligation to use that freedom for those who do not possess it. We live in a time when great efforts have been made, and continue to be made to falsify the record of the past and to make history a tool of propaganda; when governments, religious movements, political parties, and sectional groups of every kind are busy rewriting history as they would wish it to have been, as they would like their followers to believe that it was. All this is very dangerous indeed, to ourselves and to others, however we may define otherness - dangerous to our common humanity. Because, make no mistake, those who are unwilling to confront the past will be unable to understand the present and unfit to face the future. [22] During the first formative centuries of its existence, Christianity was separated from and indeed antagonistic to the state, with which it only later became involved. From the lifetime of its founder, Islam was the state, and the identity of religion and government is indelibly stamped on the memories and awareness of the faithful from their own sacred writings, history, and experience. [23] ...it is the duty of those who have accepted them [Allah's word and message] to strive unceasingly to convert or at least to subjugate those who have not. This obligation is without limit of time or space. It must continue until the whole world has either accepted the Islamic faith or submitted to the power of the Islamic state. [24] Bertrand Russell[ edit ] Bertrand Arthur William Russell (1872 – 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, socialist, pacifist, and social critic, who is considered to be one of the founders of analytic philosophy. Bolshevism combines the characteristics of the French Revolution with those of the rise of Islam… Those who accept Bolshevism become impervious to scientific evidence, and commit intellectual suicide. Even if all the doctrines of Bolshevism were true, this would still be the case, since no unbiased examination of them is tolerated…Among religions, Bolshevism is to be reckoned with Mohammedanism rather than with Christianity and Buddhism. Christianity and Buddhism are primarily personal religions, with mystical doctrines and a love of contemplation. Mohammedanism and Bolshevism are practical, social, unspiritual, concerned to win the empire of the world. [25] Rivalry is a much stronger motive. Over and over again in Mohammedan history, dynasties have come to grief because the sons of a sultan by different mothers could not agree, and in the resulting civil war universal ruin resulted... The world would be a happier place than it is if acquisitiveness were always stronger than rivalry. But in fact, a great many men will cheerfully face impoverishment if they can thereby secure complete ruin for their rivals. [26] Immediately after his death the conquests began, and they proceeded with rapidity... Westward expansion (except in Sicily and Southern Italy) was brought to a standstill by the defeat of the Mohammedans at the battle of Tours in 732, just one hundred years after the death of the Prophet... It was the duty of the faithful to conquer as much of the world as possible for Islam... The first conquests of the Arabs began as mere raids for plunder, and only turned into permanent occupation after experience has shown the weakness of the enemy... The Arabs, although they conquered a great part of the world in the name of a new religion were not a very religious race; the motive of their conquests was plunder and wealth rather than religion. [27] The beliefs appropriate to the impulse of aggression may be seen in Bernhardi, or in the early Mohammedan conquerors, or, in full perfection, in the Book of Joshua. There is first of all a conviction of the superior excellence of one's own group, a certainty that they are in some sense the chosen people. This justifies the feeling that only the good and evil of one's own group is of real importance, and that the rest of the world is to be regarded merely as material for the triumph or salvation of the higher race. In modern politics this attitude is embodied in imperialism. [28] Bill Maher[ edit ] William "Bill" Maher, Jr. (born January 20, 1956) is an American stand-up comedian, television host, political commentator, author and actor. Maher currently ranks number 38 on Comedy Central's 100 greatest stand-ups of all time, and has a Hollywood Walk of Fame star. There’s only one faith, for example, that kills you or wants to kill you if you draw a bad cartoon of the prophet. There’s only one faith that kills you or wants to kill you if you renounce the faith... obviously, most Muslim people are not terrorists. But ask most Muslim people in the world, if you insult the prophet, do you have what’s coming to you? It’s more than just a fringe element. [29] I do agree that there are other groups that pose a terroristic threat to this country [USA]... I would say that the threat from radicalized Muslims is a unique and greater threat. It is the greatest threat... It's been going on for a thousand years, this problem with Islam and the West. We're dealing with a culture that is in its medieval era. It [Islam] comes from a hate-filled holy book, the Quran, which is taken very literally by its people. They are trying to get nuclear weapons. I don’t think Tim McVeigh would ever have tried to get a nuclear weapon because I think right-wing nuts, they think they love this country and they are not trying to destroy this country, they want to get it away from the people they see as hijacking it. That’s different than Muslim extremists who want to destroy it. And also it is a culture of suicide bombing, which is hard to deter from people who want to kill themselves. [30] All this talk of people who burn the Koran and nothing about the people who reacted in such a stupid way. We are always blaming the victim and not holding them -- not most Muslims, but at least a large part of Muslim culture that doesn't condemn their people... There is one religion in the world that kills you when you disagree with them and they say 'look, we are a religion of peace and if you disagree we'll fking cut your head off, and nobody calls them on it -- there are very few people that will call them on it. It's like if Dad is a violent drunk and beats his kids, you don't blame the kid because he set Dad off. You blame Dad because he's a violent drunk. [31] When South Park got threatened last week by Islamists ... it served or should serve, as a reminder to all of us that our culture isn't just different than one that makes death threats to cartoonists, it's better. Because when I make a joke about the Pope, he doesn't send one of the Swiss Guards in their striped pantaloons to stick a pike in my ass. When I make a Jewish joke, Rabbis may kvetch about it, but they don't pull out a scimitar and threaten an adult circumcision. ... it should in fairness be noted, that in speaking of Muslims, we realize that of course the vast majority are law abiding, loving people, who just want to be left alone to subjugate their women in peace. ... but the western world needs to make it clear, some things about our culture are not negotiable, and can't change, and one of them is freedom of speech. Separation of church and state is another, not negotiable. Women are allowed to work here and you can't beat them, not negotiable. This is how we roll. And this is why our system is better. [32] Blaise Pascal[ edit ] Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. Mahomet established a religion by putting his enemies to death; Jesus Christ by commanding his followers to lay down their lives Carey Cash[ edit ] Rev. Carey Cash is a US Navy chaplain currently assigned to Camp David, the U.S. presidential retreat. He is often referred to as "President Obama's pastor". [Islam] from its very birth has used the edge of the sword as a means to convert or conquer those with different religious convictions. [33] Sadly, grace is often absent in Islam, which is based upon binding religious law, requiring strenuous adherence to every tenet of the ‘Five Pillars of Allah’... A religion that emerges from the soil of strict adherence to law as a means of gaining God’s favour will always tend toward extreme selfsacrifice. [33] Carl Jung[ edit ] Carl Gustav Jung (1875 – 1961) was the Swiss founder of analytical psychology. He created some of the best known psychological concepts and his work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields. We do not know whether Hitler is going to found a new Islam. He is already on the way; he is like Muhammad. The emotion in Germany is Islamic; warlike and Islamic. They are all drunk with a wild god. [34] Charles-Louis Montesquieu[ edit ] Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (1689 – 1755), was a French social commentator and political thinker. It is a misfortune to human nature, when religion is given by a conqueror. The Mahometan religion, which speaks only by the sword, acts still upon men with that destructive spirit with which it was founded. [35] Christopher Hitchens[ edit ] Christopher Eric Hitchens (1949 – 2011) was an English-American author and journalist. His books, essays, and journalistic career have spanned more than four decades, making him a public intellectual, and a staple of talk shows and lecture circuits. He has been a columnist and literary critic at The Atlantic, Vanity Fair, Slate, World Affairs, The Nation, Free Inquiry, and a variety of other media outlets. Islam in its origins is just as shady and approximate as those from which it took its borrowings. It makes immense claims for itself, invokes prostrate submission or "surrender" as a maxim to its adherents, and demands deference and respect from nonbelievers into the bargain. There is nothing—absolutely nothing—in its teachings that can even begin to justify such arrogance and presumption. [36] If the Qur'an was the word of God, it had been dictated on a very bad day. [37] "Some of what people are saying in this mosque controversy is very similar to what German media was saying about Jews in the 1920s and 1930s," Imam Abdullah Antepli, Muslim chaplain at Duke University, told the New York Times. Yes, we all recall the Jewish suicide bombers of that period, as we recall the Jewish yells for holy war, the Jewish demands for the veiling of women and the stoning of homosexuals, and the Jewish burning of newspapers that published cartoons they did not like. What is needed from the supporters of this very confident faith is more self-criticism and less self-pity and self-righteousness. [38] Christopher Marlowe[ edit ] Christopher Marlowe (1564 – 1593) was an English poet and translator of the Elizabethan era, who also rivalled Shakespeare as the most powerful dramatist of the Elizabethan period. Tamburlaine: Now, Casane, where’s the Turkish Alcoran, And all the heaps of superstitious books Found in the temples of that Mahomet Whom I have thought a god? they shall be burnt. Usumcasane: Here they are, my lord. Tamburlaine: Well said! let there be a fire presently. [They light a fire.] In vain, I see, men worship Mahomet: My sword hath sent millions of Turks to hell, Slew all his priests, his kinsmen, and his friends, And yet I live untouch’d by Mahomet. There is a God, full of revenging wrath, }From whom the thunder and the lightning breaks, Whose scourge I am, and him will I obey. So, Casane; fling them in the fire.— [They burn the books.] Now, Mahomet, if thou have any power, Come down thyself and work a miracle: Thou art not worthy to be worshipped That suffer’st flames of fire to burn the writ Wherein the sum of thy religion rests: Why send’st thou not a furious whirlwind down, To blow thy Alcoran up to thy throne, Where men report thou sitt’st by God himself? Or vengeance on the head of Tamburlaine That shakes his sword against thy majesty, And spurns the abstracts of thy foolish laws?— Well, soldiers, Mahomet remains in hell; He cannot hear the voice of Tamburlaine: Seek out another godhead to adore; The God that sits in heaven, if any god, For he is God alone, and none but he. Dante Alighieri[ edit ] Dante Alighieri (1265 – 1321), also known as "the Supreme Poet", was an Italian poet. His Divine Comedy is often considered the greatest literary work ever composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece of world literature. Below is Dante's description of Muhammad and Ali in Hell. And one his limb transpierced, and one lopped off, should show, it would be nothing to compare with the disgusting mode of the ninth Bolgia. A cask by losing centre-piece or cant was never shattered so, as I saw one rent from the chin to where one breaketh wind. Between his legs were hanging down his entrails; his heart was visible, and the dismal sack that maketh excrement of what is eaten. While I was all absorbed in seeing him, he looked at me, and opened with his hands his bosom, saying: "See now how I rend me; How mutilated, see, is Mahomet; in front of me doth Ali weeping go, cleft in the face from forelock unto chin; and all the others whom thou here beholdest, disseminators of scandal and of schism while living were, and therefore are cleft thus. [39] David Cook[ edit ] David B. Cook is a religious scholar and author from Rice University in Houston with a focus on Islamic history and Muslim apocalyptic literature. There is no lack of evidence concerning the Muslim practice of jihad. The classical and modern works on the subject are voluminous, and they are documented by an examination of Muslim actions as recorded by historians. There can be no reasonable doubt that jihad is a major theme running through the entirety of Muslim civilization and is at least one of the major factors in the astounding success of the faith of Islam. [40] In reading Muslim literature -- both contemporary and classical -- one can see that the evidence for the primacy of spiritual jihad is negligible. Today it is certain that no Muslim, writing in a non-Western language (such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu), would ever make claims that jihad is primarily nonviolent or has been superseded by the spiritual jihad. Such claims are made solely by Western scholars, primarily those who study Sufism and/or work in interfaith dialogue, and by Muslim apologists who are trying to present Islam in the most innocuous manner possible. [41] ...after surveying the evidence from classical until contemporary times, one must conclude that today's jihad movements are as legitimate as any that have ever existed in classical Islam... In short, although the actions of many of these groups may disgust many Muslims, as far as their conduct of jihad, they fall within the limits set by classical and contemporary Muslim law. [42] David Hume[ edit ] David Hume (1711 – 1776) was a Scottish philosopher and historian, regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. The admirers and followers of the Alcoran insist on the excellent moral precepts interspersed through that wild and absurd performance. But it is to be supposed, that the Arabic words, which correspond to the English, equity, justice, temperance, meekness, charity were such as, from the constant use of that tongue, must always be taken in a good sense; and it would have argued the greatest ignorance, not of morals, but of language, to have mentioned them with any epithets, besides those of applause and approbation. But would we know, whether the pretended prophet had really attained a just sentiment of morals? Let us attend to his narration; and we shall soon find, that he bestows praise on such instances of treachery, inhumanity, cruelty, revenge, bigotry, as are utterly incompatible with civilized society. No steady rule of right seems there to be attended to; and every action is blamed or praised, so far only as it is beneficial or hurtful to the true believers. [43] David Samuel Margoliouth[ edit ] David Samuel Margoliouth (1858 – 1940) was an orientalist who was described as a brilliant editor and translator of Arabic works. He was briefly active as a priest in the Church of England. He was Laudian Professor of Arabic at the University of Oxford from 1889 to 1937. In order to gain his ends he [Muhammad] recoils from no expedient, and he approves of similar unscrupulousness on the part of his adherents, when exercised in his interest. He profits to the utmost from the chivalry of the Meccans, but rarely requites it with the like. He organizes assassinations and wholesale massacres. His career as tyrant of Medina is that of a robber chief, whose political economy consists in securing and dividing plunder ... He is himself an unbridled libertine and encourages the same passion in his followers. For whatever he does he is prepared to plead the express authorization of the deity. It is, however, impossible to find any doctrine which he is not prepared to abandon in order to secure a political end…This is a disagreeable picture for the founder of a religion, and it cannot be pleaded that it is a picture drawn by an enemy… [44] [45] Dayanand Saraswati[ edit ] Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) was an Indian Sage who is considered to be the most important Hindu religious leader of his time. Having thus given a cursory view of the Quran, I lay it before the sensible persons with the purpose that they should know what kind of book the Quran is. If they ask me, I have no hesitation to say that it can not be the work either of God or of a learned man, nor can it be a book of knowledge. Here its very vital defect has been exposed with the object that the people may not waste their life falling into its imposition... The Quran is the result of ignorance, the source of animalization of human being, a fruitful cause of destroying peace, an incentive to war, a propagator of hostility among men and a promoter of suffering in society. As to defect of repetition, the Quran is its store. [46] Doctrina Jacobi[ edit ] The Doctrina Jacobi (or 'Teaching of Jacob'), is a 7th century Greek Christian polemical tract written sometime between 634-640 AD. The text provides one of the earliest external accounts of Islam. When the candidatus was killed by the Saracens, I was at Caesarea and I set off by boat to Sykamina. People were saying "the candidatus has been killed," and we Jews were overjoyed. And they were saying that the prophet had appeared, coming with the Saracens, and that he was proclaiming the advent of the anointed one, the Christ who was to come. I, having arrived at Sykamina, stopped by a certain old man well-versed in scriptures, and I said to him: "What can you tell me about the prophet who has appeared with the Saracens?" He replied, groaning deeply: "He is false, for the prophets do not come armed with a sword. Truly they are works of anarchy being committed today and I fear that the first Christ to come, whom the Christians worship, was the one sent by God and we instead are preparing to receive the Antichrist. Indeed, Isaiah said that the Jews would retain a perverted and hardened heart until all the earth should be devastated. But you go, master Abraham, and find out about the prophet who has appeared." So I, Abraham, inquired and heard from those who had met him that there was no truth to be found in the so-called prophet, only the shedding of men's blood. He says also that he has the keys of paradise, which is incredible. [47] Edward Freeman[ edit ] Edward Augustus Freeman (1823 – 1892) was an English historian, architectural artist, liberal politician during the late-19th-century heyday of William Gladstone, and a one-time candidate for Parliament. [Islam] is essentially an obstructive, intolerant system, supplying just sufficient good to stand in the way of greater good. It has consecrated despotism; it has consecrated polygamy; it has consecrated slavery. It has declared war against every other creed; it has claimed to be at least dominant in every land… When it ceases to have an enemy to contend against, it sinks into sluggish stupidity… It must have an enemy; if cut off, like Persia, from conflict with the infidel, it finds its substitute in sectarian hatred of brother Moslems… By [only] slightly reforming, it has perpetuated and sanctified all the evils of the eastern world. It has, by its aggressive tenets, brought them into more direct antagonism with the creed and civilization of the west. [48] Edward Gibbon[ edit ] Edward Gibbon (1737 – 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources. In the spirit of enthusiasm or vanity, the prophet [Muhammad] rests the truth of his mission on the merit of his book; audaciously challenges both men and angels to imitate the beauties of a single page; and presumes to assert that God alone could dictate this incomparable performance. This argument is most powerfully addressed to a devout Arabian, whose mind is attuned to faith and rapture; whose ear is delighted by the music of sounds; and whose ignorance is incapable of comparing the productions of human genius... If the composition of the Koran exceed the faculties of a man to what superior intelligence should we ascribe the Iliad of Homer, or the Philippics of Demosthenes? [49] Al Jannabi (Gagmer, tom. iii. p. 487) records his own testimony that he surpassed all men in conjugal vigour; and Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, “O propheta, certe penis tuus cælum versus erectus est” ["O prophet, thy penis is erect unto the sky!"] (in Vit. Mohammed. p. 140). [50] Instead of a perpetual and perfect measure of the divine will, the fragments of the Koran were produced at the discretion of Mahomet; each revelation is suited to the emergencies of his policy or passion; and all contradiction is removed by the saving maxim, that any text of Scripture is abrogated or modified by any subsequent passage. [49] Edward William Lane[ edit ] Edward William Lane (1801 — 1876) was a British Orientalist, translator and lexicographer. Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon remains the world's most revered and scholarly dictionary of the Arabic language. The tax that is taken from the free non-Muslim subjects of a Muslim government whereby they ratify the compact that assures them protection, as though it were compensation for not being slain [51] Emeka Ojukwu[ edit ] Emeka Ojukwu (1933 - 2011) was the only president of the short lived Republic of Biafra. The Biafran struggle is, on another plane, a resistance to the Arab-Muslim expansionism which has menaced and ravaged the African continent for twelve centuries. As early as the first quarter of the seventh century, the Arabs, a people from the Near-East, evolved Islam not just as a religion but as a cover for their insatiable territorial ambitions. By the tenth century they had overrun and occupied, among other places, Egypt and North Africa. Had they stopped there, we would not today be faced with the wicked and unholy collusion we are fighting against. On the contrary, they cast their hungry and envious eyes across the Sahara on to the land of the Negroes. Our Biafran ancestors remained immune from the Islamic contagion. From the middle years of the last century Christianity was established in our land. In this way we came to be a predominantly Christian people. We came to stand out as a non-Muslim island in a raging Islamic sea. Throughout the period of the ill-fated Nigerian experiment, the Muslims hoped to infiltrate Biafra by peaceful means and quiet propaganda, but failed. Then the late Ahmadu Bello, the Sarduana of Sokoto tried, by political and economic blackmail and terrorism, to convert Biafrans settled in Northern Nigeria to Islam. His hope was that these Biafrans on dispersion would then carry Islam to Biafra, and by so doing give the religion political control of the area. The crises which agitated the so-called independent Nigeria from 1962 gave these aggressive proselytisers the chance to try converting us by force. It is now evident why the fanatic Arab-Muslim states like Algeria, Egypt and the Sudan have come out openly and massively to support and aid Nigeria in her present war of genocide against us. These states see militant Arabism as a powerful instrument for attaining power in the world. Biafra is one of the few African states untainted by Islam. Therefore, to militant Arabism, Biafra is a stumbling block to their plan for controlling the whole continent. This control is fast becoming manifest in the Organisation of African Unity. On the question of the Middle East, the Sudanese crisis, in the war between Nigeria and Biafra, militant Arabism has succeeded in imposing its point of view through blackmail and bluster. It has threatened African leaders and governments with inciting their Muslim minorities to rebellion if the governments adopted an independent line on these questions. In this way an O.A.U that has not felt itself able to discuss the genocide in the Sudan and Biafra, an O.A.U. that has again and again advertised its ineptitude as a peace-maker, has rushed into open condemnation of Israel over the Middle East dispute. Indeed in recent times, by its performance, the O.A.U. might well be an Organisation of Arab Unity. [52] Frank Miller[ edit ] Frank Miller (born January 27, 1957) is an American comic book artist, writer and film director. He is often regarded as one of the greatest comic artists of all time. We're constantly told all cultures are equal, and every belief system is as good as the next. And generally that America was to be known for its flaws rather than its virtues. When you think about what Americans accomplished, building these amazing cities, and all the good its done in the world, it's kind of disheartening to hear so much hatred of America, not just from abroad, but internally... For some reason, nobody seems to be talking about who we're up against, and the sixth century barbarism that they actually represent. These people saw people's heads off. They enslave women, they genitally mutilate their daughters, they do not behave by any cultural norms that are sensible to us. I'm speaking into a microphone that never could have been a product of their culture, and I'm living in a city where three thousand of my neighbors were killed by thieves of airplanes they never could have built. [53] [54] Frank Zappa[ edit ] Frank Vincent Zappa (1940 – 1993) was a critically acclaimed musician, songwriter, composer, recording engineer, record producer, and film director. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Let’s say we have to make some ‘show of force.’ The most common scenarios involve small guerilla or terrorist groups. Nuclear retaliation? It has been suggested by others that Aerosol Pork Grenades would be a better deterrent — Islamic martyrs are denied entrance to heaven if they show up at the gate smelling like a pig. Denial of The Big Payoff removes a certain cachet from acts of voluntary self-destruction. [55] Gene Simmons[ edit ] Gene Simmons (born August 25, 1949) is an American rock bass guitarist, singer-songwriter, record producer, entrepreneur and actor. He is the bass guitarist/co-lead vocalist of the legendary rock band Kiss. This is a vile culture and if you think for a second that it's willing to just live in the sands of God's armpit, you've got another thing coming... They want to come and live right where you live and they think that you're evil. Extremism believes that it’s okay to strap bombs onto your children and send them to paradise and whatever else and to behead people... Your dog, however, can walk side by side, your dog is allowed to have its own dog house... You can send your dog to school to learn tricks, sit, beg, do all that stuff - none of the women have that advantage. [56] George Bernard Shaw[ edit ] George Bernard Shaw (1856 – 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize for Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938). Islam is very different, being ferociously intolerant. What I may call Manifold Monotheism becomes in the minds of very simple folk an absurdly polytheistic idolatry, just as European peasants not only worship Saints and the Virgin as Gods, but will fight fanatically for their faith in the ugly little black doll who is the Virgin of their own Church against the black doll of the next village. When the Arabs had run this sort of idolatry to such extremes [that] they did this without black dolls and worshipped any stone that looked funny, Mahomet rose up at the risk of his life and insulted the stones shockingly, declaring that there is only one God, Allah, the glorious, the great… And there was to be no nonsense about toleration. You accepted Allah or you had your throat cut by someone who did accept him, and who went to Paradise for having sent you to Hell. [57] George S. Patton[ edit ] George Smith Patton, Jr. (1885 – 1945 AD) was a United States Army officer most famous for his leadership commanding corps and armies as a general in World War II. To me it seems certain that the fatalistic teachings of Muhammad and the utter degradation of women is the outstanding cause for the arrested development of the Arab. He is exactly as he was around the year 700, while we have kept on developing. [58] G. H. Bousquet[ edit ] G. H. Bousquet was a great 20th century scholar of Islamic law. Islam first came before the world as a doubly totalitarian system. It claimed to impose itself on the whole world and it claimed also, by the divinely appointed Muhammadan law, by the principles of the fiqh, to regulate down to the smallest details the whole life of the Islamic community and of every individual believer. ... [T]he study of Muhammadan law (dry and forbidding though it may appear to those who confine themselves to the indispensable study of the fiqh) is of great importance to the world today. [59] Gerd Puin[ edit ] Gerd Rüdiger Puin (born 1940) is a German scholar and one of the world’s leading authorities on Qur'anic historical orthography, the study and scholarly interpretation of ancient manuscripts. He is also specialist in Arabic paleography. He was a lecturer based at Saarland University, in Saarbrücken Germany. The Qur’an claims for itself that it is ‘mubeen,’ or clear, but if you just look at it, you will see that every fifth sentence or so simply doesn’t make sense. Many Muslims will tell you otherwise, but the fact is that a fifth of the Qur’an is just incomprehensible. This is what has caused the traditional anxiety regarding translation. If the Qur’an is not comprehensible, if it can’t even be understood in Arabic, then it’s not translatable into any language. That is why Muslims are afraid. G. K. Chesterton[ edit ] Gilbert Keith Chesterton (1874 – 1936) was an English writer. His prolific and diverse output included philosophy, ontology, poetry, play writing, journalism, public lecturing and debating, biography, Christian apologetics, fantasy and detective fiction. There is in Islam a paradox which is perhaps a permanent menace. The great creed born in the desert creates a kind of ecstasy of the very emptiness of its own land, and even, one may say, out of the emptiness of its own theology... A void is made in the heart of Islam which has to be filled up again and again by a mere repetition of the revolution that founded it. There are no sacraments; the only thing that can happen is a sort of apocalypse, as unique as the end of the world; so the apocalypse can only be repeated and the world end again and again. There are no priests; and yet this equality can only breed a multitude if lawless prophets almost as numerous as priests. The very dogma that there is only one Mahomet produces an endless procession of Mahomets. [60] Haran Gawaitha[ edit ] The Haran Gawaitha is a Mandaean text written during the 7th to 9th century and contains some of the earliest non-Muslim references to Muhammad. I will tell you, (O ye) priests who live in the Arab age, (of that which occurred) before the Son-of-Slaughter, the Arab, went out and prophesied as a prophet in the world so that they performed circumcision like Jews and changed sayings - for he is the most degraded of false prophets. Mars accompanieth him because he is the Seal of prophets of the Lie, (although) the Messiah will appear after him at the end of the age! I will inform you, Nasoraeans, that before the Son-of-Slaughter, the Arab, emerged and was called prophet in the world and Mars descended with him, he drew the sword and converted people to himself by the sword . . . And so a Hardabaean (Sasanian) dynasty ruled for three hun- dred and sixty years , and then the Son of Slaughter, the Arab, set up as king, went forth and took a people to himself and performed circumcision. (Even then), after this had happened and these events had taken place, sixty banners (still) remained and pertained to me in Baghdad. Then he took the sword and put to the sword from the city of Damascus unto Bit Dubar, which is called Bdin . He governed it all and ruled over the lord of the hill-country of the Persians who are called Hardbaeans and took away sovereignty from them. Then, when this had taken place, in time there came (one) Anus', called the son of Danqa, from the uplands of the Arsaiia [from (to?) the city of Baghdad bis'us' kings of the planting of Artabanus, and brought in his own, belonging to Muhammad son of 'Abdallah son-of-Slaughter, the Arab... [61] Jacques Ellul[ edit ] Jacques Ellul (1912 – 1994) was a French philosopher, law professor, sociologist, lay theologian, and Christian anarchist. In a major encyclopedia, one reads phrases such as: "Islam expanded in the eighth or ninth centuries ..."; "This or that country passed into Muslim hands..." But care is taken not to say how Islam expanded, how countries "passed into [Muslim] hands." .. Indeed, it would seem as if events happened by themselves, through a miraculous or amicable operation... Regarding this expansion, little is said about jihad. And yet it all happened through war! ...the jihad is an institution. and not an event, that is to say it is a part of the normal functioning of the Muslim world... The conquered populations change status (they become dhimmis), and the shari'a tends to be put into effect integrally, overthrowing the former law of the country. The conquered territories do not simply change "owners." [62] Joe A[ edit ] Joe A is a British pornography producer notable for his focus on the "Indian" or "Asian" niche market. Many of the [South Asian] girls I meet are interested in working with me [in porn] but are worried about their family finding out. The strangest thing is, most of my models have been Muslims, who are the strictest of all. [63] John Adams[ edit ] John Adams (1735 – 1826) was an American Founding Father and the second President of the United States (1797–1801). The following is taken from the preface of the Qur'an owned by him: This book is a long conference of God, the angels, and Mahomet, which that false prophet very grossly invented; sometimes he introduceth God, who speaketh to him, and teacheth him his law, then an angel, among the prophets, and frequently maketh God to speak in the plural. … Thou wilt wonder that such absurdities have infected the best part of the world, and wilt avouch, that the knowledge of what is contained in this book, will render that law contemptible … [64] John Calvin[ edit ] John Calvin (1509 – 1564) was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation, and a principal figure in the development of Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. For even if many men once boasted that they worshipped the Supreme Majesty, the Maker of heaven and earth, yet because they had no Mediator it was not possible for them truly to taste God’s mercy, and thus be persuaded that he was their Father. Accordingly, because they did not hold Christ as their Head, they possessed only a fleeting knowledge of God. From this it also came about that they at last lapsed into crass and foul superstitions and betrayed their own ignorance. So today the [Muslim] Turks, although they proclaim at the top of their lungs that the Creator of heaven and earth is God, still, while repudiating Christ, substitute an idol in place of the true God. [65] John R. Newman[ edit ] John R. Newman is an historian of religions who specializes in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. His research focuses on the Vajrayana Buddhist Kalachakra Tantra ("Wheel of Time system of mysticism") tradition. We may summarize the Kalacakra tantra's perception of Islamic beliefs and practices as follows: from the Buddhist point of view Islam is demonic and perverse, a perfect anti-religion which is the antithesis of Buddhism. [66] John Quincy Adams[ edit ] John Quincy Adams (1767 – 1848) was the sixth President of the United States. He was also an American diplomat and served in both the Senate and House of Representatives. …he [Muhammad] declared undistinguishing and exterminating war, as a part of his religion, against all the rest of mankind…The precept of the Koran is, perpetual war against all who deny, that Mahomet is the prophet of God. [67] In the seventh century of the Christian era, a wandering Arab of the lineage of Hagar [i.e., Muhammad], the Egyptian, combining the powers of transcendent genius, with the preternatural energy of a fanatic, and the fraudulent spirit of an impostor, proclaimed himself as a messenger from Heaven, and spread desolation and delusion over an extensive portion of the earth. Adopting from the sublime conception of the Mosaic law, the doctrine of one omnipotent God; he connected indissolubly with it, the audacious falsehood, that he was himself his prophet and apostle. Adopting from the new Revelation of Jesus, the faith and hope of immortal life, and of future retribution, he humbled it to the dust by adapting all the rewards and sanctions of his religion to the gratification of the sexual passion. He poisoned the sources of human felicity at the fountain, by degrading the condition of the female sex, and the allowance of polygamy; and he declared undistinguishing and exterminating war, as a part of his religion, against all the rest of mankind. THE ESSENCE OF HIS DOCTRINE WAS VIOLENCE AND LUST: TO EXALT THE BRUTAL OVER THE SPIRITUAL PART OF HUMAN NATURE [Adam's capital letters]….Between these two religions, thus contrasted in their characters, a war of twelve hundred years has already raged. The war is yet flagrant…While the merciless and dissolute dogmas of the false prophet shall furnish motives to human action, there can never be peace upon earth, and good will towards men. [68] As the essential principle of his faith is the subjugation of others by the sword; it is only by force, that his false doctrines can be dispelled, and his power annihilated. They [The Russians] have been from time immemorial, in a state of almost perpetual war with the Tatars, and with their successors, the Ottoman conquerors of Constantinople. It were an idle waste of time to trace the causes of each renewal of hostilities, during a succession of several centuries. The precept of the Koran is, perpetual war against all who deny, that Mahomet is the prophet of God. The vanquished may purchase their lives, by the payment of tribute; the victorious may be appeased by a false and delusive promise of peace; and the faithful follower of the prophet, may submit to the imperious necessities of defeat: but the command to propagate the Moslem creed by the sword is always obligatory, when it can be made effective. The commands of the prophet may be performed alike, by fraud, or by force. Of Mahometan good faith, we have had memorable examples ourselves. When our gallant [Stephen] Decatur ref had chastised the pirate of Algiers, till he was ready to renounce his claim of tribute from the United States, he signed a treaty to that effect: but the treaty was drawn up in the Arabic language, as well as in our own; and our negotiators, unacquainted with the language of the Koran, signed the copies of the treaty, in both languages, not imagining that there was any difference between them. Within a year the Dey demands, under penalty of the renewal of the war, an indemnity in money for the frigate taken by Decatur; our Consul demands the foundation of this pretension; and the Arabic copy of the treaty, signed by himself is produced, with an article stipulating the indemnity, foisted into it, in direct opposition to the treaty as it had been concluded. The arrival of Chauncey, with a squadron before Algiers, silenced the fraudulent claim of the Dey, and he signed a new treaty in which it was abandoned; but he disdained to conceal his intentions; my power, said he, has been wrested from my hands; draw ye the treaty at your pleasure, and I will sign it; but beware of the moment, when I shall recover my power, for with that moment, your treaty shall be waste paper. He avowed what they always practised, and would without scruple have practised himself. Such is the spirit, which governs the hearts of men, to whom treachery and violence are taught as principles of religion. [69] Had it been possible for a sincere and honest peace to be maintained between the Osmanli and his christian neighbors, then would have been the time to establish it in good faith. But the treaty was no sooner made than broken. It never was carried into effect by the Turkish government. [70] [From the Ottoman Reis Effendi, to his Russian counterparts] ‘The present friendly letter has been composed and sent, to acquaint your excellency. with the circumstance; when you shall learn, on receipt of it, that the Sublime Porte has at all times; no other desire or wish than to preserve peace, and good understanding ; and that the event in question has been brought about, entirely by the act of the said minister, we hope that you will endeavor, do every occasion, to fulfil the duties of friendship.’ But precisely at the time when this mild, and candid, and gently expostulary epistle was despatched for St. Petersburg, another state paper was issued, addressed by the Sultan to his own subjects-this was the Hatti Sheriff of the 20th of December, sent to the Pashas of all the provinces, calling on all the faithful Mussulmen of the empire to come forth and 'fight for their religion, and their country, against the infidel despisers of the Prophet. The comparison of these two documents with each other, will afford the most perfect illustration of the Ottoman faith, as well as of their temper towards Russia. The Hatti Sheriff commenced with the following admirable commentary upon the friendly profession, which introduced the letter to count Nesselrode. ‘It is well known (said the Sultan) to almost every person, that if the Mussulmen naturally hate the infidels, the infidels, on then part, are the enemies of the Mussulmen : that Russia, more especially, bears a particular hatred to Islamism, and that she is the principal enemy of the Sublime Porte.’ This appeal to the natural hatred of the Mussulmen towards the infidels, is in just accordance with the precepts of the Koran. The document does not attempt to disguise it, nor even pretend that the enmity of those whom it styles the infidels, is any other than the necessary consequence of the hatred borne by the Mussulmen to them—the paragraph itself, is a forcible example of the contrasted character of the two religions. The fundamental doctrine of the christian religion, is the extirpation of hatred from the human heart. It forbids the exercise of it, even towards enemies. There is no denomination of christians, which denies or misunderstands this doctrine. All understand it alike—all acknowledge its obligations ; and however imperfectly, in the purposes of Divine Providence, its efficacy has been shown in the practice of christians, it has not been wholly inoperative upon them. Its effect has been upon the manners of nations. It has mitigated the horrors of war – it has softened the features of slavery – it has humanized the intercourse of social life. The unqualified acknowledgement of a duty does not, indeed, suffice to insure its performance. Hatred is yet a passion, but too powerful upon the hearts of christians. Yet they cannot indulge it, except by the sacrifice of their principles, and the conscious violation of their duties. No state paper from a Christian hand, could, without trampling the precepts of its Lord and Master, have commenced by an open proclamation of hatred to any portion of the human race. The Ottoman lays it down as the foundation of his discourse. [71] If ever insurrection was holy in the eyes of God, such was that of the Greeks against their Mahometan oppressors. Yet for six long years, they were suffered to be overwhelmed by the whole mass of the Ottoman power; cheered only by the sympathies of all the civilized world, but without a finger raised to sustain or relieve them by the Christian governments of Europe; while the sword of extermination, instinct with the spirit of the Koran, was passing in merciless horror over the classical regions of Greece, the birth-place of philosophy, of poetry, of eloquence, of all the arts that embellish, and all the sciences that dignify the human character. The monarchs of Austria, of France, and England, inflexibly persisted in seeing in the Greeks, only revolted subjects against a lawful sovereign. The ferocious Turk eagerly seized upon this absurd concession, and while sweeping with his besom of destruction over the Grecian provinces, answered every insinuation of interest in behalf of that suffering people, by assertions of the unqualified rights of sovereignty, and by triumphantly retorting upon the legitimates of Europe, the consequences naturally flowing from their own perverted maxims.” [72] This pretended discovery of a plot between Russia and the Greeks, is introduced, to preface an exulting reference to the unhallowed butchery of the Greek Patriarch and Priests, on Easter day of 1822, at Constantinople, and to the merciless desolation of Greece, which it calls ‘doing justice by the sword’ to a great number of rebels of the Morea, of Negropont, of Acarnania, Missolonghi, Athens, and other parts of the continent.The document acknowledges, that although during several years, considerable forces, both naval and military, had been sent against the Greeks, they had not succeeded in suppressing the insurrection. [73] John Wesley[ edit ] John Wesley (1703 – 1791), was a theologian and founder of the English Methodist movement. Let us now calmly and impartially consider what manner of men the Mahometans in general are. 6. An ingenious writer, who a few years ago published a pompous translation of the Koran, takes great pains to give us a very favourable opinion both of Mahomet and his followers. But he cannot wash the Ethiop white. After all, men who have but a moderate share of reason, cannot but observe in his Koran, even as polished by Mr. Sale, the most gross and impious absurdities. To cite particulars is not now my business. It may suffice to observe in general, that human understanding must be debased to an inconceivable degree, in those who can swallow such absurdities as divinely revealed. And yet we know the Mahometans not only condemn all who cannot swallow them to everlasting fire; not only appropriate to themselves the title of Mussulman or True Believers: but even anathematise with the utmost bitterness, and adjudge to eternal destruction, all their brethren of the sect of Mi, all who contend for a figurative interpretation of them. That these men then have no knowledge or love of God is undeniably manifest, not only from their gross, horrible notions of him, but from their not loving their brethren. But they have not always so weighty a cause to hate and murder one another, as difference of opinion. Mahometans will butcher each other by thousands, without so plausible a plea as this. Why is it that such numbers of Turks and Persians have stabbed one another in cool blood ? Truly, because they differ in the manner of dressing their head. The Ottoman vehemently maintains, (for he has unquestionable tradition on his side) that a Mussulman should wear a round turban. Whereas the Persian insists upon his liberty of conscience, and will wear it picked before. So, for this wonderful reason, when a more plausible one is wanting, they beat out each other's brains from generation to generation. It is not therefore strange, that ever since the religion of Mahomet appeared in the world, the espousers of it, particularly those under the Turkish emperor, have been as wolves and tigers to all other nations ; rending and tearing all that fell into their merciless paws, and grinding them with their iron teeth: that numberless cities are rased from the foundation, and only their name remaining : that many countries which were once as the garden of God, are. now a desolate wilderness; and that so many once numerous and powerful nations are vanished away from the earth ! Such was, and is at this day, the rage, the fury, the revenge, of these destroyers of humankind! [74] Jonathan Edwards[ edit ] Jonathan Edwards (1703 – 1758) was a preacher, theologian, and missionary to Native Americans. Edwards "is widely acknowledged to be America's most important and original philosophical theologian," and one of America's greatest intellectuals. By the false prophet [in Revelation 16:13], is sometimes meant the Pope and his clergy; but here an eye seems to be had to Mahomet, whom his followers call the great prophet of God. [75] Louis Bertrand[ edit ] Louis Bertrand (1866 – 1941) was a French novelist, historian and essayist. He was the third member elected to occupy seat 4 of the Académie française in 1925. Arabs have never invented anything except Islam... they have made absolutely no addition to the ancient heritage of Greco-Latin civilization. It is only a superficial knowledge that has been able to accept without critical examination the belief current among Christians during the Middle Ages, which attributed to Islam the Greek science and philosophy of which Christianity had no longer any knowledge. In the centuries that have followed, the Sectarian spirit has found it to be to its interest to confirm and propagate this error. In its hatred of Christianity it has had to give Islam the honour of what was the invention, and, if we may so express it, the personal property of our intellectual ancestors. [10] On the influence of Islam on Christian Europe: The worst characteristic which the Spaniards acquired was the parasitism of the Arabs and the nomad Africans: the custom of living off one's neighbour's territory, the raid raised to the level of an institution, marauding and brigandage recognized as the sole means of existence for the man-at-arms. In the same way they went to win their bread in Moorish territory, so the Spaniards later went to win gold and territory in Mexico and Peru. They were to introduce there, too, the barbarous, summary practices of the Arabs: putting everything to fire and sword, cutting down fruit-trees, razing crops, devastating whole districts to starve out the enemy and bring them to terms; making slaves everywhere, condemning the population of the conquered countries to forced labour. All these detestable ways the conquistadores learnt from the Arabs. For several centuries slavery maintained itself in Christian Spain, as in the Islamic lands. Very certainly, also, it was to the Arabs that the Spaniards owed the intransigence of their fanaticism, the pretension to be, if not the chosen of God, at least the most Catholic nation of Christendom. Philip II, like Abd er Rahman or El Mansour, was Defender of the Faith. Finally, it was not without contagion that the Spaniards lived for centuries in contact with a race of men who crucified their enemies and gloried in piling up thousands of severed heads by way of trophies. The cruelty of the Arabs and the Berbers also founded a school in the Peninsula. The ferocity of the emirs and the caliphs who killed their brothers or their sons with their own hands was to be handed on to Pedro the Cruel and Henry of Trastamare, those stranglers under canvas, no better than common assassins. [76] Maimonides[ edit ] Moses ben-Maimon called Maimonides (1135 – 1204) was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages. After arose the Madman [Muhammad] who emulated his precursor [Jesus], since he paved the way for him. But he added the further objective of procuring rule and submission and he invented what is well known [Islam]. [77] Let Ye understand, my brothers, the Holy One Blessed HE through the trap created by our iniquities cast us amongst this nation, the people of Ishmael [Muslim Arabs] whose oppressiveness is firmly upon us and they connive to do us wrong and despicably downgrade us as the Almighty decreed against us (Deuteronomy 32:31, “Your enemies shall judge you”). There never came against Israel a more antagonistic nation. They oppress us with the most oppressive measures to lessen our number, reduce us, and make us as despicable as they themselves are. King David, may he rest in peace, saw through Divine Inspiration all the calamities that were destined to come upon Israel. Nevertheless [even though he saw all the other troubles], he still began to shout out and lament in the name of the whole nation against the oppression that would be occasioned by the Ishmaelites. David said, “Woe is me, that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!” [Psalms 120:5]. Notice how David emphasizes “Kedar” out of all the other Children of Ishmael. This is because that Mad Man [Muhammad] came from Kedar according to what has been published concerning his geneaology. [78] Manuel II Palaiologos[ edit ] Manuel II Palaiologos or Palaeologus (1350 – 1425) was the Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. Show me just what Mohammed brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached. [79] Mark Twain[ edit ] Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835 – 1910), well known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. Twain is noted for his novels Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which has been called "the Great American Novel", and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. He is extensively quoted, and was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. That is a simple rule, and easy to remember. When I, a thoughtful and unblessed Presbyterian, examine the Koran, I know that beyond any question every Mohammedan is insane; not in all things, but in religious matters. [80] Michael Cook[ edit ] Michael Cook (born in 1940) is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He is widely considered "among the most outstanding scholars on the history of Islam", and is the author of several classic works on Muhammad and early Islamic theology. Shortly after 9/11, there was a book published called How Did This Happen? that included an essay by Karen Armstrong in which she said a world religion has been hijacked by this band of fanatics. I don’t buy that for a minute. [81] Michael H. Hart[ edit ] Michael H. Hart (born April 28, 1932 in New York City) is a Jewish American astrophysicist who has also written three books on history and controversial articles on a variety of subjects. Muhammad's success as a warlord and conqueror were one of Hart's biggest reasons for placing him as the most influential person in history. Muhammad (unlike Jesus) was a secular as well as a religious leader. In fact, as the driving force behind the Arab conquests, he may well rank as the most influential political leader of all time. Of many important historical events, one might say that they were inevitable and would have occurred even without the particular political leader who guided them. For example, the South American colonies would probably have won their independence from Spain even if Simon Bolivar had never lived. But this cannot be said of the Arab conquests. Nothing similar had occurred before Muhammad, and there is no reason to believe that the conquests would have been achieved without him. The only comparable conquests in human history are those of the Mongols in the thirteenth century, which were primarily due to the influence of Genghis Khan. [82] Muhammad Sven Kalisch[ edit ] Muhammad Sven Kalisch is a Professor at Münster University, one of Germany's oldest and most respected universities. In 2004 he went on to become Germany's first ever professor of Islamic theology. I said to myself: You've dealt with Christianity and Judaism but what about your own religion? Can you take it for granted that Muhammad existed? ... The more I read, the historical person at the root of the whole thing became more and more improbable. [83] With regard to the historical existence of Muhammad ... I consider my position simply as a continuation of the most recent research results. It appears so spectacular only because it has been said by a Muslim ... Most Western scientists turn down such an hypotheses out of respect for Islam or because they are afraid of the reactions of their Muslim friends or because they think it is speculative nonsense... My position with regard to the historical existence of Muhammad is that I believe neither his existence nor his non-existence can be proven. I, however, lean towards the non-existence but I don't think it can be proven. It is my impression that, unless there are some sensational archeological discoveries -- an Islamic "Qumran" or "Nag Hammadi" -- the question of Muhammad's existence will probably never be finally clarified. [84] Mustafa Kemal Atatürk[ edit ] Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881 – 1938) was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and founder of the Republic of Turkey as well as its first president. Turks were a great nation even before they adopted Islam. This religion did not help the Arabs, Iranians, Egyptians and others to unite with Turks to form a nation. Conversely, it weakened the Turks’ national relations; it numbed Turkish national feelings and enthusiasm. This was natural, because Mohammedanism was based on Arab nationalism above all nationalities. [85] For nearly five hundred years, these rules and theories of an Arab Shaikh and the interpretations of generations of lazy and good-for-nothing priests have decided the civil and criminal law of Turkey. They have decided the form of the Constitution, the details of the lives of each Turk, his food, his hours of rising and sleeping the shape of his clothes, the routine of the midwife who produced his children, what he learned in his schools, his customs, his thoughts-even his most intimate habits. Islam – this theology of an immoral Arab – is a dead thing. Possibly it might have suited tribes in the desert. It is no good for modern, progressive state. God’s revelation! There is no God! These are only the chains by which the priests and bad rulers bound the people down. A ruler who needs religion is a weakling. No weaklings should rule. [86] Our life here is truly hellish. Fortunately, my soldiers are very brave and tougher than the enemy. What is more, their private beliefs make it easier to carry out orders which send them to their death. They see only two supernatural outcomes: victory for the faith or martyrdom. Do you know what the second means? It is to go straight to heaven. There, the houris, God's most beautiful women, will meet them and will satisfy their desires for all eternity. What great happiness! [87] Omar Khayyám[ edit ] Omar Khayyám (1048 – 1131 AD), was a Persian polymath, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, physician, and poet. He wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, and music. Allah, perchance, the secret word might spell; If Allah be, He keeps His secret well; What He hath hidden, who shall hope to find? Shall God His secret to a maggot tell? … The Koran! well, come put me to the test— Lovely old book in hideous error drest— Believe me, I can quote the Koran too, The unbeliever knows his Koran best. And do you think that unto such as you, A maggot-minded, starved, fanatic crew, God gave the secret, and denied it me?— Well, well, what matters it! believe that too. [88] Oriana Fallaci[ edit ] Oriana Fallaci (1929 – 2006) was an Italian journalist, author, and political interviewer. A former partisan during World War II, she had a long and successful journalistic career, interviewing many internationally known leaders and celebrities. Europe is no longer Europe, it is Eurabia, a colony of Islam, where the Islamic invasion does not proceed only in a physical sense, but also in a mental and cultural sense... I am an atheist, and if an atheist and a pope think the same things, there must be something true. There must be some human truth that is beyond religion... I am disgusted by the anti-Semitism of many Italians, of many Europeans... Look at the school system of the West today. Students do not know history! They don't know who Churchill was! In Italy, they don't even know who Cavour was!... Servility to the invaders has poisoned democracy, with obvious consequences for the freedom of thought, and for the concept itself of liberty... State-run television stations contribute to the resurgent anti-Semitism, crying only over Palestinian deaths while playing down Israeli deaths, glossing over them in unwilling tones... The increased presence of Muslims in Italy and in Europe is directly proportional to our loss of freedom... The Muslims refuse our culture and try to impose their culture on us. I reject them, and this is not only my duty toward my culture-it is toward my values, my principles, my civilization... The struggle for freedom does not include the submission to a religion which, like the Muslim religion, wants to annihilate other religions... The West reveals a hatred of itself, which is strange and can only be considered pathological; it now sees only what is deplorable and destructive... These charlatans care about the Palestinians as much as I care about the charlatans. That is not at all... When I was given the news, I laughed. The trial is nothing else but a demonstration that everything I've written is true... President Bush has said, 'We refuse to live in fear.' Beautiful sentence, very beautiful. I loved it! But inexact, Mr. President, because the West does live in fear. People are afraid to speak against the Islamic world. Afraid to offend, and to be punished for offending, the sons of Allah. You can insult the Christians, the Buddhists, the Hindus, the Jews. You can slander the Catholics, you can spit on the Madonna and Jesus Christ. But, woe betide the citizen who pronounces a word against the Islamic religion. [89] The problem is that the solution does not depend upon the death of Osama bin Laden. Because the Osama bin Ladens are too many, by now: as cloned as the sheep of our research laboratories. In fact, the best trained and the more intelligent do not stay in the Muslim countries... They stay in our own countries, in our cities, our universities, our business companies. They have excellent bonds with our churches, our banks, our televisions, our radios, our newspapers, our publishers, our academic organizations, our unions, our political parties. Worse, they live in the heart of a society that hosts them without questioning their differences, without checking their bad intentions, without penalizing their sullen fanaticism. [89] To make you cry I’ll tell you about the twelve young impure men I saw executed at Dacca at the end of the Bangladesh war. They executed them on the field of Dacca stadium, with bayonet blows to the torso or abdomen, in the presence of twenty thousand faithful who applauded in the name of God from the bleachers. They thundered "Allah akbar, Allah akbar." Yes, I know: the ancient Romans, those ancient Romans of whom my culture is so proud, entertained themselves in the Coliseum by watching the deaths of Christians fed to the lions. I know, I know: in every country of Europe the Christians, those Christians whose contribution to the History of Thought I recognize despite my atheism, entertained themselves by watching the burning of heretics. But a lot of time has passed since then, we have become a little more civilized, and even the sons of Allah ought to have figured out by now that certain things are just not done. After the twelve impure young men they killed a little boy who had thrown himself at the executioners to save his brother who had been condemned to death. They smashed his head with their combat boots. And if you don’t believe it, well, reread my report or the reports of the French and German journalists who, horrified as I was, were there with me. Or better: look at the photographs that one of them took. Anyway this isn’t even what I want to underline. It’s that, at the conclusion of the slaughter, the twenty thousand faithful (many of whom were women) left the bleachers and went down on the field. Not as a disorganized mob, no. In an orderly manner, with solemnity. They slowly formed a line and, again in the name of God, walked over the cadavers. All the while thundering Allah–akbar, Allah–akbar. They destroyed them like the Twin Towers of New York. They reduced them to a bleeding carpet of smashed bones. [90] I am not speaking, obviously, to the laughing hyenas who enjoy seeing images of the wreckage and snicker good–it–serves–the–Americans–right. I am speaking to those who, though not stupid or evil, are wallowing in prudence and doubt. And to them I say: "Wake up, people. Wake up!!" Intimidated as you are by your fear of going against the current—that is, appearing racist (a word which is entirely inapt as we are speaking not about a race but about a religion)—you don’t understand or don’t want to understand that a reverse–Crusade is in progress. Accustomed as you are to the double–cross, blinded as you are by myopia, you don’t understand or don’t want to understand that a war of religion is in progress. Desired and declared by a fringe of that religion, perhaps, but a war of religion nonetheless. A war which they call Jihad. Holy War. A war that might not seek to conquer our territory, but that certainly seeks to conquer our souls. That seeks the disappearance of our freedom and our civilization. That seeks to annihilate our way of living and dying, our way of praying or not praying, our way of eating and drinking and dressing and entertaining and informing ourselves. You don’t understand or don’t want to understand that if we don’t oppose them, if we don’t defend ourselves, if we don’t fight, the Jihad will win. And it will destroy the world that for better or worse we’ve managed to build, to change, to improve, to render a little more intelligent, that is to say, less bigoted—or even not bigoted at all. And with that it will destroy our culture, our art, our science, our morals, our values, our pleasures...Christ! Don’t you realize that the Osama Bin Ladens feel authorized to kill you and your children because you drink wine or beer, because you don’t wear your beard long or a chador, because you go to the theater or the movies, because you listen to music and sing pop songs, because you dance in discos or at home, because you watch TV, wear miniskirts or short–shorts, because you go naked or half naked to the beach or the pool, because you * when you want and where you want and who you want? Don’t you even care about that, you fools? I am an atheist, thank God. And I have no intention of letting myself be killed for it. [90] Penn Jillette[ edit ] Penn Fraser Jillette (born March 5, 1955) is an American illusionist, comedian, musician, and best-selling author known for his work with fellow magician Teller in the team Penn & Teller. People have to realize that having an imaginary friend may be dangerous. When 9/11 hit, the second thing I said to myself was, “This really is what religious people do.” Those people flying the plane were very good, very pious, truly faithful believers. There’s no other way to paint them. Of course, they are extremists by definition, but they certainly aren’t going against Islam in any real way. [91] ... we haven't tackled Islam because we have families [...] and I think the worst thing you can say about a group in a free society is that you’re afraid to talk about it—I can’t think of anything more horrific. [...] Teller and I have been brutal to Christians, and their response shows that they’re good fking Americans who believe in freedom of speech. We attack them all the time, and we still get letters that say, “We appreciate your passion. Sincerely yours, in Christ.” Christians come to our show at the Rio and give us Bibles all the time. They’re incredibly kind to us ... [92] Rabindranath Tagore[ edit ] Rabindranath Tagore (1861 – 1941) was a Bengali polymath who reshaped his region's literature and music. The composer of both the national anthem of India as well as the national anthem of Bangladesh, he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. A very important factor which is making it almost impossible for Hindu-Muslim unity to become an accomplished fact is that the Muslim can not confine their patriotism to any one country. I had frankly asked the Muslims whether in the event of any Mohammedan power invading India, would they [Muslims] stand side by side with their Hindu neighbors to defend their common land or join the invaders. I was not satisfied with the reply I have obtained from them… Even such a man as Mr. Mohammed Ali has declared that under no circumstances is it permissible for any Mohammedan, whatever be his country, to stand against any Mohammedan. [93] Richard Dawkins[ edit ] Clinton Richard Dawkins (born March 26, 1941), is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science author. He was formerly Professor for Public Understanding of Science at Oxford and was a fellow of New College, Oxford. Islam deserves criticism on account of the logical consequences of its dogma, namely, that the murder of fellow human beings is to be rewarded with sensual pleasure in a hedonistic “Paradise”—a concept born in the fantasies of an Arab rebel some fourteen centuries ago. The religion of Mohammed is a dangerous system when the teachings and example of the “prophet” are believed and followed. I'm reasonably optimistic in America and Europe. I'm pessimistic about the Islamic world. I regard Islam as one of the great evils in the world, and I fear that we have a very difficult struggle there. [Why is it more problematic than Christianity, for instance?] There's a belief that every word of the Quran is literally true, and there's a kind of close-mindedness there, which is, I think, less present in the former Christendom. Perhaps because we've had long- I don't know quite why, but there's more of a historical tradition of questioning. There are people in the Islamic world who simply say: "Islam is right!","We are going to impose our will" and there's an asymmetry. I think in a way we are being too nice. I think that it's possible to be naively over optimistic - and if you reach out to people who have absolutely no intention of reaching back to you, then you may be disillusioned. [94] I do feel visceral revulsion at the burka because for me it is a symbol of the oppression of women. [95] It’s almost impossible to say anything against Islam in this country, because you are accused of being racist or Islamophobic. [95] Every person I met believes if there is any disagreement between the Koran and science, then the Koran wins. It's just utterly deplorable. These are now British children who are having their minds stuffed with alien rubbish. Occasionally, my colleagues lecturing in universities lament having undergraduate students walk out of their classes when they talk about evolution. This is almost entirely Muslims. [96] Robert Redeker[ edit ] Robert Redeker is a philosophy teacher and writer for Le Figaro. The exaltation of violence; a merciless war chief, plunderer, slaughterer of Jews and a polygamist, such is the man revealed through the Koran... Turning to Mahomet, by contradiction, reinforces hate and violence. Jesus is a master of love, Mahomet is a master of hatred... The stoning of Satan, each year at Mecca, is not just a superstitious phenomenon. It not only sets the scene for a rabble flirting with barbarity. Its scope is anthropological. Here in effect is a rite, which each Muslim is invited to submit himself to, emphasizing violence as a sacred duty in the heart of the believer. This stoning, annually accompanied with deaths by trampling of the faithful, sometimes in several hundreds, is a ritual which nurtures archaic violence. Instead of getting rid of this archaic violence... Islam builds a nest for this violence, where it can grow in the warmth... Islam is a religion which, even in its sacred text, as well as in its banal rites, exalts violence and hate... Hate and violence inhabit the book with which each Muslim is educated, the Koran. [97] After the article Mr. Redeker received numerous death threads and had to go in to hiding under police protection. What is happening to me corresponds fully to what I denounce in my writing — the West is under ideological surveillance by Islam... I have the impression that I’ve been drafted against my will into a conflict from the 17th or 18th century. It’s all about opposing religious intolerance. Rory Bremner[ edit ] Roderick "Rory" Keith Ogilvy Bremner, FKC (born April 6, 1961) is a Scottish impressionist, playwright and award-winning comedian, noted for his work in political satire and impressions of prominent British politicians. When [I'm] writing a sketch about Islam, I'm writing a line and I think, 'If this goes down badly, I'm writing my own death warrant there.' Because there are people who will say, 'Not only do I not think that's funny but I'm going to kill you' – and that's chilling... If you're a Danish cartoonist and you work in a Western tradition, people don't take that too seriously. Suddenly you're confronted by a group of people who are fundamentalist and extreme and they say, 'We're going to kill you because of what you have said or drawn.' Where does satire go from there, because we like to be brave but not foolish. [98] Salman Rushdie[ edit ] Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (born June 19, 1947) is a British-Indian novelist and essayist. He achieved notability with his second novel, Midnight's Children (1981), which won the Booker Prize in 1981. Of course this is "about Islam." The question is, what exactly does that mean? After all, most religious belief isn't very theological. Most Muslims are not profound Koranic analysts. For a vast number of "believing" Muslim men, "Islam" stands, in a jumbled, half-examined way, not only for the fear of God -- the fear more than the love, one suspects -- but also for a cluster of customs, opinions and prejudices that include their dietary practices; the sequestration or near-sequestration of "their" women; the sermons delivered by their mullahs of choice; a loathing of modern society in general, riddled as it is with music, godlessness and sex; and a more particularized loathing (and fear) of the prospect that their own immediate surroundings could be taken over -- "Westoxicated" -- by the liberal Western-style way of life. [99] The pope gets ridiculed every day, but you don't see Catholics organizing terrorist attacks around the world. [100] If Woody Allen were a Muslim, he'd be dead by now. [101] Salomon Reinach[ edit ] Salomon Reinach (1858 – 1932) was a French archaeologist, who made valuable archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82, at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at Carthage and Meninx (1883-84), at Odessa (1893) and elsewhere. He received honours from the chief learned societies of Europe. From the literary point of view, the Koran has little merit. Declamation, repetition, puerility, a lack of logic and coherence strike the unprepared reader at every turn. It is humiliating to the human intellect to think that this mediocre literature has been the subject of innumerable commentaries, and that millions of men are still wasting time absorbing it. [102] Sam Harris[ edit ] Sam Harris, Ph.D (born 1967) is an American non-fiction writer, CEO, and winner of the prestigeous PEN Martha Albrand Award (2005). Anyone familiar with my work knows that I am extremely critical of all religious faiths. I have argued elsewhere that the ascendancy of Christian conservatism in American politics should terrify and embarrass us. And yet, there are gradations to the evil that is done in name of God, and these gradations must be honestly observed. So let us now make sense of the impossible by acknowledging the obvious: there is a direct link between the doctrine of Islam and Muslim terrorism. Acknowledging this link remains especially taboo among political liberals. . . . While the other major world religions have been fertile sources of intolerance, it is clear that the doctrine of Islam poses unique problems for the emergence of a global civilization. The world, from the point of view of Islam, is divided into the “House of Islam” and the “House of War,” and this latter designation should indicate how Muslims believe their differences with those who do not share their faith will be ultimately resolved. While there are undoubtedly some moderate Muslims who have decided to overlook the irrescindable militancy of their religion, Islam is undeniably a religion of conquest. The only future devout Muslims can envisage—as Muslims—is one in which all infidels have been converted to Islam, politically subjugated, or killed. The tenets of Islam simply do not admit of anything but a temporary sharing of power with the “enemies of God.” Devout Muslims can have no doubt about the reality of Paradise or about the efficacy of martyrdom as a means of getting there. Nor can they question the wisdom and reasonableness of killing people for what amount to theological grievances. In Islam, it is the moderate who is left to split hairs, because the basic thrust of the doctrine is undeniable: convert, subjugate, or kill unbelievers; kill apostates; and conquer the world. [103] Islam, more than any other religion human beings have devised, has all the makings of a thoroughgoing cult of death. As a matter of doctrine, the Muslim conception of tolerance is one in which non-Muslims have been politically and economically subdued, converted, or put to sword. Yes, the Bible contains its own sadistic lunacy—but the above [Qur'an] quotations [taken from The End of Faith, pp. 117-123] can be fairly said to convey the central message of the Qur’an—and of Islam at nearly every moment in its history. The Qur’an does not contain anything like a Sermon on the Mount. Nor is it a vast and self-contradictory book like the Old Testament, in which whole sections (like Leviticus and Deuteronomy) can be easily ignored and forgotten. The result is a unified message of triumphalism, otherworldliness, and religious hatred that has become a problem for the entire world. And the world still waits for moderate Muslims to speak honestly about it. [104] The penalty for apostasy is death. We would do well to linger over this fact for a moment, because it is the black pearl of intolerance that no liberal exegesis will ever fully digest. As a source of objective morality, the Bible is one of the worst books we have. It might be the very worst, in fact—if we didn’t also happen to have the Qur’an. [105] There is no such thing as Islamophobia. Bigotry and racism exist, of course—and they are evils that all well-intentioned people must oppose. And prejudice against Muslims or Arabs, purely because of the accident of their birth, is despicable. But like all religions, Islam is a system of ideas and practices. And it is not a form of bigotry or racism to observe that the specific tenets of the faith pose a special threat to civil society. Nor is it a sign of intolerance to notice when people are simply not being honest about what they and their co-religionists believe. [106] Sibel Kekilli[ edit ] Sibel Kekilli (born 16 June 1980) is a German actress of Turkish background. For her performances, she was awarded twice with the most prestigious German movie award, the Lola, and she also received the Best Actress award at Turkey's most important national film festival. I have experienced myself that physical and psychological violence is seen as normal in Muslim families. Unfortunately violence belongs to the culture in Islam. [107] Simon Ockley[ edit ] Simon Ockley (1678 – 1720) was chosen Adams Professor of Arabic at Cambridge University in 1711. He was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1697, MA. in 1701, and B.D. in 1710. An Arabian author cited by Maracci, [108] says that Abubeker was very averse to the giving him his daughter [Ayesha, who was then but seven years old] so young, but that Mohammed pretended a divine command for it; whereupon he sent her to him with a basket of dates, and when the girl was alone with him, he stretched out his blessed hand (these are the author’s words), and rudely took hold of her clothes; upon which she looked fiercely at him, and said, “People call you the faithful man, [109] but your behaviour to me shows you are a perfidious one.” And with these words she got out of his hands, and, composing her clothes, went and complained to her father. The old gentleman, to calm her resentment, told her she was new betrothed to Mohammed, and that made him take liberties with her, as if she had been his wife. [110] Speros Vryonis Jr.[ edit ] Speros Vryonis Jr. (born 1928) is an American author and historian of Greek descent and a specialist in Greek and Byzantine history. He is professor emeritus of history at UCLA, the former Director of the Speros Basil Vryonis Center for the Study of Hellenism and is currently the AHIF Senior Fellow for Hellenism and for Greek and Turkish Studies. The process itself is described in its essential details by the Georgian chronicle for northeast Asia Minor and the adjoining Georgian regions. The process which it describes was not unique to the northeast, for we see it in the west and the south of Asia Minor as well.. ‘The emirs spread out, like locusts, over the face of the land…The countries of Asis-Phorni, Clardjeth, up to the shores of the sea, Chawcheth, Adchara, Samtzkhe, Karthli, Argoueth, Samokalako, and Dchqondid were filled with Turks who pillaged and enslaved all the inhabitants. In a single day they burned Kouthathis, Artanoudj, and hermitages of Clardjeth, and they remained in these lands until the first snows, devouring the land, massacring all those who had fled to the forests to the rocks, to the caves…The calamities of Christianity did not come to an end soon thereafter, for at the approach of spring, the Turks returned to carry out the same ravages and left [again] in the winter. The [inhabitants] however were unable to plant or to harvest. The land, [thus] delivered to slavery, had only animals of the forests and wild beasts for inhabitants. Karthli was in the grip of intolerable calamities such as one cannot compare to a single devastation or combination of evils of past times. The holy churches served as stables for their horses, the sanctuaries of the Lord served as repairs for the abominations [Islam]. Some of the priests were immolated during the Holy communion itself, and others were carried off into harsh slavery without regard to their old age. The virgins were defiled, the youths circumcised, and the infants taken away. The conflagration, extending its ravages, consumed all the inhabited sites, the rivers, instead of water, flowed blood. I shall apply the sad words of Jeremiah, which he applied so well to such situations: “the honorable children of Zion, never put to the rest by misfortunes, now voyaged as slaves on foreign roads. The streets of Zion now wept because there was no one [left] to celebrate the feasts. The tender mothers, in place of preparing with their hands the nourishment of the sons, were themselves nourished from the corpses of these dearly loved. Such and worse was the situation at the time.’… By the time [of the late 11th and early 12th centuries, i.e. (1083-1125)]…the nomads had effected permanent settlement in these regions, moving into the abandoned and devastated areas with their tents, families, and flocks of livestock. [111] Stephen Harper[ edit ] Stephen Joseph Harper PC MP (born April 30, 1959) was the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada, from 2006 to 2015. When people think of Islamic terrorism, they think of Afghanistan, or maybe they think of some place in the Middle East, but the truth is that threat exists all over the world ... There are a number of threats on a number of levels, but if you are talking about terrorism it is Islamicism ... There are other threats out there, but that is the one that I can tell you occupies the security apparatus most regularly in terms of actual terrorist threats ... homegrown [Islamic] terrorism is something we keep an eye on. [112] [113] Theodore Roosevelt[ edit ] Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (1858 – 1919) was the 26th President of the United States (1901 – 1909). Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five American presidents of all time. [114] [115] Christianity is not the creed of Asia and Africa at this moment solely because the seventh century Christians of Asia and Africa had trained themselves not to fight, whereas the Moslems were trained to fight. Christianity was saved in Europe solely because the peoples of Europe fought. If the peoples of Europe in the seventh and eighth centuries, an on up to and including the seventeenth century, had not possessed a military equality with, and gradually a growing superiority over the Mohammedans who invaded Europe, Europe would at this moment be Mohammedan and the Christian religion would be exterminated. Wherever the Mohammedans have had complete sway, wherever the Christians have been unable to resist them by the sword, Christianity has ultimately disappeared. From the hammer of Charles Martel to the sword of Sobieski, Christianity owed its safety in Europe to the fact that it was able to show that it could and would fight as well as the Mohammedan aggressor... The civilization of Europe, American and Australia exists today at all only because of the victories of civilized man over the enemies of civilization because of victories through the centuries from Charles Martel in the eighth century and those of John Sobieski in the seventeenth century. During the thousand years that included the careers of the Frankish soldier and the Polish king, the Christians of Asia and Africa proved unable to wage successful war with the Moslem conquerors; and in consequence Christianity practically vanished from the two continents; and today, nobody can find in them any "social values" whatever, in the sense in which we use the words, so far as the sphere of Mohammedan influences are concerned. There are such "social values" today in Europe, America and Australia only because during those thousand years, the Christians of Europe possessed the warlike power to do what the Christians of Asia and Africa had failed to do — that is, to beat back the Moslem invader. [116] Theodor Nöldeke[ edit ] Theodor Nöldeke (1836 – 1930) was a celebrated German Semitic scholar, who in 1859 won the prize of the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres for his "History of the Qur'an". On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly have considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving reader, the book, aesthetically considered, is by no means a first-rate performance... Muhammad, in short, is not in any sense a master of style. This opinion will be endorsed by any European who reads through the book with an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without taking into account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations. But in the ears of every pious Muslim such a judgment will sound almost as shocking as downright atheism or polytheism. Among the Muslims, the Koran has always been looked upon as the most perfect model of style and language. This feature of it is in their dogmatic the greatest of all miracles, the incontestable proof of its divine origin. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist will ever do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly challenged its opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That, to be sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations of the kind which Muhammad uttered, no unbeliever could produce without making himself a laughingstock. [117] Thomas Aquinas[ edit ] Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), an immensely influential philosopher and theologian. On the other hand, those who founded sects committed to erroneous doctrines proceeded in a way that is opposite to this, The point is clear in the case of Muhammad. He seduced the people by promises of carnal pleasure to which the concupiscence of the flesh goads us. His teaching also contained precepts that were in conformity with his promises, and he gave free rein to carnal pleasure. In all this, as is not unexpected, he was obeyed by carnal men. As for proofs of the truth of his doctrine, he brought forward only such as could be grasped by the natural ability of anyone with a very modest wisdom. Indeed, the truths that he taught he mingled with many fables and with doctrines of the greatest falsity. He did not bring forth any signs produced in a supernatural way, which alone fittingly gives witness to divine inspiration; for a visible action that can be only divine reveals an invisibly inspired teacher of truth. On the contrary, Muhammad said that he was sent in the power of his arms—which are signs not lacking even to robbers and tyrants. What is more, no wise men, men trained in things divine and human, believed in him from the beginning, Those who believed in him were brutal men and desert wanderers, utterly ignorant of all divine teaching, through whose numbers Muhammad forced others to become his followers by the violence of his arms. Nor do divine pronouncements on the part of preceding prophets offer him any witness. On the contrary, he perverts almost all the testimonies of the Old and New Testaments by making them into fabrications of his own, as can be. seen by anyone who examines his law. It was, therefore, a shrewd decision on his part to forbid his followers to read the Old and New Testaments, lest these books convict him of falsity. It is thus clear that those who place any faith in his words believe foolishly. [118] Thomas Carlyle[ edit ] Thomas Carlyle (1795 - 1881) was a Scottish satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era. ... I must say, it [the Koran] is as toilsome reading as I ever undertook. A wearisome confused jumble, crude, incondite; endless iterations, long-windedness, entanglement; most crude, incondite; — insupportable stupidity, in short! Nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European through the Koran ... It is the confused ferment of a great rude human soul; rude, untutored, that cannot even read; but fervent, earnest, struggling vehemently to utter itself in words ... We said "stupid:" yet natural stupidity is by no means the character of Mahomet's Book; it is natural uncultivation rather. The man has not studied speaking; in the haste and pressure of continual fighting, has not time to mature himself into fit speech ... The man was an uncultured semi-barbarous Son of Nature, much of the Bedouin still clinging to him: we must take him for that. But for a wretched Simulacrum, a hungry Impostor without eyes or heart ... we will not and cannot take him. Sincerity, in all senses, seems to me the merit of the Koran; what had rendered it precious to the wild Arab men ... Curiously, through these incondite masses of tradition, vituperation, complaint, ejaculation in the Koran, a vein of true direct insight, of what we might almost call poetry, is found straggling. [119] Thomas Jefferson[ edit ] Thomas Jefferson (1743 – 1826) was the third President of the United States, and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. In reference to the Islamic slave trade of Americans and Europeans by the Barbary states, Jefferson asked Tripoli's envoy to London, Ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman, by what right he extorted money and took slaves in this way. He answered: The ambassador answered us that [the right] was founded on the Laws of the Prophet, that it was written in their Koran, that all nations who should not have answered their authority were sinners, that it was their right and duty to make war upon them wherever they could be found, and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners, and that every Mussulman who should be slain in battle was sure to go to Paradise. [120] [121] Jefferson later went to war with the Barbary states. Thomas Paine[ edit ] Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was an English-American political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary. He was one of the founding fathers of the United States. His ideas pertained to transnational human rights. No one will deny or dispute the power of the Almighty to make such a communication, if he pleases. But admitting, for the sake of a case, that something has been revealed to a certain person, and not revealed to any other person, it is revelation to that person only. When he tells it to a second person, a second to a third, a third to a fourth, and so on, it ceases to be a revelation to all those persons. It is revelation to the first person only, and hearsay to every other, and consequently they are not obliged to believe it .... When I am told that the Koran was written in Heaven and brought to Mahomet by an angel, the account comes too near the same kind of hearsay evidence and second-hand authority as the former (Book of Exodus). I did not see the angel myself, and, therefore, I have a right not to believe it. Tony Blair[ edit ] Tony Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. He led Labour to a landslide victory in 1997. The party went on to win two more elections under his leadership, in 2001 and 2005. There is not a problem with Islam... But there is a problem within Islam, and we have to put it on the table and be honest about it. There are, of course, Christian extremists and Jewish, Buddhist, and Hindu ones. But I am afraid that the problematic strain within Islam is not the province of a few extremists. It has at its heart a view of religion – and of the relationship between religion and politics – that is not compatible with pluralistic, liberal, open-minded societies. At the extreme end of the spectrum are terrorists, but the worldview goes deeper and wider than it is comfortable for us to admit. So, by and large, we don’t admit it. This has two effects. First, those who hold extreme views believe that we are weak, and that gives them strength. Second, those Muslims – and the good news is that there are many – who know the problem exists, and want to do something about it, lose heart. [122] Turan Dursun[ edit ] Turan Dursun (1934 – 4 September 1990) was a Turkish Islamic scholar and writer. He was also formerly the Mufti of Sivas, before becoming an atheist and his eventual assassination. [123] [124] So many people can't live their childhood properly because of him [Muhammad]. So many people are sufferers of his disasters. So many people know what's right as wrong and what's wrong as right because they think the darkness that he chose exists. Human emotions and human creations haven't progressed in many ways, because of him. [123] ... if there is a God, he's not Mohammed's. [123] Urban II[ edit ] Pope Blessed Urban II (ca. 1035 – 29 July 1099), born Otho de Lagery (alternatively: Otto, Odo or Eudes), was Pope from 12 March 1088 until his death on 29 July 1099. Regarding the first Crusade: Freshly quickened by the divine correction, you must apply the strength of your righteousness to another matter which concerns you as well as God. For your brethren who live in the east are in urgent need of your help, and you must hasten to give them the aid which has often been promised them. For, as the most of you have heard, the Turks and Arabs [Muslims] have attacked them and have conquered the territory of Romania [the Greek empire] as far west as the shore of the Mediterranean and the Hellespont, which is called the Arm of St. George. They have occupied more and more of the lands of those Christians, and have overcome them in seven battles. They have killed and captured many, and have destroyed the churches and devastated the empire. If you permit them to continue thus for awhile with impurity, the faithful of God will be much more widely attacked by them. On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our friends. [125] Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)[ edit ] François-Marie Arouet (1694 – 1778), better known by the pen name Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade. But that a camel-merchant [Muhammad] should stir up insurrection in his village; that in league with some miserable followers he persuades them that he talks with the angel Gabriel; that he boasts of having been carried to heaven, where he received in part this unintelligible book, each page of which makes common sense shudder; that, to pay homage to this book, he delivers his country to iron and flame; that he cuts the throats of fathers and kidnaps daughters; that he gives to the defeated the choice of his religion or death: this is assuredly nothing any man can excuse, at least if he was not born a Turk, or if superstition has not extinguished all natural light in him. [126] Most blessed Father [Pope Benedict XIV]— Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance ["Fanaticism, or Mahomet"], written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy? Your holiness will therefore give me leave to lay at your feet both the piece and the author of it, and humbly to request your protection of the one, and your benediction upon the other; in hopes of which, with the profoundest reverence, I kiss your sacred feet. [127] Will Durant[ edit ] William James Durant (1885 – 1981) was a prolific American writer, historian, and philosopher. The Story of Philosophy, written in 1926, has been described as a groundbreaking work that helped to popularize philosophy. The Islamic conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. It is a discouraging tale, for its evident moral is that civilization is a precious good, whose delicate complex of order and freedom, culture and peace, can at any moment be overthrown by barbarians invading from without or multiplying within. [128] William Ewart Gladstone[ edit ] William Ewart Gladstone (1809 – 1898) was a British Liberal statesman. He served as Prime Minister four separate times (1868–1874, 1880–1885, February–July 1886 and 1892–1894), more than any other person. Qur’an… an accursed book… So long as there is this book there will be no peace in the world. [129] William Hay[ edit ] William Hay was formerly the Professor of Oceanography at the University of Colorado, USA. He is notable for having been quote-mined and misrepresented since the 1980's by Muslim apologists making claims of scientific Qur'an "miracles". Interviewer: A Qur'an which has got claims for scientific miracles in, and you're listed in the back. And it says for that part, “And when he was asked about the source of the Qur'an, he replied, 'Well, I would think it must be the divine being.'” So are you saying that that is a misrepresentation? William Hay: That's a misrepresentation. There's no question about that. ... Most of them [alleged scientific miracles in the Qur'an] are things that I would think that if God wanted to make a great revelation, these are not things that I would have expected, because they are all readily absurd. [130] William Montgomery Watt[ edit ] William Montgomery Watt (1909 – 2006) was a Scottish historian, an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Studies at the University of Edinburgh. Watt was one of the foremost non-Muslim interpreters of Islam in the West, was an enormously influential scholar in the field of Islamic studies and a much-revered name for many Muslims all over the world. [131] Aisha was still a child when Muhammad married her, and she continued to play with her toys. [132] There is some evidence that, besides his regular marriages and his unions with concubines, Muhammad had relations with women in accordance with the older matrilineal customs. [132] In connexion with the other verse Aisha is said to have made the remark “God is in hurry to satisfy your desires". Even if she really said this (and it is not a later invention), it would only show that Aisha was suspicious of the correspondence between the revelation and Muhammad’s desires. [132] Firstly, at one time, Muhammad must have publicly recited the Satanic verses as part of the Quran; it is unthinkable that the story could have been invented later by Muslims or foisted upon them by non-Muslims. Secondly, at some later time Muhammad announced that these verses were not really part of the Quran and should be replaced by others of a vastly different import. [133] William Muir[ edit ] Sir William Muir, KCSI (1819 – 1905) was a Scottish historian and writer specialising in the history of the time of Muhammad and the early caliphate. The sword of Mahomet, and the Coran, are the most fatal enemies of Civilization, Liberty, and Truth, which the world has yet known. [134] Some, indeed, dream of an Islam in the future, rationalised and regenerate. All this has been tried already, and has miserably failed. The Koran has so encrusted the religion in a hard unyielding casement of ordinances and social laws, that if the shell be broken the life is gone. A rationalistic Islam would be Islam no longer. The contrast between our own faith and Islam is most remarkable. There are in our Scriptures living germs of truth, which accord with civil and religious liberty, and will expand with advancing civilisation. In Islam it is just the reverse. The Koran has no such teaching as with us has abolished polygamy, slavery, and arbitrary divorce, and has elevated woman to her proper place. As a Reformer, Mahomet did advance his people to a certain point, but as a Prophet he left them fixed immovably at that point for all time to come. The tree is of artificial planting. Instead of containing within itself the germ of growth and adaptation to the various requirements of time and clime and circumstance, expanding with the genial sunshine and rain from heaven, it remains the same forced and stunted thing as when first planted some twelve centuries ago. [135] Winston Churchill[ edit ] Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (1874 – 1965) was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He is widely regarded as one of the great wartime leaders, and was voted the greatest Briton of all time. [136] How dreadful are the curses which Mohammedanism lays on its votaries! Besides the fanatical frenzy, which is as dangerous in a man as hydrophobia in a dog, there is this fearful fatalistic apathy. The effects are apparent in many countries. Improvident habits, slovenly systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of property exist wherever the followers of the Prophet rule or live. A degraded sensualism deprives this life of its grace and refinement; the next of its dignity and sanctity. The fact that in Mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property, either as a child, a wife, or a concubine, must delay the final extinction of slavery until the faith of Islam has ceased to be a great power among men. Individual Moslems may show splendid qualities - but the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. No stronger retrograde force exists in the world. Far from being moribund, Mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith. It has already spread throughout Central Africa, raising fearless warriors at every step; and were it not that Christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilisation of modern Europe might fall, as fell the civilisation of ancient Rome. [137] [138] Fanaticism is not a cause of war. It is the means which helps savage peoples to fight. It is the spirit which enables them to combine--the great common object before which all personal or tribal disputes become insignificant. What the horn is to the rhinoceros, what the sting is to the wasp, the Mohammedan faith was to the Arabs of the Soudan--a faculty of offence or defence. [139] It is, thank heaven, difficult if not impossible for the modern European to fully appreciate the force which fanaticism exercises among an ignorant, warlike and Oriental population. Several generations have elapsed since the nations of the West have drawn the sword in religious controversy, and the evil memories of the gloomy past have soon faded in the strong, clear light of Rationalism and human sympathy. Indeed it is evident that Christianity, however degraded and distorted by cruelty and intolerance, must always exert a modifying influence on men's passions, and protect them from the more violent forms of fanatical fever, as we are protected from smallpox by vaccination. But the Mahommedan religion increases, instead of lessening, the fury of intolerance. It was originally propagated by the sword, and ever since, its votaries have been subject, above the people of all other creeds, to this form of madness. In a moment the fruits of patient toil, the prospects of material prosperity, the fear of death itself, are flung aside. The more emotional Pathans are powerless to resist. All rational considerations are forgotten. Seizing their weapons, they become Ghazis--as dangerous and as sensible as mad dogs: fit only to be treated as such. While the more generous spirits among the tribesmen become convulsed in an ecstasy of religious bloodthirstiness, poorer and more material souls derive additional impulses from the influence of others, the hopes of plunder and the joy of fighting. Thus whole nations are roused to arms. Thus the Turks repel their enemies, the Arabs of the Soudan break the British squares, and the rising on the Indian frontier spreads far and wide. In each case civilisation is confronted with militant Mahommedanism. The forces of progress clash with those of reaction. The religion of blood and war is face to face with that of peace. Luckily the religion of peace is usually the better armed. [140] [141] Winston S. Churchill[ edit ] Winston Spencer-Churchill (October 10, 1940 – March 2, 2010), generally known as Winston Churchill, was a British politician, and a grandson of former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill. At its most extreme, authoritarianism is exemplified by the isms of the 20th Century — Communism, Fascism and Nazism. The Fascists and Nazis were responsible for the deaths of more than 30 million human beings, while more than 50 million are estimated to have been murdered by Stalin and the Russian Communists, while Mao-Tse-Tung and the Chinese Communists are believed to have accounted for some 80 million. But today a new challenge — another ism — confronts us, and that is the challenge of Islamic fundamentalism. Extremist Islam has declared war on the rest of the world, as evidenced by their ruthless attacks across the globe — overwhelmingly targeted at innocent civilians. Beside the outrage of 9/11, the bombings in Madrid, in Bali, in London and, most recently, in Jordan come to mind. Those who have declared jihad against the West, and Western values, such as freedom of speech, are doing all in their power to mobilize against us the large Muslim communities living in our midst... Unbelievably, Washington is urging Europe to admit Turkey to the EU. Were that to happen, the Muslim population of Europe would skyrocket to 100 million — an act, in my view, of consummate folly. Already Judeo-Christian Europe is under siege from a tidal wave of Islamic immigration. The admission of Turkey would hasten its demise... Intriguingly, the dangers of extremist Islam were foreseen by Winston Churchill all of 85 years ago, as I discovered to my amazement, while compiling my most recent book NEVER GIVE IN! The Best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches. Churchill is, of course, well-known for his gift of prescience and, specifically, for being the first to warn of the menace of Hitler and Nazism as early as 1932, and of the Soviet threat in his famous Iron Curtain speech in 1946 in Fulton, Mo. But how many know that he also warned the world of the dangers of Islamic fundamentalism? I certainly did not! [142] Wole Soyinka[ edit ] Akinwande Oluwole "Wole" Soyinka (born July 13, 1934) is a Nigerian writer, poet and playwright. In 1986, he became the first African to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1994, he was designated UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for the promotion of African culture, human rights, freedom of expression, media and communication. England is a cesspit. England is the breeding ground of fundamentalist Muslims. Its social logic is to allow all religions to preach openly. But this is illogic, because none of the other religions preach apocalyptic violence. And yet England allows it. Remember, that country was the breeding ground for communism, too. Karl Marx did all his work in libraries there. . . . We should assemble all those who are pure and cannot abide other faiths, put them all in rockets, and fire them into space. . . . A virus has attacked the world of sense and sensibility, and it has spread to Nigeria. . . . The assumption of power over life and death then passed to every single inconsequential Muslim in the world-as if someone had given them a new stature...Al Qaeda is the descendent of this phenomenon. The proselytization of Islam became vigorous after this. People went to Saudi Arabia. Madrassas were established everywhere. [143] [144] This page is featured in the core article, Islam and Propaganda which serves as a starting point for anyone wishing to learn more about this topic References[ edit ] ↑ For example, this site asks "Whom do you wish to believe concerning the character of the Prophet Mohammed?", before listing several quotes and blatantly lying; claiming Michael H. Hart's book is a rating of "men who contributed towards the benefit and upliftment of mankind". This is untrue. Hart's list is purely based on his opinion of who has had the most influence and does not comment on whether it was positive or negative. For more details click here . ↑ For example, a quote attributed to George Bernard Shaw , praising Prophet Muhammad as the "Savior of Humanity" who would have succeeded in solving all the world's problems if he "were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world," but turned out to be a fabrication. Ref: Rachel Baxendale, "Ads for Islam 'misquote Shaw from bogus book'" , The Australian, July 9, 2013 ( archived ), http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/ads-for-islam-misquote-shaw-from-bogus-book/story-fn59niix-1226676192844 .	Midnight's Children
'The Aeneid' by Virgil tells the story of which Trojan who travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans?	Quotations on Islam from Notable Non-Muslims - WikiIslam Quotations on Islam from Notable Non-Muslims From WikiIslam, the online resource on Islam Jump to: navigation , search The following sourced quotations are particularly useful, as many apologists like to commit the logical fallacy of appealing to authority by using (very often out-of-context [1] or false) [2] quotes attributed to various noteworthy non-Muslim individuals, in an attempt to propagate their faith . Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi[ edit ] Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī (865 – 925 AD) was a Persian physician, alchemist, chemist, philosopher, and scholar. If the people of this religion [Islam] are asked about the proof for the soundness of their religion, they flare up, get angry and spill the blood of whoever confronts them with this question. They forbid rational speculation, and strive to kill their adversaries. This is why truth became thoroughly silenced and concealed. [3] You claim that the evidentiary miracle is present and available, namely, the Koran. You say: "Whoever denies it, let him produce a similar one." Indeed, we shall produce a thousand similar, from the works of rhetoricians, eloquent speakers and valiant poets, which are more appropriately phrased and state the issues more succinctly. They convey the meaning better and their rhymed prose is in better meter. ... By God what you say astonishes us! You are talking about a work which recounts ancient myths, and which at the same time is full of contradictions and does not contain any useful information or explanation. Then you say: "Produce something like it"?! [3] Adolf Hitler[ edit ] Adolf Hitler (1889 – 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, commonly known as the Nazi Party. You see, it's been our misfortune to have the wrong religion. Why didn't we have the religion of the Japanese, who regard sacrifice for the Fatherland as the highest good? The Mohammedan religion [Islam] too would have been more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness? [4] I can imagine people being enthusiastic about the paradise of Mohammed, but as for the insipid paradise of the Christians! In your lifetime, you used to hear the music of Richard Wagner. After your death, it will be nothing but hallelujahs, the waving of palms, children of an age for the feeding bottle, and hoary old men. The man of the isles pays homage to the forces of nature. But Christianity is an invention of sick brains: one could imagine nothing more senseless, nor any more indecent way of turning the idea of the Godhead into a mockery. A n*** with his taboos is crushingly superior to the human being who seriously believes in transubstantiation. [5] Had Charles Martel not been victorious at Poitiers -already, you see, the world had already fallen into the hands of the Jews, so gutless a thing Christianity! -then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism [Islam], that cult which glorifies the heroism and which opens up the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the Germanic races would have conquered the world. Christianity alone prevented them from doing so. [6] The best thing is to let Christianity die a natural death. A slow death has something comforting about it. The dogma of Christianity gets worn away before the advances of science... The instructions of a hygienic nature that most religions gave, contributed to the foundation of organized communities. The precepts ordering people to wash, to avoid certain drinks, to fast at appointed dates, to take exercise, to rise with the sun, to climb to the top of the minaret — all these were obligations invented by intelligent people. The exhortation to fight courageously is also self-explanatory. Observe, by the way, that, as a corollary, the Moslem was promised a paradise peopled with sensual girls, where wine flowed in streams — a real earthly paradise. The Christians, on the other hand, declare themselves satisfied if after their death they are allowed to sing hallelujahs! ...Christianity, of course, has reached the peak of absurdity in this respect. And that's why one day its structure will collapse. Science has already impregnated humanity. Consequently, the more Christianity clings to its dogmas, the quicker it will decline.! [7] Alexis de Tocqueville[ edit ] Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville (1805 – 1859) was a French political thinker and historian best known for his Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the Revolution. I studied the Quran a great deal. I came away from that study with the conviction that by and large there have been few religions in the world as deadly to men as that of Muhammad. As far as I can see, it is the principal cause of the decadence so visible today in the Muslim world and, though less absurd than the polytheism of old, its social and political tendencies are in my opinion more to be feared, and I therefore regard it as a form of decadence rather than a form of progress in relation to paganism itself. [8] Muhammad professed to derive from Heaven, and he has inserted in the Koran, not only a body of religious doctrines, but political maxims, civil and criminal laws, and theories of science. The gospel, on the contrary, only speaks of the general relations of men to God and to each other - beyond which it inculcates and imposes no point of faith. This alone, besides a thousand other reasons, would suffice to prove that the former of these religions will never long predominate in a cultivated and democratic age, whilst the latter is destined to retain its sway at these as at all other periods. [9] André Servier[ edit ] André Servier was an historian who lived in French Algeria at the beginning of the 20th century. Islam was not a torch, as has been claimed, but an extinguisher. Conceived in a barbarous brain for the use of a barbarous people, it was - and it remains - incapable of adapting itself to civilization. Wherever it has dominated, it has broken the impulse towards progress and checked the evolution of society. [10] Islam is Christianity adapted to Arab mentality, or, more exactly, it is all that the unimaginative brain of a Bedouin, obstinately faithful to ancestral practices, has been able to assimilate of the Christian doctrines. Lacking the gift of imagination, the Bedouin copies, and in copying he distorts the original. Thus Musulman law is only the Roman Code revised and corrected by Arabs; in the same way Musulman science is nothing but Greek science interpreted by the Arab brain; and again, Musulman architecture is merely a distorted imitation of the Byzantine style. [10] The deadening influence of Islam is well demonstrated by the way in which the Musulman comports himself at different stages of his life. In his early childhood, when the religion has not as yet impregnated his brain, he shows a very lively intelligence and remarkably open mind, accessible to ideas of every kind; but, in proportion as he grows up, and as, through the system of his education, Islam lays hold of him and envelops him, his brain seems to shut up, his judgment to become atrophied, and his intelligence to be stricken by paralysis and irremediable degeneration. [10] Islam is by no means a negligible element in the destiny of humanity. The mass of three hundred million believers is growing daily, because in most Musulman countries the birth-rate exceeds the death-rate, and also because the religious propaganda is constantly gaining new adherents among tribes still in a state of barbarism. [10] To sum up: the Arab has borrowed everything from other nations, literature, art, science, and even his religious ideas. He has passed it all through the sieve of his own narrow mind, and being incapable of rising to high philosophic conceptions, he has distorted, mutilated and desiccated everything. This destructive influence explains the decadence of Musulman nations and their powerlessness to break away from barbarism… [10] Islam is a doctrine of death, inasmuch as the spiritual not being separated from the temporal, and every manifestation of activity being subjected to dogmatic law, it formally forbids any change, any evolution, any progress. It condemns all believers to live, to think, and to act as lived, thought and acted the Musulmans of the second century of the Hegira [8th century A.D.], when the law of Islam and its interpretation were definitely fixed. . . . In the history of the nations, Islam, a secretion of the Arab brain, has never been an element of civilization, but on the contrary has acted as an extinguisher upon its flickering light. Individuals under Arab rule have only been able to contribute to the advance of civilization in so far as they did not conform to the Musulman dogma, but they relapsed into Arab barbarism as soon as they were obliged to make a complete submission to these dogmas. . . . Islamized nations, who have not succeeded in freeing themselves from Musulman tutelage, have been stricken with intellectual paralysis and decadence. They will only escape as they succeed in withdrawing themselves from the control of Musulman law. [10] Angela Carter[ edit ] Angela Carter (1940 – 1992) was an English novelist and journalist. In 2008, The Times ranked Carter tenth in their list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945". In 2012, Nights at the Circus was selected as the best ever winner of the James Tait Black Memorial Prize. The kind of power mothers have is enormous. Take the skyline of Istanbul—enormous breasts, pathetic little willies, a final revenge on Islam. I was so scared I had to crouch in the bottom of the boat when I saw it. [11] Anthony Flew[ edit ] Antony Garrard Newton Flew (1923 – 2010) was a British philosopher. He was also known for the development of the no true Scotsman fallacy. I would never regard Islam with anything but horror and fear because it is fundamentally committed to conquering the world for Islam... it is, I think, best described in a Marxian way as the uniting and justifying ideology of Arab imperialism. Between the New Testament and the Qur'an there is (as it is customary to say when making such comparisons) no comparison. Whereas markets can be found for books on reading the Bible as literature, to read the Qur'an is a penance rather than a pleasure. There is no order or development in its subject matter.... The Prophet, though gifted in the arts of persuasion and clearly a considerable military leader, was both doubtfully literate and certainly ill-informed about the contents of the Old Testament and about several matters of which God, if not even the least informed of the Prophet’s contemporaries, must have been cognizant... one thing I’ll say in this comparison is that, for goodness sake, Jesus is an enormously attractive charismatic figure, which the Prophet of Islam most emphatically is not. [12] The Koran calls for belief and consequent obedience. It is, surely, calculated to inspire fear, indeed abject terror, rather than love. [13] Apostolos Euangelou Vacalopoulos[ edit ] The Revolution of 1821 is no more than the last great phase of the resistance of the Greeks to Ottoman domination; it was a relentless, undeclared war, which had begun already in the first years of servitude. The brutality of an autocratic regime, which was characterized by economic spoliation, intellectual decay and cultural retrogression, was sure to provoke opposition. Restrictions of all kinds, unlawful taxation, forced labor, persecutions, violence, imprisonment, death, abductions of girls and boys and their confinement to Turkish harems, and various deeds of wantonness and lust, along with numerous less offensive excesses – all these were a constant challenge to the instinct of survival and they defied every sense of human decency. The Greeks bitterly resented all insults and humiliations, and their anguish and frustration pushed them into the arms of rebellion. There was no exaggeration in the statement made by one of the beys if Arta, when he sought to explain the ferocity of the struggle. He said: ‘We have wronged the rayas [dhimmis] (i.e. our Christian subjects) and destroyed both their wealth and honor; they became desperate and took up arms. This is just the beginning and will finally lead to the destruction of our empire.’ The sufferings of the Greeks under Ottoman rule were therefore the basic cause of the insurrection; a psychological incentive was provided by the very nature of the circumstances [14] At the beginning of the eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks forced their way into Armenia and there crushed the armies of several petty Armenian states. No fewer than forty thousand souls fled before the organized pillage of the Seljuk host to the western part of Asia Minor. From the middle of the eleventh century, and especially after the battle of Malazgirt [Manzikurt] (1071), the Seljuks spread throughout the whole Asia Minor peninsula, leaving error, panic and destruction in their wake. Byzantine, Turkish and other contemporary sources are unanimous in their agreement on the extent of havoc wrought an the protracted anguish of the local population…[The Greek chronicler] Kydones described the fate of the Christian peoples of Asia Minor thus: ‘The entire region which sustained us, from the Hellespont eastwards to the mountains of Armenia, has been snatched away. They [the Turks] have razed cities, pillaged churches, opened graves, and filled everything with blood and corpses…Alas, too, they have even abused Christian bodies. And having taken away their entire wealth they have now taken away their freedom, reducing them to the merest shadows of slaves. And with such dregs of energy as remain in these unfortunate people, they are forced to be the servitors of the Turk’s personal comforts.’ “From the time the Ottoman Turks first set foot in Thrace under Suleiman, son of Orchan, the Empire rapidly disintegrated….From the very beginning of the Turkish onslaught under Suleiman, the Turks tried to consolidate their position by the forcible imposition of Islam. [The Ottoman historian] Sukrullah [maintained] those who refused to accept the Moslem faith were slaughtered and their families enslaved. ‘Where there were bells’, writes the same author, ‘Suleiman broke them up and cast them onto fires. Where there are churches he destroyed them or converted them into mosques. Thus, in place of bells there were now muezzins. Wherever Christian infidels were still found, vassalage was imposed upon their rulers. At least in public they could no longer say ‘kyrie eleison’ but rather “There is no God but Allah; and where once their prayers had been addressed to Christ, they were now to ‘Mohammed, the prophet of Allah.’ [15] Ambedkar, B. R.[ edit ] Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was independent India's first law minister and the principal architect of the Constitution of India. One may well ask if there is any social evil which is found among the Hindus and is not found among the Muslims? … Take child-marriage ... [quoting from 1931 census statistics] Can the position among the Musalmans so far as child-marriage goes, be considered better than the position among the Hindus?” (P. 225-6) “ Take the position of women. It is insisted by Muslims that the legal rights given to Muslim women, ensure them a greater measure of independence than allowed to other Eastern women … the Muslim woman is the most helpless person in the world … her fate is ‘once married, always married’. She cannot escape the marriage tie, however irksome it may be. While she cannot repudiate the marriage, the husband can always do it without having to show any cause. Utter the word ‘Tallak’ and observe continence for three weeks and the woman is cast away … This latitude in the marriage in the matter of divorce destroys that sense of security which is so fundamental for a full, free and happy life for a woman. This insecurity of life, to which a Muslim woman is exposed, is greatly augmented by the right of polygamy and concubinage, which the Muslim law gives to the husband” (P. 226-227) “ Take the caste system. Islam speaks of brotherhood. Everybody infers that Islam must be free from slavery and caste. Regarding slavery nothing needs to be said. It stand abolished now by law. But while it existed much of its support was derived from Islam and Islamic countries … But if slavery has gone, caste among Musalmans has remained ” (P. 228). Dr. Ambedkar then quotes the 1901 census report for Bengal to show that Muslims there have several castes including Arzal or untouchable castes with whom no other Mohamedan would associate and who are forbidden to enter the mosque to use the public burial ground. He also quotes from the same Report about the panchayat system of each caste which extends to social as well as trade matters resulting in castes which are as strictly endogamous as Hindu castes. He concludes, “the Mohamedans observe not only caste but also untouchability” (P. 230) [16] Arthur Jeffery[ edit ] Arthur Jeffery (1892 – 1959) was an Australian professor of Semitic languages first at the School of Oriental Studies in Cairo, and from 1938 until his death jointly at Columbia University and Union Theological Seminary in New York City. He is the author of extensive historical studies of Middle Eastern manuscripts. The early Arabic sources quite plainly and frankly describe the expeditions as military expeditions, and it would never have occurred to anyone at that day to interpret them as anything else.... To the folk of his day there would thus be nothing strange in Muhammad, as the head of the community of those who served Allah, taking the sword to extend the kingdom of Allah, and taking measures to insure the subjection of all who lived within the borders of what he made the kingdom of Allah. [17] Arthur Schopenhauer[ edit ] Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860) was an influential German philosopher, known for his pessimism and philosophical clarity. Temples and churches, pagodas and mosques, in all countries and ages, in their splendor and spaciousness, testify to man's need for metaphysics, a need strong and ineradicable, which follows close on the physical. ... Sometimes it lets itself be satisfied with clumsy fables and fairy-tales. If only they are imprinted early enough, they are for man adequate explanations of his existence and supports for his morality. Consider the Koran, for example; this wretched book was sufficient to start a world-religion, to satisfy the metaphysical need of countless millions for twelve hundred years, to become the basis of their morality and of a remarkable contempt for death, and also to inspire them to bloody wars and the most extensive conquests. In this book we find the saddest and poorest form of theism. Much may be lost in translation, but I have not been able to discover in it one single idea of value. [18] Bhavishya Purana[ edit ] The Bhavishya Purana is one of the eighteen major Hindu Puranas. It is written in Sanskrit and attributed to Rishi Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas. Suta Goswami said: After hearing the king’s prayers, Lord Shiva said: ... There was a mystic demon named Tripura (Tripurasura), whom I have already burnt to ashes, he has come again by the order of Bali. He has no origin but he achieved a benediction from me. His name is Mahamada (Muhammad) and his deeds are like that of a ghost. Therefore, O king, you should not go to this land of the evil ghost. By my mercy your intelligence will be purified. Hearing this the king came back to his country and Mahamada (Muhammad) came with them to the bank of the river Sindhu. He was expert in expanding illusion, so he said to the king very pleasingly: O great king, your god has become my servant. Just see, as he eats my remnants, so I will show you. The king became surprised when he saw this just before them. Then in anger Kalidasa rebuked Mahamada (Muhammad) “O rascal, you have created an illusion to bewilder the king, I will kill you, you are the lowest..." That city is known as their site of pilgrimage, a place which was Madina or free from intoxication. Having a form of a ghost (Bhuta), the expert illusionist Mahamada (Muhammad) appeared at night in front of king Bhojaraja and said: O king, your religion is of course known as the best religion among all. Still I am going to establish a terrible and demoniac religion by the order of the Lord . The symptoms of my followers will be that they first of all will cut their genitals, have no shikha, but having beard, be wicked, make noise loudly and eat everything. They should eat animals without performing any rituals. This is my opinion. They will perform purificatory act with the musala or a pestle as you purify your things with kusha. Therefore, they will be known as musalman, the corrupters of religion. Thus the demoniac religion will be founded by me. After having heard all this the king came back to his palace and that ghost (Muhammad) went back to his place. [19] Benedict XVI[ edit ] Pope Benedict XVI (born Joseph Alois Ratzinger on April 16, 1927) is Pope Emeritus of the Catholic Church, having served as Pope from 2005 to 2013. Islam has a total organization of life that is completely different from ours; it embraces simply everything,...There is a very marked subordination of woman to man; there is a very tightly knit criminal law, indeed, a law regulating all areas of life, that is opposed to our modern ideas about society. One has to have a clear understanding that it is not simply a denomination that can be included in the free realm of a pluralistic society. [20] Bernard Lewis[ edit ] Bernard Lewis, FBA (born May 31, 1916) is a British-American scholar in Oriental studies, and political commentator. He is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He specializes in the history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West, and is especially famous in academic circles for his works on the history of the Ottoman Empire. The golden age of equal rights [in Spain] was a myth, and belief in it was a result, more than a cause, of Jewish sympathy for Islam. The myth was invented by Jews in nineteenth-century Europe as a reproach to Christians. [21] There was a time when scholars and other writers in communist eastern Europe relied on writers and publishers in the free West to speak the truth about their history, their culture, and their predicament. Today it is those who told the truth, no those who concealed or denied it, who are respected and welcomed in these countries. Historians in free countries have a moral and professional obligation not to shrink the difficult issues and subjects that some people would place under a sort of taboo; not to submit to voluntary censorship, but to deal with these matters fairly, honestly, without apologetics, without polemic, and, of course, competently. Those who enjoy freedom have a moral obligation to use that freedom for those who do not possess it. We live in a time when great efforts have been made, and continue to be made to falsify the record of the past and to make history a tool of propaganda; when governments, religious movements, political parties, and sectional groups of every kind are busy rewriting history as they would wish it to have been, as they would like their followers to believe that it was. All this is very dangerous indeed, to ourselves and to others, however we may define otherness - dangerous to our common humanity. Because, make no mistake, those who are unwilling to confront the past will be unable to understand the present and unfit to face the future. [22] During the first formative centuries of its existence, Christianity was separated from and indeed antagonistic to the state, with which it only later became involved. From the lifetime of its founder, Islam was the state, and the identity of religion and government is indelibly stamped on the memories and awareness of the faithful from their own sacred writings, history, and experience. [23] ...it is the duty of those who have accepted them [Allah's word and message] to strive unceasingly to convert or at least to subjugate those who have not. This obligation is without limit of time or space. It must continue until the whole world has either accepted the Islamic faith or submitted to the power of the Islamic state. [24] Bertrand Russell[ edit ] Bertrand Arthur William Russell (1872 – 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, socialist, pacifist, and social critic, who is considered to be one of the founders of analytic philosophy. Bolshevism combines the characteristics of the French Revolution with those of the rise of Islam… Those who accept Bolshevism become impervious to scientific evidence, and commit intellectual suicide. Even if all the doctrines of Bolshevism were true, this would still be the case, since no unbiased examination of them is tolerated…Among religions, Bolshevism is to be reckoned with Mohammedanism rather than with Christianity and Buddhism. Christianity and Buddhism are primarily personal religions, with mystical doctrines and a love of contemplation. Mohammedanism and Bolshevism are practical, social, unspiritual, concerned to win the empire of the world. [25] Rivalry is a much stronger motive. Over and over again in Mohammedan history, dynasties have come to grief because the sons of a sultan by different mothers could not agree, and in the resulting civil war universal ruin resulted... The world would be a happier place than it is if acquisitiveness were always stronger than rivalry. But in fact, a great many men will cheerfully face impoverishment if they can thereby secure complete ruin for their rivals. [26] Immediately after his death the conquests began, and they proceeded with rapidity... Westward expansion (except in Sicily and Southern Italy) was brought to a standstill by the defeat of the Mohammedans at the battle of Tours in 732, just one hundred years after the death of the Prophet... It was the duty of the faithful to conquer as much of the world as possible for Islam... The first conquests of the Arabs began as mere raids for plunder, and only turned into permanent occupation after experience has shown the weakness of the enemy... The Arabs, although they conquered a great part of the world in the name of a new religion were not a very religious race; the motive of their conquests was plunder and wealth rather than religion. [27] The beliefs appropriate to the impulse of aggression may be seen in Bernhardi, or in the early Mohammedan conquerors, or, in full perfection, in the Book of Joshua. There is first of all a conviction of the superior excellence of one's own group, a certainty that they are in some sense the chosen people. This justifies the feeling that only the good and evil of one's own group is of real importance, and that the rest of the world is to be regarded merely as material for the triumph or salvation of the higher race. In modern politics this attitude is embodied in imperialism. [28] Bill Maher[ edit ] William "Bill" Maher, Jr. (born January 20, 1956) is an American stand-up comedian, television host, political commentator, author and actor. Maher currently ranks number 38 on Comedy Central's 100 greatest stand-ups of all time, and has a Hollywood Walk of Fame star. There’s only one faith, for example, that kills you or wants to kill you if you draw a bad cartoon of the prophet. There’s only one faith that kills you or wants to kill you if you renounce the faith... obviously, most Muslim people are not terrorists. But ask most Muslim people in the world, if you insult the prophet, do you have what’s coming to you? It’s more than just a fringe element. [29] I do agree that there are other groups that pose a terroristic threat to this country [USA]... I would say that the threat from radicalized Muslims is a unique and greater threat. It is the greatest threat... It's been going on for a thousand years, this problem with Islam and the West. We're dealing with a culture that is in its medieval era. It [Islam] comes from a hate-filled holy book, the Quran, which is taken very literally by its people. They are trying to get nuclear weapons. I don’t think Tim McVeigh would ever have tried to get a nuclear weapon because I think right-wing nuts, they think they love this country and they are not trying to destroy this country, they want to get it away from the people they see as hijacking it. That’s different than Muslim extremists who want to destroy it. And also it is a culture of suicide bombing, which is hard to deter from people who want to kill themselves. [30] All this talk of people who burn the Koran and nothing about the people who reacted in such a stupid way. We are always blaming the victim and not holding them -- not most Muslims, but at least a large part of Muslim culture that doesn't condemn their people... There is one religion in the world that kills you when you disagree with them and they say 'look, we are a religion of peace and if you disagree we'll fking cut your head off, and nobody calls them on it -- there are very few people that will call them on it. It's like if Dad is a violent drunk and beats his kids, you don't blame the kid because he set Dad off. You blame Dad because he's a violent drunk. [31] When South Park got threatened last week by Islamists ... it served or should serve, as a reminder to all of us that our culture isn't just different than one that makes death threats to cartoonists, it's better. Because when I make a joke about the Pope, he doesn't send one of the Swiss Guards in their striped pantaloons to stick a pike in my ass. When I make a Jewish joke, Rabbis may kvetch about it, but they don't pull out a scimitar and threaten an adult circumcision. ... it should in fairness be noted, that in speaking of Muslims, we realize that of course the vast majority are law abiding, loving people, who just want to be left alone to subjugate their women in peace. ... but the western world needs to make it clear, some things about our culture are not negotiable, and can't change, and one of them is freedom of speech. Separation of church and state is another, not negotiable. Women are allowed to work here and you can't beat them, not negotiable. This is how we roll. And this is why our system is better. [32] Blaise Pascal[ edit ] Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. Mahomet established a religion by putting his enemies to death; Jesus Christ by commanding his followers to lay down their lives Carey Cash[ edit ] Rev. Carey Cash is a US Navy chaplain currently assigned to Camp David, the U.S. presidential retreat. He is often referred to as "President Obama's pastor". [Islam] from its very birth has used the edge of the sword as a means to convert or conquer those with different religious convictions. [33] Sadly, grace is often absent in Islam, which is based upon binding religious law, requiring strenuous adherence to every tenet of the ‘Five Pillars of Allah’... A religion that emerges from the soil of strict adherence to law as a means of gaining God’s favour will always tend toward extreme selfsacrifice. [33] Carl Jung[ edit ] Carl Gustav Jung (1875 – 1961) was the Swiss founder of analytical psychology. He created some of the best known psychological concepts and his work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, literature, and related fields. We do not know whether Hitler is going to found a new Islam. He is already on the way; he is like Muhammad. The emotion in Germany is Islamic; warlike and Islamic. They are all drunk with a wild god. [34] Charles-Louis Montesquieu[ edit ] Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (1689 – 1755), was a French social commentator and political thinker. It is a misfortune to human nature, when religion is given by a conqueror. The Mahometan religion, which speaks only by the sword, acts still upon men with that destructive spirit with which it was founded. [35] Christopher Hitchens[ edit ] Christopher Eric Hitchens (1949 – 2011) was an English-American author and journalist. His books, essays, and journalistic career have spanned more than four decades, making him a public intellectual, and a staple of talk shows and lecture circuits. He has been a columnist and literary critic at The Atlantic, Vanity Fair, Slate, World Affairs, The Nation, Free Inquiry, and a variety of other media outlets. Islam in its origins is just as shady and approximate as those from which it took its borrowings. It makes immense claims for itself, invokes prostrate submission or "surrender" as a maxim to its adherents, and demands deference and respect from nonbelievers into the bargain. There is nothing—absolutely nothing—in its teachings that can even begin to justify such arrogance and presumption. [36] If the Qur'an was the word of God, it had been dictated on a very bad day. [37] "Some of what people are saying in this mosque controversy is very similar to what German media was saying about Jews in the 1920s and 1930s," Imam Abdullah Antepli, Muslim chaplain at Duke University, told the New York Times. Yes, we all recall the Jewish suicide bombers of that period, as we recall the Jewish yells for holy war, the Jewish demands for the veiling of women and the stoning of homosexuals, and the Jewish burning of newspapers that published cartoons they did not like. What is needed from the supporters of this very confident faith is more self-criticism and less self-pity and self-righteousness. [38] Christopher Marlowe[ edit ] Christopher Marlowe (1564 – 1593) was an English poet and translator of the Elizabethan era, who also rivalled Shakespeare as the most powerful dramatist of the Elizabethan period. Tamburlaine: Now, Casane, where’s the Turkish Alcoran, And all the heaps of superstitious books Found in the temples of that Mahomet Whom I have thought a god? they shall be burnt. Usumcasane: Here they are, my lord. Tamburlaine: Well said! let there be a fire presently. [They light a fire.] In vain, I see, men worship Mahomet: My sword hath sent millions of Turks to hell, Slew all his priests, his kinsmen, and his friends, And yet I live untouch’d by Mahomet. There is a God, full of revenging wrath, }From whom the thunder and the lightning breaks, Whose scourge I am, and him will I obey. So, Casane; fling them in the fire.— [They burn the books.] Now, Mahomet, if thou have any power, Come down thyself and work a miracle: Thou art not worthy to be worshipped That suffer’st flames of fire to burn the writ Wherein the sum of thy religion rests: Why send’st thou not a furious whirlwind down, To blow thy Alcoran up to thy throne, Where men report thou sitt’st by God himself? Or vengeance on the head of Tamburlaine That shakes his sword against thy majesty, And spurns the abstracts of thy foolish laws?— Well, soldiers, Mahomet remains in hell; He cannot hear the voice of Tamburlaine: Seek out another godhead to adore; The God that sits in heaven, if any god, For he is God alone, and none but he. Dante Alighieri[ edit ] Dante Alighieri (1265 – 1321), also known as "the Supreme Poet", was an Italian poet. His Divine Comedy is often considered the greatest literary work ever composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece of world literature. Below is Dante's description of Muhammad and Ali in Hell. And one his limb transpierced, and one lopped off, should show, it would be nothing to compare with the disgusting mode of the ninth Bolgia. A cask by losing centre-piece or cant was never shattered so, as I saw one rent from the chin to where one breaketh wind. Between his legs were hanging down his entrails; his heart was visible, and the dismal sack that maketh excrement of what is eaten. While I was all absorbed in seeing him, he looked at me, and opened with his hands his bosom, saying: "See now how I rend me; How mutilated, see, is Mahomet; in front of me doth Ali weeping go, cleft in the face from forelock unto chin; and all the others whom thou here beholdest, disseminators of scandal and of schism while living were, and therefore are cleft thus. [39] David Cook[ edit ] David B. Cook is a religious scholar and author from Rice University in Houston with a focus on Islamic history and Muslim apocalyptic literature. There is no lack of evidence concerning the Muslim practice of jihad. The classical and modern works on the subject are voluminous, and they are documented by an examination of Muslim actions as recorded by historians. There can be no reasonable doubt that jihad is a major theme running through the entirety of Muslim civilization and is at least one of the major factors in the astounding success of the faith of Islam. [40] In reading Muslim literature -- both contemporary and classical -- one can see that the evidence for the primacy of spiritual jihad is negligible. Today it is certain that no Muslim, writing in a non-Western language (such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu), would ever make claims that jihad is primarily nonviolent or has been superseded by the spiritual jihad. Such claims are made solely by Western scholars, primarily those who study Sufism and/or work in interfaith dialogue, and by Muslim apologists who are trying to present Islam in the most innocuous manner possible. [41] ...after surveying the evidence from classical until contemporary times, one must conclude that today's jihad movements are as legitimate as any that have ever existed in classical Islam... In short, although the actions of many of these groups may disgust many Muslims, as far as their conduct of jihad, they fall within the limits set by classical and contemporary Muslim law. [42] David Hume[ edit ] David Hume (1711 – 1776) was a Scottish philosopher and historian, regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. The admirers and followers of the Alcoran insist on the excellent moral precepts interspersed through that wild and absurd performance. But it is to be supposed, that the Arabic words, which correspond to the English, equity, justice, temperance, meekness, charity were such as, from the constant use of that tongue, must always be taken in a good sense; and it would have argued the greatest ignorance, not of morals, but of language, to have mentioned them with any epithets, besides those of applause and approbation. But would we know, whether the pretended prophet had really attained a just sentiment of morals? Let us attend to his narration; and we shall soon find, that he bestows praise on such instances of treachery, inhumanity, cruelty, revenge, bigotry, as are utterly incompatible with civilized society. No steady rule of right seems there to be attended to; and every action is blamed or praised, so far only as it is beneficial or hurtful to the true believers. [43] David Samuel Margoliouth[ edit ] David Samuel Margoliouth (1858 – 1940) was an orientalist who was described as a brilliant editor and translator of Arabic works. He was briefly active as a priest in the Church of England. He was Laudian Professor of Arabic at the University of Oxford from 1889 to 1937. In order to gain his ends he [Muhammad] recoils from no expedient, and he approves of similar unscrupulousness on the part of his adherents, when exercised in his interest. He profits to the utmost from the chivalry of the Meccans, but rarely requites it with the like. He organizes assassinations and wholesale massacres. His career as tyrant of Medina is that of a robber chief, whose political economy consists in securing and dividing plunder ... He is himself an unbridled libertine and encourages the same passion in his followers. For whatever he does he is prepared to plead the express authorization of the deity. It is, however, impossible to find any doctrine which he is not prepared to abandon in order to secure a political end…This is a disagreeable picture for the founder of a religion, and it cannot be pleaded that it is a picture drawn by an enemy… [44] [45] Dayanand Saraswati[ edit ] Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) was an Indian Sage who is considered to be the most important Hindu religious leader of his time. Having thus given a cursory view of the Quran, I lay it before the sensible persons with the purpose that they should know what kind of book the Quran is. If they ask me, I have no hesitation to say that it can not be the work either of God or of a learned man, nor can it be a book of knowledge. Here its very vital defect has been exposed with the object that the people may not waste their life falling into its imposition... The Quran is the result of ignorance, the source of animalization of human being, a fruitful cause of destroying peace, an incentive to war, a propagator of hostility among men and a promoter of suffering in society. As to defect of repetition, the Quran is its store. [46] Doctrina Jacobi[ edit ] The Doctrina Jacobi (or 'Teaching of Jacob'), is a 7th century Greek Christian polemical tract written sometime between 634-640 AD. The text provides one of the earliest external accounts of Islam. When the candidatus was killed by the Saracens, I was at Caesarea and I set off by boat to Sykamina. People were saying "the candidatus has been killed," and we Jews were overjoyed. And they were saying that the prophet had appeared, coming with the Saracens, and that he was proclaiming the advent of the anointed one, the Christ who was to come. I, having arrived at Sykamina, stopped by a certain old man well-versed in scriptures, and I said to him: "What can you tell me about the prophet who has appeared with the Saracens?" He replied, groaning deeply: "He is false, for the prophets do not come armed with a sword. Truly they are works of anarchy being committed today and I fear that the first Christ to come, whom the Christians worship, was the one sent by God and we instead are preparing to receive the Antichrist. Indeed, Isaiah said that the Jews would retain a perverted and hardened heart until all the earth should be devastated. But you go, master Abraham, and find out about the prophet who has appeared." So I, Abraham, inquired and heard from those who had met him that there was no truth to be found in the so-called prophet, only the shedding of men's blood. He says also that he has the keys of paradise, which is incredible. [47] Edward Freeman[ edit ] Edward Augustus Freeman (1823 – 1892) was an English historian, architectural artist, liberal politician during the late-19th-century heyday of William Gladstone, and a one-time candidate for Parliament. [Islam] is essentially an obstructive, intolerant system, supplying just sufficient good to stand in the way of greater good. It has consecrated despotism; it has consecrated polygamy; it has consecrated slavery. It has declared war against every other creed; it has claimed to be at least dominant in every land… When it ceases to have an enemy to contend against, it sinks into sluggish stupidity… It must have an enemy; if cut off, like Persia, from conflict with the infidel, it finds its substitute in sectarian hatred of brother Moslems… By [only] slightly reforming, it has perpetuated and sanctified all the evils of the eastern world. It has, by its aggressive tenets, brought them into more direct antagonism with the creed and civilization of the west. [48] Edward Gibbon[ edit ] Edward Gibbon (1737 – 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources. In the spirit of enthusiasm or vanity, the prophet [Muhammad] rests the truth of his mission on the merit of his book; audaciously challenges both men and angels to imitate the beauties of a single page; and presumes to assert that God alone could dictate this incomparable performance. This argument is most powerfully addressed to a devout Arabian, whose mind is attuned to faith and rapture; whose ear is delighted by the music of sounds; and whose ignorance is incapable of comparing the productions of human genius... If the composition of the Koran exceed the faculties of a man to what superior intelligence should we ascribe the Iliad of Homer, or the Philippics of Demosthenes? [49] Al Jannabi (Gagmer, tom. iii. p. 487) records his own testimony that he surpassed all men in conjugal vigour; and Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, “O propheta, certe penis tuus cælum versus erectus est” ["O prophet, thy penis is erect unto the sky!"] (in Vit. Mohammed. p. 140). [50] Instead of a perpetual and perfect measure of the divine will, the fragments of the Koran were produced at the discretion of Mahomet; each revelation is suited to the emergencies of his policy or passion; and all contradiction is removed by the saving maxim, that any text of Scripture is abrogated or modified by any subsequent passage. [49] Edward William Lane[ edit ] Edward William Lane (1801 — 1876) was a British Orientalist, translator and lexicographer. Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon remains the world's most revered and scholarly dictionary of the Arabic language. The tax that is taken from the free non-Muslim subjects of a Muslim government whereby they ratify the compact that assures them protection, as though it were compensation for not being slain [51] Emeka Ojukwu[ edit ] Emeka Ojukwu (1933 - 2011) was the only president of the short lived Republic of Biafra. The Biafran struggle is, on another plane, a resistance to the Arab-Muslim expansionism which has menaced and ravaged the African continent for twelve centuries. As early as the first quarter of the seventh century, the Arabs, a people from the Near-East, evolved Islam not just as a religion but as a cover for their insatiable territorial ambitions. By the tenth century they had overrun and occupied, among other places, Egypt and North Africa. Had they stopped there, we would not today be faced with the wicked and unholy collusion we are fighting against. On the contrary, they cast their hungry and envious eyes across the Sahara on to the land of the Negroes. Our Biafran ancestors remained immune from the Islamic contagion. From the middle years of the last century Christianity was established in our land. In this way we came to be a predominantly Christian people. We came to stand out as a non-Muslim island in a raging Islamic sea. Throughout the period of the ill-fated Nigerian experiment, the Muslims hoped to infiltrate Biafra by peaceful means and quiet propaganda, but failed. Then the late Ahmadu Bello, the Sarduana of Sokoto tried, by political and economic blackmail and terrorism, to convert Biafrans settled in Northern Nigeria to Islam. His hope was that these Biafrans on dispersion would then carry Islam to Biafra, and by so doing give the religion political control of the area. The crises which agitated the so-called independent Nigeria from 1962 gave these aggressive proselytisers the chance to try converting us by force. It is now evident why the fanatic Arab-Muslim states like Algeria, Egypt and the Sudan have come out openly and massively to support and aid Nigeria in her present war of genocide against us. These states see militant Arabism as a powerful instrument for attaining power in the world. Biafra is one of the few African states untainted by Islam. Therefore, to militant Arabism, Biafra is a stumbling block to their plan for controlling the whole continent. This control is fast becoming manifest in the Organisation of African Unity. On the question of the Middle East, the Sudanese crisis, in the war between Nigeria and Biafra, militant Arabism has succeeded in imposing its point of view through blackmail and bluster. It has threatened African leaders and governments with inciting their Muslim minorities to rebellion if the governments adopted an independent line on these questions. In this way an O.A.U that has not felt itself able to discuss the genocide in the Sudan and Biafra, an O.A.U. that has again and again advertised its ineptitude as a peace-maker, has rushed into open condemnation of Israel over the Middle East dispute. Indeed in recent times, by its performance, the O.A.U. might well be an Organisation of Arab Unity. [52] Frank Miller[ edit ] Frank Miller (born January 27, 1957) is an American comic book artist, writer and film director. He is often regarded as one of the greatest comic artists of all time. We're constantly told all cultures are equal, and every belief system is as good as the next. And generally that America was to be known for its flaws rather than its virtues. When you think about what Americans accomplished, building these amazing cities, and all the good its done in the world, it's kind of disheartening to hear so much hatred of America, not just from abroad, but internally... For some reason, nobody seems to be talking about who we're up against, and the sixth century barbarism that they actually represent. These people saw people's heads off. They enslave women, they genitally mutilate their daughters, they do not behave by any cultural norms that are sensible to us. I'm speaking into a microphone that never could have been a product of their culture, and I'm living in a city where three thousand of my neighbors were killed by thieves of airplanes they never could have built. [53] [54] Frank Zappa[ edit ] Frank Vincent Zappa (1940 – 1993) was a critically acclaimed musician, songwriter, composer, recording engineer, record producer, and film director. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Let’s say we have to make some ‘show of force.’ The most common scenarios involve small guerilla or terrorist groups. Nuclear retaliation? It has been suggested by others that Aerosol Pork Grenades would be a better deterrent — Islamic martyrs are denied entrance to heaven if they show up at the gate smelling like a pig. Denial of The Big Payoff removes a certain cachet from acts of voluntary self-destruction. [55] Gene Simmons[ edit ] Gene Simmons (born August 25, 1949) is an American rock bass guitarist, singer-songwriter, record producer, entrepreneur and actor. He is the bass guitarist/co-lead vocalist of the legendary rock band Kiss. This is a vile culture and if you think for a second that it's willing to just live in the sands of God's armpit, you've got another thing coming... They want to come and live right where you live and they think that you're evil. Extremism believes that it’s okay to strap bombs onto your children and send them to paradise and whatever else and to behead people... Your dog, however, can walk side by side, your dog is allowed to have its own dog house... You can send your dog to school to learn tricks, sit, beg, do all that stuff - none of the women have that advantage. [56] George Bernard Shaw[ edit ] George Bernard Shaw (1856 – 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize for Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938). Islam is very different, being ferociously intolerant. What I may call Manifold Monotheism becomes in the minds of very simple folk an absurdly polytheistic idolatry, just as European peasants not only worship Saints and the Virgin as Gods, but will fight fanatically for their faith in the ugly little black doll who is the Virgin of their own Church against the black doll of the next village. When the Arabs had run this sort of idolatry to such extremes [that] they did this without black dolls and worshipped any stone that looked funny, Mahomet rose up at the risk of his life and insulted the stones shockingly, declaring that there is only one God, Allah, the glorious, the great… And there was to be no nonsense about toleration. You accepted Allah or you had your throat cut by someone who did accept him, and who went to Paradise for having sent you to Hell. [57] George S. Patton[ edit ] George Smith Patton, Jr. (1885 – 1945 AD) was a United States Army officer most famous for his leadership commanding corps and armies as a general in World War II. To me it seems certain that the fatalistic teachings of Muhammad and the utter degradation of women is the outstanding cause for the arrested development of the Arab. He is exactly as he was around the year 700, while we have kept on developing. [58] G. H. Bousquet[ edit ] G. H. Bousquet was a great 20th century scholar of Islamic law. Islam first came before the world as a doubly totalitarian system. It claimed to impose itself on the whole world and it claimed also, by the divinely appointed Muhammadan law, by the principles of the fiqh, to regulate down to the smallest details the whole life of the Islamic community and of every individual believer. ... [T]he study of Muhammadan law (dry and forbidding though it may appear to those who confine themselves to the indispensable study of the fiqh) is of great importance to the world today. [59] Gerd Puin[ edit ] Gerd Rüdiger Puin (born 1940) is a German scholar and one of the world’s leading authorities on Qur'anic historical orthography, the study and scholarly interpretation of ancient manuscripts. He is also specialist in Arabic paleography. He was a lecturer based at Saarland University, in Saarbrücken Germany. The Qur’an claims for itself that it is ‘mubeen,’ or clear, but if you just look at it, you will see that every fifth sentence or so simply doesn’t make sense. Many Muslims will tell you otherwise, but the fact is that a fifth of the Qur’an is just incomprehensible. This is what has caused the traditional anxiety regarding translation. If the Qur’an is not comprehensible, if it can’t even be understood in Arabic, then it’s not translatable into any language. That is why Muslims are afraid. G. K. Chesterton[ edit ] Gilbert Keith Chesterton (1874 – 1936) was an English writer. His prolific and diverse output included philosophy, ontology, poetry, play writing, journalism, public lecturing and debating, biography, Christian apologetics, fantasy and detective fiction. There is in Islam a paradox which is perhaps a permanent menace. The great creed born in the desert creates a kind of ecstasy of the very emptiness of its own land, and even, one may say, out of the emptiness of its own theology... A void is made in the heart of Islam which has to be filled up again and again by a mere repetition of the revolution that founded it. There are no sacraments; the only thing that can happen is a sort of apocalypse, as unique as the end of the world; so the apocalypse can only be repeated and the world end again and again. There are no priests; and yet this equality can only breed a multitude if lawless prophets almost as numerous as priests. The very dogma that there is only one Mahomet produces an endless procession of Mahomets. [60] Haran Gawaitha[ edit ] The Haran Gawaitha is a Mandaean text written during the 7th to 9th century and contains some of the earliest non-Muslim references to Muhammad. I will tell you, (O ye) priests who live in the Arab age, (of that which occurred) before the Son-of-Slaughter, the Arab, went out and prophesied as a prophet in the world so that they performed circumcision like Jews and changed sayings - for he is the most degraded of false prophets. Mars accompanieth him because he is the Seal of prophets of the Lie, (although) the Messiah will appear after him at the end of the age! I will inform you, Nasoraeans, that before the Son-of-Slaughter, the Arab, emerged and was called prophet in the world and Mars descended with him, he drew the sword and converted people to himself by the sword . . . And so a Hardabaean (Sasanian) dynasty ruled for three hun- dred and sixty years , and then the Son of Slaughter, the Arab, set up as king, went forth and took a people to himself and performed circumcision. (Even then), after this had happened and these events had taken place, sixty banners (still) remained and pertained to me in Baghdad. Then he took the sword and put to the sword from the city of Damascus unto Bit Dubar, which is called Bdin . He governed it all and ruled over the lord of the hill-country of the Persians who are called Hardbaeans and took away sovereignty from them. Then, when this had taken place, in time there came (one) Anus', called the son of Danqa, from the uplands of the Arsaiia [from (to?) the city of Baghdad bis'us' kings of the planting of Artabanus, and brought in his own, belonging to Muhammad son of 'Abdallah son-of-Slaughter, the Arab... [61] Jacques Ellul[ edit ] Jacques Ellul (1912 – 1994) was a French philosopher, law professor, sociologist, lay theologian, and Christian anarchist. In a major encyclopedia, one reads phrases such as: "Islam expanded in the eighth or ninth centuries ..."; "This or that country passed into Muslim hands..." But care is taken not to say how Islam expanded, how countries "passed into [Muslim] hands." .. Indeed, it would seem as if events happened by themselves, through a miraculous or amicable operation... Regarding this expansion, little is said about jihad. And yet it all happened through war! ...the jihad is an institution. and not an event, that is to say it is a part of the normal functioning of the Muslim world... The conquered populations change status (they become dhimmis), and the shari'a tends to be put into effect integrally, overthrowing the former law of the country. The conquered territories do not simply change "owners." [62] Joe A[ edit ] Joe A is a British pornography producer notable for his focus on the "Indian" or "Asian" niche market. Many of the [South Asian] girls I meet are interested in working with me [in porn] but are worried about their family finding out. The strangest thing is, most of my models have been Muslims, who are the strictest of all. [63] John Adams[ edit ] John Adams (1735 – 1826) was an American Founding Father and the second President of the United States (1797–1801). The following is taken from the preface of the Qur'an owned by him: This book is a long conference of God, the angels, and Mahomet, which that false prophet very grossly invented; sometimes he introduceth God, who speaketh to him, and teacheth him his law, then an angel, among the prophets, and frequently maketh God to speak in the plural. … Thou wilt wonder that such absurdities have infected the best part of the world, and wilt avouch, that the knowledge of what is contained in this book, will render that law contemptible … [64] John Calvin[ edit ] John Calvin (1509 – 1564) was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation, and a principal figure in the development of Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. For even if many men once boasted that they worshipped the Supreme Majesty, the Maker of heaven and earth, yet because they had no Mediator it was not possible for them truly to taste God’s mercy, and thus be persuaded that he was their Father. Accordingly, because they did not hold Christ as their Head, they possessed only a fleeting knowledge of God. From this it also came about that they at last lapsed into crass and foul superstitions and betrayed their own ignorance. So today the [Muslim] Turks, although they proclaim at the top of their lungs that the Creator of heaven and earth is God, still, while repudiating Christ, substitute an idol in place of the true God. [65] John R. Newman[ edit ] John R. Newman is an historian of religions who specializes in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. His research focuses on the Vajrayana Buddhist Kalachakra Tantra ("Wheel of Time system of mysticism") tradition. We may summarize the Kalacakra tantra's perception of Islamic beliefs and practices as follows: from the Buddhist point of view Islam is demonic and perverse, a perfect anti-religion which is the antithesis of Buddhism. [66] John Quincy Adams[ edit ] John Quincy Adams (1767 – 1848) was the sixth President of the United States. He was also an American diplomat and served in both the Senate and House of Representatives. …he [Muhammad] declared undistinguishing and exterminating war, as a part of his religion, against all the rest of mankind…The precept of the Koran is, perpetual war against all who deny, that Mahomet is the prophet of God. [67] In the seventh century of the Christian era, a wandering Arab of the lineage of Hagar [i.e., Muhammad], the Egyptian, combining the powers of transcendent genius, with the preternatural energy of a fanatic, and the fraudulent spirit of an impostor, proclaimed himself as a messenger from Heaven, and spread desolation and delusion over an extensive portion of the earth. Adopting from the sublime conception of the Mosaic law, the doctrine of one omnipotent God; he connected indissolubly with it, the audacious falsehood, that he was himself his prophet and apostle. Adopting from the new Revelation of Jesus, the faith and hope of immortal life, and of future retribution, he humbled it to the dust by adapting all the rewards and sanctions of his religion to the gratification of the sexual passion. He poisoned the sources of human felicity at the fountain, by degrading the condition of the female sex, and the allowance of polygamy; and he declared undistinguishing and exterminating war, as a part of his religion, against all the rest of mankind. THE ESSENCE OF HIS DOCTRINE WAS VIOLENCE AND LUST: TO EXALT THE BRUTAL OVER THE SPIRITUAL PART OF HUMAN NATURE [Adam's capital letters]….Between these two religions, thus contrasted in their characters, a war of twelve hundred years has already raged. The war is yet flagrant…While the merciless and dissolute dogmas of the false prophet shall furnish motives to human action, there can never be peace upon earth, and good will towards men. [68] As the essential principle of his faith is the subjugation of others by the sword; it is only by force, that his false doctrines can be dispelled, and his power annihilated. They [The Russians] have been from time immemorial, in a state of almost perpetual war with the Tatars, and with their successors, the Ottoman conquerors of Constantinople. It were an idle waste of time to trace the causes of each renewal of hostilities, during a succession of several centuries. The precept of the Koran is, perpetual war against all who deny, that Mahomet is the prophet of God. The vanquished may purchase their lives, by the payment of tribute; the victorious may be appeased by a false and delusive promise of peace; and the faithful follower of the prophet, may submit to the imperious necessities of defeat: but the command to propagate the Moslem creed by the sword is always obligatory, when it can be made effective. The commands of the prophet may be performed alike, by fraud, or by force. Of Mahometan good faith, we have had memorable examples ourselves. When our gallant [Stephen] Decatur ref had chastised the pirate of Algiers, till he was ready to renounce his claim of tribute from the United States, he signed a treaty to that effect: but the treaty was drawn up in the Arabic language, as well as in our own; and our negotiators, unacquainted with the language of the Koran, signed the copies of the treaty, in both languages, not imagining that there was any difference between them. Within a year the Dey demands, under penalty of the renewal of the war, an indemnity in money for the frigate taken by Decatur; our Consul demands the foundation of this pretension; and the Arabic copy of the treaty, signed by himself is produced, with an article stipulating the indemnity, foisted into it, in direct opposition to the treaty as it had been concluded. The arrival of Chauncey, with a squadron before Algiers, silenced the fraudulent claim of the Dey, and he signed a new treaty in which it was abandoned; but he disdained to conceal his intentions; my power, said he, has been wrested from my hands; draw ye the treaty at your pleasure, and I will sign it; but beware of the moment, when I shall recover my power, for with that moment, your treaty shall be waste paper. He avowed what they always practised, and would without scruple have practised himself. Such is the spirit, which governs the hearts of men, to whom treachery and violence are taught as principles of religion. [69] Had it been possible for a sincere and honest peace to be maintained between the Osmanli and his christian neighbors, then would have been the time to establish it in good faith. But the treaty was no sooner made than broken. It never was carried into effect by the Turkish government. [70] [From the Ottoman Reis Effendi, to his Russian counterparts] ‘The present friendly letter has been composed and sent, to acquaint your excellency. with the circumstance; when you shall learn, on receipt of it, that the Sublime Porte has at all times; no other desire or wish than to preserve peace, and good understanding ; and that the event in question has been brought about, entirely by the act of the said minister, we hope that you will endeavor, do every occasion, to fulfil the duties of friendship.’ But precisely at the time when this mild, and candid, and gently expostulary epistle was despatched for St. Petersburg, another state paper was issued, addressed by the Sultan to his own subjects-this was the Hatti Sheriff of the 20th of December, sent to the Pashas of all the provinces, calling on all the faithful Mussulmen of the empire to come forth and 'fight for their religion, and their country, against the infidel despisers of the Prophet. The comparison of these two documents with each other, will afford the most perfect illustration of the Ottoman faith, as well as of their temper towards Russia. The Hatti Sheriff commenced with the following admirable commentary upon the friendly profession, which introduced the letter to count Nesselrode. ‘It is well known (said the Sultan) to almost every person, that if the Mussulmen naturally hate the infidels, the infidels, on then part, are the enemies of the Mussulmen : that Russia, more especially, bears a particular hatred to Islamism, and that she is the principal enemy of the Sublime Porte.’ This appeal to the natural hatred of the Mussulmen towards the infidels, is in just accordance with the precepts of the Koran. The document does not attempt to disguise it, nor even pretend that the enmity of those whom it styles the infidels, is any other than the necessary consequence of the hatred borne by the Mussulmen to them—the paragraph itself, is a forcible example of the contrasted character of the two religions. The fundamental doctrine of the christian religion, is the extirpation of hatred from the human heart. It forbids the exercise of it, even towards enemies. There is no denomination of christians, which denies or misunderstands this doctrine. All understand it alike—all acknowledge its obligations ; and however imperfectly, in the purposes of Divine Providence, its efficacy has been shown in the practice of christians, it has not been wholly inoperative upon them. Its effect has been upon the manners of nations. It has mitigated the horrors of war – it has softened the features of slavery – it has humanized the intercourse of social life. The unqualified acknowledgement of a duty does not, indeed, suffice to insure its performance. Hatred is yet a passion, but too powerful upon the hearts of christians. Yet they cannot indulge it, except by the sacrifice of their principles, and the conscious violation of their duties. No state paper from a Christian hand, could, without trampling the precepts of its Lord and Master, have commenced by an open proclamation of hatred to any portion of the human race. The Ottoman lays it down as the foundation of his discourse. [71] If ever insurrection was holy in the eyes of God, such was that of the Greeks against their Mahometan oppressors. Yet for six long years, they were suffered to be overwhelmed by the whole mass of the Ottoman power; cheered only by the sympathies of all the civilized world, but without a finger raised to sustain or relieve them by the Christian governments of Europe; while the sword of extermination, instinct with the spirit of the Koran, was passing in merciless horror over the classical regions of Greece, the birth-place of philosophy, of poetry, of eloquence, of all the arts that embellish, and all the sciences that dignify the human character. The monarchs of Austria, of France, and England, inflexibly persisted in seeing in the Greeks, only revolted subjects against a lawful sovereign. The ferocious Turk eagerly seized upon this absurd concession, and while sweeping with his besom of destruction over the Grecian provinces, answered every insinuation of interest in behalf of that suffering people, by assertions of the unqualified rights of sovereignty, and by triumphantly retorting upon the legitimates of Europe, the consequences naturally flowing from their own perverted maxims.” [72] This pretended discovery of a plot between Russia and the Greeks, is introduced, to preface an exulting reference to the unhallowed butchery of the Greek Patriarch and Priests, on Easter day of 1822, at Constantinople, and to the merciless desolation of Greece, which it calls ‘doing justice by the sword’ to a great number of rebels of the Morea, of Negropont, of Acarnania, Missolonghi, Athens, and other parts of the continent.The document acknowledges, that although during several years, considerable forces, both naval and military, had been sent against the Greeks, they had not succeeded in suppressing the insurrection. [73] John Wesley[ edit ] John Wesley (1703 – 1791), was a theologian and founder of the English Methodist movement. Let us now calmly and impartially consider what manner of men the Mahometans in general are. 6. An ingenious writer, who a few years ago published a pompous translation of the Koran, takes great pains to give us a very favourable opinion both of Mahomet and his followers. But he cannot wash the Ethiop white. After all, men who have but a moderate share of reason, cannot but observe in his Koran, even as polished by Mr. Sale, the most gross and impious absurdities. To cite particulars is not now my business. It may suffice to observe in general, that human understanding must be debased to an inconceivable degree, in those who can swallow such absurdities as divinely revealed. And yet we know the Mahometans not only condemn all who cannot swallow them to everlasting fire; not only appropriate to themselves the title of Mussulman or True Believers: but even anathematise with the utmost bitterness, and adjudge to eternal destruction, all their brethren of the sect of Mi, all who contend for a figurative interpretation of them. That these men then have no knowledge or love of God is undeniably manifest, not only from their gross, horrible notions of him, but from their not loving their brethren. But they have not always so weighty a cause to hate and murder one another, as difference of opinion. Mahometans will butcher each other by thousands, without so plausible a plea as this. Why is it that such numbers of Turks and Persians have stabbed one another in cool blood ? Truly, because they differ in the manner of dressing their head. The Ottoman vehemently maintains, (for he has unquestionable tradition on his side) that a Mussulman should wear a round turban. Whereas the Persian insists upon his liberty of conscience, and will wear it picked before. So, for this wonderful reason, when a more plausible one is wanting, they beat out each other's brains from generation to generation. It is not therefore strange, that ever since the religion of Mahomet appeared in the world, the espousers of it, particularly those under the Turkish emperor, have been as wolves and tigers to all other nations ; rending and tearing all that fell into their merciless paws, and grinding them with their iron teeth: that numberless cities are rased from the foundation, and only their name remaining : that many countries which were once as the garden of God, are. now a desolate wilderness; and that so many once numerous and powerful nations are vanished away from the earth ! Such was, and is at this day, the rage, the fury, the revenge, of these destroyers of humankind! [74] Jonathan Edwards[ edit ] Jonathan Edwards (1703 – 1758) was a preacher, theologian, and missionary to Native Americans. Edwards "is widely acknowledged to be America's most important and original philosophical theologian," and one of America's greatest intellectuals. By the false prophet [in Revelation 16:13], is sometimes meant the Pope and his clergy; but here an eye seems to be had to Mahomet, whom his followers call the great prophet of God. [75] Louis Bertrand[ edit ] Louis Bertrand (1866 – 1941) was a French novelist, historian and essayist. He was the third member elected to occupy seat 4 of the Académie française in 1925. Arabs have never invented anything except Islam... they have made absolutely no addition to the ancient heritage of Greco-Latin civilization. It is only a superficial knowledge that has been able to accept without critical examination the belief current among Christians during the Middle Ages, which attributed to Islam the Greek science and philosophy of which Christianity had no longer any knowledge. In the centuries that have followed, the Sectarian spirit has found it to be to its interest to confirm and propagate this error. In its hatred of Christianity it has had to give Islam the honour of what was the invention, and, if we may so express it, the personal property of our intellectual ancestors. [10] On the influence of Islam on Christian Europe: The worst characteristic which the Spaniards acquired was the parasitism of the Arabs and the nomad Africans: the custom of living off one's neighbour's territory, the raid raised to the level of an institution, marauding and brigandage recognized as the sole means of existence for the man-at-arms. In the same way they went to win their bread in Moorish territory, so the Spaniards later went to win gold and territory in Mexico and Peru. They were to introduce there, too, the barbarous, summary practices of the Arabs: putting everything to fire and sword, cutting down fruit-trees, razing crops, devastating whole districts to starve out the enemy and bring them to terms; making slaves everywhere, condemning the population of the conquered countries to forced labour. All these detestable ways the conquistadores learnt from the Arabs. For several centuries slavery maintained itself in Christian Spain, as in the Islamic lands. Very certainly, also, it was to the Arabs that the Spaniards owed the intransigence of their fanaticism, the pretension to be, if not the chosen of God, at least the most Catholic nation of Christendom. Philip II, like Abd er Rahman or El Mansour, was Defender of the Faith. Finally, it was not without contagion that the Spaniards lived for centuries in contact with a race of men who crucified their enemies and gloried in piling up thousands of severed heads by way of trophies. The cruelty of the Arabs and the Berbers also founded a school in the Peninsula. The ferocity of the emirs and the caliphs who killed their brothers or their sons with their own hands was to be handed on to Pedro the Cruel and Henry of Trastamare, those stranglers under canvas, no better than common assassins. [76] Maimonides[ edit ] Moses ben-Maimon called Maimonides (1135 – 1204) was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages. After arose the Madman [Muhammad] who emulated his precursor [Jesus], since he paved the way for him. But he added the further objective of procuring rule and submission and he invented what is well known [Islam]. [77] Let Ye understand, my brothers, the Holy One Blessed HE through the trap created by our iniquities cast us amongst this nation, the people of Ishmael [Muslim Arabs] whose oppressiveness is firmly upon us and they connive to do us wrong and despicably downgrade us as the Almighty decreed against us (Deuteronomy 32:31, “Your enemies shall judge you”). There never came against Israel a more antagonistic nation. They oppress us with the most oppressive measures to lessen our number, reduce us, and make us as despicable as they themselves are. King David, may he rest in peace, saw through Divine Inspiration all the calamities that were destined to come upon Israel. Nevertheless [even though he saw all the other troubles], he still began to shout out and lament in the name of the whole nation against the oppression that would be occasioned by the Ishmaelites. David said, “Woe is me, that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!” [Psalms 120:5]. Notice how David emphasizes “Kedar” out of all the other Children of Ishmael. This is because that Mad Man [Muhammad] came from Kedar according to what has been published concerning his geneaology. [78] Manuel II Palaiologos[ edit ] Manuel II Palaiologos or Palaeologus (1350 – 1425) was the Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. Show me just what Mohammed brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached. [79] Mark Twain[ edit ] Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835 – 1910), well known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. Twain is noted for his novels Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which has been called "the Great American Novel", and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. He is extensively quoted, and was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. That is a simple rule, and easy to remember. When I, a thoughtful and unblessed Presbyterian, examine the Koran, I know that beyond any question every Mohammedan is insane; not in all things, but in religious matters. [80] Michael Cook[ edit ] Michael Cook (born in 1940) is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He is widely considered "among the most outstanding scholars on the history of Islam", and is the author of several classic works on Muhammad and early Islamic theology. Shortly after 9/11, there was a book published called How Did This Happen? that included an essay by Karen Armstrong in which she said a world religion has been hijacked by this band of fanatics. I don’t buy that for a minute. [81] Michael H. Hart[ edit ] Michael H. Hart (born April 28, 1932 in New York City) is a Jewish American astrophysicist who has also written three books on history and controversial articles on a variety of subjects. Muhammad's success as a warlord and conqueror were one of Hart's biggest reasons for placing him as the most influential person in history. Muhammad (unlike Jesus) was a secular as well as a religious leader. In fact, as the driving force behind the Arab conquests, he may well rank as the most influential political leader of all time. Of many important historical events, one might say that they were inevitable and would have occurred even without the particular political leader who guided them. For example, the South American colonies would probably have won their independence from Spain even if Simon Bolivar had never lived. But this cannot be said of the Arab conquests. Nothing similar had occurred before Muhammad, and there is no reason to believe that the conquests would have been achieved without him. The only comparable conquests in human history are those of the Mongols in the thirteenth century, which were primarily due to the influence of Genghis Khan. [82] Muhammad Sven Kalisch[ edit ] Muhammad Sven Kalisch is a Professor at Münster University, one of Germany's oldest and most respected universities. In 2004 he went on to become Germany's first ever professor of Islamic theology. I said to myself: You've dealt with Christianity and Judaism but what about your own religion? Can you take it for granted that Muhammad existed? ... The more I read, the historical person at the root of the whole thing became more and more improbable. [83] With regard to the historical existence of Muhammad ... I consider my position simply as a continuation of the most recent research results. It appears so spectacular only because it has been said by a Muslim ... Most Western scientists turn down such an hypotheses out of respect for Islam or because they are afraid of the reactions of their Muslim friends or because they think it is speculative nonsense... My position with regard to the historical existence of Muhammad is that I believe neither his existence nor his non-existence can be proven. I, however, lean towards the non-existence but I don't think it can be proven. It is my impression that, unless there are some sensational archeological discoveries -- an Islamic "Qumran" or "Nag Hammadi" -- the question of Muhammad's existence will probably never be finally clarified. [84] Mustafa Kemal Atatürk[ edit ] Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881 – 1938) was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and founder of the Republic of Turkey as well as its first president. Turks were a great nation even before they adopted Islam. This religion did not help the Arabs, Iranians, Egyptians and others to unite with Turks to form a nation. Conversely, it weakened the Turks’ national relations; it numbed Turkish national feelings and enthusiasm. This was natural, because Mohammedanism was based on Arab nationalism above all nationalities. [85] For nearly five hundred years, these rules and theories of an Arab Shaikh and the interpretations of generations of lazy and good-for-nothing priests have decided the civil and criminal law of Turkey. They have decided the form of the Constitution, the details of the lives of each Turk, his food, his hours of rising and sleeping the shape of his clothes, the routine of the midwife who produced his children, what he learned in his schools, his customs, his thoughts-even his most intimate habits. Islam – this theology of an immoral Arab – is a dead thing. Possibly it might have suited tribes in the desert. It is no good for modern, progressive state. God’s revelation! There is no God! These are only the chains by which the priests and bad rulers bound the people down. A ruler who needs religion is a weakling. No weaklings should rule. [86] Our life here is truly hellish. Fortunately, my soldiers are very brave and tougher than the enemy. What is more, their private beliefs make it easier to carry out orders which send them to their death. They see only two supernatural outcomes: victory for the faith or martyrdom. Do you know what the second means? It is to go straight to heaven. There, the houris, God's most beautiful women, will meet them and will satisfy their desires for all eternity. What great happiness! [87] Omar Khayyám[ edit ] Omar Khayyám (1048 – 1131 AD), was a Persian polymath, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, physician, and poet. He wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, and music. Allah, perchance, the secret word might spell; If Allah be, He keeps His secret well; What He hath hidden, who shall hope to find? Shall God His secret to a maggot tell? … The Koran! well, come put me to the test— Lovely old book in hideous error drest— Believe me, I can quote the Koran too, The unbeliever knows his Koran best. And do you think that unto such as you, A maggot-minded, starved, fanatic crew, God gave the secret, and denied it me?— Well, well, what matters it! believe that too. [88] Oriana Fallaci[ edit ] Oriana Fallaci (1929 – 2006) was an Italian journalist, author, and political interviewer. A former partisan during World War II, she had a long and successful journalistic career, interviewing many internationally known leaders and celebrities. Europe is no longer Europe, it is Eurabia, a colony of Islam, where the Islamic invasion does not proceed only in a physical sense, but also in a mental and cultural sense... I am an atheist, and if an atheist and a pope think the same things, there must be something true. There must be some human truth that is beyond religion... I am disgusted by the anti-Semitism of many Italians, of many Europeans... Look at the school system of the West today. Students do not know history! They don't know who Churchill was! In Italy, they don't even know who Cavour was!... Servility to the invaders has poisoned democracy, with obvious consequences for the freedom of thought, and for the concept itself of liberty... State-run television stations contribute to the resurgent anti-Semitism, crying only over Palestinian deaths while playing down Israeli deaths, glossing over them in unwilling tones... The increased presence of Muslims in Italy and in Europe is directly proportional to our loss of freedom... The Muslims refuse our culture and try to impose their culture on us. I reject them, and this is not only my duty toward my culture-it is toward my values, my principles, my civilization... The struggle for freedom does not include the submission to a religion which, like the Muslim religion, wants to annihilate other religions... The West reveals a hatred of itself, which is strange and can only be considered pathological; it now sees only what is deplorable and destructive... These charlatans care about the Palestinians as much as I care about the charlatans. That is not at all... When I was given the news, I laughed. The trial is nothing else but a demonstration that everything I've written is true... President Bush has said, 'We refuse to live in fear.' Beautiful sentence, very beautiful. I loved it! But inexact, Mr. President, because the West does live in fear. People are afraid to speak against the Islamic world. Afraid to offend, and to be punished for offending, the sons of Allah. You can insult the Christians, the Buddhists, the Hindus, the Jews. You can slander the Catholics, you can spit on the Madonna and Jesus Christ. But, woe betide the citizen who pronounces a word against the Islamic religion. [89] The problem is that the solution does not depend upon the death of Osama bin Laden. Because the Osama bin Ladens are too many, by now: as cloned as the sheep of our research laboratories. In fact, the best trained and the more intelligent do not stay in the Muslim countries... They stay in our own countries, in our cities, our universities, our business companies. They have excellent bonds with our churches, our banks, our televisions, our radios, our newspapers, our publishers, our academic organizations, our unions, our political parties. Worse, they live in the heart of a society that hosts them without questioning their differences, without checking their bad intentions, without penalizing their sullen fanaticism. [89] To make you cry I’ll tell you about the twelve young impure men I saw executed at Dacca at the end of the Bangladesh war. They executed them on the field of Dacca stadium, with bayonet blows to the torso or abdomen, in the presence of twenty thousand faithful who applauded in the name of God from the bleachers. They thundered "Allah akbar, Allah akbar." Yes, I know: the ancient Romans, those ancient Romans of whom my culture is so proud, entertained themselves in the Coliseum by watching the deaths of Christians fed to the lions. I know, I know: in every country of Europe the Christians, those Christians whose contribution to the History of Thought I recognize despite my atheism, entertained themselves by watching the burning of heretics. But a lot of time has passed since then, we have become a little more civilized, and even the sons of Allah ought to have figured out by now that certain things are just not done. After the twelve impure young men they killed a little boy who had thrown himself at the executioners to save his brother who had been condemned to death. They smashed his head with their combat boots. And if you don’t believe it, well, reread my report or the reports of the French and German journalists who, horrified as I was, were there with me. Or better: look at the photographs that one of them took. Anyway this isn’t even what I want to underline. It’s that, at the conclusion of the slaughter, the twenty thousand faithful (many of whom were women) left the bleachers and went down on the field. Not as a disorganized mob, no. In an orderly manner, with solemnity. They slowly formed a line and, again in the name of God, walked over the cadavers. All the while thundering Allah–akbar, Allah–akbar. They destroyed them like the Twin Towers of New York. They reduced them to a bleeding carpet of smashed bones. [90] I am not speaking, obviously, to the laughing hyenas who enjoy seeing images of the wreckage and snicker good–it–serves–the–Americans–right. I am speaking to those who, though not stupid or evil, are wallowing in prudence and doubt. And to them I say: "Wake up, people. Wake up!!" Intimidated as you are by your fear of going against the current—that is, appearing racist (a word which is entirely inapt as we are speaking not about a race but about a religion)—you don’t understand or don’t want to understand that a reverse–Crusade is in progress. Accustomed as you are to the double–cross, blinded as you are by myopia, you don’t understand or don’t want to understand that a war of religion is in progress. Desired and declared by a fringe of that religion, perhaps, but a war of religion nonetheless. A war which they call Jihad. Holy War. A war that might not seek to conquer our territory, but that certainly seeks to conquer our souls. That seeks the disappearance of our freedom and our civilization. That seeks to annihilate our way of living and dying, our way of praying or not praying, our way of eating and drinking and dressing and entertaining and informing ourselves. You don’t understand or don’t want to understand that if we don’t oppose them, if we don’t defend ourselves, if we don’t fight, the Jihad will win. And it will destroy the world that for better or worse we’ve managed to build, to change, to improve, to render a little more intelligent, that is to say, less bigoted—or even not bigoted at all. And with that it will destroy our culture, our art, our science, our morals, our values, our pleasures...Christ! Don’t you realize that the Osama Bin Ladens feel authorized to kill you and your children because you drink wine or beer, because you don’t wear your beard long or a chador, because you go to the theater or the movies, because you listen to music and sing pop songs, because you dance in discos or at home, because you watch TV, wear miniskirts or short–shorts, because you go naked or half naked to the beach or the pool, because you * when you want and where you want and who you want? Don’t you even care about that, you fools? I am an atheist, thank God. And I have no intention of letting myself be killed for it. [90] Penn Jillette[ edit ] Penn Fraser Jillette (born March 5, 1955) is an American illusionist, comedian, musician, and best-selling author known for his work with fellow magician Teller in the team Penn & Teller. People have to realize that having an imaginary friend may be dangerous. When 9/11 hit, the second thing I said to myself was, “This really is what religious people do.” Those people flying the plane were very good, very pious, truly faithful believers. There’s no other way to paint them. Of course, they are extremists by definition, but they certainly aren’t going against Islam in any real way. [91] ... we haven't tackled Islam because we have families [...] and I think the worst thing you can say about a group in a free society is that you’re afraid to talk about it—I can’t think of anything more horrific. [...] Teller and I have been brutal to Christians, and their response shows that they’re good fking Americans who believe in freedom of speech. We attack them all the time, and we still get letters that say, “We appreciate your passion. Sincerely yours, in Christ.” Christians come to our show at the Rio and give us Bibles all the time. They’re incredibly kind to us ... [92] Rabindranath Tagore[ edit ] Rabindranath Tagore (1861 – 1941) was a Bengali polymath who reshaped his region's literature and music. The composer of both the national anthem of India as well as the national anthem of Bangladesh, he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. A very important factor which is making it almost impossible for Hindu-Muslim unity to become an accomplished fact is that the Muslim can not confine their patriotism to any one country. I had frankly asked the Muslims whether in the event of any Mohammedan power invading India, would they [Muslims] stand side by side with their Hindu neighbors to defend their common land or join the invaders. I was not satisfied with the reply I have obtained from them… Even such a man as Mr. Mohammed Ali has declared that under no circumstances is it permissible for any Mohammedan, whatever be his country, to stand against any Mohammedan. [93] Richard Dawkins[ edit ] Clinton Richard Dawkins (born March 26, 1941), is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science author. He was formerly Professor for Public Understanding of Science at Oxford and was a fellow of New College, Oxford. Islam deserves criticism on account of the logical consequences of its dogma, namely, that the murder of fellow human beings is to be rewarded with sensual pleasure in a hedonistic “Paradise”—a concept born in the fantasies of an Arab rebel some fourteen centuries ago. The religion of Mohammed is a dangerous system when the teachings and example of the “prophet” are believed and followed. I'm reasonably optimistic in America and Europe. I'm pessimistic about the Islamic world. I regard Islam as one of the great evils in the world, and I fear that we have a very difficult struggle there. [Why is it more problematic than Christianity, for instance?] There's a belief that every word of the Quran is literally true, and there's a kind of close-mindedness there, which is, I think, less present in the former Christendom. Perhaps because we've had long- I don't know quite why, but there's more of a historical tradition of questioning. There are people in the Islamic world who simply say: "Islam is right!","We are going to impose our will" and there's an asymmetry. I think in a way we are being too nice. I think that it's possible to be naively over optimistic - and if you reach out to people who have absolutely no intention of reaching back to you, then you may be disillusioned. [94] I do feel visceral revulsion at the burka because for me it is a symbol of the oppression of women. [95] It’s almost impossible to say anything against Islam in this country, because you are accused of being racist or Islamophobic. [95] Every person I met believes if there is any disagreement between the Koran and science, then the Koran wins. It's just utterly deplorable. These are now British children who are having their minds stuffed with alien rubbish. Occasionally, my colleagues lecturing in universities lament having undergraduate students walk out of their classes when they talk about evolution. This is almost entirely Muslims. [96] Robert Redeker[ edit ] Robert Redeker is a philosophy teacher and writer for Le Figaro. The exaltation of violence; a merciless war chief, plunderer, slaughterer of Jews and a polygamist, such is the man revealed through the Koran... Turning to Mahomet, by contradiction, reinforces hate and violence. Jesus is a master of love, Mahomet is a master of hatred... The stoning of Satan, each year at Mecca, is not just a superstitious phenomenon. It not only sets the scene for a rabble flirting with barbarity. Its scope is anthropological. Here in effect is a rite, which each Muslim is invited to submit himself to, emphasizing violence as a sacred duty in the heart of the believer. This stoning, annually accompanied with deaths by trampling of the faithful, sometimes in several hundreds, is a ritual which nurtures archaic violence. Instead of getting rid of this archaic violence... Islam builds a nest for this violence, where it can grow in the warmth... Islam is a religion which, even in its sacred text, as well as in its banal rites, exalts violence and hate... Hate and violence inhabit the book with which each Muslim is educated, the Koran. [97] After the article Mr. Redeker received numerous death threads and had to go in to hiding under police protection. What is happening to me corresponds fully to what I denounce in my writing — the West is under ideological surveillance by Islam... I have the impression that I’ve been drafted against my will into a conflict from the 17th or 18th century. It’s all about opposing religious intolerance. Rory Bremner[ edit ] Roderick "Rory" Keith Ogilvy Bremner, FKC (born April 6, 1961) is a Scottish impressionist, playwright and award-winning comedian, noted for his work in political satire and impressions of prominent British politicians. When [I'm] writing a sketch about Islam, I'm writing a line and I think, 'If this goes down badly, I'm writing my own death warrant there.' Because there are people who will say, 'Not only do I not think that's funny but I'm going to kill you' – and that's chilling... If you're a Danish cartoonist and you work in a Western tradition, people don't take that too seriously. Suddenly you're confronted by a group of people who are fundamentalist and extreme and they say, 'We're going to kill you because of what you have said or drawn.' Where does satire go from there, because we like to be brave but not foolish. [98] Salman Rushdie[ edit ] Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (born June 19, 1947) is a British-Indian novelist and essayist. He achieved notability with his second novel, Midnight's Children (1981), which won the Booker Prize in 1981. Of course this is "about Islam." The question is, what exactly does that mean? After all, most religious belief isn't very theological. Most Muslims are not profound Koranic analysts. For a vast number of "believing" Muslim men, "Islam" stands, in a jumbled, half-examined way, not only for the fear of God -- the fear more than the love, one suspects -- but also for a cluster of customs, opinions and prejudices that include their dietary practices; the sequestration or near-sequestration of "their" women; the sermons delivered by their mullahs of choice; a loathing of modern society in general, riddled as it is with music, godlessness and sex; and a more particularized loathing (and fear) of the prospect that their own immediate surroundings could be taken over -- "Westoxicated" -- by the liberal Western-style way of life. [99] The pope gets ridiculed every day, but you don't see Catholics organizing terrorist attacks around the world. [100] If Woody Allen were a Muslim, he'd be dead by now. [101] Salomon Reinach[ edit ] Salomon Reinach (1858 – 1932) was a French archaeologist, who made valuable archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82, at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at Carthage and Meninx (1883-84), at Odessa (1893) and elsewhere. He received honours from the chief learned societies of Europe. From the literary point of view, the Koran has little merit. Declamation, repetition, puerility, a lack of logic and coherence strike the unprepared reader at every turn. It is humiliating to the human intellect to think that this mediocre literature has been the subject of innumerable commentaries, and that millions of men are still wasting time absorbing it. [102] Sam Harris[ edit ] Sam Harris, Ph.D (born 1967) is an American non-fiction writer, CEO, and winner of the prestigeous PEN Martha Albrand Award (2005). Anyone familiar with my work knows that I am extremely critical of all religious faiths. I have argued elsewhere that the ascendancy of Christian conservatism in American politics should terrify and embarrass us. And yet, there are gradations to the evil that is done in name of God, and these gradations must be honestly observed. So let us now make sense of the impossible by acknowledging the obvious: there is a direct link between the doctrine of Islam and Muslim terrorism. Acknowledging this link remains especially taboo among political liberals. . . . While the other major world religions have been fertile sources of intolerance, it is clear that the doctrine of Islam poses unique problems for the emergence of a global civilization. The world, from the point of view of Islam, is divided into the “House of Islam” and the “House of War,” and this latter designation should indicate how Muslims believe their differences with those who do not share their faith will be ultimately resolved. While there are undoubtedly some moderate Muslims who have decided to overlook the irrescindable militancy of their religion, Islam is undeniably a religion of conquest. The only future devout Muslims can envisage—as Muslims—is one in which all infidels have been converted to Islam, politically subjugated, or killed. The tenets of Islam simply do not admit of anything but a temporary sharing of power with the “enemies of God.” Devout Muslims can have no doubt about the reality of Paradise or about the efficacy of martyrdom as a means of getting there. Nor can they question the wisdom and reasonableness of killing people for what amount to theological grievances. In Islam, it is the moderate who is left to split hairs, because the basic thrust of the doctrine is undeniable: convert, subjugate, or kill unbelievers; kill apostates; and conquer the world. [103] Islam, more than any other religion human beings have devised, has all the makings of a thoroughgoing cult of death. As a matter of doctrine, the Muslim conception of tolerance is one in which non-Muslims have been politically and economically subdued, converted, or put to sword. Yes, the Bible contains its own sadistic lunacy—but the above [Qur'an] quotations [taken from The End of Faith, pp. 117-123] can be fairly said to convey the central message of the Qur’an—and of Islam at nearly every moment in its history. The Qur’an does not contain anything like a Sermon on the Mount. Nor is it a vast and self-contradictory book like the Old Testament, in which whole sections (like Leviticus and Deuteronomy) can be easily ignored and forgotten. The result is a unified message of triumphalism, otherworldliness, and religious hatred that has become a problem for the entire world. And the world still waits for moderate Muslims to speak honestly about it. [104] The penalty for apostasy is death. We would do well to linger over this fact for a moment, because it is the black pearl of intolerance that no liberal exegesis will ever fully digest. As a source of objective morality, the Bible is one of the worst books we have. It might be the very worst, in fact—if we didn’t also happen to have the Qur’an. [105] There is no such thing as Islamophobia. Bigotry and racism exist, of course—and they are evils that all well-intentioned people must oppose. And prejudice against Muslims or Arabs, purely because of the accident of their birth, is despicable. But like all religions, Islam is a system of ideas and practices. And it is not a form of bigotry or racism to observe that the specific tenets of the faith pose a special threat to civil society. Nor is it a sign of intolerance to notice when people are simply not being honest about what they and their co-religionists believe. [106] Sibel Kekilli[ edit ] Sibel Kekilli (born 16 June 1980) is a German actress of Turkish background. For her performances, she was awarded twice with the most prestigious German movie award, the Lola, and she also received the Best Actress award at Turkey's most important national film festival. I have experienced myself that physical and psychological violence is seen as normal in Muslim families. Unfortunately violence belongs to the culture in Islam. [107] Simon Ockley[ edit ] Simon Ockley (1678 – 1720) was chosen Adams Professor of Arabic at Cambridge University in 1711. He was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1697, MA. in 1701, and B.D. in 1710. An Arabian author cited by Maracci, [108] says that Abubeker was very averse to the giving him his daughter [Ayesha, who was then but seven years old] so young, but that Mohammed pretended a divine command for it; whereupon he sent her to him with a basket of dates, and when the girl was alone with him, he stretched out his blessed hand (these are the author’s words), and rudely took hold of her clothes; upon which she looked fiercely at him, and said, “People call you the faithful man, [109] but your behaviour to me shows you are a perfidious one.” And with these words she got out of his hands, and, composing her clothes, went and complained to her father. The old gentleman, to calm her resentment, told her she was new betrothed to Mohammed, and that made him take liberties with her, as if she had been his wife. [110] Speros Vryonis Jr.[ edit ] Speros Vryonis Jr. (born 1928) is an American author and historian of Greek descent and a specialist in Greek and Byzantine history. He is professor emeritus of history at UCLA, the former Director of the Speros Basil Vryonis Center for the Study of Hellenism and is currently the AHIF Senior Fellow for Hellenism and for Greek and Turkish Studies. The process itself is described in its essential details by the Georgian chronicle for northeast Asia Minor and the adjoining Georgian regions. The process which it describes was not unique to the northeast, for we see it in the west and the south of Asia Minor as well.. ‘The emirs spread out, like locusts, over the face of the land…The countries of Asis-Phorni, Clardjeth, up to the shores of the sea, Chawcheth, Adchara, Samtzkhe, Karthli, Argoueth, Samokalako, and Dchqondid were filled with Turks who pillaged and enslaved all the inhabitants. In a single day they burned Kouthathis, Artanoudj, and hermitages of Clardjeth, and they remained in these lands until the first snows, devouring the land, massacring all those who had fled to the forests to the rocks, to the caves…The calamities of Christianity did not come to an end soon thereafter, for at the approach of spring, the Turks returned to carry out the same ravages and left [again] in the winter. The [inhabitants] however were unable to plant or to harvest. The land, [thus] delivered to slavery, had only animals of the forests and wild beasts for inhabitants. Karthli was in the grip of intolerable calamities such as one cannot compare to a single devastation or combination of evils of past times. The holy churches served as stables for their horses, the sanctuaries of the Lord served as repairs for the abominations [Islam]. Some of the priests were immolated during the Holy communion itself, and others were carried off into harsh slavery without regard to their old age. The virgins were defiled, the youths circumcised, and the infants taken away. The conflagration, extending its ravages, consumed all the inhabited sites, the rivers, instead of water, flowed blood. I shall apply the sad words of Jeremiah, which he applied so well to such situations: “the honorable children of Zion, never put to the rest by misfortunes, now voyaged as slaves on foreign roads. The streets of Zion now wept because there was no one [left] to celebrate the feasts. The tender mothers, in place of preparing with their hands the nourishment of the sons, were themselves nourished from the corpses of these dearly loved. Such and worse was the situation at the time.’… By the time [of the late 11th and early 12th centuries, i.e. (1083-1125)]…the nomads had effected permanent settlement in these regions, moving into the abandoned and devastated areas with their tents, families, and flocks of livestock. [111] Stephen Harper[ edit ] Stephen Joseph Harper PC MP (born April 30, 1959) was the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada, from 2006 to 2015. When people think of Islamic terrorism, they think of Afghanistan, or maybe they think of some place in the Middle East, but the truth is that threat exists all over the world ... There are a number of threats on a number of levels, but if you are talking about terrorism it is Islamicism ... There are other threats out there, but that is the one that I can tell you occupies the security apparatus most regularly in terms of actual terrorist threats ... homegrown [Islamic] terrorism is something we keep an eye on. [112] [113] Theodore Roosevelt[ edit ] Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (1858 – 1919) was the 26th President of the United States (1901 – 1909). Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five American presidents of all time. [114] [115] Christianity is not the creed of Asia and Africa at this moment solely because the seventh century Christians of Asia and Africa had trained themselves not to fight, whereas the Moslems were trained to fight. Christianity was saved in Europe solely because the peoples of Europe fought. If the peoples of Europe in the seventh and eighth centuries, an on up to and including the seventeenth century, had not possessed a military equality with, and gradually a growing superiority over the Mohammedans who invaded Europe, Europe would at this moment be Mohammedan and the Christian religion would be exterminated. Wherever the Mohammedans have had complete sway, wherever the Christians have been unable to resist them by the sword, Christianity has ultimately disappeared. From the hammer of Charles Martel to the sword of Sobieski, Christianity owed its safety in Europe to the fact that it was able to show that it could and would fight as well as the Mohammedan aggressor... The civilization of Europe, American and Australia exists today at all only because of the victories of civilized man over the enemies of civilization because of victories through the centuries from Charles Martel in the eighth century and those of John Sobieski in the seventeenth century. During the thousand years that included the careers of the Frankish soldier and the Polish king, the Christians of Asia and Africa proved unable to wage successful war with the Moslem conquerors; and in consequence Christianity practically vanished from the two continents; and today, nobody can find in them any "social values" whatever, in the sense in which we use the words, so far as the sphere of Mohammedan influences are concerned. There are such "social values" today in Europe, America and Australia only because during those thousand years, the Christians of Europe possessed the warlike power to do what the Christians of Asia and Africa had failed to do — that is, to beat back the Moslem invader. [116] Theodor Nöldeke[ edit ] Theodor Nöldeke (1836 – 1930) was a celebrated German Semitic scholar, who in 1859 won the prize of the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres for his "History of the Qur'an". On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly have considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving reader, the book, aesthetically considered, is by no means a first-rate performance... Muhammad, in short, is not in any sense a master of style. This opinion will be endorsed by any European who reads through the book with an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without taking into account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations. But in the ears of every pious Muslim such a judgment will sound almost as shocking as downright atheism or polytheism. Among the Muslims, the Koran has always been looked upon as the most perfect model of style and language. This feature of it is in their dogmatic the greatest of all miracles, the incontestable proof of its divine origin. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist will ever do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly challenged its opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That, to be sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations of the kind which Muhammad uttered, no unbeliever could produce without making himself a laughingstock. [117] Thomas Aquinas[ edit ] Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), an immensely influential philosopher and theologian. On the other hand, those who founded sects committed to erroneous doctrines proceeded in a way that is opposite to this, The point is clear in the case of Muhammad. He seduced the people by promises of carnal pleasure to which the concupiscence of the flesh goads us. His teaching also contained precepts that were in conformity with his promises, and he gave free rein to carnal pleasure. In all this, as is not unexpected, he was obeyed by carnal men. As for proofs of the truth of his doctrine, he brought forward only such as could be grasped by the natural ability of anyone with a very modest wisdom. Indeed, the truths that he taught he mingled with many fables and with doctrines of the greatest falsity. He did not bring forth any signs produced in a supernatural way, which alone fittingly gives witness to divine inspiration; for a visible action that can be only divine reveals an invisibly inspired teacher of truth. On the contrary, Muhammad said that he was sent in the power of his arms—which are signs not lacking even to robbers and tyrants. What is more, no wise men, men trained in things divine and human, believed in him from the beginning, Those who believed in him were brutal men and desert wanderers, utterly ignorant of all divine teaching, through whose numbers Muhammad forced others to become his followers by the violence of his arms. Nor do divine pronouncements on the part of preceding prophets offer him any witness. On the contrary, he perverts almost all the testimonies of the Old and New Testaments by making them into fabrications of his own, as can be. seen by anyone who examines his law. It was, therefore, a shrewd decision on his part to forbid his followers to read the Old and New Testaments, lest these books convict him of falsity. It is thus clear that those who place any faith in his words believe foolishly. [118] Thomas Carlyle[ edit ] Thomas Carlyle (1795 - 1881) was a Scottish satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era. ... I must say, it [the Koran] is as toilsome reading as I ever undertook. A wearisome confused jumble, crude, incondite; endless iterations, long-windedness, entanglement; most crude, incondite; — insupportable stupidity, in short! Nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European through the Koran ... It is the confused ferment of a great rude human soul; rude, untutored, that cannot even read; but fervent, earnest, struggling vehemently to utter itself in words ... We said "stupid:" yet natural stupidity is by no means the character of Mahomet's Book; it is natural uncultivation rather. The man has not studied speaking; in the haste and pressure of continual fighting, has not time to mature himself into fit speech ... The man was an uncultured semi-barbarous Son of Nature, much of the Bedouin still clinging to him: we must take him for that. But for a wretched Simulacrum, a hungry Impostor without eyes or heart ... we will not and cannot take him. Sincerity, in all senses, seems to me the merit of the Koran; what had rendered it precious to the wild Arab men ... Curiously, through these incondite masses of tradition, vituperation, complaint, ejaculation in the Koran, a vein of true direct insight, of what we might almost call poetry, is found straggling. [119] Thomas Jefferson[ edit ] Thomas Jefferson (1743 – 1826) was the third President of the United States, and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. In reference to the Islamic slave trade of Americans and Europeans by the Barbary states, Jefferson asked Tripoli's envoy to London, Ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman, by what right he extorted money and took slaves in this way. He answered: The ambassador answered us that [the right] was founded on the Laws of the Prophet, that it was written in their Koran, that all nations who should not have answered their authority were sinners, that it was their right and duty to make war upon them wherever they could be found, and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners, and that every Mussulman who should be slain in battle was sure to go to Paradise. [120] [121] Jefferson later went to war with the Barbary states. Thomas Paine[ edit ] Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was an English-American political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary. He was one of the founding fathers of the United States. His ideas pertained to transnational human rights. No one will deny or dispute the power of the Almighty to make such a communication, if he pleases. But admitting, for the sake of a case, that something has been revealed to a certain person, and not revealed to any other person, it is revelation to that person only. When he tells it to a second person, a second to a third, a third to a fourth, and so on, it ceases to be a revelation to all those persons. It is revelation to the first person only, and hearsay to every other, and consequently they are not obliged to believe it .... When I am told that the Koran was written in Heaven and brought to Mahomet by an angel, the account comes too near the same kind of hearsay evidence and second-hand authority as the former (Book of Exodus). I did not see the angel myself, and, therefore, I have a right not to believe it. Tony Blair[ edit ] Tony Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. He led Labour to a landslide victory in 1997. The party went on to win two more elections under his leadership, in 2001 and 2005. There is not a problem with Islam... But there is a problem within Islam, and we have to put it on the table and be honest about it. There are, of course, Christian extremists and Jewish, Buddhist, and Hindu ones. But I am afraid that the problematic strain within Islam is not the province of a few extremists. It has at its heart a view of religion – and of the relationship between religion and politics – that is not compatible with pluralistic, liberal, open-minded societies. At the extreme end of the spectrum are terrorists, but the worldview goes deeper and wider than it is comfortable for us to admit. So, by and large, we don’t admit it. This has two effects. First, those who hold extreme views believe that we are weak, and that gives them strength. Second, those Muslims – and the good news is that there are many – who know the problem exists, and want to do something about it, lose heart. [122] Turan Dursun[ edit ] Turan Dursun (1934 – 4 September 1990) was a Turkish Islamic scholar and writer. He was also formerly the Mufti of Sivas, before becoming an atheist and his eventual assassination. [123] [124] So many people can't live their childhood properly because of him [Muhammad]. So many people are sufferers of his disasters. So many people know what's right as wrong and what's wrong as right because they think the darkness that he chose exists. Human emotions and human creations haven't progressed in many ways, because of him. [123] ... if there is a God, he's not Mohammed's. [123] Urban II[ edit ] Pope Blessed Urban II (ca. 1035 – 29 July 1099), born Otho de Lagery (alternatively: Otto, Odo or Eudes), was Pope from 12 March 1088 until his death on 29 July 1099. Regarding the first Crusade: Freshly quickened by the divine correction, you must apply the strength of your righteousness to another matter which concerns you as well as God. For your brethren who live in the east are in urgent need of your help, and you must hasten to give them the aid which has often been promised them. For, as the most of you have heard, the Turks and Arabs [Muslims] have attacked them and have conquered the territory of Romania [the Greek empire] as far west as the shore of the Mediterranean and the Hellespont, which is called the Arm of St. George. They have occupied more and more of the lands of those Christians, and have overcome them in seven battles. They have killed and captured many, and have destroyed the churches and devastated the empire. If you permit them to continue thus for awhile with impurity, the faithful of God will be much more widely attacked by them. On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our friends. [125] Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)[ edit ] François-Marie Arouet (1694 – 1778), better known by the pen name Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade. But that a camel-merchant [Muhammad] should stir up insurrection in his village; that in league with some miserable followers he persuades them that he talks with the angel Gabriel; that he boasts of having been carried to heaven, where he received in part this unintelligible book, each page of which makes common sense shudder; that, to pay homage to this book, he delivers his country to iron and flame; that he cuts the throats of fathers and kidnaps daughters; that he gives to the defeated the choice of his religion or death: this is assuredly nothing any man can excuse, at least if he was not born a Turk, or if superstition has not extinguished all natural light in him. [126] Most blessed Father [Pope Benedict XIV]— Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance ["Fanaticism, or Mahomet"], written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy? Your holiness will therefore give me leave to lay at your feet both the piece and the author of it, and humbly to request your protection of the one, and your benediction upon the other; in hopes of which, with the profoundest reverence, I kiss your sacred feet. [127] Will Durant[ edit ] William James Durant (1885 – 1981) was a prolific American writer, historian, and philosopher. The Story of Philosophy, written in 1926, has been described as a groundbreaking work that helped to popularize philosophy. The Islamic conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. It is a discouraging tale, for its evident moral is that civilization is a precious good, whose delicate complex of order and freedom, culture and peace, can at any moment be overthrown by barbarians invading from without or multiplying within. [128] William Ewart Gladstone[ edit ] William Ewart Gladstone (1809 – 1898) was a British Liberal statesman. He served as Prime Minister four separate times (1868–1874, 1880–1885, February–July 1886 and 1892–1894), more than any other person. Qur’an… an accursed book… So long as there is this book there will be no peace in the world. [129] William Hay[ edit ] William Hay was formerly the Professor of Oceanography at the University of Colorado, USA. He is notable for having been quote-mined and misrepresented since the 1980's by Muslim apologists making claims of scientific Qur'an "miracles". Interviewer: A Qur'an which has got claims for scientific miracles in, and you're listed in the back. And it says for that part, “And when he was asked about the source of the Qur'an, he replied, 'Well, I would think it must be the divine being.'” So are you saying that that is a misrepresentation? William Hay: That's a misrepresentation. There's no question about that. ... Most of them [alleged scientific miracles in the Qur'an] are things that I would think that if God wanted to make a great revelation, these are not things that I would have expected, because they are all readily absurd. [130] William Montgomery Watt[ edit ] William Montgomery Watt (1909 – 2006) was a Scottish historian, an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Studies at the University of Edinburgh. Watt was one of the foremost non-Muslim interpreters of Islam in the West, was an enormously influential scholar in the field of Islamic studies and a much-revered name for many Muslims all over the world. [131] Aisha was still a child when Muhammad married her, and she continued to play with her toys. [132] There is some evidence that, besides his regular marriages and his unions with concubines, Muhammad had relations with women in accordance with the older matrilineal customs. [132] In connexion with the other verse Aisha is said to have made the remark “God is in hurry to satisfy your desires". Even if she really said this (and it is not a later invention), it would only show that Aisha was suspicious of the correspondence between the revelation and Muhammad’s desires. [132] Firstly, at one time, Muhammad must have publicly recited the Satanic verses as part of the Quran; it is unthinkable that the story could have been invented later by Muslims or foisted upon them by non-Muslims. Secondly, at some later time Muhammad announced that these verses were not really part of the Quran and should be replaced by others of a vastly different import. [133] William Muir[ edit ] Sir William Muir, KCSI (1819 – 1905) was a Scottish historian and writer specialising in the history of the time of Muhammad and the early caliphate. The sword of Mahomet, and the Coran, are the most fatal enemies of Civilization, Liberty, and Truth, which the world has yet known. [134] Some, indeed, dream of an Islam in the future, rationalised and regenerate. All this has been tried already, and has miserably failed. The Koran has so encrusted the religion in a hard unyielding casement of ordinances and social laws, that if the shell be broken the life is gone. A rationalistic Islam would be Islam no longer. The contrast between our own faith and Islam is most remarkable. There are in our Scriptures living germs of truth, which accord with civil and religious liberty, and will expand with advancing civilisation. In Islam it is just the reverse. The Koran has no such teaching as with us has abolished polygamy, slavery, and arbitrary divorce, and has elevated woman to her proper place. As a Reformer, Mahomet did advance his people to a certain point, but as a Prophet he left them fixed immovably at that point for all time to come. The tree is of artificial planting. Instead of containing within itself the germ of growth and adaptation to the various requirements of time and clime and circumstance, expanding with the genial sunshine and rain from heaven, it remains the same forced and stunted thing as when first planted some twelve centuries ago. [135] Winston Churchill[ edit ] Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (1874 – 1965) was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He is widely regarded as one of the great wartime leaders, and was voted the greatest Briton of all time. [136] How dreadful are the curses which Mohammedanism lays on its votaries! Besides the fanatical frenzy, which is as dangerous in a man as hydrophobia in a dog, there is this fearful fatalistic apathy. The effects are apparent in many countries. Improvident habits, slovenly systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of property exist wherever the followers of the Prophet rule or live. A degraded sensualism deprives this life of its grace and refinement; the next of its dignity and sanctity. The fact that in Mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property, either as a child, a wife, or a concubine, must delay the final extinction of slavery until the faith of Islam has ceased to be a great power among men. Individual Moslems may show splendid qualities - but the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. No stronger retrograde force exists in the world. Far from being moribund, Mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith. It has already spread throughout Central Africa, raising fearless warriors at every step; and were it not that Christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilisation of modern Europe might fall, as fell the civilisation of ancient Rome. [137] [138] Fanaticism is not a cause of war. It is the means which helps savage peoples to fight. It is the spirit which enables them to combine--the great common object before which all personal or tribal disputes become insignificant. What the horn is to the rhinoceros, what the sting is to the wasp, the Mohammedan faith was to the Arabs of the Soudan--a faculty of offence or defence. [139] It is, thank heaven, difficult if not impossible for the modern European to fully appreciate the force which fanaticism exercises among an ignorant, warlike and Oriental population. Several generations have elapsed since the nations of the West have drawn the sword in religious controversy, and the evil memories of the gloomy past have soon faded in the strong, clear light of Rationalism and human sympathy. Indeed it is evident that Christianity, however degraded and distorted by cruelty and intolerance, must always exert a modifying influence on men's passions, and protect them from the more violent forms of fanatical fever, as we are protected from smallpox by vaccination. But the Mahommedan religion increases, instead of lessening, the fury of intolerance. It was originally propagated by the sword, and ever since, its votaries have been subject, above the people of all other creeds, to this form of madness. In a moment the fruits of patient toil, the prospects of material prosperity, the fear of death itself, are flung aside. The more emotional Pathans are powerless to resist. All rational considerations are forgotten. Seizing their weapons, they become Ghazis--as dangerous and as sensible as mad dogs: fit only to be treated as such. While the more generous spirits among the tribesmen become convulsed in an ecstasy of religious bloodthirstiness, poorer and more material souls derive additional impulses from the influence of others, the hopes of plunder and the joy of fighting. Thus whole nations are roused to arms. Thus the Turks repel their enemies, the Arabs of the Soudan break the British squares, and the rising on the Indian frontier spreads far and wide. In each case civilisation is confronted with militant Mahommedanism. The forces of progress clash with those of reaction. The religion of blood and war is face to face with that of peace. Luckily the religion of peace is usually the better armed. [140] [141] Winston S. Churchill[ edit ] Winston Spencer-Churchill (October 10, 1940 – March 2, 2010), generally known as Winston Churchill, was a British politician, and a grandson of former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill. At its most extreme, authoritarianism is exemplified by the isms of the 20th Century — Communism, Fascism and Nazism. The Fascists and Nazis were responsible for the deaths of more than 30 million human beings, while more than 50 million are estimated to have been murdered by Stalin and the Russian Communists, while Mao-Tse-Tung and the Chinese Communists are believed to have accounted for some 80 million. But today a new challenge — another ism — confronts us, and that is the challenge of Islamic fundamentalism. Extremist Islam has declared war on the rest of the world, as evidenced by their ruthless attacks across the globe — overwhelmingly targeted at innocent civilians. Beside the outrage of 9/11, the bombings in Madrid, in Bali, in London and, most recently, in Jordan come to mind. Those who have declared jihad against the West, and Western values, such as freedom of speech, are doing all in their power to mobilize against us the large Muslim communities living in our midst... Unbelievably, Washington is urging Europe to admit Turkey to the EU. Were that to happen, the Muslim population of Europe would skyrocket to 100 million — an act, in my view, of consummate folly. Already Judeo-Christian Europe is under siege from a tidal wave of Islamic immigration. The admission of Turkey would hasten its demise... Intriguingly, the dangers of extremist Islam were foreseen by Winston Churchill all of 85 years ago, as I discovered to my amazement, while compiling my most recent book NEVER GIVE IN! The Best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches. Churchill is, of course, well-known for his gift of prescience and, specifically, for being the first to warn of the menace of Hitler and Nazism as early as 1932, and of the Soviet threat in his famous Iron Curtain speech in 1946 in Fulton, Mo. But how many know that he also warned the world of the dangers of Islamic fundamentalism? I certainly did not! [142] Wole Soyinka[ edit ] Akinwande Oluwole "Wole" Soyinka (born July 13, 1934) is a Nigerian writer, poet and playwright. In 1986, he became the first African to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1994, he was designated UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for the promotion of African culture, human rights, freedom of expression, media and communication. England is a cesspit. England is the breeding ground of fundamentalist Muslims. Its social logic is to allow all religions to preach openly. But this is illogic, because none of the other religions preach apocalyptic violence. And yet England allows it. Remember, that country was the breeding ground for communism, too. Karl Marx did all his work in libraries there. . . . We should assemble all those who are pure and cannot abide other faiths, put them all in rockets, and fire them into space. . . . A virus has attacked the world of sense and sensibility, and it has spread to Nigeria. . . . The assumption of power over life and death then passed to every single inconsequential Muslim in the world-as if someone had given them a new stature...Al Qaeda is the descendent of this phenomenon. The proselytization of Islam became vigorous after this. People went to Saudi Arabia. Madrassas were established everywhere. [143] [144] This page is featured in the core article, Islam and Propaganda which serves as a starting point for anyone wishing to learn more about this topic References[ edit ] ↑ For example, this site asks "Whom do you wish to believe concerning the character of the Prophet Mohammed?", before listing several quotes and blatantly lying; claiming Michael H. Hart's book is a rating of "men who contributed towards the benefit and upliftment of mankind". This is untrue. Hart's list is purely based on his opinion of who has had the most influence and does not comment on whether it was positive or negative. For more details click here . ↑ For example, a quote attributed to George Bernard Shaw , praising Prophet Muhammad as the "Savior of Humanity" who would have succeeded in solving all the world's problems if he "were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world," but turned out to be a fabrication. Ref: Rachel Baxendale, "Ads for Islam 'misquote Shaw from bogus book'" , The Australian, July 9, 2013 ( archived ), http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/ads-for-islam-misquote-shaw-from-bogus-book/story-fn59niix-1226676192844 .	i don't know
Which female American painter was responsible for 'Cow's Skull', 'Yellow Calla' and 'Two Poppies'?	Georgia O'Keeffe paintings, biography, and quotes. of Georgia O'Keeffe Gegorgia O'Keeffe and her paintings One of the first female painters to achieve worldwide acclaim from critics and the general public, Georgia O'Keeffe was an American painter who created innovative impressionist images that challenged perceptions and evolved constantly throughout her career. After studying at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago she attended the Art Students League in New York, studying under William Merritt Chase. Though she impressed the league with her oil painting "Dead Rabbit with Copper Pot," she lacked self-confidence and decided to pursue a career as a commercial artist and later as a teacher and then head of the art department at West Texas A&M University. At that time she became acquainted with a landscape that would become iconic within her work, the Palo Duro Canyon. O'Keeffe did not stop producing charcoal drawings and watercolors during her hiatus, some of which were seen by Alfred Stieglitz, her future husband. Stieglitz was a successful photographer and modern art promoter who owned the 291 Gallery in New York City. He was struck by the sincerity within her work and organized her first solo show in 2017, composed of oil paintings and watercolors completed in Texas. After their marriage, O'Keeffe became part of an inner circle of American modernist painters who frequently showed in Stieglitz's gallery. Her work shifted towards oil paintings which appeared to be magnified natural forms. In 1925, her first large-scale flower painting was exhibited in New York City. Petunia marked the beginning of a period of exploration on the flower theme that would continue throughout her career. By magnifying her subject, she emphasized shape and color and brought attention to the tiny details within the flower. During her life, flower is a subject that Gegorgia O'Keeffe always returns to, as artists have always returned to beloved themes - Vincent van Gogh his Sun Flowers, Paul Cezanne his Apples, and Claude Monet his Water Lilies. O'Keeffe's painting's subjects caught the attention of collectors and critics who responded with alacrity. Their discussion of the O'Keeffe's works were often colored by the popularized tenets of Sigmund Freud , which by the 1920s were widespread in America. In a cultural atmosphere initially titillated and gradually transformed by his theories, art and its critical reception - like many other aspects of modern life - where invariably, and indelibly colored by Freudian consideration. Many claim that the images which Gegorgia O'Keeffe created when painting flowers, was work which was highly sexual, and many went as far as to say it was an erotic art form; but O'Keeffe rejected that theory consistently. In an attempt to move the attention of her critic's away from their Freudian interpretations of her work, she began to paint in a more representational style. In her series on New York, O'Keeffe excelled in painting architectural structures as highly realistic and expertly employed the style of Precisionism within her work. "Radiator Building-Night, New York" from 1927 can also be interpreted as a double portrait of Steiglitz and O'Keeffe. Object portraiture of this kind was popular amongst the Steiglitz circle at the time and greatly influenced by the poetry of Gertrude Stein. In 1929, seeking solitude and an escape from a crowd that perhaps felt artistically and socially oppressive, O'Keeffe traveled to New Mexico and began an inspirational love affair with the visual scenery of the state. For 20 years she spent part of every year working in New Mexico, becoming increasingly interested in the forms of animal skulls and the southwest landscapes. While her popularity continued to grow, O'Keeffe increasingly sought solace in New Mexico. Her painting Ram's Head with Hollyhock encapsulates so much novelty while still maintaining with her classic aesthetic of magnifying and showing the beauty in small, natural details. While her interest in the southwest increased, so did the value of her paintings in the New York galleries. She was featured in two one-woman retrospectives at the Art Institute of Chicago and the The Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan in the 40's, becoming the first woman to ever have a retrospective at the latter. She developed obsessive interest in formations of rock near her home in New Mexico and spent hours painting in sun and wind. In 1946 O'Keeffe's husband Stieglitz suffered a cerebral thrombosis and she moved back to New York for three years after his death to settle his estate before permanently settling in New Mexico. With the loss of Stieglitz came the lessening of her public exposure. O'Keeffe became once again interested in architectural forms, this time focusing on details like her patio wall and door. Her 1958 painting Ladder to the Moon marked yet another shift in her work which many interpreted as a self-portrait that depicted the transitory nature of her life. Others viewed it as a religious statement that showed a link between the earth and cosmic forces above it. Adding onto a history of abstraction, in the early 1960s O'Keeffe painted an extensive collection of aerial cloudscapes inspired from her view from the windows of airplanes. In 1970 the Whitney Museum of American Art began the first retrospective career of her work in New York since 1946 which greatly revived her career. Though her eyesight became compromised in the 1970s, she continued working in pencil and charcoal until 1984 and also produced clay pots and a watercolor series. In 1986 she died at her home in Santa Fe, New Mexico and requested her ashes be scattered over the top of Pedernal Mountain. Following her death a large portion of her estate's assets were transferred to the Georgia O'Keefe Foundation. Later when this foundation dissolved the Georgia O'Keeffe Museum was established in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Assets from her estate included an immense body of work and archived materials. Her home in New Mexico was designated a National Historic Landmark is also owned by the O'Keeffe museum. While her work varied between the literal portraits, abstractions and landscapes, O'Keeffe's work is still most identified by her iconic flower paintings. In 2014 the Georgia O'Keefe Museum sold a floral painting for $44 million dollars at auction setting the record for artwork sold by a female artist. The piece, titled Jimson Weed/White Flower No.1 was painted in 1932 and is an iconic representation of a large-scale flower. Though it may be the most recognizable style of O'Keefe's that collected the large price, her varied body of work shows much more variety than the one style she's most known for. Within her work and life, O'Keeffe was unapologetically true to her own vision. When she did attempt to supersede her intuition to complete hired work, she became troubled and always retreated back to what felt familiar and natural. She remains one of the most important and innovative artists of the twentieth century. MOST POPULAR PAINTINGS	Georgia O'Keeffe
Edward V, Edward VI, and Elizabeth I were all unmarried. Who is the only other British monarch since 1066 to have never married?	Georgia O Keeffe Oil Paintings Georgia O Keeffe oil paintings 1 2 Next Biography Georgia O'Keeffe was an American abstract painter, famous for the purity and lucidity of her still-life compositions. O'Keeffe was born in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, and studied at the school of the Art Institute of Chicago and at the Art Students League of New York. She taught art in Texas from 1913 to 1918. In 1916 the American photographer and art gallery director Alfred Stieglitz (whom she married in 1924) became interested in her abstract drawings and exhibited them at 291, his gallery in New York City; her work was shown annually in Stieglitz's galleries until his death in 1946 and was widely exhibited in other important institutions. O'Keeffe, who moved to New Mexico in 1949, is best known for her large paintings of desert flowers and scenery, in which single blossoms or objects such as a cow's skull are presented in close-up views. Although O'Keeffe handles her subject matter representationally, the starkly linear quality, the thin, clear coloring, and the boldly patterned compositions produce abstract designs. A number of her works have an abstracted effect, inspired by a series of airplane flights, O'Keeffe introduced motifs of sky and clouds, as seen from the air, into her paintings. One of her largest works is the mural Sky above Clouds (1965, collection of the artist), which is 7.3 m (24 ft) wide. O'Keeffe's paintings hang in museums and private collections throughout the United States. Read more	i don't know
Which English king was married to both Isabel of Gloucester and Isabella of Angouleme?	Isabella of AngoulÃªme, wife of King John \| Magna Carta Trust 800th Anniversary \| Celebrating 800 years of democracy Isabella of AngoulÃªme, wife of King John Home » Schools » Biographies » Women of Magna Carta » Isabella of AngoulÃªme, wife of King John By Professor Louise Wilkinson, of Canterbury Christ Church University The reputation of Isabella of AngoulÃªme, the wife of King John, suffered badly at the hands of thirteenth-century writers [i] . Not only were the circumstances of Isabellaâs marriage blamed for harming Johnâs long-term interests on the Continent, but some chroniclers, like the St Albans monk, Roger of Wendover, also attributed the kingâs inadequate defence of Normandy in 1203-4 to Isabellaâs skills in âsorcery or witchcraftâ. According to Wendover, John became so infatuated with Isabella that he remained inactive and adopted a cheerful demeanour in the face of the French invasion [ii] . Matthew Paris, Wendoverâs successor at St Albans, went so far as to describe Isabella as a woman who was âmore Jezebel than Isabelâ [iii] . Even if Wendoverâs and Parisâs characterizations are a little far fetched, they do, at least, reveal something of the infamy attached to this English queen consort. Although the precise year of Isabellaâs birth is not known, she was probably around twelve years old at the time of her marriage to King John on 24 August 1200. Isabella was the only daughter and heiress of Audemar, count of AngoulÃªme, the lord of a strategically important territory in southwestern France. Her mother was Alice de Courtenay, the daughter of the French lord of Montargis and ChÃ¢teaurenard, and a cousin of the French king Philip Augustus (Philip II). Through her Courtenay connections, Isabella also enjoyed kinship with the kings of Jerusalem, and was a half-sister to Peter, count of Joigny, the child of one of her motherâs earlier marriages [iv] . King John, Isabellaâs bridegroom, was in his thirties and had already been married once before, to Isabella of Gloucester, whom he had set aside as his wife on the grounds of consanguinity. In 1200, John had sound political reasons for marrying Isabella of AngoulÃªme. He did so in order to prevent her union with another powerful Poitevin neighbour, Hugh (IX), lord of Lusignan and count of La Marche. An AngoulÃªme-Lusignan alliance posed a serious threat to Johnâs dominance in the region, and jeopardized the stability of the borders of Poitou and Gascony. Unfortunately, by taking Isabella for his own wife, John caused grave offence to Hugh (IX), who suffered an embarrassing loss of face. Hugh (IX) rebelled against John and appealed to Philip Augustus, who declared Johnâs continental territories forfeit. Isabellaâs union with John thus helped to trigger the war that culminated in the loss of Normandy, Maine, Anjou and Touraine to the French crown in 1204, along with a significant slice of Poitou. Isabella of AngoulÃªmeâs status as Johnâs wife was enhanced when she was crowned queen of England by Archbishop Hubert Walter at Westminster Abbey in October 1200 [v] . As queen, however, Isabella did not enjoy anything like the level of personal wealth or political influence of some of her twelfth-century predecessors in England [vi] . Isabella was not, for example, allowed to receive the revenues from her inheritance, her dower (those lands set aside to provide for her in the event of her husbandâs death) or queenâs gold during Johnâs lifetime. In this way, John ensured that Isabella remained personally dependent upon his continued generosity and goodwill for her day-to-day maintenance, and effectively prevented her from playing an active role in court politics [vii] . During her marriage to John, Isabella was at least successful in fulfilling her primary duty as a medieval English queen consort, that of bearing a male heir. Between 1207 and 1215, Isabella was delivered safely of two sons (the future King Henry III and Richard, earl of Cornwall) and three daughters (the future Joan, queen of Scots, Isabella, wife of Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, and Eleanor, countess of Pembroke and Leicester) who survived the perils of medieval childhood. Even if the royal couple remained on sufficiently close terms for the king to bestow occasional gifts, including fine cloths and furs, upon the queen, [viii] their personal relationship was undermined by Johnâs preference for royal mistresses and by the awkward presence of Johnâs former wife, Isabella of Gloucester, at royal residences in southern England. [ix] John, for his part, spent time in Isabella of AngoulÃªmeâs company, especially when it was politic to do so. In 1214, John used Isabellaâs position as countess of AngoulÃªme to his advantage in his dealings with the Poitevin nobles, when she accompanied him overseas. It was also during this trip that the coupleâs eldest daughter, Joan (b. 1210), was betrothed to Hugh (X), the son of the count of La Marche whom Isabella of AngoulÃªme had originally expected to marry. When the political situation deteriorated in England in 1214-15, King John took careful measures to ensure Isabellaâs safety by placing her under the armed protection of one of his most trusted servants, Terric the Teuton. The kingâs death at Newark, during the night of 18 to 19 October 1216, however, left Queen Isabella a widow. The new king of England was her nine-year-old son, Henry III. When the queen attended her sonâs coronation at Gloucester on 28 October 1216, she probably leant her son one of her âchapletsâ to use as his crown. [x] Although Isabella was awarded possession of most of her English dower soon after her sonâs accession, her position within the realm remained uncertain. Johnâs will had made no mention of Isabella – she had not been appointed as one of his thirteen executors – or the role that she might play in English government as Henry grew up. In the weeks and months that followed, new queen dowager found herself excluded from the regency council and thus marginalized from English politics, much as she had been in Johnâs reign. In 1217, Isabella left England for her native AngoulÃªme, ostensibly to escort her eldest daughter, Joan, to her bridegroom, Hugh (X) de Lusignan. In an extraordinary turn of events, however, Isabella usurped Joanâs place as Hugh (X)âs bride. The couple married in 1220, three years after Isabellaâs departure from England. If this was not scandalous enough in its own right, Isabellaâs new marriage threatened the interests of the English crown. Isabellaâs alliance with Hugh (X) had created exactly the same power bloc of lands in southwestern France that John had wished to prevent forming in 1200. In May 1220, Isabella sought to limit the political repercussions of her new marriage by writing a letter to her young son, King Henry III, in England. In this letter, Isabella justified her actions with a story that Hugh (X)âs âfriendsâ, who were concerned about Joanâs youth, had actively been encouraging him to seek an alternative wife who was old enough to bear him an heir. In order to avert the danger of Hugh (X) taking a French bride, Isabella had decided to marry him herself (âGod knows, [she told Henry] that we did this rather for your benefit rather than our ownâ). [xi] To make matters worse, Isabella and Hugh (X) then refused to return Joan to her brother in England. Instead they effectively kept her as a hostage, and placed pressure on Henryâs government to acknowledge their claim to certain Poitevin estates that had been promised to Isabella as part of her original dower settlement from John in 1200. [xii] Although Joan eventually returned to England in the latter part of 1220, Isabella and Hugh (X) continued to press their claims. By September 1221, the situation had become so serious that Henry IIIâs minority government confiscated Isabellaâs English dower lands. Although Isabellaâs English dower was later restored to her, Isabella and Hugh (X) became increasingly alienated from the English crown. In 1224, the couple went so far as to ally themselves with the king of France and support a French invasion of Poitou, in return for a substantial pension. Their disloyalty to King Henry IIIâs government was punished, once again, by the confiscation of Isabellaâs English dower, only this time it was never returned. Although Henry III met with Isabella in 1230, when he launched a doomed military initiative to recover the lost Angevin possessions in France, Hugh (X) and Isabella defected again. Ever mindful of their own interests, Hugh (X) and Isabella continued to play off the English and French kings against one another in the early 1240s. It was, for example, apparently at Isabellaâs instigation that Hugh (X) promised to support Henryâs disastrous Poitevin expedition in 1242, only to abandon his English stepson once more. [xiii] Isabella clearly enjoyed a far greater agree of personal authority within her second marriage than her first. She issued charters jointly with Hugh (X) and gave birth to no fewer than nine children. Like John, however, Hugh (X) did not prove to be a devoted husband. He was unfaithful to Isabella and the couple quarrelled bitterly, at times. It was a reflection of Isabellaâs strong will and determined personality that, according to a French writer, William de Nangis, she was implicated in a plot to poison Louis IX and his brother. [xiv] During the final years of her life, however, Isabella found a refuge from the trials and tribulations of worldly affairs within the great abbey of Fontevrauld, where she died on 4 June 1246. Louise Wilkinson is co-investigator of the Magna Carta Project ( www.magnacartaresearch.org ). For more information, click here. Footnotes: [i] For a more detailed account of Isabellaâs life, see N. Vincent, âIsabella of AngoulÃªme: Johnâs Jezebelâ, in King John: New Interpretations, ed. S. D. Church (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 165-219. See also L. J. Wilkinson, Eleanor de Montfort: A Rebel Countess in Medieval England (London, 2012), ch. 1; L. J. Wilkinson, âThe Dower of Isabella of AngoulÃªmeâ, Fine of the Month May 2006, The Henry III Fine Rolls Project, http://www.finerollshenry3.org.uk/content/month/fm-05-2006.html. [ii] Rogeri de Wendover liber qui dicitur Flores Historiarum, ed. H. G. Hewlett (Rolls Series, 1886-1889), i. pp. 295, 317. [iii] Matthaei Parisiensis, monachi Sancti Albani, chronica majora, ed. H. R. Luard (Rolls Series, 1872-1883), iv, p. 253. [iv] Vincent, âIsabella of AngoulÃªmeâ, pp. 175-8. [v] Rogeri de Wendover liber â¦ Flores Historiarum, i, p. 302. [vi] On earlier queens, see L. L. Huneycutt, ââAlianora Regina Anglorumâ: Eleanor of Aquitaine and her Anglo-Norman Predecessors as Queens of Englandâ, in Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady, ed. B. Wheeler and J. C. Parsons (Basingstoke, 2002), pp. 115-32. [vii] Vincent, âIsabella of AngoulÃªmeâ, pp. 184-93. Queenâs Gold was a surcharge on voluntary offerings, Jewish amercements and sums owed by moneyers that was traditionally levied by the crown: The Dialogue concerning the Exchequer, book II, ch. XXVI, in Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, ed. E. F. Henderson (London, 1896), available online at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/excheq.asp#b2p26. [viii] Vincent, âIsabella of AngoulÃªmeâ, p. 194; Wilkinson, Eleanor de Montfort, pp. 4, 6. [ix] Isabella married the earl of Essex in 1214. See R. B. Patterson (2004/5), âIsabella, suo jure countess of Gloucester (c.1160â1217)â, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004; online edition 2005), available at http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/46705. [x] This is discussed in K. Norgate, The Minority of Henry III (London, 1912), pp. 4-5. [xi] Letters of the Queens of England, 1100-1547, ed. A. Crawford (Stroud, 1994), p. 53; Royal and Other Historical Letters Illustrative of the Reign of Henry III, ed. W. W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 1862-66), i, pp. 114-15 no. xcvi. [xii] One of these, Saintes, had subsequently been promised by King John to Hugh (X) as part of Joanâs marriage portion: Vincent, âIsabella of AngoulÃªmeâ, pp. 207-8. [xiii] Chronica majora, iv, pp. 211, 214-16. [xiv] Vincent, âIsabella of Angoulemeâ, p. 212. Featured Article	John
Gladwyn Jebb served as acting Secretary-General of which organisation until the election of Trygve Lie in 1946?	Isabella of Gloucester \| Magna Carta Trust 800th Anniversary \| Celebrating 800 years of democracy By Professor. Louise J. Wilkinson, Canterbury Christ Church University Isabella, first wife of King John (d. 1217) In 1176, the English king Henry II put in place arrangements for a highly advantageous marriage for his youngest son, John. The bride-to-be was Isabella, the third and youngest daughter of Earl William of Gloucester by Hawise de Beaumont, the daughter of Earl Robert of Leicester [i] . The premature death of Isabellaâs brother Robert in 1166 had left the earl without a legitimate son to succeed to his estates. This meant that Isabella and her sisters each stood to inherit a third of the lands attached to this great earldom as co-heiresses when Earl William eventually died. Yet, under the terms of the marriage agreement negotiated by King Henry II, not only did Earl William betroth Isabella, his only daughter who was still unmarried, to the kingâs son John, but he also recognized John as his heir to the earldom of Gloucester. Isabellaâs sisters, Mabel, the wife of Amaury of Ãvreux, and Amicia, the wife of the earl of Hertford, were thus excluded from their expected shares of their fatherâs lands and compensated with annuities of Â£100. [ii] There was, however, one serious obstacle to the long-term success of this match â Isabella and John were related to one another. They shared a great grandfather, King Henry I (d. 1135), in common, and were therefore related in the third degree of consanguinity, that is within the degrees of blood relationship prohibited by canon law. [iii] If the pope refused to sanction Isabellaâs marriage to John on these grounds, King Henry II agreed with Earl William that he would arrange another match for Isabella. [iv] Isabellaâs kinship with John cast a long shadow over their future together. Although frustratingly little is known about Isabellaâs education and upbringing as the daughter of one of Englandâs wealthiest earls, we do know that the marriage of Isabellaâs parents was successful in personal terms. Countess Hawise regularly witnessed or was mentioned in her husbandâs charters, most notably in the âpro animaâ clauses of grants addressed to religious houses that sought spiritual benefits for those named. [v] Unfortunately for Isabella, her father Earl William enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the crown, especially after Henry II took possession of Bristol castle, which had been held by Earl William and his father Earl Robert. Although Earl William remained loyal to Henry II during the great rebellion of 1173-4 and later made arrangements for Isabellaâs marriage to the kingâs son, he was suspected of disloyalty in 1183 and arrested. [vi] The earl of Gloucester was still a royal captive when he died on 23 November 1183. [vii] On Earl Williamâs death, King Henry II preferred to take Isabella and the Gloucester lands into royal wardship, rather than ensuring that her marriage to John was finally celebrated. The pipe rolls, a form of Exchequer record, suggest that the old king was satisfied instead with enjoying the revenues of the earldom himself. [viii] It was not until after the accession of Johnâs older brother, Richard I, in 1189 that John and Isabella of Gloucester were finally married at Marlborough, took possession of the earldom, and finally lived together as man and wife. Archbishop Baldwin of Canterbury expressed his anger at the match for violating the Churchâs prohibition of marriages between close kin. [ix] When John disregarded the archbishopâs summons to appear before him, his lands were placed under an interdict, whereupon John successfully appealed against this sentence to an ecclesiastical council. [x] Unlike the marriage of Isabellaâs parents, Isabellaâs marriage to John as countess of Gloucester and Mortain was neither a successful nor particularly happy one. Although the couple initially spent time in one anotherâs company and appear to have issued charters together during a visit to Normandy in or around 1190-1, [xi] Isabella did not bear John any children. In fact, John already harboured intentions to set aside Isabella as his wife in the early 1190s in favour of an alternative, French royal bride, Alice, the sister of King Philip Augustus and the rejected bride-to-be of King Richard I. [xii] It was only after John took the English throne on Richard Iâs death in 1199 that he finally obtained the annulment of his marriage to Isabella of Gloucester on the grounds of consanguinity. The dubious validity of the match in the eyes of the Church, for John had never secured a papal dispensation to sanction his marriage to a kinswoman, worked entirely in the new kingâs favour. [xiii] Isabella was not, however, entirely free of her former husband; both her person and most of her estates remained in the keeping of the crown. Admittedly, not a great deal is known about the pattern of her daily life, but she does seem to have managed to remain on civil, if at times awkward, terms with her former husband. Not only did King John meet the expenses of Isabellaâs household and its staff, but he also made her a series of gifts of wine and cloth. Even so, Isabellaâs personal situation was undoubtedly uncomfortable, especially during 1205-6, when she was quite possibly in residence with Johnâs new wife, Isabella of AngoulÃªme, whom John had married in 1200. [xiv] In 1213, Isabella of Gloucester drew up a will to dispose of her moveable goods, which King John confirmed when he was at Bristol on 14 March. [xv] Then, almost without warning, Isabellaâs personal circumstances were transformed. Anxious to raise money to fund military operations to recover his lost territories on the Continent, King John finally decided to sell the rights to Isabellaâs remarriage, together with the earldom of Gloucester. Johnâs intention was made public on 28 January 1214, when he issued letters patent addressed to all the knights and free tenants of the honour of Gloucester, informing them that âwe have given Isabella, countess of Gloucester, our kinswomanâ in marriage to Geoffrey de Mandeville, earl of Essex. [xvi] King John charged Geoffrey 20,000 marks, a vast sum of money, for the privilege of marrying his former wife and taking possession of her estates, with the exception of Bristol castle. As part of the deal, John imposed stringent financial terms on Mandeville, who was expected to pay off his debt reasonably swiftly or risk the confiscation of the Gloucester estates, as Isabellaâs new husband found to his cost when he failed to observe the agreed rates of repayment. [xvii] Although John later offered to place the matter of Geoffreyâs debt before the judgment of the kingâs court, this experience helps to explain why Isabella and her new husband were among those who rebelled against the king in 1215. [xviii] Isabellaâs brief, second marriage appears to have been a reasonably contented one. She regularly issued charters jointly with or alongside her husband. [xix] We also have a visual representation of Isabella that survives from this time in the form of the seal that she used to authenticate documents, upon which she was depicted as a standing, female figure, wearing a long, flowing robe, girt at the waist. The countess was shown facing forwards, with a fleur-de-lys or flower in her right hand, and a bird in her left hand. On her seal legend she continued to style herself as âIsabella, countess of Gloucester and Mortainâ, the titles she had used during her marriage to John. [xx] Geoffrey de Mandevilleâs death from wounds sustained in a tournament on 23 February 1216 left Isabella a widow. [xxi] The independent authority and control of her estates that she enjoyed in widowhood, and for the first time in her life, found expression in a whole flurry of charters that she issued in the years 1216-17, many of which confirmed earlier gifts by her natal kin to religious houses. [xxii] The size and wealth of Isabellaâs lands, however, proved too tempting to potential suitors, especially as the civil war over Magna Carta drew to a close in England. In August 1217, Hubert de Burgh, one of the leading figures of the minority government of the new boy king Henry III, was awarded seisin of Isabellaâs estates and in the autumn, following Isabellaâs return to allegiance to the crown, Hubert took her as his wife. [xxiii] Isabella did not live long enough to experience life with her third husband; she died on 14 October 1217, soon after this new marriage was celebrated, and was buried at Canterbury. [xxiv] Louise Wilkinson is co-investigator of the Magna Carta Project ( www.magnacartaresearch.org ). For more information, click here. [i] For more detailed accounts of Isabella of Gloucester and the earldom of Gloucester, see Earldom of Gloucester Charters, ed. R. B. Patterson (Oxford, 1973), introduction, esp. pp. 5-9; R. B. Patterson, âIsabella, suo jure countess of Gloucester (c.1160â1217)â, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Oct 2005), available at http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/46705, accessed 28 Oct 2014. [ii] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, p. 5. [iii]> Isabellaâs paternal grandfather, Earl Robert of Gloucester, was an illegitimate son of King Henry I. [iv] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, p. 5. [v] For examples, see Earldom of Gloucester Charters, nos 5, 7, 21-6, 30, 34-8, 44, 47, 49, 51, 52, 54, 65-6, 69, 71, 77, 87-90, 99-104, 106, 111, 113, 116-18, 120, 127-36, 155, 168, 177, 180, 182-3, 186-9, 191, 284-7. Isabellaâs mother also issued charters jointly with her husband, as well as her own separate charters during her marriage: ibid., nos 39, 86. [vi] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, pp. 3-4. [vii] âAnnales Monasterii de Waverleiâ, in Annales Monastici, ed. H. R. Luard, 5 vols (Rolls Series, 1864-9), ii, p. 243; Earldom of Gloucester Charters, p. 5. [viii] Earl Williamâs lands were worth more than Â£580 per annum: The Great Roll of the Pipe for the Thirtieth Year of the Reign of King Henry II, The Pipe Roll Society, xxxiii (London, 1912; reprinted 1929), pp. xxviii-xxix, 109-12. [ix] The Chronicle of the Reigns of Henry II and Richard I, 1169-1192, known commonly under the name of Benedict of Peterborough, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols (Rolls Series, 1867), ii, p. 78. [x] Patterson, âIsabella, suo jure countess of Gloucester (c.1160â1217)â. [xi] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, nos 163-4. [xii] The Chronicle of the Reigns of Henry II and Richard I, ii, p. 236; W. L. Warren, King John (London, 1961), p. 66. John plotted with Philip Augustus against Richard during the kingâs absence from the realm. [xiii] For a discussion of this annulment and the sources relating to it, see D. L. DâAvray, Dissolving Royal Marriages: A Documentary History, 860-1600 (Cambridge, 2014), chapter 5. [xiv] Discussed in N. Vincent, âIsabella of AngoulÃªme: Johnâs Jezebelâ, in S. D. Church (ed.), King John: New Interpretations (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 165-219, at pp. 196-7 and footnote 114. See also Warren, King John, p. 139. [xv] Rotuli Litterarum Patentium in Turri Londinensi Asservati, Vol. I. Pars I., ed. T. D. Hardy (London, 1835), p. 97b. [xvi] Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, p. 109b. [xvii] Rotuli de Oblatis et Finibus in Turri Londinensi Asservati Tempore Regis Johannis, ed. T. D. Hardy (London, 1835), pp. 520-1; Earldom of Gloucester Charters, p. 8. [xviii] Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, p. 141; Earldom of Gloucester Charters, p. 8 [xix] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, nos 4, 9, 64, 93, 139, 140. [xx] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, pp. 24-25; S. M. Johns, Noblewomen, Aristocracy and Power in the Twelfth-Century Anglo-Norman Realm (Manchester, 2003), pp. 132, 138, 214. [xxi] âAnnales Prioratus de Dunstapliaâ, in Annales Monastici, iii, p. 45 [xxii] Earldom of Gloucester Charters, nos 76, 114, 141-50. For Hubert and Isabella, see Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum in Turri Londinensi Asservati, Vol. I, ed. T. D. Hardy (London, 1833) pp. 319b, 322; âAnnales Prioratus de Dunstapliaâ, in Annales Monastici, iii, p. 45; âAnnales Monasterii de Waverleiâ, in Annales Monastici, ii, p. 289. [xxiii] King Henry had succeeded to his fatherâs throne in October 1216 after Johnâs death. [xxiv] âAnnales Prioratus de Dunstapliaâ, in Annales Monastici, iii, p. 45; âAnnales Monasterii de Waverleiâ, in Annales Monastici, ii, p. 289. Featured Article	i don't know
At what location, the largest of its type, were the German actors Max Ehrlich, Kurt Gerron and Dora Gerson all murdered?	Westerbork Concentration Camp - Fold3 Fold3 Add your story… Introduction Westerbork concentration camp ( Dutch : Kamp Westerbork, German : Durchgangslager Westerbork) was a World War II Nazi refugee, detention and transit camp in Hooghalen , ten kilometres north of Westerbork , in the northeastern Netherlands . Its function during the Second World War was to assemble Roma and Dutch Jews for transport to other Nazi concentration camps . On 15 December 1938, the Dutch government closed its border to refugees. From then on, any refugees would not have any rights. In 1939, the Dutch government erected a refugee camp,Centraal Vluchtelingenkamp Westerbork, financed, ironically, partly by Dutch Jewry, in order to absorb fleeing Jews from Nazi Germany. The Jewish refugees were housed after they had tried in vain to escape Nazi terror in their homeland. During World War II, the Nazis took over the camp and turned it into a deportation camp. From this camp, 101,000 Dutch Jews and about 5,000 German Jews were deported to their deaths in Occupied Poland. In addition, there were about 400 Gypsies in the camp and, at the very end of the War, some 400 women from the resistance movement . In 1950, the Dutch government appointed the Jewish historian Jacques Presser to investigate the events connected with the massive deportation of Dutch Jewry and the extent of the collaboration by the Dutch non-Jewish population. The results were published fifteen years later in The Catastrophe ("De Ondergang"), a book which shocked the reading public and had a profound and lasting effect on the Dutch perception of the war years. Presser also published a novel ( The Night of the Girondins ) set in Westerbork camp itself. The hero is a Jewish prisoner, who is appointed an officer and has the problematic role of helping the Nazis transporting his "brothers" to their obvious deaths in Occupied Poland. Between July 1942 and September 1944, almost every Tuesday a cargo train left for the concentration camps Auschwitz-Birkenau (65 train-loads containing 60,330 people most of whom were gassed on arrival), Sobibór (19 train-loads of 34,313 people, all of whom were killed on arrival), Bergen-Belsen and Theresienstadt (9 train-loads of 4,894 people some 2,000 of whom survived the war). In the period from 1942 to 1945, a total of 107,000 people passed through the camp on a total of 93 outgoing trains. Only 5,200 of them survived, most of them in Theresienstadt or Bergen-Belsen, or were liberated at Westerbork. Parts of a rebuilt hut at Westerbork. Anne Frank stayed in the hut shown to the left from August until early September 1944, when she was taken to Auschwitz . She and her family were put on the first of the three final trains (the three final transports were most probably a reaction to the Allies' offensive) on 3 September 1944 for Auschwitz, arriving there three days later. Etty Hillesum stayed in this camp from 30 July 1942 until 7 September 1943, when she and her family were put on a train to Auschwitz. The German film actress and cabaret singer Dora Gerson was interned at Westerbork with her family before being transferred to Auschwitz. The Canadian 2nd Infantry Division liberated the several hundred inhabitants that were still at Westerbork on 12 April 1945. The first soldiers to reach the camp were from the Reconnaissance Regiment , followed by troops of the South Saskatchewan Regiment. Following its use in World War II, the Westerbork camp was first used as a penalty camp for alleged and accused Nazi collaborators and later housed Dutch nationals who fled the former Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ). Between 1950 and 1970 the camp was renamed to Kamp Schattenberg and used to house refugees from the Maluku Islands . Monument at Westerbork: Each single stone represents a single person that had stayed at Westerbork and died in a Nazi camp. In the 1970s the camp was demolished. Near the site there is now a museum, and monuments of remembrance of those transported and killed during World War II. The camp is freely accessible. The Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) was partially constructed on the site of the camp in 1969. Model of the Westerbork concentration camp. A view of the Westerbork camp, the Netherlands, between 1940 and 1945. The interior of a barracks at the Westerbork transit camp, after liberation. Westerbork, the Netherlands, after April 12, 1945. Arrival of Jews at the Westerbork transit camp. The Netherlands, 1942. A wedding in Westerbork. (July 1942 - April 1945) November 9, 2011 Refugee camp Westerbork circa 1939 Near the village of Westerbork, in the province of Drente, the Dutch Government owned a tract of heath and marsh land surrounded by dense woods. This isolated piece of real estate appeared to be the ideal place to build a camp for German Jewish refugees. It was far enough removed from the village proper of Westerbork that refugees would not interfere with the daily business concerns of the villagers provided supervision was in place. Hence, mr. D.A. Syswarda (no picture available), a former administrator of an organization for psychiatric patients in Amersfoort, was appointed as the Director of refugee camp Westerbork. A serious concern for most Dutch government officials and for politicians was the fact that the German Jewish refugees, who had fled Nazi Germany in large numbers, would integrate with the local villagers. Initially 50 barracks were built capable of housing about 1,800 people. When the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, 1,150 legal and 650 illegal refugees had received accommodation in camp Westerbork. Many others were housed in various refugee shelters, homes, and sub-camps , 25 in total, throughout the Netherlands. Now, once again, they were caught in the web the Nazis were weaving around the Jewish people who lived in Europe. left to right: Blumensohn, 1942 - Blumensohn, 1989 - Commandant and Mrs. Schol Photo courtesy: "Kamp van Hoop en Wanhoop - Camp of Hope and Despair," by Willy Landwer. The first 22 German Jewish refugees were interned in Centraal vluchtelingenkamp Westerbork - Central refugee camp Westerbork on 9 October 1939. Leo Blumensohn, who survived Westerbork, Auschwitz, Gleiwitz, Blechhammer and the death marches, was the first refugee officially registered at the Town Hall of the village of Westerbork. Reserve kapitein - Captain in the Reserves Jacques Schol of the demobilized Dutch Army Reserves and former commandant of yet another refugee facility called Hellevoetsluis, was appointed commandant of refugee camp Westerbork on 16 July 1940. He replaced mr. Syswarda who had held that position since the camp's inception. Captain Schol introduced new regulations for the German Jewish refugees in February 1941. Since the internees for the most part spoke German, new camp rules were written and introduced in the German language. Schol incorporated all refugees over the age of fourteen into work groups. Several of these work groups together were called a Dienstzweig - Service Branch. He appointed over each Dienstzweig a Dienstleiter -Branch Head. The Heads of Service were responsible for the proper and effective operation of the Service Branches. Since Schol was unaware of the intent of the Nazis to not only exterminate the Dutch Jews but also the German Jewish refugees, the measures he took unfortunately set the stage for a most regrettable situation later on. Namely, he appointed the Heads of Service for these work tasks from among the German Jews already interned at Westerbork. One of them was Kurt Schlesinger, who was made Oberdienstleiter - Chief over the Heads of Service. Dr. Fritz Spanier was appointed to the position of Chief Medical Officer, and Arthur Pisk was appointed to the position of Chief of the Ordnungsdienst - Head of the service for maintain order, a.k.a. OD. The OD was a service deemed necessary to function as camp fire brigade within camp perimeters. Later, following the transition from refugee camp to transit camp, the OD became known as the internal Jewish police force. It served to maintain order and discipline among the hapless detainees. Especially during the times of the dreaded transports 'to the East.' The OD consisted foremost of young German refugee Jews who earlier had served in the camp fire brigade. As a result, in comparison to the number of surviving Dutch Jews, quite a few German speaking Jews remained in Westerbork after the camp had been changed from refugee camp to Durchgangslager - transit camp for Dutch Jews. It must be acknowledged that most of the German speaking Jews did not belong to this elite group of Alte Lagerinsassen - senior camp inmates. They too were deported for Arbeitseinsatz im Ost - work detail in the East, whatever that stood for. At first the victims thought that they were relatively safe, but they would soon learn that deportation meant certain death in one of the Nazi operated extermination centers in Poland. Captain Schol remained in office until early January 1943, having served under two German SS commandants. The third commandant, Gemmeker, made sure he was removed from office. During the first two years of Nazi occupation, the German internees lived in a status quo. The camp as yet lacked barbed wire and refugees were not treated as prisoners. However, they had to obtain a travel permit every time they wished to leave camp for whatever reason. Toward the latter part of 1941 orders were issued from Berlin for the German occupation authorities to commence with the Entjudung - cleansing process of Jews in the Netherlands. The existing and almost completed refugee camp near Westerbork was the ideal place. Tailor-made, so to speak. Early 1942, 24 barracks - large, but made of poor quality wood - capable of housing 300 people each, were added for this purpose. With the internal camp organization already in place and the barracks built, the wheels of evil were set in motion and the deportation of Jews from the Netherlands could begin. Juden Durchgangslager Westerbork from 1942-1945 Portal of Auschwitz vltr: the barracks in cold anticipation in 1939 - Same barracks in 1942 - Deppner (2), the first commandant Photo courtesy: USHMM Photo Archives and the collection Remembrance Center Camp Westerbork On 1 July 1942 Refugee camp Westerbork officially became Transit camp Westerbork sending 104,000 Dutch and German Jews and 250 Dutch Sinti and Roma making use of the regular rail service, mostly freightcars, to their death in extermination camps in Poland. The Nazi's had tightened the noose for the Dutch Jews issuing restricting orders on an almost daily basis. As of 1 July 1942, Transit camp Westerbork officially fell under the jurisdiction of the Befehlshaber der Sicherheitspolizei - Sipo - und Sicherheitdienst - SD - Commander in Chief of the Security Police and Security Service. The first German camp commandant was SS-Sturmbannführer - SS Major, dr. Erich Deppner. He was in charge from 1 July 1942 to 1 September 1942. Deppner was a cruel individual totally lacking compassion. On the 1st of September 1942, Deppner was quickly replaced by SS-Sturmbannführer - SS Major, Josef Hugo Dischner (no picture available). Dischner was an alcoholic who regularly beat inmates with his whip causing great panic among the detainees. It was Dishner who caused a near riot when, in order to fill the required weekly quota of 1,000 deportees, he added mothers and children to the transport of 5 October 1942 who had just arrived from Amsterdam. They were still outside the camp, so-called to be reunited with their husbands, who earlier had been transferred from workcamps and were now incarcerated in Westbork. Without registering them he added them to this transport from Westerbork to Auschwitz/Birkenau. Dischner lasted six weeks. In order to dupe the unsuspecting Jews passing through Westerbork into believing that the future really was not too bad, the Nazis quickly replaced him on 12 October 1942 with the gentleman/criminal SS-Obersturmführer - 1st Lieutenant in de SS, Albert Konrad Gemmeker. Gemmeker quickly saw to it that Schol was discharged in January 1943 by the Dutch Department of Justice. Obviously he did not want witnesses to the Nazi Entjudung plan. Gemmeker continued as commandant of Westerbork until 11 April 1945, one day before the arrival of the Canadian liberators. A second camp, smaller in size but more vicious in its treatment of prisoners, was Camp Vught close to den Bosch, the capital of the province of Noord Brabant. Located in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands it was foremost used to incarcerate political prisoners and hostages. Nevertheless, also this camp was used to house and process Jewish victims until they could be deported via Westerbork to Auschwitz or Sobibor. Between July 1942 and November 1944 more than 104,000 Dutch and German Jews and 245 Roma and Sinti passed through these two camps. Of these, 65 train loads with 60,330 victims were sent directly to Auschwitz II, a.k.a. Birkenau. Most victims never saw the cynical sign which read ARBEIT MACHT FREI - Work Liberates. The wrought iron sign was mounted above the entrance gate to Stammlager Auschwitz - Mother Camp Auschwitz. In stead, they were routed directly to Birkenau where, immediately upon arrival, the dreaded selection and for most extermination took place. Some able men and women were separated from the elderly and from women with children. Men and women, and certainly children not considered fit for labor went straightway to the gas chambers. The last train to reach Birkenau left Westerbork on 3 September 1944. Only 854 deportees, who left Westerbork, survived the hell of Birkenau. After the war it became only too clear what had happened to the rest. The full extent of genocide was exposed in 1945. In total 19 train loads with in total 34,313 Jews were sent directly from Westerbork to Sobibor. The clock at the railway station near camp Sobibor was a fake. The hands of the clock never moved. That, however, was not noticed by the unfortunate victims who were hurriedly forced off the train. Immediately upon arrival they were led toward the gas chambers for extermination. Just 18 Dutch Jews escaped death from this place of horror. A timetable showing arrivals and departures was fake also. No train ever left Sobibor for another destination. The emptied trains excepted, of course. It was sent back with closed doors only to return with more victims. The 34,313 Jews who arrived here from camp Westerbork never noticed that this station was the end of the road for them. Not until it was too late! In addition, 9 trains loads with 4,894 Jews left Westerbork for Terezin - Theresienstadt, an Internment camp and Transit camp north of Prague located in what is known today as the Czech Republic. Of these, about 2,000 survived the war. The remaining 4,413 victims were shipped to Bergen-Belsen, yet another notorious concentration camp which was located in the vicinity of Hanover, Germany. An estimated 104,000 Jews and a 250 Sinti and Roma passed through camp Westerbork. Among them were 22025 under the age of 21. After the last transport had left for Bergen-Belsen on 13 September 1944, approximately 600 Jews remained behind. Among them were Oberdienstleiter - Chief Administrator Kurt Schlesinger, dr. Spanier, the Chief medical officer and Arthur Pisk, the leader of the OD. Several other selected members of the German Jewish camp elite were also among the survivors as well. Before, their task had been to assemble and monitor the dreaded lists for the transports, now they were charged with the liquidation of the camp in anticipation of the inevitable arrival of the Allied forces. As far as the Nazis were concerned, the 'Jewish question' for the Netherlands was resolved. The SS office in Berlin, Bureau IV B4, under the authority of SS Obersturmbannführer - Lieutenant Colonel in the SS Adolf Eichmann , was more than satisfied with the efficiency by which deportation of the Dutch and German Jews to the extermination centers in Poland had been carried out and was completed. fltr: Mr. Aad van As in '43 - Capt. Morris in '45 - Lt. Ted Sheppard in '44 - Liberation scene of Westerbork Courtesy: fltr: photo Breslauer/Lindwer - photo C. Law - photo T. Sheppard - photo Westerbork Remembrance Center Liberation for the 876 remaining inmates finally came on the 12th of April 1945. In addition to the 600 Jews also non-Jewish people were incarcerated in Westerbork during the last months of the war. According to Hans Colpa, in 1993 deputy director of the Westerbork Remembrance Center, it was the 8th Canadian Reconnaissance Regiment (# 7 troop), also known as the Terrier platoon under the command of Lt. Sheppard that approached the camp first. They were soon followed by the South Saskatchewan regiment of the 2nd Army Division. Aad van As, the Dutch government employee who had been in charge of the camp's Distribution Center during the war years, temporarily took over responsibilities as camp manager since the departure of Gemmeker. He called a meeting at about three o'clock in the afternoon of the 12th to discuss the immediate future. However, during this meeting, at the shout 'the Tommy's are here,' almost everyone raced outside in the direction of the camp farm to meet the liberators. Several jumped on the armored cars and rode back victoriously toward the entrance of the camp. Aad van As met with Capt. Morris, an intelligence officer attached to the Canadian Scottish Regiment. Afterwards, Capt. Morris addressed the liberated prisoners. For a complete and more detailed description of that momentous day please read pages 91 - 98, the chapter "Meneer van As, telefoon voor u! - Mr. van As, you have a phone call" from his book, "In het hol van de leeuw - In the lion's den." This book was published in Dutch in 2004, ISBN 90 72486 29 3. I was informed that the book is expected to be translated into the English language. A second book which also covers this subject, the pages 105 - 111, "De thuiskomst - the Homecoming," is called "Westerbork, het verhaal van 1939 - 1945 - Westerbork, the story from 1939 - 1945." This book, avialable in the Dutch language only, was written by Harm van der Veen and co-sponsered by Guido Abuys, Dirk Mulder and Ben Prinsen. It was published in 2003, ISBN 90 72486 23-4. A third book, also in Dutch, on pages 85 - 91, "De Tommies zijn er! - The Tommies have arrived" details the liberation of camp Westerbork quite clearly. This book, under the editorship of Dirk Mulder and Ben Prinsen was published by van Gorcum & Co. B.V. in Assen. It is available under ISBN # 90-232-3924-8. All three books may be ordered from the Remembrance Center camp Westerbork. The Westerbork Monument Photo courtesy: LeerWiki.nl A memorial for the more than one 104.000 who perished at the hands of the Nazis was forged from the very tracks, and at the exact location, where the cursed railroad inside the camp once ended. Herdenkingscentrum Westerbork - Remembrance Center Westerbork is located at the entrance to the grounds. It keeps the memory alive of the Dutch Jews and Roma who once were part of and blended in with the general population in the Netherlands. In a gallery of pictures, paintings, and artifacts, this memorial accurately and truthfully presents the history of Durchgangslager Westerbork. For contact with the Remembrance Centre at camp Westerbork, email here . Recognition: The information, including some pictures, used in this document were taken from the book written by Willy Landwer, "Kamp van Hoop en Wanhoop - Camp of Hope and Despair," copyright 1990, printed and published by Haasbeek, Alphen a/d Rijn. ISBN 905018-098-1 and the book: "Westerbork: Voorportaal van Auschwitz - Porch of Auschwitz." This book is produced and distributed by Waanders Uitgevers in cooperation with NIOD. Including several other documents which are mentioned in the "Sources" listing below. Please mention the Site you are commenting on when you sent an email with request, observation, correction or input to either fltr: Arthur Pisk, Head of the Ordnungsdienst - instruction time - a member of the OD - the OD Fire department in action Photos courtesy: USHMM Photo Archives When the Nazis took the control of camp Westerbork over from the Dutch, they changed its status from Refugee camp to Durchgangslager - Transit Camp. Over twelve hundred German Jewish refugees were incarcerated. They were referred to as the alte Lagerinsassen - Senior Camp Inmates. Some of these men became the aristocracy of Westerbork. Dutch commandant Schol had offered to a few of these German Jews, even before the outbreak of the war, the option to set up an internal government of kind, so creating a system by which a minority of the German Jews cooperated with Schol in maintaining order. Their reward, as became clear after 1942, would be the much sought after postponement of deportation. And sometimes that of family members and even friends as well. A job with the Ordnungsdienst - Camp Police, OD for short, was for many a coveted position. Arthur Pisk became Head of the OD. Not everyone was a volunteer for this service. Some were forced into serving, especially the younger teens who were made runners or messenger boys and - girls for Pisk and Schlesinger. That many OD employees were hated by their fellow inmates, especially the Dutch, can be learned from the name that was bestowed upon some of them by their fellow inmates. They were referred to as the Jewish SS. The most mistrusted OD member was its leader, Arthur Pisk. He and his one hundred and eighty-two subordinates were feared by the rest of the prisoners. Pisk survived the war and camp Westerbork, but it is unclear what became of him following the conflict. One thing is certain, he managed to leave the Netherlands and must have settled somewhere else in the free world. Australia is mentioned. Incognito of course, because no trace was to be found of him. Until 2004 when, during a visit to Australia, I had occasion to meet with Aad van As, who now resides in Australia. From him I learned that Pisk indeed migrated to Australia where he died and was buried. German Jews, because they were the first to arrive as refugees, made up the bulk of the OD. They were held responsible for maintaining order and security in the penal barrack. They were also responsible for providing strict and orderly escort for the people who had been selected for the weekly transports nach dem Osten - to the East. The OD loaded the trains and sealed the doors. Dressed in green coveralls they were noticeable throughout the camp. Some carried out their task with great zeal and efficiency, much to the satisfaction of Gemmeker, Pisk, and Schlesinger, and of course Adolf Eichmann in Berlin. Attempts to escape were few and far in between because of the threat that family members would be deported instead. Yet some were successful. However, collaborating Dutch constabulary, all were members of the Marechaussee, and OD members kept them at a minimum. fltr: The train awaiting its next 'cargo' - cordoning off the deportees - the last job for the OD was locking the doors Photo recognition: USHMM Photo Archives Fred Kuraner, who was assigned to do work in the radio workshop, was one of the very few lucky ones who managed to escape from Westerbork. After his mother, Regina Kuraner-Simke who came from Kottbus in Germany, had been deported to Sobibor on 21 August 1943, Fred crawled underneath the barbed wire fence to freedom. This happened one Monday night after the names of the deportees who were to be deported the next day had been called off. He drove away on a bicycle which was placed for him against the wall of the crematorium, a small building located just outside the camp fence. After the war Fred left for the United States where he married, raised a family and made a life for himself. Fred passed away in 1991. This information was passed on to me by his daughter, who contacted me by email. Letter written by General Jean Victor Allard (Ret.) Dated: August 15, 1990 Schrijver feared the Germans might open fire on the prisoners as a last act of desperation. And he did not want to wait to be killed.Under cover of night, he sneaked out of the prison (Ed.: Westerbork camp is meant) on his belly and continued worming his way across the fields toward the gunfire. He swam across a canal (Ed.: meaning the Orange canal - het Oranjekanaal). When he got to the other side, he felt a rifle barrel stabbing at his neck. But the man behind the gun spoke English. A Canadian! Schrijver was brought to Brig. Gen. Jean Victor Allard, commander of the 6th Brigade, 2nd Division, of the Canadian Army. When he told the General that 900 Jews were in Westerbork, the commander did not believe it. Allied intelligence had pegged it as a German military barracks. They were preparing to send bombers to destroy it. Six patrolmen were sent to the camp with Schrijver to verify his story. In two letters , dated August 15 and 29 October 1990, Allard, then chief of Canadian defense staff, wrote: 'Due to the intervention and action of Mr. Schrijver the total annihilation of camp Westerbork and its approximate 1,000 inmates was prevented.' Schrijver saved the Jews at the 11th hour." A similar story was written on May 14, 1993 in the Dutch Newspaper, De Telegraaf. One day later, reporter Hens Schonewille wrote in that same paper, "The news that Canadian soldiers were preparing to bombard concentration camp Westerbork on 12 April 1945 with shell-fire has baffled and shocked a number former camp inmates. One of them is the former inmate and male nurse of camp Westerbork Abraham Mol. Also Hans Colpa, who was the Acting Director of the Westerbork Remembrance Center in 1993 questions the validity of Schrijver's story. Click on their names for their story and rebuttal. Schrijver simply did not want to get killed at the very last moment. He risked fleeing the camp to meet the Allied forces a day before liberation. fltr: D Coy troops near the Oranje canal north bank - Maj. Geo Stiles, D Coy SSR Pictures taken by Lt. Dan Guravuch, by courtesy of Sgt. Peter Maulé, Victoria, B.C., Canada fltr: # 49860 (PA137469) (9) Archives Canada; # 49854-DG (PA198136) (2) Archives Canada Click here for the English translation. The Dutch Newspaper the Telegraaf, dated 14 September 1993, printed the story shown above: "Escaped prisoner saved Westerbork from a bombardment." It would appear that on 12 April 1945 the last 900 remaining Jewish prisoners, which still were held in concentration camp Westerbork, escaped certain death in the very nick of time." It is unfortunate indeed that more that 60 years have gone by without having obtained a crystal clear picture as to what exactly happened on that momentous day, the 12th of April 1945. Various stories have emerged, several have been recorded on this Website. I believe all who were there and lived through the liberation period are sincere men. Each of them sheds a ray of light on an otherwise clouded over bit of history. Somewhere in between rests the truth. The Dutch Newspaper the Telegraaf, dated 15 September 1993, featured the following story written by reporter Hens Schonewille in response to reactions received from, among others, Abraham Mol. The article in question, which appeared a day earlier, is shown to the left. "That Canadian troops were prepared to shell concentration camp Westerbork with artillery fire has perplexed and shocked a number of former camp inmates. According to some of them the Canadians were ignorant of the fact that the camp even existed. As was reported yesterday in this Newspaper, the artillery bombardment was to have preceded the camp's occupation rather than its liberation. It would have led to a bloodbath, resulting in the loss of life for many inmates. According to newly released or discovered documents, the Canadians believed the camp to be a German military base. They did not know that the Germans had fled the camp on the 10th of April and apparently had no idea that some 900 inmates still were inside. The intervention of the Amsterdam born Samuel Schrijver supposedly prevented that shelling. The Jewish resistance fighter had escaped the camp during the night of April the 11th. He encountered the Canadians after swimming across the Oranjekanaal - Orange canal. Schrijver managed to reach the Canadian Brigadier General Allard. It cost him some effort to convince the general that only civilians were housed in the camp. He even stated that a Canadian reconnaissance patrol was dispatched, taken him along, to verify his story." A different story Schrijver's statement, which by the way is fully corroborated by General Allard, has among others, upset the then camp inmate Abraham Mol from Scheveningen. The former civil servant of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works and former male nurse of camp Westerbork tells a different liberation story of Transit Camp Westerbork. This camp was located in the moors of the province of Drente, from where Dutch Jews were deported to the extermination centers in Poland. Commandant Gemmeker, together with his SS guard unit, absconded on the 11th of April, 1945, when the Allied forces moved in northern direction. Mol: "They posted posters which said that the camp was turned over to the Red Cross. For the last Jewish prisoners still in the camp it said that we could remove our Jew stars. Furthermore, we were advised to remain in our barracks, seeing the camp had now become front-line." According to Mol, in this uncertain time period Schrijver as well as other former camp inmates feared the retreating Germans the most. "We were afraid that the Germans would level the camp with the ground. Others suspected it had to be an ambush, a reason for the Nazis to shoot anyone who dared to leave the camp," Mol remembered. To his relief Mol heard on the 12th of April that the Canadians had advanced to the Oranjekanaal which was approximately 3 KM south of the camp. Mol: "Together with a few other inmates I went to meet them. What caught our attention was the apparent fact that the soldiers we met were unaware of the existence of the camp. We had to show them the way." As far as Mol was concerned, Schrijver's story raised too many questions.	Auschwitz concentration camp
"The line ""To be, or not to be: that is the question"" comes from Act 3, Scene 1 of which Shakespeare play?"	Westerbork Concentration Camp - Fold3 Fold3 Add your story… Introduction Westerbork concentration camp ( Dutch : Kamp Westerbork, German : Durchgangslager Westerbork) was a World War II Nazi refugee, detention and transit camp in Hooghalen , ten kilometres north of Westerbork , in the northeastern Netherlands . Its function during the Second World War was to assemble Roma and Dutch Jews for transport to other Nazi concentration camps . On 15 December 1938, the Dutch government closed its border to refugees. From then on, any refugees would not have any rights. In 1939, the Dutch government erected a refugee camp,Centraal Vluchtelingenkamp Westerbork, financed, ironically, partly by Dutch Jewry, in order to absorb fleeing Jews from Nazi Germany. The Jewish refugees were housed after they had tried in vain to escape Nazi terror in their homeland. During World War II, the Nazis took over the camp and turned it into a deportation camp. From this camp, 101,000 Dutch Jews and about 5,000 German Jews were deported to their deaths in Occupied Poland. In addition, there were about 400 Gypsies in the camp and, at the very end of the War, some 400 women from the resistance movement . In 1950, the Dutch government appointed the Jewish historian Jacques Presser to investigate the events connected with the massive deportation of Dutch Jewry and the extent of the collaboration by the Dutch non-Jewish population. The results were published fifteen years later in The Catastrophe ("De Ondergang"), a book which shocked the reading public and had a profound and lasting effect on the Dutch perception of the war years. Presser also published a novel ( The Night of the Girondins ) set in Westerbork camp itself. The hero is a Jewish prisoner, who is appointed an officer and has the problematic role of helping the Nazis transporting his "brothers" to their obvious deaths in Occupied Poland. Between July 1942 and September 1944, almost every Tuesday a cargo train left for the concentration camps Auschwitz-Birkenau (65 train-loads containing 60,330 people most of whom were gassed on arrival), Sobibór (19 train-loads of 34,313 people, all of whom were killed on arrival), Bergen-Belsen and Theresienstadt (9 train-loads of 4,894 people some 2,000 of whom survived the war). In the period from 1942 to 1945, a total of 107,000 people passed through the camp on a total of 93 outgoing trains. Only 5,200 of them survived, most of them in Theresienstadt or Bergen-Belsen, or were liberated at Westerbork. Parts of a rebuilt hut at Westerbork. Anne Frank stayed in the hut shown to the left from August until early September 1944, when she was taken to Auschwitz . She and her family were put on the first of the three final trains (the three final transports were most probably a reaction to the Allies' offensive) on 3 September 1944 for Auschwitz, arriving there three days later. Etty Hillesum stayed in this camp from 30 July 1942 until 7 September 1943, when she and her family were put on a train to Auschwitz. The German film actress and cabaret singer Dora Gerson was interned at Westerbork with her family before being transferred to Auschwitz. The Canadian 2nd Infantry Division liberated the several hundred inhabitants that were still at Westerbork on 12 April 1945. The first soldiers to reach the camp were from the Reconnaissance Regiment , followed by troops of the South Saskatchewan Regiment. Following its use in World War II, the Westerbork camp was first used as a penalty camp for alleged and accused Nazi collaborators and later housed Dutch nationals who fled the former Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ). Between 1950 and 1970 the camp was renamed to Kamp Schattenberg and used to house refugees from the Maluku Islands . Monument at Westerbork: Each single stone represents a single person that had stayed at Westerbork and died in a Nazi camp. In the 1970s the camp was demolished. Near the site there is now a museum, and monuments of remembrance of those transported and killed during World War II. The camp is freely accessible. The Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) was partially constructed on the site of the camp in 1969. Model of the Westerbork concentration camp. A view of the Westerbork camp, the Netherlands, between 1940 and 1945. The interior of a barracks at the Westerbork transit camp, after liberation. Westerbork, the Netherlands, after April 12, 1945. Arrival of Jews at the Westerbork transit camp. The Netherlands, 1942. A wedding in Westerbork. (July 1942 - April 1945) November 9, 2011 Refugee camp Westerbork circa 1939 Near the village of Westerbork, in the province of Drente, the Dutch Government owned a tract of heath and marsh land surrounded by dense woods. This isolated piece of real estate appeared to be the ideal place to build a camp for German Jewish refugees. It was far enough removed from the village proper of Westerbork that refugees would not interfere with the daily business concerns of the villagers provided supervision was in place. Hence, mr. D.A. Syswarda (no picture available), a former administrator of an organization for psychiatric patients in Amersfoort, was appointed as the Director of refugee camp Westerbork. A serious concern for most Dutch government officials and for politicians was the fact that the German Jewish refugees, who had fled Nazi Germany in large numbers, would integrate with the local villagers. Initially 50 barracks were built capable of housing about 1,800 people. When the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, 1,150 legal and 650 illegal refugees had received accommodation in camp Westerbork. Many others were housed in various refugee shelters, homes, and sub-camps , 25 in total, throughout the Netherlands. Now, once again, they were caught in the web the Nazis were weaving around the Jewish people who lived in Europe. left to right: Blumensohn, 1942 - Blumensohn, 1989 - Commandant and Mrs. Schol Photo courtesy: "Kamp van Hoop en Wanhoop - Camp of Hope and Despair," by Willy Landwer. The first 22 German Jewish refugees were interned in Centraal vluchtelingenkamp Westerbork - Central refugee camp Westerbork on 9 October 1939. Leo Blumensohn, who survived Westerbork, Auschwitz, Gleiwitz, Blechhammer and the death marches, was the first refugee officially registered at the Town Hall of the village of Westerbork. Reserve kapitein - Captain in the Reserves Jacques Schol of the demobilized Dutch Army Reserves and former commandant of yet another refugee facility called Hellevoetsluis, was appointed commandant of refugee camp Westerbork on 16 July 1940. He replaced mr. Syswarda who had held that position since the camp's inception. Captain Schol introduced new regulations for the German Jewish refugees in February 1941. Since the internees for the most part spoke German, new camp rules were written and introduced in the German language. Schol incorporated all refugees over the age of fourteen into work groups. Several of these work groups together were called a Dienstzweig - Service Branch. He appointed over each Dienstzweig a Dienstleiter -Branch Head. The Heads of Service were responsible for the proper and effective operation of the Service Branches. Since Schol was unaware of the intent of the Nazis to not only exterminate the Dutch Jews but also the German Jewish refugees, the measures he took unfortunately set the stage for a most regrettable situation later on. Namely, he appointed the Heads of Service for these work tasks from among the German Jews already interned at Westerbork. One of them was Kurt Schlesinger, who was made Oberdienstleiter - Chief over the Heads of Service. Dr. Fritz Spanier was appointed to the position of Chief Medical Officer, and Arthur Pisk was appointed to the position of Chief of the Ordnungsdienst - Head of the service for maintain order, a.k.a. OD. The OD was a service deemed necessary to function as camp fire brigade within camp perimeters. Later, following the transition from refugee camp to transit camp, the OD became known as the internal Jewish police force. It served to maintain order and discipline among the hapless detainees. Especially during the times of the dreaded transports 'to the East.' The OD consisted foremost of young German refugee Jews who earlier had served in the camp fire brigade. As a result, in comparison to the number of surviving Dutch Jews, quite a few German speaking Jews remained in Westerbork after the camp had been changed from refugee camp to Durchgangslager - transit camp for Dutch Jews. It must be acknowledged that most of the German speaking Jews did not belong to this elite group of Alte Lagerinsassen - senior camp inmates. They too were deported for Arbeitseinsatz im Ost - work detail in the East, whatever that stood for. At first the victims thought that they were relatively safe, but they would soon learn that deportation meant certain death in one of the Nazi operated extermination centers in Poland. Captain Schol remained in office until early January 1943, having served under two German SS commandants. The third commandant, Gemmeker, made sure he was removed from office. During the first two years of Nazi occupation, the German internees lived in a status quo. The camp as yet lacked barbed wire and refugees were not treated as prisoners. However, they had to obtain a travel permit every time they wished to leave camp for whatever reason. Toward the latter part of 1941 orders were issued from Berlin for the German occupation authorities to commence with the Entjudung - cleansing process of Jews in the Netherlands. The existing and almost completed refugee camp near Westerbork was the ideal place. Tailor-made, so to speak. Early 1942, 24 barracks - large, but made of poor quality wood - capable of housing 300 people each, were added for this purpose. With the internal camp organization already in place and the barracks built, the wheels of evil were set in motion and the deportation of Jews from the Netherlands could begin. Juden Durchgangslager Westerbork from 1942-1945 Portal of Auschwitz vltr: the barracks in cold anticipation in 1939 - Same barracks in 1942 - Deppner (2), the first commandant Photo courtesy: USHMM Photo Archives and the collection Remembrance Center Camp Westerbork On 1 July 1942 Refugee camp Westerbork officially became Transit camp Westerbork sending 104,000 Dutch and German Jews and 250 Dutch Sinti and Roma making use of the regular rail service, mostly freightcars, to their death in extermination camps in Poland. The Nazi's had tightened the noose for the Dutch Jews issuing restricting orders on an almost daily basis. As of 1 July 1942, Transit camp Westerbork officially fell under the jurisdiction of the Befehlshaber der Sicherheitspolizei - Sipo - und Sicherheitdienst - SD - Commander in Chief of the Security Police and Security Service. The first German camp commandant was SS-Sturmbannführer - SS Major, dr. Erich Deppner. He was in charge from 1 July 1942 to 1 September 1942. Deppner was a cruel individual totally lacking compassion. On the 1st of September 1942, Deppner was quickly replaced by SS-Sturmbannführer - SS Major, Josef Hugo Dischner (no picture available). Dischner was an alcoholic who regularly beat inmates with his whip causing great panic among the detainees. It was Dishner who caused a near riot when, in order to fill the required weekly quota of 1,000 deportees, he added mothers and children to the transport of 5 October 1942 who had just arrived from Amsterdam. They were still outside the camp, so-called to be reunited with their husbands, who earlier had been transferred from workcamps and were now incarcerated in Westbork. Without registering them he added them to this transport from Westerbork to Auschwitz/Birkenau. Dischner lasted six weeks. In order to dupe the unsuspecting Jews passing through Westerbork into believing that the future really was not too bad, the Nazis quickly replaced him on 12 October 1942 with the gentleman/criminal SS-Obersturmführer - 1st Lieutenant in de SS, Albert Konrad Gemmeker. Gemmeker quickly saw to it that Schol was discharged in January 1943 by the Dutch Department of Justice. Obviously he did not want witnesses to the Nazi Entjudung plan. Gemmeker continued as commandant of Westerbork until 11 April 1945, one day before the arrival of the Canadian liberators. A second camp, smaller in size but more vicious in its treatment of prisoners, was Camp Vught close to den Bosch, the capital of the province of Noord Brabant. Located in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands it was foremost used to incarcerate political prisoners and hostages. Nevertheless, also this camp was used to house and process Jewish victims until they could be deported via Westerbork to Auschwitz or Sobibor. Between July 1942 and November 1944 more than 104,000 Dutch and German Jews and 245 Roma and Sinti passed through these two camps. Of these, 65 train loads with 60,330 victims were sent directly to Auschwitz II, a.k.a. Birkenau. Most victims never saw the cynical sign which read ARBEIT MACHT FREI - Work Liberates. The wrought iron sign was mounted above the entrance gate to Stammlager Auschwitz - Mother Camp Auschwitz. In stead, they were routed directly to Birkenau where, immediately upon arrival, the dreaded selection and for most extermination took place. Some able men and women were separated from the elderly and from women with children. Men and women, and certainly children not considered fit for labor went straightway to the gas chambers. The last train to reach Birkenau left Westerbork on 3 September 1944. Only 854 deportees, who left Westerbork, survived the hell of Birkenau. After the war it became only too clear what had happened to the rest. The full extent of genocide was exposed in 1945. In total 19 train loads with in total 34,313 Jews were sent directly from Westerbork to Sobibor. The clock at the railway station near camp Sobibor was a fake. The hands of the clock never moved. That, however, was not noticed by the unfortunate victims who were hurriedly forced off the train. Immediately upon arrival they were led toward the gas chambers for extermination. Just 18 Dutch Jews escaped death from this place of horror. A timetable showing arrivals and departures was fake also. No train ever left Sobibor for another destination. The emptied trains excepted, of course. It was sent back with closed doors only to return with more victims. The 34,313 Jews who arrived here from camp Westerbork never noticed that this station was the end of the road for them. Not until it was too late! In addition, 9 trains loads with 4,894 Jews left Westerbork for Terezin - Theresienstadt, an Internment camp and Transit camp north of Prague located in what is known today as the Czech Republic. Of these, about 2,000 survived the war. The remaining 4,413 victims were shipped to Bergen-Belsen, yet another notorious concentration camp which was located in the vicinity of Hanover, Germany. An estimated 104,000 Jews and a 250 Sinti and Roma passed through camp Westerbork. Among them were 22025 under the age of 21. After the last transport had left for Bergen-Belsen on 13 September 1944, approximately 600 Jews remained behind. Among them were Oberdienstleiter - Chief Administrator Kurt Schlesinger, dr. Spanier, the Chief medical officer and Arthur Pisk, the leader of the OD. Several other selected members of the German Jewish camp elite were also among the survivors as well. Before, their task had been to assemble and monitor the dreaded lists for the transports, now they were charged with the liquidation of the camp in anticipation of the inevitable arrival of the Allied forces. As far as the Nazis were concerned, the 'Jewish question' for the Netherlands was resolved. The SS office in Berlin, Bureau IV B4, under the authority of SS Obersturmbannführer - Lieutenant Colonel in the SS Adolf Eichmann , was more than satisfied with the efficiency by which deportation of the Dutch and German Jews to the extermination centers in Poland had been carried out and was completed. fltr: Mr. Aad van As in '43 - Capt. Morris in '45 - Lt. Ted Sheppard in '44 - Liberation scene of Westerbork Courtesy: fltr: photo Breslauer/Lindwer - photo C. Law - photo T. Sheppard - photo Westerbork Remembrance Center Liberation for the 876 remaining inmates finally came on the 12th of April 1945. In addition to the 600 Jews also non-Jewish people were incarcerated in Westerbork during the last months of the war. According to Hans Colpa, in 1993 deputy director of the Westerbork Remembrance Center, it was the 8th Canadian Reconnaissance Regiment (# 7 troop), also known as the Terrier platoon under the command of Lt. Sheppard that approached the camp first. They were soon followed by the South Saskatchewan regiment of the 2nd Army Division. Aad van As, the Dutch government employee who had been in charge of the camp's Distribution Center during the war years, temporarily took over responsibilities as camp manager since the departure of Gemmeker. He called a meeting at about three o'clock in the afternoon of the 12th to discuss the immediate future. However, during this meeting, at the shout 'the Tommy's are here,' almost everyone raced outside in the direction of the camp farm to meet the liberators. Several jumped on the armored cars and rode back victoriously toward the entrance of the camp. Aad van As met with Capt. Morris, an intelligence officer attached to the Canadian Scottish Regiment. Afterwards, Capt. Morris addressed the liberated prisoners. For a complete and more detailed description of that momentous day please read pages 91 - 98, the chapter "Meneer van As, telefoon voor u! - Mr. van As, you have a phone call" from his book, "In het hol van de leeuw - In the lion's den." This book was published in Dutch in 2004, ISBN 90 72486 29 3. I was informed that the book is expected to be translated into the English language. A second book which also covers this subject, the pages 105 - 111, "De thuiskomst - the Homecoming," is called "Westerbork, het verhaal van 1939 - 1945 - Westerbork, the story from 1939 - 1945." This book, avialable in the Dutch language only, was written by Harm van der Veen and co-sponsered by Guido Abuys, Dirk Mulder and Ben Prinsen. It was published in 2003, ISBN 90 72486 23-4. A third book, also in Dutch, on pages 85 - 91, "De Tommies zijn er! - The Tommies have arrived" details the liberation of camp Westerbork quite clearly. This book, under the editorship of Dirk Mulder and Ben Prinsen was published by van Gorcum & Co. B.V. in Assen. It is available under ISBN # 90-232-3924-8. All three books may be ordered from the Remembrance Center camp Westerbork. The Westerbork Monument Photo courtesy: LeerWiki.nl A memorial for the more than one 104.000 who perished at the hands of the Nazis was forged from the very tracks, and at the exact location, where the cursed railroad inside the camp once ended. Herdenkingscentrum Westerbork - Remembrance Center Westerbork is located at the entrance to the grounds. It keeps the memory alive of the Dutch Jews and Roma who once were part of and blended in with the general population in the Netherlands. In a gallery of pictures, paintings, and artifacts, this memorial accurately and truthfully presents the history of Durchgangslager Westerbork. For contact with the Remembrance Centre at camp Westerbork, email here . Recognition: The information, including some pictures, used in this document were taken from the book written by Willy Landwer, "Kamp van Hoop en Wanhoop - Camp of Hope and Despair," copyright 1990, printed and published by Haasbeek, Alphen a/d Rijn. ISBN 905018-098-1 and the book: "Westerbork: Voorportaal van Auschwitz - Porch of Auschwitz." This book is produced and distributed by Waanders Uitgevers in cooperation with NIOD. Including several other documents which are mentioned in the "Sources" listing below. Please mention the Site you are commenting on when you sent an email with request, observation, correction or input to either fltr: Arthur Pisk, Head of the Ordnungsdienst - instruction time - a member of the OD - the OD Fire department in action Photos courtesy: USHMM Photo Archives When the Nazis took the control of camp Westerbork over from the Dutch, they changed its status from Refugee camp to Durchgangslager - Transit Camp. Over twelve hundred German Jewish refugees were incarcerated. They were referred to as the alte Lagerinsassen - Senior Camp Inmates. Some of these men became the aristocracy of Westerbork. Dutch commandant Schol had offered to a few of these German Jews, even before the outbreak of the war, the option to set up an internal government of kind, so creating a system by which a minority of the German Jews cooperated with Schol in maintaining order. Their reward, as became clear after 1942, would be the much sought after postponement of deportation. And sometimes that of family members and even friends as well. A job with the Ordnungsdienst - Camp Police, OD for short, was for many a coveted position. Arthur Pisk became Head of the OD. Not everyone was a volunteer for this service. Some were forced into serving, especially the younger teens who were made runners or messenger boys and - girls for Pisk and Schlesinger. That many OD employees were hated by their fellow inmates, especially the Dutch, can be learned from the name that was bestowed upon some of them by their fellow inmates. They were referred to as the Jewish SS. The most mistrusted OD member was its leader, Arthur Pisk. He and his one hundred and eighty-two subordinates were feared by the rest of the prisoners. Pisk survived the war and camp Westerbork, but it is unclear what became of him following the conflict. One thing is certain, he managed to leave the Netherlands and must have settled somewhere else in the free world. Australia is mentioned. Incognito of course, because no trace was to be found of him. Until 2004 when, during a visit to Australia, I had occasion to meet with Aad van As, who now resides in Australia. From him I learned that Pisk indeed migrated to Australia where he died and was buried. German Jews, because they were the first to arrive as refugees, made up the bulk of the OD. They were held responsible for maintaining order and security in the penal barrack. They were also responsible for providing strict and orderly escort for the people who had been selected for the weekly transports nach dem Osten - to the East. The OD loaded the trains and sealed the doors. Dressed in green coveralls they were noticeable throughout the camp. Some carried out their task with great zeal and efficiency, much to the satisfaction of Gemmeker, Pisk, and Schlesinger, and of course Adolf Eichmann in Berlin. Attempts to escape were few and far in between because of the threat that family members would be deported instead. Yet some were successful. However, collaborating Dutch constabulary, all were members of the Marechaussee, and OD members kept them at a minimum. fltr: The train awaiting its next 'cargo' - cordoning off the deportees - the last job for the OD was locking the doors Photo recognition: USHMM Photo Archives Fred Kuraner, who was assigned to do work in the radio workshop, was one of the very few lucky ones who managed to escape from Westerbork. After his mother, Regina Kuraner-Simke who came from Kottbus in Germany, had been deported to Sobibor on 21 August 1943, Fred crawled underneath the barbed wire fence to freedom. This happened one Monday night after the names of the deportees who were to be deported the next day had been called off. He drove away on a bicycle which was placed for him against the wall of the crematorium, a small building located just outside the camp fence. After the war Fred left for the United States where he married, raised a family and made a life for himself. Fred passed away in 1991. This information was passed on to me by his daughter, who contacted me by email. Letter written by General Jean Victor Allard (Ret.) Dated: August 15, 1990 Schrijver feared the Germans might open fire on the prisoners as a last act of desperation. And he did not want to wait to be killed.Under cover of night, he sneaked out of the prison (Ed.: Westerbork camp is meant) on his belly and continued worming his way across the fields toward the gunfire. He swam across a canal (Ed.: meaning the Orange canal - het Oranjekanaal). When he got to the other side, he felt a rifle barrel stabbing at his neck. But the man behind the gun spoke English. A Canadian! Schrijver was brought to Brig. Gen. Jean Victor Allard, commander of the 6th Brigade, 2nd Division, of the Canadian Army. When he told the General that 900 Jews were in Westerbork, the commander did not believe it. Allied intelligence had pegged it as a German military barracks. They were preparing to send bombers to destroy it. Six patrolmen were sent to the camp with Schrijver to verify his story. In two letters , dated August 15 and 29 October 1990, Allard, then chief of Canadian defense staff, wrote: 'Due to the intervention and action of Mr. Schrijver the total annihilation of camp Westerbork and its approximate 1,000 inmates was prevented.' Schrijver saved the Jews at the 11th hour." A similar story was written on May 14, 1993 in the Dutch Newspaper, De Telegraaf. One day later, reporter Hens Schonewille wrote in that same paper, "The news that Canadian soldiers were preparing to bombard concentration camp Westerbork on 12 April 1945 with shell-fire has baffled and shocked a number former camp inmates. One of them is the former inmate and male nurse of camp Westerbork Abraham Mol. Also Hans Colpa, who was the Acting Director of the Westerbork Remembrance Center in 1993 questions the validity of Schrijver's story. Click on their names for their story and rebuttal. Schrijver simply did not want to get killed at the very last moment. He risked fleeing the camp to meet the Allied forces a day before liberation. fltr: D Coy troops near the Oranje canal north bank - Maj. Geo Stiles, D Coy SSR Pictures taken by Lt. Dan Guravuch, by courtesy of Sgt. Peter Maulé, Victoria, B.C., Canada fltr: # 49860 (PA137469) (9) Archives Canada; # 49854-DG (PA198136) (2) Archives Canada Click here for the English translation. The Dutch Newspaper the Telegraaf, dated 14 September 1993, printed the story shown above: "Escaped prisoner saved Westerbork from a bombardment." It would appear that on 12 April 1945 the last 900 remaining Jewish prisoners, which still were held in concentration camp Westerbork, escaped certain death in the very nick of time." It is unfortunate indeed that more that 60 years have gone by without having obtained a crystal clear picture as to what exactly happened on that momentous day, the 12th of April 1945. Various stories have emerged, several have been recorded on this Website. I believe all who were there and lived through the liberation period are sincere men. Each of them sheds a ray of light on an otherwise clouded over bit of history. Somewhere in between rests the truth. The Dutch Newspaper the Telegraaf, dated 15 September 1993, featured the following story written by reporter Hens Schonewille in response to reactions received from, among others, Abraham Mol. The article in question, which appeared a day earlier, is shown to the left. "That Canadian troops were prepared to shell concentration camp Westerbork with artillery fire has perplexed and shocked a number of former camp inmates. According to some of them the Canadians were ignorant of the fact that the camp even existed. As was reported yesterday in this Newspaper, the artillery bombardment was to have preceded the camp's occupation rather than its liberation. It would have led to a bloodbath, resulting in the loss of life for many inmates. According to newly released or discovered documents, the Canadians believed the camp to be a German military base. They did not know that the Germans had fled the camp on the 10th of April and apparently had no idea that some 900 inmates still were inside. The intervention of the Amsterdam born Samuel Schrijver supposedly prevented that shelling. The Jewish resistance fighter had escaped the camp during the night of April the 11th. He encountered the Canadians after swimming across the Oranjekanaal - Orange canal. Schrijver managed to reach the Canadian Brigadier General Allard. It cost him some effort to convince the general that only civilians were housed in the camp. He even stated that a Canadian reconnaissance patrol was dispatched, taken him along, to verify his story." A different story Schrijver's statement, which by the way is fully corroborated by General Allard, has among others, upset the then camp inmate Abraham Mol from Scheveningen. The former civil servant of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works and former male nurse of camp Westerbork tells a different liberation story of Transit Camp Westerbork. This camp was located in the moors of the province of Drente, from where Dutch Jews were deported to the extermination centers in Poland. Commandant Gemmeker, together with his SS guard unit, absconded on the 11th of April, 1945, when the Allied forces moved in northern direction. Mol: "They posted posters which said that the camp was turned over to the Red Cross. For the last Jewish prisoners still in the camp it said that we could remove our Jew stars. Furthermore, we were advised to remain in our barracks, seeing the camp had now become front-line." According to Mol, in this uncertain time period Schrijver as well as other former camp inmates feared the retreating Germans the most. "We were afraid that the Germans would level the camp with the ground. Others suspected it had to be an ambush, a reason for the Nazis to shoot anyone who dared to leave the camp," Mol remembered. To his relief Mol heard on the 12th of April that the Canadians had advanced to the Oranjekanaal which was approximately 3 KM south of the camp. Mol: "Together with a few other inmates I went to meet them. What caught our attention was the apparent fact that the soldiers we met were unaware of the existence of the camp. We had to show them the way." As far as Mol was concerned, Schrijver's story raised too many questions.	i don't know
Which chemical element, with the atomic number 107, is named after a Danish scientist?	Which elements are named after famous scientists? \| Reference.com Which elements are named after famous scientists? A: Quick Answer Elements that are named after famous scientists include einsteinium, bohrium, copernicium, fermium and curium. All of these elements are radioactive and have no biological role in the body. Full Answer Einsteinium was named after Albert Einstein. It was discovered at Los Alamos. Its atomic number is 99, its symbol is Es and it is solid at room temperature. Scientists believe it is a silvery-white metal. Bohrium was named after the Danish scientist Niels Bohr. Its symbol is Bh and its atomic number is 107. Like Einsteinium, it is probably a grayish or silvery metal at room temperature. It was discovered in 1981 in Darmstadt, Germany. Copernicum, atomic number 112, was named for the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and was discovered in 1996, also in Darmstadt. Its atomic weight is 285. It is also expected to be a solid metal at room temperature. Fermium was named after Enrico Fermi. With an atomic number of 100 and an atomic weight of 257, it has a melting point of 2781 degrees Fahrenheit, though its boiling point and density are unknown. It was discovered in 1952 and is a by-product of the detonation of a hydrogen bomb. Curium was named after both Pierre and Marie Curie, who were pioneers in the field of radioactivity. It is also a solid metal at room temperature.	Bohrium
Which female Mexican painter was responsible for 'Tree Of Hope', 'Henry Ford Hospital' and 'The Dream'?	Transfermium Elements, Chemical Element - reaction, uses, number, name, symbol, mass, atom Transfermium Elements, Chemical Element Photo by: concept w Overview The term "transfermium" describes the elements with atomic numbers greater than 100. Fermium is element 100, so transfermium means "beyond fermium." The transfermium elements are grouped together for a number of reasons. First, they are all prepared artificially. None of them occur in the Earth's crust naturally (that anyone knows of). Second, they can be made with only the greatest difficulty. In fact, no more than a few atoms of some transfermium elements have been created so far. Third, very little is known about the transfermium elements. With only a few atoms to study, it is difficult to learn much about them. Still, the transfermium elements are of great interest to chemists and physicists. They help answer questions about the periodic table. The periodic table is a chart that shows how chemical elements are related to each other. The transfermium elements are found at the very end of the periodic table. Scientists want to know if there is a limit to how heavy a chemical element can be. They also want to know what the properties of these very heavy elements will be like. The chart below gives basic information about the transfermium elements. A discussion of the names and symbols in the chart follows in the next section. Name – Discovery of the elements All transfermium elements are made in particle accelerators, or "atom smashers." A particle accelerator is a machine that makes very tiny particles, like protons or small atoms, move very fast. They often go nearly as fast as the speed of Light. Light travels about 300,000,000 meters per second (186,000 miles per second). These fast moving particles are then made to smash into atoms. If they hit an atom just right, they will stick to the atom, making it heavier. For example, when fast moving neon atoms strike atoms of americium, the following reaction can occur: The new element, dubnium (number 105), is produced. This kind of experiment is easy to describe but very difficult to carry out. In fact, this research is carried out at only three laboratories in the world. One is the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research, in Dubna, Russia. The second is the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory at the University of California at Berkeley in the United States. The third is the Institute for Heavy Ion Two men in a particle accelerator. This one is in Strasbourg, France. Research in Darmstadt, Germany. All three laboratories use large particle accelerators that cost millions of dollars. Dozens of scientists from many different countries work on each team. Credit for discovery of a transfermium element is extremely complicated. In most cases, no more than a handful of atoms is produced in an atom smasher. For example, the Dubna group first claimed to have found element 104 in 1964, but many scientists doubted this report. Five years later, American scientists also reported making element 104. This time, the evidence was better. Naming the elements One reason that scientists often argue over the discovery of an element is this: The group of scientists that discovers an element usually has the opportunity to suggest a name for it. For example, researchers at the Berkeley laboratory first discovered elements 97 and 98. They suggested naming those elements berkelium and californium, in honor of Berkeley, California, where the research was done. The final decision about naming elements is made by a group called the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The decision can take a very long time. The IUPAC spent nearly 20 years trying to agree on names for elements 104, 105, and 106. Finally, in 1997, the IUPAC announced the official and final names for elements 101 through 109. Those names and their symbols are shown in the accompanying chart. The names chosen by the IUPAC honor either great scientists or places of importance. The meaning of the names is as follows: The group of scientists that discovers an element usually has the opportunity to suggest a name for it. Mendelevium (Md): named after Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907), who developed the periodic law and the periodic table Nobelium (No): named after Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel (1833-96), who provided funding for the Nobel Prizes when he died Lawrencium (Lr): named after American physicist Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901-58), who invented one of the first particle accelerators and for whom the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is named Rutherfordium (Rf): named after British physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), who made many important discoveries about atoms and radioactivity Dubnium (Db): named after Dubna, the city in Russia where the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research is located Seaborgium (Sg): named after American chemist Glenn Seaborg (1912-), who has been involved in the discovery of ten elements Bohrium (Bh): named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962), who helped develop the modern theory of the atom Ernest O. Lawrence, in front of a particle-accelerating cyclotron. Lawrencium is named after him. Hassium (Hs): named after the German state in which the Institute for Heavy Ion Research is located Meitnerium (Mt): named after Austrian physicist Use Meitner (1878-1968), who helped explain the process of nuclear fission (the splitting of atoms) The IUPAC has not yet assigned names for elements 110 through 112. Discovery of those elements has been announced by the German team. But those discoveries have not yet been confirmed. Therefore, temporary names have been assigned. Those names come from the Latin words for the numbers 110, 111, and 112. They are ununnilium (Uun), unununium (Uuu), and ununbiium (Uub). Properties of the elements No one knows much about the properties of the transfermium elements. It isn't possible to see or touch or smell or taste any of these elements. There are often no more than a few dozen atoms to study. In fact, it is quite amazing that scientists know much of anything about these elements. Yet, they do know a few things. In 1997, for example, the German team studied the properties of element 106, seaborgium, with only six atoms to work with! But they managed to watch how these atoms behaved as they slowly moved down a column of special material. Of course, these elements have no uses. Isotopes Most transfermium elements have more than one isotope. Isotopes are two or more forms of an element. Isotopes differ from each other according to their mass number. The number written to the right of the element's name is the mass number. The mass number represents the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of the element. The number of protons determines the element, but the number of neutrons in the atom of any one element can vary. Each variation is an isotope. The number of isotopes currently known for each element follows. The numbers may change as scientists discover new isotopes. mendelevium: 13 hassium: 1 meitnerium: 1 All of the isotopes of the transfermium elements are radioactive. A radioactive isotope is one that breaks apart and gives off some form of radiation. In most cases, they have very short half lives. The half life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half of a sample to break apart. An island of stability? T he larger an atom is, the more unstable it tends to be. It seems that big atoms have trouble staying together. They tend to fall apart, giving off tiny particles like electrons and protons in the process. When they do so, they change into other, smaller atoms. This process is called radioactive decay. All elements heavier than bismuth are radioactive. They have no stable isotopes. Does that mean that scientists will never find another stable element in the transfermium group? As they search for elements 110, 111, 112, and beyond, will they always find radioactive isotopes only? Some scientists think the answer is no. They believe that some very heavy elements may be stable. Their atoms may be able to stay together, as is the case with lighter elements. One of these elements may be number 114. Scientists think that atoms are likely to be stable if they contain a certain "magic" number of protons and neutrons. Those magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114, and 184. So an atom with 20 protons and 20 neutrons, for example, would be expected to be stable. And it is. The next element among the transfermium elements with a "magic" number of protons and neutrons is number 114. One isotope of element 114 could have 114 protons and 184 neutrons. It would have a "double magic" number and might be very stable. Scientists hope to be able to make enough of the element to study. The element might or might not have practical uses. But it would be an exciting discovery for scientists. The half life of most transfermium isotopes is only a few seconds or less. The half life of dubnium-260, for example, is 1.6 seconds. That means that half of the atoms in a sample will break down in 1.6 seconds and change to some other element. Short half lives of the transfermium isotopes makes them hard to study. They tend to break down almost as soon as they are formed. Scientists have very little time to observe them. User Contributions:	i don't know
Which mode of transport was invented by Sir Christopher Cockerell?	Christopher Cockerell; Briton Invented the Hovercraft - latimes Christopher Cockerell; Briton Invented the Hovercraft June 04, 1999 \|ELAINE WOO \| TIMES STAFF WRITER Christopher Cockerell, a British engineer who turned a couple of tin cans rigged to a vacuum cleaner into the Hovercraft, one of the century's more eccentric modes of transportation, has died. Cockerell, whose death Tuesday at his Southhampton home coincided with the 40th anniversary of his invention's first launch, was 88. Nicknamed the British Flying Saucer because it resembled a giant saucepan lid, the Hovercraft moves across land or water on a cushion of air. When it was launched on the English Channel in 1959, it was ballyhooed in the press as the preferred mode for water crossings. The Hovercraft never fulfilled the potential that Cockerell had envisioned, however: It was noisy, unreliable and nauseated passengers in rough seas. In Britain, it has devolved from being the pride of British maritime engineering to its dinosaur, surpassed by superior craft and the Channel Tunnel. But, as a recent Times of London article noted, it is a stubborn dinosaur that has "steadfastly refused to do the decent thing and disappear altogether," kept alive on both sides of the Atlantic by Hovercraft hobbyists whose enthusiasm for Cockerell's quirky machine approaches cult fervor. Cockerell was born June 6, 1910, and was educated in private schools. He was trained in engineering at Cambridge University, then got a job with the electrical company Marconi. He helped devise a transmission antenna for the BBC's first television station in north London. During World War II, he participated in the development of Britain's first radar defense system. After the war, he left Marconi to build tourist boats in Norfolk. It was during this period that he began to contemplate the solution to an 80-year-old problem. Sir John Thornycroft was a British engineer who in the 1870s began to test his theory that drag on a ship's hull could be reduced if a ship had a plenum chamber--essentially an empty box, open at the bottom. He thought that if the chamber could be pumped full of air, the ship would float above the water and move faster because there would be less resistance. He could not, however, figure out how to keep the "air cushion" from escaping from under the craft. Cockerell cast aside the plenum chamber principle, theorizing instead that if he could pump air under the vessel through a narrow slot that ran around it, the air would flow toward the vessel's center, thus forming an external curtain that would trap the bubble of air under the hull. Cockerell believed this system, which became known as a peripheral jet, would allow the boat to hover. To test his theory, the former electronics engineer raided his pantry for a coffee tin and a can of cat food and hooked them up to a reverse-flow vacuum that fed air into the tins through a hole in the base. He suspended the contraption over the weighing pan of a pair of kitchen scales. When he switched on the apparatus, it was buoyed off the floor on a pillow of air. He filed for a patent in late 1955, and the next year formed Hovercraft Ltd. In 1959, he launched the first practical air cushion vehicle, the SR-N1. It had a rubber skirt that helped contain the air cushion over rough ground or water. This prototype crossed the English Channel in June 1959. It had a top speed of 10 mph and could not negotiate waves of more than 18 inches or land obstacles higher than a foot. Nonetheless, the successful crossing sparked interest around the world. Manufacturing began in the United States, Japan, Sweden and France, as well as in Britain. Commercial service in Britain started in the early 1960s. Cockerell was driven nearly to bankruptcy in the early years of his struggle to build the Hovercraft. He never got rich off it--"Good God, no," he told an interviewer recently. Nor did he achieve widespread recognition, although he was knighted in 1969. "He was a genius, one of those people who was never really appreciated in this country," said Gary Billings, general manager of Hovercraft America in Germantown, Wis., one of a handful of Hovercraft manufacturers in the United States. Hovercraft enthusiasts consist of a small but fervent community in the United States. About 5,000 to 10,000 Hovercraft are in operation here, used mainly for ice and flood rescues and recreation. Hovercraft racing fans will gather in Troy, Ohio, later this month for the Hovercraft Nationals. "Star Wars" fans are flocking to fast-food outlets for toys in the shape of the Hovercraft-inspired land speeders favored by Luke Skywalker, made by Hovercraft Concepts of Miami. All have Cockerell to thank. A somewhat dyspeptic letter writer in his later years, Cockerell once complained to the London Times that British engineers and designers were accorded such lowly status and pay that the best fled to other countries. But he was not disappointed by the Hovercraft's progress four decades after he invented it, nor was his belief in the value of his profession shaken. MORE:	Hovercraft
"The line ""Parting is such sweet sorrow"" comes from Act 2, Scene 2 of which Shakespeare play?"	GOOD DAY/ BAD DAY AS I SEE IT: HOVERCRAFT ( The History Of ) HOVERCRAFT ( The History Of ) Hovercraft ( The History Of ) Written by : Jeffrey R Hilton The first Hovercraft was invented by Christopher Cockerell in 1956. He invented the first commercial Hovercraft, the SRN 1. Cockerell born in 1910, worked first, for a radio research company until 1935, when he started on with the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. During the war years, he worked on a team to develop radar. He patented 36 of his ideas and was knighted, "Sir Christopher Cockerell" in 1969. The Hovercraft is simple a craft, supported on a cushion of air supplied by powered fans or a fan mounted on the craft. Hovercraft are used extensively throughout the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe. They are not a safe mode of transportation in overly rough seas as they lose the ability to maintain a consistent cushion of air between the craft and the water. Hovercraft passenger services are usually cancelled in rough weather. having said that, so are the big Car Ferries. Below are a few pictures of various Hovercraft. There are many types and sizes of Hovercraft, and the crafts were designed and converted for military use during WWII. The giant Hovercraft seen in the photo below is a car ferry that used to ferry people and cars back and forth between England and France, using the Channel. The service was eventually cancelled due to the high cost of keeping fuel in the less than fuel efficient craft. This photo below is at the only known Hovercraft Museum in the world, at HMS, Daedalus, former RAF, Air Base in Lee On Solent, Hampshire, U.K. When the Seaplanes were based there in 1911, they had to be transported to the beach for launch as there was no slipway leading from the base to the beach below until a few years later. I worked at HMS Daedalus in 1996 and was amazed by all the Hovercrafts displayed at the museum. Hovercraft Museum At HMS Daedalus * Southsea To Isle Of Wight Hovercraft Service Leaving Southsea * If you ever get a chance to travel by Hover, don't pass it up, it's a fun way to travel and relatively fast. I've taken this hover to the Island and back a few times while living in Southsea, and I was never disappointed. The Hovercraft lands in Ryde on The Isle Of Wight. It's a summer vacation mecca for anyone and everyone and was home to more than 142,500 permanent residents, as of 2011. The Hovercraft station is in Southsea at the Clarence Pier, and a trip to the Isle Of Wight to explore it's many seaside towns or just stay in Ryde is a great place for a summer holiday. Russian Military Hovercraft	i don't know
'Chrome' featured on whose number one hit single 'Holiday' in August 2009?	UK MUSIC CHARTS, No.1 Singles 1: Al Martino - Here In My Heart - 14/11/1952. 1953 2: Jo Stafford : You Belong To Me - 16/1/1953 3: Kay Starr : Comes A-Long A-Love - 23/1/1953. 4: Eddie Fisher: Outside Of Heaven - 30/1/1953. Feb 5: Perry Como: Don't Let The Stars Get In Your Eyes - 6/2/1953 March 6: Guy Mitchell: She Wears Red Feathers - 13/3/1953 April 7: Stargazers: Broken Wings - 10/4/1953 8: Lita Roza: (How Much Is) That Doggie In The Window - 17/4/1953 9: Frankie Laine: I Believe - 24/4/1953 June 10: Eddie Fisher: I'm Walking Behind You - 26/6/1953 Aug 11: Mantovani Song: from 'The Moulin Rouge' - 14/8/1953 Sept 12: Guy Mitchell: Look At That Girl - 11/9/1953 Oct 13: Frankie Laine: Hey Joe - 23/10/1953 Nov 14: David Whitfield: Answer Me - 6/11/1953 15: Frankie Laine: Answer Me - 13/11/1953 1954 16: Eddie Calvert: Oh Mein Papa 8/1/1954 March 17: Stargazers: I See The Moon 12/3/1954. April 18: Doris Day: Secret Love 16/4/1954 19: Johnnie Ray: Such A Night 30/4/1954 July 20: David Whitfield: Cara Mia 2/7/1954 Sept 21: Kitty Kallen: Little Things Mean A Lot 10/9/1954 22: Frank Sinatra: Three Coins In The Fountain 17/9/1954 Oct 23: Don Cornell: Hold My Hand 8/10/1954 Nov 24: Vera Lynn: My Son My Son 5/11/1954 25: Rosemary Clooney: This Ole House 26/11/1954 Dec 26: Winifred Atwell: Let's Have Another Party 3/12/1954 1955 27: Dickie Valentine: Finger Of Suspicion 7/1/1955. 28: Rosemary Clooney: Mambo Italiano 14/1/1955 Feb 29: Ruby Murray: Softly, Softly 18/2/1955 March 30: Tennessee Ernie Ford: Give Me Your Word, 11/3/1955 April 31: Perez Prez Prado & His Orchestra: Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 29/4/1955 May 32: Tony Bennett: Stranger In Paradise 13/5/1955 33: Eddie Calvert: Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 27/5/1955 June 34: Jimmy Young: Unchained Melody 24/6/1955 July 35: Alma Cogan: Dreamboat 15/7/1955 36: Slim Whitman: Rose Marie 29/7/1955 Oct 37: Jimmy Young: The Man From Laramie 14/10/1955 Nov 38: Johnston Brothers: Hernando's Hideaway 11/11/1955 39: Bill Haley & His Comets: Rock Around The Clock 25/11/1955 Dec 40: Dickie Valentine: Christmas Alphabet 16/12/1955 1956 41: Tennessee Ernie Ford: Sixteen Tons 20/1/1956. Feb 42: Dean Martin: Memories Are Made Of This 17/2/1956 March 43: Dream Weavers: It's Almost Tomorrow 16/3/1956 44: Kay Starr: Rock And Roll Waltz 30/3/1956 April 45: Winifred Atwell: Poor People Of Paris 13/4/1956 May 46: Ronnie Hilton: No Other Love 4/5/1956 June 47: Pat Boone: I'll Be Home 15/6/1956 July 48: Frankie Lymon And The Teenagers - Why Do Fools Fall in Love 20/7/1956 Aug 49: Doris Day - Whatever Will Be Will Be (Que Sera, Sera) 10/8/1956 Sept 50: Anne Shelton - Lay Down Your Arms 21/9/1956 Oct 51: Frankie Laine - A Woman In Love 19/10/1956 Nov 52: Johnnie Ray - Just Walking In The Rain 16/11/1956 1957 53: Guy Mitchell.. Singing The Blues 4/1/1957 54: Tommy Steele.. Singing The Blues 11/1/1957 55: Frankie Vaughan.. The Garden Of Eden 25/1/1957 Feb 56: Tab Hunter.. Young Love 22/2/1957 April 57: Lonnie Donegan.. Cumberland Gap 12/4/1957 May 58: Guy Mitchell.. Rock-A-Billy 17/5/1957 59: Andy Williams.. Butterfly 24/5/1957 June 60: Johnnie Ray.. Yes Tonight Josephine 7/6/1957 61. Lonnie Donegan.. Puttin' On The Style / Gamblin' Man 28/6/1957 July 62. Elvis Presley.. All Shook Up 12/7/1957 Aug 63. Paul Anka.. Diana 30/8/1957 Nov 64. The Crickets.. That'll Be The Day 1/11/1957 65. Harry Belafonte.. Mary's Boy Child 22/11/1957 1958 66. Jerry Lee Lewis.. Great Balls Of Fire 10/1/1958 67. Elvis Presley.. Jailhouse Rock 24/1/1958 Feb 68. Michael Holliday.. The Story Of My Life 14/2/1958 69. Perry Como.. Magic Moments 28/2/1958 April 70. Marvin Rainwater.. Whole Lotta Woman 25/4/1958 May 71. Connie Francis.. Who's Sorry Now 16/5/1958 June 72. Vic Damone.. On The Street Where You Live 27/6/1958 July 73. Everly Brothers.. All I Have To Do Is Dream / Claudette 4/7/1958 Aug 74. Kalin Twins.. When 22/8/1958 Sept 75. Connie Francis.. Carolina Moon / Stupid Cupid 26/9/1958 Nov 76. Tommy Edwards.. All In The Game 7/11/1958 77. Lord Rockingham's XI.. Hoots Mon 28/11/1958 Dec 78. Conway Twitty.. It's Only Make Believe 19/12/1958 1959 79. Jane Morgan 'The Days The Rains Came' 23/1/1959 80. Elvis Presley 'I Got Stung / One Night' 30/1/1959 Feb 81. Shirley Bassey 'As I Love You' 20/2/1959 March 82. The Platters 'Smoke Gets In Your Eyes' 20/3/1959 83. Russ Conway 'Side Saddle' 27/3/1959 April 84. Buddy Holly 'It Doesn't Matter Anymore' 24/4/1959 May 85. Elvis Presley 'A Fool Such As I / I Need Your Love Tonight' 15/5/1959 June 86: Russ Conway 'Roulette' 19/6/1959 July 87: Bobby Darin 'Dream Lover' 3/7/1959 88: Cliff Richard 'Living Doll' 31/7/1959 Sept 89: Craig Douglas 'Only Sixteen' 11/9/1959 Oct 90: Jerry Keller 'Here Comes Summer' 9/10/1959 91: Bobby Darin 'Mack The Knife' 16/10/1959 92: Cliff Richard 'Travellin' Light' 30/10/1959 Dec 93: Adam Faith 'What Do You Want' 4/12/1959 94: Emile Ford & The Checkmates: What Do You Want To Make Those Eyes At Me For 18/12/1959 1960 95: Michael Holliday 'Starry Eyed' 29/1/1960 Feb 96: Anthony Newley 'Why' 5/2/1960 March 97: Adam Faith 'Poor Me' 10/3/1960 98: Johnny Preston 'Running Bear' 17/3/1960 99: Lonnie Donegan 'My Old Man's A Dustman' 31/3/1960 April 100: Anthony Newley 'Do You Mind' 28/4/1960 May 101: Everly Brothers 'Cathy's Clown' 5/5/1960 June 102: Eddie Cochran 'Three Steps To Heaven' 23/6/1960 July 103: Jimmy Jones 'Good Timin' 7/7/1960 104: Cliff Richard 'Please Don't Tease' 28/7/1960 Aug 105: Johnny Kidd & The Pirates 'Shakin' All Over' 4/8/1960 106: Shadows 'Apache' 25/8/1960 107: Ricky Valence 'Tell Laura I Love Her' 29/9/1960 Oct 108: Roy Orbison 'Only The Lonely' 20/10/1960 Nov 109: Elvis Presley 'It's Now Or Never' 3/11/1960 Dec 110: Cliff Richard 'I Love You' 29/12/1960 1961 111: Johnny Tillotson: Poetry In Motion, 12/1/1961 112: Elvis Presley: Are You Lonesome Tonight, 26/1/1961 Feb 113: Petula Clark: Sailor, 23/2/1961 March 114: Everly Brothers: Walk Right Back, 2/3/1961 115: Elvis Presley: Wooden Heart, 23/3/1961 May 116: The Marcels: Blue Moon, 4/5/1961 117: Floyd Cramer: On The Rebound, 18/5/1961 118: The Temperance Seven: You're Driving Me Crazy, 25/5/1961 June 119: Elvis Presley: Surrender, 1/6/1961 120: Del Shannon: Runaway, 29/6/1961 July 121: Everly Brothers: Temptation, 20/7/1961 Aug 122: Eden Kane: Well I Ask You, 3/8/1961 123: Helen Shapiro: You Don't Know, 10/8/1961 124: John Leyton: Johnny Remember Me, 31/8/196 Sept 125: Shirley Bassey: Reach For The Stars / Climb Ev'ry Mountain, 21/9/1961 Oct 126: Shadows: Kon Tiki - 5/10/1961 127: The Highwaymen: Michael - 12/10/1961 128: Helen Shapiro: Walkin' Back To Happiness - 19/10/1961 Nov 129: Elvis Presley: His Latest Flame - 9/11/1961 Dec 130: Frankie Vaughan: Tower Of Strength - 7/12/1961 131: Danny Williams: Moon River - 28/12/1961 1962 132. Cliff Richard 'The Young Ones' 11/1/1962 Feb 133. Elvis Presley 'Can't Help Falling In Love / Rock-A-Hula Baby' 22/2/1962 March 134. Shadows 'Wonderful Land' 22/3/1962 May 135. B.Bumble & The Stingers 'Nut Rocker' 17/5/1962 136. Elvis Presley 'Good Luck Charm' 24/5/1962 June 137. Mike Sarne with Wendy Richard 'Come Outside' 28/6/1962 jJuly 138. Ray Charles 'I Can't Stop Loving You' 12/7/1962 139. Frank Ifield 'I Remember You' 26/7/1962 Sept 140. Elvis Presley 'She's Not You' 13/9/1962 Oct 142. Frank Ifield 'Lovesick Blues' 8/11/1962 Dec 143. Elvis Presley 'Return To Sender' 13/12/1962 1963 144. Cliff Richard 'The Next Time / Bachelor Boy' 3/1/1963 145. Shadows 'Dance On' 24/1/1963 146. Jet Harris & Tony Meehan 'Diamonds' 31/1/1963 147. Frank Ifield 'Wayward Wind' 21/2/1963 March 148. Cliff Richard 'Summer Holiday' 14/3/1963 149. Shadows 'Foot Tapper' 29/3/1963 April 150. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'How Do You Do It?' 11/4/1963 May 151. Beatles' From Me To You' 2/5/1963 June 152. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'I Like It' 20/6/1963 July 153. Frank Ifield 'Confessin' (That I Love You)' 18/7/1963 Aug 154. Elvis Presley '(You're The) Devil In Disguise' 1/8/1963 155. Searchers 'Sweets For My Sweet' 8/8/1963 156. Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas 'Bad To Me' 22/8/1963 Sept 157. Beatles 'She Loves You' 12/9/1963 Oct 158. Brian Poole & The Tremeloes 'Do You Love Me' 10/10/1963 159. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'You'll Never Walk Alone' 31/10/1963 Dec 160. Beatles 'I Want To Hold Your Hand' 12/12/1963 1964 161 Dave Clark Five.. Glad All Over 16/1/1964 162 Searchers.. Needles & Pins 30/1/1964 Feb 164 Cilla Black.. Anyone Who Had A Heart 27/2/1964 March 165 Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas.. Little Children 19/3/1964 April 166. Beatles.. Can't Buy Me Love 2/4/1964 167. Peter & Gordon.. A World Without Love 23/4/1964 May 168. Searchers.. Don't Throw Your Love Away 7/5/1964 169. Four Pennies.. Juliet 21/5/1964 170. Cilla Black .. You're My World 28/5/1964 June 171. Roy Orbison.. It's Over 25/6/1964 July 172. Animals.. The House Of The Rising Sun 9/7/1964 173. Rolling Stones.. It's All Over now 16/7/1964 174. Beatles.. A Hard Day's Night 23/7/1964 Aug 175. Manfred Mann.. Do Wah Diddy Diddy 13/8/1964 176. Honeycombes.. Have I The Right 27/8/1964 Sept 177. Kinks.. You Really Got Me 10/9/1964 178. Herman's Hermits.. I'm Into Something Good 24/9/1964 Oct 179. Roy Orbison.. Oh Pretty Woman 8/10/1964 180. Sandie Shaw.. (There's) Always Something There To Remind Me 22/10/1964 Nov 181. Supremes.. Baby Love 19/11/1964 Dec 182. Rolling Stones.. Little Red Rooster 3/12/1964 183. Beatles.. I Feel Fine 10/12/1964 1965 184. Georgie Fame & The Blue Flames 'Yeh Yeh' 14/1/1965 185. Moody Blues 'Go Now!' 28/1/1965 Feb 186. Righteous Brothers 'You've Lost That Loving Feeling' 4/2/1965 187. Kinks 'Tired Of Waiting For You' 18/2/1965 188. Seekers 'I'll Never Find Another You' 25/2/1965 March 189. Tom Jones 'It's Not Unusual' 11/3/1965 190. Rolling Stones 'The Last Time' 18/3/1965 April 191. Unit Four Plus Two 'Concrete & Clay' 8/4/1965 192. Cliff Richard 'The Minute You're Gone' 15/4/1965 193. Beatles 'Ticket To Ride' 22/4/1965 May 194. Roger Miller 'King Of The Road' 13/5/1965 195. Jackie Trent 'Where Are You Now (My Love)' 20/5/1965 196. Sandie Shaw 'Long Live Love' 27/5/1965 197. Elvis Presley 'Crying In The Chapel' 17/6/1965 198. Hollies 'I'm Alive' 24/6/1965 July 199. Byrds 'Mr Tambourine Man' 22/7/1965 Aug 201. Sonny & Cher 'I Got You Babe' 26/8/1965 Sept 202. Rolling Stones '(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction' 9/9/1965 203. Walker Brothers 'Make It Easy On Yourself' 23/9/1965 204. Ken Dodd 'Tears' 30/9/1965 Nov 205. Rolling Stones 'Get Off Of My Cloud' 4/11/1965 206. Seekers 'The Carnival Is Over' 25/11/1965 Dec 207. Beatles 'Day Tripper / We Can Work It Out' 16/12/1965 1966 208. Spencer Davis Group 'Keep On Running' 20/1/1966 209. Overlanders 'Michelle' 27/1/1966 210. Nancy Sinatra 'These Boots Are Made For Walking' 17/2/1966 March 211. Walker Brothers 'The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore' 17/3/1966 April 212. Spencer Davis Group 'Somebody Help Me' 14/4/1966 213. Dusty Springfield You 'Don't Have To Say You Love Me' 28/4/1966 May 214. Manfred Mann 'Pretty Flamingo' 5/5/1966 215. Rolling Stones 'Paint It Black' 26/5/1966 June 216. Frank Sinatra 'Strangers In The Night' 2/6/1966 217. Beatles 'Paperback Writer' 23/6/1966 July 218. Kinks 'Sunny Afternoon' 7/7/1966 219. Georgie Fame & The Blue Flames 'Get Away' 21/7/1966 220. Chris Farlowe 'Out Of Time' 28/7/1966 Aug 221. Troggs 'With A Girl Like You' 4/8/1966 222. Beatles 'Yellow Submarine / Eleanor Rigby' 18/8/1966 Sept 223. Small Faces 'All Or Nothing' 15/9/1966 224. Jim Reeves 'Distant Drums' 22/9/1966 Oct 225. Four Tops 'Reach Out I'll Be There' 27/10/1966 Nov 226. Beach Boys 'Good Vibrations' 17/11/1966 Dec 227. Tom Jones 'Green Green Grass Of Home' 1/12/1966 1967 228. Monkees 'I'm A Believer' 19/1/1967 Feb 229. Petula Clark 'This Is My Song' 16/2/1967 March 230. Engelbert Humperdink 'Release Me (And Let Me Love Again)' 2/3/1967 April 231. Frank Sinatra & Nancy Sinatra 'Somethin' Stupid' 13/4/1967 232. Sandie Shaw 'Puppet On A String' 27/4/1967 May 233. Tremeloes 'Silence Is Golden' 18/5/1967 June 234. Procol Harum 'A Whiter Shade Of Pale' 8/6/1967 July 235. Beatles 'All You Need Is Love' 19/7/1967 Aug 236. Scott McKenzie 'San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Some Flowers In Your Hair)' 9/8/1967 Sept 237. Engelbert Humperdink 'The Last Waltz' 6/9/1967 Oct 238. Bee Gees 'Massachusetts' 11/10/1967 Nov 239. Foundations - 'Baby Now That I've Found You' 8/11/1967 240. Long John Baldry - 'Let The Heartaches Begin' 22/11/1967 Dec 241. Beatles - 'Hello Goodbye' 6/12/1967 1968 242. Georgie Fame - 'The Ballad Of Bonnie & Clyde' 24/1/1968 243. Love Affair - 'Everlasting Love' 31/1/1968 Feb 244. Manfred Mann - 'The Mighty Quinn' 14/2/1968 245. Esther & Abi Ofarim - 'Cinderella Rockefella' 28/2/1968 March 246. Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich - 'Legend Of Xanadu' 20/3/1968 247. Beatles - ''Lady Madonna' 27/3/1968 April 248. Cliff Richard - 'Congratulations' 10/4/1968 249. Louis Armstrong -'What A Wonderful World / Cabaret' 24/4/1968 May 250. Union Gap featuring Gary Puckett -'Young Girl' 22/5/1968 June 251. Rolling Stones- 'Jumpin' Jack Flash' 19/6/1968 July 252. Equals - 'Baby Come Back' 3/7/1968 253. Des O'Connor - 'I Pretend' 24/7/1968 254. Tommy James & The Shondells - 'Mony Mony 31/7/1968 Aug 255. Crazy World of Arthur Brown - 'Fire' 14/8/1968 256. Beach Boys - ''Do It Again' 28/8/1968 Sept 257. Bee Gees - 'I've Gotta Get A Message To You' 4/9/1968 258. Beatles -'Hey Jude' 11/9/1968 259. Mary Hopkin - 'Those Were The Days' 25/9/1968 Nov 260. Joe Cocker - 'With A Little Help From My Friends' 6/11/1968 261. Hugo Montenegro Orchestra - 'The Good The Bad And The Ugly' 13/11/1968 262. Scaffold - 'Lily The Pink' 11/12/1968 1969 263. Marmalade - 'Ob-La-Di Ob-La-Da' 1/1/1969 264. Fleetwood Mac - Albatross 29/1/69 Feb 265. Move - Blackberry Way 05/2/69 266. Amen Corner '(If Paradise Is) Half As Nice' 12/2/1969 267. Peter Sarstedt 'Where Do You Go To My Lovely?' 26/2/1969 March 268. Marvin Gaye 'I Heard It Through The Grapevine' 26/3/1969 April 269. Desmond Dekker & The Aces 'Israelites' 16/4/1969 270. Beatles 'Get Back' 23/4/1969 June 271. Tommy Roe 'Dizzy' 4/6/1969 272. Beatles 'The Ballad Of John & Yoko' 11/6/1969 July 273. Thunderclap Newman 'Something In The Air' 2/7/1969 274. Rolling Stones 'Honky Tonk Women' 23/7/1969 Aug 275. Zager & Evans 'In The Year 2525' (Exorium & Terminus) 30/8/1969 Sept 276. Creedence Clearwater Revival 'Bad Moon Rising' 20/9/1969 Oct 277. Jane Birkin & Serge Gainsbourg 'Je T'Aime... Moi Non Plus' 11/10/1969 278. Bobby Gentry 'I'll Never Fall In Love Again' 18/10/1969 279. Archies 'Sugar Sugar' 25/10/1969 Dec 280. Rolf Harris 'Two Little Boys' 20/12/1969 1970 281. Edison Lighthouse 'Love Grows (Where My Rosemary Goes)' 31/1/1970 March 282. Lee Marvin - 'Wandrin' Star' 7/3/1970 283. Simon & Garfunkel - 'Bridge Over Troubled Water' 28/3/1970 April 284. Dana .. 'All Kinds Of Everything' 18/4/1970 May 285. Norman Greenbaum - 'Spirit In The Sky' 2/5/1970 286. England World Cup Squad -'Back Home' 16/5/1970 June 287. Christie - 'Yellow River' 6/6/1970 288. Mungo Jerry - 'In The Summertime' 13/6/1970 Aug 289. Elvis Presley - 'The Wonder Of You' 1/8/1970 Sept 290. Smokey Robinson & The Miracles 'Tears Of A Clown' 12/9/1970 291. Freda Payne 'Band Of Gold' 19/9/1970 Oct 292. Matthew's Southern Comfort 'Woodstock' 31/10/1970 Nov 293. Jimi Hendrix 'Voodoo Chile' 21/11/1970 294. Dave Edmunds 'I Hear You Knockin' 28/11/1970 1971 295. Clive Dunn - Grandad 9/1/1971 296. George Harrison - 'My Sweet Lord' 30/1/1971 March 297. Mungo Jerry - 'Baby Jump' 6/3/1971 298. T Rex - 'Hot Love' 20/3/1971 May 299. Dave & Ansil Collins - 'Double Barrel' 1/5/1971 300. Dawn - 'Knock Three Times' 15/5/1971 June 301. Middle Of The Road 'Chirpy Chirpy Cheep Cheep' 19/6/1971 July 302. T Rex 'Get It On' 24/7/1971 Aug 303. Diana Ross 'I'm Still Waiting' 21/8/1971 Sept 304. Tams 'Hey Girl Don't Bother Me' 18/9/1971 Oct 305. Rod Stewart 'Maggie May' 9/10/1971 Nov 306. Slade 'Coz I Luv You' 13/11/1971 Dec 307. Benny Hill 'Ernie (The Fastest Milkman In The West)' 11/12/1971 1972 308. New Seekers - 'I'd Like To Teach The World To Sing' 8/1/1972 Feb 309. T Rex 'Telegram Sam' 5/2/1972 310. Chicory Tip 'Son Of My Father' 19/2/1972 March 311. Nilsson' Without You' 11/3/1972 April 312. The Pipes & Drums & Military Band of The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards 'Amazing Grace' 15/4/1972 May 313. T Rex 'Metal Guru' 20/5/1972 June 314. Don McLean 'Vincent' 17/6/1972 July 315. Slade 'Take Me Back 'Ome' 1/7/1972 316. Donny Osmond 'Puppy Love' 8/7/1972 Aug 317. Alice Cooper 'School's Out' 12/8/1972 Sept 318. Rod Stewart 'You Wear It Well' 2/9/1972 319. Slade 'Mama Weer All Crazee Now' 9/9/1972 320. David Cassidy 'How Can I Be Sure' 30/9/1972 Oct 321. Lieutenant Pigeon 'Mouldy Old Dough' 14/10/1972 Nov 322. Gilbert O'Sullivan 'Clair' 11/11/1972 323. Chuck Berry 'My Ding-A-Ling' 25/11/1972 Dec 324. Little Jimmy Osmond 'Long Haired Lover From Liverpool' 23/12/1972 1973 326. Slade 'Cum On Feel The Noize' 3/3/1973 327. Donny Osmond 'The Twelfth Of Never' 31/3/1973 April 328. Gilbert O'Sullivan 'Get Down' 7/4/1973 329. Dawn featuring Tony Orlando 'Tie A Yellow Ribbon Round The Old Oak Tree' 21/4/1973 May 330. Wizzard 'See My Baby Jive' 19/5/1973 June 331. Suzi Quatro 'Can The Can' 16/6/1973 332. 10 CC 'Rubber Bullets' 23/6/1973 333. Slade 'Skweeze Me Pleeze Me' 30/6/1973 July 334. Peters & Lee 'Welcome Home' 21/7/1973 335. Gary Glitter 'I'm The Leader Of The Gang (I Am)' 28/7/1973 Aug 336. Donny Osmond 'Young Love' 25/8/1973 Sept 337. Wizzard 'Angel Fingers (A Teen Ballad)' 22/9/1973 338. Simon Park Orchestra 'Eye Level' 29/9/1973 Oct 339. David Cassidy 'Daydreamer / The Puppy Song' 27/10/1973 Nov 340. Gary Glitter 'I Love You Love Me Love' 17/11/1973 Dec 341. Slade 'Merry Xmas Everybody' 15/12/1973 1974 342. New Seekers 'You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me' 19/1/1974 343. Mud 'Tiger Feet' 26/1/1974 Feb 344. Suzi Quatro 'Devil Gate Drive' 23/2/1974 March 345. Alvin Stardust 'Jealous Mind' 9/3/1974 346. Paper Lace 'Billy Don't Be A Hero' 16/3/1974 April 347. Terry Jacks 'Seasons In The Sun' 6/4/1974 May 349. Rubettes 'Sugar Baby Love' 18/5/1974 June 350. Ray Stevens 'The Streak 15/6/1974 351. Gary Glitter 'Always Yours' 22/6/1974 352. Charles Aznavour 'She' 29/6/1974 July 353. George McCrae 'Rock Your Baby' 27/7/1974 Aug 354. Three Degrees 'When Will I See You Again' 17/8/1974 355. Osmonds 'Love Me For A Reason' 31/8/1974 Sept 356. Carl Douglas 'Kung Fu Fighting' 21/9/1974 Oct 357. John Denver 'Annie's Song' 12/10/1974 358. Sweet Sentation 'Sad Sweet Dreamer' 19/10/1974 359. Ken Boothe 'Everything I Own' 26/10/1974 Nov 360. David Essex 'Gonna Make You A Star' 16/11/1974 Dec 361. Barry White 'You're The First, The Last, My Everything' 7/12/1974 362. Mud 'Lonely This Christmas' 21/12/1974 1975 363. Status Quo 'Down Down' 18/1/1975 364. Tymes 'Ms Grace' 25/1/1975 Feb 366. Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel 'Make Me Smile (Come Up And See Me)' 22/2/1975 March 367. Telly Savalas ''If'' 8/3/1975 368. Bay City Rollers 'Bye Bye Baby 22/3/1975 May 369. Mud 'Oh Boy 3/5/1975 370. Tammy Wynette 'Stand By Your Man 17/5/1975 June 371. Windsor Davies & Don Estelle 'Whispering Grass' 7/6/1975 372. 10 CC 'I'm Not In Love' 28/6/1975 July 373. Johnny Nash 'Tears On My Pillow' 12/7/1975 374. Bay City Rollers 'Give A Little Love' 19/7/1975 Aug 375. Typically Tropical 'Barbados' 9/8/1975 376. Stylistics 'Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)' 16/8/1975 Sept 377. Rod Stewart 'Sailing' 6/9/1975 Oct 378. David Essex 'Hold Me Close' 4/10/1975 379. Art Garfunkel 'I Only Have Eyes For You' 25/10/1975 Nov 380. David Bowie 'Space Oddity' 8/11/1975 381. Billy Connolly 'D.I.V.O.R.C.E'. 22/11/1975 382. Queen 'Bohemian Rhapsody' 29/11/1975 1976 383. Abba 'Mamma Mia' 31/1/1976 Feb 384. Slik 'Forever And Ever' 14/2/1976 385. Four Seasons 'December '63' 21/2/1976 March 386. Tina Charles 'I Love To Love (But My Baby Loves To Dance)' 6/3/1976 387. Brotherhood Of Man ''Save Your Kisses For Me' 27/3/1976 May 396. Chicago 'If You Leave Me Now' 13/11/1976 Dec 397. Showaddywaddy 'Under The Moon Of Love'' 4/12/1976 398. Johnny Mathis 'When A Child Is Born' (Soleado) 25/12/1976 1977 399. David Soul ''Don't Give Up On Us 15/1/1977 Feb 400. Julie Covington 'Don't Cry For Me Argentina 12/2/1977 401. Leo Sayer 'When I Need You 19/2/1977 March 402. Manhattan Transfer 'Chanson D'Amour 12/3/1977 April 403. Abba 'Knowing Me Knowing You 2/4/1977 May 404. Deniece Williams 'Free 7/5/1977 405. Rod Stewart 'I Don't Want To Talk About It / First Cut Is The Deepest 21/5/1977 June 406. Kenny Rogers 'Lucille 18/6/1977 407. Jacksons Show 'You The Way To Go 25/6/1977 July 408. Hot Chocolate 'So You Win Again 2/7/1977 409. Donna Summer 'I Feel Love 23/7/1977 Aug 410. Brotherhood Of Man 'Angelo 20/8/1977 411. Floaters 'Float On 27/8/1977 Sept 412. Elvis Presley 'Way Down 3/9/1977 Oct 413. David Soul 'Silver Lady 8/10/1977 414. Baccara 'Yes Sir I Can Boogie 29/10/1977 Nov 415. Abba 'The Name Of The Game 5/11/1977 Dec 416. Wings 'Mull Of Kintyre / Girls' School 3/12/1977 1978 417. Althia & Donna 'Up Town Top Ranking 4/2/1978 418. Brotherhood Of Man 'Figaro 11/2/1978 419. Abba 'Take A Chance On Me 18/2/1978 March 420. Kate Bush 'Wuthering Heights 11/3/1978 April 421. Brian & Michael 'Matchstalk Men And Matchstalk Cats And Dogs 8/4/1978 422. Bee Gees 'Night Fever 29/4/1978 423. Boney M - 'Rivers Of Babylon / Brown 'Girl In The Ring 13/5/1978 June 424. John Travolta & Olivia Newton John 'You're The One That I Want 17/6/1978 Aug 425. Commodores 'Three Times A Lady 19/8/1978 Oct 426. 10 CC 'Dreadlock Holiday 23/9/1978 427. John Travolta & Olivia Newton 'John Summer Nights 30/9/1978 Nov 428. Boomtown Rats .. 'Rat Trap 18/11/1978 Dec 429. Rod Stewart.. 'Da Ya Think I'm Sexy 2/12/1978 430. Boney M .. 'Mary's Boy Child - Oh My Lord 9/12/1978 1979 431. Village People , Y.M.C.A. 6/1/1979 432. Ian Dury & The Blockheads , Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick 27/1/1979 Feb 433. Blondie , Heart Of Glass 3/2/1979 March 434. Bee Gees , Tragedy 3/3/1979 435. Gloria Gaynor , I Will Survive 17/3/1979 April 436. Art Garfunkel , Bright Eyes 14/4/1979 May 437. Blondie, Sunday Girl 26/5/1979 June 438. Anita Ward , Ring My Bell 16/6/1979 439. Tubeway Army , Are 'Friends' Electric 30/6/1979 July 440. Boomtown Rats , I Don't Like Mondays 28/7/1979 Aug 441. Cliff Richard , We Don't Talk Anymore 25/8/1979 Sept 442. Gary Numan , Cars 22/9/1979 443. Police , Message In A Bottle 29/9/1979 Oct 444. Buggles - Video Killed The Radio Star 20/10/1979 445. Lena Martell , One Day At A Time 27/10/1979 Nov 446. Dr Hook , When You're In Love With A Beautiful Woman 17/11/1979 Dec 447. Police ,Walking On The Moon 8/12/1979 448. Pink Floyd , Another Brick In The Wall 15/12/1979 1980 449. Pretenders 'Brass In Pocket' 19/1/1980 Feb 450. The Special AKA (Specials) The Specials Live EP (main track: Too Much Too Young) 2/2/1980 451. Kenny Rogers 'Coward Of The County' 16/2/1980 March 453. Fern Kinney 'Together We Are Beautiful '15/3/1980 454. Jam 'Going Underground / Dreams Of Children' 22/3/1980 April 455. Detroit Spinners 'Working My Way Back To You - Forgive Me Girl' 12/4/1980 456. Blondie 'Call Me' 26/4/1980 May 457. Dexy's Midnight Runners 'Geno' 3/5/1980 458. Johnny Logan 'What's Another Year' 17/5/1980 459. Mash 'Suicide Is Painless (Theme from MASH)' 31/5/1980 June 460. Don McLean 'Crying' 21/6/1980 July 461. Olivia Newton John & Electric Light Orchestra 'Xanadu' 12/7/1980 462. Odyssey 'Use It Up And Wear It Out' 26/7/1980 Aug 463. Abba 'The Winner Takes It All' 9/8/1980 464. David Bowie 'Ashes To Ashes' 23/8/1980 Sept 466. Kelly Marie 'Feels Like I'm In Love' 13/9/1980 467. Police 'Don't Stand So Close To Me' 27/9/1980 Oct 468. Barbra Streisand 'Woman In Love' 25/10/1980 Nov 469. Blondie 'The Tide Is High' 15/11/1980 470. Abba 'Super Trouper' 29/11/1980 Dec 471. John Lennon '(Just Like) Starting Over' 20/12/1980 472. St Winifred's School Choir 'There's No One Quite Like Grandma' 27/12/1980 1981 473. John Lennon 'Imagine' 10/1/1981 Feb 474. John Lennon 'Woman' 7/2/1981 475. Joe Dolce Music Theatre 'Shaddup You Face' 21/2/1981 March 476. Roxy Music 'Jealous Guy' 14/3/1981 477. Shakin' Stevens 'This Ole House' 28/3/1981 April 478. Bucks Fizz 'Making Your Mind Up' 18/4/1981 May 479. Adam & The Ants 'Stand And Deliver' 9/5/1981 June 480. Smokey Robinson 'Being With You' 13/6/1981 481. Michael Jackson 'One Day In Your Life' 27/6/1981 July 482. Specials 'Ghost Town' 11/7/1981 Aug 483. Shakin' Stevens 'Green Door' 1/8/1981 484. Aneka 'Japanese Boy' 29/8/1981 Sept 485. Soft Cell 'Tainted Love' 5/9/1981 486. Adam & The Ants 'Prince Charming' 19/9/1981 Oct 487. Dave Stewart & Barbara Gaskin 'It's My Party' 17/10/1981 Nov 488. Police ''Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic' 14/11/1981 489. Queen & David Bowie ''Under Pressure' 21/11/1981 Dec 490. Julio Iglesias ''Begin The Beguine (Volver A Empezar) 5/12/1981 491. Human League ''Don't You Want Me' 12/12/1981 1982 492. Bucks Fizz - Land Of Make Believe 16/1/1982 493. Shakin' Stevens - Oh Julie 30/1/1982 Feb 494. Kraftwerk - The Model / Computer Love 6/2/1982 495. Jam - A Town Called Malice / Precious 13/2/1982 March 496. Tight Fit - The Lion Sleeps Tonight 6/3/1982 497. Goombay Dance Band Seven - Tears 27/3/1982 April 498. Bucks Fizz - My Camera Never Lies 17/4/1982 499. Paul McCartney & Stevie Wonder - Ebony And Ivory 24/4/1982 May 500. Nicole- A Little Peace 15/5/1982 501. Madness - House Of Fun 29/5/1982 June 502. Adam Ant - Goody Two Shoes 12/6/1982 503. Charlene - I 've Never Been To Me 26/6/1982 July 504. Captain Sensible - Happy Talk 3/7/1982 505. Irene Cara - Fame 17/7/1982 Aug 506. Dexy's Midnight Runners - Come On Eileen 7/8/1982 Sept 507. Survivor - Eye Of The Tiger 4/9/1982 Oct 508. Musical Youth - Pass The Dutchie 2/10/1982 509. Culture Club - Do You Really Want To Hurt Me 23/10/1982 Nov 510. Eddy Grant - I Don't Wanna Dance 13/11/1982 Dec 511. Jam - Beat Surrender 4/12/1982 512. Renee & Renato - Save Your Love 18/12/1982 1983 513. Phil Collins 'You Can't Hurry Love' 15/1/1983 514. Men At Work 'Down Under' 29/1/1983 Feb 515. Kajagoogoo 'Too Shy' 19/2/1983 March 516. Michael Jackson 'Billie Jean' 5/3/1983 517. Bonnie Tyler 'Total Eclipse Of The Heart' 12/3/1983 518. Duran Duran 'Is There Something I Should Know' 26/3/1983 April 519. David Bowie 'Let's Dance' 9/4/1983 520. Spandau Ballet 'True' 30/4/1983 May 521. New Edition 'Candy Girl' 28/5/1983 June 522. Police 'Every Breath You Take' 4/6/1983 July 523. Rod Stewart 'Baby Jane' 2/7/1983 524. Paul Young 'Wherever I Lay My Hat' 23/7/1983 Aug 525. K C & The Sunshine Band 'Give It Up' 13/8/1983 Sept 526. UB 40 'Red Red Wine' 3/9/1983 527. Culture Club 'Karma Chameleon' 24/9/1983 Nov 528 Billy Joel 'Uptown Girl 5/11/1983 Dec 529 Flying Pickets 'Only You 10/12/1983 1984 530. Paul McCartney - Pipes Of Peace 14/1/1984 531. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - Relax 28/1/1984 March 532. Nena - 99 Red Balloons 3/3/1984 533. Lionel Richie - Hello 24/3/1984 May 534. Duran Duran - The Reflex 5/5/1984 June 535. Wham! - Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go 2/6/1984 536. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - Two Tribes 16/6/1984 Aug 537. George Michael - Careless Whisper 18/8/1984 Sept 538. Stevie Wonder - I Just Called To Say I Love You 8/9/1984 Oct 540. Chaka Khan - I Feel For You 10/11/1984 Dec 541. Jim Diamond - I Should Have Known Better 1/12/1984 542. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - The Power Of Love 8/12/1984 543. Band Aid - Do They Know It's Christmas 15/12/1984 1985 544. Foreigner 'I Want To Know What Love Is 19/1/1985 Feb 545. Elaine Paige & Barbara Dickson 'I Know Him So Well 9/2/1985 March 546. Dead Or Alive 'You Spin Me Round (Like A Record) 9/3/1985 547. Philip Bailey & Phil Collins 'Easy Lover 23/3/1985 April 548. USA For Africa 'We Are The World 20/4/1985 May 549. Phyllis Nelson 'Move Closer 4/5/1985 550. Paul Hardcastle '19' 11/5/1985 June 551. Crowd ''You'll Never Walk Alone 15/6/1985 552. Sister Sledge ''Frankie 29/6/1985 July 553. Eurythmics 'There Must Be An Angel (Playing With My Heart) 27/7/1985 Aug 554. Madonna 'Into The Groove 3/8/1985 555. UB 40 & Chrissie Hynde 'I Got You Babe 31/8/1985 Sept 556. David Bowie & Mick Jagger 'Dancing in the Street 7/9/1985 Oct 557. Midge Ure 'If I Was 5/10/1985 558. Jennifer Rush 'The Power Of Love 12/10/1985 Nov 559. Feargal Sharkey 'A Good Heart 16/11/1985 560. Wham! 'I'm Your Man 30/11/1985 Dec 561. Whitney Houston 'Saving All My Love For You 14/12/1985 562. Shakin' Stevens 'Merry Christmas Everyone 28/12/1985 1986 563. Pet Shop Boys 'West End Girls 11/1/1986 564. A-Ha 'The Sun Always Shines On TV 25/1/1986 Feb 565. Billy Ocean 'When The Going Gets Tough, The Tough Get Going 8/2/1986 March 566. Diana Ross 'Chain Reaction 8/3/1986 567. Cliff Richard & The Young 'Ones Living Doll 29/3/1986 The first official Comic Relief single April 568. George Michael 'A Different Corner 19/4/1986 May 569. Falco 'Rock Me Amadeus 10/5/1986 570. Spitting Image 'The Chicken Song 17/5/1986 June 571. Doctor & The Medics 'Spirit In The Sky 7/6/1986 572. Wham! 'The Edge Of Heaven 28/6/1986 July 573. Madonna 'Papa Don't Preach 12/7/1986 Aug 574. Chris de Burgh 'The Lady In Red 2/8/1986 575. Boris Gardiner 'I Want To Wake Up With You 23/8/1986 Sept 576. Communards 'Don't Leave Me This Way 13/9/1986 Oct 577. Madonna 'True Blue 11/10/1986 578. Nick Berry 'Every Loser Wins 18/10/1986 Nov 579. Berlin 'Take My Breath Away 8/11/1986 Dec 580. Europe 'The Final Countdown 6/12/1986 581. Housemartins 'Caravan Of Love 20/12/1986 582. Jackie Wilson 'Reet Petite 27/12/1986 1987 583. Steve 'Silk' Hurley 'Jack Your Body 24/1/1987 Feb 584. George Michael & Aretha Franklin 'I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me) 7/2/1987 585. Ben E King 'Stand By Me 21/2/1987 March 586. Boy George 'Everything I Own 14/3/1987 587. Mel & Kim 'Respectable 28/3/1987 April 588. Ferry Aid 'Let It Be 4/4/1987 589. Madonna 'La Isla Bonita 25/4/1987 May 590. Starship 'Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now 9/5/1987 June 591. Whitney Houston 'I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me) 6/6/1987 592. The Firm 'Star Trekkin' 20/6/1987 July 593. Pet Shop Boys' It's A Sin 4/7/1987 594. Madonna 'Who's That Girl 25/7/1987 Aug 595. Los Lobos 'La Bamba 1/8/1987 596. Michael Jackson ''I Just Can't Stop Loving You 15/8/1987 597. Rick Astley 'Never Gonna Give You Up 29/8/1987 Oct 598. M/A/R/R/S ''Pump Up The Volume / Anitina (The First Time I See She Dance) 3/10/1987 599. Bee Gees 'You Win Again 17/10/1987 Nov 600. T'Pau 'China In Your Hand 14/11/1987 Dec 601. Pet Shop Boys 'Always On My Mind 19/12/1987 1988 602. Belinda Carlisle 'Heaven Is A Place On Earth 16/1/1988 603. Tiffany 'I Think We're Alone Now 30/1/1988 Feb 604. Kylie Minogue 'I Should Be So Lucky 20/2/1988 March 605. Aswad 'Don't Turn Around 26/3/1988 April 606. Pet Shop Boys 'Heart 9/4/1988 607. S'Express 'Theme from S'Express 30/4/1988 May 608. Fairground 'Attraction Perfect 14/5/1988 609. Wet Wet Wet 'With A Little Help From My Friends 21/5/1988 June 610. Timelords 'Doctorin The Tardis 18/6/1988 611. Bros 'I Owe You Nothing 25/6/1988 July 612. Glenn Medeiros 'Nothing's Gonna Change My Love For You 9/7/1988 Aug 613. Yazz & The Plastic Population 'The Only Way Is Up 6/8/1988 Sept 614. Phil Collins 'A Groovy Kind Of Love 10/9/1988 615. Hollies 'He Ain't Heavy He's My Brother 24/9/1988 Oct 617. Whitney Houston 'One Moment In Time 15/10/1988 618. Enya 'Orinoco Flow (Sail Away) 29/10/1988 Nov 619. Robin Beck 'The First Time 19/11/1988 Dec 620. Cliff Richard 'Mistletoe & Wine 10/12/1988 1989 621. Kylie Minogue & Jason Donovan - Especially For You 7/1/1989 622. Marc Almond with Gene Pitney - Somethings Gotten Hold Of My Heart 28/1/1989 Feb 623. Simple Minds - Belfast Child 25/2/1989 March 624. Jason Donovan - Too Many Broken Hearts 11/3/1989 625. Madonna - Like A Prayer 25/3/1989 April 626. Bangles - Eternal Flame 15/4/1989 May 627. Kylie Minogue - Hand On Your Heart 13/5/1989 628. Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney, Holly Johnson & Christians - Ferry 'Cross The Mersey 20/5/1989 June 629. Jason Donovan - Sealed With A Kiss 10/6/1989 630. Soul II Soul featuring Caron Wheeler - Back To Life 24/6/1989 July 631. Sonia - You'll Never Stop Me Loving You 22/7/1989 Aug 632. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers -Swing The Mood 5/8/1989 Sept 633. Black Box - Ride On Time 9/9/1989 Oct 634. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers - That's What I Like 21/10/1989 Nov 635. Lisa Stansfield - All Around The World 11/11/1989 636. New Kids On The Block - You Got It (The Right Stuff) 25/11/1989 Dec 637. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers - Let's Party 16/12/1989 638. Band Aid II - Do They Know It's Christmas 23/12/1989 1990 639. New Kids On The Block - Hangin' Tough 16/1/1990 640. Kylie Minogue - Tears On My Pillow 27/1/1990 Feb 641. Sinead O'Connor - Nothing Compares 2 U 3/2/1990 March 642. Beats International Dub Be Good To Me 3/3/1990 643. Snap - The Power 31/3/1990 April 646. England New Order - World In Motion 9/6/1990 647. Elton John - Sacrifice / Healing Hands 23/6/1990 July 648. Partners In Kryme Turtle Power 28/7/1990 Aug 649. Bombalurina - Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini 25/8/1990 Sept 650. Steve Miller - Band The Joker 15/9/1990 651. Maria McKee - Show Me Heaven 29/9/1990 Oct 652. Beautiful South - A Little Time 27/10/1990 Nov 653. Righteous Brothers - Unchained Melody 3/11/1990 Dec 654. Vanilla Ice - Ice Ice Baby 1/12/1990 655. Cliff Richard - Saviour's Day 22/12/1990 1991 656. Iron Maiden - Bring Your Daughter To The Slaughter 5/1/1991 657. Enigma - Sadness Part 1 19/1/1991 658. Queen - Innuendo 26/1/1991 659. KLF - 3 AM Eternal 2/2/1991 660. Simpsons - Do The Bartman 16/2/1991 March 661. Clash - Should I Stay Or Should I Go 9/3/1991 662. Hale & Pace - The Stonk 23/3/1991 The official Comic Relief single 663. Chesney Hawkes - The One And Only 30/3/1991 . May 664. Cher - Shoop Shoop Song (It's In His Kiss) 4/5/1991 June 665. Color Me Badd - I Wanna Sex You Up 8/6/1991 666. Jason Donovan - Any Dream Will Do 29/6/1991 . July 667 Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You 13/7/1991 Nov 668. U2 - The Fly 2/11/1991 669. Vic Reeves & The Wonder Stuff - Dizzy 9/11/1991 670. Michael Jackson - Black Or White 23/11/1991 Dec 671. George Michael & Elton John - Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me 7/12/1991 672. Queen - Bohemian Rhapsody / These Are The Days Of Our Lives 21/12/1991 1992 673. Wet Wet Wet.. Goodnight Girl 25/1/1992 Feb 674. Shakespears Sister.. Stay 22/2/1992 April 675. Right Said Fred.. Deeply Dippy 18/4/1992 May 676. KWS.. Please Don't Go / Game Boy 9/5/1992 June 677. Erasure Abba-esque EP 13/6/1992 July 678. Jimmy Nail.. Ain't No Doubt 18/7/1992 Aug 679. Snap.. Rhythm Is A Dancer 8/8/1992 Sept 680. Shamen.. Ebeneezer Goode 19/9/1992 Oct 681. Tasmin Archer.. Sleeping Satellite 17/10/1992 682. Boyz II Men .. End Of The Road 31/10/1992 Nov 683. Charles & Eddie.. Would I Lie To You 21/11/1992 Dec 684. Whitney Houston.. I Will Always Love You 5/12/1992 . 1993 685. 2 Unlimited.. No Limit 13/2/1993 March 686. Shaggy.. Oh Carolina 20/3/1993 April 687. Bluebells.. Young At Heart 3/4/1993 May 688. George Michael & Queen with Lisa Stansfield - Five Live (EP) 1/5/1993 689. Ace Of Base.... All That She Wants 22/5/1993 June 690. UB 40.. (I Can't Help) Falling In Love With You 12/6/1993 . 691. Gabrielle.. Dreams 26/6/1993 . 692. Take That.. Pray 17/7/1993 August 693. Freddie Mercury.. Living On My Own 14/8/1993 694. Culture Beat.. Mr Vain 28/8/1993 Sept 695. Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince (Will Smith).. Boom! Shake The Room 25/9/1993 Oct 696. Take That featuring Lulu.. Relight my Fire 9/10/1993 697. Meat Loaf.. I'd Do Anything For Love (But I Won't Do That) 23/10/1993 . Dec 698. Mr Blobby.. Mr Blobby 11/12/1993 699. Take That.. Babe 18/12/1993 1994 700. Chaka Demus & Pliers - Twist & Shout 8/1/1994 701. D:Ream - Things Can Only Get Better 22/1/1994 Feb 702. Mariah Carey - Without You 19/2/1994 703. Doop - Doop 19/3/1994 704. Take That - Everything Changes 9/4/1994 705. Prince - The Most Beautiful Girl In The World 23/4/1994 May 706. Tony Di Bart - The Real Thing 7/5/1994 707. Stiltskin - Inside 14/5/1994 708. Manchester United 1994 Football Squad - Come On You Reds 21/5/1994 June 709. Wet Wet Wet - Love Is All Around 4/6/1994 Sept 710. Whigfield - Saturday Night 17/9/1994 Oct 711. Take That - Sure 15/10/1994 712. Pato Banton (with Robin & Ali Campbell) - Baby Come Back 29/10/1994 Nov 713. Baby D - Let Me Be Your Fantasy 26/11/1994 Dec 714. East 17 - Stay Another Day 10/12/1994 1995 715. Rednex.. Cotton Eye Joe 14/1/1995 Feb 716. Celine Dion.. Think Twice 4/2/1995 March 717. Cher,Chrissie Hynde,Neneh Cherry & Eric Clapton.. Love Can Build A Bridge 25/3/1995 April 718. Outhere Brothers.. Don't Stop (Wiggle Wiggle) 1/4/1995 719. Take That.. Back For Good 8/4/1995 May 720. Oasis Some.. Might Say 6/5/1995 721. Livin' Joy.. Dreamer 13/5/1995 722. Robson Green & Jerome Flynn.. Unchained Melody / White Cliffs Of Dover 20/5/1995 June 723. Outhere Brothers.. Boom Boom Boom 8/7/1995 Aug 724. Take That.. Never Forget 5/8/1995 725. Blur.. Country House 26/8/1995 Sept 726. Michael Jackson.. You Are Not Alone 9/9/1995 727. Shaggy - Boombastic 23/9/1995 728. Simply Red - Fairground 30/9/1995 Oct 729. Coolio featuring LV Gangsta's.. Paradise 28/10/1995 Nov 730. Robson & Jerome.. I Believe / Up On The Roof 11/11/1995 Dec 731. Michael Jackson.. Earth Song 9/12/1995 1996 732. George Michael - Jesus To A Child 20/1/1996 733. Babylon Zoo, Spaceman 27/1/1996 March 734. Oasis, Don't Look Back In Anger 2/3/1996 735. Take That, How Deep Is Your Love 9/3/1996 . 736. Prodigy, Firestarter 30/3/1996 737. Mark Morrison, Return Of The Mack 20/4/1996 May 738. George Michael, Fastlove 4/5/1996 . 739. Gina G Ooh Aah Just A Little Bit 25/5/1996 June 740. Baddiel, Skinner & Lightning Seeds.. Three Lions 1/6/1996 . 741. Fugees, Killing Me Softly 8/6/1996 July 742. Gary Barlow, Forever Love 20/7/1996 . 743. Spice Girls, Wannabe 27/7/1996 Sept 744. Peter Andre, Flava 14/9/1996 745. Fugees, Ready Or Not 21/9/1996 Oct 746. Deep Blue Something - Breakfast At Tiffany's 5/10/1996 747. Chemical Brothers, Setting Sun 12/10/1996 748. Boyzone, Words 19/10/1996 749. Spice Girls, Say You'll Be There 26/10/1996 Nov 750. Robson & Jerome, What Becomes Of The Broken Hearted / Saturday Night At The Movies / You'll Never Walk Alone 9/11/1996 751. Prodigy, Breathe 23/11/1996 752. Peter Andre, I Feel You 7/12/1996 753. Boyzone, A Different Beat 14/12/1996 754. Dunblane, Knockin' On Heaven's Door / Throw These Guns Away 21/12/1996 755. Spice Girls, 2 Become 1 28/12/1996 1997 756. Tori Amos, Professional Widow (It's Got To Be Big) 18/1/1997 757. White Town, Your Woman 25/1/1997 Feb 759. LL Cool J,, Ain't Nobody 8/2/1997 760. U2, Discotheque 15/2/1997 761. No Doubt, Don't Speak 22/2/1997 March 762. Spice Girls - Mama / Who Do You Think You Are 15/3/1997 "Who Do You Think You Are" was the official Comic Relief single and sold 672,577 copies. April 763. Chemical Brothers - Block Rockin' Beats 5/4/1997 764. R Kelly - I Believe I Can Fly 12/4/1997 May 765. Michael Jackson, Blood On The Dance Floor 3/5/1997 766. Gary Barlow, Love Won't Wait 10/5/1997 . 767. Olive, You're Not Alone 17/5/1997 768. Eternal ft. Bebe Winans - I Wanna Be The One 31/5/1997 . June 770. Puff Daddy & Faith Evans, I'll Be Missing You 28/6/1997 July 771. Oasis, D'you Know What I Mean 19/7/1997 Aug 772. Will Smith, Men In Black 16/8/1997 Sept 773. Verve, The Drugs Don't Work 13/9/1997 774. Elton John, Candle In The Wind 97 / Something About The Way You Look Tonight 20/9/1997 Oct 775. Spice Girls, Spice Up Your Life 25/10/1997 Nov 776. Aqua, Barbie Girl 1/11/1997 777. Various Artists, Perfect Day 29/11/1997 Dec 778. Teletubbies, Teletubbies Say Eh-oh! 13/12/1997 779. Spice Girls, Too Much 27/12/1997 1998 780. All Saints - Never Ever 17/1/1998 781. Oasis - All Around The World 24/1/1998 782. Usher - You Make Me Wanna... 31/1/1998 Feb 783. Aqua - Doctor Jones 7/2/1998 784. Celine Dion - My Heart Will Go On 21/2/1998 785. Cornershop - Brimful Of Asha 28/2/1998 March 787. Run DMC vs Jason Nevins- It's Like That 21/3/1998 May 788. Boyzone - All That I Need 2/5/1998 789. All Saints - Under The Bridge / Lady Marmalade 9/5/1998 790. Aqua - Turn Back Time 16/5/1998 791. Tamperer featuring Maya - Feel It 30/5/1998 June 792. BWitched - C'est La Vie 6/6/1998 793. Baddiel, Skinner & Lightning Seeds - Three Lions '98 20/6/1998 . July 794. Billie - Because We Want To 11/7/1998 795. Another Level - Freak Me 18/7/1998 796. Jamiroquai - Deeper Underground 25/7/1998 Aug 797. Spice Girls - Viva Forever 1/8/1998 798. Boyzone - No Matter What 15/8/1998 Sept 799. Manic Street Preachers - If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next 5/9/1998 800. All Saints - Bootie Call 12/9/1998 801. Robbie Williams - Millennium 19/9/1998 802. Melanie B featuring Missy Elliott - I Want You Back 26/9/1998 Oct 803. BWitched - Rollercoaster 3/10/1998 804. Billie - Girlfriend 17/10/1998 805. Spacedust - Gym & Tonic 24/10/1998 806. Cher - Believe 31/10/1998 807. BWitched - To You I Belong 19/12/1998 808. Spice Girls - Goodbye 26/12/1998 1999 809. Chef - Chocolate Salty Balls (PS I Love You) 2/1/1999 810. Steps - Heartbeat / Tragedy 9/1/1999 811. Fatboy Slim - Praise You 16/1/1999 812. 911 - A Little Bit More 23/1/1999 813. Offspring Pretty Fly (For A White Guy) 30/1/1999 Feb 814. Armand Van Helden featuring Duane Haeden - You Don't Know Me 6/2/1999 815. Blondie - Maria 13/2/1999 816. Lenny Kravitz - Fly Away 20/2/1999 817. Britney Spears - Baby One More Time 27/2/1999 . March 818. Boyzone - When The Going Gets Tough 13/3/1999 The official Comic Relief single 819. BWitched - Blame It On The Weatherman 27/3/1999 April 820. Mr Oizo - Flat Beat 3/4/1999 821. Martine McCutcheon - Perfect Moment 17/4/1999 May 822. Westlife - Swear It Again 1/5/1999 823. Backstreet Boys - I Want It That Way 15/5/1999 824. Boyzone - You Needed Me 22/5/1999 825. Shanks & Bigfoot - Sweet Like Chocolate 29/5/1999 June 826. Baz Luhrmann - Everybody's Free (To Wear Sunscreen): The Sunscreen Song (Class of 99) 12/6/1999 827. S Club 7 - Bring It All Back 19/6/1999 828. Vengaboys - Boom Boom Boom Boom!! 26/6/1999 July 829. ATB - 9PM (Till I Come) 3/7/1999 830. Ricky Martin - Livin' La Vida Loca 17/7/1999 831. Ronan Keating - When You Say Nothing At All 7/8/1999 Aug 832. Westlife - If I Let You Go 21/8/1999 833. Geri Halliwell - Mi Chico Latino 28/8/1999 Sept 834. Lou Bega - Mambo No 5 4/9/1999 835. Vengaboys - We're Going To Ibiza 18/9/1999 836. Eiffel 65 Blue (Da Ba Dee) 25/9/1999 Oct 837. Christina Aguilera - Genie In A Bottle 16/10/1999 838. Westlife - Flying Without Wings 30/10/1999 Nov 839. Five - Keep On Movin' 6/11/1999 840. Geri Halliwell - Lift Me Up 13/11/1999 841. Robbie Williams - She's The One / It's Only Us 20/11/1999 842. Wamdue Project - King Of My Castle 27/11/1999 Dec 843. Cliff Richard - Millennium Prayer 4/12/1999 844. Westlife - I Have A Dream / Seasons In The Sun 25/12/1999 2000 845. Manic Street Preachers - The Masses Against The Classes 22/1/2000 846. Britney Spears - Born To Make You Happy 29/1/2000 Feb 848. Oasis - Go Let It Out 19/2/2000 849. All Saints - Pure Shores 26/2/2000 March 850. Madonna - American Pie 11/3/2000 851. Chicane featuring Bryan Adams - Don't Give Up 18/3/2000 852. Geri Halliwell - Bag It Up 25/3/2000 April 853. Melanie C with Lisa 'Left Eye' Lopes - Never Be The Same Again 1/4/2000 854. Westlife - Fool Again 8/4/2000 855. Craig David - Fill Me In 15/4/2000 856. Fragma Toca's Miracle 22/4/2000 May 857. Oxide & Neutrino - Bound 4 Da Reload (Casualty) 6/5/2000 858. Britney Spears - Oops!... I Did It Again 13/5/2000 859. Madison Avenue - Don't Call Me Baby 20/5/2000 860. Billie Piper - Day & Night 27/5/2000 June 861. Sonique - It Feels So Good 3/6/2000 (3 weeks) 862. Black Legend - You See The Trouble With Me 24/6/2000 July 863. Kylie Minogue - Spinning Around 1/7/2000 864. Eminem - Real Slim Shady 8/7/2000 865. Corrs - Breathless 15/7/2000 866. Ronan Keating - Life Is A Rollercoaster 22/7/2000 867. Five and Queen - We Will Rock You 29/7/2000 Aug 868. Craig David - 7 Days 5/8/2000 869. Robbie Williams - Rock DJ 12/8/2000 870. Melanie C- I Turn To You 19/8/2000 871. Spiller - Groovejet (If This Ain't Love) 26/8/2000 Sept 873. A1 - Take On Me 9/9/2000 874. Modjo - Lady (Hear Me Tonight) 16/9/2000 875. Mariah Carey & Westlife - Against All Odds 30/9/2000 Oct 876. All Saints - Black Coffee 14 Oct 877. U2 - Beautiful Day 21/10/2000 878. Steps - Stomp 28/10/2000 879. Spice Girls - Holler / Let Love Lead The Way 4/11/2000 880. Westlife - My Love 11/11/2000 881. A1 - Same Old Brand New You 18/11/2000 882. LeAnn Rimes - Can't Fight The Moonlight 25/11/2000 Dec 883. Destiny's Child - Independent Women Part 1 2/12/2000 884. S Club 7 - Never Had A Dream Come True 9/12/2000 885. Eminem Stan 16/12/2000 886. Bob The Builder - Can We Fix It 23/12/2000 (3 weeks) 2001 887. Rui Da Silva featuring Cassandra.. Touch Me 13/1/2001 888. Jennifer Lopez.. Love Don't Cost A Thing 20/1/2001 889. Limp Bizkit.. Rollin' 27/1/2001 Feb 890. Atomic Kitten.. Whole Again 10/2/2001 (4 weeks) March 891. Shaggy featuring Rikrok.. It Wasn't Me 10/3/2001 892. Westlife.. Uptown Girl 17/3/2001 893. Hear'Say.. Pure And Simple 24/3/2001 April 894. Emma Bunton.. What Took You So Long 14/4/2001 895. Destiny's Child.. Survivor 28/4/2001 May 896. S Club 7.. Don't Stop Movin' 5/5/2001 897. Geri Halliwell.. It's Raining Men 12/5/2001 June 898. DJ Pied Piper Do You Really Like It 2/6/2001 899. Shaggy featuring Rayvon.. Angel 9/6/2001 900. Christina Aguilera / Lil' Kim, Mya & Pink.. Lady Marmalade 30/6/2001 July 901. Hear'Say.. The Way To Your Love 7/7/2001 902. Roger Sanchez .. Another Chance 14/7/2001 903. Robbie Williams.. Eternity/The Road To Mandalay 21/7/2001 Aug 904. Atomic Kitten.. Eternal Flame 4/8/2001 905. So Solid Crew.. 21 Seconds 18/8/2001 906. Five.. Let's Dance 25/8/2001 Sept 907. Blue.. Too Close 8/9/2001 908. Bob The Builder.. Mambo No 5 15/9/2001 909. DJ Otzi.. Hey Baby 22/9/2001 910. Kylie Minogue.. Can't Get You Out Of My Head 29/9/2001 Oct 911. Afroman.. Because I Got High 27/10/2001 Nov 912. Westlife.. Queen of My Heart 17/11/2001 913. Blue.. If You Come Back 24/11/2001 Dec 914. S Club 7.. Have You Ever 1/12/2001 915. Daniel Bedingfield.. Gotta Get Thru This 8/12/2001 916. Robbie Williams and Nicole Kidman.. Somethin' Stupid 22/12/2001 2002 917. Aaliyah.. More Than A Woman 19/1/2002 918. George Harrison.. My Sweet Lord 26/1/2002 Feb 919. Enrique Iglesias.. Hero 2/2/2002 (4 weeks) March 920. Westlife.. World Of Our Own 2/3/2002 921. Will Young.. Anything Is Possible / Evergreen 9/3/2002 922. Gareth Gates.. Unchained Melody 30/3/2002 (4 weeks) April 923. Oasis.. The Hindu Times 27/4/2002 May 924. Sugababes.. Freak Like Me 4/5/2002 925. Holly Valance.. Kiss Kiss 11/5/2002 926. Ronan Keating.. If Tomorrow Never Comes 18/5/2002 927. Liberty X.. Just a Little 25/5/2002 June 928. Eminem.. Without Me 1/6/2002 929. Will Young.. Light My Fire 8/6/2002 930. Elvis vs JXL.. A Little Less Conversation 22/6/2002 (4 weeks) July 931. Gareth Gates.. Anyone Of Us (Stupid Mistake) 20/7/2002 Aug 933. Sugababes.. Round Round 24/8/2002 934. Blazin' Squad.. Crossroads 31/8/2002 Sept 935. Atomic Kitten.. The Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) 7/9/2002 936. Pink.. Just Like A Pill 28/9/2002 Oct 937. Will Young & Gareth Gates.. The Long And Winding Road / Suspicious Minds 5/10/2002 938. Las Ketchup.. The Ketchup Song (Asereje) 19/10/2002 939. Nelly feat. Kelly Rowland.. Dilemma 26/10/2002 Nov 940. DJ Sammy & Yanou feat. Do Heaven 9/11/2002 941. Westlife.. Unbreakable 16/11/2002 942. Christina Aguilera.. Dirty 23/11/2002 Dec 943. Daniel Bedingfield.. If You're Not The One 7/12/2002 944. Eminem.. Lose Yourself 14/12/2002 945. Blue feat. Elton John.. Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word 21/12/2002 946. Girls Aloud.. Sound Of The Underground 28/12/2002 (4 weeks) 2003 947: David Sneddon: Stop Living The Lie 25/1/2003 Feb 948: Tatu: All The Things She Said 8/2/2003 March 949: Christina Aguilera: Beautiful 8/3/2003 950: Gareth Gates: Spirit In The Sky 22/3/2003 April 951: Room 5 feat. Oliver Cheatham: Make Luv 5/4/2003 May 952: Busted: You Said No 3/5/2003 953: Tomcraft: Loneliness 10/5/2003 954: R Kelly: Ignition 17/5/2003 June 955: Evanescence: Bring Me To Life 14/6/2003 July 956: Beyonce: Crazy In Love 12/7/2003 Aug 957: Daniel Bedingfield: Never Gonna Leave Your Side 2/8/2003 958: Blu Cantrell Feat. Sean Paul: Breathe 9/8/2003 Sept 959: Elton John: Are You Ready For Love? 6/9/2003 960: Black Eyed Peas: Where Is The Love? 13/9/2003 (6 weeks) Oct 961: Sugababes: Hole In The Head 25/10/2003 Nov 962: Fatman Scoop: Be Faithful 1/11/2003 963: Kylie Minogue: Slow 15/11/2003 964: Busted: Crashed The Wedding 22/11/2003 965: Westlife: Mandy 29/11/2003 966: Will Young: Leave Right Now 6/12/2003 967: Kelly & Ozzy Osbourne: Changes 20/12/2003 968: Michael Andrews feat. Gary Jules: Mad World 27/12/2003 2004 969: Michelle McManus: All This Time 17/1/2004 February 970: LMC V U2: Take Me To The Clouds Above 7/2/2004 971: Sam & Mark: With A Little Help From My Friends / Measure Of A Man 21/2/2004 972: Busted: Who's David 28/2/2004 March 973: Peter Andre: Mysterious Girl 6/3/2004 974: Britney Spears: Toxic 13/3/2004 975: DJ Casper Cha Cha Slide 20/3/2004 976: Usher: Yeah 27/3/2004 977: McFly: Five Colours In Her Hair 10/4/2004 978: Eamon: Fk It (I Don't Want You Back) 24/4/2004 (4 weeks) May 979: Frankee: F.U.R.B (F U Right Back) 22/5/2004 June 980: Mario Winans feat. Enya & P.Diddy: I Don't Wanna Know 12/6/2004 981: Britney Spears: Everytime 26/6/2004 July 984: Shapeshifters: Lola's Theme 24/7/2004 985: The Streets: Dry Your Eyes 31/7/2004 August 986: Busted: Thunderbirds / 3AM 7/8/2004 987: 3 Of A Kind: Babycakes 21/8/2004 988: Natasha Bedingfield: These Words 28/8/2004 September 989: Nelly: My Place / Flap Your Wings 11/9/2004 990: Brian McFadden: Real To Me 18/9/2004 991: Eric Prydz: Call On Me 25/9/2004 October 992: Robbie Williams: Radio 16/10/2004 November 993: Ja Rule feat. R.Kelly & Ashanti: Wonderful 6/11/2004 994: Eminem: Just Lose It 13/11/2004 995: U2: Vertigo 20/11/2004 996: Girls Aloud: I'll Stand By You 27/11/2004 December 997: Band Aid 20: Do They Know It's Christmas 11/12/2004 (4 weeks) 2005 998: Steve Brookstein - Against All Odds ..8/1/2005 X Factor winner 999: Elvis Presley - Jailhouse Rock .. 15/1/2005 (No.1 Jan 24th 1958) 1000: Elvis Presley - One Night .. 22/1/2005 (No.1 Jan 30th 1959) 1001:Ciara feat. Petey Pablo - Goodies .. 29/1/2005 February 1002: Elvis Presley - It's Now Or Never .. 5/2/2005 (No.1 Nov 3rd 1960) 1003: Eminem - Like Toy Soldiers .. 12/2/2005 1004: U2 - Sometimes You Cant Make It On Your Own .. 19/2/2005 1005: Jennifer Lopez - Get Right .. 26/2/2005 March 1006: Nelly featuring Tim McGraw - Over and Over .. 5/3/2005 1007: Stereophonics - Dakota .. 12/3/2005 1008: McFly - All About You / You've Got A Friend 19/3/2005 Official Comic Relief single 1009: Tony Christie feat. Peter Kay (Is This The Way To) Amarillo .. 26/3/2005 (7) The 2nd Comic Relief single May 1010: Akon - Lonely .. 14/5/05 (2) 1011: Oasis - Lyla .. 28/5/05 (1) June 1012: Crazy Frog - Axel F .. 05/6/2005 (4) in@ No.1 (First RINGTONE to chart in UK) July 1013: 2Pac feat. Elton John - Ghetto Gospel .. 2/7/2005 1014: James Blunt - You're Beautiful .. 23/7/2005 August 1015: McFly - I'll Be OK .. 27/8/2005 September 1016: Oasis - The Importance Of Being Idle .. 3/9/2005 1017: Gorillaz - Dare .. 10/9/2005 1018: Pussycat Dolls Ft Busta Rhymes - Don't Cha .. 17/9/2005 October 1019: Sugababes - Push The Button .. 8/10/2005 (3) 1020: Arctic Monkeys - I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor .. 29/10/2005 (1) .. November 1021: Westlife - You Raise Me Up ..5/11/05 (2) 1022: Madonna - Hung Up .. 19/11/05 (3) December 1023: Pussycat Dolls - Stickwitu ..10/12/05 (2) 1024: Nizlopi - JCB Song .. 24/12/05 (1) 1025: Shayne Ward - That's My Goal .. 31/12/05 (4) in@ No.1 X Factor winner 2006 1026: Arctic Monkeys - When The Sun Goes Down .. 28/1/06 (1) in@ No.1 .. February 1027: Notorious BIG/ P Diddy/ Nelly - Nasty Girl .. 4/2/06 (2) 1028: Meck Ft Leo Sayer - Thunder In My Heart Again .. 18/2/06 (2) in@ No.1 .. March 1029: Madonna - Sorry .. 4/3/06 (1) in@ No.1 1030: Chico - It's Chico Time .. 11/3/06 (2) in@ No.1 1031: Orson - No Tomorrow .. 25/3/06 (1) .. April 1032: NeYo - So Sick .. 1/4/06 (1) 1033: Gnarls Barkley - Crazy .. 8/4/06 (9) in@ No.1 June 1034: Sandi Thom - I Wish I A Punk Rocker .. 10/6/06 (1) .. 1035: Nelly Furtado - Maneater .. 17/6/06 (3) July 1036: Shakira Ft Wyclef Jean - Hips Don't Lie .. 8/7/06 (1) 1037: Lily Allen - Smile .. 15/7/06 (2) 1038: McFly - Don't Stop Me Now/please Please .. 29/7/06 (1) in@ No.1 .. August r/e. : Shakira Ft Wyclef Jean - Hips Don't Lie .. 5/8/06 (4) September 1039: Beyonce Ft Jay-z - Deja Vu .. 2/9/06 (1) 1040: Justin Timberlake - Sexyback .. 9/9/06 (1) in@ No.1.. 1041: Scissor Sisters - I Don't Feel Like Dancin' .. 16/9/06 (4) October 1042: Razorlight - America .. 14/10/06 (1).. 1043: My Chemical Romance - Welcome To The Black Parade .. 21/10/06 (2).. November 1044: McFly - Star Girl .. 4/11/06 (1) in@ No.1 .. 1045: Fedde Le Grand - Put Your Hands Up For Detroit ..11/11/06 (1) .. 1046: Westlife - The Rose .. 18/11/06 (1) in@ No.1 1047: Akon Ft Eminem - Smack That .. 25/11/2006 (1) December 1048: Take That - Patience .. 2/12/2006 (4) 1049: Leona Lewis - A Moment Like This .. 30/12/2006 (4) in@ No.1 .. X Factor winner 2007 1050: Mika - Grace Kelly .. 27/01/07 (5) .. March 1051: Kaiser Chiefs - Ruby .. 03/03/07 (1) .. 1052: Take That - Shine .. 10/03/07 (2) 1053: Sugababes Vs Girls Aloud - Walk This Way .. 24/03/07 (2) The official Comic Relief single 1054: Proclaimers/B.Potter/A.Pipkin - I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) .. 31/03/07 (3) in@ No.1 also released for the Comic Relief charity. Its sales were double that of the "official" Comic Relief single. April 1055: Timbaland/Nelly Furtado/Justin Timberlake - Give It To Me .. 21/04/07 (1) 1056: Beyonce & Shakira - Beautiful Liar .. 28/04/07 (4) .. May 1057: McFly - Baby's Coming Back/Transylvania .. 19/05/07 (1) in@ No.1 1058: Rihanna ft Jay.Z - Umbrella .. 26/05/07 (10) in@ No.1 August 1059: Timbaland Ft Keri Hilson - The Way I Are .. 4/08/07 (2).. 1060: Robyn With Kleerup - With Every Heartbeat .. 18/08/2007 (1) 1061: Kanye West - Stronger .. 25/08/2007 (2) September 1062: Sean Kingston - Beautiful Girls .. 08/09/2007 (4) October 1063: Sugababes - About You Now .. 06/10/2007 (4) November 1064: Leona Lewis - Bleeding Love .. 03/11/2007 (7) in@ No.1 .. December 1065: Eva Cassidy & Katie Melua - What A Wonderful World .. 22/12/2007 (1) in@ No.1 .. 1066: Leon Jackson - When You Believe .. 29/12/2007 (3) in@ No.1 X Factor winner 2008 1067: Basshunter Ft. Dj Mental Theo - Now You're Gone .. w/e 19/01/2008 (5) February 1068: Duffy - Mercy .. w/e 23/02/2008 (5) in@ No.1 March 1069: Estelle Ft Kanye West - American Boy .. w/e 29/03/2008 (4) in@ No.1 .. April 1070: Madonna Ft Justin Timberlake - 4 Minutes .. w/e 26/04/2008 (4) May 1071: Ting Tings - That's Not My Name .. w/e 24/05/2008 (1) in@ No.1 1072: Rihanna - Take A Bow .. 31/05/2008 (2) June 1073: Mint Royale - Singin' In The Rain .. 14/06/2008 (2) in@ No.1 .. 1074: Coldplay - Viva La Vida .. 28/06/2008 (1) in@ No.1 July 1075: Ne-Yo . - Closer .. 05/07/2008 (1) 1076: Dizzee Rascal /Calvin Harris /Chrome - Dance Wiv Me .. 12/07/2008 (4) in@ No.1 August 1077: Kid Rock - All Summer Long .. 09/08/2008 (1) .. 1078: Katy Perry - I Kissed A Girl .. 16/08/2008 (5) September 1079: Kings Of Leon - Sex On Fire .. 20/09/2008 (3) in@ No.1 .. October 1080: Pink - So What .. 11th Oct (3) November 1081: Girls Aloud - The Promise .. 1st Nov (1) in@ No.1 1082: X Factor Finalists - Hero .. 7th Nov (3) in@ No.1 1083: Beyonce - If I Were A Boy .. 29 Nov (1) December 1084: Take That - Greatest Day .. 06 Dec (1) in@ No.1 .. 1085: Leona Lewis - Run .. 13 Dec (2) in@ No.1 1086: Alexandra Burke - Hallelujah .. 27 Dec (3) [email protected] X Factor winner 2009 1087: Lady Gaga - Just Dance .. w/e Jan 17th (3) February 1088: Lily Allen - The Fear.. w/e Feb 07th (4) in@ No.1 March 1089: Kelly Clarkson - My Life Would Suck Without You.. w/e March 07 (1) in@ No.1 1090: Flo Rida Ft Kesha - Right Round.. w/e March 14 (1) in@ No.1 .. No.2 in the charts .. "Just Can't Get Enough" - The Saturdays .. the first official Comic Relief single not to reach No.1 in 14 years. 1091: Jenkins/West/Jones/Gibb - Islands In The Stream.. w/e March 21 (1) in@ No.1 ..The second Comic Relief 2009 single. 1092: Lady Gaga - Poker Face.. w/e March 28 (3) April 1093: Calvin Harris - I'm Not Alone.. w/e April 18 (2) in@ No.1 May 1094: Tinchy Stryder Ft N-dubz - Number 1.. w/e May 02 (3) in@ No.1 1095: Black Eyed Peas - Boom Boom Pow.. w/e May 23 (1) in@ No.1 1096: Dizzee Rascal / Armand Van Helden - Bonkers.. w/e May 30 (2) in@ No.1 June r/e.. : Black Eyed Peas - Boom Boom Pow.. w/e June 13 (1) 1097: Pixie Lott - Mama Do.. w/e June 20 (1) in@ No.1 1098: David Guetta Ft Kelly Rowland - When Love Takes Over.. w/e June 27 (1) .. July 1099: La Roux - Bulletproof.. w/e July 4 (1) in@ No.1 1100: Cascada - Evacuate The Dancefloor.. w/e 11 July (2) in@ No.1 1101: JLS - Beat Again.. w/e 25 July (1) in@ No.1 August 1102: Black Eyed Peas - I Gotta Feeling.. w/e 08 Aug (1) 1103: Tinchy Stryder Ft Amelle - Never Leave You.. w/e 15 Aug (1) in@ No.1 r/e ..: Black Eyed Peas - I Gotta Feeling.. w/e 22 Aug (1) 1104: David Guetta Ft Akon - Sexy Chick.. w/e 29 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. September 1105: Dizzee Rascal - Holiday.. w/e 05 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1106: Jay-Z Ft Rihanna & Kanye West - Run This Town.. w/e 12 Sept (1) in@ No.1 .. 1107: Pixie Lott - Boys & Girls.. w/e 19 Sept (1) 1108: Taio Cruz - Break Your Heart.. w/e 26 Sept (3) in@ No.1 October 1109: Chipmunk - Oopsy Daisy.. w/e 17 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1110: Alexandra Burke ft. Flo Rida - Bad Boys .. w/e 24 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1111: Cheryl Cole - Fight For This Love.. w/e 31 Oct (2) in@ No.1 .. November 1112: JLS - Everybody In Love.. w/e 14 Nov (1) in@ No.1 .. 1113: Black Eyed Peas - Meet Me Halfway.. w/e 21 Nov (1) .. 1114: X Factor Finalists 2009 - You Are Not Alone.. w/e 28 Nov (1) in@ No.1 December 1115: Peter Kay's Animated All Star Band - BBC Children In Need Medley.. w/e 05 Dec (2) 1116: Lady Gaga - Bad Romance.. w/e 19 Dec (1) 1117: Rage Against the Machine - Killing In The Name.. w/e 26 Dec (1) in@ No.1 2010 1118: Joe McElderry - The Climb.. w/e 02 Jan (1) X Factor winner r/e....: Lady Gaga - Bad Romance.. w/e 09 Jan (1) .. 1119: Iyaz - Replay.. w/e 16 Jan (2) in@ No.1 1120: Owl City - Fireflies.. w/e 30 Jan (3) .. February 1121: Helping Haiti - Everybody Hurts.. w/e 20 Feb (2) in@ No.1 March 1122: Jason Derulo - In My Head.. w/e 06 March (1) in@ No.1 1123: Tinie Tempah - Pass Out.. w/e 13 March (2) in@ No.1 .. 1124: Lady Gaga ft. Beyoncé - Telephone.. w/e 27 March (2) April 1125: Scouting for Girls - This Ain't A Love Song.. w/e 10 April (2) in@ No.1 .. 1126: Usher ft. will.i.am - OMG.. w/e 24 April (1) May 1127: Diana Vickers - Once.. w/e 01 May (1) in@ No.1 1128: Roll Deep - Good Times.. w/e 08 May (3) in@ No.1 .. 1129: B.o.B ft Bruno Mars - Nothin' On You.. w/e 29 May (1) in@ No.1 June 1130: Dizzee Rascal - Dirtee Disco.. w/e 05 June (1) in@ No.1 .. 1131: David Guetta ft. Chris Willis - Gettin' Over You.. w/e 12 June (1) in@ No.1 .. 1132: Shout ft. Dizzee & James Corden - Shout For England.. w/e 19 June (2) in@ No.1 .. July 1133: Katy Perry ft.Snoop Dogg - California Gurls.. w/e 03 July (2) in@ No.1 .. 1134: JLS - The Club Is Alive.. w/e 17 July (1) in@ No.1 .. 1135: B.o.B ft. Hayley Williams - Airplanes.. w/e 24 July (1) .. 1136: Yolanda Be Cool Vs D Cup - We No Speak Americano.. w/e 31 July (1) .. August 1137: Wanted - All Time Low.. w/e 07 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. 1138: Ne-Yo - Beautiful Monster.. w/e 14 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. 1139: Flo Rida Club ft. David Guetta - Can't Handle Me.. w/e 21 Aug (1) 1140: Roll Deep - Green Light.. w/e 28 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. September 1141: Taio Cruz - Dynamite.. w/e 04 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1142: Olly Murs - Please Don't Let Me Go.. w/e 11 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1143: Alexandra Burke ft. Laza Morgan - Start Without You.. w/e 18 Sept (2) in@ No.1 .. October 1144: Bruno Mars - Just the Way You Are (Amazing).. w/e 02 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1145: Tinie Tempah - Written In The Stars.. w/e 09 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1146: Cee Lo Green - Forget You.. w/e 16 Oct (2) in@ No.1 r/e...: Bruno Mars - Just the Way You Are (Amazing).. w/e 30 Oct (1) .. November 1147: Cheryl Cole - Promise This.. w/e 06 Nov (1) in@ No.1 1148: Rihanna - Only Girl (In The World).. w/e 13 Nov (2) .. 1149: JLS - Love You More.. w/e 27 Nov (1) in@ No.1 . December 1150: The X Factor Finalists 2010 - Heroes.. w/e 04 Dec (2) in@ No.1 . 1151: The Black Eyed Peas - The Time (Dirty Bit).. w/e 18 Dec (1). 1152: Matt Cardle - When We Collide.. w/e 25 Dec (3) in@ No.1 X Factor winner 2011 1153: Rihanna ft. Drake - What's My Name.. w/e 15 Jan (1). 1154: Bruno Mars - Grenade.. w/e 22 Jan (2) in@ No.1. February 1155: Kesha - We R Who We R.. w/e 05 Feb (1) 1156: Jessie J ft. B.o.B - Price Tag.. w/e 12 Feb (2) in@ No.1 1157: Adele - Someone Like You.. w/e 26 Feb (4) March 1158: Nicole Scherzinger - Don't Hold Your Breath.. w/e 26 March (1) in@ No.1 April r/e.,.: Adele - Someone Like You.. w/e 02 April (1) 1159: Jennifer Lopez ft. Pitbull - On The Floor.. w/e 09 April (2) in@ No.1 1160: LMFAO - Party Rock Anthem.. w/e 23 April (4). May 1161: Bruno Mars - The Lazy Song.. w/e 21 May (1). 1162: Pitbull ft. Ne-Yo, Afrojack & Nayer - Give Me Everything.. w/e May 28 (3) June 1163: Example - Changed The Way You Kiss Me.. w/e 18 June (2) in@ No.1. July 1164: Jason Derulo - Don't Wanna Go Home.. w/e 02 July (2) in@ No.1. 1165: DJ Fresh ft. Sian Evans - Louder.. w/e 16 July (1) in@ No.1 1166: The Wanted - Glad You Came.. w/e 23 July (2) in@ No.1 August 1167: JLS ft. Dev - She Makes Me Wanna.. w/e 06 Aug (1) in@ No.1 1168: Cher Lloyd - Swagger Jagger.. w/e 13 Aug (1) in@ No.1 1169: Nero - Promises.. w/e 20 Aug (1) in@ No.1 1170: Wretch 32 ft.Josh Kumra - Don't Go.. w/e 27 Aug (1) in@ No.1 September 1171: Olly Murs ft. Rizzle Kicks - Heart Skips A Beat.. w/e 03 Sept (1) in@ No.1. 1172: Example - Stay Awake.. w/e 10 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1173: Pixie Lott - All About Tonight.. w/e 17 Sept (1) in@ No.1. 1174: One Direction - What Makes You Beautiful.. w/e 24 Sept (1) in@ No.1. October 1175: Dappy - No Regrets.. w/e 01 Oct (1) in@ No.1 1176: Sak Noel - Loca People .. w/e 08 Oct (1) in@ No.1. 1177: Rihanna ft.Calvin Harris - We Found Love .. w/e 15 Oct (3) in@ No.1 . November 1178: Professor Green ft.Emeli Sande - Read All About It .. w/e 05 Nov (2) [email protected] . R / E: Rihanna ft.Calvin Harris - We Found Love .. w/e 26 Nov (3) December 1179: The X Factor Finalists 2011 - Wishing On A Star .. w/e Dec 10 (1) [email protected] 1180: Olly Murs - Dance With Me Tonight .. w/e Dec 17 (1) 1181: Little Mix - Cannonball .. w/e Dec 24 (1) [email protected] X Factor winner 1182: Military Wives with Gareth Malone - Wherever You Are .. w/e Dec 31 (1) [email protected] 2012 1183: Coldplay - Paradise .. w/e Jan 7 (1) 1184: Flo Rida - Good Feeling .. w/e Jan 14 (1) 1185: Jessie J - Domino .. w/e Jan 21 (2) February 1186: Cover Drive - Twilight .. Feb 04 (1) [email protected] 1187: David Guetta ft Sia - Titanium .. Feb 11 (1) 1188: Gotye Somebody ft Kimbra - That I Used To Know .. Feb 18 (1) 1189: DJ Fresh ft. Rita Ora - Hot Right Now .. Feb 25 (1) March R / E: Gotye ft Kimbra - SomebodyThat I Used To Know .. March 03 (4) 1190: Katy Perry - Part Of Me .. March 31 (1) in@ No.1 April 1191: Chris Brown - Turn Up The Music .. April 07 (1) [email protected] 1192: Carly Rae Jepsen - Call Me Maybe .. April 14 (4) May 1193: Tulisa - Young .. w/e May 12 (1) [email protected] 1194: Rita Ora ft.Tinie Tempah - R.I.P .. w/e May 19 (2) [email protected] June 1195: fun ft. Janelle Monae - We Are Young .. w/e June 2 (1) 1196: Rudimental ft. John Newman - Feel The Love .. w/e June 9 (1) [email protected] 1197: Gary Barlow & The Commonwealth Band - Sing .. w/e June 16 (1) 1198: Cheryl - Call My Name .. w/e June 23 (1) [email protected] 1199: Maroon 5 ft. Wiz Khalifa - Payphone .. w/e June 30 (1) [email protected] July 1200: will.i.am ft. Eva Simons - This Is Love .. w/e July 7 (1) [email protected] R / E: Maroon 5 ft.Wiz Khalifa - Payphone .. w/e July 14 (1) 1201: Florence + the Machine (Calvin Harris Mix) - Spectrum (Say My Name) .. w/e July 21 (3) August 1202: Wiley ft. Rymez & Ms D - Heatwave .. w/e Aug 11 (2) [email protected] 1203: Rita Ora - How We Do (Party) .. w/e Aug 25 (1) [email protected] September 1204: Sam and The Womp - Bom Bom .. w/e Sept 01 (1) [email protected] 1205: Little Mix - Wings .. w/e Sept 08 (1) [email protected] 1206: Ne-Yo - Let Me Love You (Until You Learn To Love Yourself) .. w/e Sept 15 (1) [email protected] 1207: The Script feat. will.i.am - Hall Of Fame .. w/e Sept 22 (2) October 1208: PSY - Gangnam Style .. w/e Oct 06 (1) 1209: Rihanna - Diamonds .. w/e Oct 13 (1) [email protected] 1210: Swedish House Mafia ft.John Martin - Don't You Worry Child .. w/e Oct 20 (1) [email protected] 1211: Calvin Harris ft.Florence Welch - Sweet Nothing .. w/e Oct 27 (1) [email protected] November 1212: Labrinth ft. Emeli Sande - Beneath Your Beautiful .. w/e Nov 03 (1) 1213: Robbie Williams - Candy .. w/e Nov 10 (2) [email protected] 1214: One Direction - Little Things .. Nov 24 (1) [email protected] December 1215: Olly Murs ft. Flo Rida - Troublemaker .. Dec 01 (2) [email protected] 1216: Gabrielle Aplin - The Power Of Love .. Dec 15 (1) 1217: James Arthur - Impossible .. Dec 22 (1) [email protected] the fastest-selling X Factor single of all time (to date) reaching 255,000 downloads within 48 hours 1218: The Justice Collective - He Ain't Heavy He's My Brother .. Dec 29 (1) [email protected]. 2013 R/E .: James Arthur - Impossible .. Jan 05 (2) 1219: will.i.am feat. Britney Spears - Scream & Shout .. Jan 19 (2) February 1220: Bingo Players ft. Far East Movement - Get Up (Rattle) .. Feb 02 (2) [email protected] 1221: Macklemore - Thrift Shop .. w/e Feb 16 (1) 1222: Avicii vs Nicky Romero - I Could Be The One .. w/e Feb 23 (1) [email protected] March 1223: One Way Or Another (Teenage Kicks) - One Direction .. w/e March 02 (1) [email protected] The official Comic Relief 2013 single. 1224: Justin Timberlake - Mirrors .. w/e March 09 (3) 1225: The Saturdays ft Sean Paul - What About Us .. March 30 (1) [email protected] April 1226: PJ & Duncan - Let's Get Ready To Rhumble .. April 06 (1) first released July 11th 1994 peaking at No.9. ~ re-released in March 2013, with royalties from sales to be donated to the charity ChildLine. 1227: Duke Dumont ft. AME - Need U (100%) .. April 13 (2) [email protected] 1228: Rudimental ft. Ella Eyre - Waiting All Night .. April 27 (1) [email protected] May 1229: Daft Punk ft. Pharrell Williams - Get Lucky .. May 04 (4) June 1230: Naughty Boy ft. Sam Smith - La La La .. June 01 (1) [email protected] 1231: Robin Thicke ft. Pharrell Williams & T.I. - Blurred Lines .. June 08 (4) [email protected] July 1232: Icona Pop ft. Charli XCX - I Love It .. July 06 (1) [email protected] 1233: John Newman - Love Me Again .. July 13 (1) [email protected] R/E .: Robin Thicke ft. Pharrell Williams & T.I. - Blurred Lines .. July 20 (1) 1234: Avicii - Wake Me Up .. July 27 (3) [email protected] August 1235: Miley Cyrus - We Can't Stop .. Aug 17 (1) [email protected] 1236: Ellie Goulding - Burn .. Aug 24 (3) [email protected] September 1237: Katy Perry - Roar .. Sept 14 (2) [email protected] 1238: Jason Derulo ft. 2 Chainz - Talk Dirty .. Sept 28 (2) [email protected] October 1239: OneRepublic - Counting Stars .. Oct 12 (1) 1240: Miley Cyrus - Wrecking Ball .. Oct 19 (1) [email protected] R/E .: OneRepublic - Counting Stars .. Oct 26 (1) November 1241: Lorde - Royals .. Nov 02 (1) [email protected] 1242: Eminem ft Rihanna - The Monster .. Nov 09 (1) [email protected] 1243: Storm Queen - Look Right Through .. Nov 16 (1) 1244: Martin Garrix - Animals .. Nov 23 (1) [email protected] 1245: Lily Allen - Somewhere Only We Know .. Nov 30 (1) December 1246: Calvin Harris/Alesso/Hurts - Under Control .. Dec 07 (1) [email protected] R/E .:.Lily Allen - Somewhere Only We Know .. Dec 14 (2) 1247: Sam Bailey - Skyscaper .. Dec 28 (1) [email protected] Xmas No.1 2014 1248: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. Jan 04 (1). 1249: Pitbull ft Kesha - Timber .. Jan 11 (1) [email protected]. R/E .: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. Jan 18 (2). February 1250: Clean Bandit ft. Jess Glynne - Rather Be .. Feb 01 (4) [email protected] March 1251: Sam Smith - Money On My Mind .. March 01 (1) [email protected]. R/E .: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. March 08 (1). 1252: Route 94 ft. Jess Glynne - My Love .. March 15 (1) [email protected]. 1253: DVBBS & Borgeous ft Tinie Tempah - Tsunami (Jump) .. March 22 (1) [email protected]. 1254: Duke Dumont ft Jax Jones - I Got U .. March 29 (1) [email protected] April 1255: 5 Seconds Of Summer - She Looks So Perfect .. April 05 (1) [email protected]. 1256: Aloe Blacc - The Man .. April 12 (1) [email protected]. 1257: Sigma - Nobody To Love .. April 19 (1) [email protected]. 1258: Kiesza - Hidaway .. April 26 (1) [email protected] May 1259: Mr Probz - Waves .. May 03 (1) [email protected]. 1260: Calvin Harris - Summer .. May 10 (1) [email protected]. R/E .: Mr Probz - Waves .. May 17 (1). 1261: Rita Ora - I Will Never Let You Down .. May 24 (1) [email protected]. 1262: Sam Smith - Stay With Me .. May 31 (1) [email protected] June 1263: Secondcity - I Wanna Feel .. June 07 (1) [email protected] 1264: Ed Sheeran - Sing .. June 14 (1) [email protected] 1265: Ella Henderson - Ghost .. June 21 (2) [email protected] July 1266: Oliver Heldens & Becky Hill - Gecko (Overdrive) .. July 05 (1) [email protected] 1267: Ariana Grande ft Iggy Azalea - Problem .. July 12 (1) [email protected] 1268: Will.i.am ft. Cody Wise - It's My Birthday .. July 19 (1) [email protected] 1269: Rixton - Me And My Broken Heart .. July 26 (1) [email protected] August 1270: Cheryl Cole ft Tinie Tempah - Crazy Stupid Love .. Aug 02 (1) [email protected] 1271: Magic - Rude .. Aug 09 (1) 1272: Nico & Vinz - Am I Wrong .. Aug 16 (2) 1273: David Guetta ft. Sam Martin - Lovers On The Sun .. Aug 30 (1) [email protected] September 1274: Lilly Wood & Robin Schulz - Prayer in C .. Sept 06 (2) . 1275: Calvin Harris ft. John Newman - Blame .. Sept 20 (1) [email protected] 1276: Sigma ft. Paloma Faith - Changing .. Sept 27 (1) October 1277: Jesse J / Grande / Minaj - Bang Bang .. Oct 04 (1) [email protected] . 1278: Meghan Trainor - All About That Bass .. Oct 11 (4) . November 1279: Ed Sheeran - Thinking Out Aloud .. Nov 08 (1) 1280: Cheryl - I Don't Care - Cheryl .. Nov 15 (1) [email protected] 1281: Gareth Malone's All Star Choir - Wake Me Up .. Nov 22 (1) [email protected] 1282: Band Aid 30 - Do They Know It's Christmas .. Nov 29 (1) [email protected] December 1283: Take That - These Days .. Dec 06 (1) [email protected] R/E:.: Ed Sheeran - Thinking Out Aloud .. Dec 13 (1) 1284: Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk .. Dec 20 (1) [email protected] 1285: Ben Haenow - Something I Need .. Dec 27 (1) [email protected] 2015 R/E:.: Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk .. Jan 03 (6) February 1286: Ellie Goulding - Love Me Like You Do .. Feb 14 (4) [email protected] March 1287: Years & Years - King .. March 14 (1) [email protected] 1288: Sam Smith ft.John Legend - Lay Me Down .. March 21 (2) [email protected] April 1289: Jess Glynne - Hold My Hand .. April 04 (3) [email protected] 1290: Wiz Khalifa ft. Charlie Puth - See You Again .. April 25 (2) May 1291: OMI - Cheerleader .. May 09 (4) June 1292: Jason Derulo - Want To Want Me .. June 06 (4) [email protected] July 1293: Tinie Tempah ft Jesse Glynne - Not Letting Go .. July 04 (1) WEEK ENDING DATE CHANGES TO FRIDAYS 1294: Lost Frequences - Are You With Me .. July 09 (1) 1295: David Zowie - House Every Weekend .. July 16 (1) 1296: Little Mix - Black Magic .. July 23 (3) [email protected] August 1297: One Direction - Drag Me Down .. Aug 13 (1) [email protected] 1298: Charlie Puth ft Meghan Trainor - Marvin Gaye .. Aug 20 (1) 1299: Jess Glynne - Don't Be So Hard on Yourself .. Aug 27 (1) September 1300: Rachel Platten - Fight Song .. Sept 03 (1) 1301: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Sept 10 (1) [email protected] 1302: Sigala - Easy Love .. Sept 17 (1) R/E:.: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Sept 24 (2) October 1303: Sam Smith - Writing On The Wall .. Oct 08 (1) [email protected]. R/E:.: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Oct 15 (2) 1304: KDA ft Tinie Tempah & Katy B - Turn The Music Louder (Rumble) .. Oct 29 (1) [email protected] November 1305: Adele - Hello .. Nov 05 (3) [email protected] 1306: Justin Bieber - Sorry .. Nov 26 (2) December 1307: Justin Bieber - Love Yourself .. Dec 10 (3) 1308: Lewisham & Greenwich NHS Choir - A Bridge Over You .. Dec 31 (1) [email protected] 2016 January R/E:.: Justin Bieber - Love Yourself .. Jan 07 (3) Jan 8th - Jan 14th Justin Bieber holds the 1st, 2nd, 3rd position on the charts; a first in UK chart history 1309: Shawn Mendes - Stitches . . Jan 28 (2) February 1310: Zayn - Pillowtalk . . Feb 11 (1) in@ No.1 1311: Lukas Graham - 7 Years . . Feb 18 (5) March 1312: Mike Posner - I Tool A Pill In Ibiza .. March 24 (4) April 1313: Drake ft. Wizkid & Kyla - One Dance .. April 21 (15) August 1314: Major Lazer/Justin Beiber/Mo - Cold Water .. Aug 04 (5) September 1315: Chainsmoker ft Halsey - Closer .. Sept 08 (4) October 1316: James Arthur - Say You Won't Let Go .. Oct 06 (3) 1317: Little Mix - Shout Out To My Ex .. Oct 27 (3) [email protected] November 1318: Clean Bandit - Rockabye .. Nov 17 (9) Christmas No.1 2017 January 1319: Ed Sheeran - Shape Of You .. w/e Jan 19 (1) [email protected] "Shape of You" and Ed Sheeran's "Castle on the Hill" debuted on UK Singles Chart at No1 & No.2, the first time in history an artist has taken the top two chart positions with new releases. UPDATED: January 13th 2016. A FEW FACTS (UK Singles charts) Most Consecutive Weeks at No.1 16 weeks: Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You .. 1991 Most Weeks at No.1 18 weeks: Frankie Laine's - I Believe In 1953 it topped the chart on three separate occasions Longest Time For A Track To Get To No.1 33 Years, 3 Months, and 27 Days. Tony Christie "(Is This The Way To) Amarillo" w/e November 27th 1971 - it reached No.18. w/e March 26th 2005 - it reached No.1 with the re-release, after comedian Peter Kaye sung the song and made an amusing video with it, featuring many other celebrities. It was in aid of Comic Relief. it beat the previous record of 29 Years, 1 Month, and 11 Days Jackie Wilson -"Reet Petite (The Sweetest Girl in Town)" the original subtitle: (The Finest Girl You Ever Want To Meet) w/e November 15th 1957 - it reached No.6 in the UK charts w/e December 29th 1986 - it reached No.1 , two years after his death, when it was re-released after being used on an advert for Levi Jeans . Until 1983, the chart was made available on Tuesdays. Due to improved technology, from January 1983 it was released on the Sunday. The convention of using Saturday as the 'week-ending' date has remained constant throughout. JULY 2015 .. WEEK-ENDING DATE CHANGES TO THURSDAYS AND RELEASED ON FRIDAYS Information up to 2004 is from the "Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums" 2004 onwards from BBC Radio 1 *****************************************	Dizzee Rascal
Which chemical element, with the atomic number 102, Is named after a Swedish scientist?	UK MUSIC CHARTS, No.1 Singles 1: Al Martino - Here In My Heart - 14/11/1952. 1953 2: Jo Stafford : You Belong To Me - 16/1/1953 3: Kay Starr : Comes A-Long A-Love - 23/1/1953. 4: Eddie Fisher: Outside Of Heaven - 30/1/1953. Feb 5: Perry Como: Don't Let The Stars Get In Your Eyes - 6/2/1953 March 6: Guy Mitchell: She Wears Red Feathers - 13/3/1953 April 7: Stargazers: Broken Wings - 10/4/1953 8: Lita Roza: (How Much Is) That Doggie In The Window - 17/4/1953 9: Frankie Laine: I Believe - 24/4/1953 June 10: Eddie Fisher: I'm Walking Behind You - 26/6/1953 Aug 11: Mantovani Song: from 'The Moulin Rouge' - 14/8/1953 Sept 12: Guy Mitchell: Look At That Girl - 11/9/1953 Oct 13: Frankie Laine: Hey Joe - 23/10/1953 Nov 14: David Whitfield: Answer Me - 6/11/1953 15: Frankie Laine: Answer Me - 13/11/1953 1954 16: Eddie Calvert: Oh Mein Papa 8/1/1954 March 17: Stargazers: I See The Moon 12/3/1954. April 18: Doris Day: Secret Love 16/4/1954 19: Johnnie Ray: Such A Night 30/4/1954 July 20: David Whitfield: Cara Mia 2/7/1954 Sept 21: Kitty Kallen: Little Things Mean A Lot 10/9/1954 22: Frank Sinatra: Three Coins In The Fountain 17/9/1954 Oct 23: Don Cornell: Hold My Hand 8/10/1954 Nov 24: Vera Lynn: My Son My Son 5/11/1954 25: Rosemary Clooney: This Ole House 26/11/1954 Dec 26: Winifred Atwell: Let's Have Another Party 3/12/1954 1955 27: Dickie Valentine: Finger Of Suspicion 7/1/1955. 28: Rosemary Clooney: Mambo Italiano 14/1/1955 Feb 29: Ruby Murray: Softly, Softly 18/2/1955 March 30: Tennessee Ernie Ford: Give Me Your Word, 11/3/1955 April 31: Perez Prez Prado & His Orchestra: Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 29/4/1955 May 32: Tony Bennett: Stranger In Paradise 13/5/1955 33: Eddie Calvert: Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 27/5/1955 June 34: Jimmy Young: Unchained Melody 24/6/1955 July 35: Alma Cogan: Dreamboat 15/7/1955 36: Slim Whitman: Rose Marie 29/7/1955 Oct 37: Jimmy Young: The Man From Laramie 14/10/1955 Nov 38: Johnston Brothers: Hernando's Hideaway 11/11/1955 39: Bill Haley & His Comets: Rock Around The Clock 25/11/1955 Dec 40: Dickie Valentine: Christmas Alphabet 16/12/1955 1956 41: Tennessee Ernie Ford: Sixteen Tons 20/1/1956. Feb 42: Dean Martin: Memories Are Made Of This 17/2/1956 March 43: Dream Weavers: It's Almost Tomorrow 16/3/1956 44: Kay Starr: Rock And Roll Waltz 30/3/1956 April 45: Winifred Atwell: Poor People Of Paris 13/4/1956 May 46: Ronnie Hilton: No Other Love 4/5/1956 June 47: Pat Boone: I'll Be Home 15/6/1956 July 48: Frankie Lymon And The Teenagers - Why Do Fools Fall in Love 20/7/1956 Aug 49: Doris Day - Whatever Will Be Will Be (Que Sera, Sera) 10/8/1956 Sept 50: Anne Shelton - Lay Down Your Arms 21/9/1956 Oct 51: Frankie Laine - A Woman In Love 19/10/1956 Nov 52: Johnnie Ray - Just Walking In The Rain 16/11/1956 1957 53: Guy Mitchell.. Singing The Blues 4/1/1957 54: Tommy Steele.. Singing The Blues 11/1/1957 55: Frankie Vaughan.. The Garden Of Eden 25/1/1957 Feb 56: Tab Hunter.. Young Love 22/2/1957 April 57: Lonnie Donegan.. Cumberland Gap 12/4/1957 May 58: Guy Mitchell.. Rock-A-Billy 17/5/1957 59: Andy Williams.. Butterfly 24/5/1957 June 60: Johnnie Ray.. Yes Tonight Josephine 7/6/1957 61. Lonnie Donegan.. Puttin' On The Style / Gamblin' Man 28/6/1957 July 62. Elvis Presley.. All Shook Up 12/7/1957 Aug 63. Paul Anka.. Diana 30/8/1957 Nov 64. The Crickets.. That'll Be The Day 1/11/1957 65. Harry Belafonte.. Mary's Boy Child 22/11/1957 1958 66. Jerry Lee Lewis.. Great Balls Of Fire 10/1/1958 67. Elvis Presley.. Jailhouse Rock 24/1/1958 Feb 68. Michael Holliday.. The Story Of My Life 14/2/1958 69. Perry Como.. Magic Moments 28/2/1958 April 70. Marvin Rainwater.. Whole Lotta Woman 25/4/1958 May 71. Connie Francis.. Who's Sorry Now 16/5/1958 June 72. Vic Damone.. On The Street Where You Live 27/6/1958 July 73. Everly Brothers.. All I Have To Do Is Dream / Claudette 4/7/1958 Aug 74. Kalin Twins.. When 22/8/1958 Sept 75. Connie Francis.. Carolina Moon / Stupid Cupid 26/9/1958 Nov 76. Tommy Edwards.. All In The Game 7/11/1958 77. Lord Rockingham's XI.. Hoots Mon 28/11/1958 Dec 78. Conway Twitty.. It's Only Make Believe 19/12/1958 1959 79. Jane Morgan 'The Days The Rains Came' 23/1/1959 80. Elvis Presley 'I Got Stung / One Night' 30/1/1959 Feb 81. Shirley Bassey 'As I Love You' 20/2/1959 March 82. The Platters 'Smoke Gets In Your Eyes' 20/3/1959 83. Russ Conway 'Side Saddle' 27/3/1959 April 84. Buddy Holly 'It Doesn't Matter Anymore' 24/4/1959 May 85. Elvis Presley 'A Fool Such As I / I Need Your Love Tonight' 15/5/1959 June 86: Russ Conway 'Roulette' 19/6/1959 July 87: Bobby Darin 'Dream Lover' 3/7/1959 88: Cliff Richard 'Living Doll' 31/7/1959 Sept 89: Craig Douglas 'Only Sixteen' 11/9/1959 Oct 90: Jerry Keller 'Here Comes Summer' 9/10/1959 91: Bobby Darin 'Mack The Knife' 16/10/1959 92: Cliff Richard 'Travellin' Light' 30/10/1959 Dec 93: Adam Faith 'What Do You Want' 4/12/1959 94: Emile Ford & The Checkmates: What Do You Want To Make Those Eyes At Me For 18/12/1959 1960 95: Michael Holliday 'Starry Eyed' 29/1/1960 Feb 96: Anthony Newley 'Why' 5/2/1960 March 97: Adam Faith 'Poor Me' 10/3/1960 98: Johnny Preston 'Running Bear' 17/3/1960 99: Lonnie Donegan 'My Old Man's A Dustman' 31/3/1960 April 100: Anthony Newley 'Do You Mind' 28/4/1960 May 101: Everly Brothers 'Cathy's Clown' 5/5/1960 June 102: Eddie Cochran 'Three Steps To Heaven' 23/6/1960 July 103: Jimmy Jones 'Good Timin' 7/7/1960 104: Cliff Richard 'Please Don't Tease' 28/7/1960 Aug 105: Johnny Kidd & The Pirates 'Shakin' All Over' 4/8/1960 106: Shadows 'Apache' 25/8/1960 107: Ricky Valence 'Tell Laura I Love Her' 29/9/1960 Oct 108: Roy Orbison 'Only The Lonely' 20/10/1960 Nov 109: Elvis Presley 'It's Now Or Never' 3/11/1960 Dec 110: Cliff Richard 'I Love You' 29/12/1960 1961 111: Johnny Tillotson: Poetry In Motion, 12/1/1961 112: Elvis Presley: Are You Lonesome Tonight, 26/1/1961 Feb 113: Petula Clark: Sailor, 23/2/1961 March 114: Everly Brothers: Walk Right Back, 2/3/1961 115: Elvis Presley: Wooden Heart, 23/3/1961 May 116: The Marcels: Blue Moon, 4/5/1961 117: Floyd Cramer: On The Rebound, 18/5/1961 118: The Temperance Seven: You're Driving Me Crazy, 25/5/1961 June 119: Elvis Presley: Surrender, 1/6/1961 120: Del Shannon: Runaway, 29/6/1961 July 121: Everly Brothers: Temptation, 20/7/1961 Aug 122: Eden Kane: Well I Ask You, 3/8/1961 123: Helen Shapiro: You Don't Know, 10/8/1961 124: John Leyton: Johnny Remember Me, 31/8/196 Sept 125: Shirley Bassey: Reach For The Stars / Climb Ev'ry Mountain, 21/9/1961 Oct 126: Shadows: Kon Tiki - 5/10/1961 127: The Highwaymen: Michael - 12/10/1961 128: Helen Shapiro: Walkin' Back To Happiness - 19/10/1961 Nov 129: Elvis Presley: His Latest Flame - 9/11/1961 Dec 130: Frankie Vaughan: Tower Of Strength - 7/12/1961 131: Danny Williams: Moon River - 28/12/1961 1962 132. Cliff Richard 'The Young Ones' 11/1/1962 Feb 133. Elvis Presley 'Can't Help Falling In Love / Rock-A-Hula Baby' 22/2/1962 March 134. Shadows 'Wonderful Land' 22/3/1962 May 135. B.Bumble & The Stingers 'Nut Rocker' 17/5/1962 136. Elvis Presley 'Good Luck Charm' 24/5/1962 June 137. Mike Sarne with Wendy Richard 'Come Outside' 28/6/1962 jJuly 138. Ray Charles 'I Can't Stop Loving You' 12/7/1962 139. Frank Ifield 'I Remember You' 26/7/1962 Sept 140. Elvis Presley 'She's Not You' 13/9/1962 Oct 142. Frank Ifield 'Lovesick Blues' 8/11/1962 Dec 143. Elvis Presley 'Return To Sender' 13/12/1962 1963 144. Cliff Richard 'The Next Time / Bachelor Boy' 3/1/1963 145. Shadows 'Dance On' 24/1/1963 146. Jet Harris & Tony Meehan 'Diamonds' 31/1/1963 147. Frank Ifield 'Wayward Wind' 21/2/1963 March 148. Cliff Richard 'Summer Holiday' 14/3/1963 149. Shadows 'Foot Tapper' 29/3/1963 April 150. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'How Do You Do It?' 11/4/1963 May 151. Beatles' From Me To You' 2/5/1963 June 152. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'I Like It' 20/6/1963 July 153. Frank Ifield 'Confessin' (That I Love You)' 18/7/1963 Aug 154. Elvis Presley '(You're The) Devil In Disguise' 1/8/1963 155. Searchers 'Sweets For My Sweet' 8/8/1963 156. Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas 'Bad To Me' 22/8/1963 Sept 157. Beatles 'She Loves You' 12/9/1963 Oct 158. Brian Poole & The Tremeloes 'Do You Love Me' 10/10/1963 159. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'You'll Never Walk Alone' 31/10/1963 Dec 160. Beatles 'I Want To Hold Your Hand' 12/12/1963 1964 161 Dave Clark Five.. Glad All Over 16/1/1964 162 Searchers.. Needles & Pins 30/1/1964 Feb 164 Cilla Black.. Anyone Who Had A Heart 27/2/1964 March 165 Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas.. Little Children 19/3/1964 April 166. Beatles.. Can't Buy Me Love 2/4/1964 167. Peter & Gordon.. A World Without Love 23/4/1964 May 168. Searchers.. Don't Throw Your Love Away 7/5/1964 169. Four Pennies.. Juliet 21/5/1964 170. Cilla Black .. You're My World 28/5/1964 June 171. Roy Orbison.. It's Over 25/6/1964 July 172. Animals.. The House Of The Rising Sun 9/7/1964 173. Rolling Stones.. It's All Over now 16/7/1964 174. Beatles.. A Hard Day's Night 23/7/1964 Aug 175. Manfred Mann.. Do Wah Diddy Diddy 13/8/1964 176. Honeycombes.. Have I The Right 27/8/1964 Sept 177. Kinks.. You Really Got Me 10/9/1964 178. Herman's Hermits.. I'm Into Something Good 24/9/1964 Oct 179. Roy Orbison.. Oh Pretty Woman 8/10/1964 180. Sandie Shaw.. (There's) Always Something There To Remind Me 22/10/1964 Nov 181. Supremes.. Baby Love 19/11/1964 Dec 182. Rolling Stones.. Little Red Rooster 3/12/1964 183. Beatles.. I Feel Fine 10/12/1964 1965 184. Georgie Fame & The Blue Flames 'Yeh Yeh' 14/1/1965 185. Moody Blues 'Go Now!' 28/1/1965 Feb 186. Righteous Brothers 'You've Lost That Loving Feeling' 4/2/1965 187. Kinks 'Tired Of Waiting For You' 18/2/1965 188. Seekers 'I'll Never Find Another You' 25/2/1965 March 189. Tom Jones 'It's Not Unusual' 11/3/1965 190. Rolling Stones 'The Last Time' 18/3/1965 April 191. Unit Four Plus Two 'Concrete & Clay' 8/4/1965 192. Cliff Richard 'The Minute You're Gone' 15/4/1965 193. Beatles 'Ticket To Ride' 22/4/1965 May 194. Roger Miller 'King Of The Road' 13/5/1965 195. Jackie Trent 'Where Are You Now (My Love)' 20/5/1965 196. Sandie Shaw 'Long Live Love' 27/5/1965 197. Elvis Presley 'Crying In The Chapel' 17/6/1965 198. Hollies 'I'm Alive' 24/6/1965 July 199. Byrds 'Mr Tambourine Man' 22/7/1965 Aug 201. Sonny & Cher 'I Got You Babe' 26/8/1965 Sept 202. Rolling Stones '(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction' 9/9/1965 203. Walker Brothers 'Make It Easy On Yourself' 23/9/1965 204. Ken Dodd 'Tears' 30/9/1965 Nov 205. Rolling Stones 'Get Off Of My Cloud' 4/11/1965 206. Seekers 'The Carnival Is Over' 25/11/1965 Dec 207. Beatles 'Day Tripper / We Can Work It Out' 16/12/1965 1966 208. Spencer Davis Group 'Keep On Running' 20/1/1966 209. Overlanders 'Michelle' 27/1/1966 210. Nancy Sinatra 'These Boots Are Made For Walking' 17/2/1966 March 211. Walker Brothers 'The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore' 17/3/1966 April 212. Spencer Davis Group 'Somebody Help Me' 14/4/1966 213. Dusty Springfield You 'Don't Have To Say You Love Me' 28/4/1966 May 214. Manfred Mann 'Pretty Flamingo' 5/5/1966 215. Rolling Stones 'Paint It Black' 26/5/1966 June 216. Frank Sinatra 'Strangers In The Night' 2/6/1966 217. Beatles 'Paperback Writer' 23/6/1966 July 218. Kinks 'Sunny Afternoon' 7/7/1966 219. Georgie Fame & The Blue Flames 'Get Away' 21/7/1966 220. Chris Farlowe 'Out Of Time' 28/7/1966 Aug 221. Troggs 'With A Girl Like You' 4/8/1966 222. Beatles 'Yellow Submarine / Eleanor Rigby' 18/8/1966 Sept 223. Small Faces 'All Or Nothing' 15/9/1966 224. Jim Reeves 'Distant Drums' 22/9/1966 Oct 225. Four Tops 'Reach Out I'll Be There' 27/10/1966 Nov 226. Beach Boys 'Good Vibrations' 17/11/1966 Dec 227. Tom Jones 'Green Green Grass Of Home' 1/12/1966 1967 228. Monkees 'I'm A Believer' 19/1/1967 Feb 229. Petula Clark 'This Is My Song' 16/2/1967 March 230. Engelbert Humperdink 'Release Me (And Let Me Love Again)' 2/3/1967 April 231. Frank Sinatra & Nancy Sinatra 'Somethin' Stupid' 13/4/1967 232. Sandie Shaw 'Puppet On A String' 27/4/1967 May 233. Tremeloes 'Silence Is Golden' 18/5/1967 June 234. Procol Harum 'A Whiter Shade Of Pale' 8/6/1967 July 235. Beatles 'All You Need Is Love' 19/7/1967 Aug 236. Scott McKenzie 'San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Some Flowers In Your Hair)' 9/8/1967 Sept 237. Engelbert Humperdink 'The Last Waltz' 6/9/1967 Oct 238. Bee Gees 'Massachusetts' 11/10/1967 Nov 239. Foundations - 'Baby Now That I've Found You' 8/11/1967 240. Long John Baldry - 'Let The Heartaches Begin' 22/11/1967 Dec 241. Beatles - 'Hello Goodbye' 6/12/1967 1968 242. Georgie Fame - 'The Ballad Of Bonnie & Clyde' 24/1/1968 243. Love Affair - 'Everlasting Love' 31/1/1968 Feb 244. Manfred Mann - 'The Mighty Quinn' 14/2/1968 245. Esther & Abi Ofarim - 'Cinderella Rockefella' 28/2/1968 March 246. Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich - 'Legend Of Xanadu' 20/3/1968 247. Beatles - ''Lady Madonna' 27/3/1968 April 248. Cliff Richard - 'Congratulations' 10/4/1968 249. Louis Armstrong -'What A Wonderful World / Cabaret' 24/4/1968 May 250. Union Gap featuring Gary Puckett -'Young Girl' 22/5/1968 June 251. Rolling Stones- 'Jumpin' Jack Flash' 19/6/1968 July 252. Equals - 'Baby Come Back' 3/7/1968 253. Des O'Connor - 'I Pretend' 24/7/1968 254. Tommy James & The Shondells - 'Mony Mony 31/7/1968 Aug 255. Crazy World of Arthur Brown - 'Fire' 14/8/1968 256. Beach Boys - ''Do It Again' 28/8/1968 Sept 257. Bee Gees - 'I've Gotta Get A Message To You' 4/9/1968 258. Beatles -'Hey Jude' 11/9/1968 259. Mary Hopkin - 'Those Were The Days' 25/9/1968 Nov 260. Joe Cocker - 'With A Little Help From My Friends' 6/11/1968 261. Hugo Montenegro Orchestra - 'The Good The Bad And The Ugly' 13/11/1968 262. Scaffold - 'Lily The Pink' 11/12/1968 1969 263. Marmalade - 'Ob-La-Di Ob-La-Da' 1/1/1969 264. Fleetwood Mac - Albatross 29/1/69 Feb 265. Move - Blackberry Way 05/2/69 266. Amen Corner '(If Paradise Is) Half As Nice' 12/2/1969 267. Peter Sarstedt 'Where Do You Go To My Lovely?' 26/2/1969 March 268. Marvin Gaye 'I Heard It Through The Grapevine' 26/3/1969 April 269. Desmond Dekker & The Aces 'Israelites' 16/4/1969 270. Beatles 'Get Back' 23/4/1969 June 271. Tommy Roe 'Dizzy' 4/6/1969 272. Beatles 'The Ballad Of John & Yoko' 11/6/1969 July 273. Thunderclap Newman 'Something In The Air' 2/7/1969 274. Rolling Stones 'Honky Tonk Women' 23/7/1969 Aug 275. Zager & Evans 'In The Year 2525' (Exorium & Terminus) 30/8/1969 Sept 276. Creedence Clearwater Revival 'Bad Moon Rising' 20/9/1969 Oct 277. Jane Birkin & Serge Gainsbourg 'Je T'Aime... Moi Non Plus' 11/10/1969 278. Bobby Gentry 'I'll Never Fall In Love Again' 18/10/1969 279. Archies 'Sugar Sugar' 25/10/1969 Dec 280. Rolf Harris 'Two Little Boys' 20/12/1969 1970 281. Edison Lighthouse 'Love Grows (Where My Rosemary Goes)' 31/1/1970 March 282. Lee Marvin - 'Wandrin' Star' 7/3/1970 283. Simon & Garfunkel - 'Bridge Over Troubled Water' 28/3/1970 April 284. Dana .. 'All Kinds Of Everything' 18/4/1970 May 285. Norman Greenbaum - 'Spirit In The Sky' 2/5/1970 286. England World Cup Squad -'Back Home' 16/5/1970 June 287. Christie - 'Yellow River' 6/6/1970 288. Mungo Jerry - 'In The Summertime' 13/6/1970 Aug 289. Elvis Presley - 'The Wonder Of You' 1/8/1970 Sept 290. Smokey Robinson & The Miracles 'Tears Of A Clown' 12/9/1970 291. Freda Payne 'Band Of Gold' 19/9/1970 Oct 292. Matthew's Southern Comfort 'Woodstock' 31/10/1970 Nov 293. Jimi Hendrix 'Voodoo Chile' 21/11/1970 294. Dave Edmunds 'I Hear You Knockin' 28/11/1970 1971 295. Clive Dunn - Grandad 9/1/1971 296. George Harrison - 'My Sweet Lord' 30/1/1971 March 297. Mungo Jerry - 'Baby Jump' 6/3/1971 298. T Rex - 'Hot Love' 20/3/1971 May 299. Dave & Ansil Collins - 'Double Barrel' 1/5/1971 300. Dawn - 'Knock Three Times' 15/5/1971 June 301. Middle Of The Road 'Chirpy Chirpy Cheep Cheep' 19/6/1971 July 302. T Rex 'Get It On' 24/7/1971 Aug 303. Diana Ross 'I'm Still Waiting' 21/8/1971 Sept 304. Tams 'Hey Girl Don't Bother Me' 18/9/1971 Oct 305. Rod Stewart 'Maggie May' 9/10/1971 Nov 306. Slade 'Coz I Luv You' 13/11/1971 Dec 307. Benny Hill 'Ernie (The Fastest Milkman In The West)' 11/12/1971 1972 308. New Seekers - 'I'd Like To Teach The World To Sing' 8/1/1972 Feb 309. T Rex 'Telegram Sam' 5/2/1972 310. Chicory Tip 'Son Of My Father' 19/2/1972 March 311. Nilsson' Without You' 11/3/1972 April 312. The Pipes & Drums & Military Band of The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards 'Amazing Grace' 15/4/1972 May 313. T Rex 'Metal Guru' 20/5/1972 June 314. Don McLean 'Vincent' 17/6/1972 July 315. Slade 'Take Me Back 'Ome' 1/7/1972 316. Donny Osmond 'Puppy Love' 8/7/1972 Aug 317. Alice Cooper 'School's Out' 12/8/1972 Sept 318. Rod Stewart 'You Wear It Well' 2/9/1972 319. Slade 'Mama Weer All Crazee Now' 9/9/1972 320. David Cassidy 'How Can I Be Sure' 30/9/1972 Oct 321. Lieutenant Pigeon 'Mouldy Old Dough' 14/10/1972 Nov 322. Gilbert O'Sullivan 'Clair' 11/11/1972 323. Chuck Berry 'My Ding-A-Ling' 25/11/1972 Dec 324. Little Jimmy Osmond 'Long Haired Lover From Liverpool' 23/12/1972 1973 326. Slade 'Cum On Feel The Noize' 3/3/1973 327. Donny Osmond 'The Twelfth Of Never' 31/3/1973 April 328. Gilbert O'Sullivan 'Get Down' 7/4/1973 329. Dawn featuring Tony Orlando 'Tie A Yellow Ribbon Round The Old Oak Tree' 21/4/1973 May 330. Wizzard 'See My Baby Jive' 19/5/1973 June 331. Suzi Quatro 'Can The Can' 16/6/1973 332. 10 CC 'Rubber Bullets' 23/6/1973 333. Slade 'Skweeze Me Pleeze Me' 30/6/1973 July 334. Peters & Lee 'Welcome Home' 21/7/1973 335. Gary Glitter 'I'm The Leader Of The Gang (I Am)' 28/7/1973 Aug 336. Donny Osmond 'Young Love' 25/8/1973 Sept 337. Wizzard 'Angel Fingers (A Teen Ballad)' 22/9/1973 338. Simon Park Orchestra 'Eye Level' 29/9/1973 Oct 339. David Cassidy 'Daydreamer / The Puppy Song' 27/10/1973 Nov 340. Gary Glitter 'I Love You Love Me Love' 17/11/1973 Dec 341. Slade 'Merry Xmas Everybody' 15/12/1973 1974 342. New Seekers 'You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me' 19/1/1974 343. Mud 'Tiger Feet' 26/1/1974 Feb 344. Suzi Quatro 'Devil Gate Drive' 23/2/1974 March 345. Alvin Stardust 'Jealous Mind' 9/3/1974 346. Paper Lace 'Billy Don't Be A Hero' 16/3/1974 April 347. Terry Jacks 'Seasons In The Sun' 6/4/1974 May 349. Rubettes 'Sugar Baby Love' 18/5/1974 June 350. Ray Stevens 'The Streak 15/6/1974 351. Gary Glitter 'Always Yours' 22/6/1974 352. Charles Aznavour 'She' 29/6/1974 July 353. George McCrae 'Rock Your Baby' 27/7/1974 Aug 354. Three Degrees 'When Will I See You Again' 17/8/1974 355. Osmonds 'Love Me For A Reason' 31/8/1974 Sept 356. Carl Douglas 'Kung Fu Fighting' 21/9/1974 Oct 357. John Denver 'Annie's Song' 12/10/1974 358. Sweet Sentation 'Sad Sweet Dreamer' 19/10/1974 359. Ken Boothe 'Everything I Own' 26/10/1974 Nov 360. David Essex 'Gonna Make You A Star' 16/11/1974 Dec 361. Barry White 'You're The First, The Last, My Everything' 7/12/1974 362. Mud 'Lonely This Christmas' 21/12/1974 1975 363. Status Quo 'Down Down' 18/1/1975 364. Tymes 'Ms Grace' 25/1/1975 Feb 366. Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel 'Make Me Smile (Come Up And See Me)' 22/2/1975 March 367. Telly Savalas ''If'' 8/3/1975 368. Bay City Rollers 'Bye Bye Baby 22/3/1975 May 369. Mud 'Oh Boy 3/5/1975 370. Tammy Wynette 'Stand By Your Man 17/5/1975 June 371. Windsor Davies & Don Estelle 'Whispering Grass' 7/6/1975 372. 10 CC 'I'm Not In Love' 28/6/1975 July 373. Johnny Nash 'Tears On My Pillow' 12/7/1975 374. Bay City Rollers 'Give A Little Love' 19/7/1975 Aug 375. Typically Tropical 'Barbados' 9/8/1975 376. Stylistics 'Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)' 16/8/1975 Sept 377. Rod Stewart 'Sailing' 6/9/1975 Oct 378. David Essex 'Hold Me Close' 4/10/1975 379. Art Garfunkel 'I Only Have Eyes For You' 25/10/1975 Nov 380. David Bowie 'Space Oddity' 8/11/1975 381. Billy Connolly 'D.I.V.O.R.C.E'. 22/11/1975 382. Queen 'Bohemian Rhapsody' 29/11/1975 1976 383. Abba 'Mamma Mia' 31/1/1976 Feb 384. Slik 'Forever And Ever' 14/2/1976 385. Four Seasons 'December '63' 21/2/1976 March 386. Tina Charles 'I Love To Love (But My Baby Loves To Dance)' 6/3/1976 387. Brotherhood Of Man ''Save Your Kisses For Me' 27/3/1976 May 396. Chicago 'If You Leave Me Now' 13/11/1976 Dec 397. Showaddywaddy 'Under The Moon Of Love'' 4/12/1976 398. Johnny Mathis 'When A Child Is Born' (Soleado) 25/12/1976 1977 399. David Soul ''Don't Give Up On Us 15/1/1977 Feb 400. Julie Covington 'Don't Cry For Me Argentina 12/2/1977 401. Leo Sayer 'When I Need You 19/2/1977 March 402. Manhattan Transfer 'Chanson D'Amour 12/3/1977 April 403. Abba 'Knowing Me Knowing You 2/4/1977 May 404. Deniece Williams 'Free 7/5/1977 405. Rod Stewart 'I Don't Want To Talk About It / First Cut Is The Deepest 21/5/1977 June 406. Kenny Rogers 'Lucille 18/6/1977 407. Jacksons Show 'You The Way To Go 25/6/1977 July 408. Hot Chocolate 'So You Win Again 2/7/1977 409. Donna Summer 'I Feel Love 23/7/1977 Aug 410. Brotherhood Of Man 'Angelo 20/8/1977 411. Floaters 'Float On 27/8/1977 Sept 412. Elvis Presley 'Way Down 3/9/1977 Oct 413. David Soul 'Silver Lady 8/10/1977 414. Baccara 'Yes Sir I Can Boogie 29/10/1977 Nov 415. Abba 'The Name Of The Game 5/11/1977 Dec 416. Wings 'Mull Of Kintyre / Girls' School 3/12/1977 1978 417. Althia & Donna 'Up Town Top Ranking 4/2/1978 418. Brotherhood Of Man 'Figaro 11/2/1978 419. Abba 'Take A Chance On Me 18/2/1978 March 420. Kate Bush 'Wuthering Heights 11/3/1978 April 421. Brian & Michael 'Matchstalk Men And Matchstalk Cats And Dogs 8/4/1978 422. Bee Gees 'Night Fever 29/4/1978 423. Boney M - 'Rivers Of Babylon / Brown 'Girl In The Ring 13/5/1978 June 424. John Travolta & Olivia Newton John 'You're The One That I Want 17/6/1978 Aug 425. Commodores 'Three Times A Lady 19/8/1978 Oct 426. 10 CC 'Dreadlock Holiday 23/9/1978 427. John Travolta & Olivia Newton 'John Summer Nights 30/9/1978 Nov 428. Boomtown Rats .. 'Rat Trap 18/11/1978 Dec 429. Rod Stewart.. 'Da Ya Think I'm Sexy 2/12/1978 430. Boney M .. 'Mary's Boy Child - Oh My Lord 9/12/1978 1979 431. Village People , Y.M.C.A. 6/1/1979 432. Ian Dury & The Blockheads , Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick 27/1/1979 Feb 433. Blondie , Heart Of Glass 3/2/1979 March 434. Bee Gees , Tragedy 3/3/1979 435. Gloria Gaynor , I Will Survive 17/3/1979 April 436. Art Garfunkel , Bright Eyes 14/4/1979 May 437. Blondie, Sunday Girl 26/5/1979 June 438. Anita Ward , Ring My Bell 16/6/1979 439. Tubeway Army , Are 'Friends' Electric 30/6/1979 July 440. Boomtown Rats , I Don't Like Mondays 28/7/1979 Aug 441. Cliff Richard , We Don't Talk Anymore 25/8/1979 Sept 442. Gary Numan , Cars 22/9/1979 443. Police , Message In A Bottle 29/9/1979 Oct 444. Buggles - Video Killed The Radio Star 20/10/1979 445. Lena Martell , One Day At A Time 27/10/1979 Nov 446. Dr Hook , When You're In Love With A Beautiful Woman 17/11/1979 Dec 447. Police ,Walking On The Moon 8/12/1979 448. Pink Floyd , Another Brick In The Wall 15/12/1979 1980 449. Pretenders 'Brass In Pocket' 19/1/1980 Feb 450. The Special AKA (Specials) The Specials Live EP (main track: Too Much Too Young) 2/2/1980 451. Kenny Rogers 'Coward Of The County' 16/2/1980 March 453. Fern Kinney 'Together We Are Beautiful '15/3/1980 454. Jam 'Going Underground / Dreams Of Children' 22/3/1980 April 455. Detroit Spinners 'Working My Way Back To You - Forgive Me Girl' 12/4/1980 456. Blondie 'Call Me' 26/4/1980 May 457. Dexy's Midnight Runners 'Geno' 3/5/1980 458. Johnny Logan 'What's Another Year' 17/5/1980 459. Mash 'Suicide Is Painless (Theme from MASH)' 31/5/1980 June 460. Don McLean 'Crying' 21/6/1980 July 461. Olivia Newton John & Electric Light Orchestra 'Xanadu' 12/7/1980 462. Odyssey 'Use It Up And Wear It Out' 26/7/1980 Aug 463. Abba 'The Winner Takes It All' 9/8/1980 464. David Bowie 'Ashes To Ashes' 23/8/1980 Sept 466. Kelly Marie 'Feels Like I'm In Love' 13/9/1980 467. Police 'Don't Stand So Close To Me' 27/9/1980 Oct 468. Barbra Streisand 'Woman In Love' 25/10/1980 Nov 469. Blondie 'The Tide Is High' 15/11/1980 470. Abba 'Super Trouper' 29/11/1980 Dec 471. John Lennon '(Just Like) Starting Over' 20/12/1980 472. St Winifred's School Choir 'There's No One Quite Like Grandma' 27/12/1980 1981 473. John Lennon 'Imagine' 10/1/1981 Feb 474. John Lennon 'Woman' 7/2/1981 475. Joe Dolce Music Theatre 'Shaddup You Face' 21/2/1981 March 476. Roxy Music 'Jealous Guy' 14/3/1981 477. Shakin' Stevens 'This Ole House' 28/3/1981 April 478. Bucks Fizz 'Making Your Mind Up' 18/4/1981 May 479. Adam & The Ants 'Stand And Deliver' 9/5/1981 June 480. Smokey Robinson 'Being With You' 13/6/1981 481. Michael Jackson 'One Day In Your Life' 27/6/1981 July 482. Specials 'Ghost Town' 11/7/1981 Aug 483. Shakin' Stevens 'Green Door' 1/8/1981 484. Aneka 'Japanese Boy' 29/8/1981 Sept 485. Soft Cell 'Tainted Love' 5/9/1981 486. Adam & The Ants 'Prince Charming' 19/9/1981 Oct 487. Dave Stewart & Barbara Gaskin 'It's My Party' 17/10/1981 Nov 488. Police ''Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic' 14/11/1981 489. Queen & David Bowie ''Under Pressure' 21/11/1981 Dec 490. Julio Iglesias ''Begin The Beguine (Volver A Empezar) 5/12/1981 491. Human League ''Don't You Want Me' 12/12/1981 1982 492. Bucks Fizz - Land Of Make Believe 16/1/1982 493. Shakin' Stevens - Oh Julie 30/1/1982 Feb 494. Kraftwerk - The Model / Computer Love 6/2/1982 495. Jam - A Town Called Malice / Precious 13/2/1982 March 496. Tight Fit - The Lion Sleeps Tonight 6/3/1982 497. Goombay Dance Band Seven - Tears 27/3/1982 April 498. Bucks Fizz - My Camera Never Lies 17/4/1982 499. Paul McCartney & Stevie Wonder - Ebony And Ivory 24/4/1982 May 500. Nicole- A Little Peace 15/5/1982 501. Madness - House Of Fun 29/5/1982 June 502. Adam Ant - Goody Two Shoes 12/6/1982 503. Charlene - I 've Never Been To Me 26/6/1982 July 504. Captain Sensible - Happy Talk 3/7/1982 505. Irene Cara - Fame 17/7/1982 Aug 506. Dexy's Midnight Runners - Come On Eileen 7/8/1982 Sept 507. Survivor - Eye Of The Tiger 4/9/1982 Oct 508. Musical Youth - Pass The Dutchie 2/10/1982 509. Culture Club - Do You Really Want To Hurt Me 23/10/1982 Nov 510. Eddy Grant - I Don't Wanna Dance 13/11/1982 Dec 511. Jam - Beat Surrender 4/12/1982 512. Renee & Renato - Save Your Love 18/12/1982 1983 513. Phil Collins 'You Can't Hurry Love' 15/1/1983 514. Men At Work 'Down Under' 29/1/1983 Feb 515. Kajagoogoo 'Too Shy' 19/2/1983 March 516. Michael Jackson 'Billie Jean' 5/3/1983 517. Bonnie Tyler 'Total Eclipse Of The Heart' 12/3/1983 518. Duran Duran 'Is There Something I Should Know' 26/3/1983 April 519. David Bowie 'Let's Dance' 9/4/1983 520. Spandau Ballet 'True' 30/4/1983 May 521. New Edition 'Candy Girl' 28/5/1983 June 522. Police 'Every Breath You Take' 4/6/1983 July 523. Rod Stewart 'Baby Jane' 2/7/1983 524. Paul Young 'Wherever I Lay My Hat' 23/7/1983 Aug 525. K C & The Sunshine Band 'Give It Up' 13/8/1983 Sept 526. UB 40 'Red Red Wine' 3/9/1983 527. Culture Club 'Karma Chameleon' 24/9/1983 Nov 528 Billy Joel 'Uptown Girl 5/11/1983 Dec 529 Flying Pickets 'Only You 10/12/1983 1984 530. Paul McCartney - Pipes Of Peace 14/1/1984 531. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - Relax 28/1/1984 March 532. Nena - 99 Red Balloons 3/3/1984 533. Lionel Richie - Hello 24/3/1984 May 534. Duran Duran - The Reflex 5/5/1984 June 535. Wham! - Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go 2/6/1984 536. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - Two Tribes 16/6/1984 Aug 537. George Michael - Careless Whisper 18/8/1984 Sept 538. Stevie Wonder - I Just Called To Say I Love You 8/9/1984 Oct 540. Chaka Khan - I Feel For You 10/11/1984 Dec 541. Jim Diamond - I Should Have Known Better 1/12/1984 542. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - The Power Of Love 8/12/1984 543. Band Aid - Do They Know It's Christmas 15/12/1984 1985 544. Foreigner 'I Want To Know What Love Is 19/1/1985 Feb 545. Elaine Paige & Barbara Dickson 'I Know Him So Well 9/2/1985 March 546. Dead Or Alive 'You Spin Me Round (Like A Record) 9/3/1985 547. Philip Bailey & Phil Collins 'Easy Lover 23/3/1985 April 548. USA For Africa 'We Are The World 20/4/1985 May 549. Phyllis Nelson 'Move Closer 4/5/1985 550. Paul Hardcastle '19' 11/5/1985 June 551. Crowd ''You'll Never Walk Alone 15/6/1985 552. Sister Sledge ''Frankie 29/6/1985 July 553. Eurythmics 'There Must Be An Angel (Playing With My Heart) 27/7/1985 Aug 554. Madonna 'Into The Groove 3/8/1985 555. UB 40 & Chrissie Hynde 'I Got You Babe 31/8/1985 Sept 556. David Bowie & Mick Jagger 'Dancing in the Street 7/9/1985 Oct 557. Midge Ure 'If I Was 5/10/1985 558. Jennifer Rush 'The Power Of Love 12/10/1985 Nov 559. Feargal Sharkey 'A Good Heart 16/11/1985 560. Wham! 'I'm Your Man 30/11/1985 Dec 561. Whitney Houston 'Saving All My Love For You 14/12/1985 562. Shakin' Stevens 'Merry Christmas Everyone 28/12/1985 1986 563. Pet Shop Boys 'West End Girls 11/1/1986 564. A-Ha 'The Sun Always Shines On TV 25/1/1986 Feb 565. Billy Ocean 'When The Going Gets Tough, The Tough Get Going 8/2/1986 March 566. Diana Ross 'Chain Reaction 8/3/1986 567. Cliff Richard & The Young 'Ones Living Doll 29/3/1986 The first official Comic Relief single April 568. George Michael 'A Different Corner 19/4/1986 May 569. Falco 'Rock Me Amadeus 10/5/1986 570. Spitting Image 'The Chicken Song 17/5/1986 June 571. Doctor & The Medics 'Spirit In The Sky 7/6/1986 572. Wham! 'The Edge Of Heaven 28/6/1986 July 573. Madonna 'Papa Don't Preach 12/7/1986 Aug 574. Chris de Burgh 'The Lady In Red 2/8/1986 575. Boris Gardiner 'I Want To Wake Up With You 23/8/1986 Sept 576. Communards 'Don't Leave Me This Way 13/9/1986 Oct 577. Madonna 'True Blue 11/10/1986 578. Nick Berry 'Every Loser Wins 18/10/1986 Nov 579. Berlin 'Take My Breath Away 8/11/1986 Dec 580. Europe 'The Final Countdown 6/12/1986 581. Housemartins 'Caravan Of Love 20/12/1986 582. Jackie Wilson 'Reet Petite 27/12/1986 1987 583. Steve 'Silk' Hurley 'Jack Your Body 24/1/1987 Feb 584. George Michael & Aretha Franklin 'I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me) 7/2/1987 585. Ben E King 'Stand By Me 21/2/1987 March 586. Boy George 'Everything I Own 14/3/1987 587. Mel & Kim 'Respectable 28/3/1987 April 588. Ferry Aid 'Let It Be 4/4/1987 589. Madonna 'La Isla Bonita 25/4/1987 May 590. Starship 'Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now 9/5/1987 June 591. Whitney Houston 'I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me) 6/6/1987 592. The Firm 'Star Trekkin' 20/6/1987 July 593. Pet Shop Boys' It's A Sin 4/7/1987 594. Madonna 'Who's That Girl 25/7/1987 Aug 595. Los Lobos 'La Bamba 1/8/1987 596. Michael Jackson ''I Just Can't Stop Loving You 15/8/1987 597. Rick Astley 'Never Gonna Give You Up 29/8/1987 Oct 598. M/A/R/R/S ''Pump Up The Volume / Anitina (The First Time I See She Dance) 3/10/1987 599. Bee Gees 'You Win Again 17/10/1987 Nov 600. T'Pau 'China In Your Hand 14/11/1987 Dec 601. Pet Shop Boys 'Always On My Mind 19/12/1987 1988 602. Belinda Carlisle 'Heaven Is A Place On Earth 16/1/1988 603. Tiffany 'I Think We're Alone Now 30/1/1988 Feb 604. Kylie Minogue 'I Should Be So Lucky 20/2/1988 March 605. Aswad 'Don't Turn Around 26/3/1988 April 606. Pet Shop Boys 'Heart 9/4/1988 607. S'Express 'Theme from S'Express 30/4/1988 May 608. Fairground 'Attraction Perfect 14/5/1988 609. Wet Wet Wet 'With A Little Help From My Friends 21/5/1988 June 610. Timelords 'Doctorin The Tardis 18/6/1988 611. Bros 'I Owe You Nothing 25/6/1988 July 612. Glenn Medeiros 'Nothing's Gonna Change My Love For You 9/7/1988 Aug 613. Yazz & The Plastic Population 'The Only Way Is Up 6/8/1988 Sept 614. Phil Collins 'A Groovy Kind Of Love 10/9/1988 615. Hollies 'He Ain't Heavy He's My Brother 24/9/1988 Oct 617. Whitney Houston 'One Moment In Time 15/10/1988 618. Enya 'Orinoco Flow (Sail Away) 29/10/1988 Nov 619. Robin Beck 'The First Time 19/11/1988 Dec 620. Cliff Richard 'Mistletoe & Wine 10/12/1988 1989 621. Kylie Minogue & Jason Donovan - Especially For You 7/1/1989 622. Marc Almond with Gene Pitney - Somethings Gotten Hold Of My Heart 28/1/1989 Feb 623. Simple Minds - Belfast Child 25/2/1989 March 624. Jason Donovan - Too Many Broken Hearts 11/3/1989 625. Madonna - Like A Prayer 25/3/1989 April 626. Bangles - Eternal Flame 15/4/1989 May 627. Kylie Minogue - Hand On Your Heart 13/5/1989 628. Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney, Holly Johnson & Christians - Ferry 'Cross The Mersey 20/5/1989 June 629. Jason Donovan - Sealed With A Kiss 10/6/1989 630. Soul II Soul featuring Caron Wheeler - Back To Life 24/6/1989 July 631. Sonia - You'll Never Stop Me Loving You 22/7/1989 Aug 632. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers -Swing The Mood 5/8/1989 Sept 633. Black Box - Ride On Time 9/9/1989 Oct 634. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers - That's What I Like 21/10/1989 Nov 635. Lisa Stansfield - All Around The World 11/11/1989 636. New Kids On The Block - You Got It (The Right Stuff) 25/11/1989 Dec 637. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers - Let's Party 16/12/1989 638. Band Aid II - Do They Know It's Christmas 23/12/1989 1990 639. New Kids On The Block - Hangin' Tough 16/1/1990 640. Kylie Minogue - Tears On My Pillow 27/1/1990 Feb 641. Sinead O'Connor - Nothing Compares 2 U 3/2/1990 March 642. Beats International Dub Be Good To Me 3/3/1990 643. Snap - The Power 31/3/1990 April 646. England New Order - World In Motion 9/6/1990 647. Elton John - Sacrifice / Healing Hands 23/6/1990 July 648. Partners In Kryme Turtle Power 28/7/1990 Aug 649. Bombalurina - Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini 25/8/1990 Sept 650. Steve Miller - Band The Joker 15/9/1990 651. Maria McKee - Show Me Heaven 29/9/1990 Oct 652. Beautiful South - A Little Time 27/10/1990 Nov 653. Righteous Brothers - Unchained Melody 3/11/1990 Dec 654. Vanilla Ice - Ice Ice Baby 1/12/1990 655. Cliff Richard - Saviour's Day 22/12/1990 1991 656. Iron Maiden - Bring Your Daughter To The Slaughter 5/1/1991 657. Enigma - Sadness Part 1 19/1/1991 658. Queen - Innuendo 26/1/1991 659. KLF - 3 AM Eternal 2/2/1991 660. Simpsons - Do The Bartman 16/2/1991 March 661. Clash - Should I Stay Or Should I Go 9/3/1991 662. Hale & Pace - The Stonk 23/3/1991 The official Comic Relief single 663. Chesney Hawkes - The One And Only 30/3/1991 . May 664. Cher - Shoop Shoop Song (It's In His Kiss) 4/5/1991 June 665. Color Me Badd - I Wanna Sex You Up 8/6/1991 666. Jason Donovan - Any Dream Will Do 29/6/1991 . July 667 Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You 13/7/1991 Nov 668. U2 - The Fly 2/11/1991 669. Vic Reeves & The Wonder Stuff - Dizzy 9/11/1991 670. Michael Jackson - Black Or White 23/11/1991 Dec 671. George Michael & Elton John - Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me 7/12/1991 672. Queen - Bohemian Rhapsody / These Are The Days Of Our Lives 21/12/1991 1992 673. Wet Wet Wet.. Goodnight Girl 25/1/1992 Feb 674. Shakespears Sister.. Stay 22/2/1992 April 675. Right Said Fred.. Deeply Dippy 18/4/1992 May 676. KWS.. Please Don't Go / Game Boy 9/5/1992 June 677. Erasure Abba-esque EP 13/6/1992 July 678. Jimmy Nail.. Ain't No Doubt 18/7/1992 Aug 679. Snap.. Rhythm Is A Dancer 8/8/1992 Sept 680. Shamen.. Ebeneezer Goode 19/9/1992 Oct 681. Tasmin Archer.. Sleeping Satellite 17/10/1992 682. Boyz II Men .. End Of The Road 31/10/1992 Nov 683. Charles & Eddie.. Would I Lie To You 21/11/1992 Dec 684. Whitney Houston.. I Will Always Love You 5/12/1992 . 1993 685. 2 Unlimited.. No Limit 13/2/1993 March 686. Shaggy.. Oh Carolina 20/3/1993 April 687. Bluebells.. Young At Heart 3/4/1993 May 688. George Michael & Queen with Lisa Stansfield - Five Live (EP) 1/5/1993 689. Ace Of Base.... All That She Wants 22/5/1993 June 690. UB 40.. (I Can't Help) Falling In Love With You 12/6/1993 . 691. Gabrielle.. Dreams 26/6/1993 . 692. Take That.. Pray 17/7/1993 August 693. Freddie Mercury.. Living On My Own 14/8/1993 694. Culture Beat.. Mr Vain 28/8/1993 Sept 695. Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince (Will Smith).. Boom! Shake The Room 25/9/1993 Oct 696. Take That featuring Lulu.. Relight my Fire 9/10/1993 697. Meat Loaf.. I'd Do Anything For Love (But I Won't Do That) 23/10/1993 . Dec 698. Mr Blobby.. Mr Blobby 11/12/1993 699. Take That.. Babe 18/12/1993 1994 700. Chaka Demus & Pliers - Twist & Shout 8/1/1994 701. D:Ream - Things Can Only Get Better 22/1/1994 Feb 702. Mariah Carey - Without You 19/2/1994 703. Doop - Doop 19/3/1994 704. Take That - Everything Changes 9/4/1994 705. Prince - The Most Beautiful Girl In The World 23/4/1994 May 706. Tony Di Bart - The Real Thing 7/5/1994 707. Stiltskin - Inside 14/5/1994 708. Manchester United 1994 Football Squad - Come On You Reds 21/5/1994 June 709. Wet Wet Wet - Love Is All Around 4/6/1994 Sept 710. Whigfield - Saturday Night 17/9/1994 Oct 711. Take That - Sure 15/10/1994 712. Pato Banton (with Robin & Ali Campbell) - Baby Come Back 29/10/1994 Nov 713. Baby D - Let Me Be Your Fantasy 26/11/1994 Dec 714. East 17 - Stay Another Day 10/12/1994 1995 715. Rednex.. Cotton Eye Joe 14/1/1995 Feb 716. Celine Dion.. Think Twice 4/2/1995 March 717. Cher,Chrissie Hynde,Neneh Cherry & Eric Clapton.. Love Can Build A Bridge 25/3/1995 April 718. Outhere Brothers.. Don't Stop (Wiggle Wiggle) 1/4/1995 719. Take That.. Back For Good 8/4/1995 May 720. Oasis Some.. Might Say 6/5/1995 721. Livin' Joy.. Dreamer 13/5/1995 722. Robson Green & Jerome Flynn.. Unchained Melody / White Cliffs Of Dover 20/5/1995 June 723. Outhere Brothers.. Boom Boom Boom 8/7/1995 Aug 724. Take That.. Never Forget 5/8/1995 725. Blur.. Country House 26/8/1995 Sept 726. Michael Jackson.. You Are Not Alone 9/9/1995 727. Shaggy - Boombastic 23/9/1995 728. Simply Red - Fairground 30/9/1995 Oct 729. Coolio featuring LV Gangsta's.. Paradise 28/10/1995 Nov 730. Robson & Jerome.. I Believe / Up On The Roof 11/11/1995 Dec 731. Michael Jackson.. Earth Song 9/12/1995 1996 732. George Michael - Jesus To A Child 20/1/1996 733. Babylon Zoo, Spaceman 27/1/1996 March 734. Oasis, Don't Look Back In Anger 2/3/1996 735. Take That, How Deep Is Your Love 9/3/1996 . 736. Prodigy, Firestarter 30/3/1996 737. Mark Morrison, Return Of The Mack 20/4/1996 May 738. George Michael, Fastlove 4/5/1996 . 739. Gina G Ooh Aah Just A Little Bit 25/5/1996 June 740. Baddiel, Skinner & Lightning Seeds.. Three Lions 1/6/1996 . 741. Fugees, Killing Me Softly 8/6/1996 July 742. Gary Barlow, Forever Love 20/7/1996 . 743. Spice Girls, Wannabe 27/7/1996 Sept 744. Peter Andre, Flava 14/9/1996 745. Fugees, Ready Or Not 21/9/1996 Oct 746. Deep Blue Something - Breakfast At Tiffany's 5/10/1996 747. Chemical Brothers, Setting Sun 12/10/1996 748. Boyzone, Words 19/10/1996 749. Spice Girls, Say You'll Be There 26/10/1996 Nov 750. Robson & Jerome, What Becomes Of The Broken Hearted / Saturday Night At The Movies / You'll Never Walk Alone 9/11/1996 751. Prodigy, Breathe 23/11/1996 752. Peter Andre, I Feel You 7/12/1996 753. Boyzone, A Different Beat 14/12/1996 754. Dunblane, Knockin' On Heaven's Door / Throw These Guns Away 21/12/1996 755. Spice Girls, 2 Become 1 28/12/1996 1997 756. Tori Amos, Professional Widow (It's Got To Be Big) 18/1/1997 757. White Town, Your Woman 25/1/1997 Feb 759. LL Cool J,, Ain't Nobody 8/2/1997 760. U2, Discotheque 15/2/1997 761. No Doubt, Don't Speak 22/2/1997 March 762. Spice Girls - Mama / Who Do You Think You Are 15/3/1997 "Who Do You Think You Are" was the official Comic Relief single and sold 672,577 copies. April 763. Chemical Brothers - Block Rockin' Beats 5/4/1997 764. R Kelly - I Believe I Can Fly 12/4/1997 May 765. Michael Jackson, Blood On The Dance Floor 3/5/1997 766. Gary Barlow, Love Won't Wait 10/5/1997 . 767. Olive, You're Not Alone 17/5/1997 768. Eternal ft. Bebe Winans - I Wanna Be The One 31/5/1997 . June 770. Puff Daddy & Faith Evans, I'll Be Missing You 28/6/1997 July 771. Oasis, D'you Know What I Mean 19/7/1997 Aug 772. Will Smith, Men In Black 16/8/1997 Sept 773. Verve, The Drugs Don't Work 13/9/1997 774. Elton John, Candle In The Wind 97 / Something About The Way You Look Tonight 20/9/1997 Oct 775. Spice Girls, Spice Up Your Life 25/10/1997 Nov 776. Aqua, Barbie Girl 1/11/1997 777. Various Artists, Perfect Day 29/11/1997 Dec 778. Teletubbies, Teletubbies Say Eh-oh! 13/12/1997 779. Spice Girls, Too Much 27/12/1997 1998 780. All Saints - Never Ever 17/1/1998 781. Oasis - All Around The World 24/1/1998 782. Usher - You Make Me Wanna... 31/1/1998 Feb 783. Aqua - Doctor Jones 7/2/1998 784. Celine Dion - My Heart Will Go On 21/2/1998 785. Cornershop - Brimful Of Asha 28/2/1998 March 787. Run DMC vs Jason Nevins- It's Like That 21/3/1998 May 788. Boyzone - All That I Need 2/5/1998 789. All Saints - Under The Bridge / Lady Marmalade 9/5/1998 790. Aqua - Turn Back Time 16/5/1998 791. Tamperer featuring Maya - Feel It 30/5/1998 June 792. BWitched - C'est La Vie 6/6/1998 793. Baddiel, Skinner & Lightning Seeds - Three Lions '98 20/6/1998 . July 794. Billie - Because We Want To 11/7/1998 795. Another Level - Freak Me 18/7/1998 796. Jamiroquai - Deeper Underground 25/7/1998 Aug 797. Spice Girls - Viva Forever 1/8/1998 798. Boyzone - No Matter What 15/8/1998 Sept 799. Manic Street Preachers - If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next 5/9/1998 800. All Saints - Bootie Call 12/9/1998 801. Robbie Williams - Millennium 19/9/1998 802. Melanie B featuring Missy Elliott - I Want You Back 26/9/1998 Oct 803. BWitched - Rollercoaster 3/10/1998 804. Billie - Girlfriend 17/10/1998 805. Spacedust - Gym & Tonic 24/10/1998 806. Cher - Believe 31/10/1998 807. BWitched - To You I Belong 19/12/1998 808. Spice Girls - Goodbye 26/12/1998 1999 809. Chef - Chocolate Salty Balls (PS I Love You) 2/1/1999 810. Steps - Heartbeat / Tragedy 9/1/1999 811. Fatboy Slim - Praise You 16/1/1999 812. 911 - A Little Bit More 23/1/1999 813. Offspring Pretty Fly (For A White Guy) 30/1/1999 Feb 814. Armand Van Helden featuring Duane Haeden - You Don't Know Me 6/2/1999 815. Blondie - Maria 13/2/1999 816. Lenny Kravitz - Fly Away 20/2/1999 817. Britney Spears - Baby One More Time 27/2/1999 . March 818. Boyzone - When The Going Gets Tough 13/3/1999 The official Comic Relief single 819. BWitched - Blame It On The Weatherman 27/3/1999 April 820. Mr Oizo - Flat Beat 3/4/1999 821. Martine McCutcheon - Perfect Moment 17/4/1999 May 822. Westlife - Swear It Again 1/5/1999 823. Backstreet Boys - I Want It That Way 15/5/1999 824. Boyzone - You Needed Me 22/5/1999 825. Shanks & Bigfoot - Sweet Like Chocolate 29/5/1999 June 826. Baz Luhrmann - Everybody's Free (To Wear Sunscreen): The Sunscreen Song (Class of 99) 12/6/1999 827. S Club 7 - Bring It All Back 19/6/1999 828. Vengaboys - Boom Boom Boom Boom!! 26/6/1999 July 829. ATB - 9PM (Till I Come) 3/7/1999 830. Ricky Martin - Livin' La Vida Loca 17/7/1999 831. Ronan Keating - When You Say Nothing At All 7/8/1999 Aug 832. Westlife - If I Let You Go 21/8/1999 833. Geri Halliwell - Mi Chico Latino 28/8/1999 Sept 834. Lou Bega - Mambo No 5 4/9/1999 835. Vengaboys - We're Going To Ibiza 18/9/1999 836. Eiffel 65 Blue (Da Ba Dee) 25/9/1999 Oct 837. Christina Aguilera - Genie In A Bottle 16/10/1999 838. Westlife - Flying Without Wings 30/10/1999 Nov 839. Five - Keep On Movin' 6/11/1999 840. Geri Halliwell - Lift Me Up 13/11/1999 841. Robbie Williams - She's The One / It's Only Us 20/11/1999 842. Wamdue Project - King Of My Castle 27/11/1999 Dec 843. Cliff Richard - Millennium Prayer 4/12/1999 844. Westlife - I Have A Dream / Seasons In The Sun 25/12/1999 2000 845. Manic Street Preachers - The Masses Against The Classes 22/1/2000 846. Britney Spears - Born To Make You Happy 29/1/2000 Feb 848. Oasis - Go Let It Out 19/2/2000 849. All Saints - Pure Shores 26/2/2000 March 850. Madonna - American Pie 11/3/2000 851. Chicane featuring Bryan Adams - Don't Give Up 18/3/2000 852. Geri Halliwell - Bag It Up 25/3/2000 April 853. Melanie C with Lisa 'Left Eye' Lopes - Never Be The Same Again 1/4/2000 854. Westlife - Fool Again 8/4/2000 855. Craig David - Fill Me In 15/4/2000 856. Fragma Toca's Miracle 22/4/2000 May 857. Oxide & Neutrino - Bound 4 Da Reload (Casualty) 6/5/2000 858. Britney Spears - Oops!... I Did It Again 13/5/2000 859. Madison Avenue - Don't Call Me Baby 20/5/2000 860. Billie Piper - Day & Night 27/5/2000 June 861. Sonique - It Feels So Good 3/6/2000 (3 weeks) 862. Black Legend - You See The Trouble With Me 24/6/2000 July 863. Kylie Minogue - Spinning Around 1/7/2000 864. Eminem - Real Slim Shady 8/7/2000 865. Corrs - Breathless 15/7/2000 866. Ronan Keating - Life Is A Rollercoaster 22/7/2000 867. Five and Queen - We Will Rock You 29/7/2000 Aug 868. Craig David - 7 Days 5/8/2000 869. Robbie Williams - Rock DJ 12/8/2000 870. Melanie C- I Turn To You 19/8/2000 871. Spiller - Groovejet (If This Ain't Love) 26/8/2000 Sept 873. A1 - Take On Me 9/9/2000 874. Modjo - Lady (Hear Me Tonight) 16/9/2000 875. Mariah Carey & Westlife - Against All Odds 30/9/2000 Oct 876. All Saints - Black Coffee 14 Oct 877. U2 - Beautiful Day 21/10/2000 878. Steps - Stomp 28/10/2000 879. Spice Girls - Holler / Let Love Lead The Way 4/11/2000 880. Westlife - My Love 11/11/2000 881. A1 - Same Old Brand New You 18/11/2000 882. LeAnn Rimes - Can't Fight The Moonlight 25/11/2000 Dec 883. Destiny's Child - Independent Women Part 1 2/12/2000 884. S Club 7 - Never Had A Dream Come True 9/12/2000 885. Eminem Stan 16/12/2000 886. Bob The Builder - Can We Fix It 23/12/2000 (3 weeks) 2001 887. Rui Da Silva featuring Cassandra.. Touch Me 13/1/2001 888. Jennifer Lopez.. Love Don't Cost A Thing 20/1/2001 889. Limp Bizkit.. Rollin' 27/1/2001 Feb 890. Atomic Kitten.. Whole Again 10/2/2001 (4 weeks) March 891. Shaggy featuring Rikrok.. It Wasn't Me 10/3/2001 892. Westlife.. Uptown Girl 17/3/2001 893. Hear'Say.. Pure And Simple 24/3/2001 April 894. Emma Bunton.. What Took You So Long 14/4/2001 895. Destiny's Child.. Survivor 28/4/2001 May 896. S Club 7.. Don't Stop Movin' 5/5/2001 897. Geri Halliwell.. It's Raining Men 12/5/2001 June 898. DJ Pied Piper Do You Really Like It 2/6/2001 899. Shaggy featuring Rayvon.. Angel 9/6/2001 900. Christina Aguilera / Lil' Kim, Mya & Pink.. Lady Marmalade 30/6/2001 July 901. Hear'Say.. The Way To Your Love 7/7/2001 902. Roger Sanchez .. Another Chance 14/7/2001 903. Robbie Williams.. Eternity/The Road To Mandalay 21/7/2001 Aug 904. Atomic Kitten.. Eternal Flame 4/8/2001 905. So Solid Crew.. 21 Seconds 18/8/2001 906. Five.. Let's Dance 25/8/2001 Sept 907. Blue.. Too Close 8/9/2001 908. Bob The Builder.. Mambo No 5 15/9/2001 909. DJ Otzi.. Hey Baby 22/9/2001 910. Kylie Minogue.. Can't Get You Out Of My Head 29/9/2001 Oct 911. Afroman.. Because I Got High 27/10/2001 Nov 912. Westlife.. Queen of My Heart 17/11/2001 913. Blue.. If You Come Back 24/11/2001 Dec 914. S Club 7.. Have You Ever 1/12/2001 915. Daniel Bedingfield.. Gotta Get Thru This 8/12/2001 916. Robbie Williams and Nicole Kidman.. Somethin' Stupid 22/12/2001 2002 917. Aaliyah.. More Than A Woman 19/1/2002 918. George Harrison.. My Sweet Lord 26/1/2002 Feb 919. Enrique Iglesias.. Hero 2/2/2002 (4 weeks) March 920. Westlife.. World Of Our Own 2/3/2002 921. Will Young.. Anything Is Possible / Evergreen 9/3/2002 922. Gareth Gates.. Unchained Melody 30/3/2002 (4 weeks) April 923. Oasis.. The Hindu Times 27/4/2002 May 924. Sugababes.. Freak Like Me 4/5/2002 925. Holly Valance.. Kiss Kiss 11/5/2002 926. Ronan Keating.. If Tomorrow Never Comes 18/5/2002 927. Liberty X.. Just a Little 25/5/2002 June 928. Eminem.. Without Me 1/6/2002 929. Will Young.. Light My Fire 8/6/2002 930. Elvis vs JXL.. A Little Less Conversation 22/6/2002 (4 weeks) July 931. Gareth Gates.. Anyone Of Us (Stupid Mistake) 20/7/2002 Aug 933. Sugababes.. Round Round 24/8/2002 934. Blazin' Squad.. Crossroads 31/8/2002 Sept 935. Atomic Kitten.. The Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) 7/9/2002 936. Pink.. Just Like A Pill 28/9/2002 Oct 937. Will Young & Gareth Gates.. The Long And Winding Road / Suspicious Minds 5/10/2002 938. Las Ketchup.. The Ketchup Song (Asereje) 19/10/2002 939. Nelly feat. Kelly Rowland.. Dilemma 26/10/2002 Nov 940. DJ Sammy & Yanou feat. Do Heaven 9/11/2002 941. Westlife.. Unbreakable 16/11/2002 942. Christina Aguilera.. Dirty 23/11/2002 Dec 943. Daniel Bedingfield.. If You're Not The One 7/12/2002 944. Eminem.. Lose Yourself 14/12/2002 945. Blue feat. Elton John.. Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word 21/12/2002 946. Girls Aloud.. Sound Of The Underground 28/12/2002 (4 weeks) 2003 947: David Sneddon: Stop Living The Lie 25/1/2003 Feb 948: Tatu: All The Things She Said 8/2/2003 March 949: Christina Aguilera: Beautiful 8/3/2003 950: Gareth Gates: Spirit In The Sky 22/3/2003 April 951: Room 5 feat. Oliver Cheatham: Make Luv 5/4/2003 May 952: Busted: You Said No 3/5/2003 953: Tomcraft: Loneliness 10/5/2003 954: R Kelly: Ignition 17/5/2003 June 955: Evanescence: Bring Me To Life 14/6/2003 July 956: Beyonce: Crazy In Love 12/7/2003 Aug 957: Daniel Bedingfield: Never Gonna Leave Your Side 2/8/2003 958: Blu Cantrell Feat. Sean Paul: Breathe 9/8/2003 Sept 959: Elton John: Are You Ready For Love? 6/9/2003 960: Black Eyed Peas: Where Is The Love? 13/9/2003 (6 weeks) Oct 961: Sugababes: Hole In The Head 25/10/2003 Nov 962: Fatman Scoop: Be Faithful 1/11/2003 963: Kylie Minogue: Slow 15/11/2003 964: Busted: Crashed The Wedding 22/11/2003 965: Westlife: Mandy 29/11/2003 966: Will Young: Leave Right Now 6/12/2003 967: Kelly & Ozzy Osbourne: Changes 20/12/2003 968: Michael Andrews feat. Gary Jules: Mad World 27/12/2003 2004 969: Michelle McManus: All This Time 17/1/2004 February 970: LMC V U2: Take Me To The Clouds Above 7/2/2004 971: Sam & Mark: With A Little Help From My Friends / Measure Of A Man 21/2/2004 972: Busted: Who's David 28/2/2004 March 973: Peter Andre: Mysterious Girl 6/3/2004 974: Britney Spears: Toxic 13/3/2004 975: DJ Casper Cha Cha Slide 20/3/2004 976: Usher: Yeah 27/3/2004 977: McFly: Five Colours In Her Hair 10/4/2004 978: Eamon: Fk It (I Don't Want You Back) 24/4/2004 (4 weeks) May 979: Frankee: F.U.R.B (F U Right Back) 22/5/2004 June 980: Mario Winans feat. Enya & P.Diddy: I Don't Wanna Know 12/6/2004 981: Britney Spears: Everytime 26/6/2004 July 984: Shapeshifters: Lola's Theme 24/7/2004 985: The Streets: Dry Your Eyes 31/7/2004 August 986: Busted: Thunderbirds / 3AM 7/8/2004 987: 3 Of A Kind: Babycakes 21/8/2004 988: Natasha Bedingfield: These Words 28/8/2004 September 989: Nelly: My Place / Flap Your Wings 11/9/2004 990: Brian McFadden: Real To Me 18/9/2004 991: Eric Prydz: Call On Me 25/9/2004 October 992: Robbie Williams: Radio 16/10/2004 November 993: Ja Rule feat. R.Kelly & Ashanti: Wonderful 6/11/2004 994: Eminem: Just Lose It 13/11/2004 995: U2: Vertigo 20/11/2004 996: Girls Aloud: I'll Stand By You 27/11/2004 December 997: Band Aid 20: Do They Know It's Christmas 11/12/2004 (4 weeks) 2005 998: Steve Brookstein - Against All Odds ..8/1/2005 X Factor winner 999: Elvis Presley - Jailhouse Rock .. 15/1/2005 (No.1 Jan 24th 1958) 1000: Elvis Presley - One Night .. 22/1/2005 (No.1 Jan 30th 1959) 1001:Ciara feat. Petey Pablo - Goodies .. 29/1/2005 February 1002: Elvis Presley - It's Now Or Never .. 5/2/2005 (No.1 Nov 3rd 1960) 1003: Eminem - Like Toy Soldiers .. 12/2/2005 1004: U2 - Sometimes You Cant Make It On Your Own .. 19/2/2005 1005: Jennifer Lopez - Get Right .. 26/2/2005 March 1006: Nelly featuring Tim McGraw - Over and Over .. 5/3/2005 1007: Stereophonics - Dakota .. 12/3/2005 1008: McFly - All About You / You've Got A Friend 19/3/2005 Official Comic Relief single 1009: Tony Christie feat. Peter Kay (Is This The Way To) Amarillo .. 26/3/2005 (7) The 2nd Comic Relief single May 1010: Akon - Lonely .. 14/5/05 (2) 1011: Oasis - Lyla .. 28/5/05 (1) June 1012: Crazy Frog - Axel F .. 05/6/2005 (4) in@ No.1 (First RINGTONE to chart in UK) July 1013: 2Pac feat. Elton John - Ghetto Gospel .. 2/7/2005 1014: James Blunt - You're Beautiful .. 23/7/2005 August 1015: McFly - I'll Be OK .. 27/8/2005 September 1016: Oasis - The Importance Of Being Idle .. 3/9/2005 1017: Gorillaz - Dare .. 10/9/2005 1018: Pussycat Dolls Ft Busta Rhymes - Don't Cha .. 17/9/2005 October 1019: Sugababes - Push The Button .. 8/10/2005 (3) 1020: Arctic Monkeys - I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor .. 29/10/2005 (1) .. November 1021: Westlife - You Raise Me Up ..5/11/05 (2) 1022: Madonna - Hung Up .. 19/11/05 (3) December 1023: Pussycat Dolls - Stickwitu ..10/12/05 (2) 1024: Nizlopi - JCB Song .. 24/12/05 (1) 1025: Shayne Ward - That's My Goal .. 31/12/05 (4) in@ No.1 X Factor winner 2006 1026: Arctic Monkeys - When The Sun Goes Down .. 28/1/06 (1) in@ No.1 .. February 1027: Notorious BIG/ P Diddy/ Nelly - Nasty Girl .. 4/2/06 (2) 1028: Meck Ft Leo Sayer - Thunder In My Heart Again .. 18/2/06 (2) in@ No.1 .. March 1029: Madonna - Sorry .. 4/3/06 (1) in@ No.1 1030: Chico - It's Chico Time .. 11/3/06 (2) in@ No.1 1031: Orson - No Tomorrow .. 25/3/06 (1) .. April 1032: NeYo - So Sick .. 1/4/06 (1) 1033: Gnarls Barkley - Crazy .. 8/4/06 (9) in@ No.1 June 1034: Sandi Thom - I Wish I A Punk Rocker .. 10/6/06 (1) .. 1035: Nelly Furtado - Maneater .. 17/6/06 (3) July 1036: Shakira Ft Wyclef Jean - Hips Don't Lie .. 8/7/06 (1) 1037: Lily Allen - Smile .. 15/7/06 (2) 1038: McFly - Don't Stop Me Now/please Please .. 29/7/06 (1) in@ No.1 .. August r/e. : Shakira Ft Wyclef Jean - Hips Don't Lie .. 5/8/06 (4) September 1039: Beyonce Ft Jay-z - Deja Vu .. 2/9/06 (1) 1040: Justin Timberlake - Sexyback .. 9/9/06 (1) in@ No.1.. 1041: Scissor Sisters - I Don't Feel Like Dancin' .. 16/9/06 (4) October 1042: Razorlight - America .. 14/10/06 (1).. 1043: My Chemical Romance - Welcome To The Black Parade .. 21/10/06 (2).. November 1044: McFly - Star Girl .. 4/11/06 (1) in@ No.1 .. 1045: Fedde Le Grand - Put Your Hands Up For Detroit ..11/11/06 (1) .. 1046: Westlife - The Rose .. 18/11/06 (1) in@ No.1 1047: Akon Ft Eminem - Smack That .. 25/11/2006 (1) December 1048: Take That - Patience .. 2/12/2006 (4) 1049: Leona Lewis - A Moment Like This .. 30/12/2006 (4) in@ No.1 .. X Factor winner 2007 1050: Mika - Grace Kelly .. 27/01/07 (5) .. March 1051: Kaiser Chiefs - Ruby .. 03/03/07 (1) .. 1052: Take That - Shine .. 10/03/07 (2) 1053: Sugababes Vs Girls Aloud - Walk This Way .. 24/03/07 (2) The official Comic Relief single 1054: Proclaimers/B.Potter/A.Pipkin - I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) .. 31/03/07 (3) in@ No.1 also released for the Comic Relief charity. Its sales were double that of the "official" Comic Relief single. April 1055: Timbaland/Nelly Furtado/Justin Timberlake - Give It To Me .. 21/04/07 (1) 1056: Beyonce & Shakira - Beautiful Liar .. 28/04/07 (4) .. May 1057: McFly - Baby's Coming Back/Transylvania .. 19/05/07 (1) in@ No.1 1058: Rihanna ft Jay.Z - Umbrella .. 26/05/07 (10) in@ No.1 August 1059: Timbaland Ft Keri Hilson - The Way I Are .. 4/08/07 (2).. 1060: Robyn With Kleerup - With Every Heartbeat .. 18/08/2007 (1) 1061: Kanye West - Stronger .. 25/08/2007 (2) September 1062: Sean Kingston - Beautiful Girls .. 08/09/2007 (4) October 1063: Sugababes - About You Now .. 06/10/2007 (4) November 1064: Leona Lewis - Bleeding Love .. 03/11/2007 (7) in@ No.1 .. December 1065: Eva Cassidy & Katie Melua - What A Wonderful World .. 22/12/2007 (1) in@ No.1 .. 1066: Leon Jackson - When You Believe .. 29/12/2007 (3) in@ No.1 X Factor winner 2008 1067: Basshunter Ft. Dj Mental Theo - Now You're Gone .. w/e 19/01/2008 (5) February 1068: Duffy - Mercy .. w/e 23/02/2008 (5) in@ No.1 March 1069: Estelle Ft Kanye West - American Boy .. w/e 29/03/2008 (4) in@ No.1 .. April 1070: Madonna Ft Justin Timberlake - 4 Minutes .. w/e 26/04/2008 (4) May 1071: Ting Tings - That's Not My Name .. w/e 24/05/2008 (1) in@ No.1 1072: Rihanna - Take A Bow .. 31/05/2008 (2) June 1073: Mint Royale - Singin' In The Rain .. 14/06/2008 (2) in@ No.1 .. 1074: Coldplay - Viva La Vida .. 28/06/2008 (1) in@ No.1 July 1075: Ne-Yo . - Closer .. 05/07/2008 (1) 1076: Dizzee Rascal /Calvin Harris /Chrome - Dance Wiv Me .. 12/07/2008 (4) in@ No.1 August 1077: Kid Rock - All Summer Long .. 09/08/2008 (1) .. 1078: Katy Perry - I Kissed A Girl .. 16/08/2008 (5) September 1079: Kings Of Leon - Sex On Fire .. 20/09/2008 (3) in@ No.1 .. October 1080: Pink - So What .. 11th Oct (3) November 1081: Girls Aloud - The Promise .. 1st Nov (1) in@ No.1 1082: X Factor Finalists - Hero .. 7th Nov (3) in@ No.1 1083: Beyonce - If I Were A Boy .. 29 Nov (1) December 1084: Take That - Greatest Day .. 06 Dec (1) in@ No.1 .. 1085: Leona Lewis - Run .. 13 Dec (2) in@ No.1 1086: Alexandra Burke - Hallelujah .. 27 Dec (3) [email protected] X Factor winner 2009 1087: Lady Gaga - Just Dance .. w/e Jan 17th (3) February 1088: Lily Allen - The Fear.. w/e Feb 07th (4) in@ No.1 March 1089: Kelly Clarkson - My Life Would Suck Without You.. w/e March 07 (1) in@ No.1 1090: Flo Rida Ft Kesha - Right Round.. w/e March 14 (1) in@ No.1 .. No.2 in the charts .. "Just Can't Get Enough" - The Saturdays .. the first official Comic Relief single not to reach No.1 in 14 years. 1091: Jenkins/West/Jones/Gibb - Islands In The Stream.. w/e March 21 (1) in@ No.1 ..The second Comic Relief 2009 single. 1092: Lady Gaga - Poker Face.. w/e March 28 (3) April 1093: Calvin Harris - I'm Not Alone.. w/e April 18 (2) in@ No.1 May 1094: Tinchy Stryder Ft N-dubz - Number 1.. w/e May 02 (3) in@ No.1 1095: Black Eyed Peas - Boom Boom Pow.. w/e May 23 (1) in@ No.1 1096: Dizzee Rascal / Armand Van Helden - Bonkers.. w/e May 30 (2) in@ No.1 June r/e.. : Black Eyed Peas - Boom Boom Pow.. w/e June 13 (1) 1097: Pixie Lott - Mama Do.. w/e June 20 (1) in@ No.1 1098: David Guetta Ft Kelly Rowland - When Love Takes Over.. w/e June 27 (1) .. July 1099: La Roux - Bulletproof.. w/e July 4 (1) in@ No.1 1100: Cascada - Evacuate The Dancefloor.. w/e 11 July (2) in@ No.1 1101: JLS - Beat Again.. w/e 25 July (1) in@ No.1 August 1102: Black Eyed Peas - I Gotta Feeling.. w/e 08 Aug (1) 1103: Tinchy Stryder Ft Amelle - Never Leave You.. w/e 15 Aug (1) in@ No.1 r/e ..: Black Eyed Peas - I Gotta Feeling.. w/e 22 Aug (1) 1104: David Guetta Ft Akon - Sexy Chick.. w/e 29 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. September 1105: Dizzee Rascal - Holiday.. w/e 05 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1106: Jay-Z Ft Rihanna & Kanye West - Run This Town.. w/e 12 Sept (1) in@ No.1 .. 1107: Pixie Lott - Boys & Girls.. w/e 19 Sept (1) 1108: Taio Cruz - Break Your Heart.. w/e 26 Sept (3) in@ No.1 October 1109: Chipmunk - Oopsy Daisy.. w/e 17 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1110: Alexandra Burke ft. Flo Rida - Bad Boys .. w/e 24 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1111: Cheryl Cole - Fight For This Love.. w/e 31 Oct (2) in@ No.1 .. November 1112: JLS - Everybody In Love.. w/e 14 Nov (1) in@ No.1 .. 1113: Black Eyed Peas - Meet Me Halfway.. w/e 21 Nov (1) .. 1114: X Factor Finalists 2009 - You Are Not Alone.. w/e 28 Nov (1) in@ No.1 December 1115: Peter Kay's Animated All Star Band - BBC Children In Need Medley.. w/e 05 Dec (2) 1116: Lady Gaga - Bad Romance.. w/e 19 Dec (1) 1117: Rage Against the Machine - Killing In The Name.. w/e 26 Dec (1) in@ No.1 2010 1118: Joe McElderry - The Climb.. w/e 02 Jan (1) X Factor winner r/e....: Lady Gaga - Bad Romance.. w/e 09 Jan (1) .. 1119: Iyaz - Replay.. w/e 16 Jan (2) in@ No.1 1120: Owl City - Fireflies.. w/e 30 Jan (3) .. February 1121: Helping Haiti - Everybody Hurts.. w/e 20 Feb (2) in@ No.1 March 1122: Jason Derulo - In My Head.. w/e 06 March (1) in@ No.1 1123: Tinie Tempah - Pass Out.. w/e 13 March (2) in@ No.1 .. 1124: Lady Gaga ft. Beyoncé - Telephone.. w/e 27 March (2) April 1125: Scouting for Girls - This Ain't A Love Song.. w/e 10 April (2) in@ No.1 .. 1126: Usher ft. will.i.am - OMG.. w/e 24 April (1) May 1127: Diana Vickers - Once.. w/e 01 May (1) in@ No.1 1128: Roll Deep - Good Times.. w/e 08 May (3) in@ No.1 .. 1129: B.o.B ft Bruno Mars - Nothin' On You.. w/e 29 May (1) in@ No.1 June 1130: Dizzee Rascal - Dirtee Disco.. w/e 05 June (1) in@ No.1 .. 1131: David Guetta ft. Chris Willis - Gettin' Over You.. w/e 12 June (1) in@ No.1 .. 1132: Shout ft. Dizzee & James Corden - Shout For England.. w/e 19 June (2) in@ No.1 .. July 1133: Katy Perry ft.Snoop Dogg - California Gurls.. w/e 03 July (2) in@ No.1 .. 1134: JLS - The Club Is Alive.. w/e 17 July (1) in@ No.1 .. 1135: B.o.B ft. Hayley Williams - Airplanes.. w/e 24 July (1) .. 1136: Yolanda Be Cool Vs D Cup - We No Speak Americano.. w/e 31 July (1) .. August 1137: Wanted - All Time Low.. w/e 07 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. 1138: Ne-Yo - Beautiful Monster.. w/e 14 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. 1139: Flo Rida Club ft. David Guetta - Can't Handle Me.. w/e 21 Aug (1) 1140: Roll Deep - Green Light.. w/e 28 Aug (1) in@ No.1 .. September 1141: Taio Cruz - Dynamite.. w/e 04 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1142: Olly Murs - Please Don't Let Me Go.. w/e 11 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1143: Alexandra Burke ft. Laza Morgan - Start Without You.. w/e 18 Sept (2) in@ No.1 .. October 1144: Bruno Mars - Just the Way You Are (Amazing).. w/e 02 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1145: Tinie Tempah - Written In The Stars.. w/e 09 Oct (1) in@ No.1 .. 1146: Cee Lo Green - Forget You.. w/e 16 Oct (2) in@ No.1 r/e...: Bruno Mars - Just the Way You Are (Amazing).. w/e 30 Oct (1) .. November 1147: Cheryl Cole - Promise This.. w/e 06 Nov (1) in@ No.1 1148: Rihanna - Only Girl (In The World).. w/e 13 Nov (2) .. 1149: JLS - Love You More.. w/e 27 Nov (1) in@ No.1 . December 1150: The X Factor Finalists 2010 - Heroes.. w/e 04 Dec (2) in@ No.1 . 1151: The Black Eyed Peas - The Time (Dirty Bit).. w/e 18 Dec (1). 1152: Matt Cardle - When We Collide.. w/e 25 Dec (3) in@ No.1 X Factor winner 2011 1153: Rihanna ft. Drake - What's My Name.. w/e 15 Jan (1). 1154: Bruno Mars - Grenade.. w/e 22 Jan (2) in@ No.1. February 1155: Kesha - We R Who We R.. w/e 05 Feb (1) 1156: Jessie J ft. B.o.B - Price Tag.. w/e 12 Feb (2) in@ No.1 1157: Adele - Someone Like You.. w/e 26 Feb (4) March 1158: Nicole Scherzinger - Don't Hold Your Breath.. w/e 26 March (1) in@ No.1 April r/e.,.: Adele - Someone Like You.. w/e 02 April (1) 1159: Jennifer Lopez ft. Pitbull - On The Floor.. w/e 09 April (2) in@ No.1 1160: LMFAO - Party Rock Anthem.. w/e 23 April (4). May 1161: Bruno Mars - The Lazy Song.. w/e 21 May (1). 1162: Pitbull ft. Ne-Yo, Afrojack & Nayer - Give Me Everything.. w/e May 28 (3) June 1163: Example - Changed The Way You Kiss Me.. w/e 18 June (2) in@ No.1. July 1164: Jason Derulo - Don't Wanna Go Home.. w/e 02 July (2) in@ No.1. 1165: DJ Fresh ft. Sian Evans - Louder.. w/e 16 July (1) in@ No.1 1166: The Wanted - Glad You Came.. w/e 23 July (2) in@ No.1 August 1167: JLS ft. Dev - She Makes Me Wanna.. w/e 06 Aug (1) in@ No.1 1168: Cher Lloyd - Swagger Jagger.. w/e 13 Aug (1) in@ No.1 1169: Nero - Promises.. w/e 20 Aug (1) in@ No.1 1170: Wretch 32 ft.Josh Kumra - Don't Go.. w/e 27 Aug (1) in@ No.1 September 1171: Olly Murs ft. Rizzle Kicks - Heart Skips A Beat.. w/e 03 Sept (1) in@ No.1. 1172: Example - Stay Awake.. w/e 10 Sept (1) in@ No.1 1173: Pixie Lott - All About Tonight.. w/e 17 Sept (1) in@ No.1. 1174: One Direction - What Makes You Beautiful.. w/e 24 Sept (1) in@ No.1. October 1175: Dappy - No Regrets.. w/e 01 Oct (1) in@ No.1 1176: Sak Noel - Loca People .. w/e 08 Oct (1) in@ No.1. 1177: Rihanna ft.Calvin Harris - We Found Love .. w/e 15 Oct (3) in@ No.1 . November 1178: Professor Green ft.Emeli Sande - Read All About It .. w/e 05 Nov (2) [email protected] . R / E: Rihanna ft.Calvin Harris - We Found Love .. w/e 26 Nov (3) December 1179: The X Factor Finalists 2011 - Wishing On A Star .. w/e Dec 10 (1) [email protected] 1180: Olly Murs - Dance With Me Tonight .. w/e Dec 17 (1) 1181: Little Mix - Cannonball .. w/e Dec 24 (1) [email protected] X Factor winner 1182: Military Wives with Gareth Malone - Wherever You Are .. w/e Dec 31 (1) [email protected] 2012 1183: Coldplay - Paradise .. w/e Jan 7 (1) 1184: Flo Rida - Good Feeling .. w/e Jan 14 (1) 1185: Jessie J - Domino .. w/e Jan 21 (2) February 1186: Cover Drive - Twilight .. Feb 04 (1) [email protected] 1187: David Guetta ft Sia - Titanium .. Feb 11 (1) 1188: Gotye Somebody ft Kimbra - That I Used To Know .. Feb 18 (1) 1189: DJ Fresh ft. Rita Ora - Hot Right Now .. Feb 25 (1) March R / E: Gotye ft Kimbra - SomebodyThat I Used To Know .. March 03 (4) 1190: Katy Perry - Part Of Me .. March 31 (1) in@ No.1 April 1191: Chris Brown - Turn Up The Music .. April 07 (1) [email protected] 1192: Carly Rae Jepsen - Call Me Maybe .. April 14 (4) May 1193: Tulisa - Young .. w/e May 12 (1) [email protected] 1194: Rita Ora ft.Tinie Tempah - R.I.P .. w/e May 19 (2) [email protected] June 1195: fun ft. Janelle Monae - We Are Young .. w/e June 2 (1) 1196: Rudimental ft. John Newman - Feel The Love .. w/e June 9 (1) [email protected] 1197: Gary Barlow & The Commonwealth Band - Sing .. w/e June 16 (1) 1198: Cheryl - Call My Name .. w/e June 23 (1) [email protected] 1199: Maroon 5 ft. Wiz Khalifa - Payphone .. w/e June 30 (1) [email protected] July 1200: will.i.am ft. Eva Simons - This Is Love .. w/e July 7 (1) [email protected] R / E: Maroon 5 ft.Wiz Khalifa - Payphone .. w/e July 14 (1) 1201: Florence + the Machine (Calvin Harris Mix) - Spectrum (Say My Name) .. w/e July 21 (3) August 1202: Wiley ft. Rymez & Ms D - Heatwave .. w/e Aug 11 (2) [email protected] 1203: Rita Ora - How We Do (Party) .. w/e Aug 25 (1) [email protected] September 1204: Sam and The Womp - Bom Bom .. w/e Sept 01 (1) [email protected] 1205: Little Mix - Wings .. w/e Sept 08 (1) [email protected] 1206: Ne-Yo - Let Me Love You (Until You Learn To Love Yourself) .. w/e Sept 15 (1) [email protected] 1207: The Script feat. will.i.am - Hall Of Fame .. w/e Sept 22 (2) October 1208: PSY - Gangnam Style .. w/e Oct 06 (1) 1209: Rihanna - Diamonds .. w/e Oct 13 (1) [email protected] 1210: Swedish House Mafia ft.John Martin - Don't You Worry Child .. w/e Oct 20 (1) [email protected] 1211: Calvin Harris ft.Florence Welch - Sweet Nothing .. w/e Oct 27 (1) [email protected] November 1212: Labrinth ft. Emeli Sande - Beneath Your Beautiful .. w/e Nov 03 (1) 1213: Robbie Williams - Candy .. w/e Nov 10 (2) [email protected] 1214: One Direction - Little Things .. Nov 24 (1) [email protected] December 1215: Olly Murs ft. Flo Rida - Troublemaker .. Dec 01 (2) [email protected] 1216: Gabrielle Aplin - The Power Of Love .. Dec 15 (1) 1217: James Arthur - Impossible .. Dec 22 (1) [email protected] the fastest-selling X Factor single of all time (to date) reaching 255,000 downloads within 48 hours 1218: The Justice Collective - He Ain't Heavy He's My Brother .. Dec 29 (1) [email protected]. 2013 R/E .: James Arthur - Impossible .. Jan 05 (2) 1219: will.i.am feat. Britney Spears - Scream & Shout .. Jan 19 (2) February 1220: Bingo Players ft. Far East Movement - Get Up (Rattle) .. Feb 02 (2) [email protected] 1221: Macklemore - Thrift Shop .. w/e Feb 16 (1) 1222: Avicii vs Nicky Romero - I Could Be The One .. w/e Feb 23 (1) [email protected] March 1223: One Way Or Another (Teenage Kicks) - One Direction .. w/e March 02 (1) [email protected] The official Comic Relief 2013 single. 1224: Justin Timberlake - Mirrors .. w/e March 09 (3) 1225: The Saturdays ft Sean Paul - What About Us .. March 30 (1) [email protected] April 1226: PJ & Duncan - Let's Get Ready To Rhumble .. April 06 (1) first released July 11th 1994 peaking at No.9. ~ re-released in March 2013, with royalties from sales to be donated to the charity ChildLine. 1227: Duke Dumont ft. AME - Need U (100%) .. April 13 (2) [email protected] 1228: Rudimental ft. Ella Eyre - Waiting All Night .. April 27 (1) [email protected] May 1229: Daft Punk ft. Pharrell Williams - Get Lucky .. May 04 (4) June 1230: Naughty Boy ft. Sam Smith - La La La .. June 01 (1) [email protected] 1231: Robin Thicke ft. Pharrell Williams & T.I. - Blurred Lines .. June 08 (4) [email protected] July 1232: Icona Pop ft. Charli XCX - I Love It .. July 06 (1) [email protected] 1233: John Newman - Love Me Again .. July 13 (1) [email protected] R/E .: Robin Thicke ft. Pharrell Williams & T.I. - Blurred Lines .. July 20 (1) 1234: Avicii - Wake Me Up .. July 27 (3) [email protected] August 1235: Miley Cyrus - We Can't Stop .. Aug 17 (1) [email protected] 1236: Ellie Goulding - Burn .. Aug 24 (3) [email protected] September 1237: Katy Perry - Roar .. Sept 14 (2) [email protected] 1238: Jason Derulo ft. 2 Chainz - Talk Dirty .. Sept 28 (2) [email protected] October 1239: OneRepublic - Counting Stars .. Oct 12 (1) 1240: Miley Cyrus - Wrecking Ball .. Oct 19 (1) [email protected] R/E .: OneRepublic - Counting Stars .. Oct 26 (1) November 1241: Lorde - Royals .. Nov 02 (1) [email protected] 1242: Eminem ft Rihanna - The Monster .. Nov 09 (1) [email protected] 1243: Storm Queen - Look Right Through .. Nov 16 (1) 1244: Martin Garrix - Animals .. Nov 23 (1) [email protected] 1245: Lily Allen - Somewhere Only We Know .. Nov 30 (1) December 1246: Calvin Harris/Alesso/Hurts - Under Control .. Dec 07 (1) [email protected] R/E .:.Lily Allen - Somewhere Only We Know .. Dec 14 (2) 1247: Sam Bailey - Skyscaper .. Dec 28 (1) [email protected] Xmas No.1 2014 1248: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. Jan 04 (1). 1249: Pitbull ft Kesha - Timber .. Jan 11 (1) [email protected]. R/E .: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. Jan 18 (2). February 1250: Clean Bandit ft. Jess Glynne - Rather Be .. Feb 01 (4) [email protected] March 1251: Sam Smith - Money On My Mind .. March 01 (1) [email protected]. R/E .: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. March 08 (1). 1252: Route 94 ft. Jess Glynne - My Love .. March 15 (1) [email protected]. 1253: DVBBS & Borgeous ft Tinie Tempah - Tsunami (Jump) .. March 22 (1) [email protected]. 1254: Duke Dumont ft Jax Jones - I Got U .. March 29 (1) [email protected] April 1255: 5 Seconds Of Summer - She Looks So Perfect .. April 05 (1) [email protected]. 1256: Aloe Blacc - The Man .. April 12 (1) [email protected]. 1257: Sigma - Nobody To Love .. April 19 (1) [email protected]. 1258: Kiesza - Hidaway .. April 26 (1) [email protected] May 1259: Mr Probz - Waves .. May 03 (1) [email protected]. 1260: Calvin Harris - Summer .. May 10 (1) [email protected]. R/E .: Mr Probz - Waves .. May 17 (1). 1261: Rita Ora - I Will Never Let You Down .. May 24 (1) [email protected]. 1262: Sam Smith - Stay With Me .. May 31 (1) [email protected] June 1263: Secondcity - I Wanna Feel .. June 07 (1) [email protected] 1264: Ed Sheeran - Sing .. June 14 (1) [email protected] 1265: Ella Henderson - Ghost .. June 21 (2) [email protected] July 1266: Oliver Heldens & Becky Hill - Gecko (Overdrive) .. July 05 (1) [email protected] 1267: Ariana Grande ft Iggy Azalea - Problem .. July 12 (1) [email protected] 1268: Will.i.am ft. Cody Wise - It's My Birthday .. July 19 (1) [email protected] 1269: Rixton - Me And My Broken Heart .. July 26 (1) [email protected] August 1270: Cheryl Cole ft Tinie Tempah - Crazy Stupid Love .. Aug 02 (1) [email protected] 1271: Magic - Rude .. Aug 09 (1) 1272: Nico & Vinz - Am I Wrong .. Aug 16 (2) 1273: David Guetta ft. Sam Martin - Lovers On The Sun .. Aug 30 (1) [email protected] September 1274: Lilly Wood & Robin Schulz - Prayer in C .. Sept 06 (2) . 1275: Calvin Harris ft. John Newman - Blame .. Sept 20 (1) [email protected] 1276: Sigma ft. Paloma Faith - Changing .. Sept 27 (1) October 1277: Jesse J / Grande / Minaj - Bang Bang .. Oct 04 (1) [email protected] . 1278: Meghan Trainor - All About That Bass .. Oct 11 (4) . November 1279: Ed Sheeran - Thinking Out Aloud .. Nov 08 (1) 1280: Cheryl - I Don't Care - Cheryl .. Nov 15 (1) [email protected] 1281: Gareth Malone's All Star Choir - Wake Me Up .. Nov 22 (1) [email protected] 1282: Band Aid 30 - Do They Know It's Christmas .. Nov 29 (1) [email protected] December 1283: Take That - These Days .. Dec 06 (1) [email protected] R/E:.: Ed Sheeran - Thinking Out Aloud .. Dec 13 (1) 1284: Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk .. Dec 20 (1) [email protected] 1285: Ben Haenow - Something I Need .. Dec 27 (1) [email protected] 2015 R/E:.: Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk .. Jan 03 (6) February 1286: Ellie Goulding - Love Me Like You Do .. Feb 14 (4) [email protected] March 1287: Years & Years - King .. March 14 (1) [email protected] 1288: Sam Smith ft.John Legend - Lay Me Down .. March 21 (2) [email protected] April 1289: Jess Glynne - Hold My Hand .. April 04 (3) [email protected] 1290: Wiz Khalifa ft. Charlie Puth - See You Again .. April 25 (2) May 1291: OMI - Cheerleader .. May 09 (4) June 1292: Jason Derulo - Want To Want Me .. June 06 (4) [email protected] July 1293: Tinie Tempah ft Jesse Glynne - Not Letting Go .. July 04 (1) WEEK ENDING DATE CHANGES TO FRIDAYS 1294: Lost Frequences - Are You With Me .. July 09 (1) 1295: David Zowie - House Every Weekend .. July 16 (1) 1296: Little Mix - Black Magic .. July 23 (3) [email protected] August 1297: One Direction - Drag Me Down .. Aug 13 (1) [email protected] 1298: Charlie Puth ft Meghan Trainor - Marvin Gaye .. Aug 20 (1) 1299: Jess Glynne - Don't Be So Hard on Yourself .. Aug 27 (1) September 1300: Rachel Platten - Fight Song .. Sept 03 (1) 1301: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Sept 10 (1) [email protected] 1302: Sigala - Easy Love .. Sept 17 (1) R/E:.: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Sept 24 (2) October 1303: Sam Smith - Writing On The Wall .. Oct 08 (1) [email protected]. R/E:.: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Oct 15 (2) 1304: KDA ft Tinie Tempah & Katy B - Turn The Music Louder (Rumble) .. Oct 29 (1) [email protected] November 1305: Adele - Hello .. Nov 05 (3) [email protected] 1306: Justin Bieber - Sorry .. Nov 26 (2) December 1307: Justin Bieber - Love Yourself .. Dec 10 (3) 1308: Lewisham & Greenwich NHS Choir - A Bridge Over You .. Dec 31 (1) [email protected] 2016 January R/E:.: Justin Bieber - Love Yourself .. Jan 07 (3) Jan 8th - Jan 14th Justin Bieber holds the 1st, 2nd, 3rd position on the charts; a first in UK chart history 1309: Shawn Mendes - Stitches . . Jan 28 (2) February 1310: Zayn - Pillowtalk . . Feb 11 (1) in@ No.1 1311: Lukas Graham - 7 Years . . Feb 18 (5) March 1312: Mike Posner - I Tool A Pill In Ibiza .. March 24 (4) April 1313: Drake ft. Wizkid & Kyla - One Dance .. April 21 (15) August 1314: Major Lazer/Justin Beiber/Mo - Cold Water .. Aug 04 (5) September 1315: Chainsmoker ft Halsey - Closer .. Sept 08 (4) October 1316: James Arthur - Say You Won't Let Go .. Oct 06 (3) 1317: Little Mix - Shout Out To My Ex .. Oct 27 (3) [email protected] November 1318: Clean Bandit - Rockabye .. Nov 17 (9) Christmas No.1 2017 January 1319: Ed Sheeran - Shape Of You .. w/e Jan 19 (1) [email protected] "Shape of You" and Ed Sheeran's "Castle on the Hill" debuted on UK Singles Chart at No1 & No.2, the first time in history an artist has taken the top two chart positions with new releases. UPDATED: January 13th 2016. A FEW FACTS (UK Singles charts) Most Consecutive Weeks at No.1 16 weeks: Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You .. 1991 Most Weeks at No.1 18 weeks: Frankie Laine's - I Believe In 1953 it topped the chart on three separate occasions Longest Time For A Track To Get To No.1 33 Years, 3 Months, and 27 Days. Tony Christie "(Is This The Way To) Amarillo" w/e November 27th 1971 - it reached No.18. w/e March 26th 2005 - it reached No.1 with the re-release, after comedian Peter Kaye sung the song and made an amusing video with it, featuring many other celebrities. It was in aid of Comic Relief. it beat the previous record of 29 Years, 1 Month, and 11 Days Jackie Wilson -"Reet Petite (The Sweetest Girl in Town)" the original subtitle: (The Finest Girl You Ever Want To Meet) w/e November 15th 1957 - it reached No.6 in the UK charts w/e December 29th 1986 - it reached No.1 , two years after his death, when it was re-released after being used on an advert for Levi Jeans . Until 1983, the chart was made available on Tuesdays. Due to improved technology, from January 1983 it was released on the Sunday. The convention of using Saturday as the 'week-ending' date has remained constant throughout. JULY 2015 .. WEEK-ENDING DATE CHANGES TO THURSDAYS AND RELEASED ON FRIDAYS Information up to 2004 is from the "Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums" 2004 onwards from BBC Radio 1 *****************************************	i don't know
Which landlocked West African country has a name which means 'Land of the upright men'?	The Land of Upright People \| Richard Mills \| Safehaven.com The Land of Upright People The Land of Upright People By: Richard Mills \| Sun, Jul 25, 2010 Print Email As a general rule, the most successful man in life is the man who has the best information. Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is surrounded by six countries: Mali to the north, Niger to the east, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Côte d'Ivoire to the southwest. focusonforests.org Burkina is 274,000 km² with a population of plus 15 million it's people belong to one of two major West African cultural groups - the Voltaic and the Mande. Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta (The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: the Black Volta (or Mouhoun), the White Volta (Nakambe) and the Red Volta (Nazinon). It was renamed Burkina Faso in August 1984 - meaning "the land of upright people" in Mòore and Dioula, the two major native languages of the country. Figuratively Burkina may be translated as "men of integrity" from the Mòore language and "Faso" means "father's house" in Dioula. After gaining independence from France in 1960 the country is now a semi-presidential republic. The parliament consists of one chamber known as the National Assembly, it has 111 seats with members elected to serve five year terms. There is a constitutional chamber with ten members and an economic and social council whose roles are purely consultative. Burkina Faso is divided into thirteen regions, forty-five provinces, and 301 departments. Burkina Faso's capital is Ouagadougou. It is a member of the African Union, Community of Sahel-Saharan States, La Francophonie, Organization of the Islamic Conference and Economic Community of West African States. Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of terrane. The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain (land worn down by erosion almost to a level plain - a nearly flat land surface) which forms a gently undulating landscape with a few isolated hills. The southwest of the country is a sandstone massif, where the highest peak, Tenakourou, is 749 meters tall. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is 400 meters - the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is only 600 meters. Burkina Faso has a tropical climate with two seasons - wet and dry. During the rainy season the country receives 600 to 900 millimeters of rainfall, the rainy season lasts four or five months, starting in May/June and it rains, off and on, till September. In the dry season, the harmattan - a hot dry wind coming from the Sahara desert - blows. Burkina Faso's natural resources include manganese, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and gold, there are currently operating copper, iron, manganese and gold mines in the country. Burkina Facts: The inhabitants of Burkina Faso are known as Burkinabe. Agriculture represents 32% of its gross domestic product A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid Burkina Faso is one of the poorest countries in the world - per capita gross domestic product (GDP) = $440 More than 80% of the population relies on subsistence agriculture Drought, poor soil, lack of adequate communications and other infrastructure, a low literacy rate, and an economy vulnerable to external shocks are all longstanding and ongoing problems Many Burkinabe migrate to neighboring countries for work sending substantial amounts of money back home - these remittances provide a contribution to the economy's balance of payments that is second only to cotton as a source of foreign exchange earnings The currency of Burkina Faso is the CFA franc Burkina Faso is one of the few West African countries that's not predominantly Muslim A railway connects Burkina with the port of Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire, 1,150 kilometers (712 mi.) away Primary roads between main towns in Burkina Faso are paved Phones and Internet service providers are relatively reliable, but the cost of utilities is very high Burkina is attempting to improve its economy by: developing its mineral resources Making its agricultural and livestock sectors more productive and competitive Stabilizing the supplies and prices of food grains Implementing a fairly widespread privatization program Adhering to strict policy rules set out by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) Economic growth has averaged around 6% per year for the last 15 years. Burkina Faso also has a new investment code that is helping to promote foreign investment. Reforms include: The adoption of a labor code in May 2008 Improving the process to transfer property The elimination of commune authorization requirements The creation of a one-stop shop to facilitate construction permits A decrease of the corporate tax rate from 35% to 30% A decrease on dividend taxes from 15% to 12% Implementing major changes to the tax system Creating a number of 'mining friendly' programs with the specific aim of attracting new mining and development companies Announcing their intention to set up a 'mining development fund' with Groupement des Professionnels Miniers (GPMB) behind the move, specific details have yet to be released Building a higher education institute for mining engineers and other executives "Gold production in Burkina Faso more than doubled from 2008 to 2009. The entire mining sector in the country is booming. The strongest increase in any sector during 2009 has been in gold production. Thanks to a strongly growing price of precious metals on the world market during recent years the mining and extractive industries are experiencing a real boom in Burkina Faso. The number of permits and authorizations issued rose from 537 in 2008 to 599 in 2009, an increase of 11.6 percent. The industrial production of gold has risen from about 5,000 kg in 2008 to 11,642 kg in 2009, representing more than a doubling of production. These development should be helping to strengthen the position of our country as a mining country." Condensed from Prime Minister Tertius Zongo's state-of-the-nation speech to the Ouagadougou parliament Burkina Faso is now at the start of a mining boom. Looking to take advantage of the countries abundant natural resources, the number of 'mining friendly' programs the country has to offer and hoping to benefit by being a "first mover" a number of mining and exploration companies have decided to develop assets in Burkina Faso. One of them is... Riverstone Resources TSX.V - RVS Total Institutional & Corporate Ownership: 20,680,000 = 22.8% Total Insider Ownership; 4,366,000 = 4.8% Retail Ownership: 65,183,190 = 72.4% Market Capitalization @ .50 per share: $45,100,066 Cash: US$ 8,500,00.00 Debt: nil Management Michael D. McInnis, P.Eng, Director, President & CEO. Over 35 years of experience in exploration and management, track record with high quality mineral projects James Robertson, P.Eng, Director. Over 35 years of experience, past Director of Primary Metals before takeover by Sojitz Corp. Alvin Jackson, P.Geo, Director. International experience, past President and COO of EuroZinc Mining Rick Bailes, P.Eng, Director. Over 30 years in mining, past President and CEO of Canadian GoldHunter Gregory Isenor, P.Geo, Director. Past CEO of Jilbey Gold before its takeover by High River Gold Paul G. Anderson, P. Geo, Vice President Exploration. International experience, previously in Burkina Faso with Channel Resources in 1990's Riverstone Resources Inc. has focused its exploration activities on West Africa because its elephant country for gold exploration - hosting world-class gold deposits in Ghana, Mali and Guinea. In addition, West Africa has had the fastest growth in gold production in the world over the past five years. Ghana Loulo(4.0M oz) Inata/Belahoure(1.7M oz) The Company has chosen to concentrate its efforts in Burkina Faso because the belts of favorable rock that host all of the major gold deposits in Ghana continue into Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso has undergone less than 10 years of modern exploration and offers the chance to build a property portfolio in an area that has been severely under-explored. Riverstone management believes there are opportunities for further major discoveries in the country. Projects Since 2003 Riverstone has amassed a total of 13 exploration permits in 6 regions with its current land package covering some 2,300 square kilometers. 1. Karma - Five contiguous permits with four gold deposits to date: Rambo, Kao and Goulagou I & II. The Company has completed an initial independent NI43-101 resource estimate at Karma with an indicated resource of 820,500 ounces of gold and an inferred resource of 320,300 ounces of gold. The resource is contained within 4 deposits all within 7 km of each other and drilling has been limited to a 100 meters in depth. The Company is currently focused on expanding the gold resource contained within the Karma Project. The Rambo Deposit contains 56,900 oz of gold at an average grade of 7.02 g/t, the deposit is open for expansion and is anticipated to become the starter pit. Goulagou I & II contain 577,000 oz of gold at a grade of 1.83g/t - the resource is anticipated to increase with this year's drilling program. The Kao Deposit contains 507,000 oz of gold at a grade of 0.91g/t and is still open to the north, north east and depth. Gold resources at Karma are shallow, the bulk of resources is in oxide material above 100 meters in depth. There is the potential for a centralized gold processing facility to handle the material from all the deposits. There is also significant potential to expand gold resources with many untested gold showings. A new discovery, the Nami artisanal site, is located 4 kilometers north of the Rambo deposit. Artisanal activity commenced on the site in April, 2009 and activity has increased substantially since then. Artisanal workers excavate small, vertical shafts and collect material - in Nami's case from quartz veins and quartz breccias - which they process through a crude sluice box system. Several hundred of these shafts have been excavated to date. Riverstone has recently undertaken testing of the Artisanal miners waste dumps. The waste dumps are material left behind by the artisanal miners after high grading the quartz veins and they are considered by these miners to carry no gold grade. The average of all samples greater than 0.3 g/t is 1.36 g/t with a high of 8.6 g/t. "We are very pleased with the results from the waste dump sampling. We knew from our sampling of the quartz veins and quartz breccias that they carry exceptionally high values of gold but we had very little information on the gold content of the host rock surrounding the quartz bearing material. The average grade of 1.36 g/t returned from the waste dump material certainly exceeded our expectations and is a very positive development for the project." M.D. McInnis, President and CEO of RVS Previous sampling by the Company of the quartz bearing rock returned numerous values in excess of 10 g/t gold with a high of 98 g/t. (See Riverstone News Release dated Jan. 18 and Feb 23, 2010). These high grade values should elevate the average grade of the Nami site to a value well in excess of the 1.36 g/t background value defined by the dump sampling. Any gold ounces developed at Nami will be accretive to the NI 43-101 gold resource at the Company's adjacent Rambo, Goulagou and Kao deposits - the Karma Project. Nami is approximately 1.5 km by 600m based on RAB drilling and tracing the quartz veins and altered zone. Currently there are over 6000 samples in the laboratory and another 20,000 meters of drilling is planned for Karma this year. 2. Ligidi - a 13 km long by 3 km wide gold-in-soils geochemical anomaly that is open in at least one direction. The Ligidi permit covers 225 square km and both Birimian greenstones and Tarkwaiian sediments have been identified on the property. The presence of Tarkwaiian rocks is closely linked to the very large gold deposits found in Ghana. Riverstone has plans to spend $1mm on this project in 2010. The company expects to have plus $5mm remaining in its treasury at the end of 2010. Joint Ventured Projects The Company's other three projects, all drill ready, will have a total of $1.05m spent on them through the second half of the year as the result of a recently announced option agreement. Riverstone retains 60% after earn in and remains operator. 3. Yaramoko - an 8 km long deformation zone which appears to be the continuation of the mineralized zones at Semafo's Mana Gold Mine. The Mana Mine is being developed on a series of high-grade gold veins. 4. The Bissa East Project - comprises two contiguous Exploration Permits, Tangapella and Biliga. To date, the company has defined three gold zones on Tangapella and two on Biliga. The Bissa East permits collectively cover an area of 498 square km and were acquired to cover portions of the northeast trending Sabce shear zone. The Sabce shear zone hosts a large number of known gold deposits. 5. Solna - The Solna Project comprises three contiguous permits, Solna, Teyango and Yantera. The company has delineated a 30 km long deformation zone that runs through all three properties. Work done to date on the more advanced Solna permit has demonstrated the presence of some very high gold grades in trenches. Conclusion Five large exciting projects already in their portfolio, unlimited potential for new discoveries, a mining friendly country that recognizes the need for resource extraction, ongoing legislation changes, the new mining fund and a series of tax breaks all mean Riverstone Resources is in a good position to take advantage of everything Burkina Faso has to offer investors. Currently Riverstone is valued at roughly $50 per gold oz in the ground. This is very low for West African gold - $75 oz for the insitu value of gold in West Africa. After the upcoming 20,000 meter drilling program this author believes Riverstone's current gold resource of 1,140,800 Indicated and Inferred oz's could rise substantially. Burkina Faso and RVS.v are, in this authors opinion, offering a chance for early investors to get in on the ground floor of a mining boom. Riverstone Resources TSX.V - RVS and Burkina Faso - The Land of Upright People - should be on every investors golden radar screen. Is it on yours? If you're interested in the junior resource market and would like to learn more please come and visit us at aheadoftheherd.com	Burkina Faso
"Complete the 'Bullseye' quote: ""Stay out of the black and into the red, nothing in this game for.....""what?"	The Land of Upright People The Land of Upright People Richard (Rick) Mills Ahead of the Herd As a general rule, the most successful man in life is the man who has the best information Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is surrounded by six countries: Mali to the north, Niger to the east, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Cï¿½te d'Ivoire to the southwest. focusonforests.org Burkina is 274,000 kmï¿½ with a population of plus 15 million itï¿½s people belong to one of two major West African cultural groups - the Voltaic and the Mande. Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta (The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: the Black Volta (or Mouhoun), the White Volta (Nakambï¿½) and the Red Volta (Nazinon). It was renamed Burkina Faso in August 1984 - meaning "the land of upright people" in Mï¿½orï¿½ and Dioula, the two major native languages of the country. Figuratively Burkina may be translated as "men of integrity" from the Mï¿½orï¿½ language and "Faso" means "father's house" in Dioula. After gaining independence from France in 1960 the country is now a semi-presidential republic. The parliament consists of one chamber known as the National Assembly, it has 111 seats with members elected to serve five year terms. There is a constitutional chamber with ten members and an economic and social council whose roles are purely consultative. Burkina Faso is divided into thirteen regions, forty-five provinces, and 301 departments. Burkina Faso's capital is Ouagadougou. It is a member of the African Union, Community of Sahel-Saharan States, La Francophonie, Organization of the Islamic Conference and Economic Community of West African States. Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of terrane. The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain (land worn down by erosion almost to a level plain - a nearly flat land surface) which forms a gently undulating landscape with a few isolated hills. The southwest of the country is a sandstone massif, where the highest peak, Tï¿½nakourou, is 749 meters tall. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is 400 meters - the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is only 600 meters. Burkina Faso has a tropical climate with two seasons ï¿½ wet and dry. During the rainy season the country receives 600 to 900 millimeters of rainfall, the rainy season lasts four or five months, starting in May/June and it rains, off and on, till September. In the dry season, the harmattan ï¿½ a hot dry wind coming from the Sahara desert ï¿½ blows. Burkina Faso's natural resources include manganese, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and gold, there are currently operating copper, iron, manganese and gold mines in the country. Burkina Facts: Inata/Belahoure(1.7M oz) The Company has chosen to concentrate its efforts in Burkina Faso because the belts of favorable rock that host all of the major gold deposits in Ghana continue into Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso has undergone less than 10 years of modern exploration and offers the chance to build a property portfolio in an area that has been severely under-explored. Riverstone management believes there are opportunities for further major discoveries in the country. Projects Since 2003 Riverstone has amassed a total of 13 exploration permits in 6 regions with its current land package covering some 2,300 square kilometers. 1. Karma - Five contiguous permits with four gold deposits to date: Rambo, Kao and Goulagou I & II. The Company has completed an initial independent NI43-101 resource estimate at Karma with an indicated resource of 820,500 ounces of gold and an inferred resource of 320,300 ounces of gold. The resource is contained within 4 deposits all within 7 km of each other and drilling has been limited to a 100 meters in depth. The Company is currently focused on expanding the gold resource contained within the Karma Project. The Rambo Deposit contains 56,900 oz of gold at an average grade of 7.02 g/t, the deposit is open for expansion and is anticipated to become the starter pit. Goulagou I & II contain 577,000 oz of gold at a grade of 1.83g/t - the resource is anticipated to increase with this yearï¿½s drilling program. The Kao Deposit contains 507,000 oz of gold at a grade of 0.91g/t and is still open to the north, north east and depth. Gold resources at Karma are shallow, the bulk of resources is in oxide material above 100 meters in depth. There is the potential for a centralized gold processing facility to handle the material from all the deposits. There is also significant potential to expand gold resources with many untested gold showings. A new discovery, the Nami artisanal site, is located 4 kilometers north of the Rambo deposit. Artisanal activity commenced on the site in April, 2009 and activity has increased substantially since then. Artisanal workers excavate small, vertical shafts and collect material ï¿½ in Namiï¿½s case from quartz veins and quartz breccias - which they process through a crude sluice box system. Several hundred of these shafts have been excavated to date. Riverstone has recently undertaken testing of the Artisanal miners waste dumps. The waste dumps are material left behind by the artisanal miners after high grading the quartz veins and they are considered by these miners to carry no gold grade. The average of all samples greater than 0.3 g/t is 1.36 g/t with a high of 8.6 g/t. "We are very pleased with the results from the waste dump sampling. We knew from our sampling of the quartz veins and quartz breccias that they carry exceptionally high values of gold but we had very little information on the gold content of the host rock surrounding the quartz bearing material. The average grade of 1.36 g/t returned from the waste dump material certainly exceeded our expectations and is a very positive development for the project." M.D. McInnis, President and CEO of RVS Previous sampling by the Company of the quartz bearing rock returned numerous values in excess of 10 g/t gold with a high of 98 g/t. (See Riverstone News Release dated Jan. 18 and Feb 23, 2010). These high grade values should elevate the average grade of the Nami site to a value well in excess of the 1.36 g/t background value defined by the dump sampling. Any gold ounces developed at Nami will be accretive to the NI 43-101 gold resource at the Company's adjacent Rambo, Goulagou and Kao deposits ï¿½ the Karma Project. Nami is approximately 1.5 km by 600m based on RAB drilling and tracing the quartz veins and altered zone. Currently there are over 6000 samples in the laboratory and another 20,000 meters of drilling is planned for Karma this year. 2. Ligidi - a 13 km long by 3 km wide gold-in-soils geochemical anomaly that is open in at least one direction. The Ligidi permit covers 225 square km and both Birimian greenstones and Tarkwaiian sediments have been identified on the property. The presence of Tarkwaiian rocks is closely linked to the very large gold deposits found in Ghana. Riverstone has plans to spend $1mm on this project in 2010. The company expects to have plus $5mm remaining in its treasury at the end of 2010. Joint Ventured Projects The Companyï¿½s other three projects, all drill ready, will have a total of $1.05m spent on them through the second half of the year as the result of a recently announced option agreement. Riverstone retains 60% after earn in and remains operator. 3. Yaramoko - an 8 km long deformation zone which appears to be the continuation of the mineralized zones at Semafo's Mana Gold Mine. The Mana Mine is being developed on a series of high-grade gold veins. 4. The Bissa East Project - comprises two contiguous Exploration Permits, Tangapella and Biliga. To date, the company has defined three gold zones on Tangapella and two on Biliga. The Bissa East permits collectively cover an area of 498 square km and were acquired to cover portions of the northeast trending Sabcï¿½ shear zone. The Sabcï¿½ shear zone hosts a large number of known gold deposits. 5. Solna - The Solna Project comprises three contiguous permits, Solna, Teyango and Yantera. The company has delineated a 30 km long deformation zone that runs through all three properties. Work done to date on the more advanced Solna permit has demonstrated the presence of some very high gold grades in trenches. Conclusion Five large exciting projects already in their portfolio, unlimited potential for new discoveries, a mining friendly country that recognizes the need for resource extraction, ongoing legislation changes, the new mining fund and a series of tax breaks all mean Riverstone Resources is in a good position to take advantage of everything Burkina Faso has to offer investors. Currently Riverstone is valued at roughly $50 per gold oz in the ground. This is very low for West African gold - $75 oz for the insitu value of gold in West Africa. After the upcoming 20,000 meter drilling program this author believes Riverstoneï¿½s current gold resource of 1,140,800 Indicated and Inferred ozï¿½s could rise substantially. Burkina Faso and RVS.v are, in this authors opinion, offering a chance for early investors to get in on the ground floor of a mining boom. Riverstone Resources TSX.V ï¿½ RVS and Burkina Faso - The Land of Upright People - should be on every investors golden radar screen. Is it on yours?	i don't know
Which mode of transport was invented by Igor Sikorsky?	Igor Sikorsky and his Flying Machines \| ConnecticutHistory.org Igor Sikorsky and his Flying Machines Igor Sikorsky and the first successful helicopter built in America, Stratford – Connecticut Historical Society By Richard DeLuca Unlike the powered airplane, for which the Wright Brothers can be identified as the sole inventors, many people made contributions to the perfection of vertical flight between 1907 and 1942. So, it doesn’t serve accuracy to name any one person as the inventor of the helicopter. It is accurate, however, to identify Igor Sikorsky with the advent of the helicopter in the United States and with the ongoing manufacture of helicopters at the Sikorsky Aviation Corporation in Stratford . Igor I. Sikorsky, ca. 1938 From Success in Russia to a Chicken Farm on Long Island Igor Sikorsky was born in Kiev, Russia (which is now part of the Ukraine), and as a young man studied engineering in Paris and St. Petersburg before building aircraft of his own invention in his homeland. Young Sikorsky’s most successful design was for a large, four-engine plane that he named Ilya Muromets, after a legendary Russian folk hero. He completed it in 1913. Czar Nicolas II, who personally inspected the craft, presented Sikorsky with a diamond-studded gold watch for his efforts. Although Sikorsky had designed the Ilya Muromets to carry passengers, the military converted it to use as a bomber during World War I. It successfully flew hundreds of combat missions. Sikorsky left Russia following the Bolshevik Revolution, which saw the overthrow of the Czar and brought such figures as Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin to power. He arrived in New York City in 1919 with $600 to his name—and the Czar’s gold watch in his pocket. With encouragement from other Russian émigrés, Sikorsky began a second career as an aviation designer in 1923 and founded the Sikorsky Aero Engineering Corporation on a Long Island chicken farm owned by a fellow Russian. Here Sikorsky produced twin-engine seaplanes. In the days before airports were commonplace, airlines used seaplanes to provide air mail service to warm-water ports, where the water became the runway. Innovation Takes Root in Connecticut With more orders for his “flying boats” than he could accommodate at the New York farm, Sikorsky moved his airplane manufacturing operation in 1929 to a new factory in Stratford, Connecticut. It was situated at the mouth of the Housatonic River so that he could test his aircraft on Long Island Sound. Reorganized as the Sikorsky Aviation Corporation, the company created a line of larger, more powerful seaplanes, including the famous clipper series used by Pan American Airways to expand international air service in the 1930s. Pontoon construction at the Vought-Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, Stratford – Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division As land-based aircraft became more reliable, cities across the country constructed new airports and orders for flying boats dwindled. Instead of closing shop, Sikorsky returned to his long-held dream of vertical flight and began a third aviation career as a designer of helicopters. Although many had worked on the helicopter concept over the decades, none had solved the complex problems associated with control of this temperamental, light-weight aircraft. Unlike those whose designs relied on multiple rotors to lift the craft off the ground, Sikorsky focused on the possibility of a single main rotor; this produced encouraging results. The more difficult problem was the number and arrangement of the tail rotors that kept the aircraft from spinning out of control once aloft. After several years and several experimental models, Sikorsky discovered that a single rotor mounted vertically on the tail of the aircraft worked best, and on January 14, 1942, Sikorsky himself piloted the first successful test flight of the helicopter in America. The flight established a standard for the future development of the helicopter and in the process made the Sikorsky Aviation Company a leader in helicopter design. Many, Sikorsky included, hoped that the helicopter might become a vehicle for personal travel, as commonplace as the automobile. But the advanced skill required to fly a helicopter kept it from becoming a family vehicle. Instead, the helicopter became largely a rescue aircraft, able to take off and land in restricted areas and to hover at sea. With the onset of conflicts in Korea and Vietnam, the military used the helicopter extensively as a troop carrier, gunship, and medical evacuation vehicle. Today, the military, together with civilian rescue teams, remain the prime customers for helicopter sales. Meanwhile, Sikorsky Aviation Corporation of Stratford, today a division of United Technologies Corporation, has remained a major producer of helicopters for an international market. Richard DeLuca is the author of Post Roads & Iron Horses: Transportation in Connecticut from Colonial Times to the Age of Steam, published by Wesleyan University Press in 2011. LEARN MORE “National Helicopter Museum,” 2011. Link . “New England Air Museum,” 2016. Link . Books Cochrane, Dorothy, Von Hardesty, Russell Lee, and National Air and Space Museum. The Aviation Careers of Igor Sikorsky. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1989. Sikorsky, Sergei I. The Sikorsky Legacy. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2007. Enjoyed reading this? 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Which landlocked Asian country has a name that means 'Land of the Thunder Dragon'?	Untitled Document Sikorsky Product History Igor Sikorsky was a renowned aviation pioneer who achieved distinction in three separate fields of aviation starting in Russia in 1913 and continuing in the United States until his passing in 1972. These fields included multi-engine fixed wing aircraft in Russia, multi-engine transcontinental seaplanes in the United States, and culminating in his life-long dream that was the rotary-wing, vertical takeoff and landing aircraft. Additionally, aircraft built during the Vought-Sikorsky years are tabulated separately as well as non-aircraft surface vehicles. Also, "Historical Essays" tabulates events in which Sikorsky helicopter models were featured with a link to a description of the events. The company that he founded, Sikorsky Aircraft, continues to focus on aviation products embodying advanced technologies and unique design innovations in the tradition established by Igor Sikorsky This section of the Product History provides Sikorsky lineage charts as well as attempts to focus on the full range of those experimental, production and historical events of fixed and rotary wing aircraft created under the direction of Igor Sikorsky and transportation products created by the Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation.The development and production history of selected His creation of the first practical helicopter in 1939 founded an entirely new industry in the United States that later grew to become a worldwide industry. The helicopter has become an integral part of both civilian and military aviation worldwide. It has matured to become the premier saver of lives in accidents, disasters and wartime combat situations. Igor Sikorsky envisioned this humanitarian use of the helicopter early in his long career and remains as his most important legacy	i don't know
Off the coast of which English county is the Bronze Age monument known as 'Seahenge'?	Seahenge - Crystalinks Seahenge Seahenge or Holme I is a Bronze Age monument discovered in 1998 just off the coast of the English county of Norfolk at Holme-next-the-Sea. It is sometimes described as a timber circle but bears only a superficial resemblance to this monument type. The site consisted of an outer ring comprising fifty-five small split oak trunks forming a roughly circular enclosure around 7 m by 6 m. Rather than being placed in individual holes, the timbers had been arranged around a circular construction trench. Their split sides faced inwards and their bark faced outwards (with one exception where the opposite is the case). One of the trunks on the south western side had a narrow Y fork in it, permitting access to the central area. Another post had been placed outside this entrance, which would have prevented anyone from seeing inside. The timbers were set in ground to a depth of 1 m from the contemporary surface although how far they originally extended upwards is not known. In the centre of the ring was a large inverted oak stump. It is possible to date the creation of Seahenge very accurately through dendrochronology since the rings on the trees can be correlated with other overlapping tree ring variations; the date of felling the oaks was found to have been in the spring or summer of 2049 BC. The upturned central tree stump was 167 years old when it was felled. Between 16 and 26 different trees were used in building the monument with palynological evidence suggesting they came from nearby woodland. Analysis of axe marks on the timbers indicates that at least 51 different axes were used in working the timbers. The largest axe was used to cut the central tree and not any of the other timbers. The excavators interpret each unique axe as representing a different individual, and thus consider it likely that Seahenge was a community endeavour. Holes in the central stump indicate that it was pulled onto site by rope. Pieces of the rope, made from honeysuckle stems, were found under the stump. The site was discovered because of the actions of the tide on Holme Dunes, which is gradually wearing away the peat layers to reveal the landscapes laid down many thousands of years ago. In this instance the wooden posts and stump had been preserved in the peat and were revealed at low tides. Since the entire structure had been in an anaerobic waterlogged state for several thousand years, the logs had survived with little damage. In the early Bronze Age, the site was probably a saltmarsh environment, between the sea and the forest before the ocean encroached to form the modern coastline. Tidal action had scoured away overlying sediment which had built up in the intervening centuries revealing the timbers for the first time since prehistory. Exposure to the air put the timbers at immediate risk; as the seawater which has slowly seeped into the timber over time began to drain away, it left the wood to dry out and crumble. Local archaeologists from the Norfolk Archaeological Unit and volunteers worked in the exhausting intertidal conditions to conserve and record the site. Researchers were unable to determine activity at Seahenge in the centuries after it was built, and its purpose is consequently unknown. However, the presence of Middle and Late Bronze Age pottery at the site suggests that it became a focal point again several centuries after construction. Theories about the site have focused on the idea of inversion, as represented by the upside-down central tree stump and the single post turned 180 degrees from the others within the circle itself. The theme of inversion has been noticed in some Early Bronze Age burials. Not all the split posts can be accounted for and it has been suggested that another structure was built nearby using them. Seahenge is so named by analogy with Stonehenge and does not possess an extant henge and appears to have had little functionally in common with its namesake. The contemporary ground surface associated with the monument has long since been washed away meaning no associated features survive and the silt Seahenge stood in when found considerably postdates the timber circle. It is thought that Seahenge was a mortuary enclosure for the use of excarnation rather than a henge. Most archaeological excavations in Britain do not attract much public attention or controversy, but Seahenge became the subject of a very public debate. The photogenic and ephemeral nature of the location attracted national media attention. Some people objected to the excavation - some local people felt they had not been consulted about the fate of part of their local heritage and that it should be left alone, complaining that Seahenge would most likely be transported to London where it would be displayed, out of its local context, in the British Museum. Although the precise function of the site is unknown, some neo-Druids objected on religious grounds; and some people were not aware that the circle was really at risk from the sea. A great many people were attracted to the site to see it, or to protest, and the presence of such large numbers itself contributed further to the risk of damaging the site. The Seahenge case has demonstrated several contentious subjects in the field of heritage management. Issues such as the views of local people and other interested groups compared with the aims of academia and the decisions that have to be made over what to preserve and what to leave to nature have had to be tackled by the archaeologists and government agencies connected with the site. In 1999, English Heritage arranged for the wood to be transported 50 miles to Flag Fen near Peterborough, where it was continually soaked in wax-emulsified water to slowly (over years) replace the moisture in the wood with wax. It was later transferred to Portsmouth where maritime archaeology experts at the Mary Rose Trust continued the programme at their purpose-built site. Conservation work is complete, with a recreated Seahenge near its original site, at the refurbished Lynn Museum in King's Lynn and opened to the public in April 2008 . One hundred metres east, an older ring of two concentric timber circles surrounding a hurdle lined pit containing two oak logs has also been found. Known as Holme II, it dates to the centuries before Holme I (c. 2400-2030 BC) although the two sites may have been in use together. Although also threatened with destruction by the sea, this site has been left in situ and exposed to the tidal actions of the sea. Archaeologists have suggested that this decision by English Heritage relates to the controversy over digging Holme I.	Norfolk
Who composed the operas 'La Cenerentola' and 'The Barber of Seville'?	Stonehenge Is A Neolithic Stone Circle Dating To The Bronze Age Britain. a Name as officially inscribed on the WH List b As classified officially by UNESCO The site and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with Avebury henge monument, and it is also a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge itself is owned and managed by English Heritage while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust. Christopher Chippindale's Stonehenge Complete gives the derivation of Stonehenge as coming from the Old English words "stan" meaning "stone", and either "hencg" meaning "hinge" (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or "hen(c)en" meaning "gallows" or "instrument of torture". Stonehenge is a "henge monument" meaning that it consists of menhirs (large rocks) in a circular formation. Medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, resembling Stonehenge's trilithons, rather than looking like the inverted L-shape more familiar today. The "henge" portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as henges. Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch. As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from antiquarian usage, and Stonehenge cannot in fact be truly classified as a henge site as its bank is inside its ditch. Despite being contemporary with true Neolithic henges and stone circles, Stonehenge is in many ways atypical. For example, its extant trilithons make it unique. Stonehenge is only distantly related to the other stones circles in the British Isles, such as the Ring of Brodgar. Development of Stonehenge. Plan of Stonehenge today. After Cleal et al. and Pitts. The Stonehenge complex was built in several construction phases spanning 3,000 years, although there is evidence for activity both before and afterwards on the site. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity at Stonehenge is not a simple task; it is complicated by poorly-kept early excavation records, surprisingly few accurate scientific dates and the disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing. The modern phasing most generally agreed by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right, which illustrates the site as of 2004. The plan omits the trilithon lintels for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles and stones visible today are shown coloured. Archaeologists have found four (or possibly five, although one may have been a natural tree throw) large Mesolithic postholes which date to around 8000 BC nearby, beneath the modern tourist car-park. These held pine posts around 0.75 m (2.4ft) in diameter which were erected and left to rot in situ. Three of the posts (and possibly four) were in an east-west alignment and may have had ritual significance; no parallels are known from Britain at the time but similar sites have been found in Scandinavia. At this time, Salisbury Plain was still wooded but four thousand years later, during the earlier Neolithic, a cursus monument was built 600 m north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the forest and exploit the area. Several other early Neolithic sites, a causewayed enclosure at Robin Hood's Ball and long barrow tombs were built in the surrounding landscape. Stonehenge view: Mike Parker Pearson. Mike Parker Pearson, leader of the Stonehenge Riverside Project, noted that Stonehenge was associated with burial from the earliest period of its existence: Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge's sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument's use and demonstrates that it was still very much a domain of the dead. - Mike Parker Pearson. Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1500 years. There is evidence of large-scale construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscape's time frame to 6500 years. Scholars believe that Stonehenge once stood as a magnificent complete monument. This cannot be proved as around half of the stones that should be present are missing, and many of the assumed stone sockets have never been found. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity is complicated by disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing, poor quality early excavation records, and a lack of accurate, scientifically verified dates. The modern phasing most generally agreed to by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right. Stonehenge 1 (ca. 3100 BC). Stonehenge 1. After Cleal et al. The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure (7 and 8) measuring around 110 m (360 feet) in diameter with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south (14). It stood in open grassland on a slightly sloping but not especially remarkable spot. The builders placed the bones of deer and oxen in the bottom of the ditch as well as some worked flint tools. The bones were considerably older than the antler picks used to dig the ditch and the people who buried them had looked after them for some time prior to burial. The ditch itself was continuous but had been dug in sections, like the ditches of the earlier causewayed enclosures in the area. The chalk dug from the ditch was piled up to form the bank. This first stage is dated to around 3100 BC after which the ditch began to silt up naturally and was not cleared out by the builders. Within the outer edge of the enclosed area was dug a circle of 56 pits, each around 1 m in diameter (13), known as the Aubrey holes after John Aubrey, the seventeenth century antiquarian who was thought to have first identified them. The pits may have contained standing timbers, creating a timber circle although there is no excavated evidence of them. A small outer bank beyond the ditch could also date to this period (9). Stonehenge 2 (ca. 3000 BC). Plan of the central stone structure today. After Johnson 2008. Evidence of the second phase is no longer visible. It appears from the number of postholes dating to this period that some form of timber structure was built within the enclosure during the early 3rd millennium BC. Further standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance and a parallel alignment of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance. The postholes are smaller than the Aubrey Holes, being only around 0.4 m in diameter and are much less regularly spaced. The bank was purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up. At least twenty-five of the Aubrey Holes are known to have contained later, intrusive, cremation burials dating to the two centuries after the monument's inception. It seems that whatever the holes' initial function, it changed to become a funerary one during Phase 2. Thirty further cremations were placed in the enclosure's ditch and at other points within the monument, mostly in the eastern half. Stonehenge is therefore interpreted as functioning as an enclosed cremation cemetery at this time, the earliest known cremation cemetery in the British Isles. Fragments of unburnt human bone have also been found in the ditch fill. Late Neolithic grooved ware pottery has been found in connection with the features from this phase providing dating evidence. Stonehenge 3 I (ca. 2600 BC). Stonehenge Altar stone. Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, timber was abandoned in favour of stone and two concentric crescents of holes (called the Q and R Holes) were dug in the centre of the site. Again, there is little firm dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan) 43 of which were derived from the Preseli Hills, 250 km away in modern day Pembrokeshire in Wales. Other standing stones may well have been small sarsens, used later as lintels. The far-travelled stones, which weighed about four tons, consisted mostly of spotted dolerite but included examples of rhyolite, tuff and volcanic and calcareous ash. Each measures around 2 m in height, between 1 m and 1.5 m wide and around 0.8 m thick. What was to become known as the Altar Stone (1), a six-ton specimen of green micaceous sandstone, twice the height of the bluestones, is derived from either South Pembrokeshire or the Brecon Beacons and may have stood as a single large monolith. The north eastern entrance was also widened at this time with the result that it precisely matched the direction of the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset of the period. This phase of the monument was abandoned unfinished however, the small standing stones were apparently removed and the Q and R holes purposefully backfilled. Even so, the monument appears to have eclipsed the site at Avebury in importance towards the end of this phase and the Amesbury Archer, found in 2002 three miles (5 km) to the south, would have seen the site in this state. The Heelstone (5) may also have been erected outside the north eastern entrance during this period although it cannot be securely dated and may have been installed at any time in phase 3. At first, a second stone, now no longer visible, joined it. Two, or possibly three, large portal stones were set up just inside the north eastern entrance of which only one, the fallen Slaughter Stone (4), 16 ft (4.9 m) long, now remains. Other features loosely dated to phase 3 include the four Station Stones (6), two of which stood atop mounds (2 and 3). The mounds are known as 'barrows' although they do not contain burials. The Avenue, (10), a parallel pair of ditches and banks leading 3 km to the River Avon was also added. Ditches were later dug around the Station Stones and the Heelstone, which was by then reduced to a single monolith. Stonehenge 3 II (2450 BC to 2100 BC). Another shot of Stonehenge that gives an idea of its size. Graffiti on the sarsen stones. Below are ancient carvings of a dagger and an axe. The next major phase of activity at the tail end of the 3rd millennium BC saw 30 enormous sarsen stones (shown grey on the plan) brought from a quarry around 24 miles (40 km) north to the site on the Marlborough Downs. The stones were dressed and fashioned with mortise and tenon joints before 30 were erected as a 33 m (108 ft) diameter circle of standing stones with a 'lintel' of 30 stones resting on top. The lintels were joined to one another using another woodworking method, the tongue in groove joint. Each standing stone was around 4.1 m (13.5 feet) high, 2.1 m (7.5 feet) wide and weighed around 25 tons. Each had clearly been worked with the final effect in mind; the orthostats widen slightly towards the top in order that their perspective remains constant as they rise up from the ground while the lintel stones curve slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument. The sides of the stones that face inwards are smoother and more finely worked than the sides that face outwards. The average thickness of these stones is 1.1 m (3.75 feet) and the average distance between them is 1 m (3.5 feet). A total of 74 stones would have been needed to complete the circle and unless some of the sarsens were removed from the site, it would seem that the ring was left incomplete. Of the lintel stones, they are each around 3.2 m long (10.5 feet), 1 m (3.5 feet) wide and 0.8 m (2.75 feet) thick. The tops of the lintels are 4.9 m (16 feet) above the ground. Within this circle stood five trilithons of dressed sarsen stone arranged in a horseshoe shape 13.7 m (45 feet) across with its open end facing north east. These huge stones, ten uprights and five lintels, weigh up to 50 tons each and were again linked using complex jointings. They are arranged symmetrically; the smallest pair of trilithons were around 6 m (20 feet) tall, the next pair a little higher and the largest, single trilithon in the south west corner would have been 7.3 m (24 feet) tall. Only one upright from the Great Trilithon still stands; 6.7 m (22 ft) is visible and a further 2.4 m (8 feet) is below ground. The images of a 'dagger' and 14 'axe-heads' have been recorded carved on one of the sarsens, known as stone 53. Further axe-head carvings have been seen on the outer faces of stones known as numbers 3, 4, and 5. They are difficult to date but are morphologically similar to later Bronze Age weapons; recent laser scanning work on the carvings supports this interpretation. The pair of trilithons in north east are smallest, measuring around 6 m (20 feet) in height and the largest is the trilithon in the south west of the horseshoe is almost 7.5 m (24 feet) tall. This ambitious phase of Stonehenge is radiocarbon dated to between 2440 and 2100 BC. Stonehenge 3 III. An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877. Stonehenge 17th centuary depiction.. Later in the Bronze Age, the bluestones appear to have been re-erected for the first time, although the precise details of this period are still unclear. They were placed within the outer sarsen circle and at this time may have been trimmed in some way. A few have timber working-style cuts in them like the sarsens themselves, suggesting they may have been linked with lintels and part of a larger structure during this phase. Stonehenge 3 IV (2280 BC to 1930 BC). This phase saw further rearrangement of the bluestones as they were placed in a circle between the two settings of sarsens and in an oval in the very centre. Some archaeologists argue that some of the bluestones in this period were part of a second group brought from Wales. All the stones were well-spaced uprights without any of the linking lintels inferred in Stonehenge 3 III. The Altar Stone may have been moved within the oval and stood vertically. Although this would seem the most impressive phase of work, Stonehenge 3 IV was rather shabbily built compared to its immediate predecessors, the newly re-installed bluestones were not at all well founded and began to fall over. However, only minor changes were made after this phase. Stonehenge 3 IV dates from 2280 to 1930 BC. Stonehenge 3 V (2280 BC to 1930 BC). Soon afterwards, the north eastern section of the Phase 3 IV Bluestone circle was removed, creating a horseshoe-shaped setting termed the Bluestone Horseshoe. This mirrored the shape of the central sarsen Trilithons and dates from 2270 to 1930 BC. This phase is contemporary with the famous Seahenge site in Norfolk. Stonehenge: After the monument (1600 BC on). Even though the last known construction of Stonehenge was about 1600 BC, and the last known usage of Stonehenge was during the Iron Age (if not as late as the 7th century), where Roman coins, prehistoric pottery, an unusual bone point and a skeleton of a young male (780-410 cal BC) were found, we have no idea if Stonehenge was in continuous use or exactly how it was used. The burial of a decapitated Saxon man has also been excavated from Stonehenge, dated to the 7th century. The site was known by scholars during the Middle Ages and since then it has been studied and adopted by numerous different groups. For further details of Stonehenge's historical role, see below. Myths and legends of Stonehenge. Stonehenge: The Heelstone. A giant helps Merlin build Stonehenge. From a manuscript of the Brut by Wace in the British Library (Egerton 3028). This is the oldest known depiction of Stonehenge. Stonehenge "Friar's Heel" or the "Sunday Stone". The Heel Stone was once known as "Friar's Heel." A folk tale, which cannot be dated earlier than the seventeenth century, relates the origin of the name of this stone: The Heel Stone was once known as "Friar's Heel." A folk tale, which cannot be dated earlier than the seventeenth century, relates the origin of the name of this stone: The Devil bought the stones from a woman in Ireland, wrapped them up, and brought them to Salisbury plain. One of the stones fell into the Avon, the rest were carried to the plain. The Devil then cried out, "No-one will ever find out how these stones came here." A friar replied, "That's what you think!," whereupon the Devil threw one of the stones at him and struck him on the heel. The stone stuck in the ground and is still there. Some claim "Friar's Heel" is a corruption of "Freyja's He-ol" or "Freyja Sul", from the Nordic goddess Freyja and (allegedly) the Welsh words for "way" and "Friday" respectively. Stonehenge: Arthurian legend. Stonehenge is also mentioned within Arthurian legend. Geoffrey of Monmouth said that Merlin the wizard directed its removal from Ireland, where it had been constructed on Mount Killaraus by Giants, who brought the stones from Africa. After it had been rebuilt near Amesbury, Geoffrey further narrates how first Ambrosius Aurelianus, then Uther Pendragon, and finally Constantine III, were buried inside the ring of stones. In many places in his Historia Regum Britanniae Geoffrey mixes British legend and his own imagination; it is intriguing that he connects Ambrosius Aurelianus with this prehistoric monument, seeing how there is place-name evidence to connect Ambrosius with nearby Amesbury. In World Mythology: An Anthology of the Great Myths and Epics (3rd ed.), by Donna Rosenburg, on pp. 428-30, she summarizes the Stonehenge story of the definitive Arthur legend. By this the reader learns that, according to the legend of King Arthur, the rocks of Stonehenge were healing rocks from Africa. Giants brought them from Africa to Ireland for their healing properties. The second King of Britain, Aurelius Ambrosias (5th Century), wished to erect a memorial to the nobles (3000) who had died in battle with the Saxons. Those nobles were buried near Salisbury. With the help of Merlin, Aurelius made Stonehenge that monument. So the King sent Merlin, Uther Pendragon (Arthur's father), and 15,000 knights to Ireland to retrieve the rocks. They slew 7,000 Irish. As the knights tried to move the rocks with ropes and force, they failed. Then Merlin whispered incantations over the rocks and they became as light as pebbles. Then Stonehenge was dedicated in Britain. Shortly after, Aurelius died and was buried within the Stonehenge monument, or "The Giants' Ring of Stonehenge". Stonehenge's recent history. The sun rising over Stonehenge on the summer solstice on 21 June 2005. By the beginning of the 20th century a number of the stones had fallen or were leaning precariously, probably due to the increase in curious visitors clambering on them during the nineteenth century. Three phases of conservation work were undertaken which righted some unstable or fallen stones and carefully replaced them in their original positions using information from antiquarian drawings. Stonehenge is a place of pilgrimage for neo-druids and those following pagan or neo-pagan beliefs. The midsummer sunrise began attracting modern visitors in 1870s, with the first record of recreated Druidic practices dating to 1905 when the Ancient Order of Druids enacted a ceremony. Despite efforts by archaeologists and historians to stress the differences between the Iron Age Druidic religion, the much older monument and modern Druidry, Stonehenge has become increasingly, almost inextricably, associated with British Druidism, Neo Paganism and New Age philosophy. After the Battle of the Beanfield in 1985 this use of the site was stopped for several years, and currently ritual use of Stonehenge is carefully controlled. In more recent years, the setting of the monument has been affected by the proximity of the A303 road between Amesbury and Winterbourne Stoke, and the A344. In early 2003, the Department for Transport announced that the A303 would be upgraded, including the construction of the Stonehenge road tunnel. The controversial plans have not yet been finalised by the government. Stonehenge: Cursus. The cursus viewed from its eastern end. The gap in the trees on the horizon marks its western end. The Stonehenge Cursus (sometimes known as the Greater Cursus) is a large Neolithic cursus monument next to Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England. It is roughly 3km long and between 100 and 150m wide. Excavations in 2007 dated the construction of the earthwork to between 3630 and 3375 BC. This makes the monument several hundred years older than the earliest phase of Stonehenge in 3000 BC. The cursus is part of the National Trust’s Stonehenge Landscape property. Stonehenge cursus context. Radiocarbon dating of a Red deer antler pick discovered at the bottom of the western terminal ditch suggests that the Stonehenge Cursus was first constructed between 3630 and 3375 BC. It is just under 3 km long, and is roughly 100m wide. Because of a slight difference in the alignment of its north and south ditches, it widens to a point nearly 150m near its western end. It is roughly aligned east-west and is orientated toward the sunrise on the spring and autumn equinoxes. There is a (later) Bronze Age round barrow inside the western end of the enclosure, and a large Neolithic long barrow was constructed at its east terminal. The Stonehenge Riverside Project excavated the remains of the long barrow in 2008 to determine if the barrow predated, or was contemporary with the cursus itself. The ditches of the cursus are not uniform and vary in width and depth. The eastern ditch is fairly shallow, as is the southern ditch - being only 0.75m deep and 1.8m wide at the top. At the western terminal, the ditch is 2m deep and 2.75m wide. Like most cursus, its function is unclear, although it is believed to be ceremonial. The length of the cursus, running roughly east west, crosses a dry river valley known as Stonehenge Bottom. This may have been a winterbourne during the Neolithic era. If so, this would give it similar characteristics to other cursus, such as the Dorset Cursus, and it may be related to a ceremonial function. It has also been suggested that the Stonehenge Cursus acts as a boundary between areas of settlement and ceremonial activity. The cursus is also aligned on the equinox sunrise which rises over the eastern long barrow. Stonehenge cursus excavation. William Stukeley was the first antiquarian to identify and record the Stonehenge Cursus, although he incorrectly assumed it to be Roman in origin. In 1947 John FS Stone excavated a small area of the southern ditch toward the west end of the cursus. He discovered a small chipping of bluestone and an antler pick in a specially dug recess that dated from approximately 2500BC. In 2007, the Stonehenge Riverside Project dug three trenches at the western end of the cursus, discovering the antler pick at the western terminus ditch. A trench in the northern ditch uncovered a sherd of pottery tentatively dated to the 4th millennium BC. A trench at the southern ditch found evidence of recuts into the originals ditch, approximately around 2500 BC (when Stones antler was deposited), and again between 2000 and 1500 BC. Stonehenge Amesbury 42 Long Barrow. Just beyond the eastern terminal of the Cursus is a Neolithic long barrow, orientated north-south. It was noted by William Stukeley in 1723 and Richard Colt Hoare in 1810, and was excavated by John Thurnam in 1868, recovering an ox skull and some secondary inhumations. The barrow has since been levelled and is now underneath a bridleway running along King Barrow Ridge. The 2m deep eastern ditch of the barrow was excavated once in the 1980’s by Julian Richards and his team for the Stonehenge Environs Project, although they failed to find any dateable material. The Stonehenge Riverside Project excavated the ditch once more in 2008. As long ago as 1979, the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments recommended that the barrow should be better protected, by diverting the bridleway around it and clearing the woodland between it and the cursus. This is yet to happen however. Stonehenge: The Lesser Cursus. The southern ditch and bank of the cursus. It runs west to the gap in the trees. 750m northwest of the western end of the Stonehenge Cursus lies the Lesser Cursus, a 400m long and 60m wide earthwork orientated west-southwest - north-northeast. Although its banks and ditches survived into the 20th century, ploughing since World War II has levelled it and it is only visible today as a cropmark. The Lesser Cursus was excavated in 1983 as part of the Stonehenge Environs Project. They discovered that the original earthworks was only half its current length, but was then extended. They also concluded, as had previously been thought, that it had no eastern terminal. The ditches and banks simply stop leaving the eastern end open. The project also discovered several red deer antler picks that have dated the monument to approximately 3000BC. Access to the Stonehenge Cursus. The Stonehenge Cursus is entirely located in the Stonehenge Landscape property’s open access land and is therefore free to visit. It is located 700m north of Stonehenge and is easily reached via the bridleway heading north from Stonehenge car park. The Lesser Cursus is on arable land, although a permissive path goes near it. However, as it is only visible as a cropmark, there is nothing to see. Amesbury 42 long barrow is under a bridleway at the far eastern end of the Greater Cursus. Stonehenge Long barrow. A well-preserved earthen long barrow on Gussage Down in the Cranborne Chase area of Dorset, U.K. A long barrow is a prehistoric monument dating to the early Neolithic period. They are rectangular or trapezoidal earth mounds traditionally interpreted as collective tombs. Long barrows are also typical for several Celtic, Slavic, and Baltic cultures of Northern Europe of the 1st millennium AD. Long barrows in the United Kingdom. Around 300 are known from Scotland and England with a concentration of the monuments in southern and eastern England. Elsewhere in the British Isles Neolithic people buried their dead in Megalithic tombs. Archaeological excavation indicated that the construction of the earth barrow was the last phase in a complex sequence connected with the ritual inhumation of the dead that took place in British society between around 4000 and 2400 BC. Many long barrow sites started off as small rectangular enclosures of earth banks topped by a timber palisade, constituting a mortuary enclosure. Within this was built a wooden room-sized mortuary chamber with large supporting posts. Sometimes a grand timber entrance was also built along with an avenue of wooden posts. Human remains were placed in this chamber, sometimes all at once and sometimes over a period of time. Often the bones found in them are disarticulated, implying that the bodies were subjected to exposure and excarnation prior to burial or that they were buried elsewhere and exhumed for the purposes of placing in the barrow. Rarely are whole skeletons found and it seems that only long bones and skulls survived until the final interment. Up to fifty separate individuals were placed in each enclosure, males, females and children. There is only limited evidence for grave goods in these collective interments despite the belief that such individuals enjoyed high-status. The chambers were then surrounded and covered by large stone cairns or were set alight in the case of examples in Yorkshire. Only after these procedures was the earth barrow constructed over the top of the dead. The barrow was often far larger than the original mortuary enclosure and used material excavated from ditches dug along the long sides of the enclosure. Some barrows when excavated produced evidence of the mounds being partitioned by wattle fences which served no apparent structural purpose. The exposed stone burial chambers of Wayland's Smithy long barrow, Oxfordshire, U.K. Grans Barrow on Toyd Down, Hampshire, U.K. The long barrow mound is 60 metres long, 20 metres wide and over 2 metres high. A similar group of chambered long barrows contain stone burial chambers, constructed from slabs. These may come from a different tradition or may indicate a differences in design caused by the availability of usable materials. In many cases, weathering and ploughing during the intervening centuries along with early archaeological excavations and looting have left only the stone parts of the chambered monuments extant whilst some earth and timber long barrows may only survive beneath the surface. Others however are still visible in the countryside as barrows between 15 and 125m long and surviving to heights of 4-5m. 50% of the long barrows in Gloucestershire, 66% in Hampshire, 80% in Lincolnshire and almost all the burial mounds in Essex have been damaged. According to English Heritage modern tillage techniques have done as much damage in the last 6 decades as traditional tilling did in 6 centuries. It has been conjectured that long barrows are derived from the timber long houses built by the continental Neolithic European Linearbandkeramic culture which was contemporary with the British Mesolithic. Archaeologists including Ian Hodder have noted similarities between the two forms although a significant number of long mounds in southern England have been demonstrated more recently to have limited primary evidence of burial at all. Traditionally, these structures have been interpreted as 'houses' for the dead and that barrow builders may have continued this old idea in the Neolithic and later periods. In those long barrows that do contain appreciable quantities of human remains, their concentration in just one small part of the overall structure has led some to argue that the long barrow was not merely a repository for the dead but also a general monument acting as a territorial marker, a place of religious offering and a community centre. Some appear to have been built over pre-existing occupation sites which may support this interpretation. Chambered long barrows however do appear to have been primarily intended as burial sites. Stonehenge search for...	i don't know
Yaounde is the capital and second largest city of which country?	Yaounde, capital city of Cameroon All... Yaounde, capital city of Cameroon Yaoundé stands out from other West African capitals because of its lush green and hilly setting. The air is also cooler in the city because it is 750 meters above sea level. This combination makes the city a pleasant place to visit, and although it is short on traditional attractions, it makes up for it in friendliness and charm. The Musée d'Art Camerounais provides visitors with a great introduction to the country's art, history and culture. The wonderful collection includes pottery, masks, wooden bas-reliefs, bronzes and more. One of the most notable pieces the “Great Maternal Figure,” a brass sculpture found in the country's northeast region. Replicas of the statue can be purchased at nearly all the souvenir shops, but seeing the original is a must for any visitor to Yaoundé. The museum is part of the capital's Benedictine monastery, and the chapel contains a lovely exhibit of traditional Cameroonian crafts and textiles. The Musée National pales in comparison to the Musée d'Art Camerounais, but it is still worth a visit. The small collection highlights sculptures and masks from across the country, but the labels are not as informative as those at the Musée d'Art Camerounais. To see even more regional artwork, visit the Musée Afhemi. The gallery is in a private residence, but tours can be arranged with an English guide by calling in advance. The friendly owner often invites visitors to lunch, exhibiting the welcoming spirit of the locals. If you want to buy local handicrafts, head to the Centre Artisanal. The government-run establishment has a huge collection of wood carvings that make perfect souvenirs. Do not be put off by the sticker shock; bargaining is both expected and welcome. Shoppers can often haggle their way into paying half the listed price. One of the city's great traditions is the open-air mass conducted every Sunday outside the Paroisse de N'Djong Melen. Although the service is entirely in Ewondo, visitors will appreciate the drumming, dancing and heavenly choral music. The outdoor environment makes the whole experience even more moving. If you attend, put on your Sunday best to fit in with the locals. Cameroon is home to abundant wildlife, and visitors can see a sizable collection of native animals up close at the Mvog-Betsi Zoo. The zoo is one of the best in West Africa and is run by the British non-profit Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund. Most of the animals, including drills, gorillas and chimps, were rescued from the bushmeat trade and poachers. The collection also includes exotic birds, lizards, snakes, hyenas and lions, but the primates are the most popular. Dancing is an important part of Cameroonian culture, and visitors have many venues to explore once the sun goes down. Nightclubs play a surprising variety of music, including salsa, hip hop, old-school disco and African jams. There is also a large number of restaurants in the capital, serving up traditional dishes and international fare for inexpensive prices. For an authentic Cameroonian meal, order up roasted chicken served with ground peanuts, spinach-like bitterleaves and vegetables, or visit a street-side stall to feast on fresh fish or lobster for just a few dollars. Yaounde Geographical Location Yaounde is located in southern central Cameroon and is its second largest city after Douala. The approximate population of Yaounde is 1,430,000. Yaounde Language English and French are the official languages of Cameroon in addition to 24 major African language groups. Yaounde Predominant Religion	Cameroon
Which comedian won the first UK series of 'Celebrity Big Brother'?	Cameroon - Guangxi Guilin Xin Hong Asset Management Limited Cameroon Cameroon A National Profile The Republic of Cameroon (English name: Republic of Cameroon) known as Cameroon, is a unitary republic located in central and western Africa, the capital Yaounde, Central African Franc currency name. Land area of 475,440 square kilometers, 21.798 million population, population density 42.3 persons / km2. French and English are the official languages, international telephone code is +237. Kamailongxi border with Nigeria, northeast and east of Chad and the Central African phase, respectively, and by, the South and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo adjacent. Cameroon's coastline closely follows the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and its Atlantic. Cameroon known as the "granary of Central Africa," said the Cameroon cocoa crops, mainly coffee, more than a quarter of the country's population to grow cocoa, coffee is the main source of life. In value of agricultural exports, which both export value of 30% to 40% of total exports that account, is the national income mainly depends. Cameroon national football team and its local music style known, among Ma Kusa than Cousy and best known. Second, the main city list Yaounde is the capital of the Republic of Cameroon, is the country's second only to the "economic capital" of the second largest city of Douala. Population 1,430,000 (2004), Cameroon and Central Highlands city located south of the hills, at an altitude of about 750 meters. About 200 kilometers west of the port of Douala. Sanaga River and Perpignan from both sides of the river flowing through the city. Yaounde pillar industries, including cigarettes, dairy products industry, breweries, clay, glass and wood. The city is also coffee, cocoa, copra, regional supply center sucrose and rubber. Douala is Cameroon's largest city, the capital of the province of 喀麦隆利托 pull, while Cameroon's largest port, port located in the southwest coastal plain, 25 km from the Atlantic Ocean. Wide Wouri River and the Atlantic Ocean are connected to form a natural harbor. The city has a major airport Douala airport 12 km from the city, Douala, Cameroon's "financial capital", holding the lifeblood of the country's exports, the country's largest industrial and commercial center of Cameroon and transportation hub, the main industrial and export of petroleum , cocoa and coffee.	i don't know
Which English king was the father of Edward the Confessor?	Saint Edward - St. Edward the Confessor Anglican Church he following examines his life in more detail; the images are from an early 13th century manuscript about his life : Battle of Stamford Bridge dward lived in violent times. After a long history of Saxon kings, the English throne had become a prize sought by ambitious Normans, Saxons, and Vikings. Edward’s father, King Ethelred the Unready, gained and kept his throne by the sword. The people suffered greatly: heavy taxes were levied to bribe the Vikings to leave England at peace; but the Viking raids continued. Ethelred married Emma of Normandy, a daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy, to gain Duke Richard’s support against the Vikings; this marriage would later help give the Normans, who coveted England, one reason to claim the English throne. nto this time of tumult, Edward was born, a very different kind of man: he had no ambition except for the welfare of his people; he won the throne by election, not by the sword; and he gave his subjects a time of peace, prosperity, and good government that was remembered by the people for centuries. dward was born in Islip, Oxfordshire, in about 1003. He spent his early years in relative peace at Ely Abbey: this abbey, founded in 673 by St. Etheldreda, was one of the richest and most influential abbeys of the time. (Ely Abbey still exists, known today as Ely Cathedral.) In 1013, however, when Edward was about 10, Ethelred and his family were forced to flee into exile when Sweyn Forkbeard, the Viking King of Denmark, seized the English throne. dward and his brother Alfred were taken to the court of his uncle, Duke Richard II of Normandy, where they would be able to live in safety. Edward was to live in Normandy for nearly half his life. During this time he quite naturally grew very close to the Normans: this became a problem later, when he was King; he would antagonize the Saxons by introducing Normans and their ways into England. dward’s father Ethelred died soon after they had fled to Normandy. Edmund Ironside, Edward’s elder half-brother, was briefly King: however, the Viking prince, Canute, fought Edmund, killed him, and made himself King. Edward’s mother Emma then married Canute, agreeing that her future children by King Canute would be the heirs to the English throne. uring his sojourn in Normandy, Edward came to be very pious. He made a vow of chastity, and spent much time at prayer, assisting at services, and helping in church activities. He developed the reputation of having a saintly character: this later would help persuade the Saxons to choose Edward as King. ing Canute the Great died in 1035: his successor should have been Edward’s half-brother Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma, but Hardicanute was in Denmark when Canute died, and the throne was seized by Hardicanute’s illegitimate brother, Harold Harefoot. Harold cruelly oppressed the English people. In 1036 Edward and his brother Alfred tried to free their people, but failed: Edward escaped to Normandy; Alfred was betrayed, captured, blinded, tortured, and murdered. ing Harold Harefoot died in 1041, so Hardicanute was finally able to ascend the throne, where he proved himself as brutal and hated as Harold. However, Hardicanute reigned for only a short time, dying in 1042, leaving no heir: this ended the brief Viking dynasty in England. Edward was finally able to sail back to England, where he was to live for the remainder of his life. dward was elected King in 1042, after Hardicanute’s death. (In this era the English and Scandinavian kings were normally elected unless the throne was taken by force.) Edward was chosen partly due to his saintly character, and partly because he had the strongest claim to the throne: the Viking dynasty was extinct; Edward was the son of one king, Ethelred II, and a half-brother to both King Edmund Ironside (the previous Saxon king) and King Hardicanute (the last Viking king). ing Edward did not wish to marry: he had long before made a vow of chastity. But he was persuaded by his advisors to marry, and in 1045 he married Edith, daughter of Earl Godwin of Wessex: she had to agree, however, to honour his vow; they would therefore have no children. Edith was reputed to be virtuous, which made her a good match for Edward. dith’s father, Earl Godwin, however, was far from virtuous. He was ambitious and ruthless: he coveted the crown for his family, and was a major power in England. Godwin, it was found, had taken part in the betrayal of Edward’s brother, Alfred. Godwin schemed to put one of his sons on the throne. And Godwin rebelled against Edward, for which crime he and his family, including Edith, were outlawed. But Edward was forced to reinstate them: Godwin was too influential, and had the support of too many Saxons, who were angry with Edward’s Normanization of England. dward’s reign was one of peace and prosperity. He managed the country well. He resolved internal conflicts without bloodshed. He engaged in no wars, except to defend England from Viking and Welsh raids, and to help King Malcolm III of Scotland regain the throne which Macbeth had taken from Malcolm’ father, King Duncan. Edward ended the ‘Danegelt’, the brutal tax levied to bribe the Vikings. He ended the taxes raised to support the court, instead using money raised from his own estates. He listened to complaints, and dispensed justice fairly. He was generous in giving to the poor and to the church. Only his Norman affinities created discontent. any miracles were attributed to Edward. He was said to have had visions, giving him foresight into events that would take place, or into actions that he should take. He was also said to have healed the blind, the crippled, and the diseased; even after his death, people came to his tomb to be cured of their ailments. dward promised to build an abbey for St. Peter in Westminster. He fell ill, however, and died early in 1066, a week after the abbey was dedicated. Edward’s body rests in his abbey, now better known as Westminster Abbey, where also rest many other great figures in English history. Edward was canonized in 1161: he is referred to as St. Edward the Confessor; ‘Confessor’ denoted someone whose life proclaimed their faith, but whose death was not a martyr’s death. fter Edward’s death, violence briefly returned to England. Though in many ways he was a very good king, in one critical sense he was not: he failed to select a credible successor. He had no children. He promised the throne to the Duke of Normandy, but this was rejected by the Saxons. Later it seemed as if he might be succeeded by a nephew, a son of Edmund Ironside, but the nephew died. On Edward’s death-bed he bequeathed the crown to Earl Godwin’s son, Harold. But Harold had no royal blood. This resulted in a disputed throne and two invasions of England in 1066. The first was by the Viking King, Harald Hardrede: it was repulsed at great cost at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. The second was by William of Normandy: this resulted in Harold Godwinson’s death at the Battle of Hastings, and an end to the Saxon kings. The next dynasty was Norman, established by William the Conqueror. For more information, please refer to the links page. ost images on this page are from an early 13th century manuscript about St. Edward . We are indebted to Cambridge University for preserving and publishing this important work. his page refers to people by names used today, but their actual names were somewhat different. Here is a list of today’s names, their original names, and their meanings. Caution: those with older browsers may have fonts which lack special characters appearing here. Duke Richard I of Normandy (father of Emma, Edward the Confessor’s mother) also known as Richard Sans Peur : “Richard” means “powerful leader”; “Sans Peur” means “fearless”. Duke Richard II of Normandy also known as Richard Le Bon : “Richard” means “powerful leader”; “Le Bon” means “the good”. Earl Godwin of Wessex (father of Edith, Edward the Confessor’s wife) also known as Godwine, Goodwin, Godwyn or Goodwyn : “Godwin” and its variants meant “friend of God” or “good friend”, though his actions proved that he was neither. Edith of Wessex (Edward the Confessor’s wife, and the daughter of Earl Godwin of Wessex) : “Edith” meant “prosperous in war”. King Canute the Great also known as Cnut or Knud or Knut the Great, and in Norse as “Knútr inn ríki” : “Canute” and its variants meant “knot”. King Edmund Ironside (half-brother of Edward the Confessor) : “Edmund” (or Eadmund) meant “prosperous protection”; “Ironside” was a nickname referring to his great strength. King Edward the Confessor : “Edward” (or Eadweard) meant “guardian of prosperity”; “Confessor” denotes someone whose life proclaimed their faith, but who wasn’t martyred. King Ethelred II the Unready (father of Edward the Confessor), in Old English “Æþelræd Unræd”. “Ethelred” (Æþelræd) meant “noble counsel” or “noble advice”; the nickname “the unready” (Unræd), given to him long after he died, meant “poorly advised”: he was named thus because he got poor advice from his counsellors. King Harald III of Norway also known as Harald Sigurdsson or Harald Hardrada or Harald Hardrede : “Harald” meant “army ruler”; “Sigurdsson” meant “son of Sigurd”; “Hardrada or Hardrede” meant “stern counsel or hard ruler”. King Hardicanute (son of King Canute the Great and of Emma, mother of Edward the Confessor, hence a half-brother to Edward the Confessor) also known as Harthacnut, Harthacanute, Hardicanute, Hardecanute, and in Norse as Hörthaknútr : “Canute” and its variants meant “knot”; “Hardi” and its variants meant “the hardy”, hence “Hardicanute” was “Canute the Hardy”. King Harold II of England (son of Earl Godwin of Wessex), also known as Harold Godwinson : “Harold” meant “army ruler”; “Godwinson” meant “son of Godwin”. King Harold Harefoot (son of King Canute the Great and of Ælfgifu of Northampton) : “Harold” meant “army ruler”; “Harefoot” is a nickname which referred to his speed and prowess as a hunter. King Macbeth of Scotland , originally Mac Bethad mac Findlaích, also known as Rí Deircc : “mac Findlaích” meant “son of Findlaích”; “Rí Deircc” meant “The Red King”. King Malcolm III of Scotland , originally Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, also named King Malcolm Canmore : “Malcolm or Máel Coluim” meant “devotee of Saint Columba”; “Canmore” is a nickname which meant “great chief, or big head, or long-neck”. King Sweyn Forkbeard (father of King Canute), also known as Sweyn (or Sveinn or Swegen) Tiugeskaeg (or Tjúguskegg), and also as Svein Otto Haraldsson : “Tiugeskaeg” or “Tjúguskegg” meant “forked beard”; “Haraldsson” meant “son of Harald”. King William I of England , also known as Duke William II of Normandy, William the Conqueror (in French, Guillaume le Conquérant), and William the Bastard (in French, Guillaume le Bâtard) : “William” meant “will, or helmet, or protection”; “Conqueror” (or le Conquérant) refers to his role as conqueror of England; “Bastard” (or le Bâtard) refers to the fact that he was illegitimate.	Æthelred the Unready
Who painted 'The Last Supper' on the back wall of the	Edward the Confessor, King of England - Medieval Archives Edward the Confessor, King of England Written on 27 March 2013 by Archivist in Nobility Edward the Confessor Susan Abernethy joins the Medieval Archives with another great post. Susan is the Freelance History Writer, covering topics from Ancient history to the 20th Century. Visit her blog at thefreelancehistorywriter.com . You can also like Susan on Facebook or follow Susan on Twitter . ~The Archivist Edward the Confessor was the last Anglo-Saxon king who could trace his ancestry back to King Alfred the Great and King Cerdic of Wessex. He was the great-great-great-great grandson of Alfred and he died childless, leaving England open to conquest from overseas. Edward’s father was Aethelred the Unready, the hapless king who was besieged by the Vikings on all coasts. In 1002, he was widowed and contracted a marriage with Emma, the sister of Richard, Duke of Normandy. Edward was born at Islip in Oxfordshire within the first two years of his parents wedding. Edward’s mother was a formidable woman but his father was not someone he could look up to and he may even have been ashamed of him. Aethelred was in an impossible situation with all the attacks and when Edward was about ten, his father was deposed and the whole family had to go into exile under the protection of Edward’s uncle in Normandy. Aethelred was restored to the throne of England in 1014 and Edward was given a chance to serve his future subjects. Instead of appearing in England himself, Aethelred sent Edward to represent him at great risk to Edward’s life. Edward carried out the mission well and the Witan (council) banned any future Danish kings due to his model behavior. But two years later, Aethelred had died and Edward and his brother Alfred were back in Normandy. Their half brother, Edmund Ironside was fighting to keep the throne from the Danish King Cnut. By the end of 1016, Edmund was dead and Cnut convinced the Witan to elect him King of England. In order to keep her place of power, Edward’s mother Emma married King Cnut. Emma made Cnut swear no sons by any other wife or mistress could inherit the throne other than her sons, in essence abandoning Edward and Alfred. She was to have a son Harthacnut in 1018 who was to become her favorite. Edward and Alfred were in exile and in limbo and the only one keeping them from possible assassination was their mother. Edward and Alfred grew to manhood in the custody of their uncle who didn’t want to risk sponsoring their return to the throne. Cnut died in 1035 and their prospects turned a little brighter. Cnut’s illegitimate son, Harold Harefoot had seized the throne but Emma was fighting to get her son Harthacnut on the throne. Harthacnut was in Denmark and was taking his time coming back. In 1036, Edward and Alfred both returned with forces to England. Edward turned back realizing he was outnumbered. Alfred landed with larger forces but was greeted by Godwin, Earl of Wessex. Godwine was the most powerful earl in the kingdom and an alliance between the sons of Aethelred and King Harold Harefoot was a threat to his position. Godwin attacked and decimated Alfred’s forces and took custody of Alfred. He had Alfred’s eyes gouged out, unmercifully mutilating him. Alfred was taken to the monks at Ely and left to die of his gruesome wounds. This may have deterred Edward from trying again to gain the throne and he may have felt guilty about the death of his brother. One thing is certain, he never forgave Godwin for murdering his brother. The English soon grew tired of the antics of Harthacnut and Harold Harefoot. Harthacnut had finally prevailed and ruled as King from March 1040 until his death at a drunken wedding celebration in June 1042. Edward was in Normandy when he got the news. He returned to England and the Witan elected him King. He was enthroned at Canterbury and later crowned at the Old Minster at Winchester on April 3, 1043. Edward needed Godwin of Wessex and his power base to shore up his own power. Godwin had escaped being punished for Alfred’s death by giving gifts to Harthacnut and insisting that Harold Harefoot had made him do it. At the very least, Edward knew Godwin was responsible for this brother’s death. Edward needed all the help he could get to fight a looming threat of invasion by Magnus of Norway. Edward strengthened the naval fleet and was on alert every year until Magnus died in 1047. In the meantime, Edward’s mother Emma may have conspired with Magnus. This was a massive betrayal by Emma and in mid- November 1043, Edward and the most important nobles rode to Winchester to take the treasury keys away from Emma who had guarded the treasury since Harthacnut’s death. Edward let her live out the rest of her life in relative peace but with no authority. From 1046 to 1051, Edward was in a continuous power struggle with Godwin. His only saving grace was the family was divided amongst themselves. Edward detested Godwin but knew that civil strife was the only answer to the struggle and he didn’t want to risk starting a war. Earl Godwin’s ambition knew no bounds and he set about carving out earldoms for his many sons and persuaded Edward to marry his daughter Edith. In 1051, Eustace of Boulogne, brother-in-law to Edward, made a state visit and started a brawl in Dover with the townspeople. Eustace’s motives are a mystery. Edward ordered Godwin to ravage Dover and the surrounding area. He refused and actually brought his army to defy Edward. Edward raised a larger army and Godwin’s support began to waiver. Godwin and his sons refused to come before the Witan and explain themselves. Edward gave them five days to leave the country. They left for Flanders and Edward banned Edith to a nunnery. Edward’s victory seemed complete but there was now a power vacuum in the South which Edward had a hard time filling. Also in 1051, it’s possible that young William, Duke of Normandy visited England and Edward may have promised him the throne at this time. In 1052, Godwin and his sons returned and invaded. Edward was forced to negotiate, restoring Godwin and all his sons and recalling Edith from the nunnery. Seven months later Godwin collapsed and died of a stroke while dining with Edward. Edward never fully recovered from this invasion and seizure of his power by Godwin. After the great Earl’s death, his son Harold Godwinson stepped in to fill the void. In the last ten years of Edward’s reign, Harold Godwinson became the foremost general in the kingdom, mostly by fighting the Welsh. Edward withdrew more and more into religious life and concentrated on building his legacy, West Minster on the north bank of the Thames. He cultivated a reputation for sanctity and may have initiated the practice of the king touching and healing people with “the king’s evil”, scrofula, a form of tuberculosis. Kings were to follow this practice until the 18th Century. He recalled his nephew Edward the Exile from Hungary, who mysteriously died shortly after arriving in England leaving a young son, Edgar Aetheling and daughter Margaret, who was to become Queen of Scotland. Edward sent Harold Godwinson to Normandy, possibly to assure William of Normandy he would inherit the throne. William possibly made Harold swear he would act as regent until he could come to England to claim his inheritance. This saga is told in the Bayeux Tapestry. Edward managed to prevent Godwin and his power hungry sons from seizing total power but was able to use the best of their abilities to his advantage. He was upstanding and pious, making him a cut above some of the ruthless and treacherous men around him. He came to the throne in his forties, ruled for 24 years and managed to consecrate his beloved West Minster on December 28, 1065. He died in his sixties on January 5, 1066. Harold Godwinson exploited the reality of the situation on the death of Edward with the country facing invasion by the Norwegian king and William of Normandy. He had himself declared king by the Witan. The new West Minster saw the funeral of Edward and the crowning of Harold. Harold was to lose the throne to William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings in October of 1066. Rumors of miracles attributed to Edward began before he died. It was believed by many he was celibate due to his childless marriage. “The Life of King Edward” commissioned by his wife Queen Edith was instrumental in recording his holy life. There was scant evidence of miracles before his death and even scantier proof and downright fabricated miracles after his death, such as cures at his tomb and visions by others. More evidence of miracles does not appear until 1134. Canonization was sought in 1138-1139 but the Pope was not convinced. After 36 years, the body of Edward was disinterred and said to be intact with his long white beard curled upon his chest. This was a convincing sign of a Saint. In 1161, King Henry II and Westminster requested canonization from Pope Alexander III and he approved Edward as a Saint and Confessor. In 1269, King Henry III translated the remains of Edward to his new tomb in the newly rebuilt Westminster Abbey. Shrine of Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey Resources: “Edward the Confessor” by Frank Barlow, “Saxon Kings” and “The Fall of Saxon England” by Richard Humble, “1066: The Hidden History in the Bayeux Tapestry” by Andrew Bridgford (c) 2012	i don't know
What is the nationality of the Tennis player Ivo Karlovic?	Ivo Karlovic - Bio, Facts, Family \| Famous Birthdays Famous Birthdays Pisces ABOUT Croatian whose height of 6 feet 10 inches made him one of history's tallest professional tennis players; his height also helped him serve at record speeds. BEFORE FAME at Wimbledon. TRIVIA He considered basketball to be one of his favorite hobbies; his shoe size clocked in at a 16. FAMILY LIFE He married his wife, Alsi, in March of 2005; six years later, they welcomed their first child. ASSOCIATED WITH	Croatian
Which body of water separates East Malaysia from West Malaysia?	Facts about Ivo Karlović - The Meaning Of The Name The Meaning Of The Name Toggle navigation Nationality: Croatia Sport: Tennis player For privacy reasons, we cannot provide the meaning of this celebrity's name! Instead, please find the Numerology Interpretation for that name. The Growth number corresponding to this first name is 1. Interpretation: Learn more with our free Numerology Tool Which stars are celebrating their birthday today? Check our and find out celebrities born on your birthday. Biography Ivo Karlović (pronounced [ǐːv̞ɔ kâːrlɔv̞itɕ]; born 28 February 1979 in Zagreb) is a Croatian tennis player. He has won five ATP singles titles: three in 2007, one in 2008 and one in 2013. Karlović is the tallest player ever on the ATP Tour at 211 cm (6 ft 11 in). He is a serve-and-volleyer and officially held the record for the fastest serve recorded in professional tennis, measured at 251 km/h (156 mph), before being surpassed by Samuel Groth in 2012. He is considered one of the best servers on tour. His height enables him to serve with high speed using unique trajectory and accuracy. The section "Biography" of this page contains content from the copyrighted Wikipedia article " Ivo Karlović "; that content is used under the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) . You may redistribute it, verbatim or modified, providing that you comply with the terms of the GFDL.	i don't know
Who was the American serial killer, nicknamed 'The Green River Killer', who at his trial in 2003, confessed to the murders of 48 women in Washington state?	1000+ images about Green river killer on Pinterest \| Washington state, Green river and Superior court Forward Gary Ridgway (1949-) was convicted of 48 murders in the Green River Killer case that lasted more than 20 years. After his arrest, he confessed to more murders than any other American serial killer: 71. Many of the victims were prostitutes. He strangled the women and dumped their bodies in wooded areas in Washington state’s King County. He entered a plea bargain and agreed to show authorities where missing victims were in exchange for not facing the death penalty. See More	Gary Ridgway
What name is given to the apparent change of frequency in a soundwave perceived by an observer as the source as the sound passes?	Green River Killer Claims He Murdered Dozens More Women - ABC News ABC News Green River Killer Claims He Murdered Dozens More Women By Kevin Dolak WATCH Green River Killer Claims Dozens More Victims 0 Shares Email Gary Ridgway, the Seattle-area truck painter who was unmasked as the Green River serial killer and went on to plead guilty to killing 49 women, now claims that he killed closer to 80 women over two decades. In exclusive interviews with ABC News affiliate KOMO , Ridgway, who is currently serving 49 consecutive life sentences in a Washington State penitentiary, told reporter Charlie Harger that he is confessing to dozens more murders to help bring closure to the families of his unidentified victims. "The total number [of victims] is 75 to 80," Ridgway said in a phone interview recorded by Harger and broadcast on KOMO. Ridgway, who said he is a changed man who has found God, now says that while he was telling police of his crimes following his 2001 arrest and subsequent confession, there was more he could have said to help locate other victims. But Harger said he remains skeptical about Ridgway's motive and tendency to lie. "The strange thing about Gary Ridgway is if you didn't know the depravity, if you didn't know the evil that this man committed, you would have no clue when you talked on the phone with him," said Harger, a reporter for KOMO Newsradio. "This man sounds like he would be a perfect neighbor." Ridgway confessed that he picked up prostitutes and teen runaways throughout the 1980s and 1990s in Washington's King County, strangled them during sex and dumped their bodies in remote areas near King County's 65-mile long Green River. "Gary Ridgway is ... playing everybody when he talks," Harger said. "I don't think Gary Ridgway can even comprehend the truth." -- journalist Charlie Harger Ridgway had been a suspect in the killings for years, but it wasn't until 2001 that he was arrested, thanks to DNA testing advances. To avoid the death penalty, Ridgway confessed to 48 murders in 2003. In 2011 a 49th body was found, and he received an additional life sentence. Now that he has admitted to dozens of other murders, the question remains whether he is now genuinely trying to help the families of supposed victims, or if he's trying to "up his count" for further notoriety. Harger said that Ridgway is a sly, deceptive man. "Gary Ridgway is absolutely playing me. He's playing everybody when he talks," Harger said. "I don't think Gary Ridgway can even comprehend the truth. "I think he wants to show the world that, 'Here I am, Gary Ridgway, the truck painter from Kenworth, the guy who everybody thought was slow since elementary school, somebody who couldn't hold a candle to Ted Bundy. But, here I am, and I'm the best at something,'" Harger said. Ridgway has been speaking with Air Force criminal investigator Rob Fitzgerald for years about his crimes, and for the past five years, Fitzgerald has hunted for unidentified victims of the Green River Killer. The two men speak multiple times per week, KOMO reports, and Ridgway even provides Fitzgerald with photos of supposed "dump sites" that he says should be searched. Despite Ridgway's dubious motive for divulging these locations, Harger said he should still be heard, for a possible "nugget of truth" in what might be a web of lies. "Maybe if we listen to the clues and cut through his lies, we will find a nugget of truth, the clue investigators have waited for," he said. "It's a chance we have to take."	i don't know
From which African country does Cap Bon wine come?	Tunisia - Travel Facts and Information Updated February 04, 2016. Tunisia Basic Facts: Tunisia is a safe and friendly country in North Africa . Millions of Europeans visit annually to enjoy the beaches along the Mediterranean and soak up some ancient culture amongst the well-preserved Roman ruins. The Sahara Desert attracts adventure seekers during the winter months. Southern Tunisia is where George Lucas filmed many of his Star Wars movies, he used the natural landscape and traditional Berber villages (some underground) to depict the Planet Tatooine . Area: 163,610 sq km, (slightly larger than Georgia, US). Location: Tunisia lies in Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea , between Algeria and Libya, see map . Capital City : Tunis Population: Just over 10 million people live in Tunisia. Language: Arabic (official) and French (widely understood and used in commerce). Berber dialects are also spoken, especially in the South. Religion: Muslim 98%, Christian 1%, Jewish and other 1%. Climate: Tunisia has a temperate climate in the north with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers especially in the desert in the south. continue reading below our video Best Road Trip Apps Click here for average temperatures in Tunis. When to Go: May to October, unless you're planning to go to the Sahara Desert, then go November to February. Currency: Tunisian Dinar, click here for a currency converter . Tunisia's Main Attractions: The vast majority of visitors to Tunisia head straight for the resorts at Hammamet, Cap Bon and Monastir, but there is more to the country than sandy beaches and the lovely blue Mediterranean. Here are some highlights: Sidi Bou Said : A gorgeous cliff top village overlooking the Mediterranean with steep cobbled streets lined with white-washed houses framed by bright blue window trellises. Ksar Ghilaine : A desert oasis on the edge of the vast Saharan dunes, take a camel ride for the day and get lost in the sheer magnificence of this glorious, gold-colored sea of sand. More Information about Tunisia's Attractions ... Travel to Tunisia Tunisia's International Airport: Tunis-Carthage International Airport (airport code TUN) lies 5 miles (8km) northeast of the city center, Tunis. Other international airports include Monastir (airport code: MIR), Sfax (airport code: SFA) and Djerba (airport code: DJE). Getting to Tunisia: Direct flights and charter flights arrive daily from many European countries , you can also catch a ferry from France or Italy -- More about getting to Tunisia . Tunisia Embassies/Visas: Most nationalities do not require a tourist visa before entering the country, but check with the Tunisian Embassy before you depart. Tourist Information Office (ONTT): 1, Ave. Mohamed V, 1001 Tunis, Tunisia. E-mail: [email protected], Web Site: http://www.tourismtunisia.com/ More Tunisian Practical Travel Tips Tunisia's Economy and Politics Economy: Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth, which averaged almost 5% over the past decade, declined to 4.7% in 2008 and probably will decline further in 2009 because of economic contraction and slowing of import demand in Europe - Tunisia's largest export market. However, development of non-textile manufacturing, a recovery in agricultural production, and strong growth in the services sector somewhat mitigated the economic effect of slowing exports. Tunisia will need to reach even higher growth levels to create sufficient employment opportunities for an already large number of unemployed as well as the growing population of university graduates. The challenges ahead include: privatizing industry, liberalizing the investment code to increase foreign investment, improving government efficiency, reducing the trade deficit, and reducing socioeconomic disparities in the impoverished south and west. Politics: Rivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisia culminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of a protectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades following World War I was finally successful in getting the French to recognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country's first president, Habib Bourgiba, established a strict one-party state . He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In November 1987, Bourgiba was removed from office and replaced by Zine el Abidine Ben Ali in a bloodless coup. Street protests that began in Tunis in December 2010 over high unemployment, corruption, widespread poverty, and high food prices escalated in January 2011, culminating in rioting that led to hundreds of deaths. On 14 January 2011, the same day BEN ALI dismissed the government, he fled the country, and by late January 2011, a "national unity government" was formed. Elections for the new Constituent Assembly were held in late October 2011, and in December it elected human rights activist Moncef MARZOUKI as interim president. The Assembly began drafting a new constitution in February 2012, and is aiming to have it ratified by the end of the year. More About Tunisia and Sources	Tunisia
In terms of population, which is the largest city in Pennsylvania?	Tunisia - Travel Facts and Information Updated February 04, 2016. Tunisia Basic Facts: Tunisia is a safe and friendly country in North Africa . Millions of Europeans visit annually to enjoy the beaches along the Mediterranean and soak up some ancient culture amongst the well-preserved Roman ruins. The Sahara Desert attracts adventure seekers during the winter months. Southern Tunisia is where George Lucas filmed many of his Star Wars movies, he used the natural landscape and traditional Berber villages (some underground) to depict the Planet Tatooine . Area: 163,610 sq km, (slightly larger than Georgia, US). Location: Tunisia lies in Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea , between Algeria and Libya, see map . Capital City : Tunis Population: Just over 10 million people live in Tunisia. Language: Arabic (official) and French (widely understood and used in commerce). Berber dialects are also spoken, especially in the South. Religion: Muslim 98%, Christian 1%, Jewish and other 1%. Climate: Tunisia has a temperate climate in the north with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers especially in the desert in the south. continue reading below our video Best Road Trip Apps Click here for average temperatures in Tunis. When to Go: May to October, unless you're planning to go to the Sahara Desert, then go November to February. Currency: Tunisian Dinar, click here for a currency converter . Tunisia's Main Attractions: The vast majority of visitors to Tunisia head straight for the resorts at Hammamet, Cap Bon and Monastir, but there is more to the country than sandy beaches and the lovely blue Mediterranean. Here are some highlights: Sidi Bou Said : A gorgeous cliff top village overlooking the Mediterranean with steep cobbled streets lined with white-washed houses framed by bright blue window trellises. Ksar Ghilaine : A desert oasis on the edge of the vast Saharan dunes, take a camel ride for the day and get lost in the sheer magnificence of this glorious, gold-colored sea of sand. More Information about Tunisia's Attractions ... Travel to Tunisia Tunisia's International Airport: Tunis-Carthage International Airport (airport code TUN) lies 5 miles (8km) northeast of the city center, Tunis. Other international airports include Monastir (airport code: MIR), Sfax (airport code: SFA) and Djerba (airport code: DJE). Getting to Tunisia: Direct flights and charter flights arrive daily from many European countries , you can also catch a ferry from France or Italy -- More about getting to Tunisia . Tunisia Embassies/Visas: Most nationalities do not require a tourist visa before entering the country, but check with the Tunisian Embassy before you depart. Tourist Information Office (ONTT): 1, Ave. Mohamed V, 1001 Tunis, Tunisia. E-mail: [email protected], Web Site: http://www.tourismtunisia.com/ More Tunisian Practical Travel Tips Tunisia's Economy and Politics Economy: Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth, which averaged almost 5% over the past decade, declined to 4.7% in 2008 and probably will decline further in 2009 because of economic contraction and slowing of import demand in Europe - Tunisia's largest export market. However, development of non-textile manufacturing, a recovery in agricultural production, and strong growth in the services sector somewhat mitigated the economic effect of slowing exports. Tunisia will need to reach even higher growth levels to create sufficient employment opportunities for an already large number of unemployed as well as the growing population of university graduates. The challenges ahead include: privatizing industry, liberalizing the investment code to increase foreign investment, improving government efficiency, reducing the trade deficit, and reducing socioeconomic disparities in the impoverished south and west. Politics: Rivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisia culminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of a protectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades following World War I was finally successful in getting the French to recognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country's first president, Habib Bourgiba, established a strict one-party state . He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In November 1987, Bourgiba was removed from office and replaced by Zine el Abidine Ben Ali in a bloodless coup. Street protests that began in Tunis in December 2010 over high unemployment, corruption, widespread poverty, and high food prices escalated in January 2011, culminating in rioting that led to hundreds of deaths. On 14 January 2011, the same day BEN ALI dismissed the government, he fled the country, and by late January 2011, a "national unity government" was formed. Elections for the new Constituent Assembly were held in late October 2011, and in December it elected human rights activist Moncef MARZOUKI as interim president. The Assembly began drafting a new constitution in February 2012, and is aiming to have it ratified by the end of the year. More About Tunisia and Sources	i don't know
Which American sprinter broke the 100m World Record in 1968 and held that record for the next fifteen years?	Lemaitre: Why It Matters the Fastest White Man on Earth Is, Well, White \| Bleacher Report Lemaitre: Why It Matters the Fastest White Man on Earth Is, Well, White Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse more stories Streeter Lecka/Getty Images By 2016, Christophe Lemaitre could challenge Bolt and Blake in the 100m. 28.4K “The blacks, physically, are made better.” — Carl Lewis , nine-time Olympic gold medal winner in track and field. Lightning-quick reactions. In most sports, they form the foundation of victory. Nowhere is this more cut and dry than in sprinting, where legacies often boil down to a matter of milliseconds. Few athletes in history have developed more efficient fast-twitch muscles than four top track stars in this year’s Olympics : Usain Bolt, Yohan Blake, Asafa Powell and Tyson Gay . In 100 meter races, they have produced the top 21 performances ever. In the 200m, they had notched nine of the top 11 times. In London, though, Europe’s fastest man is expected to loosen this quartet’s vice grip on the world’s biggest stage. 22-year-old Christophe Lemaitre enters Thursday's Olympic 200m and a following 4X100m relay with one of the event’s most intriguing stories. Lemaitre didn’t even start sprinting until age 15. In the next five years, he demolished one record after another in his native France while growing to 6-feet-3. At a 2010 meet, Lemaitre became the first white European or American to run 100 meters under 10 seconds. His 9.98 time was good, but far off Bolt’s 9.58 world record. Still, Lemaitre had proven himself as a clear exception to a rule that had become more and more ironclad since south Arkansas native Jim Hines first broke the 10-second barrier in the 1968 Olympics : black sprinters dominate. Before Lemaitre, 70 of 71 of the sprinters who’d run 100 meters in less than 10 seconds had primarily west African ancestry. Is there value in discussing the race of Olympic sprinters? Yes, it could open minds which is a good thing. No, even scientists can't agree on a definition for "race." No, let's focus on the athletes' ability instead of skin color. Something else Total votes: 1,663 Why? I admit it: A vast slippery slope stretches before us. Many people, Lemaitre included, hesitate to even bring up racial barriers in a Western society which strives for meritocracy. In November, 2011, he told the New York Times he feels it’s possible the black monopoly on track has built “a bit of a psychological barrier” for some aspiring white athletes and that his performance could help “advance and make the statement that it has nothing to do with the color of your skin and it’s just a question of work and desire and ambition.” Lemaitre’s sentiments had already been espoused by the college coach of Olympic gold medalists Michael Johnson (fourth all-time in the 200m) and Jeremy Wariner, a white 400m champion. “White kids think that it’s a black kid's sport, that blacks are superior,” Baylor University’s Clyde Hart (a Hot Springs native) told Sports Illustrated in 2004.”There are plenty of white kids with fast-twitch fibers, but they’ve got to get off their rumps. Too many of them would rather go fast on their computers in a fantasy world. It’s not about genes, although they may play some part in it. It’s about ‘Do you want it badly enough?’” No matter how badly we as Americans want to believe it, we know there’s more to success than willpower and work ethic. We know these attributes don’t develop in a vacuum. Nurture has something to do with it. So does nature. Indeed, some scientists believe they have pinned the ratio in regards to foot speed. According to the director of the Copenhagen Muscle Research Institute, an athlete's “environment” can account for 20 to 25 percent of his speed , but the the rest is determined before birth. To figure out nature’s role in such a complicated field like heredity, I don’t hesitate using science as a guide. Then again, my race wasn’t the target of the 19th and early 20th century “science” which disparaged it as lazy, stupid and weak to point of subhumanity. Racist propaganda filling medical journals from this era was a major reason the Civil Rights Era didn’t arrive until nearly a century after Emancipation. Certainly, science is still subject to its practitioners’ biases. All the same, I believe modern scientists—products of the Civil Rights Era—are far more willing and able to acquire results closer to the truth than, say, 100 years ago. This matters because some people believe anti-black agenda still undermines some science, even when its results indicate black superiority in certain sports: “The whole idea is to convince black people that they’re superior in some areas - sports - and therefore by definition must be inferior in other areas,” African- American track coach Brook Johnson said in Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We’re Afraid to Talk About It. “It’s interesting the white people always have the best talent in the areas that pay the best money.” Much of today’s race research involves genetics. One common theory in this arena, reiterated by Michael Johnson last month, postulates today’s superior athletes benefit from a “superior athletic gene” that emerged from centuries of descendants surviving extremely trying conditions in trans-Atlantic voyages and work as slaves. Some anthropologists, however, discount the idea that body types emerging in certain slaves have led to a difference in athletic ability. Another commonly held theory maintains blacks have anatomical features that provide a built-in advantage in some aerobic sports. By 1984, there had been more than 200 studies comparing the physique and body composition of athletes, according to Taboo by journalist J on Entine . The results, according to Entine, found people with West African ancestry generally have: faster patellar tendon reflex in the knee; bigger, more developed overall musculature; narrower hips, lighter calves; significantly higher levels of plasma testosterone and a higher percentage of fast-twitch muscles and more anaerobic enzymes, which can translate to more explosive energy. Some scientists vehemently disagree with Entine, though. Dr. Yannis Pitsalidis, who works at the University of Glasgow’s Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, doesn’t put much stock in the existence of genetically homogeneous groups defined by skin color. “It is estimated that the level of genetic diversity between human populations is not large enough to justify the use of the term 'race',” Pitsalidis wrote in an e-mail. If “race” as a biologically valid term doesn’t hold water, nor would the idea of athletic superiority between them. Still, it’s clear some mix of nature and nurture makes Christophe Lemaitre the increasingly rare exception. Why shy away from this? “It’s the exaggeration, not the core of the truth, that stirs the ire,” Entine wrote. “The difficulty, of course, is sorting out how much of a trait is genetically inbred, how much may be shaped by the environment, and what is just plain poppycock.” It’s worth the effort, and better than the uninformed alternative—reflexive anger, hatred or disgust. Yes, debate surrounds the definition of the word “race” itself. More important than settling on a bullet-proof definition, though, is simply caring what that word means to each other. There is healing in the act of trying to understand how differences in skin color can affect how we see the world. Real, honest dialogue is a platform for the elevation of our entire society—a process that demands listening and thinking in lieu of instant reactions. This isn’t a contest. Follow this column's award-winning author here . The piece was originally published in Sync magazine.	Jim Hines
What was the name of the 6/7th century Welsh-language poet who wrote 'The Gododdin'?	Men's 100-Meter IAAF World Record Holders By Mike Rosenbaum Updated January 27, 2016. The 100-meter world record-holder , as well as the Olympic 100-meter champion, is often known as “The world’s fastest man.” Although the event is the shortest outdoor race at the senior level, the 100-meter sprint has featured a large number of world record-holders. Indeed, Usain Bolt’s current world standard, set at the 2009 World Championships, was the 67th men’s 100-meter mark officially recognized by the IAAF since its inception in 1912. Pre-IAAF American Luther Cary ran the first recorded 10.8-second 100 meters, on July 4, 1891. Cary’s unofficial world record was matched 14 times by 13 different runners during the next dozen years. It wasn’t until 1906 that Sweden’s Knut Lindberg lowered the unofficial mark to 10.6. Three German runners reached 10.5 in 1911 and 1912. IAAF Recognition The IAAF recognized its first 100-meter world record-holder in 1912, after American Donald Lippincott ran 10.6 seconds in a preliminary heat during the Stockholm Olympics. continue reading below our video Profile of Tyson Gay Lippincott apparently peaked too early, as he only finished third in the final, in 10.9 seconds. He was joined in the record book by fellow American Jackson Scholz in 1920, who matched Lippincott's 10.6 time. Americans owned the 100-meter record until 1930, by which time Charlie Paddock and Eddie Tolan had both run 10.4 (with Tolan hitting the mark twice). Then Canada's Percy Williams took charge by running 10.3 in August of 1930. Five more runners matched the mark (Ralph Metcalfe three times, and Tolan – at the 1932 Olympic final – Eulace Peacock, Christiaan Berger and Tokayoshi Yoshioka once each) before American Jesse Owens ran a 10.2 in a Chicago meet in 1936. Owens' record was equaled 10 times in the next 20 years (Bobby Morrow three times, Ira Murchison twice, and Harold Davis, Lloyd LaBeach, Barney Ewell, McDonald Bailey and Heinze Futterer once apiece) before another American, Willie Williams, was timed in 10.1 seconds in 1956. Murchison and Leamon King (twice), matched the record before the end of the year. Ray Norton joined the group in the record book by posting a 10.1-second time in 1959. Breaking 10 Seconds The world mark reached 10-flat courtesy of West Germany’s Armin Hary in 1960. Nine different runners ran 10-second races during the next eight years, including Bob Hayes’ gold medal performance in the 1964 Olympics, which was electrically timed at 10.06 seconds but recorded at 10.0 for record purposes (the other eight runners were: Harry Jerome, Horacio Esteves, Jim Hines, Enrique Figuerola, Paul Nash, Oliver Ford, Charlie Greene and Roger Bambuck). The record finally dipped below 10 seconds in a remarkable race on June 20, 1968, in Sacramento. American Jim Hines won the race in a hand-timed 9.9, but the next two runners – Ronnie Ray Smith and Charles Greene – were also credited with times of 9.9 seconds, so all three entered the record book with that time, even though electronic timing recorded Hines in 10.03 seconds, followed by Greene (10.10) and Smith (10.14). Hines then ran the first electronically-time sub-10-second 100 meters at the 1968 Olympic final, which he won in 9.95 seconds. Between 1972 and 1976, six more runners tied the official world mark of 9.9 seconds (Steve Williams four times, Harvey Glance twice, and Eddie Hart, Rey Robinson, Silvio Leonard and Don Quarrie once each). Electronic Era Beginning in 1977, the IAAF only recognized electronically-timed races for world record purposes, so Hines’ 9.95 became the sole world mark. Hines' mark survived until American Calvin Smith ran 9.93 in 1983. Canada's Ben Johnson lowered the record to 9.83 in 1987 and 9.79 at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, but his times were later vacated after he tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs. Carl Lewis , who'd run second to Johnson in 9.92 in Seoul, not only became the 1988 Olympic gold medalist but also gained the 100-meter world record. Lewis and fellow American Leroy Burrell traded the record back and forth over the next six years, with Burrell reaching 9.85 in 1994. Canada's Donovan Bailey ran 9.84 in the 1996 Olympic final, and then Maurice Greene lowered the mark to 9.79 in 1999. Greene was the last American to hold the mark – and keep it – before the Jamaican surge in the 21st century. Americans Tim Montgomery and Justin Gatlin both had world marks rescinded due to doping infractions. From Lippincott’s 1912 record, until 2005, Americans owned or shared the men’s 100-meter world record for all but about nine years and three months, within a 93-year span. Jamaica Ascends Jamaica's Asafa Powell ran 9.77 three times in 2005 and 2006, and then he lowered his record to 9.74 in 2007. The following year, a once-promising 200-meter specialist named Usain Bolt branched out to the 100 and broke Powell's mark twice, reaching 9.69 seconds at the Beijing Olympics , marking the fourth time since 1968 that the world record was set at the Olympics. Bolt began celebrating his Olympic triumph on the track, with about 30 meters remaining in the race, leading many to believe that he had a better time within him. They were right. Spurred on by a strong challenge from American Tyson Gay the next year, Bolt won the 2009 World Championship 100 meters in a record time of 9.58 seconds. Bolt didn’t set a world mark at the 2012 Olympics, but he won his second straight 100-meter gold medal in an Olympic-record time of 9.63 seconds.	i don't know
Which 1968 film, starring Meryl Streep, told the true story of Lindy Chamberlain, a mother, convicted of killing her baby, who maintained that a Dingo had killed it?	The Chamberlain Case The Chamberlain Case: Press Cuttings 1981–2005 OCR: Cinema COVER STORY A Boom Down Under And a push abroad by Australia 's film makers Among the best young film makers: Fred Schepisi, 41, educated for a while at a Catholic seminary, was an advertising executive when he made the leap to film. "All those European films like Wages of Fear seemed so exotic," he recalls. So Schepisi switched jobs to become manager of the Melbourne branch of a film production company, where he learned to write documentary scripts and shoot commercials. His big chance came with The Devil's Playground (1976), a semiautobiographical story of how a seminary tries to crush the spirit of a young boy. It was well received but earned nothing, a fate that also applied to his next feature, The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1978), with Tommy Lewis, a gripping, brutal film about racial bigotry, the story of an aborigine pushed into a berserk lolling spree. Jimmie Blacksmith cost $1.6 million to make and was, at the time, Australia's most expensive movie. New Yorker Critic Pauline Kael described it as "serenely shocking [and] horribly funny, a movie about the cultural chasm that divides the natives from the Europeanspawned whites." Says Fred Schepisi, who is directing Marble Arch's $10 million Barbarosa, with Willie Nelson and Gary Busey, in Hollywood: "If you are an opera singer, you can't just sing in one opera house. You have to sing in all the great houses of the world. You want to see whatt the differences are, if any." TIME SIP terwde,- 2y , I IS I No. 37 F,110 e5 V-0 EJ t:,!, t-, Law Mr. Wizard Comes to Court New scientific evidence is helping to show juror's whodunit D id Wayne Williams murder Nathaniel Cater and Jimmy Ray Payne? No one saw either crime, and there were no fingerprints. But there is plenty of circumstantial evidence in the extraordinary Atlanta case, including carpet fibers found on the victims and bloodstains in Williams' station wagon. So prosecutors are placing their faith in test tubes, microscopes and forensic specialists; in hour upon hour of testimony, experts have said that all the scientific evidence points to Williams. Last week the defense fought back. Kansas State University Professor Randall Bresee claimed that the prosecution's fiber analysis was too imprecise. In fact, said Bresee, he had examined fibers from a carpet in Defense Attorney Mary Welcome's office and found them "microscopically similar" to those from Williams' home. No matter who prevails, the trial is highlighting a major development in the criminal courtroom. With the help of a variety of technical advances, more and more silent evidence is being turned into loudly damning testimony. The granddaddy of scientific evidence is the fingerprint, introduced in 1901. Because a person's print is unique, there is still no better physical evidence. But now there are a number of new ways of linking a criminal to a crime that are nearly as clear-cut. Suspects are being asked not only for fingerprints but for footprints, blood samples and pieces of hair. Over the past ten years, no area has developed faster than the examination of bloodstains. "Before, we used to be satisfied with identifying a blood sample as type A, B, AB or O. Now we have 13 or more different antigen and enzyme systems we can pick out," says Gary Howell, 34, director of the Kansas City regional crime lab. The probability that any two people will share the same assortment of these blood variables is .1% or less. Because of that, Howell was recently able to use two tiny bloodstains to help convict a double murderer. Another use of blood is also winning wide acceptance. Scrutiny of the size, shape and distribution of blood spatters tells much about the location and position of a person involved in a crime and thus may dispute a defendant's version of what happened. Blood that travels at an angle, for example, leaves an elliptical stain. Consultant Herbert Leon MacDonell, 53, of Corning, N.Y., the leading expert, is now sought out in more than 100 homicide cases a year. At the trial of Jean Harris last year he tried to persuade the juryunsuccessfully-that blood marks jibed with Harris' claim that the shooting of Dr. Herman Tarnower occurred accidentally during a struggle. Another famous trial, that of Theodore Bundy, has greatly helped to increase the use of bite-mark evidence. Bundy was convicted in 1979 of murdering two sorority sisters after photographs of bites found on one of them were matched with impressions taken of Bundy's teeth. Since then, the use of bite evidence has "skyrocketed," says Miami Dentist Richard Souviron, a frequent witness-not only in sex-murder cases but child-abuse investigations as well. Sometimes the findings even exonerate. The use of scientific evidence has become so common, says Washington University Law Professor Edward Imwinkelried, that a prosecutor who has none to offer sometimes feels obliged to explain why. Such testimony is particularly critical in rape cases for corroboration and in homicides, where there may be no eyewitnesses. One danger, though: it can become so complicated that the jury gets lost. That is often the only hope for defense attorneys, who can rarely afford to hire opposing experts. In cross-examination and final arguments, they hammer away at the witness's credentials or the inability to pin the crime on the defendant conclusively. S cientific advances do not always perform as promised. The reliability of some supposed wonders are so in doubt that many courts will not hear the resulting evidence. But more, not less, scientific evidence is likely in the future. Kansas City's Howell believes that the coming years will see a great increase in the use of weapon marks. Hair is still another source of information. A single strand can reveal a person's sex, race and certain other characteristics, and experts now have the ability to read far more from a sample. Says New York City Forensic Serologist Dr. Robert Shaler: "The hair is the garbage can of the human body. Everything you eat shows up there." Knowing that it grows about 1 mm a day, Shaler insists, "we can tell if you took aspirin yesterday and drank beer from an aluminum can a week ago." Until now, only Sherlock Holmes could deduce so much from so little. -By Bennett H. Beach. Reported by Jay Branegan/Chicago and Marc Levinson/Atlanta "I-I M E JUG, y PC C_ 34ecv1$145 w, 3 Cr,t.~:o41 . trla :or cdl~l kifluiig DARWIN One of Australia's most sensationa mu 0der ,trials opened yesterday when Mrs Lindy Chamber lain plead nine-weekdeath wa dingo or Prosec that Mrs seven t Azaria tw throat in car. The n pearance Rock in gripped t 11 . The in concluded by a din was held and Mrs trial. Her usband, Michael (3a),, a Seventh ay Adventist minister, is accused a" being an accessory after the fact;--Sapa-Reuter. d not guilty to killing her old daughter Azaria, whose originally blamed on a ild dn. itor [an Barker alleged Cltam'~erlain (34), who is cntits' pre.gnant, killed years ago by cutting her e, front seat of the family ystery of Azaria's disaprom a camp site at AyQrs he Australian desert has is country for two years. uest into the baby's death that she had been killed ,o. But a second inquest itA new forensic evidence, Chamberlain was, sent for Mrs Lfndy Chamberlaih poes intocourt to face a charge 6-f cuttingher baby's throat. r~' sc ^, - motion high in 'dingo' trial By Ernest Shirley, : stand mott}enta before Own Correspondent thee trial judge; Mr Jus BRISBANE - In an- tice Muiihead, opened other emotion-charged proceedings. ' day in the "DiAgo" MY Barker questrial in Darwin Sup- tioned her on her mereme Court a crowded mory of the events, of gallery watched as the August 17. 1980, the accused, bi r s Lindy night A z a r i a dis Chamberlain (34), repeatedly broke down and wept under relentless cross-examination by the prosecutor. After yesterday's drama, when two women jurors cried, a long queue gathered outside the courthouse waiting for the doors to open. Long before the court went into session court officials had to close the doors to prevent overcrowding. Mrs Chamberlain is charged with having murdered h e r nineweek-old baby, Azaria. Her husband, Michael (38), a Seventh Day Adventist pastor, is charged with having been an accessary after the fact. `i T h e Crown allegesNo," she respondedMrs Chamberlain cut "I ';prefer to go on, It's her baby's throat in been going on for two the front seat of the years now and, I want family car. to get it over with." T h e Chambtrlains Mr Barker again sa~~ a dingo (wild dog) sought details on where carried the child into she had seen the dingo the wilderness at Ayers and whether she had Rock ' in central Austra- seen . anything in its lia where the Chamber- t mouth. . lains with Azaria and ~ T h a t . brought the their two sons were ~ weeping retort: "For camping in August God's sake. Mr Barker 1980. T h e y h a v e you are talking a pleaded not euilty. my baby daughter, The prosecutor, Mr an object." ' Ian Barker, QC, today ~ At this point the questioned Mrs Cham- trial judge called an berlain closely on her adlournment. - claim that a dingo took When the court re. her baby. s u;m e d, 10 minutes later, Mrs Chamberlain ~appeared to have recovered her composure. )Sir' Barker said: "I am sorry if this distre'sses you but you understand the issues ,before this jury,-don't you?" Mrs, Chamberlain agtees she -was- aware th4 Crown asserted the dingo story was "mere faritasy" and alleged it wak she who killed the child. appeared. . M r s Chamberlain repeatedly brake down, sobbing and dabbing at tears. T! h e prosecutor asked: "Mrs Chamber. lain, you say this child was in the mouth of a dingo which was olgorousiy shaking !t t head at the entrance- to thO, tent. That's ~at you firmly believe?", Mrs Chamberlain, her head in her hands and visibly distressed, '-atfswered: "That's right.". The judge asked Twr if she wanted a: short brOak, saying he ~ Qiid not want -her to answer questions 'if ,{ ~M was distraught. 1, 1 ,. t At one stage. 'Mrs, Chamberlain sobbed: "For God's sake, Mr Barker, you are talking about my baby daughter, not an object." It was Mrs Chamberlain's second day under cross-examination. Dressed in 'a- pink maternity smock eight months pregnant Mrs Chamberlain resumed her seat in the witness AUSTRALIA A Guilty Verdict in The `Dingo Baby' Ca It all began on a warm evening in AU of 1980. Lindy and Michael Chamber were returning to a campsite at Ayers a popular tourist attraction in centiel,W, tralia, with their two sons and nine,* ~} old daughter, Azaria. What happenedhas been something of a mystery to Atutti~ ians ever since. According to the Chttmbtk~lains, Lindy suddenly heard a screazrt~c then watched in horror as a wild dinBa"ft ' ran off with tiny Azaria locked bet Wt hl# jaws. According to Australian prosecat^ however, there was no dingo at a11.:11iftdYl they argued, murdered her baby in the ftOttt seat of the family car and her husband 9" ' helped her bury the child's remains'10t week a jury in Darwin sorted throitBh'fIO contradictory testimony-and found UAdY guilty of killing her baby daughter The verdict brought to a closeahc ~ NEWSWEEK/NOVEMBER400 en-week period. Although Azaria's y has never been found, the prosecution t its case on strong circumstantial evi= ' ce: bloodstains in the Chamberlains' car d holes in the baby's discarded jump suit t.experts said could not have been made dog's ;teeth. sational, most expensive and longest- Many who followed the trial found mg Australian murder trial in years. Lindy's own testimony convincing. Under sa cost of more than $3 million, the "Din-, harsh examination by the prosecution, she Baby Case" brought 73 witnesses, 144' sobbed, "You ale:alking about our baby-I d th 3000fbj" Wh bits an morean, pages o tran- . . oect.en Lindy's voice cracked at an'pts to the Darwin courtroom during a` other point in her testimony, two jurorsbroke down in tears, prompting the judge tocall an adjournment. But when Lindy, 34,was sentenced to life in prison (where shewill give birth to her fourth child within thenext two weeks), she displayed a cool reserve serve typical of her demeanor through mostof the trial. Michael, 38, a pastor with the Seventh-day Adventist Church, was fo4rvguilty of being an accessory after the fact. But the court gave him a suspended 18month sentence and allowed him to go free on a $500 bond. "He has suffered and suffered intensely," said the judge. The trial is likely to be on people's minds for quite some time. Six books about: the case are already under way, anda movie an' a television documentary are. now in the planning stages. But none of those commercial ventures are likely to explain howL--or why-Azaria Chamberlain died. AUSTRALIA GUILTY! screamed the newspaper headlines, as the country's most sensational murder trial in memory reached a stunning verdict. After hearing 73 witnesses in seven blisteringly hot weeks, a jury in Darwin deliberated little more than six hours before concluding that Lindy Chamberlain, 34, had murdered her nine-week-old daughter Azaria by cutting the baby's throat with a pair of scissors. Chamberlain's husband Michael, 38, a Seventh-day Adventist pastor, was found guilty as an accessory after the fact. No motive was ever advanced for the killing, and no body was found. But the baby's bloodstained jumpsuit was recovered. A forensic expert testified that holes in it were caused by scissors, not by the teeth of a dingo dog, which Lindy Chamberlain had claimed took her baby. Michael Chamberlain was given an 18-month suspended sentence while Lindy, almost nine months pregnant with her fourth child, was sentenced to life imprisonment with hard labor. Friends say she is hoping for a girl. TIME, NOVEMBER 8, 1982 Cinema THE COCA-COLA KID Screenwriter Frank Moorhouse's plot sets two forms of American enterprise, corporate clout and individual initiative, against each other in Australia. A messianic troubleshooter (Eric Roberts), who believes that "the world will not be truly free until Coke is available everywhere," comes from the U.S. to Sydney to find his franchise challenged by a renegade beverage king (Bill Kerr) and his pathologically cuddlesome daughter (Greta Scacchi). Makavejev alleviates his satire with weird supporting characters-an Outback aunt named Haversham, a kangaroo with its paw in a splint, a cockatoo that makes kakadoodie-and plenty of redeeming prurient interest involving the two attractive, antagonistic young leads. -R.C. TIME, AUGUST 12, 1985 47 AUSTRALIA A Growing Fissure in the Rock A national symbol focuses dissent over aboriginal land rights A yers Rock is one of the world's largest monoliths, measuring over 1,000 feet tall and some five miles around at its base. It stands high over Uluru National Park, part of the seemingly endless desert that forms the heart of the Australian Outback. For Australia's indigenous people, the aborigines, this massive slab has been a sacred site for thousands of years. Thus the sunset ceremony there last Saturday was a momentous occasion in the aborigines' 40year struggle to recover their lands taken by European settlers nearly two centuries ago. Sir Ninian Stephen, Australia's Governor-General, handed the deed to the 511sq.-mi. national park to Aboriginal Elder Reggie Uluru. Immediately, Uluru handed Despite opposition, the aborigines have gained rights to almost 19% of South Australia and to small areas in New South Wales and Victoria. The right-wing government of Queensland, however, has refused to grant the aborigines title to any land. In Western Australia, where mining firms have opposed aboriginal land rights, similar legislation has also been defeated. The aborigines, however, have not given full support either to the Western Australian legislation or to the proposed federal changes. Both plans, they claim, deny aborigines the right to veto mining on native lands. Declares Aboriginal Leader Rob Riley: "Control over mining is an essential element of land-rights legislation." Master of all he surveys: an aborigine looks out at Ayers Rock in Uluru National Park over to Sir Ninian a document leasing the area back to the government. After the formalities, some 3,000 guests celebrated with a barbecue and corroboree. Overhead, a small plane towed a banner reading, AYERS ROCK FOR ALL AUSTRALIANS. Indeed, many Australians saw no reason for the hoopla. They oppose the landrights policy of Prime Minister Bob Hawke's government, which is attempting to push through legislation that would give aborigines title to 81,000 sq. mi. of the reserves and missions they currently occupy but do not own. Certain other areas would also be ceded, including national parks, the only proviso being that these would have to be leased back to the government. But the proposed legislation is being opposed by some state governments, which have considerable jurisdiction over aboriginal affairs. Only in the Northern Territory, which does not have full statehood, can the federal government easily carry out its plans. As a result, 166,000 sq. mi., or 32% of the territory's area, have been given back to the aborigines. Last weekend Ayers Rock and the surrounding national park became the latest gain by the country's 170,000 aborigines in their quest for land rights. Not so, says James Strong of the Australian Mining Industry Council. He notes that since 1976, when aborigines in the Northern Territory were granted a veto over mining along with land rights, not one new exploration or mining agreement has been signed with the native owners. That is a significant fact for an industry that earns $7.7 billion a year, or 44% of Australia's export income. Says the Territory's Chief Minister, Ian Tuxworth: "The nation's resources are being locked up forever, and Australia just can't afford it." The planned federal legislation now seems shelved indefinitely. Laments Minister for Aboriginal Affairs Clyde Holding: "The miners are opposed ... the aboriginal people are opposed." Consequently, the government was relieved at the opportunity to hand over Uluru National Park to the traditional owners in order to show its commitment to the stalled land-rights program. For aborigines, the Rock's sacred significance is comparable to that of the Vatican City for Catholics, as one Australian observer put it this week. But this has little effect on the average white Australian who will continue to view land rights with suspicion. The division looms as large as the Rock itself. TIME, NOVEMBER 4, 1985 31 Contents HIGHLIGHTS Face-to-face with actor Sam Neill 4 2 WOMAN'S WEEKLY 15TH FEBRUARY 19$6 PAGE I (FRONT COVER) In the final chapter of theterrifying Omentrilogy,Sam Neill came into his own as the evil Damien,producing a riveting screen performance. WANTED: good-looking young men who have personality and can act. This is the sort of advertisement which film producers everywhere in the Englishspeaking world are now being sorely tempted to write. Quite simply, there is a serious shortage of new leading men to take over from Warren Beatty, Robert Redford, Clint Eastwood, Donald Sutherland, James Coburn and Burt Reynolds. One man hotly tipped to fill one of those roles is 38-year-old, British-born, New Zealand-raised, Australian star Sam Neill. When he flew to the United States not so long ago for the first showing on American television of his series, Reilly, Ace of Spies, the movie capital-starved of new faces and new talent-went overboard. Veteran actor and luminary of Tinsel Town, the late James Mason, first spotted Sam's potential after seeing him play an upper-class landowner who falls in love with a girl from the outback in the Australian film My Brilliant Career. James Mason was so sure there was a major new international star in the making that he wrote unsolicited letters of recommendation to a number of film producers, and presented the young hopeful with an air ticket to audition for film roles in America. The outcome was Omen III-The Final Conflict, in which Sam played Damien, the son of Satan. "As soon as I saw Sam on film," said Omen producer Harvey Bernhard, "I knew I had found the actor I was looking for." When producer Chris Burt chose Sam for the role of First World War super-spy Sidney Reilly in the ITV 15 million blockbuster series, it was because "he has a different emotional energy from other actors around him-a stillness that draws people to him." Similarly, when director Gillian Armstrong cast him opposite Judy Davis in My Brilliant Career-the film which launched his own brilliant career-it was simply because there was what she called "a no-contest situation". It doesn't matter that Sam Neill was born in Northern Ireland; raised in New Zealand by his English mother and New Zealander 'father, and found a firm movie footing in Australia. The message is the same: this lean 4 yraMftq,s WEEKLY ISTH FEBRUARY 1196 ...BUIt\ IJ\DERA \%MDERI\G STAR six-footer, with floppy brown hair and eyes like splinters of aquamarine is set on course to fulfil every Hollywood producer's dream. He is tomorrow's new sex symbol. At our own meeting Sam admitted, "I now have three filmson offer from the United States, one from Australia and one from Europe, so I feel spoilt for choice at the moment. It's a very pleasant position to be in." It is not all that many years ago, in fact, since he considered himself lucky to earn #4,000 for a role. Now, with the excitement of such films as Plenty with Meryl Streep (playing in cinemas across the country at the moment), and the American mini-series Kane and Abel (in which he plays wealthy Boston banker Kane opposite Peter Strauss's Polish immigrant Abel, and which has yet to be seen here) he is collecting #4,000 just for expenses! Sam's film and TV commitments are still firmly rooted in Australia. "I am very fond of the country and its film industry," he says. Nevertheless, he is now very much an international commodity. However, he definitely does not want to lose touch with this part of the world. It is in London that he has shared a five-year relationship with fellow New Zealander Lisa Harrow, who played Nancy Astor in the BBC TV series and who is the mother of their son Tim, who's three in April. Their romance still thrives, despite a brief rupture two years ago. He is, he concedes, a gypsy at heart. He holds both British and New Zealand passports, and has homes in Sydney, London and k was the wonderful Australian filmMy Brilliant Careerthat got Sam's own careerwell and truly off the ground. New York. He also recently bought a plot of land in New Zealand and building is now under way on a house he constantly refers to as "my bolt-hole to sanity". And it is during his filming commitments in England for the mini-series Strong Medicine, with Pamela Sue Martin, Patrick Duffy, Ben Cross and Dick Van Dyke, that Sam talks frankly about a life and career that has its own momentum. "I don't really interfere too much with fate, to be honest," he explains. "I do feel secure, but the yearning for security has never been a problem with me. "My career is not the 'be-all and end-all' of my existence: if it stopped today my heart wouldn't break. I've never been what you might call an ambitious man. My philosophy is simple: if people want me, they want me; and if they don't-too bad." If the distances he travels to work these days are anything to go by, then there is no doubt that people want him. He says: "The obvious change in my life is that each year I do more and more flying. In the past twelve Continued overleaf After five years together and the birth of theirson Tim, lovely actress Lisa Harrow and SamNeill are still very much a team. OUT OF TOWN Continued from page 6 affair with the greatest affection--and we're still very good friends. "Louise is married now, with two children, and I'm a godfather to one of them. We've kept in touch. I always pay them a call when I go back to New Zealand," says Sam Neill, who went on to appear in the Australian TV series The Sullivans, climbed into 12th-century armour to play a black-hearted knight in the TV movie version of Ivanhoe, and starred opposite Jodie Foster in The Blood of Others. "I've always had long-lasting relationships with women," says one of the screen's most magnetic stars. "I've never been the sort of person who `plays the field'. I'm simply not like that, and I think most men aren't. "In many respects I'm something of a romantic, a bit of a dreamer, which means I find it very difficult to be objective about the women I am involved with. I tend to idealise them." After an on-off relationship with Lisa Harrow for more than five years, they are still remarkably together. "Marriage?" he ponders aloud. "It's been so long since we've actually talked about it. If we ever do get married it will be on the spur of the moment. And it wouldn't actually make any difference to our lives. You see, I don't think marriage solves problems for people, or makes things worse." He smiles softly and explains that his parents are "tactful enough" not to mention the subject of marriage these days. "The secret of being a good parent is that one day you wake up and realise that your children are adults and are entitled to make their own decisions." As a parent himself he is, to use his own words, "a doting dad" as far as his young son, Tim, is concerned. "When Tim grows up, all I want him to be is happy and to do whatever he wants to do. I would never impose any personal ambitions on him," says Sam, whose own ambitions, meanwhile, are modest to the point of being non-existent-though he does drive an expensive BMW in England and is shipping his beloved Morgan out to Australia ("It's actually better suited to the Australian climate"). Despite a growing credit list of movies that include Enigma and a remake of the 1957 Peter Finch film Robbery Under Arms-and despite some very handsome fees-Sam laments that this has not necessarily made him super-rich. "My star sign is Virgo," he tells you, "which means I'm supposed to be obsessively mean with money. But I just can't hang on to cash: it just falls out of my pocket." For all that, he did save sufficient cash to buy his plot of land in New Zealand and get some drawings done to build a house. "It will be a very simple, austere cottage," he says. "In some ways it will reflect my own personality. I really dislike things that are `flash' and `showy'. I think of myself as being modest, so the house will be modest in every respect. "It's being made from stone and it will have a corrugated-iron roof; all the best New Zealand roofs are made from corrugated iron. It's a very humble material. "The house will be a cross between a New Zealand farm-shed and an Irish farmhouse, that kind of stripped-back simplicity. It will be a place I'll be able to escape to for peace and quiet and meditation, and where I'll be able to breathe some air. "I like to be alone sometimes," adds Sam, "but I equally like a good party once in a while with my family and friends. But then I like a whole bunch of things, like the Cotswolds, Scotland, white Burgundy, jam (in particnlar dark marmalade), Randy Newman, claret, Sibelius, the Irish writer Molly Keane, riding, mountains, the Blues, New York, a good movie with some Rowntree's fruit gums . . " He sits back in the chair, hands in pockets, and adds: "I'm not a perfect human being. I wish I was. I'm very indecisive (I prefer other people to make up my mind for me), and I'm very untidy about the house; when I've been in the bathroom you can see I've been there. "Do you know," he says reflectively, on quite a different subject, "I really don't care about getting older, I really don't care about riches or fame. All I ask from life is to be moderately happy, moderately successful. "I don't want to be the biggest phenomenon in the world. I don't need that. You just lose control of your life when that happens to you. "My philosophy is that with each new day life is just beginning. I feel as though the starting-gun has just gone off. Life is short and it behoves all of us to enjoy it as much as possible." The new young lion of films and TV gets up to go and, at the door, looks back at me and smiles. "I enjoy being alive," he says* 54 W6MAN'S WEEKLY IStN FESRUAQI( Iqg(, a Huisgenoot, 22 September 1988 ARTIKELS 14 Dingo-drama: ma oplaas heeltemal vrygespreek Julia Hayes 5 Deur JULIA HAYES V ROEER vanjaar het Meryl Streep 'n swart pruik oor haar blonde hare getrek om 'n rol te speel wat haar soos 'n tweede vel pas: die van 'n vrou wat deur die Voorsienigheid geteister word, maar nooit een oomblik ophou veg nie. Die keer sou die drama hom in die Australiese woestyn afspeel. Meryl sou Lindy Chamberlain wees - veroordeelde moordenares van haar eie kind. Maar wanneer die prent, Evil Angels, oor 'n paar maande begin draai, sal die grootste moment in Lindy se lewe nie daarin weerspieel word nie. Dit was die dag toe die hof haar van alle blaam vir die dood van haar baba onthef bet. Lindy se groot triomf na lang jare van stryd bet net verlede week gekom. 'n Australiese hooggeregshof bet haar veroordeling weens moord op haar baba omgekeer en haar vrygespreek. Terselfdertyd is haar man, Jim, onskuldig bevind aan medepligtigheid. Agt jaar gelede bet Lindy se baba gesterf. Haar dogtertjie bet eenvoudig in die Australiese nagdonkerte verdwyn asof sy nooit gebore was nie. En mettertyd bet sy daarin berus: Azaria was vir ewig weg. Maar een ding kon die donkerkop-vrou nooit aanvaar nie, en dit was die brandmerk wat sy sedert daardie nag op haar voorkop moes dra. Moordenaar, bet daar geskryf gestaan. Moordenaar van jou eie kind. Die dingo-moord bet destyds die verbeelding van die wereld aangegryp. Klein Azaria se dood bet al die elemente van 'n naelbyt-riller bevat: die gesin wat by die geheimsinnige Ayers Rock in die woestyn kampeer, die wildehond wat oenskynlik die baba wegvoer - en die oe vol agterdog wat dan op die ma kom rus. Het sy dalk haar kind vermoor? Sy bet, ja, bet 'n Australiese hof bevind, en Lindy lewenslank tronk toe gestuur. Maar daardie dag bet sy 'n eed geneem dat sy haar naam in ere sou laat herstel. Sy was onskuldig. Eendag sou hulle dit nog moes erken. Intussen bet baie gebeur om die openbare mening ten gunste van Lindy te laat swaai. Nuwe getuienis bet aan die lig gekom. Lindy is eers uit die gevangenis vrygelaat, later haar vonnis kwytgeskeld. Sy en haar gesin bet gevlug, na 'n afgesonderde sentrum van die Sewendedag-Adventistekerk, waarvan haar man 'n prediker was totdat 'n hof hulle weens die dood van hul dogtertjie veroordeel bet . Daar het Lindy die bande met haar gesin probeer herstel; met Jim, die seuns en die dog IMAGES 14 Hvisgenoot, 22 September 1988 HOOFFOTO: Meryl Streep as die veroordeelde moordenares Lindy Chamberlain in Evil Angels. LINKS: Sam Neill, as Michael Chamberlain, sit sy arm beskermend om sy vrou se skouer tydens die rolprent se verhoortoneel. ONDER: Die Chamberlains in die ware lewe. tertjie wat in die tronk gebore is en kort daarna van haar weggeneem is. En sy bet vroue wat sy in die tronk leer ken bet, probeer help om aan te pas in die gemeenskap daar buite. Een bet sy selfs maande lank in haar huis ingeneem. Nou, met hul naam weer skoon, kan die Chamberlains 'n nuwe lewe begin. Jim sal heel moontlik weer prediker word. Hy en Lindy sal hul paspoorte terugkry en hul droom kan bewaarheid om na hul kerk se hoofkantoor in Amerika te reis. Hulle hoop om dan ook vir Meryl Streep te ontmoet. En nou begin nog 'n stryd: die om skadevergoeding vir Dit bly een van die vreemdste sake in die regsgeskiedenis van die wereld ... die van Lindy Chamberlain wie se baba na bewering deur 'n Australiese wildehond verslind is. En haar verbete geveg om nie die brandmerk van 'n moordenaar te dra nie. Verlede week is Lindy oplaas van alle blaam onthef ... HEEL LINKS: In nog 'n toneel uit die rolprent hou Lindy (Streep) haar baba beskermend vas terwyl 'n dingo na hulle kyk. LINKS: 'n Gelukkige Lindy (Streep) speel met haar baba op Ayers Rock kort voor die kleintjie se dood, en LINKS ONDER is dieselfde toneel in die ware lewe - 'n foto uit die familie-album. Huisgenoot, 22 September 1988 Lu.u, aw..rae.rw.se wgnr%Wj ent met 11IerYIS'h'eeP Dingo-drama: triomF van n veronregte ma 15 Dingo: U 40 ndy seslepende stryd meer as R2 miljoen aan regskoste en die ontbering van die drie en 'n halwe jare wat Lindy agter die tralies moes deurbring. Die Chamberlains oorweeg dit nou om 'n eis vir meer as R40 miljoen in te stel vir moontlik die grootste mistasting in die geskiedenis van die Australiese regspleging. In die maande waarin Evil Angels geskiet is, het Lindy goed bevriend geraak met Meryl, en die vervaardiger van die prent, Verity Lambert. Die twee vroue was van die begin af net so oortuig van Lindy se onskuld as sy self, en hul steun bet by baie Australiers die laaste bietjie twyfel oor Lindy se onskuld laat verdwyn. Saam bet die drie vroue by Ayers Rock in die woestyn alles herskep net soos dit daardie nag gebeur bet. En voor Lindy se oe bet die hele tragedie van daardie nag hom nogmaals afgespeel, net soos duisend keer sedertdien voor haar geestesoog ... DAAR is die rots, 'rl misterieuse kolos teen die naglug in die woestyn. Daar, onder, is die tentjie waarin hulle kampeer, Jim, haar man, leke-predikant van die SewendedagAdventistekerk, die kinders en sy. Non beweeg 'n skadu voor die tent verby. Die volgende oomblik storm sy gillend die naglug in. Haar baba, klein Azaria! 'n Dingo bet haar kindjie gegryp, ag, Vader, nee ... Mense kom, skarrel soos miere met flitse in die donker daar onder op die rooi woestynsand rond. Hulle kry niks. Sy huil nie meer nie. Sy is stil, byna gelate. Nege weke lank was klein Azaria vir haar gegee, nou is sy weg. Dis die Heer se wil, se sy, dat haar kindjie moes sterf. Die Heer se wil? Watter vreemde woorde van 'n ma wie se kind deur 'n wildehond verskeur is, fluister die mense non. Dis te se, as dit ooit 'n bond was. 'n Week lank seek hulle vergeefs, kry dan die bloedbevlekte doek, onderhemp en broekpakkie voor die bek van 'n wildehond se skuilplek aan die voet van Ayers Rock. Hulle kry ook die bloed in Jim se motor. Sy verduidelik, Jim verduidelik dat 'n ryloper wat hulle opgelaai bet sy vinger gesny bet. Maar die polisie glo haar nie, sy kan dit sien. Dit kan Azaria se bloed wees daar op die vloer. Azaria het 'n baadjie gedra die nag toe die bond haar kom gryp het, se sy nou. Soek dit, julle sal sien dis 'n bond wat dit verskeur het! Hulle soek, maar nie baie ernstig nie. Hulle kry niks. Hulle glo haar steeds nie. Dan kom hulle om haar weg te neem. Sy bet haar kindjie keelaf gesny, se hulle. Sy sal moet rekenskap gee. Die hofsaak breek aan. Die hele wereld leer Lindy Chamberlain ken. Onskuldig, se sy. Sy kon maar stilgebly bet. Hulle glo haar nogmaals nie. Langer as drie jaar sit sy agter die tralies voordat die Britse toeris van die rots aftuimel. David Brett was sy naam, hulle weet nou nog nie of dit selfmoord was of bloot 'n ongeluk nie. Maar toe die polisie aan die voet van die rots sy lyk Pan soek, kry hulle die baadjie daar le. Bloedbevlek, aan flarde. Azaria s'n. Twee dae later sluit hulle haar seldeur oop. "Jy is vry," se hulle, "jy kan maar gaan." Maar nog nie onskuldig nie. Agttien maande daarna sit die koninklike kommissie. Hulle skeld haar die res van die vonnis kwyt. Maar die skandvlek hang steeds oor haar naam. En die een vraag wat niemand heel van die begin af won antwoord nie, bet steeds onbeantwoord gebly: Waarom son 'n ma, normaal en geestesgesond, 'n baba in die wereld bring, haar twee :naande lank met die grootste toewyding en liefde versorg en haar dan keel-af sny? Verlede week bet die hooggeregshof toe uiteindelik geantwoord: Nee, sekerlik son sy nie. ) Huisgenoot, 22 September 1988 17 ARTIKELS 178 Dingo-vrou - vry maar steeds gekruisig Edward Parker HtA I'5 Genoot Z 3 MC, 19 19 y IGqQ Nuwe rolprent oor Lindy Chamberlain se stryd... wat vandag nog voortduur Dingo-vrou D In9ONVrOU vry maar IMJL sweds gekru i Meryl Streep vertolk haar rol - die vrou van smart in die bekende dingo-verhaal. Maar tot vandag toe het die veragting van Lindy Chamberlain nie opgehou nie, wil mense eerder glo sy is skuldig as onskuldig ... O Deur EDWARD PARKER P ons rolprentskerms is dit deesdae Meryl Streep wat - met 'n gitswart pruik op haar kop - die smart van Lindy Chamberlain in die rolprent A Cry in the Dark uitbeeld. Die verhaal is bekend: Nege jaar gelede het 'n Australiese wildehond, 'n dingo, Lindy se dogtertjie, Azaria, toe skaars ses weke oud, gegryp en in die donker met haar weggehardloop. Lindy is weens moord skuldig bevind en het drie jaar in die tronk gesit. Eers nadat Azaria se pajamabaadjie in die veld gevind is, is sy oplaas onskuldig bevind. Maar tot vandag toe het die smart en hoon nie opgehou nie en Lindy dra 'n seer in haar rond wat nooit sal genees nie. Die rolprent was skaars voltooi, toe word 'n TV-onderhoud in Australie met haar gevoer. Binne minute was die TV-netwerk se sentrale geblokkeer soos honderde oproepe tegelyk instroom: "Haal daardie moordenaar van die kassie af!" was die kreet van feitlik almal wat gebel bet. Dit is nou twee jaar sedert 178 Lindy Chamberlain nit die tronk vrygelaat is. Sedertdien het sy geweldig verander. Weg is die gespanne, maer vrou met die reguit hare wat op 'n kort,:, af, byna harde manier met j oernaliste gepraat bet. Sy is nou ontspanne,p hare is korter en krullerig, haar gesig 'n bietjie voller. Op 'n manier lyk sy sagter. "Ons bet nie meer ons oorlogsdrag aan nie," verduidelik sy. "Ons is nou vryer om te praat. Nie dat ons nie meer versigtig is vir die pers nie, dit sal ons altyd wees, oor wat gebeur het." Dis egter duidelik dat haar ]ewe en die van haar gesin onherroeplik verander bet. "Die letsels is vir ewig daar," se Lindy. "Ons eet, drink en slaap dit steeds. "Wanneer ek op straat by 'n polisieman verbystap, krimp ek nog ineen. Hulle bet my probeer breek (in die tronk), maar hulle kon nie." Sy sal nooit vergeet hoe hulle klein Kahlia, die baba wat sy in die tronk gehad bet, van haar weggeneem bet nie. "Kahlia is nou vyf, maar ek bet nooit haar eerste jare saam met haar beleef nie." Maar vir Lindy is die stryd nog nie verby nie. "Ek wee]: mense wil eerder glo ek is;, skuldig as onskuldig. En ekweet hulle is siek daarvan om van ons te hoor. Maar ek sa:l aanhou veg totdat my naam heeltemal skoon is." (Tegnies is daar steeds 'n moordklag teen haar.) L INDY erken sy is vandag 'n sterker mens as tevore. Meer selfstandig, kragdadig en veral onafhanklik. Daarby bet al die druk haar huwelik net sterker gemaak, nooit laat knak nie. Daar is gese dat dit net die hofsaak is wat haar en Michael bymekaargehou het. Maar albei ontken dit heftig. "Ons verhouding is veel dieper as dit," se Lindy. "Die dinge wat twee mense in die begin na mekaar trek, hou hulle byeen. Maar ons moes van voor af leer om getroud te wees toe ek uit die tronk kom." Die Chamberlains bet nou twee jaar gehad om te dink waarom feitlik 'n hele land teen hulle gedraai bet, waarom hulle sulke uiterste gevoelens by die publiek wakker gemaak bet. "Ek dink die Australiers is baie liggeraak oor hul geloof," se Michael, wat 'n pastoor van die Sewendedag-Adventiste was toe Azaria verdwyn bet. "Hulle wil nie glo dat die Christendom bestaan nie. As hulle dit moet erken, sou dit beteken hulle moet hul lewe verander en dan word dit 'n bedreiging vir hulle. "Hulle bet ons veroordeel om hul eie gewetes te sus. Hulle was teen ons gekant omdat ons twee mense was wat 'n Christelike lewe probeer lei het." Lindy bet intussen 'n eis van miljoene ingestel vir die skuldigbevinding en die jare dat sy onskuldig in die tronk was. Maar nou, se Lindy, dink die mense weer sy en Michael is klaar welgesteld omdat hul name so baie in die koerante verskyn het. "Ek hoor die mense se ons bet geen vergoeding nodig nie omdat ons ryk is. "Hulle dink nie aan ons persoonlike skuld en wat ons ons regsmense skuld nie. Michael het sy werk verloor. Hy kan nooit weer 'n pastoor wees nie. Die publiek bet gehelp met die regskuld, maar dis nie alles betaal nie. Intussen moet ons nog leef ook." Tog, deur die lang jare van hul nagmerrie bet hulle nooit hul geloof in God verloor nie. Daarby is hulle van plan om in Australie te bly, ondanks al die nydigheid teen hulle. Want hulle wonder of mense in ander lande hulle hoegenaamd beter sou behandel ... ) 179 Lindy en Mi chael Chamberlain en hul kinders, Aiden (14), Kahlia (5) en Reagan (12). Kah lia is gebore terwyl Lindy in die tronk was - en is daar van haar weggeneem. Meryl s waai appels 14, in die Wit Huis Meryl, wat op die oomblik hier by ons te sien is in die rolprent A Cry in the Dark, het 'n paar jaar gelede haar eerste voorsmakie van die stryd teen besmetting gehad, toe sy in die rolprent Silkwood lekkasies by 'n kernaanleg wou blootle. FEATURES 108 Dingo woman: freed, but crucified you ~u~ e ~ New film about Cindy Chamberlain's struggle which is still going on Dingo rree but still crucified cif d sti cru ie M eryl Streep stars as the grieving mother in the film of the famous dingo saga. But even today Lindy Chamberlain is still held in contempt because people would rather find her guilty than innocent ... By EDWARD PARKER I T is Meryl Streep - with a shock of black hair - who portrays the grief of Lindy Chamberlain in the film Cry in the Dark about the controversial mystery. Nine years ago an Australian wild dog, a dingo, grabbed Lindy's baby daughter Azaria who was barely six weeks old, and made off with her into the dark night. Lindy was found guilty of murder and sat in prison for three years. Only after Azaria's little pyjama top was found in the bush was Lindy finally cleared. But to this day the grief and the taunting have not stopped and Lindy carries inside her a pain that will never heal. The film was barely completed when Australian TV interviewed Lindy herself. Within minutes the network's telephone exchange waS blocked with hundreds of people all trying to have their say. "Take that murderess off the screen!" cried practically every caller. It is now two years since Lindy Chamberlain was released from prison. Since then she has changed dramatically. 108 Gone is the tense, thin woman with the dead-straight hair who spoke in a curt, almost hard manner to journalists. She's now relaxed, her hair is shorter and curly, her face has filled out. In a way s looks softer than before.' 0" , "We are no longer wearing our combat uniform," she explains. "We can speak more freely. Not that we aren't still wary of the press, we will always be cautious about what happened." It is more than obvious that her life, and that of her family, has changed dramatically. "The scars will always be there," says Lindy. "We still eat, drink and sleep the tragedy. "When I walk past a policeman in the street I flinch uncontrollably. They tried to break me (in prison) but they couldn't." She'll never forget how little Kahlia, the baby she had in prison, was taken away from her. "Kahlia is now five but I did not experience her first year with her." The fight is not yet over for Lindy. "I know people would rather believe I was guilty than not guilty. I know they are sick of hearing about us. But I will keep fighting until my name is completely cleared." (Technically there is still a murder charge against her.) Lindy says she is now a stronger person than before. More self-sufficient, energetic - and, especially, independent. And on top of that the pressure strengthened her marriage: not once did it show signs of cracking. In fact some said it was only the court case that w4s holding her and Michael together. Both hotly deny this. "Our relationship is much deeper than that," said Lindy. "The things that initially attract two people keep them together. But we had to learn about married life all over again after I came out of prison." The Chamberlains have had two years to think why a whole country turned against them, why they awoke such extreme emotions in the public. "I think the Australians are over-sensitive when it comes to religion," said Michael, who was a pastor for the Seventh Day Adventists when little Azaria disappeared. "They don't want to believe that Christianity exists. If they were to admit it, that would mean a whole change of lifestyle and then it becomes a threat to them. "They condemned us to salve their own consciences. They were against us because we were two people who were trying to lead a Christian life." Lindy is suing the state for millions over the guilty verdict and for the years she spent in prison. "But now," she says, "the public believes Michael and I are already financially well off because our names are always in the newspapers. I hear people say we don't need any compensation because we are already rich. "They don't think about our personal debts and what we owe our lawyers. Michael lost his job. He can never again be a pastor. The public did help with some of the legal fees but not all of them have been paid off. And in the meantime we have to keep on living." Even so, throughout their long years of suffering not once did they lose faith in God. And they are planning to stay in Australia, in spite of all the anger against them, because they wonder if people in other countries would treat them any better. P5 109 Lindy and Michael Chamberlain withtheir childrenAiden (14),Kahlia (5) andReagan (12).Kahlia wasborn whileLindy was inprison - andtaken awayfrom her. Meryl frets over fruits Meryl, at present on our movie screens in A Cry in the Dark, had her first taste of battle in the war against contamination a few years ago when she starred in Silkwood, a movie about exposing evidence of radiation leaks. A Cry in the Dark Australia, 1988 Director: Fred Schepisi Cert-15. dist-Pathe. p.c-Evil Angels Films. For Cannon Films, Inc./Cannon International. In association with Cinema Verity Limited. With financial assistance from The Australian Film Commission. exec. p-Menahem Golan, Yoram Globus. p-Verity Lambert. line p-Roy Stevens. Cannon p. exec-Rony Yakov. p. co-ordinator-Sue Jarvis. p. managerCarol Hughes. unit managers-Michael Batchelor, Tick Carroll. location managers-Tony Leach, Robin Clifton. post p. sup-Peter Beilby, Entertainment Media. casting-Rhonda Schepisi, Forcast Ltd., (extras) Sue Parker. asst. d-Steve Andrews, Phil Patterson, Tobe Pease, Janine Schepisi, John Meredith, Melanie Turner, Tony Fashse. sc-Robert Caswell, Fred Schepisi. Based on the book Evil Angels by John Bryson. ph-Ian Baker. In colour. camera op-Ian Jones. steadicam op-Ian Jones, Geoff Hall. video-(d.) Tony Leach, (ph.) Steve Thompson, Brian Sollars, (technician) Steven Marriner, (ed.) Rosemary Cox. (op.) Jim Dunwoodie. ed-Jill Bilcock. p. designers-Wendy Dickson, George Liddle. a.d-Dale Duguid, Brian Edmonds. a. dept. co-ordinator-Wendy Huxford. set dressers-Viv Wilson, Jill Eden. draughtsman -Philip Schemnitz. scenic artist - Ian Richter. m -Bruce Smeaton. original m. performed by-Joe Chindamo & Loose Change. cost. design-Bruce Finlayson. cost. supJulie Barton. costumers- Sandra Cichello, Joan Davis. make-up-(Meryl Streep) J. Roy Helland, (artist) Noriko Spencer. title design-Alex Stitt. sup. ed. ed-Craig Carter, Terry Rodman. sd. ed-Livia Ruzic, Glenn Newnham, Tim Chau, Gary Woodyard. sd. rec-Gary Wilkins, (dial.) Peter Fenton, (m.) Martin Oswin, Robin Gray, Allan Eaton Sound. foley rec-John Herron, David Knight. Dolby stereo. Dolby engineer-Stephen Murphy. sd. transfers-Eugene Wilson Sound Servicesy foley artist sd. effects-Phil Heywood. p. assistantsMelanie Turner, Tony Faehse. doubles-(Meryl Sttleep) Beth Cameron, Maria Kinnes, (Sam Neill) Norm Martin, Stephen Liddell, (for Aidan) Michael Kiefer, (for Reagan) Mark Chmiel. stand-ins- (Meryl Streep) Julianna Krygger, (Sam Neill) lain Murton. dog wrangler-Evanne Chesson. l.p-The Family: Meryl Streep (Lindy Chamberlain), Sam Neill (Michael Chamberlain), Dale Reeves (Aidan, age 6), David Hoflin (Aidan, age 8), Jason Reason (Aidan, age 11), Michael Wetter (Reagan, age 4), Kane Barton (Reagan, age 6), Trent Roberts (Reagan, age 9), Lauren Shepherd, Bethany Ann Prickett, Alison O'Connell and Aliza Dason (Azaria), Jane Coker (Kahlia, New-born), Rae-Leigh Henson (Kahlia, age 18 Months), Nicolette Minster (Kahlia, age 4), Brian Jones (Cliff Murchison), Dorothy Alison (Avis Murchison); Alice Springs Court: Maurice Fields (Barritt), Peter Hosking (Macknay), Matthew Barker (O'Loughlin), Bruce Kilpatrick (Peter Dean); Darwin Court: Charles Tingwell (7ustice Muirhead), Bruce Myles (Barker), Neil Fitzpatrick (Phillips), Dennis Miller (Sturgess), Lewis Fitz-Gerald (Tipple), Brendan Higgins (Kirkham), Ian Swan (Cavanagh), Robert Wallace (Pauling), Sandy Gore (7oy Kuhn, Kevin Miles (Professor Cameron), Edgar Metcalfe (Dr. Brown), Gary Files (Professor Chaikin), Peter Aanensen (Sims), Jon Finlayson (Professor Boettcher), David Ravenswood (Professor Nairn), Roderick Williams (Les Harris); Eva Godly, Reg Evans, Douglas Hedge, James Wright, Luciano Catenacci, Bill Johnston, Robin Dene, Geoffrey O'Connell, Michael Croft, George Viskich, Merrin Canning and Valma Pratt (The fury); The Media: Jim Holt (7ohn Eldridge), John Howard (Lyle Morris), Frank Holden (Leslie Thompson), Tim Robertson (Wallace), Patsy Stephen (Anne Houghton), Ian Gilmour (7ohn Buckland), Peter Sardi (De Luca), Bill Garner (Mark Furnell), Marion McKenzie (Monya Chatfield), Johnny Quinn (Frank Kennedy), Deborra-Lee Furness (Magazine Reporter), Chuck Faulkner (Conrad Grey), Pat Thomson (Sandra Kamouris), Terrie Waddell (Mary Walsh), James Higgins (Chandla), Quentin Maclaine (Stanbury), Greta Mendoza, Vincent Vaccari, Abbe Holmes and David Wilson (Additional Yournahsts), John Heywood (David Hall), Jeh: Allan (Ted 7arksmn), Pcter By;ne (George Samson), Maureer Edwards (Kate Woodman), Justin Gaffney (Colin McRae), Lynne Ruthven (Alice Steel), Bruce Carter (Newsreader), Peter Flett (Boshoff), Lindy McConchie (Conrad Grey's Guest), Charles Dance (TV Panel Guest), James Condon (Reginald Scholes), James K. Taylor (7ustice Gallagher), Mike Perso and Philip Holder (Newsreaders); The Police and Rangers: Nick Tate (Charlwood), Mervyn Drake (Gilroy), Vincent Gil (Roff), Burt Cooper (Gilligan), Mark Little (Constable Morris), Tony Martin (Lincoln), Bruce Venables (Metcalf), Lawrence Held (Lumb), Paul Young (Sergeant Cocks), Trevor Kent (Bomb-scare Policeman), lain Murton (Operation Ochre Policeman), Daryl Pellizzer (Beer-garden Policeman); Ayers Rock: Bill McCluskey (Greg Lowe), Debra Lawrance (Sally Lowe), Sunday Rennie (Chantelle Lowe), Warwick Moss (Bill West), Brenda Addie (7udy West), Emma Crapper (Catherine West), Caroline Gillmer (Amy Whittaker), Reg Gorman (Mr. Whittaker), Steve Dodd (Nipper Winmatti), David Bradshaw (Murray Haby), Sally Cooper (Bobby Downs), Jeff Truman (Mr. McCombe), Marilynne Paspaley (Mrs. McCombe), Patricia Thompson (Flo Wilkins), Peter Corbett (Barber), Jan Friedl (Ininti Store), Beverly Gardiner and Janette Kearns (Soup Ladies), Pintapinta (Nuwe), Alice Nampitjimpa (Barbara), Yuyuya Nampitjimpa (Daisy); Mount Isa: Graham Litchfield and Bill Kupfer (Truckies), Don Reid (Pastor Kennawav), Susan Leith (7enny Richards); Avondale: Alan Hopgood (President Cox), Bruce Clarkson (Les Smith); Darwin: Bob Baines (Chief Minister), Ian McFadyen (Attorney General), Maggie Millar (Sister), Ruby Hunter (Prisoner Rhoda), Ron Falk (Pastor Olsen), Billie Hammerberg (Mrs. Herron); Gossipers: Don Bridges (Farmer), John Bishop (Salesman), Roy Thompson (Truckie), George Harlem (Factory Worker), Peter Tabor (TV Producer), David Kirkpatrick (TV Film Editor), Gary Samolin and Mark Mitchell (School Teachers), Glenn Robbins (Young Father), Robert Ratti (Fruiterer), Shane Gooch (Butcher), Peter Mazaris (Florist), Marijke Mann, Eleanora Varenti and Peter Tulloch (Dinner Party), Paul Karo (Lecturer), Julian Branagan and Andrew Maj (Students), Gillian Norwood (Tennis Lady), Max Davidson and John Ford (Bowlers), Marty Field (Commuter), Timothy Belland John Larking (Barristers), John Hannan and Beth Child (Trendies), Kim Gygell and Ray Hare (Actors), Paula Ruzek (Editor), Rick Yakubian (Executive). 10,951 ft. 121 mins. 1980. Lindy and Michael Chamberlain, their two young sons and ten-week-old baby Azaria, are camping at Ayers Rock, Australia's most famous tourist attraction, when they are startled by a baby's cry at night and Lindy sees a wild dog, a dingo, leaving their tent, apparently carrying something. She finds Azaria's basket in the tent empty, and the other campers join the frantic Chamberlains in a torch-light search of the surrounding countryside. The baby's torn and bloodstained clothing is eventually found but no body. The benumbed Chamberlains are taken to a nearby motel (though they're worried about the cost), while media interest in the extraordinary incident-there are no other reported cases of dingos carrying off children-begins to build. Michael himself agrees to take photographs for one newspaper, and the Chamberlains (particularly Lindy) are disconcertingly composed, when interviewed on TV. Rumour and increasing popular doubt that a dingo killed the baby is fuelled by the fact that the Chamberlains are Seventh Day Adventists and that the name Azaria may have connotations of `sacrifice in the wilderness'. An inquest in Alice Springs concludes that a dingo was to blame, and the judge cautions against further ill-founded gossip. The police continue to investigate, however; the Chamberlains find themselves increasingly hounded (the pressure telling particularly on Michael), and a concerted police swoop is made on the couple's home and on other witnesses to Lindy's movements at the campsite at the time of Azaria's disappearance. A British forensic expert, Dr. Cameron, testifies that the rips in the baby's clothing could not have been made by an animal's teeth, and that the bloodstains are more consistent with the baby's throat having been cut (a further piece of clothing, a matinee jacket, which Lindy claims Azaria was wearing and which may have shown traces of the dingo's saliva, has never been found). In the Northern territory capital of Darwin, Lindy (now pregnant again) is put on trial for murder, with Michael charged as an accessory. Lindy preserves her composure under prosecution examination but Michael breaks down. Cameron's iorensic evidence in another case is shown to have been mistaken; a bloody hand print on the baby's clothes is established not to be Lindy's; and stains suspected to be blood in the Chamberlains' car proves more likely to be rust. The judge directs for an acquittal, but Lindy is found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment; Michael receives an eighteen-month suspended sentence so that he can look after the children. Subsequently, during the search for a climber killed on Ayers Rock, the missing matinee jacket is found, carefully buried. After serving three-and-a-half years of her sentence, Lindy is released on compassionate grounds; welcomed home by her family and her daughter, now a toddler, she announces to her fellow congregationalists that the fight for justice has only begun. A caption states that, in September 1988, the Chamberlains were cleared of all charges. j-{ ( kill &1 1/11? t~ I-, i-'C _ In his reconstruction of Australia's sensational `dingo baby' murder case, Fred Schepisi goes for two kinds of courtroom drama which might usefully have counterpointed each other, but which from the film's first scenes are set up to contradict each other. One is a generic drama of mystery and suspense, of ambiguous motive and perhaps finally inscrutable purpose; the other is a crusading pi;.ce of cine-journai_ism which, sets out to expose a miscarriage of justice and indict the true villains in media hysteria and public ignorance and prejudice. As a reconstruction, the film is fairly rivetted on Meryl Streep's recreation of what is virtually another historical character: an impeccable 'strine accent, a helmet of dark hair, the equally armour-like dark glasses, the tough, forthright manner and refusal to be manipulated by either media or legal counsel and, what proves her downfall, her strangeseeming composure after her child's death. The film might still have gone on to argue that this is not evidence that she slit her baby's throat in a ritual religious murder, but A Cry in the Dark has already stacked this deck-negating any further need for argument -by showing mother and daughter at the outset clambering over Ayers Rock, bonded in an idyllic sunset glow. What follows is a film which scrupulously allows the actress to trace the lineaments of her recreation-particularly as strains in the Chamberlain marriage begin to appear, and Lindy is forced to prop up Sam Neill's less completely developed Michael-but allows no ambiguity as to the case itself. Perhaps because the film so early and easily sets Lindy Chamberlain up as the persecuted victim, leaving itself little to do but run through z. straightforward narrative of her legal tribu lations (while giving the audience little to watch but the protracted arguing back and forth over the forcnsic evidenre), it's obliged to compensate by setting the media up equally quickly as the main culprit, more predator (as the final image suggests) than any wild dog. The film's attacks on the rumour-mongering and lurid speculation of the media-with the responses, observations and casual cynicism of various reporters and newspeople worked, patchwork-fashion, into the account of the trials-often seem to be pandering to the same techniques and glib judgments. In the process, the legal issues, as opposed to the litany of evidence, raised by the two trials are none too clearly presented. The judge at the initial inquest warns of the deleterious effects of the sensational coverage; he symbolises a rule of law that requires that Lindy Chamberlain be judged fairly. But in its opening scenes, the film has already confused the presumption of innocence with actual innocence, opting for the kind of dramatic short-cuts and emotive reporting typical of the newshounds whom it shallowly mirrors. -FEATURE FILMS.', ~ Cry in t-!-.. eDat, .3 176:'. Tracked by predators-MerS!1 StreeD " +' ., 0 / P0 - I / 5J k 1o ~es L cs J~.,r^- LOUISE SWEET Show Business , Sex, Lies, Action! Young artists and old controversies at Cannes BY RICHARD CORLISS Meryl Streep-no surprise-took Best Actress as the fiercely bereaved Australian mother in A Cry in the Dark. Streep, who by now must have more trophies than Ramar of the Jungle, did not bother to show up on prize night. Earlier, she had appeared, only to be strafed by the flash guns of the paparazzi. As she scanned the press center, Streep looked as if she were facing a pack of rabid dingoes. That was just about the biggest offscreen drama at a festival whose signature films cozied up to the social and cinematic status quo. Fightfor Usis an expose that shocks as much for its political message as for the grotesque atrocities it I depicts. Fight for Us is more-than a cry in the dark; it is a scream from an eviscerated people. THE AMERI-CANNES WAY: Winner Streep's drop-by brought on a dingo attack of paparaus. rimE Ju.I e 5" 19fs ~ ""'.i,/('+y~ ru n; e:; She was a late starter - she was 26 before she even enrolled at Yale's School of Drama, but Meryl Streep has made up for lost time. In 12 years of movie acting she's received seven Oscar nominations and won twice. Her latest challenges include A Cry in the Dark and the forthcoming Evita. JOHAN SI0IAALlVV'OOD reports. W.~ o be called The world's greatest actress is perhaps stretching it a bit far, but there's no doubt: Meryl Streep is good. Very good In the 12 short years since she made an impressive feature film debut in Julia with Jane Fonda and Vanessa Redgrave, she's had seven Oscar nominations and won twice. And she's not finished yet. She picks up challenging roles like some people pick up the bill after a night on the town. Take her latest. The script of A Cry In the Dark was the last thing she needed when she arrived home with her new baby. Revolted, she threw the words aside after only 40 pages. 'Get this out of my sight." she said, "I can't touch this stuff." Then Meryl met Lindy Chamberlain - and changed her mind. After only an hour with her, Meryl was prepared to take on what she called the most challenging role of her life For Lindy Chamberlain is the young mother who claims that her nine-week-old baby was snatched from a tent and killed by a dingo, a wild dog, in a remote area of Australia near Ayers rock on a cold night in August 1980. She was accused of murdering baby Azaria, although her body was never found, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Then, after eight years of legal wrangling and torment, judges quashed her conviction freeing her and _ clearing husband Michael, who had been convicted of being an accessory to murder. Said Meryl: "I found Lindy a tiny little lady - teeny but tough. I've met tough guys, but she is formidable. I had a lot of fears about meeting her. I think she thought I was too tall, too blonde, that my nose was too long and that I was too American. "On my side, I was worried that I wouldn't be able to take on the responsibility and do it honourably. But I had no doubts about her innocence. There's something about her that's invincible. "I've met survivors from the Nazi concentration camps, and there's something in their eyes that says they've been to hell and back. Lindy has that." Filming had to be very carefully done because Lindy was then still a convicted murderess. "Everything we said and did could have been used in a court to further incriminate her," said Meryl. "Every bit of it had to be true, and, oh boy! that's a hard thing to do." In the film, also known in some areas as Evil Angels, the part of Lindy's husband Michael, a Seventh Day Adventist pastor, is played by Sam Neill. It turned out to be the biggest film ever undertaken in Australia with a speaking cast of 350, and nearly 4 000 extras But already A Cry in the Dark, is well behind Meryl. She moved on to the next challenge, the coveted role of Evita, the film version of the Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice smash-hit musical based on the life of Eva Peron, wife of the Argentine dictator. It's a role any actress would die for. Actually, Meryl sees a link between Lindy and Evita. "It's two sides of the same story." she said. "No matter what Lindy Chamberlain did on TV or said in the newspapers. people hated her. No matter what Evita did, or what was found out about her and the excesses of her administration, people loved her, almost canonised her." And then there's Christina Onassis. Although hardly cold in her grave, three Hollywood companies have writers busy producing a script of the shipping heiress' life - and Meryl has been pencilled in for the title role But filming can't start for a year - Evita has to be finished first. There wVta!k, also that she was considering an offer to play Princess Michael of Kent in a sizzling version of the life of Britain s most controversial royal, known as Princess Pushy. She'd certainly have to act hard at that, because Meryl herself is far from being pushy. Never has been. ,I was really ugly"",!" with braces on my teeth and thick glasses" M ary Louise Streep was born in Summit. New Jersey, in June, 1949. Her father was a pharmaceutical chemist, and her mother a commercial artist. As a child, Meryl had few friends. She's on record as saying that as a schoolgirl in New Jersey she was really ugly, with braces on my teeth, pudgy faced, badly permed hair, and thick glasses". She had a manner that her younger brother Harry - who now runs a dance school in New York - cheerfully called "pretty ghastly - she was bossy, showoffy, a 98 woman's Value July 1989 Actress Who's Streeps (~ TpRP real pain". The children were spoiled. Meryl remembers her childhood as years "when we were given all that was going". Her Mum and Dad were also "culture mad" forever taking them to the theatre and ballet. Meryl had a good voice which her mother believed could be trained and it was only a short step from standing in front of a singing teacher to" taking over the school stage. "I was 15 when I was given the star role of Marion, the librarian, in The Musician Man, " she said. "I'd seen the show on Broadway, and just felt that the part was perfect. On the opening night I stood on the stage at school, and at the end of the show the audience all stood up and applauded. It was an incredible experience for me." Her parents had hopes of Meryl becoming a concert singer, but instead she decided to follow in Mum's footsteps and studied design at Vassar, the exclusive women's college in New York State. There she became involved in theatricals, and at the ripe old age of 26 enrolled at the Yale School of Drama. She was spotted and signed up by famed New York producer Joseph Papp. She soon made up for being a late starter. In the year 1975 - 76 she appeared in a host of Broadway plays, It was, while playing in In 12 years of movie acting she's received seven Oscar nominations and won twice. Measure For Measure that she met actor John Cazale, better known for his part as the turncoat brother in Godfather ll. They fell in love, but a year later John developed bone cancer and died shortly after giving his last screen performance - alongside Meryl in the movie that was to start her on the road to super-stardom, Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter. John Cazale didn't see Meryl's step to stardom - he died before The Deer Hunter was released. For the last six months Meryl had turned her back on work to nurse him to the end. She then desperately relaunched herself into her career, co-starring with Alan Alda in his movie The Seduction of Joe Tynan. But the man who came to her aid in her emotional crisis was a close friend of her brother's, the. New York sculptor Don Gummer. In six months they married - in September 1978. There were the usual gossips who suggested that Meryl had 'married on the rebound'. They have been proved wrong. The Gummers have three children - there's Henry, now nine, Mary five, and Grace three. Says Meryl: "I'm a wife and mother first, an actress sometimes." At around R7,5 million a picture,'plus percentages, she can afford to be choosy, but when she is in a movie it's a constant fight for perfection. As producers began to queue up with offers of work, she threw out all the emptyheaded heroine parts and settled for a meaty role in Woody Allen's Manhattan, as Woody's feminist lesbian exwife. This led to the all important first Oscar for her part as the woman who walks out on husband Dustin Hoffman in Kramer versus Kramer. As the tragic Polish survivor of a concentration camp in Sophie's Choice she won her second Oscar. For the part she learned German from a neighbour and Polish from a language tutor. Before flashback concentration camp scenes, she went on an extended liquid diet to become suitably thin and emaciated. There was the film Plenty, with Charles Dance and Sting; there was Out Of Africa, with Robert Redford; Heartburn, opposite Jack Nicholson, and Ironweed, also with Nicholson; The French Lieutenant's Woman, with Jeremy irons; and the harrowing TV movie Holocaust, for which she got an Emmy. There were the days, even up to a couple of years ago, when Meryl lived in New York and much preferred to use the subway to taking taxis, and liked to do her own shopping at local supermarkets. But now she's had to retreat into the Connecticut countryside. She said "Now I have the children I have to think more about security. I don't walk around with a posse of bodyguards, so I do get bothered by people stopping me and staring at me. It got so I couldn't even go shopping without someone peering over my shoulder to see what size knickers I was buying." So now home is on a 90-acre estate in the little town of Salisbury. There's a giant 20acre lake which partly surrounds the house. She can go to the local shops without hassle, townsfolk call out "Hi, Meryl", and she likes to watch Henry playing hockey for his junior school. And of course, there's husband Don. A barn has been converted into a studio where he works at sculpting all day, and sometimes into the night. He believes the foundation of their marriage is trust and friendship. He feels that their relationship is symbiotic: "She's learned how to look at objects, and I've learned how to look at people, he says. In simple terms, she will not sacrifice her family for her career. So it is not surprising that sometimes she feels she is being pulled in different directions by the demands made on her as an actress, wife and mother. "But I haven't shattered yet," she said. "Thank God I know who my real people are - my husband and my family. . "At home they know the real me - just plain old Meryl!" V 1981 A redhead in The French Lieutenant's Woman. 1983 In Silkwood she gets involved in a nuclear power cover-up and gets another Oscar nomination. 1986 She portrays the intrepid Danish writer Karen Blixen, in Out of Africa. 1989 A short black wig and ' an Australian accent transform her into the mother in the Dingo Baby : trial in A Cry in the Dark. woman's Value July 1989 99 Deur KAREN HART Diiiwelse Streep! S0 tussendeur al die geoefen aan haar verskillende aksente kry Meryl Streep darerri kans vir 'n bietjie komedie, dar ksy haar nuwe rolprent, Sh, Devil. Sy was die Poolse immigrant in Sophie's Choice, ook die Deense skrywer Karen Blixen in Out of Africa. En met haar Australiese aksent in A Cry in the Dark is sy op Cannes as beste aktrise aangewys en ook vir 'n Oscar benoem. Nlv-s G~,,;C;;-~ Jo l~ 13, i y~s~T P0 j t /4 NO. 95 PHOTiO BLOUBUSTER 1~ Min S.A. No mat- --~7 /A Type of ~~7 "an9o Type of ` 1 Man's V Canvas Sophia I 1989 ter who sall concrete ~.J name ~ shoes "6olden J Girls" Trial woman' Nooft Abom. - ~- I snowman ~ 11 Mole ~/ Day Royal before Smooth Picked -~ ~ ~ ~ _ Shore ~~r rsnces and T V _ bdft Intoned h t Beautiful N( , Animal ~, Y~ ! poueh women Perfect Greek Island L < Hsadwsar _ Nj Urpe V ~. Urge The Green I_ beryl ~ /~ ~ . ~ V Symbol r ~ r Large A W-- r G t / plants for In ~~ . l ~ M T Doctor Obtain ~ (abbr) Pro- claimed Combin- Organ of an" hearing Until loam Abw to ~ I / -7 k 7 Blow up ._. ~ A tc ~ Finery Jew si I come 0 krs Absurd acts Freeze Trans- ~ D V ~ V Affirm- Yttrium action alive r0~er symbol) Gaelic C C~upIdM shot Up l \ ~I A L t- (~sflx) N ~IF-. 0 P A A 1 " I You and Trane ' The , 80 me 1111 (French) gross Come In Responds ---.~ ~ ~ -- Ei' i. c . Moil[ ties tNor ~'~ I ~J iT~ A 1 Noon ~ ~ agIngent - (symbol) Over- '~ ~ Unl- ~ (- r ~ dose i ~..~ 1 J ~ ~--~ ' (.__ lateral A F~ L ' ~ Nautical ~ ~~ Road F~ Mineral E N y spring Y Flower Smells , (` Blisters ~ y Stop In , Seventh -F- _ ballet note il ~m, YOU 17 August 1989 Wednesday 23 August 1989 THE CITIZEN No compensation for `dingo baby' mother SYDNEY. - A woman who claimed a wild dog snatched and ate her newborn child says she hasn't received pledged government compensation after her pardon on a conviction of killing the infant. Lindy Chamberlain became a household name in 1980 when she said a dingo carried off her 6week-old daughter Azaria while the family camped in the outback near Avers Rock, a sacred aboriginal site. Last year, the Northern Territory Court of Criminal Appeal in Darwin overturned the woman's sentence of life imprisonment with hard lahour. She had spent about lour years in jail. It also quashed the conviction of her husband. Michael, a former pastor of the Seventh Day Adventist Church, of being an accessorv to murder. Mrs Chamberlain (41). held a news conference on Monday in which she said she was o\crd prom i~rd comprm;itiun h\ the "Maybe an apology is a little hard to swallow and let's face it, compensation is an apology," said Mrs Chamberlain, whose story became the US-released film "A Cry in The Dark" starring Meryl Streep. One figure leaked by unidentified sources in the Northern Territory government put the promised compensation at about R8,25 million. That figure could not be confirmed vesterday. Despite the movie and eight best-selling books about her case, Mrs Chamberlain claimed she has received little money from the media publicity. And she said her husband Michael has only eked out a living chopping firewood while the family cannot afford new shoes for her three school-age children. The couple said they owe R2,75 million in legal fees for their protracted court battle. the Chamhrrlain drama began on a cold night in August 1980 when Mrs At first, the Chamberlains' story was believed. But later Mrs Chamberlain was accused of slitting the infant's throat. The baby's body was never found, but bloodstains were found in the couple's tent. On October 29, 1982, the Chamberlains were found guilty and Mrs Chamberlain was sentenced to life in prison, where she to gave birth to a second daughter, Kahlia. Her husband was sentenced to a suspended 18month sentence. The couple has two other sons, Aiden and Reagan. In February 1986, a breakthrough in the case came when a British tourist jumped off the huge monolith to his death. Trackers investigating the suicide found the tattered remains of Azaria's jacket, which Mrs Chamberlain swore the baby was wearing the night she vanished. The discovery proved Mrs Chamberlain had not been lying about that aspect of her baby's death and prompted officials to reopen the case, leading to her pardon in 1987 and the overturning of the convictions last September. -- S;tpa-AY Northern Territory gov- Chamberlain cried out at ernment which pros- the family campside in ecuted the "dingo baby" central Australia: "A case. dingo's fot mv baby". In the open fields balloonists taking part in the American hot-air balloon tournament filled their enormous craft with hot air, so that they hung billowing like large upside-down lightbulbs in the air. One by one the balloons took off, and the sky was transformed with their multicoloured floral pattern. But hot-air balloons can be dangerous ... Robert Mock's Chariots of Fire ascended quickly to an altitude of 1 000 m above the ground: The balloon fell to Earth: slowly at first then faster and faster. Mock (52) calmly asked onlookers over the radio to get safely out of the way, and he also had a chance to say goodbye to his wife before the balloon - by this time with no air left - hit the ground with enormous force. Falling balloonisti; radio farewell to his wife Nine days later 13 people died when Australia's biggest balloon fell in the desert near Ayers Rock, the tourist attraction at the centre of the country where Lindy Chamberlain's little girl was killed by a dingo a few years ago. YOU 31 August 1989 6867 AOIdSLV9ON 8 olouoglt lqpA2ri :rnri i3g DA ul, onori ibx onori `LW3e071(t LL pd0d)p A07, n3g AD lpx 'qT'rOx'q `Diniai nlti Lu.(ip Sisnax iag DA i3~i~d pdod)odu lui"dionp sri axiY44a D'Pl DA 1Dx 3gnri3 aou `no~od noi IDisu oiD o9oi sxlLuri `Slu pig&ncw ~,yldwodu nlu, max (5?dod) o(.g Ug4 i3dpu lax3 oi) d:ox9p oi nil, Soi2d) ald)luhou(I pdod) Diri ltyyu nDilt o}ouo noy DU`SanDri Ha o-~od noi9 `uUdi3 ,~nd3W 4xlgDnori Lt iDn13 nom odsintnL--iri 5D}ouo Slu `701n1q1 LL 3xL1],91d(lk `pl3dldxp ALL], plk 79(1d311 `m311 DlAodX WIN 'Ll.f)3e01C(i ALU,9 (10], OWd Aol. 3~l1JlG3 5011(l,f, o lpx 101d -lus)axig aii) blnodx snaiolflndi pxinn(vl LL Sminpu `S, 13nax 3101L %pri nLu, Dg A39 `Smnad)odu `D13&yo nltjL noi annIi Lt Dig) Lt as)mioxw oi `lLyya biri Dim `p~nx9oldA,a nD~pd -pumipx oi `noi SDnDri 5h. `ltxogxs plri Dlpx on3rimiox9 sxltg3dd lgiau oi imdu oi ipx S(ioi od(Ori oi im Ha pdgnn noi sri IL tnluw sri ltriodgxs s,klur, nx}pncvl Dlri :D}'PdiDad nlLw DIAOdX Olin nldu snL~3 aou `Dldoi9i Uxiiwikadu plri 31) `sivariag Scnvi 5muo `=a~}9afl '(igpzo)i,7 o2D luLnnd}I) )1.1nQ ay1 ui drj oZ Ssd3ri Su. 532aD ;~ixlpu Do Sao~ilu3 lr~x `alnlpi AU Ulan IV. ~rhbd~,nn~~ 1ax i3rh-odk arinoxg udidi; ynd3w Li inni3 oIw 11 EVIEWED IN THIS A Cry in the Dark rc43e 3 NEW RELEASES AT LOW PRICES A CRY IN THE DARK #64.95 Pc~) IF- i y "VIDEO VIEWING SCORE . A very poor film .... Not perfect but .. Below average a good film . . . Worth seeing . U . . . Don't miss it Reviewers: CAS Chris Adam-Smith, SK Stuart Kirkham,AB Allan Bryce, BE Bob Eborall, JA Jon Abbott,NJ Nick Jouhal, EP Eamonn Percival, JB Jim Bluck Of- ; A CRY IN THE DARK Meryl Streep, Sam Neil Pathe Video 117 minutes, 1989 Certificate `15' VHS, Beta claimed that their baby was taken from their campsite at Ayers Rock by a wild dog. No-one believed this improbable story and subseqently the couple were the centre of a showpiece trial for murder. 'A Cry In The Dark' accurately, but slowly plots the course of these events, from the dingo snatch in the desert to the court-room tension and final verdict. Throughout the movie Meryl Streep ably does her Aussie impression, well supported by screen hubbie, Sam Neil, and a host of extras who play the parts of your average Australians in the street, all giving their own verdicts on the trial. These lager touting Bruce and Sheila's are not as cuddly as Paul Hogan would have us believe and their hatred of the accused baby killer maintains the energy in this otherwise dog-earred drama. As with most family traumas it's the kids who end up being the scene stealers and this maxim is true for this movie, except, of course, for the scene when the dingo steals the kid. SF ... Another film, another accent, Meryl Streep stars in this award-wining, Australian-set drama as Lindy Chamberlain, the wife of a serious God-botherer charged with the murder of her baby daughter. This bizarre, but true story set the world's press alight in 1980 when the Chamberlains I 4 [9) -- 1) e`~,,.~ GREAT X SIX REASONS WHY `ArE KNOW YOU'Li ~ A P45 e- 9(0 A Cry in the Dark Meryl Streep IDESS TOP 40/PHILIPS VIDEO CHART These are the most rented video cassettes compiled from retailreports by the TOP 40 Market Research Department THIS MONTH DECEMBER/JANUARY 1990 TITLE STARRING COMPANY ACRYINTHEDARK Meryl Streep NU-METRO The following video outlets assist in compiling this chart CINDA PARK VIDEO Boksburg 896-3111 COCO VISION Pretoria 701939 DESERE VIDEO Nigel 739-3410 FILM FANATIX Craignal 1787-5104 J & J VIDEOS Vryheid 3781 KENSINGTON GARDENS VIDEO Kensing!on 675-1360 MOVIE GO ROUND Selection Park 8181821 MOVIE MAGIC Cape i own 456435 MURRAY VIDEO Ladysmith 24901 NOR WOOD VIDEO Norwood 7284656 PLAZA VIDEO Bethlehem 35101 PETERS VIDEO Bloemlon:ein 47-6527 6TH AVE VIDEO 9enoni 849-7018 SANDTON VIDEO Parkmore 783-9501 TELEMATE VIDEO BAR Florida 4721670 1 THE VILLAGE VIDEO SHOP Winds., Park 6787016 VIDEO BAR Springs 818-5523 VIDEO COMP Kempton Park 972-7037 VIDEO DREAM Germis ton 825-4327 VIDEOLAND East London 53433 VIDEOLAND Pietersburg 74891 VIDEO MADNESS Vanderbljlpark 331549 VIDEOMARK Rosettenvilfe 435 3631 VIDEORAMA Cyrildene 616-6201 VIDEO SUPER Kimber!ey 24062 VIDEO SUPREME Nonhcliff 782-2810 VIDEO TAVERN Pon Eli:abeth 305381 VIDEOTOWN Primrose 486-1605 VIDEOTOWN Randburg 7895389 WHICH VIDEO Springs 818-3217 TOP 40 VALID FROM 6TH DECEMBER 1989 TO 16TH JANUARY1990 7. A CRY IN THE DARK C 4A '70P ~ z H"/"e- Cry in the Dark, A(1988)*''/z Meryl Streep, Sam Neill, Bruce Myles. Another excellent turn from Streep, as an Australian mother accused of murdering her baby. Based on a true story (previously filmed as Who Killed Baby Azaria?), the powerful film details the mother's lynching in the press because she isn't properly submissive. (Dir: Fred Schepisi, 121 mins.)t i 1~1~12 /,q Dingo case: offer on fees a MELBOURNE - The Northern Ter:r itory govern-% ment yesterday offered to cover part of the' R2,76 million legal fees of Lindy Chamberlain, of the celebrated dingo-baby case. Lindy was cleared of murdering her baby daughter, Azaria, when her conviction was quashed after she had served three years of a life -,entence. She threatened to sue the Territory government for R10,76 million for wrongful imprisonmera and legal fees. Lindy would not disclose the amount of the offer. Page 6 .A-,M-ttt THE CITIZEN Wednesday 1 August 1990 Dingo case Lindy: The saga continues By Robert Woodward , SYDNEY. - Early in August, 1980, a Seventh Day Adventist preacher, his wife and three children locked up their house in the Australian mining town of Mount Isa and headed west for a holiday. Michael Chamberlain had wanted to drive north to fish off the Northern Territory coast, but his wife Lindy persuaded him to spend a few days at Ayers Rock. The decision was to cost their baby daughter. Azaria, her life and turn Lindy, who spent threeand-a-half years in jail for Azaria's murder, into an international celebrity during one of the most bizarre criminal cases of recent times. Ten years later, "Lindy" still means only onc person in Australia. Mention the case in a bar and half the people present are likely to insist there was no way a dingo could have dragged Azaria out of the Chamberlains' tent at Ayers Rock and killed her as Lindy maintained in a series of inquests and trials. Propaganda Many Australians refused to see the 1988 film "A Cry in the Dark", for which American actress Meryl Streep won an Oscar nomination for her portrayal of Lindy. They say the film was propaganda for the Chamberlains. The family's deeply religious background, the mystery and Aboriginal rites associated with Ayers Rock, and the fact Azaria's body was never found led to wild rumours fuelled by sensational media coverage. Lindy's outspoken defence and her refusal to be cowed by gossip or fierce questioning provoked suspicion in the Northern Territory, a rough, desolate, maledominated part of the world. Even to the most objective observer, her matterof-fact explanation in a television interview at the time of how the dingo must have clawed and ripped her nine-week-old baby appeared unreal in its detachment. Cleared by an initial inquest, Lindy was committed for trial in February, 1982, after a second inquest. At the trial no motive was put forward for Lindy murdering her child, witnesses confirmed her version of events and key evidence by a British forensic scientist, who said Lindy had cut Azaria's throat, was hotly disputed by the defence. But in October, 1982, when seven months pregnant with daughter Kahlia, Lindy, then (34), was found guilty of Azaria's murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. Michael was given an 18month suspended sentence for complicity. Mrs LINDY CHAMBERLAIN ... seeking compensation. In February, 1986, a baby's jacket, identified as Azaria's, was found at the base of Ayers Rock and five days later Lindy was released from jail. struck out the convictions. The saga is far from over for the Chamberlain family. Lindy and Michael are seeking four million dollars (R8,1 million) in compensation for personal hardship from the Northern Territory government. Apart from their own harrowing experiences, the Chamberlains maintain their children - they have two teenage boys as well as Kahlia - will never be able to lead a normal life. The family now lives near Newcastle on the New South Wales coast in a town that is a Seventh Day Adventist stronghold. Michael Chamber lain resigned from the ministry in January, 1984. and last year told journalists he was working as ti woodcutter. The family is also claiming 1.5 million dollars (R3 million) in legal costs in order to repa\ - their church, which supported them throughout their ordeal. The Chamberlains issued a statement recentk saying they had totally lost confidence in the Northern Territory government, which they accused of dragging its feet over the compensation case. The government had demanded details of the family's financial position, which the Chamberlains insisted was irrelevant, and questioned the size of the claim for legal expenses. Pardoned She was pardoned in June, 1987, after a Royal Commission, the sixth official investigation into Azaria's death, said there were "serious doubts" about her guilt. But the Northern Territory government refused to lift the convictions, and it was not until September, 1988, that an appeal court ruled the Chamberlains had been victims of a miscarriage of justice and Autobiography The Chamberlains rarely appear in public. Lindy is working on her autobiography, called "Through My Eyes", which was due for release on the 10th anniversary of Azaria's death but has been delayed until October. It will provide one of Australia's most famous women with her best opportunity to put forward her case. But whatever she writes, she is unlikely to convince those sceptics who still find it hard to believe her scream of August 17, 1980: "The dingo's got my baby". - Sapa-Reuter A noted American film critic asks ... Does Hollywood Hate Religion? BY MICHAEL MEDVED _ Hunger for money can explain almost evervthing in Hollvwood. but not why ambitious producers keep launching expensive projects that slam religion. Their mysterious behaviour becomes even more difficult to understand when one looks back at the exceedingly rare films of recent vears that have a more sympathetic view of organized faith. A Cry in the Dark, based on a true story, vvon an Oscar nomination for Meryl Streep. Streep played the wife of a Seventh-Day Adventist minister falsely accused of murdering her own baby. The unshakable faith of husband and wife and support from their close-knit church communitv enable them to survive this nightmare ordeal, which was caused in part b} the anti-religious bigotry of their accusers. These distinguished films all Nvon surprisingly large audiences, especiallti- when compared with the tendentious, anti-religious films. Yet even these sympathetic portravals failed to show organized faith as relevant to the lives of ordinary people. A Cr-v in the Dark portrays a misunderstood sect in a lonely corner= of Australia. PuorocRAPH -I INAI 1~;rroRe SIII1I)T,N IS -,'I ) 1989 MICHAEL MEDVED. CONDENSED FROM IMPRIMIS (DECEMBER 19891, THE MONTHLY JOURNALOF HILLSDALE COLLEGE, HILLSDALE, MICHIGAN s 1J' ~ Q S h ~~2,vvt S.~C,j/~ ~~ 1 MiNi ONE CUlT CINEMA TEL 642-8915 49 PRETORIA STREET (OPP AMBASSADOR HOTEL) HILLBROW P R 0 G R A M M E: (Subject to alteration without prior notice) TIMES-OF-SHOWS: 3pm, 6pm, 9pm BOOKING-AT-COSPUTICKET ADMISSION-PRICES: R7,00; STUDENTS: R5,50; PENSIONERS: R1,50;PLEASE NOTE: We screen the best copy available from the film co.6Pm_ONLY, -SPECIAL SHOW SUNDAY 28 OCT:"A.CRY IN THE DARK"MERYL STREEP IN AUSTRALIA'S INFAMOUS'DINGO'TRIAL-------------------------- No two situations are ever identical. But reading reports on black Australians - including those. of the_ London-based Minority Rights Group, the World Council of Churches and Muirhead Commission of Inquiry into Aboriginal deaths in custody - one is struck by the strong and even compelling parallels between their situation and that of South Africa's indigenes or aboriginals. "A worrying feature was the fact that over half of these deaths (13) were reported to be hue to hanging," the commissioner, Judge J H Muirhead, said. "The Aboriginal rates of custody are disturbingly high ... the gross representation of Aborigines in Australia's prisons appears to be increasing rather than decreasing." Mr Justice Muirhead effectively admitted official and collective culpability in the conclusion of his 1988 interim report. He described the deaths as a "consequence of history, of appalling neglect (and) of ignorance". He was still working on the final report at the time but was concerned the commission's mammoth task might be impeded for reasons of political expediency. But, he insisted, "Australia must know the truth" or be condemned to live with its fear of the truth. An Australian Embassy spokesman told Saturday Star the final report was expected by the end of the year. ScJv._ j ~ S a( 60 ~ 60 `~ , TM) s ;.(~ ,e s o~ t~e so,mk L ct. 0 ` Q. vl `Az c:c; v,\ M)V ~r be c eWe q q ~ BUSHFIRE MOON Starring Charles Tingwel In January/Januarie Movies/Flieke A CRY IN THE DARK Based on a sensational true Australian court case. The movie tells the story of Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) who was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Mrs Chamberlain always maintained that nine-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo during a camping trip. Also starring Sam Neill and Bruce Myles. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1987). Sunday Star December 30 1990 Wall to wall TV films in January lan Gray THERE is a wealth of movies in the line-up for all three major channels in January. Among M-Net s major movie attractions are "A Cry in the Dark". Some of the highlights: M-NET: 'A Cry in the Dark", with Meryl Streep as Lindy Chamberlain, charged with killing her baby daughter who she maintained was carried away by dingoes. Also starring Sam Neill and Bruce Miles. VERSATILE ... Meryl Streep in `Cry in the Dark'. Movies based on true stories includes The sensational Australian "Dingo" court trial of a mother suspected of killing her own baby is related in "A Cry In The Dark" with Meryl Streep in the leading role. 19qO ivl-Net has a great line-up of movies during the month of January: A CRY IN TI-IE DARK, starring Sam Neill and Alei74,Streep, is based on the true story of Australians Michael and Lincly Chamberlain whose nine week old baby girl disappeared from their family tent ... dragged off by a dingo? i`fy~ Key Lo Lhif book Each entry lists title and year of release. The letter "C" before a running time indicates that the film was made in color. "D:" indicates the name of the director. This is followed by a listing of the principal cast members. Alternate titles (if any) are noted at the end of the entry. Ratings range from ***, for the very best, to 1/2, for the very worst. There is no * rating; instead, for these bottom-of-the-barrelmovies, we use the citation BOMB. V This symbol indicates the title is available on homevideo. Cry in the Dark, A(1988-U.S.-Australian) C-121m. **'fi D: Fred Schepisi. Meryl Streep, Sam Neill, Bruce Myles, Charles Tingwell, Nick Tate, Neil Fitzpatrick, Maurie Fields, Lewis Fitz-gerald. Astonishing true story of Lindy Chamberlin, an Australian woman accused of murdering her baby, despite her claims that the child was carried off by a dingo (wild dog). Writer-director Schepisi tells his story with almost documentary-like reality, eloquently attacking the process of trial by rumor that made Chamberlin and her husband the most maligned couple in Australia. Streep and Neill are heartbreakingly good.V [Z44 l Rb mvi1 f 1 RJ '5' \ AND VqwO rot',a H! ~ J~a~,r,ok/ M-NET G,.Jz JG.v,vt,r I,9q 1 INDEX I N D E K S MOVIES/FLIEKE Classification Klassifikasie Dates Datums Cry in the Dark, A (true drama/ware verhuul) 21 Movies for the first time ever on M-NET/21 Flieke vir die eerste keer onit op M-NET 0 2-12 (adult theme/volwasse tema) 13 16?128 5 S T A R C H A T T E R MERYL IS AL WEER 'IEMAND ANDERS' VAN sterre gepraat: daar gaan ook nie 'n maand verby dat van die grootstes nie op M-NET te sien is nie. Neem nou maar Meryl Streep, wat weer eens 'n persoonlikheidsverandering ondergaan met haar vertolking van Lindy Chamberlain - die vrou wat daarvan aangekla is dat sy haar baba vermoor het in die opspraakwekkende `wildehond-saak" wat so lewensgetrou deur regisseur Fred Schepisi herskep is in A Cry in the Dark. 8 20 I Vir elke rol het die talentvolle aktrise verskillende stemtone en aksente gebruik en haar fisieke voorkoms verander. In A Cry in the Dark is sy weer bykans onherkenbaar met kort, donker hare - en haar tipiese nasale "Aussie"-uitspraak sal M-NET-kykers vandeesmaand beslis verstom. - BOB EVELEIGH MOVIES xFLIEKE A CRY IN THE DARK i/op 13, 16, 21, 28 CAST: Meryl Streep, Sam Neill, Bruce Myles. DIR: Fred Schepisi (1988). Based on a sensational true Australian court case. The movie tells the story of Lindy Chamberlain who was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Mrs Chamberlain always maintained that nine-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo during a camping trip. The death soon became a national scandal in which especially the mother became a victim of the press because of her unsubmissive, unemotional testimony. 125 Gegrond op'n opspraakwekkende ware Australiese hofsaak. Die prent handel oor Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep), wat skuldig bevind is aan moord op haar baba. Mev Chamberlain fret steeds volgehou dat die nege week oue Azaria tydens'n kampeervakansie deur'n wilde hond weggedra is. Die dood het in 'n nasionale skandaal ontaard, waarin veral die ma die slagoffer van die pers geword het omdat sy nie'n onderdanige en emosionele getuie was nie. Ook met Sam Neill en Bruce Myles. Regie deur Fred Schepisi (1987). Drama 2-12 M-NE-r c..~at c7c.y1 JC~P' }~ ~~W' PARENTAL CONTROL OUERBEHEER CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMME CONTENT * 0'rem,erc) PARENTAL CONTROL PC1 = 2-21 PC2 = 2-18 PC3 = 2-16 PC4 = 2-12 48 ~ (Sex) t (Violence) r (Language) 0 (Other) SUN 13 SON A A drama starring Meryl Streep. 156 I WED 16 WOENS I 23:45 A CRY IN THE DARK 2-12 'n Drama met Meryl Streep. 58 MON 21 MAAN I 19:00 A CRY IN THE DARK 2-12 'n Drama met Meryl Streep. 68 MON 28 MAAN 10:30 A CRY IN THE DARK 2-12 A drama starring Meryl Streep. ---~ 65 ~- STARCROSS 30 Once you have filled in the correct answers to the clues supplied, you will have the names of nine stars, movies or events which are mentioned in this Programme Guide, in the remaining squares. Write only these nine names, along with your own name, postal address and M-NET account number on a postcard or the back of a sealed envelope and post it to STARCROSS 30, M-NET Publicity Services, P O Box 2817, Northcliff 2115. Entries must reach us by Friday, 18 January, at 17:00. 86 M-NET G,,:dt 7anvci,,r3 iy9 ) STARCROSS 30 2 Atomic 3 ~, . (abbr) . - Haughty manners Often 41- M P E ~ R~ N T H E D A~ 5th . % (abbr) Attempt Indies A It pre ~, { /,J A L Fru Used vowel U ~d~ ~ V D ~ or the eudal rhng s stem Solidi- (abbr) Sharp side of a blade Number (abbr) Before tied Perform oils 40 R E~ ~ ~ TS ~~ M Editor . ~ Dull . C H y Dull N Not 50 N abbrl E pain A (, ~ sound Symbol cenum Boat r Grant Currency V'. A T T A~'~ 0' M ~ C t~ 1 Musco I I.. 1~ vile and S b ot e Reported . E ~/~~ ~' A t op .~, /~ 0 _ Father P by the N Y Y ~J or N V ~ meda snare Also W Hitlers A Attacked Pad ,-+ Nano N M 7 ~. Artillery police with a (abbr ...~ metre ') nuclear v (abbr) bomb Memento Tollga e.T III If f7 1 III If C 0 N K out A U) L EY M~ O() R E bed 101- P Ocean Exces- K Dayof N, E Ibdem ., 13 Prefi ~ D I U (abbr) sive ' - VctorY ~' (~r) /` md ca ng self- ( 1945) 8 May two M NET L Y If t~ Part o ~ f~] Eastern Make 1) N~ . L sold more O ~ the ear `~ P~~ro ull i/ La m N than D (abbr) 500 000 No an Last , N A L 1 Male 'I 11h A 4th president . A D I S ~ N A drug oH letter of the USA M o erdose spnng of Greek 08139 1817) (abbr) alphabet S ,~ . ~ It bears K Lutem L ~.-j Symbol ./' C? N acorns sm9 ( ~ fo as ho mone cobalt fruit (abbr) N U T S Recently xii-N y w L 1~ married L.. ~n pe so 88 M-NET GOIAe Jenuat'(h 199 Y STERRE-RAA1 30 V In die aangehaalde i Beves Help H ndoe stof i werk (Let elk) m kledmg 9 9 stu Reeks plan Moeras Uraan E N1 p ~ R~ o~' r 1~ ~ S k4 '~iwA C R Y~ N T: E D A R K Klein U 1 I. 9K-1- Nederlandse vorm ~ Simbool Songod )0- R A O; s albester V van e e Or urn ) Sierlik Mot. lub Koepel R TA T~, ~0 M I N o Udroep ~ Lys van Pdester ~ Uur ~H Orals ~ ' Voegwoord at Vd van n sake onder (Let elk) ~'~ R teenstelling u idru m lit8 e voor die die ou ag hot Kelte pun straal q~e rook Onbeken Olm (Let afk) 1011110- E ~~j q,~~ ~A R M N I U S Kort , 0 R A Nommer Khsma ~/. "y E M A wr .A, (a~) f ~ N , leonor , Va Verdek ~ 5 L U t P 5 K U i P Resuttaat M St0~ b0e~k skiatar ~1,J4 T Bruto Nagroof- Rome s ~ I I Romemse Romemse B Bilfoen . N (afk) voel 2' 150 000 (a ) Op reke mng (a ) Ampke D u D L E Y M v o R E s00" ~ R ~ + Rome se ~ lemand Indiese Afr g u~ P 5, onMied munbiuk S ' L E Bowel Tydperk 10- A Romemse D K(aol~it'r .K L 500 Ook M G n ~~88 ~Q R~ N G ~ A Voalo ~T ~ N .~ p M E N Swd ~S Ee Ste S T ans e I~e ~A[ ' 1n ' [y (afk) persons (atk) eksame 1 O Dink-. Hat Wad p A P /~m U t oep 'r vermoe (afk) omring 1 van deur'n s rieLSker Aldus 9 ~' , } Ronde N Noord Amptenaar wat 'ly v d~ngl (afk) mate en gewigte van 'namptelike merk voorsien 89 Trouble brewing First published in Great Britain in 1991rcuN n 7088 4985 7 INDEX T The one about the dingo farm .. .. . . . 38 110 MERYL STREEP IN CRY IN THE DARK ON M-NET PICK OF THE FLICKS Robin York looks at the best of the week's new TV movies A CRY IN THE DARK 1/2 M-Net, Sunday at 8.30 pm US/Australia, 1988. Directed by Fred Schepisi Starring Meryl Streep, Sam Neil A REAL blockbuster for Streep fans. She excels as Lindy Chamberlain, the real-life Australian mother whose nonchalance over the death of her baby, which she alleged was taken by a dingo while the family were on a camping trip, drew such an unfavourable reaction from the Aussie Press that she and her husband were eventually tried for murder. On" 7/ 199 ~~~~ ~ y II II iii 8.30 A Cry In The Dark Based on a sensational Australian court case. The movie tells the story of Lindy Chamberlain who was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Mrs Chamberlain always maintained that nine-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo during a camping trip I' C+'`SO +'1 tl'' t M-Net movies for this coming week are filled with action and drama and must not be missed by the Sylvester Stallone fans. A Cry In The Dark will be screened on Sunday, January 13 at S.30pm and again on January 16, 21 and 28. &Acrcwi-ew ~ 1:caenUctle. Pc,J e. ~2 r~S Ne vi 5 i C/9 l The Star TONIGHT! Friday January 11 1991 TELEVISION - Recommended viewing - M-Net Encoded Viewing SUNDAY M-NET * 8.30 A Cry In The Dark (2-12): Based on the true Australian court case in which Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Mrs Chamberlain always maintained that nine-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo during a camping trip. Also starring Sam NeilI. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). Par Meryl Streep stars in "A Cry in the Dark" onM-Net. i~'tq i MERYL THE MARVEL: Miss Streep is just one of the great stars on TV and radio this weekend. Your guide: Page 2. Pa3e- I TELEVISION SUNDAY ON TRIAL: Meryl Streep isLindy Chamberlain in "Cryin the Dark" (M-Net,8.30 pm). 2 8.30 A Cry in the Dark (2-12): Based on the true Australian court case in which Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Mrs Chamberlain always maintained that nine-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo during a camping trip. The death soon became a national scandal in which the mother became a victim of the press because of her unsubmissive, unemotional testimony. Also starring Sam Neill and Bruce Myles. Directed by Fred Scheaisi (1988). ON THE BOX FILM = F TODAY 13 JANUARY PICK ~r, THE DAY bVACtC1~ S Ctn: 60!NL.~AY, GUnJcty C.,%vctej l3, f"iCl~ A CRY IN THE DARK M-Net, Sunday, 8.30-llpm Meryl Streep stars in this film, based on a true incident. An Australian couple's baby is mysteriously killed and they become the innocent victims of the press. ,y ,1 . I 8.30 A Cry In the Dark F (2-12): Based on a sensational true Australian court case. Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) was found guilty of the murder of her own baby, although always maintaining that nine-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo during a camping trip. Sam Neill stars as her husband. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). WED S 16 JANUARY i1 he . 11.45 A Cry in the Dark (2-12): See Sunday for details. F 1taCte- ~Jr YOUR TOP TV- MOVIES * Poor;'" Moderate; "'" Excellent. A CRY IN THE DARK *** (t98A). 17cry1 titrrep, Sum Neill. 1)ocn-drumn based nn ilie l.indv ( humbcrlin trial nfter the n(ituru~u~ ,.diuy~o murdr, ,, of h~~r bubp in AuY ~ralia. '11 Ncl. 'Pod:ry. 11.311pm. sjfjCs r..~ ij ~S1 ~ ~ )3 ~~~ ,~~~.~ ~9~i e is- Sunday Times Magazine January 13, 1991 34 BARCODES FOR THE PICK OF THIS WEEKS PROGRAMMES M-NET 20.30 A Cry In The Dark II ii 35 TV i~ FEATURE FILM * RECOMMENDED VIEWING TODAY January 13 20.30 A Cry In The Dark (1988): Based on the controver sial Australian court case, this movie tells the story of Lindy Chamberlain who was found guilty of the murder of her baby, although she always maintained that 9-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo. Starring Meryl Streep. (2-12) 37 wo't WEDNESDAY January 16 23.45 A Cry In The Dark (1988): Repeat. See Sun 13 at 20.30 16 The Star TONIGHT! Wednesday January 16 1991 TELEVISION - M-Net Encoded Viewing - Recommended viewing M-NET 11.45 A Cry In The Dark: (2-12) 0 (Adult theme): Based on a sensational true Australian court case. The movie tells the story ~ of Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) who was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Also starring Sam Neill and Bruce Myles. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). YOU 17 January 1991 Q programmes MONDAY, JANUARY 21 M-Net 7 00: A Cry in the Dark fij, -11T Saturday Star WEEKEND January 19 1991 TELEVISION 2 camin Attrac-tion s PERCY BANESHIK Leaping a week, co-ordinate your watches and diaries for next Sunday, January 27. There's an item on TV1 worth anticipating - a courtroom drama entitled The Penalty Phaze. It promises well, since it addresses the quandary of a judge who has to weigh his own conscience when he can either condemn an admitted murderer, as the public demands, or dismiss him on a legal technicality. On the same legal conscience level, on M-Net on the following Monday, January 28, you might watch A Cry in the Dark. It is a re-run of the film, which will have already been featured in the pay-station's programmes three times this month, but it is a remarkable re-creation of a real-life courtroom drama, albeit in Australia. Meryl Streep is particularly fine playing Lindy Chamberlain, the accused in what became known as the ."dingo" case, when she was charged with murdering her child which she claimed had been carried off by a wild dog. Absolutely riveting. You can catch it this Monday if you want to compare it, albeit with the elapse of a week between viewings, with the "Penalty Phaze" example; one of its three flightings this month is to be seen on M-Net this coming Monday night. THE WEEK ON TV FILM = F I-/ MONDAY 21 JANUARY M N I: T PREMIUM TIME 7.00 A Cry In The Dark F (2-12): (Adult Theme). Based on a sensational true Australian court case about a woman (Meryl Streep) who was found guilty of the murder of her baby. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). 1$ SUNDAY JANUARY 20 1991 BARCODES FOR THE PICK OF THIS WEEK"S PROGRAMMES M-NET 19.00 A Cry In The Dark 3~ ~ FEATURE FILM * RECOMMENDED VIEW?Nu 3s MONDAY January 21 L1Lii1Lti PREMIUM TIME ii I II 19.00 A Cry In The Dark (1988): Based on the controversial Australian court case, this 1 movie tells the story of Lindy 7~ Chamberlain who was found guilty of the murder of her baby, although she always maintained that 9-week-old ~ Azaria had been carried off by a dingo. Starring Meryl Slreep. (2-12) TV 36 Sunday Times Magazine January 20, 1991 12 The Star TONIGHT! Monday Jcmvary,21- 19911 TELEVISION - M-Net Encoded Viewing * - Recommended viewing M-NET 7.00 A Cry in the Dark (2-12): Based on a sensational true Australian court case. The movie tells the story of Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Also starring Sam Neill and Bruce Myles. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). THE WEEK ON TV FILM = F 30 MONDAY 28 JANUARY T7 N I? T PREMIUM TIME 10.30 A Cry In The Dark F (Adult theme): Based on a sensational true Australian court case about Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) who was found guilty of the murder of her own baby. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). 32 SUNDAY JANUARY 27 1991 MON DAY 10.30 A Cry In The Dark (IM): Based on the controversial Australian court case, this movie tells the story of lindy Chamberlain who was found guilty of the murder of her baby, although she always maintained that 9-week-old Azaria had been carried off by a dingo. Starring Meryl Streep. (2-12) January 28 TV 38 Sunday Times Magazine January 27, 1991 T2 The Star TONIGHT! Monday January 28 1991 TELEVISION g- M-Net ^ncoded Viewing * Recommended viewing M-NET 10.30 A Cry in the Dark (2-12): Based on a sensational true Australian court case. The ,* movie tells the story of Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) who is found guilty of murdering her own baby. Also starring Sam Neill and Bruce Myles. Directed by Fred Schepisi (1988). Edgars Club FEBRUARY 1991 WINNING STREEP World Film Favourite Actress in the 1990 People's Choice Award. That's the mercurial Meryl Streep.Already she's laden with top showblz trophies - two Oscars, eight nominations, plus prizes as BestActress from Cannes, the New York Film Critics, a TV Bmmy, an Oble and Broadway Tony nomination.Lain P. :Sfcdsh reports. A Cry in the Dark took Streep off to Australia to co-star with New Zealand actor Sam Neill playing her Seventh Day Adventist pastor husband, Michael Chamberlain. Of her transformation into Aussie wife for the role, the critic of showbiz bible, Variety, commented: If one didn't know who Meryl Streep is, one could easily guess Lindy was played by a fine, unknown Australian actress." Likewise, the film* s Aussie director, Fred Schepisi, confirmed: '9t was a rough trip for Nleryl, but her performance had the hairs on my neck standing out." She was almost unrecognisable as a bag lady in Iron weed, hard-drinking with tangled hair and minus makeup, which preceded her Lindy Chamberlain portrayal 2s the distraught wife of Sam Neill in A Cry in the Dark. PO G ~ L 5 ~'~ 'Irv l1' Dear Ed I am a great fan of the New Zealand actor Sam Neill and have seen most of his films and TV work. Could you please give me some information about him and an address where I could write to him. Also, do you know if his latest film Dead Calm will be released in South Africa? Lynn Parktown North This is what 1 dug up on MrNei//: Born in NewZea/andin 1948 and educated at the University of Canterbury before going into acting and directing documentaries and shorts. His movies include Landfall, Ashes, Sleeping Dogs, The Journalist, My Brilliant Career, Just Out Of Reach, Attack Force Z, The Final Conflict, Possession, From a Far Country - Pope John Paul 11, Enigma, The Country Girls, The Blood of Others, Robbery Under Arms, Plenty, A Cry in the Dark and Dead Calm. Apparently none of the local distributors picked up Dead Calm so it looks as though we won't get to see it here. Write to Sam c/o Al Parker Ltd., 55 Park Lane, London W 1. -Ed. four Movie Scene February/March 1991 F ilmmaker Fred Schepisi, whose~i past work includes A Cry in, the Dark, Roxanne, and ~ Plenty : has strong opinions on,~ modern cinema. "I think movies, these days have got to take you oni a journey or an experience that'si ~special or different," he says. Well, you couldn't get any more special, and different than his latest offer-' ~ing, The Russia House, a nail-' biting espionage thriller that fea-j ;tures an all-star cast, including Sean Connery, Michelle Pfeiffer, Roy 1Scheider, James Fox and a number of others. ""When I went on my first location, scout, it was incredible because I was there when they were making, historic changes in the coull ,recalls Schepisi. "You could feel the' excitement; there was uncertainty, land worry. ;"I thought le Carne's book was a~ real look at glasnost and the end of the cold war and a look at the ;people who should know better," continues Schepisi. The spymasters, of East and West are the people! who should appreciate that the', lcold war is over, but they seem to want to perpetuate it to keep their; jobs going.' 'Says Schepisi: "It's about a disillu-;I Isioned character who meets people' prepared to risk their lives to make' changes for the good of mankill Cit's about a man meeting a woman; ,who gives him strength to rehabili-; ~,Of their experiences filming in Rus-~, !sia, Schepisi notes, "The Russiansi; !are lovely people. They have, ~,warmth and humanity and they', want to help. Of course it was', difficult because we go about mak-I ling a film in a very different way ,from the Russian way and a lot of' adjustment to their ways of work-l ing was required. But they were in-j ~credibly co-operative, helpful and 'willing." ~Production began on October_ 2 1989 in Leningrad _ In IVevsky f'rospekt,j `one of the main tho'roughfares of i Leningrad, the filmmakers shot ill land among the crowds, which lell further realism to those scenes.; ._ . A night shoot, iin the Moscow Metro was enlight2 lening for the members of thel, ,production; not only were they able! ,to witness Muscovites on their way~ home -after a hard day's work, but ~ the Metro itself was chastening to', ,the Western eye., ~ With the pacy stofyline, superb cast and magnificent cinematography, The Russia House has everything' ', going for it. Schepisi himself' ', describes_ the film as "The dream' ~ticket"., _,_ 1~. SO "s seven teen tate himself." sixteen Movie Scene February/March 1991 _, FEATURES The dingo baby woman How she's surviving now KaCy Brav ery 82 SHE - I Main pic: Lindy, rebuilding her life ten years on. Above: A torturous trail from inquest to court to jail in Berrima. Right: The last picture of Azaria, on the day she died. 82 THE DINGO BABY WOMAN how .rhe.'r surviv Isle ing now THE NIGHTMARE HAS ENDED FORLINDY CHAMBERLAIN. NOW SHE'S MAKINGUP FOR LOST TIME. BY KATY BRAVERY "Bubby, no God, oh no, not my baby. It's not true. She is there. Something else, God, not her. She must be dead or she'd cry. Not a sound and those empty scattered blankets. M y feet feel like lead as I clear the fence and dive into the tent h eadlong. I scream to Michael as I run that the dingo has the baby, with one hand on R eagan to feel his heartbeat and check he is alive and the other lifting those awful scattered blankets. The basket rolls as I bump my hand on the edge. It wouldn't do that if she was in it. I think I'm going to be sick. I touch the carry basket. It's really empty. It's no bad dream - and it's still warm, even her dummy is still warm. She's so little. So little and so precious. Reagan has his sleeping bag hood up and his face buried in the pillow. He never sleeps like that. Not ever. Boot him hard. He wriggles at last. He's alive. Thank you God for his life - it could be both of them. Azaria, oh Azaria, -what's happened to you, what is happening to you? Your bed's still warm and it's so cold out there..." It's just over ten years since the evening when Lindy Chamberlain spotted a dingo near the campsite the family had chosen at Avers Rock in Australia. Ten vears since her husband Michael heard their nine-week-old babv Azaria cry from the tent where she had been settled for the night; since Lindy went to check and saw, through the dusk, a dingo emerging through the tent flap, its head down, vigorously shaking something that Lindy at first thought was a shoe. Until she ran forward and saw the ravaged tent that Azaria was sharing with her four-yearold brother Reagan, and her baby's empty basket. And, ten years on, suspicion and rumour still surround the "Dingo Baby Mother", Lindv Chamberlain. Did one of the dingos, seen earlier by many people at the campsite, take the baby, and run off with her into the outback? Or did Lindv herself take her child to their ~ car, cut her throat with nail scissors, stuff her body into a camera bag - all the time watched by her six-yearold son Aidan - then return to the tent and splash blood around in an attempt to simulate a dog attack' Unbelievable though it may seem now, this was the case that forensic scientists came up with and for which she was eventually sentenced to life imprisonment, in 1982. Her husband Michael, then a Seventh-Day Adventist preacher, received a suspended sentence for being an accessory after the fact of "murder". Lindy spent more than three years in prison before the discovery near Ayers Rock of Azaria's jacket sparked a new investigation. The earlier forensic evidence was overturned ("blood" in the car was found most likely to have been the remains of an anti-rust chemical). A Royal Commission then cleared her and her husband of any involvement in Azaria's death, and they received a formal pardon. It seems the stuff of airport novels, and indeed it became the subject of a film, A Cry in the Dark - with Meryl Streep playing Lindy Chamberlain, complete with her strangled Australian diphthongs and the slightly bullish manner which helped to alienate public sympathy throughout the case. Both characteristics are true to the real-life Lindy. Now 42, she is a small, poised woman, plumping out slightly since her days as a middle-distance runner. But her face reveals little of the trauma she has suflered. Her clothes and jewellery seem deliberately down-played, as if their restraint would nip in the bud further mutterings that, financially, she had done well out of the whole affair. She is direct and confident in a manner that is admirable rather than repellant. One expects 10 83 SHE f-abrvar3 i`iq1 From far left: a family reunited. The Chamberlains: Michael, Kahlia, Reagan, Lindy and Aidan. Lindy's worries centre on how the long-drawn out process of reinstatement has affected her children and her relationship with them. Rumours implied that the stress had also damaged her marriage. 1 not to like her. But her sudden smiles, her air of acquired rather than natural professionalism, and the fact she seems genuinely friendly, despite having had so many kicks in the teeth from the media, make one end up regarding her with respect, even affection. Her whole demeanour seems to say, "This situation wasn't of my making, but I'm in it. And I'm going to win." Ten years on, she's still fighting. First, there is the compensation claim of some AUS $5.4 million (L2.5 million) for legal costs and the personal hardship she and her husband suffered, which Australia's Northern Territory Government is holding out on. She also said recently that she thought as many as 40% of Australians could still believe her to be guilty of her daughter's murder. And just before Christmas she was denying newspaper reports that she and Michael were debating divorce. It seems that Lindy is always centre stage - some say she's hounded by the press, others whispering that she courts publicity. Either way, the affair has taken an enormous toll on her and her family, and her role as a mother. The latest pull away from her children - Aidan (17), Reagan (14) and Kahlia (eight) - has been the 18 months spent writing a book about the Azaria affair, Through my Eyes. The book shot to the bestseller list in Australia and sparked criticism that yet again she had put her family second to publicity. It is too easy to see her as the notorious object of books, newspaper stories and films, rather than part of a family but Through my Eyes may go some way to redressing the balance, with its intense humanity and its revelations of the emotional life behind all the court cases. Lindy chose to start with a short tribute to Azaria: "This is the story of a little girl who lived, and breathed, and loved, and was loved. She was part of me. She grew within my body and when she died, part of me died, and nothing will ever alter the fact." 84 The effect on her children has remained one of her main concerns. "Kahlia hasn't known anything else apart from this case, it's been her whole life. Aidan was six at the time - it's been two-thirds of his life; and almost three-quarters of Reagan's," she says. "But, on the other hand, Reagan was once asked if he wished he wasn't a Chamberlain. His answer was, `Well, other kids don't get to hide from the media and watch helicopters landing by the house.' Kids are like that. Reagan tends to look on the bright side of things but Aidan gets angry; he can't talk about it, not unless he's really uptight. "People say, what's the worst thing? Apart from the fact that you lost a baby in the first place, you can't pin a `worst' down. If you could put them all on a scale they'd probably all read ten." Lindy is undoubtedly a survivor but her face still creases under the slightly dated makeup when she talks of the pain inflicted on her family, and on her as a mother. Recently she broke down on television when asked about the latest in Reagan's long series of eye operations (while she was in prison, Reagan nearly lost an eye when a bottle exploded in a bonfire - and Lindy was not allowed out to be with him). To maximise the time spent with her children, Lindy chose to write most of the book at home, sleeping while they were at school and waking up to spend the evening with them before staying up all night writing. "I had to stop now and then to go and break up the children fighting, and sometimes they'd say, `Oh, Mum, stop and come and look at this,' but otherwise they accepted it," she said. Not so some other Chamberlain-watchers. "People asked why I was bringing all this up again. But it's not as if it's . going to go away. Every week I have two or three phone calls iv Yui ~iviii.~ iii-papers, and when they appear, people think you've brought it up. It's not that I choose to keep it in front of me or behind me. It's there. It's part of my life." Writing the book brought back many memories: bitterness at the lies and deceit she encountered during the court cases and inquests, the horror of going to jail (though she made friends with and keeps in contact with a few of the women she met there) but most of all Azaria. No bodily remains have ever been found, and there has never been a tttneral, but Lindy says she has no problems in believing her daughter is dead. "There was such a finality about it on that night. I have never thought that, one day, she will just walk in through the door. "They sent back Azaria's clothes and we thought about burying them. But after all that had happened it seemed wrong to put them in the ground and let them rot. So we sent them to a forensic laboratory's museum section in Melbourne, where scientists have limited access to them. I think it would be more useful, they can at least contribute to science so that if it happens again they will have something to help them, to check them against. And I think it will happen again." Last year there was a handful of dingo attacks on children, and Lindy believes that it's only a matter of time before her nightmare happens to someone else. "People aren't told, there are no signs saying that they are dangerous wild animals. If we had known about the risks, we would have slept the three kids in the car that night and none of this would ever have happened." Slowly, hints of normality are creeping back into their family life. After the publicity tours for the book, Lindy is starting a part-time job helping to promote Australianmade goods. She admits that the family needs the money. Michael resigned as a minister because of the case and their main income at the height of the affair came from selling interviews about their story. Later this year, she plans an exhibition of her art - a previ ously unrevealed talent. But now she can catch up on the time she missed with her family. "N1 e're going to be up and doing things. Between 30 and 40 are probably the best years of your life, and I missed them. But they say life begins at 40, and for me it has. It's all part of your atti tude. You can look back and be absolutely devastated, or you can look forward. You just can't lose time in self-pity." Opening quote from Liudy Chamberlain's autobiography Through my Eyes (published by Heinrmmin m7 7muuan) 29. 1-I4.99). Kahlia and her mother. In prison for three years, Lindy missed her daughter's infancy and saw her first begin to crawl on video. ~jrre ,-p ~s A h~~ Meryl has never been afraid of controversy when the question of women in the film business is raised. She has spoken out on numerous occasions about the lack of good roles for women and she recently hit out at the enormous salary differences between male and female actors. "Take Jack Nicholson, for example," she says. "He got $11 million for Batman! If I asked for that, they'd laugh in my face. Sure, I make enough that nobody's going to weep on my side of the table, but it's outrageous there are different rules for men and women. "Also, you look at the kind of roles women are getting nowadays. They're either hanging off a guy's arm or getting raped and mutilated. If a Martian landed on earth and did nothing but go to the movies, he would think that the chief occupation of women is prostitution. We're just not seeing the equivalent of what I grew up on - women like Greta Garbo, Katharine Hepburn and Carole Lombard." True as that may be, if any actress 8~, r1c. :4 reh;-LX{,t-,y ,9 91 i is going to be offered a role, you can be sure Meryl Streep's name will be high on the director's list. In fact, less commercial films like Plenty and A Cry In The Dark would probably never have been made if she hadn't agreed to be in them. "If it's a good script, I scurry around i trying to get the financing for it. I I want to be proud of my work." She laughs off the often-made comment that her choice of roles reflects her talent for imitating accents. "I just go where I think the writing's best or there's a particular passion I can relate to," she says. "That has nothing to do with what language or accent the character has. Some of my movies like Kramer vs Kramer and The DeerHunter had no accents at all!" Her one major regret is that apart from last year's She-Devil and Postcards From The Edge, her on-screen characters have rarely given her the opportunitv to lighten up for audiences. June Barker Sunday Star REVIEW February 10 1991 s SHE'S been released fromprison and pardoned, but stillAustralian Lindy Chamberlainhas to tell the world shedidn't murder her baby.Jane Kelly reports. ONE might have thought that any woman who had lost a baby, been convicted of that baby's murder, had another baby ripped away from her in prison, and seen her marriage nearly destroyed would be keen to forget the past, to concentrate only on what was left to her. Not so Lindy Chamberlain. Almost ten years after she saw a dingo snatch her nine-week-old daughter Azaria from the family tent at Ayers Rock, Lindy travelled to London to promote her 800-page autobiography, a book that is unflinchingly detailed and selfsearching, and which is bound to raise all the old questions again. Supporters have said she is the victim of the greatest miscarriage of justice in Australian history, but doubts about the Dingo Baby Case will always linger. The blockbuster movie, with her part played by Meryl Streep, left cinema audiences to make up their own minds about what really happened the night Lindy ran from her tent screaming: "My God, my God, the dingo's got my baby!" The suspicion that she did murder Azaria still hangs over her. Although released after serving 32 months in prison, and pardoned, an inquest verdict that Lindy may have killed her baby has never been squashed and she has received no compensation. It is an ordeal that began in the summer of 1980 when Lindy, then 32, and her husband Michael (36), a Searching for truth nd justice TOUGH EXTERIOR ... Lindy Chamberlain evoked mass public hatred while on trial for allegedly murdering her young daughter. pastor with the Seventh-Day Adventist Church in Mount Isa, Queensland, were camping at Ayers Rock with their three children, Aidan (six), Reagan (four), and nine-week-old Azaria. At 8.30pm on August 17, the baby disappeared from the family tent. An inquest in Alice Springs the following February found that Azaria had been killed by dingos. But the next year forensic evidence was produced suggesting that Azaria had been murdered. Pregnant After a second inquest ruled that Lindy could have been the murderer, the case went to trial and Lindy, who was seven months pregnant, was found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment with hard labour. The message of her book is that from the moment she entered that tent at Ayers Rock, Lindy Chamberlain, humdrum housewife, was as dead as the baby in the dingo's jaws. She was replaced by a different woman, hated by her country. As she puts it: "All people saw when they looked at me was a hardfaced, murdering bitch." Meeting her in person, surrounded by her three beautiful, blonde children, it is hard to understand the antipathy she once caused. In Meryl Streep's word she is "teeny and tough", wizened by the sun, a typical outback Aussie. But she believes it was her looks, together with certain circumstances, that condemned her. She says: "My temperament was to blame. My face is severe in repose. I don't look friendly. I don't like showing my emotions and people can perceive me wrongly. I wasn't emotionless, I broke down, but not in public." During the inquest and trial, the press made constant reference to how the couple seemed too calm and composed. They looked odd, and small outback communities do not like "odd" people. Lindy explains: "Mount Isa is a tiny town, there is a lot of crime there and a lot of suspicion. There had been a child murder in the town only a year before and people were anxious." The Chamberlains were the ideal target for hostility because they were from a little-understood religious sect, the Seventh-Day Adventists. "Rumours went around that Adventists performed child sacrifices. They said Azaria meant `sacrifice in the desert'," says Lindy. Strangely, and unluckily, she was also resented by the educated middle classes. For these well-meaning people, infanticide by a white woman was more acceptable than bad publicity for the endangered dingo. T-shirts appeared everwhere with the slogan: "The dingo is innocent". After being found guilty, she was flown more than a thousand kilometres away from her home to begin her sentence in Darwin Prison. On entry, although heavily pregnant, she was watched 24 hours a day. Her baby, Khalia, was taken away from her when she was two days old. She spent three years in the prison which was next to an abattoir. The women were kept awake at night by the sound of pigs being .night By day, in sweltering hot cells, they were physically sick from the smell of offal. She says: "I got my resilience because my father is a minister, and we moved every 12 months. It was a tough upbringing, not much money, lots of hidings. For once my temperament paid off, I knew how to control my face. If you looked afraid, the screws would kick you." Then in February 1986, the miracle happened. British climber David Brett was found dead and partially eaten by dingos on Ayers Rock. Police also found the mati nee jacket Lindy had sworn her baby was wearing when she was killed. One day after this discovery, she was released and went home to pick up the pieces of her shattered life. Her own account of all this, "Through My Eyes", is the story of how a middle class family held together in extraordinary circumstances. When Lindy heard herself declared guilty she instantly offered her husband a divorce, which he refused. And, with the help of the grandparents, he kept the family together. The worst casualty was probably baby Khalia, who spent her infancy divided between her father and foster parents. Lindy said: "When I got home, she did not know me. That was very hard. We had to rebuild our relationship from scratch. My children were left motherless for what stretched into years. God alone knows the hurt that can never be erased." Bitter Ten years after it all began, she is not bitter. She says: "I can never catch up what I missed. Can you turn the clock back? I don't want revenge; I want truth and justice. I want our names cleared, that is why I have written this book." Lindy even allows herself a joke: "Of course, without what happened I would not have got to be played by Meryl Streep in a Hollywood film. She had a hard job. I don't mean she was too tall and blonde, I mean my character was beyond her. I am, what do they say, too complex?" And, for the first time, she flashed a winning smile. It was a spontaneous flash of the charm that she is too honest to produce to order. It is a comment on all of us - because she couldn't dissemble, she could not save herself. Through My Eyes, by Lindy Chamberlain, is published by Heinemann. The Star TONIGtiT! Wednesday February 13 1991 FILM EXTRA Me, c 4c,-",P - a rt By ANDREW McDONALD HOLLYWOOD - Streep says she fears the future. "I'm 41 and, just realistically, the record of work being available for actresses over 40 in Hollywood is not good. Sometimes you feel it's an exercise in futility. I loved `A Cry in the Dark', for instance (the film about the Australian "Dingo Baby" case). I was proud to be in it. But when movies are advertised to reach one segment of the audience - men 16 to 25 and willing girlfriends - what can you do?" - BPI News Wire. QS I 0 -~ 1 1 15 , C,,JE. Sunday Star REVIEW February 17 1991 Art and Entertainment Percy Baneshik Film: Postcards from the Edge Cast: Shirley MacLaine, Meryl Streep, Dennis Quaid Streep, for her part, has departed from the stoically or passionately suffering roles of "Sophie's Choice" and "A Cry in the Dark", and comes on strong here as an actress capable of identifying with a practical character in the real-life story. fti3e 3 GEN'~~700T My hel duur voort din o-vrou PQ Qe I ( Fro . ,1 6 cove r` ARTIKELS 128 Dingo-ma se hel duur voort Loesie Boyle ~~q~ 6' s e s or~~a DOT, v e rag D IS al tien jaar sedert klein Azaria Chamberlain so grusaam gesterf bet in die skadu van die geheimsinnige Avers Rock in die Australiese agterveld - maar haar dood spook nog steeds by haar ma. Lindy Chamberlain weet hoe dit voel om permanent in die beskuldigdebank te staan. Die hof bet bevind dat sy nie haar baba doodgemaak bet nie, maar daar is nog talle mense wat dit net nie wil aanvaar nie. Sy sal nooit toegelaat word om daardie nag te vergeet toe sy haar babadogter se wiegie leeg en vol bloedspatsels in die gesin se vakansietent gekry bet nie. Lindy kan nog goed onthou hoe sy tent toe is om te gaan kvk of haar kind nog rustig slaap, en hoe sy toe 'n dingo gesien het wat in die nag wegsluip met iets in sy bek. Oomhlikke later bet sy besef die nege weke oue Azaria bet verdwyn, en ander kampeerders bet haar beangste gille gehoor: "Die dingo bet ons baba!" In daardie aaklige sekondes bet Lindy haar baba vir ewig verloor, en 'n voortslepende nagmerrie het begin ... vANDAG nog veg sy vir die hof se erkenning van haar aanspraak dat haar "lieflingdogtertjie" deur 'n dingo dood,oemaak is. Hoewel 'n Australiese hof haar vrygespreek bet van die aanklag dat sy haar baba doodgemaak het, word die saak nog steeds as 'n moordgeval beskou. "Al is ek nie meer 'n verdagte nie, is die amptelike mening nog steeds dat my kind vermoor is. Ek weet dis nie waar nie - Azaria is deur 'n dingo weggedra en doodgemaak," hou Lindy vol. Terwyl sy veg om die moord-uitspraak verander te kry, sukkel Lindy nog steeds om die pynlike feit te verwerk dat sy in baie mense se oe vir ewig gebrandmerk sal wees as die gevoellose vrou wat haar baba se keel afgesny het. n Koninklike kommissie bet in 1988 bevind dat sy dit nie gedoen bet nie, nadat sy drie jaar van 'n lewenslange gevangenisstraf vir moord uitgedien bet. Haar man, Michael, is vrygespreek van die aanklag dat hy sy baba se lykie weggemaak het en sy opgeskorte vonnis is opgehef. Maar hul amptelike kwvt skelding van skuld bet nie hul wande stilgemaak nie. In haar roerende outobiografie, Through My Eyes (Heinemann), wat verlede maand in Londen gepubliseer is, skrvf die 43-jarige Lindy: "Hier is ons nou, tien jaar later, en steeds is daar gerugte en agterdog." Waar Lindy ook al gaan, loop sy haar vas teen minagtende mense wat glo sy bet 'n verskriklike daad gepleeg. Partykeer beledig hulle haar op straat of treiter haar deur die geluid van dingo's na te boots. En daar gaan nie 'n week verby dat hulle haar nie be] en uitskel nie. Lindy se sv steur haar nie daaraan nie. maar Michael vind dit geweldig ontstellend. "Hy kan nie glo dat mense so ontsettend wreed kan wees nie," se Lindy. Lindy bet op die harde manier agtergekom hoe wreed mense regtig kan wees. Sy sal byvoorbeeld nooit die dag vergeet toe sy uit die tronk vrvgelaat is nie. Buite bet haar gesin gewag, Michael, seuns, Aiden en Reagan, en dogter, Kahlia, wat in die tronk gebore is. ivlaar ook huite die tronk was 'n klomp van haar landgenote, in `I'hempies met die woorde "Pas op, Kahlia, Mammie kom huis toe" daarop geskryf. Lindy kan die pyn wat sulke herinneringe bring nie wegwens nie, maar sy is vasheslote om ten minste iets te doen aan sommige van die onregte wat haar en haar gesin aangedoen is. Sv wil bv. nie net die moorduitspraak in dood weens 'n dingo laat verander nie, maar ook finansiele vergoeding he. Sy en Michael eis R11 miljoen van die regering van hul deelstaat. "Ons vra net wat ons toekom. Ons wil geld he vir die onreg wat ons aangedoen is. Ek is onskuldig. Die owerheid weet dit." AAR bowenal wil Lindy he die waarheid moet seevier. In die agttien maande dat sy aan haar outobiografie gewerk het, bet sv die tien jaar lange nagmerrie herleef wat begin bet met die verskriklike dood van Azaria -"toe sv dood is, is 'n deel van my dood, en niks sal dit ooit kan verander nie", skryf sy. Dis nie die eerste keer dat die bisarre verhaal vertel word nie. Dwarsoor die wereld het duisende artikels oor die "dingo-baba-moeder" in koerante en tydskrifte verskyn, en daar's selfs 'n fliek gemaak. A Cry in the Dark, met Mervi Streep in die rob van Lindv. "Dis 'n goeie weergawe van wat gebeur het," se Lindy, "maar ek wou mv eie saak sterker stel.'' Dis hoekom sv Through My Eyes geskryf bet, . n boek wat heskrvf word as die verhaal van " 'n doodgewone vrou wat in ongelooflike en tragiese gebeure verstrik geraak bet". In die boek van 768 bladsye word die smart beskrvf van 'n moeder wat haar baba verloor en dan van haar ander kinders geskei en in die tronk gestop word. Die vernietigende uitwerking van haar opspraakwekkende verhoor op haar gesin en veral haar man word ook beskrvf. Michael, wat vroeer 'n selfversekerde predikant van die Sewendedag-Adventiste-kerk was, maak deesdae 'n hestaan uit die kap en verkoop van vuurmaakhout in Cooranhong, waar die Chamberlains woon. "Ons hou net-net kop ho water," se Lindv. Die rolprent is pasweer op TVgesien ... een vandie opspraakwekkendste waredramas van dieafgelope dekade oor'n kind wat volgenshaar ma deur 'ndingo doodgemaakis. Nou het die maself 'n boek geskryfwaarin sy alles 'deurmy oe' herlewe. Envertel van die pynwanneer mense haarsteeds beswadder enbeledig ... Deur LOESJE BOYLE DiNGO"MA SKRYF BOEK 10 jaar van die wreedste onreg 128 Huisgenoor, 21 Februarie 1991 ,I i Fe, br un I q91 LINKS: Lindy Chamberlain en haar man, Michael. ONDER: Meryl Streep as Lindy Chamberlain in die rolprent A Cry in the Dark. persoonlik; dit vertel "die menslike kant van die verhaal - die kant wat mense wat nuus soek, nie raaksien nie". Tog, skryf sy, woorde "is te oppervlakkig om regtig die diepste seerkry te beskryf". Lindy en haar man bet "agt jaar van hel" deurgemaak voordat hulle amptelik gehoor het wat hulle altyd geweet het: dat hulle nie hul babadogter doodgemaak het nie. Maar hul "private hel" sal nooit end kry nie. Daar is dinge, se Lindy, wat hulle nooit sal vergeet nie. "Jy leer om daarmee saam te leef, ja, maar die pyn en die Mense g!o nog ek het my dogtertjie vermoor - Lindy Chamberlain REGS: AyersRock in Australit' waardie dramahom afgespeel bet. T HROUGH MY EYES is ook 'n aanklag teen Australie se polisie en howe. "Ons roem daarop dat iemand onskuldig is totdat die teendeel bewys is," se Lindy in die voorwoord tot haar boek, "maar enigiemand wat al in die beskuldigdebank gestaan het, weet dit beteken eintlik skuldig totdat jou onskuld bewys is." In die boek beskryf sy hoe verskriklik dit is om as 't ware in die media verhoor te word, om, soos sy dit stel, "in klein stukkies opgeskeur te word om die magtige mediamasjien te voer". Sy raai mense aan om nie so "liggelowig" te wees wanneer hulle gerugte hoor nie en om nie ander mense op grond van kwaadwillige skinderstories te veroordeel nie. Wat veral verskriklik was in die afgelope tien jaar, se Lindy, was die onjuiste berigte wat sy oor haar en haar gesin gelees bet. Met haar boek probeer sy hierdie skewe beeld van hulle regstel. Die boek is ook geweldig herinneringe bly." Azaria se lyk is nooit gevind nie. In die nag van haar verdwyning bet driehonderd vakansiegangers die bosse om Ayers Rock sonder sukses gefynkam. 'n Week later is haar klere gevind, vol bloedvlekke, naby 'n dingo-leplek. M Huisgenoot, 21 Februarie 1991 21 February !99/ 129 LEFT: Lindy Chamberlain and her husband, Michael. BELOW: Meryl Streep as Lindy Chamberlain in the film A Cry in the Dark. to go through "eight years of hell" before being officially told what they had always known: that they did not kill their baby girl. But their private hell will never end. There are some things, says Lindy, that they will never forget. "You learn to cope better, sure, but the hurt and the memories still stay." Azaria's body was never found. The night she disap People still believe i killed my baby - Lindy Chamberlain RIGHT: AyersRock inAustralia, thescene of thegruesomedrama. the introduction to her book. "But any person who has been through the system knows this means guilty till proven innocent." The autobiography illustrates the horror of trial by media and of being, in Lindy's words, "torn in shreds to feed the megalomanic media machine". She urges people to be less gullible about rumours and not to judge others on the basis of malicious gossip. One of the hardest things about her 10-year ordeal, says Lindy, has been reading reports about herself and her family which bear no resemblance to reality. Her book is an attempt to correct these distorted impressions. But it is also intensely personal; it tells "the human side of the story - the side that people looking at the news tend to forget". However, Lindy insists, words "just scratch the surface. They do not touch the deepest hurt, which cannot be expressed." Lindy and her husband had a peared, 300 holidaymakers at Ayers Rock searched the surrounding bush with torches but found nothing. A week later the clothes Azaria had been wearing were found, stained with blood, near a dingo lair. ) YOU 21 February 1991 105 'T'S been 10 years since baby Azaria Chamberlain disappeared in the shadow of mysterious Ayers Rock in Australia's outback - but the incident still casts a shadow over many lives and continues to haunt her mother. Lindy Chamberlain knows what it's like to be considered guilty until proven innocent. Even now that the courts have cleared her, many people won't accept that she doesn't have the blood of her infant on her hands. She will never be allowed to forget the night she looked into the family's holiday tent to check on her sleeping baby daughter - and found her crib empty and spattered with blood. On her way to the tent at the Ayers Rock campsite Lindy had noticed a dingo slinking off into the night carrying something in its mouth. Moments later, when she realised nine-week-old Azaria had disappeared, other campers heard Lindy's anguished scream: "The dingo's got the baby!" In those horrifying seconds she lost her baby for ever, and a continuing nightmare began ... Today Lindy is still fighting for legal recognition of her persistent claim that her "darling little girl" was killed by a dingo. Although she has been cleared of murdering her infant, the case is still on record as a murder. "My name has been deleted from the records, but now there is an open murder verdict for my daughter. I know the cause of her death was not murder - Azaria was taken and killed by a dingo," Lindy insists. While she is determined to set the official record straight, Lindy has had to come to terms with the painful fact that in many people's minds she will for ever be branded as a callous woman who slit her baby's throat. A Royal Commission cleared her of the charge in 1988, after she had served three years of a life sentence for murder. Her husband Michael was cleared of the charge that he had disposed of his dead baby's body and his suspended sentence was lifted. But their official pardon has not silenced their public enemies. In her touching autobiography Through My Eyes (Heinemann) published in London last month, 43-year-old Lindy says: "So here we are, 10 years later, and still the rumours and suspicion continue." Wherever she goes Lindy is confronted by the hurtful scorn of people who believe she is guilty of a hideous crime. They insult her in the streets or taunt her by imitating the noise made by dingoes; they call her on the telephone. Lindy says she still receives several abusive calls a week. She shrugs them off defiantly, but Michael finds them deeply upsetting. "He can't believe people can be so dreadfully cruel," says Lindy. She knows only too well just how cruel they can be. She will never forget, for example, the T-shirts worn by some Australians when she was released from jail to be reunited with Michael and their sons Aiden and Reagan, and daughter Kahlia, born in prison. Printed on the T-shirts were the words: "Watch out, Kahlia, Mummy's Coming Home." In the face of such painful memories, Lindy is determined to see justice done - and she wants financial compensation for the injustices she has suffered. The Chamberlains are claiming R11 million compensation from the Northern Territory government. "We want our due from them," Lindy says. "We are claiming payment for the wrong that has been done to us. I am innocent. The authorities know that." But perhaps most of all, Lindy wants the truth to be known. It took 18 months to write her autobiography and in the process she relived the 10year nightmare which began with the loss of Azaria. "When she died part of me died, and nothing will ever alter that fact," she writes. The bizarre story has been told many times. Newspapers and magazines throughout the world have carried countless articles about the "Dingo Baby Mum", and the story has been made into the film A Cry In The Dark with Meryl Streep playing Lindy. "It tells the story well," says Lindy, "but I wanted to put my own case more strongly." Through My Eyes is described as an account of "an ordinary woman caught up in extraordinary and tragic events". The 768-page book tells of a mother who loses her baby and and is then separated from her husband and surviving children while she is behind bars. It tells too of the destructive effect the sensational trial had on her family, in particular her husband. Michael, once a confident Seventh Day Adventist minister, has given up preaching and today cuts and sells firewood in Cooranbong where the Chamberlains live. "We only just manage to keep our heads above water," says Lindy. Through My Eyes is also an indictment of Australia's police force and courts. "We pride ourselves on saying someone is innocent till proven guilty," says Lindy in Accused ofmurdering herinfant daughter,Lindy Chamberlain went to jailprotesting herinnocence. Sheserved three yearsbefore she wasdeclared innocentand set free. Buteven today, 10years on, there arethose who don'tbelieve her.Australia's mostcelebrated real-lifedrama has beentelevised andmade into afeature film. Now,in a new book,Lindy tells of her10 years of hell ... GOMUM wRITES BO~K DIN Innocent: but my hell goes on By LOESJE BOYLE 104 YOU 21 February 1991 STERRE-RAAI 30 STARCROSS Die wenner van 'n stel Barotti-kantoormeubels van soliede eikehout en 'n skildery wat in opdrag deur die kunstenaar Willie Ploner geskilder sal word, is N MAREE, Lynnwood Glen. Hierdie waardevolle prys is in Januarie 1991 se Programgids aangebied. Die korrekte antwoorde was: 1. Empire of the Sun. 2. Maureen Stapleton. 3. Jonathan Silverman. 4. A Cry in the Dark. 5. Fats Domino. 6. Sam Neill. 7. Bob Dishy. 8. Dudley Moore. 9. Nuts. March '91 02 Maart '91 M--NET C40d ~,,I e Sunday Star. REVIEW March 24 1991 Film: The Russia House ------- __ - Director: Fred Schepisi Rina Minervini An almost genial cynicism, represented by the espionage gentlemen on all sides of the fence, is pitted against simple (even simplistic) decency, represented by Barley and Katya (Connery and Pfeiffer). These two innocents find themselves trying to manoeuvre in the very small space left between the spy bosses of three countries and a military scientist (Brandauer) who is trying to get Russia's defence secrets published in the West. And, of course, they fall in love while doing so - which is nice for the romantics among us. The love affair, like the espionage plot, is given an understated treatment by director Fred Schepisi, who, I suspect, may be something of an idealist himself. No sweaty clinches for the lovers, and the spies are not monsters of evil, just men of expediency. He films the story stylishly and at an even pace, allowing time to enjoy a setting that is everything the armchair traveller could wish: London, Lisbon, Moscow and Leningrad, all magnificently filmed by director of photography Ian Baker. "More cutbacks." Sunddy'Star COMICS Ma"rch 24'1991 VIDEOS BY MOTHIBI MTHETHWA Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Streep) in "A Cry in the Dark". Movie: A CRY IN THE DARKStarring: MERYL STREEP,SAM NEILL Lindy Chamberlain (Meryl Strcep) was accused of murdering her baby daughter. Her daughter had been dragged off by wild dingo dogs while the family was on a pleasure trip. In one of the world's most publicised court cases, the facts concerning Lindy's baby's disappearance were resolved after Lindy spent several years behind bars. Angered by media and world prejudice, she manages to clear her name. This is a dramatic, true story about a very brave woman. PACE April 1991 153 By Michael Sheather Pictures: Jason Capobianco and courtesy the Chamberlain family The Chamberlains are afamily defined in the eyesof the Australian public bya single event - the dingobaby case. It's only now thatLindy's daughter, Kahlia, isfinally finding her placein the world of her sister has haunted her family for almost 25 years RESSED in a black vest top, shorts and hiking boots, Kahlia Chamberlain readies herself for her mis sion. She's determined to finally crest Ayers Rock (Uluru), the landmark in Australia's red heart from which her elder sister, Azaria, disappeared 24 years ago. It's not the Rock she's conquering as much as the past. Eleven years ago, Kahlia, then 10, set out with much the same objective - to reach the top of the rock that has dominated so much of her family's life. But on that day in 1993 Kahlia failed. She made only a few tentative steps up the slope before she collapsed in tears, shaken by the realisation of her family's grief and the enormous emotional toll Azaria's tragic disappearance has wrung, and continues to wring, from them. This is a girl who was born while her mother was in custody wrongly accused of murder and whose life has been shaped by the tragic death of her sister. "When I came out here the first time I was still a little girl," 21-yearold Kahlia explains. "Until that moment I'd always had a sense that what happened to my family here was in some way not real, not part of my life. It was a story I'd heard over and over but it was like looking at the moon - I knew what it looked like but I'd never been there. "But when I was faced with the reality of the Rock for the first time it was real. It suddenly welled up inside me and as I climbed I started to cry. I sat with Mum until I stopped crying and then we came down. We walked around and I started to ask questions about what had happened. I'd never asked questions about that night before but I asked them then." FA-')R Kahlia Chamberlain that mc _)ment was the beginning of a jot.irney that continues to this day, brorzght into even sharper focus b,v recent sensational claims about Azaria's disappearance by a Melbourne pensioner. The Chamberlains are a family defined in the eyes of the public by a single event, a tragedy that entwined them, consumed them and, finally, reshaped them in a struggle that seemingly never ends. Kahlia is a forthright young woman who is only now finally coming to terms with the ordeal her family has been through. As a child she endured her parents' bitter divorce and the emotional confusion of divided loyalties. As a teenager she suffered years of dislocation and doubt after a traumatic move back from her new home in the United States to Australia, where she found herself the centre of hurtful rumours because of Lindy's infamous reputation. There were also times of guilt, flowing from the fact that she had not suffered as much as the rest of her family. It's only now that Kahlia is finally finding her place in the world as she defines a career and a future for herself. The mystery, drama and uncertainty that shrouds the Chamberlain case has always held a grim fascination. Azaria, only nine-and-a-half weeks old, disappeared on 17 August 1980 from the family's tent at a campsite near Uluru, then known as Ayers Rock. Azaria's mother, Lindy, claimed a dingo had taken the child and the case caused a sensation. Lindy was convicted of Azaria's murder and sentenced to life imprisonment before a 1986 inquiry set her free. Recently that fascination peaked once again when 78-year-old pensioner Frank Cole claimed he and some friends found baby Azaria's body in the mouth of a dingo he shot at Uluru on the night she disappeared in 1980. He claims they secretly buried the baby's body in the backyard of a Melbourne house. There have even been wild suggestions that Azaria may still be alive, living in the outback. But for Kahlia, the youngest child of Lindy and her ex-husband Michael Chamberlain, the claims are just that - claims that wash against the wall of an emotional defence system she set in place years ago. "I don't allow myself to have a reaction when things such as this surface," she says. "There has been too much pain, too much anguish for my family, to allow something like this to affect me. I see this only through their eyes and how it affects them. "At this point it seems there are too many inconsistencies in these stories for them to be true. I'm sure they'll be investigated but I'm not suddenly holding out hope that it's all going to be wrapped up in some neat little package." Even so the claim that Azaria may still be alive intrigues her. (Turn over) MAIN PICTURE: Kahlia Chamberlain at Ayers Rock, where her sister, Azaria, disappeared 24 years ago. INSET: The poster for A Cry in the Dark, the Hollywood movie in which Meryl Streep and Sam Neill portrayed Kahlia's parents, Lindy and Michael Chamberlain. BELOW RIGHT: Kahlia, then four days old, and her mom after Lindy was freed on bail in 1982. Soon afterwards her appeal was rejected and she was sent back to jail. (From previous page) "I simply don't know how I would react if that was found to be correct, as improbable as it seems. I think it would be almost too much for us to handle. Everything I have known and accepted during my life would be thrown up in the air. In some ways it could be frightening." These latest sensations, Kahlia says, are simply more ripples on the pond, unsettling sensations she has learnt to shut out over the years for her self-preservation. "The repercussions of Azaria's disappearance and the court case are never-ending. Just when I think that it might finally be over it comes back or starts again from another direction. I think in that kind of environment it's pretty natural that we'd put up walls, that we'd lock out as much as we can the things that have potential to hurt us." KAHLIA has lived with hurt for most of her life. She was born in the most traumatic of circumstances, delivered to her mother under prison guard on 17 November 1982. Warders were under orders to separate the mother and child immediately but sympathetic guards allowed the pair to bond for nearly an hour. "Then I was told by the warder it was time to leave," Lindy recalls. "I put Kahlia down myself rather than back from jail she was very much the princess who got whatever she wanted. Just a few days after I was released we got into the car on our way to an interview. It was our first outing as a family and Kahlia refused to sit in the back seat. I tried to explain that I was the mummy and I should sit in front. Finally, I persuaded her to sit on the floor between my legs. As we drove off she bit me." It took time to rekindle the normal bonds between mother and child. The dislocation was exacerbated by Lindy's time in jail which gave a hard edge to her strong personality. On her release Lindy resumed the role of disciplinarian as she tried to re-establish routine and normalcy. "My dad was always the cuddly one," Kahlia recalls. "I loved my mother very much and I was glad she was finally home but Mum became the one who always said 'no'. As the youngest and the only girl in the family I always got what I wanted which isn't healthy. I was so little and I sometimes thought Mum was really mean, though I loved her dearly and she was only trying to do what was best for me." The real test of their relationship came in 1989 when Lindy and Michael's marriage broke down. Kahlia, then seven, was old enough to understand that her parents didn't want to be together anymore but still too young to avoid being caught in the crossfire. "I was torn in two directions," she recalls. "I remember the fights. Mum sat us down and told us. I cried and cried. All I wanted was for them to stay together. Mum moved into the spare bedroom and we lived like that, all in the same house, for almost 12 months." As Lindy initiated the split she also bore the blame in Kahlia's young mind. "I saw her saying 'enough is enough'. I saw her saying 'no', that, it was over and so, for me, it was her fault," Kahlia says. "I blamed her though I now know that wasn't fair." The divorce became final in 1991. Kahlia wanted her mother's love and her father's. When she was with Lindy, Kahlia told her she wanted to be with her. When she was with Michael, she told him the have them take her from me. I walked out and didn't look back. I lost a piece of my soul that day and no one can ever give it back to me or to Kahlia. That was the true crime of what happened to us as a family." Though Kahlia and Lindy were reunited a few days later, after Lindy's release pending an appeal, the hurt ran deep. When Lindy was imprisoned a second time after her appeal failed, Kahlia went to live with a foster family Her father, Michael, looked after the couple's sons, Aidan and Reagan, at their home on the New South Wales Central Coast, but a three-month old babv was more than he could cope with. The foster family were new family friends, Wayne and Jenny Miller. "I don't remember much from that period of my life," says Kahlia who visited her mother only rarely because of distance and expense. "What I do remember, or at least BELOW: For think I remember, are photographs Kahlia Ayers of Mommy pinned up on a board. Rock wasn't just I'd point to her and say, 'That's my something to Mommy.' I say I think I remember climb, it was a because I've heard the story so landmark that many times that maybe it's a mem had to be con- ory I've created for myself because quered so she I have no other memories of my could make mother from that time." peace with her Eleven months later, when Wayne past. and Jenny moved to Brisbane, Kah lia's care fell to other foster parents, Jan and Owen Hughes. "The awful irony is that my life has been blessed in some ways because of the traumas my family has suffered," Kahlia says. "It sounds terrible but I was blessed with having the Millers and the Hughes care for me. My network of people whom I can love and be loved back is greater than most people. In some ways it has actually enhanced my life, not detracted from it." Yet in other ways the effects have been far from positive. When Lindy was released in 1986 after Azaria's matinee jacket was found at Uluru she came home to a family in disarray. Although she and Kahlia had forged the foundations of a relationship - as much as they could when their only time together was in a jail - the road to harmony was long. "She was always very independent," recalls Lindy. "When I came same. It led to a custody dispute. "Finally I realised what was happening," Lindy says. "I asked Kahlia what she really wanted. She's always been a very mature girl but she needed to sort out in her own mind what her path would be. As difficult as it was, I was quite prepared for her sake to let her live with Michael if that's what she wanted." "When Mom spoke to me she said, this is what has happened, we both still love you. Nothing bad was said about Dad," Kahlia explains. "And when I spoke to Dad, he exhibited his anger more - not in a violent way - but in the way he said things such as, 'This is what Mummy is doing to me', that he'd been hard done by. I tried not to have opinions about that." A few months after the divorce, La-idy met and fell in love with an. 'lmerican sales manager, Rick Crr_lghton, during a trip to Seattle. Lin-ay and Reagan planned to move to the US to be with Rick. Kahlia finally decided she wanted to live witi ~ her mother - but she had to tell her father. "That was difficult. I remember being afraid of telling Dad what I wanted, not because I was fright ened but because I didn't want to hurt him. It was an awful situation but he accepted it though in some ways it changed our relationship. "With hindsight Mum and Dad's divorce was for the best. I don't have a happy memory that actually involves both of them. I have happy memories but they are either with Mum or with Dad, never of the two of them together. In the end I made the best decision to grow up with Mum." During nearly six years in the US Kahlia blossomed. She did well at school and excelled in science, figuring on a career in chemistry. And it was during this period that she finally got to know her mother. "We got a chance to form a real motherdaughter relationship," Kahlia says. "That's when I really got to know her as a person and that person is wonderful and loving." AT the end of 1998 Lindy and Rick decided to return to Australia. It was a decision that shocked Kahlia. "I was devastated," she recalls. "I had a life and a set of friends whom I loved. I considered myself an American, not an Australian, and my whole life was being uprooted. I didn't want to go." It was a traumatic transition for a young girl. Rick and Lindy settled in Cooranbong, New South Wales, the largely Seventh Day Adventist community that had been there to help Lindy and Michael through the worst of their experiences. Michael had remarried, to Ingrid Bergner, the mother of one of Kahlia's close friends, and also lived there. "When we came to Australia I hated it," Kahlia says. "Suddenly everyone knew who I was. I'd forgotten. I thought everyone else would have forgotten as well. I couldn't believe that they hadn't. "I felt very alone and found it difficult to make new friends. I can remember coming home and sitting on Rick's knee and sobbing for what seemed like hours because I didn't have any friends." She also had to put up with the gossip and speculation that surrounded her mother. "I was too young to know that had happened before. But when I came back it was all too clear to me. People related to me not because I was Kahlia but because I was Lindy Chamberlain's daughter. That was very difficult, not just for me, but for Mum and Rick too. Almost everything Mum did she was criticised for and that meant she was very strict with me. I had to wear the right clothes and behave in the right way otherwise people would take the opportunity to pass judgments about Mum." Kahlia became the subject of gossip. When she started dating, just before her 16th birthday, many took the opportunity to attack Lindy as being an irresponsible mother. "The criticisms started coming back to Mum but to her credit she stood up for me," she says. "It wasn't going back to her as 'This is what your daughter is doing'. It was going back to her as 'This is what your daughter is doing. How could you have raised her that way?' It was a judgment about me but it was more a judgment about her. I was furious." High school was difficult for Kahlia. She felt lost and burdened by her mother's reputation. It made her introspective and caused her a great deal of angst. After completing school she moved out of home and took a job as a nursing assistant in a Sydney old age home. "It was a strange time for me. I had many problems coming to terms with who I was and what I wanted out of life. I had great difficulty meeting people with whom I had any kind of meaningful relationship. I'd introduce myself only as Kahlia and wouldn't tell people my full name in case they judged me by that. Sometimes I might know people for a year before I trusted them enough to tell them who I really was. "After such a long time of being careful about what I said I got exhausted and decided to fly in the opposite direction, becoming more open which is where I am today." All around her were reminders of the past. In 2001 Kahlia began studying for a nursing degree. "People don't always make the connection," she says. "But because I wear a name tag sometimes they do. When they realise who I am they ask me about my mum or what she's doing or whether she's still married. (Turn over) 6As we drove away Kahlia bit me 9 www.you.co.za 6 January 2005 47 (From previous page) Sometimes people assume they have a right to know, but they don't. "What I'm most often asked is what my mother is really like. The most honest answer I can give is that she's easy to love and respect but not always easy to like. "And I think that is what obviously resulted in her being so publicly hated as well. She's wonderful but you kind of have to get to know her before you realise that. "We have a fabulous relationship now. I look back to when I thought she was being hard and I realise I had a distorted view of her. "Children don't always understand everything that is going on and I know I made many wrong assumptions about her." She says welcoming Rick into the family has changed her life. "Rick is one of the people I hold in the highest regard. That's the same answer Aidan would give and that Reagan would give. He's somebody we really trust and respect, more than almost anybody else I can think of." THE Azaria Chamberlain story has become part of Australia's social fabric. Jokes are made about the "dingo lady" almost every day. Sometimes they're made in front of Kahlia. "One day I was at a hospital and a doctor asked me where I was from. I said, 'Cooranbong' and he made a crack about watching out for the 'dingo lady'. I looked at him and said, `You mean my mother?' He didn't know who I was. To his credit he apologised and said he was wrong. He said he'd never say anything like that again, not in front of me, not in front of anyone." There are times, such as Azaria's birthday, which make Kahlia reflective and she thinks about her older sister but those thoughts are always tinged with a disquieting notion that if Azaria were still alive she might not be. "If she hadn't died, then there's every chance that I might not be here," she says. "When I was little I used to think about what it would be like to have a big sister and wish she could be around as I grew older. But I also thought at the time maybe that meant I wouldn't have 481 16 January 2005 www.you.co.za been here. "That's when the selfishness kicks in and I start thinking about how I really like my life and who I am now. The hard fact is that I have done nothing but benefit because I'm alive. The major impact I've had is to witness the pain it has caused my family and continues to cause my family. "I wasn't as sensitive to their feelings as I could have been when I was growing up. It took me until I was a teenager before I began to be sensitive to the rest of my family because it wasn't a sensitive point for me. It took me until I went to Uluru, until I started sifting through some of the feelings I'd denied for so long, to have sensitivity for Mom, Aidan, Reagan and Dad. I wasn't there and it didn't happen to me ... but it did happen to them. That was a big realisation." That's part of the reason that walking to the top of Uluru was important for Kahlia. Finishing the climb gave her a sense of completion, a sense that perhaps life was turning full circle. "There was a time when I didn't like this place," she says. "In a way I blamed the Rock, where it all became real for me. The Rock, for me, became a bad place but with maturity those feelings have dissipated. "I now see it for what it is - beautiful and not responsible. And that's because I have changed. I know you have to take what is good from life and leave behind the things that hurt you." o The Azaria ChamiM saga 17 AUGUST 1980 Azaria, infant daughter of Seventh Day Adventist pastor Michael Chamberlain and his wife Lindy, disappears at Uluru. 20 FEBRUARY 1981 Alice Springs Coroner Denis Barritt finds a wild dog or dingo took Azaria and that the Chamberlains were not responsible. 20 NOVEMBER 1981 The inquest finding is quashed after police and the Northern Territory government launch a new investigation. 2 FEBRUARY 1982 The second inquest commits Lindy Chamberlain to trial on the charge of murdering Azaria. Michael Chamberlain is charged as an accessory. 29 OCTOBER 1982 The Chamberlains are found guilty in the Northern Territory Supreme Court. Lindy, heavily pregnant, is sentenced to life imprisonment. Michael receives a suspended 18-month sentence. 17 NOVEMBER 1982 Kahlia is born to Lindy Charmberlain after a painful delivery in Darwin Hospital. The baby is taken from her mother one hour after her birth. 20 NOVEMBER 1982 Lindy is released from Darwin Prison on bail pending an appeal. 29 APRIL 1983 The court rejects the appeal and Lindy goes back to prison. 2 FEBRUARY 1986 A baby's jacket, identified as the one Azaria wore on the night she vanished, is found near Uluru. 7 FEBRUARY 1986 The Northern Territory remits Lindy Chamberlain's life sentence and releases her from prison. 2 JUNE 1987 The Morling Royal Commission throws out the Chamberlains' convictions and finds there is support for the view that Azaria was taken by a dingo. 15 SEPTEMBER 1988 The Supreme Court of Darwin quashes the Chamberlains' convictions and declares them innocent. 13 DECEMBER 1995 A third inquest clears the Chamberlains and delivers an open finding as to the cause of Azaria's death. 6Mom's easyto lovebut notalwayseasy tolikO ) MICHAEL SHEATHERIAUSTRALIAN WOMEN'SWEEKLY/ACP SYNDICATION	Evil Angels (film)
Historically known as 'Spirit of Amber', which acid is procured from Amber by pulverising and distilling it?	Meryl Streep - Unionpedia, the concept map Meryl Streep Mary Louise "Meryl" Streep (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress. [1] A Series of Unfortunate Events A Series of Unfortunate Events is a series of 13 children's novels by Lemony Snicket (the pen name of American author Daniel Handler) which follows the turbulent lives of Violet, Klaus, and Sunny Baudelaire after their parents' death in a fire. AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role The AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role is an award presented by the Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts (AACTA), a non-profit organisation whose aim is to "identify, award, promote and celebrate Australia's greatest achievements in film and television." The award is presented at the annual AACTA Awards, which hand out accolades for achievements in feature film, television, documentaries and short films. 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The Recipient is selected and honored at a ceremony annually, with the award presented by a master of ceremonies and recently, the prior year's recipient, who usually gives a brief synopsis of the awarded individual and career background including highlights and achievements. The Trustees initially specified that the recipient must be one who fundamentally advanced the art of film and whose achievements had been acknowledged by the general public as well as by film scholars and critics and the individual's peers. The Trustees also specified that the work of the recipient must have withstood the test of time. BIFA Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a British Independent Film The British Independent Film Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a British Independent Film is an annual award given to the Best Actress who starred in a British independent film. 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Death of Azaria Chamberlain Azaria Chantel Loren Chamberlain (11 June 1980 – 17 August 1980) was an Australian baby girl who was killed by a dingo on the night of 17 August 1980 on a family camping trip to Uluru (at that date known as Ayers Rock) in the Northern Territory. Defending Your Life Defending Your Life is a 1991 romantic comedy-fantasy film about a man who dies and arrives in the afterlife only to find that he must stand trial and justify his lifelong fears in order to advance to the next phase of life; or be sent back to earth to do it again. Didi Tera Devar Deewana "Didi Tera Devar Deewana" (translation: "Sister your brother-in-law is crazy") is a 1994 Bollywood song from the musical romantic film Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!, sung by Lata Mangeshkar and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam with music composed by Raamlaxman and lyrics penned by Dev Kohli. Dingoes ate my baby "A dingo ate my baby" is a phrase attributed to Lindy Chamberlain and also to Meryl Streep's depiction of Chamberlain in the movie A Cry in the Dark (1988)also known as Evil Angelsabout the death of Azaria Chamberlain, an Australian baby girl who died in 1980 at Uluru in the Northern Territory. Dusty Ellis Sherri Lou "Dusty" Ellis (October 13, 1953 – November 2, 2012) was an American woman known for her involvement in the Kerr-McGee plutonium plant criminal case of the 1970s when she and her roommate Karen Silkwood became activists and nuclear whistleblowers after both of their bodies tested positive for plutonium contamination. Elisabeth Shue Elisabeth Judson Shue (born October 6, 1963) is an American actress, known for her roles in the films The Karate Kid (1984), Adventures in Babysitting (1987), Cocktail (1988), Back to the Future Part II (1989), Back to the Future Part III (1990), Leaving Las Vegas (1995), The Saint (1997), and Hollow Man (2000). Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film The Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film (official name: Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television) is one of the annual television awards given by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical The Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy was first awarded by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association as a separate category in 1951. Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children The Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children was an honor presented at the Grammy Awards, a ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards, to recording artists for works containing quality "spoken word" performances aimed at children. 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Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (soundtrack) Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events is the soundtrack, on the Sony Classical label, of the 2004 Academy Award-winning film Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events starring Jim Carrey, Meryl Streep, Catherine O'Hara, Billy Connolly, Liam Aiken and Emily Browning. Lindsay Lohan Lindsay Dee Lohan (born July 2, 1986) is an American actress, singer, songwriter, model, director and producer, whose career has included critical and popular success in her youth, followed by a period of substance abuse and legal troubles that have been well-documented in the tabloids. List of Academy Award Best Actress winners by age This is a list of winners of the Academy Award for Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role, presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) to an actress who has delivered an outstanding performance while working within the film industry. List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) has presented their annual Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, since 1929. List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has given Academy Awards to actors and actresses for their performances in films since its inception. List of Australian films Australian filmmakers were at the forefront of cinema and film, having created what is considered the first feature length narrative film with the release of The Story of the Kelly Gang and other early films by directors John Gavin, W. J. Lincoln and Alfred Rolfe. List of Best Supporting Actress winners by age This is a list of winners of the Academy Award for Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role, presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) to an actress who has delivered an outstanding performance while working within the film industry. List of fictional journalists Attributing the profession of journalist to a fictional character allows many possibilities for the author: reporters may travel extensively and face adventures (like Tintin), are among the first to have news of disasters and crimes (like Clark "Superman" Kent and Peter "Spider-Man" Parker), and are supposed to be good at establishing communication. List of movies with more than one Academy Award nomination in the same category Here are a list of movies with more than one Academy Award nomination in the same category, starting with the category for Best Actor in A Leading Role and ending with the category for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. List of people who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy, and Tony Awards Twelve people have won all four major annual American entertainment awards in a competitive, individual (non-group), category: the Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony. List of recurring Saturday Night Live characters and sketches by cast member The following are the most frequent recurring characters and celebrity impressions on Saturday Night Live listed by cast member. List of voice actors Voice acting is the art of providing voices for animated characters (in cartoons, video games, puppet shows, radio, audio books, amusement rides, computer programs, etc.) Eligible for this list: Anyone who has contributed in some way to the voice acting field whether they are an actor, politician, television personality or any other type of celebrity. London Film Critics Circle Awards 2003 24th London Film Critics Circle Awards 11 February 2004 ---- Film of the Year: Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World ---- British Film of the Year: The Magdalene Sisters The 24th London Film Critics Circle Awards, honouring the best in film for 2003, were announced by the London Film Critics Circle on 11 February 2004. London Film Critics Circle Awards 2006 27th London Film Critics Circle Awards 8 February 2007 ---- Film of the Year: United 93 ---- British Film of the Year: The Queen The 27th London Film Critics Circle Awards, honouring the best in film for 2006, were announced by the London Film Critics Circle on 8 February 2007. London Film Critics Circle Awards 2008 29th London Film Critics Circle Awards 4 February 2009 ---- Film of the Year: The Wrestler ---- British Film of the Year: Slumdog Millionaire The 29th London Film Critics Circle Awards, honouring the best in film for 2008, were announced by the London Film Critics Circle on 4 February 2009. London Film Critics Circle Awards 2009 30th London Film Critics Circle Awards 18 February 2010 ---- Film of the Year: A Prophet ---- British Film of the Year: Fish Tank The 30th London Film Critics Circle Awards, honouring the best in film for 2009, were announced by the London Film Critics Circle on 18 February 2010. London Film Critics Circle Awards 2011 32nd London Film Critics Circle Awards 19 January 2012 ---- Film of the Year: The Artist ---- British Film of the Year: We Need to Talk About Kevin The 32nd London Film Critics Circle Awards, honouring the best in film for 2011, were announced by the London Film Critics Circle on 19 January 2012. Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture The Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild to honor the finest acting achievements in film. Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role The Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild to honor the finest acting achievements in film. Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie The Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild to honor the finest acting achievements in miniseries or television movie. Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role The Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild to honor the finest acting achievements in film. 1998 in film The year 1998 in film involved many significant films including; Shakespeare in Love (which won the Academy Award for Best Picture), Saving Private Ryan, American History X, The Truman Show, Primary Colors, ''Rushmore'', Rush Hour, There's Something About Mary, The Big Lebowski, and Terrence Malick's directorial return in The Thin Red Line. 1999 in film The year 1999 in film included Stanley Kubrick's final film Eyes Wide Shut, Pedro Almodóvar's first Oscar-winning film All About My Mother, the science-fiction hit The Matrix, the Deep Canvas-pioneering Tarzan and Best Picture-winner American Beauty, as well as critically acclaimed animated works The Iron Giant, Toy Story 2 and South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. 40th Golden Globe Awards 40thGolden Globe Awards January 29, 1983 ---- Picture - Drama: E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Tootsie ---- TV Series - Drama: Hill Street Blues ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: Fame The 40th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1982, were given on 29 January 1983. 41st Golden Globe Awards 41stGolden Globe Awards January 28, 1984 ---- Picture - Drama: Terms of Endearment ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Yentl ---- TV Series - Drama: Dynasty ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: Fame The 41st Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1983, were held on January 28, 1984. 43rd Golden Globe Awards 43rdGolden Globe Awards January 24, 1986 ---- Picture - Drama: Out of Africa ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Prizzi's Honor ---- TV Series - Drama: Murder, She Wrote ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: The Golden Girls The 43rd Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1985, were held on January 24, 1986. 46th Golden Globe Awards 46thGolden Globe Awards January 28, 1989 ---- Picture - Drama: Rain Man ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Working Girl ---- TV Series - Drama: Thirtysomething ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: The Wonder Years The 46th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1988, were held on January 28, 1989. 47th Golden Globe Awards 47thGolden Globe Awards January 20, 1990 ---- Picture - Drama: Born on the Fourth of July ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Driving Miss Daisy ---- TV Series - Drama: China Beach ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: Murphy Brown The 47th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1989, were held on January 20, 1990. 48th Golden Globe Awards 48thGolden Globe Awards January 19, 1991 ---- Picture - Drama: Dances With Wolves ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Green Card ---- TV Series - Drama: Twin Peaks ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: Cheers The 48th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1990, were held on January 19, 1991. 50th Golden Globe Awards 50thGolden Globe Awards January 23, 1993 ---- Picture - Drama: Scent of a Woman ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: The Player ---- TV Series - Drama: Northern Exposure ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: Roseanne ---- Miniseries or TV Movie: Sinatra The 50th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1992, were held on Saturday January 23, 1993. 51st Academy Awards The 51st Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored films released in 1978 and took place on April 9, 1979, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 7:00 p.m. PST / 10:00 p.m. EST. 60th Golden Globe Awards 60thGolden Globe Awards January 19, 2003 ---- Picture - Drama: The Hours ---- Picture - Comedy or Musical: Chicago ---- TV Series - Drama: The Shield ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: Curb Your Enthusiasm The 60th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 2002, were held on January 19, 2003 in the Beverly Hilton Hotel, Beverly Hills, California. 61st Academy Awards The 61st Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 1988, and took place on Wednesday, March 29, 1989, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, beginning at 6:00 p.m. PST/ 9:00 p.m. EST. 61st Golden Globe Awards 61stGolden Globe Awards January 25, 2004 ---- Picture - Drama: The Lord of the Rings:The Return of the King ---- Picture - Comedy or Musical: Lost in Translation ---- TV Series - Drama: 24 ---- TV Series - Musical or Comedy: The Office The 61st Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 2003, were held on January 25, 2004 at the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King won the most awards, with 4 (including Best Motion Picture - Drama). 66th Golden Globe Awards 66thGolden Globe Awards January 11, 2009 ---- Picture - Drama: Slumdog Millionaire ---- Picture - Musical or Comedy: Vicky Cristina Barcelona ---- TV Series - Drama: Mad Men ---- TV Series - Musical / Comedy: 30 Rock ---- Miniseries or TV Movie: John Adams The 66th Golden Globe Awards Ceremony, honoring the best in film and television of 2008, was broadcast on January 11, 2009, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, United States on the NBC TV network. 67th Golden Globe Awards 67thGolden Globe Awards January 17, 2010 ---- Motion Picture – Drama: Avatar ---- Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy: The Hangover ---- Director: James Cameron ---- TV Series – Drama: Mad Men ---- TV Series – Musical / Comedy: Glee ---- Miniseries or television film: Grey Gardens The 67th Golden Globe Awards was telecasted live from the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California on Sunday, January 17, 2010 by NBC, from 5:00 PM – 8:00 PM (PST) and 8:00PM – 11:00 PM (EST) (01:00–04:00 Monday January 18 UTC). 68th Academy Awards The 68th Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 1995 in the United States and took place on March 25, 1996, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 6:00 p.m. PST / 9:00 p.m. EST. 69th Golden Globe Awards 69thGolden Globe Awards January 15, 2012 ---- Picture – Drama: The Descendants ---- Picture – Musical or Comedy: The Artist ---- TV Series – Drama: Homeland ---- TV Series – Musical / Comedy: Modern Family ---- Mini-Series or TV Movie: Downton Abbey The 69th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television of 2011, were broadcast live from the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California on January 15, 2012, by NBC. 70th Golden Globe Awards 70thGolden Globe Awards January 13, 2013 ---- Picture – Drama: Argo ---- Picture – Musical or Comedy: Les Misérables ---- TV Series – Drama: Homeland ---- TV Series – Musical or Comedy: Girls ---- Mini-Series or TV Movie: Game Change The 70th Golden Globe Awards honoring the best in film and television of 2012, was broadcast live from the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California on January 13, 2013, by NBC. 71st Academy Awards The 71st Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best of 1998 in film and took place on March 21, 1999, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. 71st Golden Globe Awards 71stGolden Globe Awards January 12, 2014 ---- Picture – Drama: 12 Years a Slave ---- Picture – Musical or Comedy: American Hustle ---- TV Series – Drama: Breaking Bad ---- TV Series – Musical or Comedy: Brooklyn Nine-Nine ---- Mini-Series or TV Movie: Behind the Candelabra The 71st Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and American television of 2013, was broadcast live from the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, on January 12, 2014, by NBC, as part of the 2013-14 film awards season. 72nd Academy Awards The 72nd Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored films released in 1999 and took place on March 26, 2000, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. 72nd Golden Globe Awards 72ndGolden Globe Awards January 11, 2015 ---- Picture – Drama: Boyhood ---- Picture – Musical or Comedy: The Grand Budapest Hotel ---- TV Series – Drama: The Affair ---- TV Series – Musical or Comedy: Transparent ---- Mini-Series or TV Movie: Fargo The 72nd Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and American television of 2014, was broadcast live from the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California on January 11, 2015, by NBC. 81st Academy Awards The 81st Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2008 and took place on February 22, 2009, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. 82nd Academy Awards The 82nd Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2009 and took place on March 7, 2010, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. 84th Academy Awards The 84th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2011 in the United States and took place on February 26, 2012, at the Hollywood and Highland Center Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. 86th Academy Awards The 86th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films released in 2013 and took place March 2, 2014, at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. [1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meryl_Streep Unionpedia is a concept map or semantic network organized like an encyclopedia – dictionary. It gives a brief definition of each concept and its relationships. This is a giant online mental map that serves as a basis for concept diagrams. It's free to use and each article or document can be downloaded. It's a tool, resource or reference for study, research, education, learning or teaching, that can be used by teachers, educators, pupils or students; for the academic world: for school, primary, secondary, high school, middle, college, technical degree, college, university, undergraduate, master's or doctoral degrees; for papers, reports, projects, ideas, documentation, surveys, summaries, or thesis. Here is the definition, explanation, description, or the meaning of each significant on which you need information, and a list of their associated concepts as a glossary. Available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, Chinese, French, German, Italian, Polish, Dutch, Russian, Arabic, Swedish, Ukrainian, Hungarian, Catalan, Czech, Hebrew, Danish, Finnish, Indonesian, Norwegian, Romanian, Turkish and Vietnamese. More languages soon. All the information was extracted from Wikipedia , and it's available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License .	i don't know
What name is given to the bone and cartilage partition that separates right and left nostrils?	Correct a Deviated Septum with Plastic Surgery \| Leonard Grossman, M.D. Previous Next Correct a Deviated Septum with Plastic Surgery Few people are born with the perfect nose. Most of us have a bone to pick with our noses, especially if we’ve suffered an injury that has resulted in deformity. Rhinoplasty , once of the most popular plastic surgery procedures in the nation, has helped millions of people – both women and men – who have suffered from crooked, overly long or overly wide noses. The treatment creates symmetry with a patient’s facial features by reducing the length and width of the nose or altering its shape altogether. But while many are aware of the cosmetic benefits of the procedure, not everyone knows about the medical benefits. Rhinoplasty surgery can also assist individuals suffering from a deviated septum. The septum is name given to the bone and cartilage between the two nostrils that separates the nasal cavity. Usually, the septum lies in the center of the nose, ensuring the individual’s nasal passages are also symmetrical. A deviated septum , one of the most common physiological disorders of the nose, refers to a displacement causing the bone and cartilage to lean toward the left or right side. The displacement can be caused by an injury to the nose but can also be the result of a congenital disorder resulting from compression of the nose during child birth. Regardless of what caused the issue, a deviated septum can pose serious problems for those who suffer from it. A deviated septum can lead to a number of symptoms that can entirely disrupt an individual’s life. When the deviation is severe, the range of symptoms consequently increases, often resulting in unbearable pain for the individual. The most common symptoms include: Frequent sinus infections	Septum
Which famous Hollywood actor was used as the narrator on Michael Jackson's 1982 number one single 'Thriller'?	What is the role of the nasal septum? « www.newyorkentspecialist.com What is the role of the nasal septum? Deviated nasal septum Many patients are somehow confused about what the septum is and what the role of it is in our nasal passages. Anatomically, the septum refers to the wall that separates the left and right sides of our nasal passages. There is mucous membrane lining over the entire septum on either side, and the center part is made from bone and cartilage. The role of the septum is essentially similar to lane markers in a busy highway. The septum allows the air that we breathe in through our nostrils to go directly from the tip of the nose into the back of the nose and into the lungs. Without the septum, the air that we breathe in might “get lost” in our nose; the turbulence might interfere with the direct transit of the air directly into the lungs. In an ideal situation, we would like the septum to be a straight wall that goes in an up and down direction. In reality, everybody has some degree of deviation of their septum. Sometimes this is due to the way that the nose develops and sometimes it could be due to a previous injury or fracture of the nose. The degree of the deviation of the septum, as well as the anatomy of the side wall of the nose, can result in various degrees of blockage of the nasal passages as well as the sinus drainage pathways. In general, part of capacity to breathe adequately through the nasal passaged is dictated by the general health of the membranes, and other part is dictated by the anatomy of the septum. A patient with a deviated nasal septum is considered to have a fixed anatomical abnormality that will not respond to any kind of medical therapy for an anatomical blockage. As such, the only remedy is to undergo corrective surgery. Correction of a deviated septum surgically is usually called septoplasty. In most cases, this procedure is done in the operating room under anesthesia. Through a small incision into the membranes at the level of the nostrils, the bone and the cartilage of the septum is exposed. The portion of the septum that is not straight can then be either shaved or realigned internally. The septoplasty procedure alone usually does not result in black and blues under the eyes or any change to the external appearance of the nose. Most patients are able to go home the same day, and should be able to return to most normal physical activities within the few days. It is usually not easy to determine if the patient is suffering from a deviation of septum versus other reasons for nasal obstruction by external examination. Examination of the inside of the nasal passages can be done with the help of nasal endoscopy. This is the best determinant to ascertain deviation of the nasal septum. Once the diagnosis is confirmed, a decision to go ahead with the septoplasty procedure is made by the patient given the degree of blockage that they experience. Tags: deviated septum , ear nose throat , ENT , Isaac Namdar , Isaac Namdar MD , nasal blockage , nasal obstruction , New York , new york city , Otolaryngology , Otorhinolaryngology , septoplasty , septum , turbinate , turbinate hypertrophy This entry was posted on Thursday, June 7th, 2012 at 4:53 pm and is filed under Nose . You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response , or trackback from your own site. Leave a Reply	i don't know
In which Spanish city would you find the Giralda Tower and the Alcazar Palace?	The Giralda Tower - Cathedral of Seville \| don Quijote Read the Spanish version La Giralda tower, now bell tower to the cathedral of Sevilla , is the remains of Muslim architecture from centuries gone by. Once one of the tallest religious structures in the world, the tower today remains a beacon of antiquity and culture in Andalucía. The minaret, or bell tower, is one of three of its kind built during the Almohad Dynsasty. The other two towers are in Morocco at Rabat and Marrakesh. A minaret is a symbol of Muslim religion and a beacon for prayer. The tower and mosque were built between 1184-96 with the use of Roman remains and stones as part of the foundation. Later, the mosque would be torn down to make room for the cathedral of Seville. The tower, in fact, has no steps leading to the top. Instead, a series of ramps, wide enough for two guards on horseback will take visitors past gargoyles and intricate stone work for a prize view of Sevilla from the top. In 1248 the Christians re-conquered Sevilla from the Muslims under the leadership of King Alfonso X. The Muslims revered their tower so greatly that they threatened to tear it down brick by brick upon being sacked. “If they remove a single stone, they would all be put to the sword,” Alfonso warned; the tower remained intact and was added to the cathedral in 1402. In 1356 an earthquake rattled the tower and destroyed the copper spheres that topped La Giralda. Between 1560-1568 renovations took place that added 4 levels to the tower and an Italian bronze sculpture of the statue “Faith” was added to the top where the spheres used to be. In 1987 UNESCO identified the tower and cathedral as a World Heritage site. The cathedral of Sevilla built in just over 100 years (1402-1506) is the third largest cathedral, based on area, in Europe with 11,500 square meters. The founders and architects of the cathedral wanted to make an impression on all who visited the structure, they wanted onlookers to think the creators were mad to build something so large. Sevilla´s cathedral is smaller only to St. Paul´s Cathedral in London and St. Peter´s Basilica in Rome. At the entrance to the cathedral, Puerta de San Cristóbal, rests the tomb of Christopher Columbus. The tomb was originally kept in Havana, Cuba, where Columbus first landed in 1492. However after the uprising and Cuba declaring its independence from Spain in 1898, the remains were brought back to Sevilla, where Columbus departed Spain in search of a route to India. The bones or remains of Columbus lay in a medium sized, ornate box held on the shoulders of four figures representing the kingdoms of León, Castille, Aragón and Navarra. The sculpted, life-size figures were created by Arturo Melida. Debate continues as to whether the remains are actually those of Columbus or possibly his brother or son. DNA testing results continue to be inconclusive. There are groups in the Dominican Republic that claim to have the remains of the famed explorer. Nevertheless, the tower, cathedral, and artwork donning the interior of these structures remain popular points of interest in southern Spain. Contact us	Seville
In which river was Rasputin drowned in 1916?	The Alcazar of Seville (Spain) - A Historical Survivor \| Travel Wonders of the World The Alcazar of Seville (Spain) – A Historical Survivor Published April 25, 2011 guest post (and photography) from Sandra Vallaure, editor of Seville Traveller , a website providing useful information on Seville for independent travellers Seville is the most beautiful city in Spain. Actually, Spaniards often compare it to a woman and always define it as elegant, majestic and gorgeous. Additionally, it was one of the first Spanish cities founded by the Romans. As you can imagine, History has left its trace in Seville. As a result, the city is a combination of impressive monuments and narrow streets where you can wander as long as your feet permit it. Among all the monuments Seville has, one stands out: the Alcazar. The Alcazar is, together with the Cathedral and its bell tower, the Giralda, one of the main symbols of the city. A little bit of history The area was initially occupied by the Romans and of the first Christian basilicas was built there. However, it not until the Arab occupation (844-1248) that the Alcazar was built, or at least part of it. When the Arabs finally conquered the city, they decided to create a structure for the governor that would be both a palace and a fortress. In fact, the Spanish word alcazar comes from the Arab al qsar that means palace, castle or fortress. The Alcazar had the usual Arab architecture, and it was full of beautiful patios surrounded by thin columns supporting horseshoe arches. With the arrival and reconquest of the Christians leaded by King Ferdinand III, the Alcazar became the Royal Palace. From there on, the following kings ordered to perform alterations to adequate the complex to their needs and added further pavilions and structures. Consequently, the Alcazar evolved into a unique place where you can find – and will actually see if you happen to visit it, a melting pot of Arab, Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque styles. The Alcazar has been inhabited by most of the main kings and queens of Spanish history: Ferdinand III himself, the Catholic Monarchs, Charles V and many more. Even today, the King Juan Carlos I occupies the Alcazar when he is in Seville. Don’t miss… I particularly recommend to pay attention to the Ambassador’s Hall (Salón de los Embajadores) located inside Don Pedro’s palace, also known as Palacio Mudéjar. Every little detail has been taken care of and the ceramics are absolutely spectacular. Moreover, spend some time at the Maidens’ Courtyard (Patio de las Doncellas). It has been recently restored and it is one of the finest examples of an Arab patio that can be found in Seville and, I dare to say, Spain. Finally, don’t miss the gardens. They are magnificent. In truth there is not only one big garden but multiple small ones, every one with a different style and plants. There is even a labyrinth! The smell of the orange trees, spread everywhere and the sound of the water flowing at the various fountains will charm you. I believe that one of the highlights of the Alcazar is to seat for a while and relax while observing all this nature surrounding you. The Alcazar is an architectural masterpiece that explains on itself a large period of the history of Spain and Seville. On top of it, it is one of the finest examples of the Arab style of the 10th century. Sometimes how, after earthquakes, wars and fires, it has managed to survive. So why not going to Seville during your next holiday? You will have the opportunity to enjoy one of the nicest European climates while devoting your time to discover wonders like the Alcazar. Are you planning to visit the Alcazar? Have you done so already? Share with us your experience in the comments below! email Follow Travel Wonders Welcome to Travel Wonders My name is Mark and I’m a keen traveller. In fact, over the last 25 years, I’ve travelled to every continent and over 80 countries. This blog is about the most memorable destinations – the places I regard as the travel wonders of the world. I’m also a keen photographer, and have taken nearly all the photos you’ll see. During my travels, I’ve met some incredible people, seen inspiring places, viewed extraordinary wildlife and scenery and had some amazing experiences, and I’m writing these stories not only to entertain but primarily to inspire others to discover their own travel wonders. Awards and Affiliations	i don't know
In 1919, which French artist created his own version of the 'Mona Lisa', on which he drew a goatee and a moustache?	L.H.O.O.Q. (Mona-Lisa-with-a-mustache) L.H.O.O.Q. (Mona-Lisa-with-a-mustache) 2012, oil on canvas, 19×29 cm Erich Kuby (1910-2005) The Bearded Lady and the Shaven Man - Mona Lisa, meet Mona/Leo There is no discontinuity between the Bachelor Machine and the Bride. Marcel Duchamp [1] In 1919, Marcel Duchamp drew a mustache and goatee on a reproduction of the Mona Lisa and called the resulting work L.H.O.O.Q. (Fig. 1). [2] Not quite three-quarters of a century after Duchamp’s graffito came what I think of as the sequel: Lillian Schwartz’s discovery that the chief model for the Mona Lisa was Leonardo da Vinci himself. Both acts are backward- looking in that their most immediate effect was to redefine the Mona Lisa itself. At the same time, both are prophetic in the way they project major shifts in the grounds of art as a system of knowledge. Fig. 1. Detail of L.H.O.O.Q., a 1919 work by Marcel Duchamp that is an altered collotype of the Mona Lisa. On the simplest level, Duchamp’s banal gesture nominated the Mona Lisa as a man. More exactly, Duchamp created a rudimentary sort of mask that reads instantly as male but does not even pretend to conceal the woman behind the mask. In a sense, L.H.O.O.Q. is an artificial hermaphrodite, an image of a woman with that most superficial and nonfunctional characteristic of maleness, a mustache. (The beard is superfluous to the effect of L.H.O.O.Q., and in one version of the piece does not appear at all.) [3] At the same time, L.H.O.O.Q. is not a hermaphrodite at all but an intensified or exposed woman. The Mona Lisa’s mustache can be read as an abbreviated, transposed beard and thus as a metaphor for her actual “beard,” or pubic hair. By transferring Mona Lisa’s beard from her pubic region to her face, Duchamp conceptually strips her naked: her clothes no longer conceal what they’re supposed to conceal. She is another embodiment of the central figure in Duchamp’s most famous work, The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even (also known as the Large Glass). Duchamp thus creates a kind of visual analog in which the face stands in for the sexual organs instead of merely alluding to them, as the lips normally allude to labia. [4] The mustache-over-lips structure directly echoes the pubic-hair-over-labia structure. In a sense, the entire woman has been vertically condensed into an amorphous package of flesh—a kind of head-to-genitals morph, to use an analogy from the digital world. Furthermore, this flesh package is recondensed through the title into one of the standard tags used to present women as nonindividuals: hot ass. [5] I am not trying to present a full reading of L.H.O.O.Q. here; rather, for reasons which will become clear later, I am consciously restricting my reading to a limited field that centers on issues of gender, sexuality, and identity. In short, my concern is with L.H.O.O.Q. as an instance of the Bearded Lady archetype. That any discussion of L.H.O.O.Q. can take off in many other directions is a tribute to the richness of Duchamp’s gesture, minimal as to form but maximal as to content. [6] Not the least of Duchamp’s achievements with L.H.O.O.Q. was to bring the Mona Lisa back from the dead. By attacking its iconic status, he removed it from historical time and brought it into the present, the only place where art can be experienced. L.H.O.O.Q. was actually an act of rescue (even if only temporarily) rather than an act of desecration. However, it did not rescue the Mona Lisa as a traditional painting, an object of primarily visual pleasure. The crude mustache functions as a scratch on the Renaissance picture window; it insistently draws our attention to itself and thus irreparably damages the illusion of which it fails to be a part. What L.H.O.O.Q. did do, on the other hand, was to nominate the petrified painting as a center of activity: a subject of debate, parody, paradox, criticism, thought, and reinvention. L.H.O.O.Q. simultaneously documents Duchamp’s thought processes and implicitly invites further interventions. As such, it is a paradigm of late modernist art; one could even make a case that it is postmodern, a point I will return to later. To construe it as an attempt at self-expression—a major objective of early twentieth century artists—is to miss the point. Still less is L.H.O.O.Q. a demonstration of mastery in Arthur Danto’s sense, in which the work of art serves merely as a pretext for showing off one’s mastercraftsmanship. [7] In fact, insofar as the mustache ended up by serving as Duchamp’s signature for L.H.O.O.Q.—that is, the mark that made it unmistakably a work by Duchamp—it points the way to the signature art of the 1950s and ’60s. By “signature art” I mean artworks that serve merely as a pretext for showing off the artist’s style instead of his or her mastery, so that the style serves to make the actual signature redundant. By declaring open season on the Mona Lisa, Duchamp laid the groundwork for Lillian Schwartz. However, where Duchamp’s gesture was deliberate, Schwartz’s discovery was essentially accidental, a byproduct of her project to compare and combine images of artists with digitized versions of their work, especially self-portraits. [8] When she was asked to test her colleague Gerard Holzmann’s computer program to do this, she began with an obvious pair, the most famous artist and painting in Western art. When the Mona Lisa and Leonardo’s only known self-portrait were aligned and juxtaposed on-screen at the same scale, Schwartz was struck by the extraordinary congruences in facial features between the two portraits. Such highly individual measurements as the distance between the inner corners of the eyes matched so closely that Schwartz concluded the similarity could not be a matter of chance; ergo, Leonardo must have been the main model for the Mona Lisa. I use the qualifier “main” because Schwartz concludes that Leonardo began the portrait using a female model before turning the painting into a disguised self-portrait. X-rays of the Mona Lisa reveal a second face hidden under the surface that does not match the one familiar to our eyes. Using her comparative techniques, Lillian Schwartz has shown that this earlier, hidden portrait does match a separate cartoon drawing Leonardo executed of Isabella, Duchess of Aragon, before he began work on the Mona Lisa. However, neither the hidden X-ray face nor the cartoon drawing of Isabella matches up in toto to the visible Mona Lisa—or to the Leonardo self-portrait. [9] Where Duchamp put the Mona Lisa’s sexuality under tension, mocking the female icon without wholly undoing the gender identity between image and (presumed) model, Schwartz appears to explode it. Image and model simultaneously merge (two aspects of a single human being) and separate (male model, female image). This doubleness is epitomized in Schwartz’s Mona/Leo (also known, in an early working title, as It Is I; Fig. 2), a 1987 image that shows the right half of Mona Lisa’s face butted up to the left half of Leonardo’s self-portrait. [10] Although Mona/Leo appears to be an artwork (at least, Schwartz treats it as such), I feel it is a kind of metonymy for the primary artwork, which is to say, Schwartz’s demonstration of the identity of Mona Lisa and Leonardo. For the sake of simplicity in the following discussion, I will refer to this entire project, including both the discovery and the images Schwartz generated to demonstrate her discovery, under the rubric “Mona/Leo.” Fig. 2. Mona/Leo, a 1987 computer generated image by Lillian F. Schwartz in which the left side of a 1512 Leonardo da Vinci self-portrait is matched to the right side of Mona Lisa’s face. It would be a mistake to think that Mona/Leo “solved” the mystery presented by the Mona Lisa and extended by Duchamp. A hundred years ago, it would indeed have been profoundly shocking if scholars had been able to prove that the most famous image of beautiful, mysterious womanhood in Western art, the very icon of the Eternal Feminine, was also a man. Today, though, after almost five centuries of uncertainty and speculation about the “real” identity of Mona Lisa, larger cultural shifts in our understanding of gender and identity have conspired to rob this moment of much of its drama. Certainly, Schwartz’s discovery does not reduce Mona Lisa to a mere masquerade, a drag show, a footnote to Leonardo’s biography. Indeed, it is striking that Mona Lisa the woman-revealed-as-mask refuses to disappear completely into Leonardo the man. So entrenched is the Mona Lisa in our psychic vocabulary that one finds oneself wondering whether the historical person we think of as “Leonardo” was not a man at all but— fantastic as it sounds—the male impersonation of a woman we now know only by her self-portrait. Far from solving anything, Mona/Leo introduced new tensions into the dialogue between Mona Lisa and L.H.O.O.Q. It functions as a kind of mirror image of L.H.O.O.Q. in that it reverses the polarity of Duchamp’s act: it converts the male-masked female (L.H.O.O.Q.) into a female-masked male (Mona Lisa). [11] Like L.H.O.O.Q., Mona/Leo is a version of the Bearded Lady. As such both refer us back to the Mona Lisa, positing her as the Bearded Lady’s twin, the Shaven Man. Historically, this archetype has never been as prominent as the Bearded Lady—there being, for example, no Shaven Men in freak shows. We see its operation mainly in those subtle cultural shifts ordaining that in one generation men shall be clean-shaven and in another bearded, such that where the two overlap (as in the England of the Roundheads and Cavaliers, or America ca. 1968) there will be open hostility between them. Perhaps the Shaven Man has remained in the shadows of art in part because he functions as a disguised form of male narcissism. Leonardo offers us the Mona Lisa as a desire decoy; his real object is to give himself room to indulge in self-love. If the Shaven Man is exposed as not-a-woman, the secrecy of pleasure and the pleasure of secrecy both disappear. [12] Fig. 3. Detail of the Mona Lisa, ca. 1487-1500s, by Leonardo da Vinci. In this context, it is striking that Duchamp himself showed us the Shaven Man in L.H.O.O.Q. rasée (i.e., L.H.O.O.Q. Shaved), which was an image of the Mona Lisa taken from a cheap postcard reproduction and presumed (through the action of the title) to be “missing” the mustache of L.H.O.O.Q. (Figs. 3 and 4). Where L.H.O.O.Q. presented itself openly as a modified Leonardo, L.H.O.O.Q. rasée reverses these terms and turns the Mona Lisa into a modified Duchamp. [13] Thus, the Mona Lisa is sequentially transformed from a woman into a man and then into a Shaven Man (not, as one would logically expect, back into a woman). Fig. 4. Detail of L.H.O.O.Q. rasée (L.H.O.O.Q. Shaved), a readymade by Marcel Duchamp that is a playing card of Leonardo’s Mona Lisa mounted on paper. In reproduction, as here, the only visible difference between the two works is the title and signature (here cropped out). Similarly, where L.H.O.O.Q. had presented itself as a false version of the Mona Lisa, Mona/Leo validates L.H.O.O.Q. as a true image (because Mona Lisa is really a man) and shows Mona Lisa as a false portrait. This sequence transforms the Mona Lisa from a woman into a false man (L.H.O.O.Q.) and then into a real man (Mona/Leo) and then into a false woman (Mona Lisa again). The complex relationships among these four pieces is perhaps most easily visualized along a set of vertical and horizontal axes (Fig. 5). Mona Lisa and L.H.O.O.Q. rasée (the two apparently identical images showing a woman’s head and shoulders) exist at opposite ends of the Shaven Man axis, while Mona/Leo and L.H.O.O.Q. (the two images showing part woman, part man) exist at opposite ends of the intersecting Bearded Lady axis. [14] Fig. 5. Diagram showing how the Bearded Lady and Shaven Man axes intersect. These retroactive transformations (L.H.O.O.Q. rasée acting on the Mona Lisa, Mona/Leo acting on L.H.O.O.Q. and Mona Lisa, and so on) are absorbing in part because they are historically contrary. The line of influence in art history is supposed to move temporally forwards, such that any given artwork can affect only subsequent works. The operation of influence is conceived as working through lives, which are temporally unidirectional. However, if one considers influence as a mental activity, then its transformations escape these limits. One cannot relive the past, but one can rethink it, reimagine it, reinvent it. Since L.H.O.O.Q. and Mona/Leo seem to operate similarly, using this past-present predicate of reinvention, it’s all the more striking that they stand on opposite sides of the great divide of twentieth century art—the popularization of the computer. L.H.O.O.Q. was made by hand; Mona/Leo was created in a computer. The basic question is whether the difference between these two approaches amounts to a simple difference of medium (like the distinction between etching and lithography) or a complex difference of mode (like the distinction between visual and verbal arts, or between war, sport, and game). Without going deeply into this question, I suggest that if computer art is a mode rather than a medium, its mode may be the facilitation of investigation. Computers allow us to make explorations that are otherwise so laborious as to be effectively shut out of the human sphere. There is no reason to think the identity of Mona Lisa and Leonardo couldn’t have been established without computers—for example, by someone fooling around with scaled transparencies. However, it was perhaps never likely without the special strengths of computers, chief among which are mathematically exact modeling and easy manipulation of imagery. From this perspective, an art form is characterized not by what it does exclusively (in the Greenbergian sense) but by what it does better, more simply, or more easily than some other form. [15] Given this definition, Mona/Leo the project looks like a paradigm of computer art. Mona/Leo emerged from Schwartz’s ability to capitalize intelligently on the strengths of computer image-processing; the images (such as Mona/Leo) that support the project strike me more as documentation than as art. This is only to be expected; the primary output of investigation is knowledge, not objects. If we insist on continuing to call some of what we do with computers ‘art’, then we must also recognize that what we require of art is changing. We are leaving an era in which art has been seen primarily as a means to self-knowledge through the production of aestheticized objects and entering one where it is more closely entangled with the effort to extend general knowledge through exploration. It may even be that knowledge of the self and knowledge of the world are reconverging in the process, as they did in Leonardo’s time. If Mona/Leo is a paradigm of computer art, where does that leave Duchamp? In many ways his works look more like the byproducts of investigation than like what we think of as precious art objects. In this respect, Duchamp shows more affinity with Schwartz than with such near-contemporaries as Picasso or Dali or even his friend Max Ernst. Moreover, the speed with which he passed through—one might almost say “processed”—various styles early in his career more resembles the way computers churn through possibilities than the methodical working out of a style that we have come to expect of artists. Perhaps it’s not stretching things too far to think of Duchamp as a prototype—a computer artist working in the predigital era. It seems no accident that the Large Glass was consciously designed by Duchamp as a machine—“the machine with 5 hearts”— and more particularly, a calculating machine: “let them leave their imprint as nets through which pass the commands of the Pendu femelle.” [16] One can’t help wondering what he would have done if turned loose with Schwartz’s machines. (LEONARDO, Vol. 29, No. 5, pp. 379-383, 1996) References and Notes: [1] Richard Hamilton, The Bride Stripped Bare By Her Bachelors, Even (Stuttgart: Edition Hanjörg Mayer, 1976). “A typographic version by Richard Hamilton of Marcel Duchamp’s Green Box translated by George Heard Hamilton.” Pages unnumbered. [2] When these five letters of the French alphabet are spoken aloud, they approximate the phrase ‘elle a chaud queue’, which translates as ‘she has a hot ass’. [3] In 1920, a reproduction of L.H.O.O.Q. appeared in the magazine 391 minus the goatee. This version of L.H.O.O.Q. was actually drawn up by Picabia so that the magazine could go to press, as Duchamp’s original was late in arriving. That Picabia forgot the beard (rather than the mustache) indicates where the power of Duchamp’s gesture lies. My source for this story is Arturo Schwartz, Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp (New York: Abrams, 1970), p. 478. [4] I do not wish to go into the allied subject of vagina dentata in this place, but the Mona Lisa’s resolutely closed, smiling lips could be construed to conceal this most fearsome of mythic female mysteries. [5] It seems clear that Duchamp was deliberately trying to de-individualize and dehumanize the Mona Lisa, who had for so long been the archetype both of all women and of the highly individual woman, the one who cannot be mistaken for any other. He later referred to his act as “desecrating” and “demolishing” the Mona Lisa (Schwartz [3] p. 477). [6] I owe this formulation to the artist Manfred Mohr, who is quoted as describing his own work in similar terms (“form-wise it is minimalist and content-wise it is maximalist”) in Cynthia Goodman, Digital Visions (New York: Abrams, 1987), p. 52. [7] Arthur Danto, The Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986). [8] Within the scope of this article, I cannot do full justice to Lillian Schwartz’s extensive work on the identity of Leonardo and the Mona Lisa. My discussion relies heavily on the following sources, all of which discuss Schwartz’s investigations in more detail: Lillian F. Schwartz, “The Mona Lisa Identification: Evidence from a Computer Analysis,” The Visual Computer 4, 40–48 (1988); Lillian F. Schwartz, “The Art Historian’s Computer,” Scientific American, April 1995, 106–11; Lillian F. Schwartz, “Leonardo’s Mona Lisa,” Art & Antiques, January 1987, 50–55, 80; and Lillian F. Schwartz and Laurens R. Schwartz, The Computer Artist’s Handbook (New York: Norton, 1992), pp. 270–276. [9] Schwartz [8], “The Mona Lisa Identification,” pp. 44–45, and Schwartz and Schwartz [8], p. 276. Not everyone finds Schwartz’s demonstration of facial congruity between the Mona Lisa and the Leonardo self-portrait as convincing as I do. Still, if it is not proof positive that the Mona Lisa is a deliberate Leonardo self-portrait, at the very least I would argue that it suggests an unconscious desire on Leonardo’s part to map the proportions of his own face onto the Mona Lisa. [10] The ambiguity of Schwartz’s Mona/Leo, or It Is I, can be extended from doubleness to tripleness when one considers that if the title “I” means the artist who created the image, it must refer to Lillian Schwartz as well as to Leonardo. [11] The female-masked male, of course, has its own history in Duchamp’s oeuvre, most notably in Man Ray’s portraits of Duchamp dressed up as Rrose Sélavy. Duchamp adopted the Rrose Sélavy alter ego shortly after he made L.H.O.O.Q. (Schwartz [3] p. 477). [12] Here I am elaborating on an analysis of the narcissistic dimension of the Mona Lisa offered by Sharon Gallagher (personal communication). [13] I am indebted for this observation to Susan Tallman’s brief but excellent discussion of Duchamp’s variations on L.H.O.O.Q. in her “Prints and Editions” column in Arts, February 1992, pp. 13–14. [14] It will be immediately apparent from Fig. 5 that the axes for these works could be constructed differently. For example, one can set up the axes using Bearded Lady/Shaven Man pairs: L.H.O.O.Q. against L.H.O.O.Q. rasée, Mona Lisa against Mona/Leo. However, it is not the intention of this discussion to explore all the possibilities raised by the various possible axes. [15] Here I am thinking mainly of Clement Greenberg’s formulation in “Modernist Painting,” Arts Yearbook 4, pp. 103–108 (1961). [16] Hamilton [1]. Italics mine. ‘Pendu femelle’ can be translated as ‘hanged female’ or ‘suspended woman’—Duchamp’s exact meaning is disputed. Unfortunately, this is not the place to explore in depth the way the Bearded Lady and Shaven Man archetypes are reflected and distorted in Duchamp’s Large Glass, with its stripped Bride and elaborate Bachelor Machine.	Marcel Duchamp
Although it had been absent from the Western Hemisphere for seventy years, there was a major outbreak of which disease in Peru in 1991?	Five Small Things about L.H.O.O.Q. \| Toutfait Home > Articles > Five Small Things about L.H.O.O.Q. Five Small Things about L.H.O.O.Q. by Gervais, André (translated by Drolet, Eugenia), Published: Figure 1 Marcel Duchamp, L.H.O.O.Q. Attempting to recall exactly when in 1919 the L.H.O.O.Q. had been made, Marcel Duchamp himself offered two different dates: in conversations with Sidney, Harriet and Carroll Janis in early 1953, he mentioned December; (1) in conversations with Pierre Cabanne in June 1966, October. (2) Either date—October 1919 or December 1919—may be the right one. From early August to December 27, 1919, Duchamp resided at avenue Charles-Floquet (Paris 7e), in the home of Francis Picabia and Gabrielle Buffet (the latter pregnant with Picabia’s fourth child, who was born on September 15). Picabia had been living for some time (days or weeks) in rue Émile-Augier (Paris 16e) with Germaine Everling, his mistress, who was also pregnant by him (their child was born January 5, 1920). (3) This particular situation (two places of residence, two pregnant women, etc.) would indicate that during this nearly five-month stay there were few, and perhaps no contacts between Duchamp and Picabia (except, in all likelihood, towards the end of the stay), and may explain why L.H.O.O.Q. was not published in issues 9 (November 1919), 10 (December 1919), or 11 (February 1920) of 391, Picabia’s journal, but rather as a Picabia version entitled Tableau dada par Marcel Duchamp in issue 12 (March 1920). (4) Michel Sanouillet argues that “Picabia wrote to ask him [Duchamp] for authorization to ‘redo’ a Mona Lisa for 391, and the authorization was naturally granted. But Picabia, who had only a vague memory of Duchamp’s work, contented himself with drawing the moustache.” (5) In fact, Picabia simply redid “L.H.O.O.Q.,” the inscription that would become the title of the readymade. (6) He also wrote these initials vertically and without periods on one of his own canvases, Le double monde, dated [December] 1919, which was exhibited on stage by André Breton during the First Friday of (the journal) Littérature, January 23, 1920, the first Dada manifestation in Paris. (7) 2 Owing to its title (Tableau dada par Marcel Duchamp), for many years the Picabia version passed for the original. Along with an enlarged replica (done in late January or early February 1930), (8) the original was not displayed until March 1930 in Paris in an exhibition titled La peinture au défi and with an important preface by Louis Aragon. For a poet, novelist and critic like Aragon, a readymade was not, from that time on, merely an industrial object removed from its context and divorced from its utilitarian function. 3 It must be pointed out that the colour reproduction which is the basis of the work was not a postcard, despite what so many people have stated verbally or in writing. (9) A glance at the back of the reproduction, published by Arturo Schwarz in 1969 in the 1st edition of his catalogue, shows that it is not arranged in the usual way, with one space for the address and stamp (at right), and another for the “message” and the caption of the illustration (at left). The reproduction has been inscribed by Duchamp with a technical indication (in pencil) on how to photograph the picture on the front and, later, above this indication, with an official declaration in the presence of a notary (in ink) stating that it is indeed the original. (10) The only trait shared by the small palimpsest— writing on writing —on the back and the picture on the front is the lead [in French: mine] pencil markings (additions of the moustache and goatee) (11) on the Mona Lisa’s face [in French: mine]. But where did Duchamp obtain this colour reproduction? The most likely explanation, as he mentioned to the Janises in 1953, is that he purchased it in a boutique near the Louvre, in the rue de Rivoli, which sold inexpensive copies of reproductions of the museum’s masterpieces, a popular practice in all large cities with major museums. It should also be recalled that in April 1911 Leonardo’s highly celebrated work, painted in the early sixteenth century, had been stolen from the Louvre (and not recovered until December 1913). Since it was believed to have disappeared or been destroyed, massive quantities of colour reproductions were distributed during these years or immediately afterwards, including photographs both intact or touched up, some in postcard format. (12) As well, there was undoubtedly an awareness that 1919 was the 400th anniversary of the painter’s death. These two events (the perhaps irremediable loss and the anniversary) come into play in Duchamp’s choice. When Duchamp sent a letter (New York, May 9, 1949) to his friend Henri-Pierre Roché asking him to purchase a vial of serum—become the vial of Air de Paris—to replace the one, currently broken, he had brought back from Paris in late December 1919 for his friends Louise and Walter Arensberg, he wrote: Could you go into the pharmacy on the corner of rue Blomet and the rue de Vaugirard (if it’s still there, that’s where I bought the first ampoule) and buy an ampoule like this one: 125 c.c. and of the same measurements as the drawing […] —If not rue Blomet, somewhere else—but, as far as possible, the same shape and size, thanks. (13) A glance at a map of Paris shows that there is no corner of Blomet-Vaugirard, since these streets (15e) run parallel to each other! I use this example to demonstrate that a specific indication, even on the part of the author, may quite simply be inaccurate, even erroneous. And so it was for L.H.O.O.Q., postcard. And when Duchamp, in “Apropos of Myself” (1962-1964), describes this colour reproduction as “a cheap chromo,” it must be pointed out that in French as in English, chromo is the abbreviation of chromolithographie, “image lithographique en couleur” (Petit Robert I), and chromolithograph “a color print produced by chromolithography” (The American Heritage of the English Language). In French, however, chromo, now a masculine (and no longer feminine) form, has a pejorative sense: “toute image en couleur de mauvais goût” [any colour print in bad taste]. This added meaning, which highlights the notion of taste, introduces an aesthetic, even artistic, note; such is not the case in English, where cheap, in this example, signifies “of poor quality,” but particularly “inexpensive.” (14) 4 When, during his 1966 conversations with Cabanne, Duchamp spoke of Picabia and L.H.O.O.Q., he used the opportunity, if I may say so, to add: Another time, Picabia did a cover for 391 with the portrait of Georges Carpentier, the boxer; he and I were as much alike as two drops of water, which is why it was amusing. It was a composite portrait of Georges Carpentier and me. (15) During the summer of 1923, Georges Carpentier went to Picabia’s home in Tremblay-sur-Mauldre, the little village where the artist had been living since 1922. Picabia did a profile of the boxer, who even signed the portrait. When Picabia, over a year later, decided to put this portrait on the first page of the last issue of 391 (issue 19, October 1924), he crossed out Carpentier’s signature incompletely (it can still be seen under the cross-out markings) and added “Rrose Sélavy / by Picabia”. (16) Accordingly, if, by contiguity, this “composite portrait” likewise designates L.H.O.O.Q., Duchamp’s 1961 statement makes sense: The curious thing about that moustache and goatee is that when you look at it the Mona Lisa becomes a man. It is not a woman disguised as a man; it is a real man, and that was my discovery, without realizing it at the time. In 1919, a woman (Mona Lisa in L.H.O.O.Q.) is also a man, just as in 1920-1921, a man (Marcel Duchamp as Rose, then Rrose, Sélavy) is also a woman. 5 Without actually entering into an interpretation of the famous readymade, one notes, nonetheless, that the 400th anniversary of Leonardo’s death may have been not only a trigger (as an anniversary), but also a constraint (as a set of numbers), with the 4 indicating that only four letters could be used, and the 00 suggesting that one of them—which must be an O—be reduplicated. (18) As can be seen afterwards as well, these four letters (as Duchamp states in “Apropos of Myself”) are in alphabetical order—H, L, O, Q—in the name of the street (cHarLes-flOQuet) where he lived at the time. But they are also in the name of the process at the basis of this reproduction, which is cHromoLithOgraphiQue. And I note that in New York the name of the notary chosen by Duchamp, whose signature on December 22, 1944 certified that the work was the original (“This is to certify that this is the original ‘ready made’ L H O O Q Paris 1919”), (19) was Elsie Jenriche. (20) How can we fail to see that she was there because of her name as well (which, by this fact, is a metatextual reference to one of the issues in the work), a mix of I in English or Ich in German and of else, and that the issue of “gender” (jenre, another way of spelling genre) comes into play, since else rhymes with the feminine (elle: La Joconde, La Gioconda), which in turn rhymes with the masculine (L: Leonardo, Louvre), she having become a he! Finally, if we trace a vertical line at a right angle to the top of the work and passes it through the centre of the moustache, it becomes clear that, owing to the angle of the face, the line runs alongside the nose, at left, of the female—and now also male—figure and arrives “down below” (as Duchamp would say in 1961), exactly between “L.H.” and “O.O.Q.” This reduplication of the O is indicated once again. Notes 1. Still unedited, the conversations with the Janis family (Sidney, the father, Harriet, the mother, and Carroll, the son) occurred on the occasion of Duchamp’s preparation of the catalogue and hanging of the exhibition Dada 1916-1923 at the Sidney Janis Gallery, New York, April 15 – May 9, 1953. In the integrated chronology of the catalogue Joseph Cornell / Marcel Duchamp… in resonance, catalogue of the exhibition at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, October 8, 1998 – January 3, 1999, and at the Menil Collection, Houston, January 22 – May 16, 1999 (Ostfildern-Ruit: Cantz Verlag, 1998), 277, Susan Davidson, without mentioning her information source, gives the month of December 1919. 2. Pierre Cabanne, Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp, translated by Ron Padgett, introduction by Robert Motherwell, preface by Salvador Dali, appreciation by Jasper Johns (New York: Da Capo, 1971), 62. 3. It was a day after the meeting of André Breton, who had been invited there, and twelve days before Tristan Tzara arrived there to live on January 17, his stay coinciding with the start of what Michel Sanouillet called “Dada à Paris”; see his general survey, Dada à Paris (Paris: Pauvert, 1965). The seat of the “MoUvEmEnT DADA, Berlin, Genève, Madrid, New York, Zurich,” according to the letter paper with this heading, was now in Paris. Furthermore, I notice the following coincidence (which was perhaps not a coincidence in 1919, considering the state of knowledge on Leonardo’s work): when Duchamp was in Paris that year, Picabia’s two women (his wife and mistress) were pregnant with sons; when, in the spring of 1503, Francesco del Giocondo commissioned Leonardo to paint a portrait of his wife, she had already given him two sons (in May 1496 and December 1502). See Daniel Arasse, Léonard de Vinci. Le rythme du monde (1997; Paris: Hazan, 2003), 388-89. The rhyme, here, is in between Mona Lisa [Joconde] and fertile [féconde]. 4. To Cabanne, Duchamp says Tableau dada de [sic] Marcel Duchamp. 5. Michel Sanouillet, Francis Picabia et «391» (Paris: Losfeld, 1966), II: 113. Volume I is a facsimile edition of 391 [1917-1924] expanded with various unedited documents (Paris: Losfeld, 1960). Since Duchamp had been in New York since January 6 and no 12 of 391 did not appear (Sanouillet specifies) until the end of March, one might assume that Duchamp, interviewed by Schwarz, The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp (New York: Abrams, 2nd edition, 1970), 476, only dimly recalled the circumstance: “My original did not arrive in time, and to delay the printing of 391 no further, Picabia himself drew the moustache on the Mona Lisa but forgot the goatee.” 6. I say “the inscription that would become the title of the readymade” since, in the poster-catalogue of the exhibition at the Sidney Janis Gallery, Duchamp wrote:”La Joconde, postcard with pencil.” In Marcel Duchamp (London: Trianon Press, and New York: Grove Press, 1959), Robert Lebel first uses the inscription as the title. In The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp (New York: Abrams, 1st edition, 1969), Arturo Schwarz first indicates the exact dimensions of the readymade: 19.7 x 12.4 cm. (7 ¾ x 4 7/8 in.). 7. The two O’s in “L H O O Q,” themselves in the centre of two other O’s shaped like strings forming 8’s, or propeller blades, but without an axis, soft and bent by the wind, are equally—and doubly—the O’s of “dOuble” and “wOrld” [mOnde]. The small gap at the top left in one of these other O’s is matched only by the small gap in the À of “À DOMICILE” [at home], another inscription, and by the small addition—the tail—of the Q in “L H O O Q.” One way of creating an ironic coincidence between mathematical speculations (topOLOGY) and commercial speculations (delivery “à domicile“, that is, at home [AU LOGIS]). 8. “I made, just before leaving Paris, a Mona Lisa, for Aragon […] / Man Ray has the 1st Mona Lisa”, letter from Duchamp to Jean Crotti, Villefranche-sur-mer, February 6, 1930, in Affectionately, Marcel : The Selected Correspondence of Marcel Duchamp, edition by Francis Naumann and Hector Obalk, translation by Jill Taylor (Ghent and Amsterdam : Ludion Press, 2000), 171. 9. Three examples: Duchamp himself in 1953 (see note 6); Ecke Bonk, Marcel Duchamp: The Box in a Valise. Inventory of an Edition (New York: Rizzoli, 1989), 241; Calvin Tomkins, Duchamp: A Biography (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1996), 221. 10. I note that Duchamp never used a postcard in subsequent replicas. 11. In the original French version of this article I use the plural, as did Duchamp in April 1942, when he indicated in ink at the bottom of the model of one of Picabia’s two versions (that reproduced in 391): Moustaches par Picabia / barbiche par Marcel Duchamp.” In French, the singular and plural are used indifferently for certain words, for example: ciseau and ciseaux (two blades), pantalon and pantalons(two legs), moustache and moustaches (two cheeks or, simply, two sides of the face). Furthermore, I note that the indication, inscribed by Picabia on two lines pencilled vertically to the right of the reproduction, begins with two liaisons—the one starting the 1 of “1 cliché” on the first line, and the other starting the s of “sans” on the second line—which are matched only by the tips of the moustache! For a reproduction with commentary, see Francis Naumann, The Art of Making Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, catalogue of the exhibition at Achim Moeller Fine Art, New York, October 2, 1999 – January 15, 2000. If, in fact, Arp came into possession of these two versions during his trip to Paris in April 1942, his meeting with Duchamp (they had known each other since 1926) could only have taken place in the non-occupied zone of southern France (in Grasse where Arp lived or in Sanary where Duchamp was living before his departure for the United States on May 14th). 12. See the two postcards dated 1914, reproduced in Roy McMullen, Mona Lisa: The Picture & the Myth (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1975). 13. Affectionately, Marcel, 272. 14. This is, moreover, Michel Sanouillet’s translation of this passage: “un chromo […] bon marché“, in “À propos de moi-même,” Duchamp du signe (Paris : Flammarion, 1975), 227. Naumann follows exactly the same train of thought: “an inexpensive chromo-lithographic color reproduction”, The Art of Making Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, 10. 15. Pierre Cabanne, Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp, 63. 16. See Michel Sanouillet, Francis Picabia et “391,” 166. One can see (391, 127) Carpentier’s signature and Picabia’s addition under some of the typewritten lines printed at the bottom of the page. 17. Herbert Crehan, “Dada,” Evidence (Toronto), no. 3 (autumn 1961). 18. These two O’s also evoke, by means of the rhyme “O.” / water [eau], the mountain lake and the plains lake in the Mona Lisa, respectively at the top right and a little farther down left of the landscape dominated by the loggia where Lisa, the model, is. And what about the winding road that leaves the plains lake, and which is echoed in the tail of the “Q” (calligraphied by Duchamp)? 19. A presentative sentence in another, the referent of “This” (This, as in “This is my Body” or in “This is a work of art”) being cataphoric (that is, it follows the pronoun): in the first case, it is “the original ‘ready made’;” in the second, it is the entire proposition that shapes the first case. 20. In a short article titled “Desperately Seeking Elsie: Authenticating the Authenticity of L.H.O.O.Q.‘s Back” (Tout-Fait, New York, vol. I, no. 1, December 1999), Thomas Girst informs us that this lady was a public stenographer at the Hotel St. Regis, New York, from 1943 to 1945. Like Toutfait on	i don't know
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It is bordered by New Hampshire (W), the Canadian provinces of Quebec (NW) and New Brunswick (NE), the Bay of Fundy (E), and the Atlantic Ocean (the Gulf of Maine; SE). ..... Click the link for more information. , New Hampshire New Hampshire, one of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts (S), Vermont, with the Connecticut River forming the boundary (W), the Canadian province of Quebec (NW), and Maine and a short strip of the Atlantic Ocean (E). ..... Click the link for more information. , Vermont Vermont [Fr.,=green mountain], New England state of the NE United States. It is bordered by New Hampshire, across the Connecticut River (E), Massachusetts (S), New York, with Lake Champlain forming almost half the border (W), and the Canadian province of Quebec (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Massachusetts Massachusetts , most populous of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by New York (W), Vermont and New Hampshire (N), the Atlantic Ocean (E, SE), and Rhode Island and Connecticut (S). ..... Click the link for more information. , Rhode Island Rhode Island, smallest state in the United States, located in New England; bounded by Massachusetts (N and E), the Atlantic Ocean (S), and Connecticut (W). Its official name is the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Connecticut Connecticut , southernmost of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts (N), Rhode Island (E), Long Island Sound (S), and New York (W). Facts and Figures Area, 5,009 sq mi (12,973 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. ), the Middle Atlantic states ( New York New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of Ontario (NW), and the province of Quebec (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , New Jersey New Jersey, Middle Atlantic state of the E United States. It is bordered by New York State (N and, across the Hudson River and New York Harbor, E), the Atlantic Ocean (E), Delaware, across Delaware Bay and River (SW), and Pennsylvania, across the Delaware River (W). ..... Click the link for more information. , Pennsylvania Pennsylvania , one of the Middle Atlantic states of the United States. It is bordered by New Jersey, across the Delaware River (E), Delaware (SE), Maryland (S), West Virginia (SW), Ohio (W), and Lake Erie and New York (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Delaware Delaware , one of the Middle Atlantic states of the United States, the country's second smallest state (after Rhode Island). It is bordered by Maryland (W, S), and there is a short border with Pennsylvania (N); New Jersey (E) is across the Delaware Bay and Delaware River ..... Click the link for more information. , Maryland Maryland , one of the Middle Atlantic states of the United States. It is bounded by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean (E), the District of Columbia (S), Virginia and West Virginia, largely across the Potomac River (S, W), and Pennsylvania (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Virginia Virginia, state of the S Middle-Atlantic United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), North Carolina and Tennessee (S), Kentucky and West Virginia (W), and Maryland and the District of Columbia, largely across the Potomac River (N and NE). ..... Click the link for more information. , and West Virginia West Virginia, E central state of the United States. It is bordered by Pennsylvania and Maryland (N, NE), Virginia (E and S), Kentucky (W) and, across the Ohio River, Ohio (NW). Facts and Figures Area, 24,181 sq mi (62,629 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. ), the Southeastern states ( North Carolina North Carolina, state in the SE United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), South Carolina and Georgia (S), Tennessee (W), and Virginia (N). Facts and Figures Area, 52,586 sq mi (136,198 sq km). Pop. (2010) 9,535,483, an 18. ..... Click the link for more information. , South Carolina South Carolina, state of the SE United States. It is bordered by North Carolina (N), the Atlantic Ocean (SE), and, across the Savannah River, Georgia (SW). Facts and Figures Area, 31,055 sq mi (80,432 sq km). Pop. (2010) 4,625,364, a 15. ..... Click the link for more information. , Georgia Georgia , state in the SE United States, the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be founded. It is bordered by Florida (S), Alabama (W), Tennessee and North Carolina (N), and South Carolina (across the Savannah River) and the Atlantic Ocean (E). ..... Click the link for more information. , Florida Florida , state in the extreme SE United States. A long, low peninsula between the Atlantic Ocean (E) and the Gulf of Mexico (W), Florida is bordered by Georgia and Alabama (N). Facts and Figures Area, 58,560 sq mi (151,670 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , Alabama Alabama , state in the SE United States. It is bordered by Tennessee (N), Georgia (E), Florida and the Gulf of Mexico (S), and Mississippi (W). Facts and Figures Area, 51,609 sq mi (133,677 sq km). Pop. (2010) 4,779,736, a 7. ..... Click the link for more information. , Mississippi Mississippi , one of the Deep South states of the United States. It is bordered by Alabama (E), the Gulf of Mexico (S), Arkansas and Louisiana, with most of that border formed by the Mississippi River (W), and Tennessee (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Louisiana Louisiana , state in the S central United States. It is bounded by Mississippi, with the Mississippi River forming about half of the border (E), the Gulf of Mexico (S), Texas (W), and Arkansas (N). Facts and Figures Area, 48,523 sq mi (125,675 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , Arkansas Arkansas , state in the south-central United States. It is bordered by Tennessee and Mississippi, across the Mississippi River (E), Louisiana (S), Texas and Oklahoma (W), and Missouri (N). Facts and Figures Area, 53,104 sq mi (137,539 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , Tennessee Tennessee , state in the SE central United States. It is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia (N), North Carolina (E), Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi (S), and, across the Mississippi River, Arkansas and Missouri (W). ..... Click the link for more information. , and Kentucky Kentucky , state of the SE central United States. It is bordered by West Virginia and Virginia (E); Tennessee (S); the Mississippi River, across which lies Missouri (SW); and Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, all across the Ohio River (W, N). ..... Click the link for more information. ), the states of the Midwest ( Ohio Ohio, midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. It is bordered by Pennsylvania (NE), West Virginia (SE) and Kentucky (S) across the Ohio River, Indiana (W), and Michigan and Lake Erie (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Indiana Indiana, midwestern state in the N central United States. It is bordered by Lake Michigan and the state of Michigan (N), Ohio (E), Kentucky, across the Ohio River (S), and Illinois (W). Facts and Figures Area, 36,291 sq mi (93,994 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , Illinois Illinois, midwestern state in the N central United States. It is bordered by Lake Michigan and Indiana (E); Kentucky, across the Ohio River (SE); Missouri and Iowa, across the Mississippi River (W); and Wisconsin (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Michigan Michigan , upper midwestern state of the United States. It consists of two peninsulas thrusting into the Great Lakes and has borders with Ohio and Indiana (S), Wisconsin (W), and the Canadian province of Ontario (N,E). ..... Click the link for more information. , Wisconsin Wisconsin , upper midwestern state of the United States. It is bounded by Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, from which it is divided in part by the Menominee River (N); Lake Michigan (E); Illinois (S); and Iowa and Minnesota (W), with the Mississippi River ..... Click the link for more information. , Minnesota Minnesota , upper midwestern state of the United States. It is bordered by Lake Superior and Wisconsin (E), Iowa (S), South Dakota and North Dakota (W), and the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Iowa Iowa , midwestern state in the N central United States. It is bounded by the Mississippi River, across which lie Wisconsin and Illinois (E); Missouri (S); Nebraska and South Dakota, from which it is separated by the Missouri and the Big Sioux rivers, respectively (W); and ..... Click the link for more information. , and Missouri Missouri , one of the midwestern states of the United States. It is bordered by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, across the Mississippi River (E), Arkansas (S), Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska (W), and Iowa (N). ..... Click the link for more information. ), the Great Plains states ( North Dakota North Dakota, state in the N central United States. It is bordered by Minnesota, across the Red River of the North (E), South Dakota (S), Montana (W), and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , South Dakota South Dakota , state in the N central United States. It is bordered by North Dakota (N), Minnesota and Iowa (E), Nebraska (S), and Wyoming and Montana (W). Facts and Figures Area, 77,047 sq mi (199,552 sq km). Pop. (2010) 814,180, a 7. ..... Click the link for more information. , Nebraska Nebraska , Great Plains state of the central United States. It is bordered by Iowa and Missouri, across the Missouri River (E), Kansas (S), Colorado (SW), Wyoming (NW), and South Dakota (N). Facts and Figures Area, 77,227 sq mi (200,018 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Kansas Kansas , midwestern state occupying the center of the coterminous United States. It is bordered by Missouri (E), Oklahoma (S), Colorado (W), and Nebraska (N). Facts and Figures Area, 82,264 sq mi (213,064 sq km). Pop. (2010) 2,853,118, a 6. ..... Click the link for more information. ), the Mountain states ( Montana Montana , Rocky Mt. state in the NW United States. It is bounded by North Dakota and South Dakota (E), Wyoming (S), Idaho (W), and the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Idaho Idaho , one of the Rocky Mt. states in the NW United States. It is bordered by Montana and Wyoming (E), Utah and Nevada (S), Oregon and Washington (W), and the Canadian province of British Columbia (N). Facts and Figures Area, 83,557 sq mi (216,413 sq km). ..... Click the link for more information. , Wyoming Wyoming , least populous state in the United States, one of the Rocky Mt. states of the West. It is bordered by South Dakota and Nebraska (E), Colorado and Utah (S), Idaho (W), and Montana (N). Facts and Figures Area, 97,914 sq mi (253,597 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , Colorado Colorado , state, W central United States, one of the Rocky Mt. states. It is bordered by Wyoming (N), Nebraska (N, E), Kansas (E), Oklahoma and New Mexico (S), and Utah (W); it touches Arizona (SW) in the Four Corners region. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Utah Utah , Rocky Mt. state of the W United States. It is bordered by Idaho and Wyoming (N), Colorado (E), Arizona (S), and Nevada (W), and touches New Mexico in the SE, at the Four Corners. ..... Click the link for more information. ), the Southwestern states ( Oklahoma Oklahoma , state in SW United States. It is bordered by Missouri and Arkansas (E); Texas, partially across the Red River (S, W); New Mexico, across the narrow edge of the Oklahoma Panhandle (W); and Colorado and Kansas (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Texas Texas , largest state in the coterminous United States. It is located in the south-central part of the country and is bounded by Oklahoma, across the Red River except in the Texas panhandle (N); Arkansas (NE); Louisiana, across the Sabine River (E); the Gulf of Mexico (SE); ..... Click the link for more information. , New Mexico New Mexico, state in the SW United States. At its northwestern corner are the so-called Four Corners, where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah meet at right angles; New Mexico is also bordered by Oklahoma (NE), Texas (E, S), and Mexico (S). ..... Click the link for more information. , and Arizona Arizona , state in the SW United States. It is bordered by Utah (N), New Mexico (E), Mexico (S), and, largely across the Colorado River, Nevada and California (W); it touches Colorado (NE) in the Four Corners region. ..... Click the link for more information. ), and the states of the Far West ( Washington Washington, state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. It is bordered by Idaho (E); Oregon, with the Columbia River marking much of the boundary (S); the Pacific Ocean (W); and the Canadian province of British Columbia (N). ..... Click the link for more information. , Oregon Oregon , state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. It is bordered by Washington, largely across the Columbia River (N), Idaho, partially across the Snake River (E), Nevada and California (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W). ..... Click the link for more information. , California California , most populous state in the United States, located in the Far West; bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and, across the Colorado River, Arizona (E), Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W). Facts and Figures Area, 158,693 sq mi (411,015 sq km). Pop. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Nevada Nevada , far western state of the United States. It is bordered by Utah (E), Arizona (SE), California (SW, W), and Oregon and Idaho (N). Facts and Figures Area, 110,540 sq mi (286,299 sq km). Pop. (2000) 2,700,551, a 35. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Alaska Alaska , largest in area of the United States but one of the smallest in population, occupying the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from the coterminous United States by W Canada. ..... Click the link for more information. is the largest state in area (656,424 sq mi/1,700,578 sq km), and Rhode Island is the smallest (1,545 sq mi/4,003 sq km). California has the largest population (2000 pop. 33,871,648), while Wyoming has the fewest people (2000 pop. 493,782). In the late 20th cent., Nevada, Arizona, Florida, Colorado, Utah, Georgia, and Texas experienced the fastest rates of population growth, while California, Texas, Florida, Georgia, Arizona, and North Carolina gained the greatest number of residents. West Virginia, North Dakota, and the District of Columbia experienced population decreases over the same period. The largest U.S. cities are New York, Los Angeles Los Angeles , city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. A port of entry on the Pacific coast, with a fine harbor at San Pedro Bay, it is the second largest U.S. city in population and one of the largest in area. ..... Click the link for more information. , Chicago Chicago , city (1990 pop. 2,783,726), seat of Cook co., NE Ill., on Lake Michigan; inc. 1837. The third largest city in the United States and the heart of a metropolitan area of over 8 million people, it is the commercial, financial, industrial, and cultural center for a vast ..... Click the link for more information. , Houston Houston, city (1990 pop. 1,630,553), seat of Harris co., SE Tex., a deepwater port on the Houston Ship Channel; inc. 1837. Economy The fourth largest city in the nation and the largest in the entire South and Southwest, Houston is a port of entry; a great ..... Click the link for more information. , and Philadelphia Philadelphia, city (1990 pop. 1,585,577), coextensive with Philadelphia co., SE Pa., on the Delaware River c.100 mi (160 km) upstream at the influx of the Schuylkill River; chartered 1701. ..... Click the link for more information. . Among the other major cities are Boston Boston, city (1990 pop. 574,283), state capital and seat of Suffolk co., E Mass., on Boston Bay, an arm of Massachusetts Bay; inc. 1822. The city includes former neighboring towns—Roxbury, West Roxbury, Dorchester, Charlestown, Brighton, and Hyde Park—annexed in the ..... Click the link for more information. , Pittsburgh Pittsburgh , city (1990 pop. 369,879), seat of Allegheny co., SW Pa., at the confluence of the Allegheny and the Monongahela rivers, which there form the Ohio River; inc. 1816. A major inland port of entry, it is located at the junction of east-west transportation arteries. ..... Click the link for more information. , Baltimore Baltimore, city (1990 pop. 736,014), N central Md., surrounded by but politically independent of Baltimore co., on the Patapsco River estuary, an arm of Chesapeake Bay; inc. 1745. ..... Click the link for more information. , Washington, D.C., Richmond Richmond. 1 City (1990 pop. 87,425), Contra Costa co., W Calif., on San Pablo Bay, an inlet of San Francisco Bay; inc. 1905. It is a deepwater commercial port and an industrial center with oil refineries and railroad repair shops. ..... Click the link for more information. , Virginia Beach Virginia Beach, resort city (1990 pop. 393,069), independent and in no county, SE Va., on the Atlantic coast; inc. 1906. In 1963, Princess Anne co. and the former small town of Virginia Beach were merged, giving the present city an area of 302 sq mi (782 sq km). ..... Click the link for more information. , Charlotte Charlotte, city (1990 pop. 395,934), seat of Mecklenburg co., S N.C.; inc. 1768. The largest city in the state and the commercial and industrial leader of the Piedmont region, Charlotte is the third-ranking U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , Atlanta Atlanta , city (1990 pop. 394,017), state capital and seat of Fulton co., NW Ga., on the Chattahoochee R. and Peachtree Creek, near the Appalachian foothills; inc. 1847. It is Georgia's largest city and one of the leading cities of the South. ..... Click the link for more information. , Jacksonville Jacksonville. 1 City (1990 pop. 29,101), Pulaski co., central Ark., inc. 1941. The city has varied industries, including printing and publishing and the manufacture of electronic equipment, ordnance, and plastic and metal products. ..... Click the link for more information. , Tampa Tampa , city (1990 pop. 280,015), seat of Hillsborough co., W Fla., a port of entry with an impressive harbor on Tampa Bay; inc. 1855. The third largest city in the state, Tampa has long been a shipping and manufacturing hub on the Gulf Coast. ..... Click the link for more information. , Miami Miami . 1 City (1990 pop. 358,548), seat of Dade co., SE Fla., on Biscayne Bay at the mouth of the Miami River; inc. 1896. The region of Greater Miami encompasses all of Dade co., including Miami, Miami Beach, Coral Gables, Hialeah, and many smaller communities. ..... Click the link for more information. , Cleveland Cleveland. 1 City (1990 pop. 505,616), seat of Cuyahoga co., NE Ohio, on Lake Erie at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River; laid out (1796) by Moses Cleaveland, chartered as a city 1836. ..... Click the link for more information. , Columbus Columbus. 1 City (1990 pop. 178,681), seat of Muscogee co., W Ga., at the head of navigation on the Chattahoochee River; settled and inc. 1828 on the site of a Creek village. ..... Click the link for more information. , Cincinnati Cincinnati , city (1990 pop. 364,040), seat of Hamilton co., extreme SW Ohio, on the Ohio River opposite Newport and Covington, Ky.; inc. as a city 1819. The third largest city in the state, Cincinnati is the industrial, commercial, and cultural center for an extensive area ..... Click the link for more information. , Detroit Detroit , city (1990 pop. 1,027,974), seat of Wayne co., SE Mich., on the Detroit River and between lakes St. Clair and Erie; inc. as a city 1815. Michigan's largest city and the tenth largest in the nation, Detroit is a major Great Lakes shipping and rail center. ..... Click the link for more information. , Indianapolis Indianapolis , city (1990 pop. 731,327), state capital and seat of Marion co., central Ind., on the White River; selected 1820 as the site of the state capital (which was moved there in 1825), inc. 1847. ..... Click the link for more information. , Milwaukee Milwaukee , city (1990 pop. 628,088), seat of Milwaukee co., SE Wis., at the point where the Milwaukee, Menominee, and Kinnickinnic rivers enter Lake Michigan; inc. 1846. ..... Click the link for more information. , Minneapolis Minneapolis , city (1990 pop. 368,383), seat of Hennepin co., E Minn., at the head of navigation on the Mississippi River, at St. Anthony Falls; inc. 1856. The largest city in the state and a port of entry, it is a major industrial and rail hub. With adjacent St. ..... Click the link for more information. , Saint Louis Saint Louis , city (1990 pop. 396,685), independent and in no county, E Mo., on the Mississippi River below the mouth of the Missouri; inc. as a city 1822. St. Louis has long been a major industrial and transportation hub. ..... Click the link for more information. , Nashville Nashville, city (1990 pop. 487,969), state capital, coextensive with Davidson co., central Tenn., on the Cumberland River, in a fertile farm area; inc. as a city 1806, merged with Davidson co. 1963. It is a port of entry and an important commercial and industrial center. ..... Click the link for more information. , Memphis Memphis , city (1990 pop. 610,337), seat of Shelby co., SW Tenn., on the Fourth, or Lower, Chickasaw Bluff above the Mississippi, at the mouth of the Wolf River; inc. 1826. ..... Click the link for more information. , New Orleans New Orleans , city (2006 pop. 187,525), coextensive with Orleans parish, SE La., between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, 107 mi (172 km) by water from the river mouth; founded 1718 by the sieur de Bienville, inc. 1805. ..... Click the link for more information. , Kansas City Kansas City, two adjacent cities of the same name, one (1990 pop. 149,767), seat of Wyandotte co., NE Kansas (inc. 1859), the other (1990 pop. 435,146), Clay, Jackson, and Platte counties, NW Mo. (inc. 1850). ..... Click the link for more information. , Oklahoma City Oklahoma City (1990 pop. 444,719), state capital, and seat of Oklahoma co., central Okla., on the North Canadian River; inc. 1890. The state's largest city, it is an important livestock market, a wholesale, distribution, industrial, and financial center, and a farm trade and ..... Click the link for more information. , Dallas Dallas, city (1990 pop. 1,006,877), seat of Dallas co., N Tex., on the Trinity River near the junction of its three forks; inc. 1871. The second largest Texas city, after Houston, and the eighth largest U.S. city, Dallas is a commercial, industrial, and financial center. ..... Click the link for more information. – Fort Worth Fort Worth, city (1990 pop. 447,619), seat of Tarrant co., N Tex., on the Trinity River 30 mi (48 km) W of Dallas; settled 1843, inc. 1873. An army post was established on the site in 1847, and after the Civil War became an Old West cow town. ..... Click the link for more information. , Austin Austin. 1 City (1990 pop. 21,907), seat of Mower co., SE Minn., on the Cedar River, near the Iowa line; inc. 1868. The commercial and industrial center of a rich farm region, it is noted as home to the Hormel meatpacking company, whose Spam Town museum draws tourists. ..... Click the link for more information. , San Antonio San Antonio , city (1990 pop. 935,933), seat of Bexar co., S central Tex., at the source of the San Antonio River; inc. 1837. The third largest city in Texas, it is one of the nation's largest military centers; Fort Sam Houston and the Air Force Aerospace Medical Center are in ..... Click the link for more information. , El Paso El Paso , city (1990 pop. 515,342), seat of El Paso co., extreme W Tex., on the Rio Grande opposite Juárez, Mex.; inc. 1873. In a region of cattle ranches and cotton and vegetable farms (irrigated from the Elephant Butte Reservoir), the city is a port of entry and a ..... Click the link for more information. , Albuquerque Albuquerque , city (1990 pop. 384,736), seat of Bernalillo co., W central N.Mex., on the upper Rio Grande; inc. 1890. The largest city in the state, it is the commercial, industrial, and transportation center for a rich timber, livestock, and farm area. ..... Click the link for more information. , Denver Denver, city (1990 pop. 467,610), alt. 5,280 ft (1,609 m), state capital, coextensive with Denver co., N central Colo., on a plateau at the foot of the Front Range of the Rocky Mts., along the South Platte River where Cherry Creek meets it; est. 1858 and named after James W. ..... Click the link for more information. , Salt Lake City Salt Lake City, city (1990 pop. 159,936), alt. c.4,330 ft (1,320 m), state capital and seat of Salt Lake co., N central Utah, on the Jordan River and near the Great Salt Lake, at the foot of the Wasatch Range; inc. 1851. ..... Click the link for more information. , Phoenix Phoenix, city (1990 pop. 983,403), state capital and seat of Maricopa co., S Ariz., on the Salt River; inc. 1881. It is the largest city in Arizona, the hub of the rich agricultural region of the Salt River valley, and an important center for research and development, ..... Click the link for more information. , Tucson Tucson , city (1990 pop. 405,390), seat of Pima co., SE Ariz.; inc. 1877. Situated in a desert plain surrounded by mountains, Tucson is an important and growing transportation and tourist center; its dry, sunny, and hot climate attracts vacationers and health seekers. ..... Click the link for more information. , Las Vegas Las Vegas , city (1990 pop. 258,295), seat of Clark co., S Nev.; inc. 1911. It is the largest city in Nevada and the center of one of the fastest-growing urban areas in the United States. ..... Click the link for more information. , Seattle Seattle , city (1990 pop. 516,259), seat of King co., W Wash., built on seven hills, between Elliott Bay of Puget Sound and Lake Washington; inc. 1869. Seattle, the largest city in the Pacific Northwest, is the region's commercial, financial, transportation, and industrial hub ..... Click the link for more information. , Portland Portland. 1 City (1990 pop. 64,358), seat of Cumberland co., SW Maine, situated on a small peninsula and adjacent land, with a large, deepwater harbor on Casco Bay; settled c.1632, set off from Falmouth and inc. 1786. ..... Click the link for more information. , Sacramento Sacramento , city (1990 pop. 369,365), state capital and seat of Sacramento co., central Calif., on the Sacramento River at its confluence with the American River; settled 1839, inc. 1850. ..... Click the link for more information. , San Francisco San Francisco , city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden Gate; inc. 1850. ..... Click the link for more information. , San Jose San Jose , city (1990 pop. 782,248), seat of Santa Clara co., W central Calif.; founded 1777, inc. 1850. Along with San Francisco and Oakland the city comprises the fourth largest metropolitan area in the United States. ..... Click the link for more information. , Fresno Fresno , city (1990 pop. 354,202), seat of Fresno co., S central Calif.; inc. 1885. Settled in 1872 as a station on the Central Pacific RR, Fresno profited from irrigated farming as early as the 1880s. Extensive and sophisticated agribusiness in the San Joaquin valley (Fresno co. ..... Click the link for more information. , Long Beach Long Beach. 1 City (1990 pop. 429,433), Los Angeles co., S Calif., on San Pedro Bay; est. 1882 as Willmore City, inc. 1888 as Long Beach. Having an excellent harbor, it serves as one of Los Angeles's two ports—it is one of the world's largest container ..... Click the link for more information. , San Diego San Diego , city (1990 pop. 1,110,549), seat of San Diego co., S Calif., on San Diego Bay; inc. 1850. San Diego includes the unincorporated communities of La Jolla and Spring Valley. Coronado is across the bay. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Honolulu Honolulu , city (1990 pop. 365,272), capital of the state of Hawaii and seat of Honolulu co., on the southeast coast of the island of Oahu. The city and county are legally coextensive, and both are governed by the same mayor and council. With ship and air connections to the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. . Physical Geography The conterminous United States may be divided into seven broad physiographic divisions: from east to west, the Atlantic–Gulf Coastal Plain; the Appalachian Highlands; the Interior Plains; the Interior Highlands; the Rocky Mountain System; the Intermontane Region; and the Pacific Mountain System. An eighth division, the Laurentian Uplands, a part of the Canadian Shield Canadian Shield or Laurentian Plateau , U-shaped region of ancient rock, the nucleus of North America, stretching N from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean. Covering more than half of Canada, it also includes most of Greenland and extends into the United States as the ..... Click the link for more information. , dips into the United States from Canada in the Great Lakes region. It is an area of little local relief, with an irregular drainage system and many lakes, as well as some of the oldest exposed rocks in the United States. The terrain of the N United States was formed by the great continental ice sheets that covered N North America during the late Cenozoic Era. The southern edge of the ice sheet is roughly traced by a line of terminal moraines extending west from E Long Island and then along the course of the Ohio and Missouri rivers to the Rocky Mts.; land north of this line is covered by glacial material. Alaska and the mountains of NW United States had extensive mountain glaciers and were heavily eroded. Large glacial lakes (see Lake Bonneville under Bonneville Salt Flats Bonneville Salt Flats , desert area in Tooele co., NW Utah, c.14 mi (22.5 km) long and 7 mi (11.2 km) wide. The smooth salt surface of the Flats is ideal for auto racing, and several world land speed records have been set there. ..... Click the link for more information. ; Lahontan, Lake Lahontan, Lake , extinct lake of W Nev. and NE Calif. It was formed by heavy precipitation caused by the Pleistocene glaciers and with Lake Bonneville (see under Bonneville Salt Flats) occupied a part of the Great Basin region. ..... Click the link for more information. ) occupied sections of the Basin and Range province; the Great Salt Lake and the other lakes of this region are remnants of the glacial lakes. The East and the Gulf Coast The Atlantic–Gulf Coastal Plain extends along the east and southeast coasts of the United States from E Long Island to the Rio Grande; Cape Cod and the islands off SE Massachusetts are also part of this region. Although narrow in the north, the Atlantic Coastal Plain widens in the south, merging with the Gulf Coastal Plain in Florida. The Atlantic and Gulf coasts are essentially coastlines of submergence, with numerous estuaries, embayments, islands, sandspits, and barrier beaches backed by lagoons. The northeast coast has many fine natural harbors, such as those of New York Bay New York Bay, arm of the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Hudson River, SE N.Y. and NE N.J., enclosed by the shores of NE New Jersey, E Staten Island, S Manhattan, and W Long Island (Brooklyn) and opening on the SE to the Atlantic Ocean between Sandy Hook, N.J. ..... Click the link for more information. and Chesapeake Bay Chesapeake Bay, inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, c.200 mi (320 km) long, from 3 to 30 mi (4.8–48 km) wide, and 3,237 sq mi (8,384 sq km), separating the Delmarva Peninsula from mainland Maryland. and Virginia. ..... Click the link for more information. , but south of the great capes of the North Carolina coast (Fear, Lookout, and Hatteras) there are few large bays. A principal feature of the lagoon-lined Gulf Coast is the great delta of the Mississippi Mississippi, river, principal river of the United States, c.2,350 mi (3,780 km) long, exceeded in length only by the Missouri, the chief of its numerous tributaries. The combined Missouri-Mississippi system (from the Missouri's headwaters in the Rocky Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. River. The Atlantic Coastal Plain rises in the west to the rolling Piedmont (the falls along which were an early source of waterpower), a hilly transitional zone leading to the Appalachian Mountains Appalachian Mountains , mountain system of E North America, extending in a broad belt c.1,600 mi (2,570 km) SW from the Gaspé Peninsula in Quebec prov., Canada, to the Gulf coastal plain in Alabama. Main sections in the system are the White Mts., Green Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. . These ancient mountains, a once towering system now worn low by erosion, extend southwest from SE Canada to the Gulf Coastal Plain in Alabama. In E New England, the Appalachians extend in a few places to the Atlantic Ocean, contributing to a rocky, irregular coastline. The Appalachians and the Adirondack Mountains Adirondack Mountains , mountain mass, NE N.Y., between the St. Lawrence valley in the north and the Mohawk valley in the south; rising to 5,344 ft (1,629 m) at Mt. Marcy, the highest point in the state. ..... Click the link for more information. of New York (which are geologically related to the Canadian Shield) include all the chief highlands of E United States; Mt. Mitchell Mitchell, Mount, peak, 6,684 ft (2,037 m) high, W N.C., in the Black Mts. of the Appalachian system; highest peak E of the Mississippi River. ..... Click the link for more information. (6,684 ft/2,037 m high), in the Black Mts. of North Carolina, is the highest point of E North America. The Plains and Highlands of the Interior Extending more than 1,000 mi (1,610 km) from the Appalachians to the Rocky Mts. and lying between Canada (into which they extend) in the north and the Gulf Coastal Plain in the south are the undulating Interior Plains. Once covered by a great inland sea, the Interior Plains are underlain by sedimentary rock. Almost all of the region is drained by one of the world's greatest river systems—the Mississippi-Missouri. The Interior Plains may be divided into two sections: the fertile central lowlands, the agricultural heartland of the United States; and the Great Plains Great Plains, extensive grassland region on the continental slope of central North America. They extend from the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba south through W central United States into W Texas. ..... Click the link for more information. , a treeless plateau that gently rises from the central lowlands to the foothills of the Rocky Mts. The Black Hills Black Hills, rugged mountains, c.6,000 sq mi (15,540 sq km), enclosed by the Belle Fourche and Cheyenne rivers, SW S.Dak. and NE Wyo., and rising c.2,500 ft (760 m) above the surrounding Great Plains; Harney Peak, 7,242 ft (2,207 m) above sea level, is the highest point in the ..... Click the link for more information. of South Dakota form the region's only upland area. The Interior Highlands are located just W of the Mississippi River between the Interior Plains and the Gulf Coastal Plain. This region consists of the rolling Ozark Plateau (see Ozarks Ozarks, the, or Ozark Plateau, upland region, actually a dissected plateau, c.50,000 sq mi (129,500 sq km), chiefly in S Mo. and N Ark., but partly in Oklahoma and Kansas, between the Arkansas and Missouri rivers. ..... Click the link for more information. ) to the north and the Ouachita Mountains Ouachita Mountains, range of east-west ridges between the Arkansas and Red rivers, extending c.200 mi (320 km) from central Ark. into SE Okla. Magazine Mt. (c.2,800 ft/850 m high) is the tallest peak. The Ouachita Mts. are geologically considered outlier of the Appalachian Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. , which are similar in structure to the ridge and valley section of the Appalachians, to the east. The Western Mountains and Great Basin West of the Great Plains are the lofty Rocky Mountains Rocky Mountains, major mountain system of W North America and easternmost belt of the North American cordillera, extending more than 3,000 mi (4,800 km) from central N.Mex. to NW Alaska; Mt. Elbert (14,431 ft/4,399 m) in Colorado is the highest peak. ..... Click the link for more information. . This geologically young and complex system extends into NW United States from Canada and runs S into New Mexico. There are numerous high peaks in the Rockies; the highest is Mt. Elbert Elbert, Mount, peak, 14,433 ft (4,399 m) high, central Colo.; highest point in the state and tallest peak in the U.S. Rocky Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. (14,433 ft/4,399 m). The Rocky Mts. are divided into four sections—the Northern Rockies, the Middle Rockies, the Wyoming (Great Divide) Basin, and the Southern Rockies. Along the crest of the Rockies is the Continental Divide Continental Divide, the "backbone" of a continent. In North America, from N Alaska to New Mexico, it moves along the crest of the Rocky Mts., which separates streams with outlets to the west of the divide from those with outlets to the east. ..... Click the link for more information. , separating Atlantic-bound drainage from that heading for the Pacific Ocean. Between the Rocky Mts. and the ranges to the west is the Intermontane Region, an arid expanse of plateaus, basins, and ranges. The Columbia Plateau Columbia Plateau, physiographic region of North America, c.100,000 sq mi (259,000 sq km), NW United States, between the Rocky Mts. and the Cascade Range in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. ..... Click the link for more information. , in the north of the region, was formed by volcanic lava and is drained by the Columbia Columbia, river, c.1,210 mi (1,950 km) long, rising in Columbia Lake, SE British Columbia, Canada. It flows first NW in the Rocky Mt. Trench, then hooks sharply about the Selkirk Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. River and its tributary the Snake Snake, river, 1,038 mi (1,670 km) long, NW United States, the chief tributary of the Columbia; once called the Lewis River. The Snake rises in NW Wyoming, in Yellowstone National Park, flows through Jackson Lake in Grand Teton National Park, then S and W into Idaho and northwest ..... Click the link for more information. River, both of which have cut deep canyons into the plateau. The enormous Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau, physiographic region of SW North America, c.150,000 sq mi (388,500 sq km), in Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico, including the "Four Corners" area. It is characterized by broad plateaus, ancient volcanic mountains at elevations of c. ..... Click the link for more information. , an area of sedimentary rock, is drained by the Colorado Colorado . 1 Great river of the SW United States, 1,450 mi (2,334 km) long, rising in the Rocky Mts. of N Colo., and flowing generally SW through Colo., Utah, Ariz., between Nev. and Ariz., and Ariz. and Calif. ..... Click the link for more information. River and its tributaries; there the Colorado River has entrenched itself to form the Grand Canyon Grand Canyon, great gorge of the Colorado River, one of the natural wonders of the world; c.1 mi (1.6 km) deep, from 4 to 18 mi (6.4–29 km) wide, and 217 mi (349 km) long, NW Ariz. ..... Click the link for more information. , one of the world's most impressive scenic wonders. West of the plateaus is the Basin and Range province, an area of extensive semidesert. The lowest point in North America, in Death Valley Death Valley, SE Calif. and SW Nev., a deep, arid basin, 140 mi (225 km) long, bordered on the W by the Panamint Range and on the E by the Amargosa Range. In summer the valley has recorded some of the world's highest air temperatures (134&degF;/56. ..... Click the link for more information. (282 ft/86 m below sea level), is there. The largest basin in the region is the Great Basin Great Basin, semiarid, N section of the Basin and Range province, the intermontane plateau region of W United States and N Mexico. Lying mostly in Nevada and extending into California, Oregon, Idaho, and Utah, it is bordered by the Sierra Nevada on the west, the Columbia Plateau ..... Click the link for more information. , an area of interior drainage (the Humboldt Humboldt, river, c.300 mi (480 km) long, rising in several branches in the mountains of NE Nev. It meanders generally west to disappear in Humboldt Sink, W Nevada. Along with its tributaries, the Humboldt drains most of N Nevada. ..... Click the link for more information. River is the largest stream) and of numerous salt lakes, including the Great Salt Lake Great Salt Lake, shallow body of saltwater, NW Utah, between the Wasatch Range on the east and the Great Salt Lake Desert on the west; largest salt lake in North America. ..... Click the link for more information. . Between the Intermontane Region and the Pacific Ocean is the Pacific Mountain System, a series of ranges generally paralleling the coast, formed by faulting and volcanism. The Cascade Range Cascade Range, mountain chain, c.700 mi (1,130 km) long, extending S from British Columbia to N Calif., where it becomes the Sierra Nevada; it parallels the Coast Ranges, 100–150 mi (161–241 km) inland from the Pacific Ocean. ..... Click the link for more information. , with its numerous volcanic peaks extends S from SW Canada into N California, and from there is continued south by the Sierra Nevada Sierra Nevada , mountain range, c.400 mi (640 km) long and from c.40 to 80 mi (60–130 km) wide, mostly in E Calif. It rises to 14,495 ft (4,418 m) in Mt. Whitney, the highest peak in the United States outside Alaska. ..... Click the link for more information. , a great fault block. Mt. Whitney Whitney, Mount, peak, 14,494 ft (4,418 m) high, E Calif., in the Sierra Nevada at the eastern border of Sequoia National Park; the highest peak in the contiguous 48 states (Denali [Mt. McKinley], Alaska, is the highest peak in the United States). ..... Click the link for more information. (14,495 ft/4,418 m), in the Sierra Nevada, is the highest peak in the conterminous United States. The Pacific Coast, Alaska, and Hawaii West of the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada and separated from them by a structural trough are the Coast Ranges Coast Ranges, series of mountain ranges along the Pacific coast of North America, extending from SE Alaska to Baja California; from 2,000 to 20,000 ft (610–6,100 m) high. The ranges include the St. Elias Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. , which extend along the length of the U.S. Pacific coast. The Central Valley in California, the Willamette Valley in Oregon, and the Puget Sound lowlands in Washington are part of the trough. The San Andreas Fault, a fracture in the earth's crust, parallels the trend of the Coast Ranges from San Francisco Bay SE to NW Mexico; earthquakes are common along its entire length. The Pacific Coastal Plain is narrow, and in many cases the mountains plunge directly into the sea. A coastline of emergence, it has few islands, except for California's Channel Islands Channel Islands or Santa Barbara Islands , chain of eight rugged islands and many islets, extending c.150 mi (240 km) along the S Calif. coast from Point Conception to San Diego. ..... Click the link for more information. and those in Puget Sound; there are few good harbors besides Puget Sound Puget Sound , arm of the Pacific Ocean, NW Wash., connected with the Pacific by Juan de Fuca Strait, entered through the Admiralty Inlet and extending in two arms c.100 mi (160 km) S to Olympia. ..... Click the link for more information. , San Francisco Bay San Francisco Bay, 50 mi (80 km) long and from 3 to 13 mi (4.8–21 km) wide, W Calif.; entered through the Golden Gate, a strait between two peninsulas. The bay is as deep as 100 ft (30 m) in spots, with a channel 50 ft (15 m) deep maintained through the sandbar off the ..... Click the link for more information. , and San Diego Bay. Alaska may be divided into four physiographic regions; they are, from north to south, the Arctic Lowlands, the coastal plain of the Arctic Ocean; the Rocky Mountain System, of which the Brooks Range Brooks Range, mountain chain, northernmost part of the Rocky Mts., extending about 600 mi (970 km) from east to west across N Alaska. Mt. Chamberlin, 9,020 ft (2,749 m) high, near the Canadian border, is the highest peak. ..... Click the link for more information. is the northernmost section; the Central Basins and Highlands Region, which is dominated by the Yukon Yukon , river, c.2,000 mi (3,220 km) long, rising in Atlin Lake, NW British Columbia, Canada, and receiving numerous headwater streams; one of the longest rivers of North America. ..... Click the link for more information. River basin; and the Pacific Mountain System, which parallels Alaska's southern coast and which rises to 20,310 ft (6,190 m) at Denali Denali, formerly Mount McKinley, peak, 20,310 ft (6,190 m) high, S central Alaska, in the Alaska Range; highest point in North America. Permanent snowfields cover more than half the mountain and feed numerous glaciers. ..... Click the link for more information. (Mt. McKinley), the highest peak of North America. The islands of SE Alaska and those of the Aleutian Islands Aleutian Islands , chain of rugged, volcanic islands curving c.1,200 mi (1,900 km) west from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula and approaching Russia's Komandorski Islands. ..... Click the link for more information. chain are partially submerged portions of the Pacific Mountain System and are frequently subjected to volcanic activity and earthquakes. These islands, like those of Hawaii, are the tops of volcanoes that rise from the floor of the Pacific Ocean. Mauna Kea Mauna Kea , dormant volcano, 13,796 ft (4,205 m) high, in the south central part of the island of Hawaii. It is the loftiest peak in the Hawaiian Islands and the highest island mountain in the world, rising c.32,000 ft (9,750 m) from the Pacific Ocean floor. ..... Click the link for more information. and Mauna Loa Mauna Loa , mountain, 13,680 ft (4,170 m) high, in the south central part of the island of Hawaii, in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Its many craters include Kilauea and Mokuaweoweo, two of the world's largest active craters. ..... Click the link for more information. on Hawaii are active volcanoes; the other Hawaiian islands are extinct volcanoes. Major Rivers and Lakes The United States has an extensive inland waterway system, much of which has been improved for navigation and flood control and developed to produce hydroelectricity and irrigation water by such agencies as the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Tennessee Valley Authority Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), independent U.S. government corporate agency, created in 1933 by act of Congress; it is responsible for the integrated development of the Tennessee River basin. ..... Click the link for more information. . Some of the world's larger dams, man-made lakes, and hydroelectric power plants are on U.S. rivers. The Mississippi-Missouri river system (c.3,890 mi/6,300 km long), is the longest in the United States and the second longest in the world. With its hundreds of tributaries, chief among which are the Red River Red River. 1 River, 1,222 mi (1,967 km) long, southernmost of the large tributaries of the Mississippi River. It rises in two branches in the Texas Panhandle and flows SE between Texas and Oklahoma and between Texas and Arkansas to Fulton, Ark. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Ohio Ohio, river, 981 mi (1,579 km) long, formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in SW Pa., at Pittsburgh; it flows northwest, then generally southwest to enter the Mississippi River at Cairo, Ill. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the Arkansas Arkansas , river, c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) long, rising in the Rocky Mts., central Colo., and flowing generally SE across the plains to the Mississippi River, SE Ark.; drains 160,500 sq mi (415,700 sq km). The Canadian and Cimarron rivers are its main tributaries. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Mississippi basin drains more than half of the nation. The Yukon, Columbia, Colorado, and Rio Grande Rio Grande , river, c.1,885 mi (3,000 km) long, rising in SW Colo. in the San Juan Mts. and flowing south through the middle of N.Mex., past Albuquerque, then coursing generally southeast as the border between Texas and Mexico, making a big bend (see Big Bend National Park), and ..... Click the link for more information. also have huge drainage basins. Other notable river systems include the Connecticut Connecticut, longest river in New England, 407 mi (655 km) long, rising in the Connecticut Lakes, N N.H., near the Quebec border, and flowing S along the Vt.-N.H. line, then across Mass. and Conn. to enter Long Island Sound at Old Saybrook, Conn.; drains c. ..... Click the link for more information. , Hudson Hudson, river, c.315 mi (510 km) long, rising in Lake Tear of the Clouds, on Mt. Marcy in the Adirondack Mts., NE N.Y., and flowing generally S to Upper New York Bay at New York City; the Mohawk River is its chief tributary. ..... Click the link for more information. , Delaware Delaware , river, c.280 mi (450 km) long, rising in the Catskill Mts., SE N.Y., in east and west branches, which meet at Hancock. It flows SE along the New York–Pennsylvania border to Port Jervis, N.Y. ..... Click the link for more information. , Susquehanna Susquehanna , river, 444 mi (715 km) long, rising in Otsego Lake, at Cooperstown, N.Y., and zigzagging SE and SW through E central Pa. to Chesapeake Bay near Havre de Grace, Md. The bay is the drowned lower course of the river. The West Branch (c. ..... Click the link for more information. , Potomac Potomac , river, 285 mi (459 km) long, formed SE of Cumberland, Md., by the confluence of its North and South branches and flowing generally SE to Chesapeake Bay. It forms part of the boundary between Maryland and West Virginia and then separates Virginia from both Maryland and ..... Click the link for more information. , James James. 1 Unnavigable river, 710 mi (1,143 km) long, rising in central N.Dak. and flowing across S.Dak. to the Missouri River at Yankton, S.Dak. Jamestown Dam on the river is an irrigation and flood control unit of the Missouri River basin project of the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , Alabama Alabama, river, 315 mi (507 km) long, formed in central Ala. by the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers N of Montgomery, Ala., and flowing SW to Mobile, Ala., where it joins the Tombigbee to form the Mobile River; drains c.22,600 sq mi (58,500 sq km). ..... Click the link for more information. , Trinity Trinity, river rising in N Texas in three forks; the Clear Fork runs into the West Fork at Fort Worth, and the Elm Fork joins the West Fork at Dallas. The Trinity then flows c.510 mi (820 km) SE to Trinity Bay, an arm of Galveston Bay. ..... Click the link for more information. , San Joaquin San Joaquin , river, c.320 mi (510 km) long, rising in the Sierra Nevada, E Calif., and flowing W then N through the S Central Valley to form a large delta with the Sacramento River near Suisun Bay, an arm of San Francisco Bay. The San Joaquin is navigable c. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Sacramento Sacramento, longest river of Calif., c.380 mi (610 km) long, rising near Mt. Shasta, N Calif., and flowing generally SW to Suisun Bay, an arm of San Francisco Bay, where it forms a large delta with the San Joaquin River. ..... Click the link for more information. . The Great Salt Lake and Alaska's Iliamna Iliamna , lake, c.1,000 sq mi (2,590 sq km), 75 mi (121 km) long and up to 22 mi (35 km) wide, SW Alaska, at the base of the Alaska Peninsula; largest lake in Alaska and the second largest freshwater lake wholly within the United States. ..... Click the link for more information. are the largest U.S. lakes outside the Great Lakes Great Lakes, group of five freshwater lakes, central North America, creating a natural border between the United States and Canada and forming the largest body of freshwater in the world, with a combined surface area of c.95,000 sq mi (246,050 sq km). ..... Click the link for more information. and Lake of the Woods Lake of the Woods, 1,485 sq mi (3,846 sq km), c.70 mi (110 km) long, on the U.S.-Canada border in the pine forest region of N Minn., SE Man., and SW Ont. More than two thirds of the lake is in Canada. ..... Click the link for more information. , which are shared with Canada (Lake Michigan and Iliamna are the largest freshwater lakes entirely within the United States). The Illinois Waterway Illinois Waterway, 336 mi (541 km) long, linking Lake Michigan with the Mississippi River, N Ill.; an important part of the waterway connecting the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico. ..... Click the link for more information. connects the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River, and the New York State Canal System New York State Canal System, waterway system, 524 mi (843 km) long, traversing New York state and connecting the Great Lakes with the Finger Lakes, the Hudson River, and Lake Champlain. ..... Click the link for more information. links them with the Hudson. The Intracoastal Waterway Intracoastal Waterway, c.3,000 mi (4,827 km) long, partly natural, partly artificial, providing sheltered passage for commercial and leisure boats along the U.S. Atlantic coast from Boston, Mass. to Key West, S Fla., and along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Apalachee Bay, NW Fla. ..... Click the link for more information. provides sheltered passage for shallow draft vessels along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. Climate The United States has a broad range of climates, varying from the tropical rain-forest of Hawaii and the tropical savanna of S Florida (where the Everglades Everglades, marshy, low-lying subtropical savanna area, c.4,000 sq mi (10,000 sq km), S Fla., extending from Lake Okeechobee S to Florida Bay. Characterized by water, sawgrass, hammocks (islandlike masses of vegetation), palms, pine and mangrove forests, and solidly packed black ..... Click the link for more information. are found) to the subarctic and tundra climates of Alaska. East of the 100th meridian (the general dividing line between the dry and humid climates) are the humid subtropical climate of SE United States and the humid continental climate of NE United States. Extensive forests are found in both these regions. West of the 100th meridian are the steppe climate and the grasslands of the Great Plains; trees are found along the water courses. In the SW United States are the deserts of the basin and range province, with the hottest and driest spots in the United States. Along the Pacific coast are the Mediterranean-type climate of S California and, extending north into SE Alaska, the marine West Coast climate. The Pacific Northwest is one of the wettest parts of the United States and is densely forested. The Rocky Mts., Cascades, and Sierra Nevada have typical highland climates and are also heavily forested. In addition to the Grand Canyon in Arizona and Great Salt Lake in Utah, widely publicized geographic marvels of the United States include Niagara Falls Niagara Falls, in the Niagara River, W N.Y. and S Ont., Canada; one of the most famous spectacles in North America. The falls are on the international line between the cities of Niagara Falls, N.Y., and Niagara Falls, Ont. ..... Click the link for more information. , on the New York–Canada border; the pink cliffs of Bryce Canyon National Park Bryce Canyon National Park, 35,835 acres (14,513 hectares), SW Utah; est. 1924. The Pink Cliffs of the Paunsaugunt Plateau, c.2,000 ft (610 m) high, were formed by water, frost, and wind action on alternate strata of softer and harder limestone; the result is colorful and unique ..... Click the link for more information. , in Utah; and the geysers of Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone National Park, 2,219,791 acres (899,015 hectares), the world's first national park (est. 1872), NW Wyo., extending into Montana and Idaho. It lies mainly on a broad plateau in the Rocky Mts., on the Continental Divide, c. ..... Click the link for more information. , primarily in Wyoming (for others, see National Parks and Monuments National Parks and Monuments National Parks Name Type1 Location Year authorized Size acres (hectares) Acadia NP SE Maine 1919 48,419 (19,603) Mountain and coast scenery. ..... Click the link for more information. , table). People More than 79% of the United States population are urban (and more than 50% are estimated to be suburban, a not strictly defined category that can be taken as a subset of urban), and the great majority of the inhabitants are of European descent. According to the U.S. census, as of 2000 the largest minority were Hispanics, who, at 35,305,818 people, accounted for 12.5% of the population; this figure includes people of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and many other origins (who may be any race). The African-American population numbered 34,658,190, or 12.3% of the population, although an additional 0.6% of the population were of African-American descent in part. The Asian population totaled 10,242,998 in 2000, or 3.6%, and consisted predominantly of people of Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, Korean, or Japanese origin; an additional 0.6% of the population had a mixed-race background that was partially Asian. The Native American population of the United States, which included natives of Alaska such as Eskimos Eskimo , a general term used to refer to a number of groups inhabiting the coastline from the Bering Sea to Greenland and the Chukchi Peninsula in NE Siberia. A number of distinct groups, based on differences in patterns of resource exploitation, are commonly identified, ..... Click the link for more information. and Aleuts Aleut , native inhabitant of the Aleutian Islands and W Alaska. Like the Eskimo, the Aleuts are racially similar to Siberian peoples. Their language is a member of the Eskimo-Aleut family. ..... Click the link for more information. , was 2,475,956, or 0.9%, but an additional 0.6% were of partial Native American descent. Roughly a third of Native Americans lived on reservations, trust lands, territories, or other lands under Native American jurisdiction. Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders numbered 398,835 in 2000, or 0.1% of the population; an additional 0.2% were of partial Pacific Island descent. Persons who defined themselves as being of mixed racial background constituted 2.4% of the population in 2000, but the number of people with a mixed racial background, especially in the African-American and Hispanic populations, was in fact much higher. About 82% of the people speak English and about 11% speak Spanish as their first language. There are large numbers of speakers of many other Indo-European and Asian languages, and most languages of the world are spoken somewhere in the United States. In addition to the original group of British settlers in the colonies of the Atlantic coast, numerous other national groups were introduced by immigration. Large numbers of Africans were transported in chains under abysmal conditions to work as slaves, chiefly on the plantations of the South. When the United States was developing rapidly with the settlement of the West (where some earlier groups of French and Spanish settlers were absorbed), immigrants from Europe poured into the land. An important early group was the Scotch-Irish. Just before the middle of the 19th cent., Irish and German immigrants were predominant. A little later the Scandinavian nations supplied many settlers. After the Civil War, the immigrants came mainly from the nations of S and E Europe: from Italy, Greece, Russia, the part of Poland then in Russia, and from Austria-Hungary and the Balkans. During this period, there were also large numbers of immigrants from China. During the peak years of immigration between 1890 and 1924 more than 15 million immigrants arrived in the United States. After the immigration law of 1924 (see immigration immigration, entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. ..... Click the link for more information. ), immigration was heavily restricted until the mid-1960s. Since the 1980s, large numbers of new immigrants have arrived. U.S. Census Bureau figures indicate that the proportion of foreign-born people in the U.S. population reached 11.1% in 2000, the highest it had been since the 1930 census; more than 40% of the more than 31 million foreign born had arrived since 1990. More than half of all foreign-born persons in the United States are from Latin America, and more than a quarter are from Asia. Religion and Education There is religious freedom in the United States, and the overwhelming majority of Americans are Christians. In turn, the majority of Christians are Protestants, but of many denominations. The largest single Christian group embraces members (some 61 million in 1999) of the Roman Catholic Church; the Orthodox Eastern Church is also represented. In addition, roughly 2.5% of Americans adhere to Judaism, and some 1%–2% are Muslims. Education in the United States is administered chiefly by the states. Each of the 50 states has a free and public primary and secondary school system. There are also in the United States more than 3,500 institutions of higher learning, both privately supported and state supported (see separate articles on individual colleges and universities). Economy The mineral and agricultural resources of the United States are tremendous. Although the country was virtually self-sufficient in the past, increasing consumption, especially of energy, continues to make it dependent on certain imports. It is, nevertheless, the world's largest producer of both electrical and nuclear energy. It leads all nations in the production of liquid natural gas, aluminum, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. It is also a leading producer of copper, gold, coal, crude oil, nitrogen, iron ore, silver, uranium, lead, zinc, mica, molybdenum, and magnesium. Although its output has declined, the United States is among the world leaders in the production of pig iron and ferroalloys, steel, motor vehicles, and synthetic rubber. Agriculturally, the United States is first in the production of cheese, corn, soybeans, and tobacco. The United States is also one of the largest producers of cattle, hogs, cow's milk, butter, cotton, oats, wheat, barley, and sugar; it is the world's leading exporter of wheat and corn and ranks third in rice exports. In 1995, U.S. fisheries ranked fifth in the world in total production. Major U.S. exports include aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, food, iron and steel products, electric and electronic equipment, industrial and power-generating machinery, organic chemicals, transistors, telecommunications equipment, pharmaceuticals, and consumer goods. Leading imports include ores and metal scraps, petroleum and petroleum products, machinery, transportation equipment (especially automobiles), food, clothing, computers, and paper and paper products. The major U.S. trading partners are Canada (in the world's largest bilateral trade relationship), Mexico, China, Japan, Great Britain, Germany, and South Korea. Despite the steady growth in imports, the gross domestic product also has continued to rise, and in 2006 it was easily the largest in the world at about $13 trillion. The development of the economy has been spurred by the growth of a complex network of communications not only by railroad, highways, inland waterways, and air but also by telephone, radio, television, computer (including the Internet Internet, the, international computer network linking together thousands of individual networks at military and government agencies, educational institutions, nonprofit organizations, industrial and financial corporations of all sizes, and commercial enterprises (called gateways ..... Click the link for more information. ), and fax machine. This infrastructure has fostered not only agricultural and manufacturing growth but has also contributed to the leading position the United States holds in world tourism revenues and to the ongoing shift to a service-based economy. In 1996 some 74% of Americans worked in service industries, a proportion matched, among major economic powers, only by Canada. Government The government of the United States is that of a federal republic set up by the Constitution of the United States Constitution of the United States, document embodying the fundamental principles upon which the American republic is conducted. Drawn up at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787, the Constitution was signed on Sept. ..... Click the link for more information. , adopted by the Constitutional Convention Constitutional Convention, in U.S. history, the 1787 meeting in which the Constitution of the United States was drawn up. The Road to the Convention The government adopted by the Thirteen Colonies in America (see Confederation, Articles of, and Continental ..... Click the link for more information. of 1787. There is a division of powers between the federal government and the state governments. The federal government consists of three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The executive power is vested in the President and, in the event of the President's incapacity, the Vice President. (For a chronological list of all the presidents and vice presidents of the United States, including their terms in office and political parties, see the table entitled Presidents of the United States Presidents of the United States President Political Party Dates in Office Vice President(s) George Washington 1789–97 John Adams John Adams Federalist 1797–1801 Thomas Jefferson ..... Click the link for more information. .) The executive conducts the administrative business of the nation with the aid of a cabinet composed of the Attorney General and the Secretaries of the Departments of State; Treasury; Defense; Interior; Agriculture; Commerce; Labor; Health and Human Services; Education; Housing and Urban Development; Transportation; Energy; and Veterans' Affairs. The Congress of the United States Congress of the United States, the legislative branch of the federal government, instituted (1789) by Article 1 of the Constitution of the United States, which prescribes its membership and defines its powers. ..... Click the link for more information. , the legislative branch, is bicameral and consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch is formed by the federal courts and headed by the U.S. Supreme Court Supreme Court, United States, highest court of the United States, established by Article 3 of the Constitution of the United States. Scope and Jurisdiction ..... Click the link for more information. . The members of the Congress are elected by universal suffrage (see election election, choosing a candidate for office in an organization by the vote of those enfranchised to cast a ballot. General History In ancient Greek democracies (e.g., Athens) public officials were occasionally elected but more often were chosen by lot. ..... Click the link for more information. ) as are the members of the electoral college electoral college, in U.S. government, the body of electors that chooses the president and vice president. The Constitution, in Article 2, Section 1, provides: "Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the ..... Click the link for more information. , which formally chooses the President and the Vice President. History European Exploration and Settlement Exploration of the area now included in the United States was spurred after Christopher Columbus Columbus, Christopher, Ital. Cristoforo Colombo , Span. Cristóbal Colón , 1451–1506, European explorer, b. Genoa, Italy. Early Years ..... Click the link for more information. , sailing for the Spanish monarchy, made his voyage in 1492. John Cabot Cabot, John, fl. 1461–98, English explorer, probably b. Genoa, Italy. He became a citizen of Venice in 1476 and engaged in the Eastern trade of that city. This experience, it is assumed, was the stimulus of his later explorations. ..... Click the link for more information. explored the North American coast for England in 1498. Men who were important explorers for Spain in what now constitutes the United States include Ponce de León Ponce de León, Juan , c.1460–1521, Spanish explorer, first Westerner to reach Florida. He served against the Moors of Granada, and in 1493 he accompanied Columbus on his second voyage to America. ..... Click the link for more information. , Cabeza de Vaca Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez , c.1490–c.1557, Spanish explorer. Cabeza de Vaca [cow's head] was not actually a surname but a hereditary title in his mother's family; he is frequently called simply Álvar Núñez. ..... Click the link for more information. , Hernando De Soto De Soto, Hernando , c.1500–1542, Spanish explorer. After serving under Pedro Arias de Ávila in Central America and under Francisco Pizarro in Peru, the dashing young conquistador was made governor of Cuba by Emperor Charles V, with the right to conquer Florida ..... Click the link for more information. , and Coronado Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de , c.1510–1554, Spanish explorer. He went to Mexico with Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and in 1538 was made governor of Nueva Galicia. ..... Click the link for more information. ; important explorers for France were Giovanni da Verrazzano Verrazzano, Giovanni da , c.1480–1527?, Italian navigator and explorer, in the service of France, possibly the first European to enter New York Bay. Sailing west to reach Asia, Verrazzano explored (1524) the North American coast probably from North Carolina to Maine. ..... Click the link for more information. , Samuel de Champlain Champlain, Samuel de , 1567–1635, French explorer, the chief founder of New France. After serving in France under Henry of Navarre (King Henry IV) in the religious wars, Champlain was given command of a Spanish fleet sailing to the West Indies, Mexico, and the ..... Click the link for more information. , Louis Jolliet Jolliet or Joliet, Louis , 1645–1700, French explorer, joint discoverer with Jacques Marquette of the upper Mississippi River, b. Quebec prov., Canada. ..... Click the link for more information. , Jacques Marquette Marquette, Jacques , 1637–75, French missionary and explorer in North America, a Jesuit priest. He was sent to New France in 1666 and studied Native American languages under a missionary at Trois Rivières. ..... Click the link for more information. , and La Salle La Salle, Robert Cavelier, sieur de , 1643–87, French explorer in North America, one of the most celebrated explorers and builders of New France. He entered a Jesuit novitiate as a boy but later left the religious life. ..... Click the link for more information. . These three nations—England, Spain, and France—were the chief nations to establish colonies in the present United States, although others also took part, especially the Netherlands in the establishment of New Netherland New Netherland, territory included in a commercial grant by the government of Holland to the Dutch West India Company in 1621. Colonists were settled along the Hudson River region; in 1624 the first permanent settlement was established at Fort Orange (now Albany, N.Y.). ..... Click the link for more information. (explored by Henry Hudson Hudson, Henry, fl. 1607–11, English navigator and explorer. He was hired (1607) by the English Muscovy Company to find the Northeast Passage to Asia. He failed, and another attempt (1608) to find a new route was also fruitless. ..... Click the link for more information. ), which became New York, and Sweden in a colony on the Delaware River (see New Sweden New Sweden, Swedish colony (1638–55), on the Delaware River; included parts of what are now Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. With the support of Swedish statesman Axel Oxenstierna, Admiral Klas Fleming (a Finn), and Peter Minuit (a Dutchman), the New Sweden Company ..... Click the link for more information. ). The first permanent settlement in the present United States was Saint Augustine Saint Augustine , city (1990 pop. 11,692), seat of St. Johns co., NE Fla.; inc. 1824. Located on a peninsula between the Matanzas and San Sebastian rivers, it is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by Anastasia Island; the Intracoastal Waterway passes through the city. St. ..... Click the link for more information. (Florida), founded in 1565 by the Spaniard Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Menéndez de Avilés, Pedro , 1519–74, Spanish naval officer and colonizer, founder of Saint Augustine, Fla. He went to sea as a youth and so distinguished himself that by the time he was 35 he held the captain generalcy of the Indies fleet, which convoyed ..... Click the link for more information. . Spanish control came to be exercised over Florida, West Florida, Texas, and a large part of the Southwest, including California. For the purposes of finding precious metals and of converting heathens to Catholicism, the Spanish colonies in the present United States were relatively unfruitful and thus were never fully developed. The French established strongholds on the St. Lawrence River (Quebec and Montreal) and spread their influence over the Great Lakes country and along the Mississippi; the colony of Louisiana was a flourishing French settlement. The French government, like the Spanish, tolerated only the Catholic faith, and it implanted the rigid and feudalistic seignorial system of France in its North American possessions. Partly for these reasons, the French settlements attracted few colonists. The English settlements, which were on the Atlantic seaboard, developed in patterns more suitable to the New World, with greater religious freedom and economic opportunity. The first permanent English settlement was made at Jamestown Jamestown. 1 City (1990 pop. 34,681), Chautauqua co., W N.Y., on Chautauqua Lake; founded c.1806, inc. as a city 1886. It is the business and financial center of a dairy, livestock, and vineyard area. ..... Click the link for more information. (Virginia) in 1607. The first English settlements in Virginia were managed by a chartered commercial company, the Virginia Company; economic motives were paramount to the company in founding the settlements. The Virginia colony early passed to control by the crown and became a characteristic type of English colony—the royal colony. Another type—the corporate colony—was initiated by the settlement of the Pilgrims Pilgrims, in American history, the group of separatists and other individuals who were the founders of Plymouth Colony. The name Pilgrim Fathers is given to those members who made the first crossing on the Mayflower. ..... Click the link for more information. at Plymouth Colony Plymouth Colony, settlement made by the Pilgrims on the coast of Massachusetts in 1620. Founding Previous attempts at colonization in America (1606, 1607–8) by the Plymouth Company, chartered in 1606 along with the London Company (see Virginia Company), were ..... Click the link for more information. in 1620 and by the establishment of the more important Massachusetts Bay colony by the Puritans in 1630. Religious motives were important in the founding of these colonies. The colonists of Massachusetts Bay brought with them from England the charter and the governing corporation of the colony, which thus became a corporate one, i.e., one controlled by its own resident corporation. The corporate status of the Plymouth Colony, evinced in the Mayflower Compact Mayflower Compact, in U.S. colonial history, an agreement providing for the temporary government of Plymouth Colony. The compact was signed (1620) on board the Mayflower ..... Click the link for more information. , was established by the purchase (1626) of company and charter from the holders in England. Connecticut and Rhode Island, which were offshoots of Massachusetts, owed allegiance to no English company; their corporate character was confirmed by royal charters, granted to Connecticut in 1662 and to Rhode Island in 1663. A third type of colony was the proprietary, founded by lords proprietors under quasi-feudal grants from the king; prime examples are Maryland (under the Calvert family) and Pennsylvania (under William Penn Penn, William, 1644–1718, English Quaker, founder of Pennsylvania, b. London, England; son of Sir William Penn. Early Life He was expelled (1662) from Oxford for his religious nonconformity and was then sent by his father to the Continent to overcome his ..... Click the link for more information. ). The religious and political turmoil of the Puritan Revolution in England, as well as the repression of the Huguenots in France, helped to stimulate emigration to the English colonies. Hopes of economic betterment brought thousands from England as well as a number from Germany and other continental countries. To obtain passage across the Atlantic, the poor often indentured themselves to masters in the colonies for a specified number of years. The colonial population was also swelled by criminals transported from England as a means of punishment. Once established as freedmen, former bondsmen and transportees were frequently allotted land with which to make their way in the New World. Colonial America The colonies were subject to English mercantilism mercantilism , economic system of the major trading nations during the 16th, 17th, and 18th cent., based on the premise that national wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and collecting precious metals in return. ..... Click the link for more information. in the form of Navigation Acts Navigation Acts, in English history, name given to certain parliamentary legislation, more properly called the British Acts of Trade. The acts were an outgrowth of mercantilism, and followed principles laid down by Tudor and early Stuart trade regulations. ..... Click the link for more information. , begun under Cromwell and developed more fully after the Stuart Restoration. As shown by C. M. Andrews, G. L. Beer, and later historians, the colonies at first benefited by these acts, which established a monopoly of the English market for certain colonial products. Distinct colonial economies emerged, reflecting the regional differences of climate and topography. Agriculture was of primary importance in all the regions. In New England many crops were grown, corn being the closest to a staple, and agricultural holdings were usually of moderate size. Fur trade fur trade, in American history. Trade in animal skins and pelts had gone on since antiquity, but reached its height in the wilderness of North America from the 17th to the early 19th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. was at first important, but it died out when the New England Confederation New England Confederation, union for "mutual safety and welfare" formed in 1643 by representatives of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. ..... Click the link for more information. defeated Philip in King Philip's War King Philip's War, 1675–76, the most devastating war between the colonists and the Native Americans in New England. The war is named for King Philip, the son of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoag. His Wampanoag name was Metacom, Metacomet, or Pometacom. ..... Click the link for more information. and the Native Americans were dispersed. Fishing and commerce gained in importance, and the economic expansion of Massachusetts encouraged the founding of other New England colonies. In the middle colonies small farms abounded, interspersed with occasional great estates, and diverse crops were grown, wheat being most important. Land there was almost universally held through some form of feudal grant, as it was also in the South. Commerce grew quickly in the middle colonies, and large towns flourished, notably Philadelphia and New York. By the late 17th cent. small farms in the coastal areas of the South were beginning to give way to large plantations; these were developed with the slave labor of Africans, who were imported in ever-increasing numbers. During the 18th cent. some 1.5 million African slaves were transported to the colonies, more than three times the number of free immigrants. Plantations were almost exclusively devoted to cultivation of the great Southern staples—tobacco, rice, and, later, indigo. Fur trade and lumbering were long important. Although some towns developed, the Southern economy remained the least diversified and the most rural in colonial America. In religion, too, the colonies developed in varied patterns. In Massachusetts the religious theocracy of the Puritan oligarchy flourished. By contrast, Rhode Island allowed full religious freedom; there Baptists were in the majority, but other sects were soon in evidence. New Jersey and South Carolina also allowed complete religious liberty, and such colonies as Maryland and Pennsylvania established large measures of toleration. Maryland was at first a haven for Catholics, and Pennsylvania similarly a haven for Quakers, but within a few decades numerous Anglicans had settled in those colonies. Anglicans were also much in evidence further south, as were Presbyterians, most of them Scotch-Irish. Politically, the colonies developed representative institutions, the most important being the vigorous colonial assemblies. Popular participation was somewhat limited by property qualifications. In the proprietary colonies, particularly, the settlers came into conflict with the executive authority. Important points of difference arose over the granting of large estates to a few, over the great power of the proprietors, over the failure of the proprietors (who generally lived in England) to cope with problems of defense, and over religious grievances, frequently stemming from a struggle for dominance between Anglicans and other groups. In corporate Massachusetts religious grievances were created by the zealous Puritan demand for conformity. These conflicts, together with England's desire to coordinate empire defenses against France and to gain closer control of the colonies' thriving economic life, stimulated England to convert corporate and proprietary colonies into royal ones. In general, royal control brought more orderly government and greater religious toleration, but it also focused the colonists' grievances on the mother country. The policies of the governors, who were the chief instruments of English will in the colonies, frequently met serious opposition. The colonial assemblies clashed with the governors—notably with Edmund Andros Andros, Sir Edmund , 1637–1714, British colonial governor in America, b. Guernsey. As governor of New York (1674–81) he was bitterly criticized for his high-handed methods, and he was embroiled in disputes over boundaries and duties (see New Jersey), going so far as ..... Click the link for more information. and Francis Nicholson Nicholson, Francis, 1655–1728, British colonial administrator in North America. Lieutenant governor under Sir Edmund Andros, he fled (1689) to England during the revolt in New York led by Jacob Leisler. ..... Click the link for more information. —especially over matters of taxation. The assemblies successfully resisted royal demands for permanent income to support royal policies and used their powers over finance to expand their own jurisdiction. As the 18th cent. progressed, colonial grievances were exacerbated. The British mercantile regulations, beneficial to agriculture, impeded the colonies' commercial and industrial development. However, economic and social growth continued, and by the mid-18th cent. there had been created a greater sense of a separate, thriving, and distinctly American, albeit varied, civilization. In New England, Puritan values were modified by the impact of commerce and by the influence of the Enlightenment, while in the South the planter aristocracy developed a lavish mode of life. Enlightenment ideals also gained influential adherents in the South. Higher education flourished in such institutions as Harvard, William and Mary, and King's College (now Columbia Univ.). The varied accomplishments of Benjamin Franklin Franklin, Benjamin, 1706–90, American statesman, printer, scientist, and writer, b. Boston. The only American of the colonial period to earn a European reputation as a natural philosopher, he is best remembered in the United States as a patriot and diplomat. ..... Click the link for more information. epitomized colonial common sense at its most enlightened and productive level. A religious movement of importance emerged in the revivals of the Great Awakening Great Awakening, series of religious revivals that swept over the American colonies about the middle of the 18th cent. It resulted in doctrinal changes and influenced social and political thought. In New England it was started (1734) by the rousing preaching of Jonathan Edwards. ..... Click the link for more information. , stimulated by Jonathan Edwards Edwards, Jonathan, 1703–58, American theologian and metaphysician, b. East Windsor (then in Windsor), Conn. He was a precocious child, early interested in things scientific, intellectual, and spiritual. ..... Click the link for more information. ; the movement ultimately led to a strengthening of Methodism Methodism, the doctrines, polity, and worship of those Protestant Christian denominations that have developed from the movement started in England by the teaching of John Wesley. ..... Click the link for more information. . Also inherent in this movement was egalitarian sentiment, which progressed but was not to triumph in the colonial era. One manifestation of egalitarianism was the long-continued conflict between the men of the frontiers and the wealthy Eastern oligarchs who dominated the assemblies, a conflict exemplified in the Regulator movement Regulator movement, designation for two groups, one in South Carolina, the other in North Carolina, that tried to effect governmental changes in the 1760s. In South Carolina, the Regulator movement was an organized effort by backcountry settlers to restore law and order and ..... Click the link for more information. . Colonial particularism, still stronger than national feeling, caused the failure of the Albany Congress Albany Congress, 1754, meeting at Albany, N.Y., of commissioners representing seven British colonies in North America to treat with the Iroquois, chiefly because war with France impended. ..... Click the link for more information. to achieve permanent union. However, internal strife and disunity remained a less urgent issue than the controversy with Great Britain. The States in Union After the British and colonial forces had combined to drive the French from Canada and the Great Lakes region in the French and Indian War (1754–60; see under French and Indian Wars French and Indian Wars, 1689–1763, the name given by American historians to the North American colonial wars between Great Britain and France in the late 17th and the 18th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. ), the colonists felt less need of British protection; but at this very time the British began colonial reorganization in an effort to impose on the colonists the costs of their own defense. Thus was set off the complex chain of events that united colonial sentiment against Great Britain and culminated in the American Revolution American Revolution, 1775–83, struggle by which the Thirteen Colonies on the Atlantic seaboard of North America won independence from Great Britain and became the United States. It is also called the American War of Independence. ..... Click the link for more information. (1775–83; the events are described under that heading). The Revolution resulted in the independence of the Thirteen Colonies: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; their territories were recognized as extending north to Canada and west to the Mississippi River. The Revolution also broadened representation in government, advanced the movement for separation of church and state in America, increased opportunities for westward expansion, and brought the abolition of the remnants of feudal land tenure. The view that the Revolution had been fought for local liberty against strong central control reinforced the particularism of the states and was reflected in the weak union established under the Articles of Confederation (see Confederation, Articles of Confederation, Articles of, in U.S. history, ratified in 1781 and superseded by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The imperative need for unity among the new states created by the American Revolution and the necessity of defining the relative powers of the ..... Click the link for more information. ). Before ratification of the Articles (1781), conflicting claims of states to Western territories had been settled by the cession of Western land rights to the federal government; the Ordinance of 1787 Ordinance of 1787, adopted by the Congress of Confederation for the government of the Western territories ceded to the United States by the states. It created the Northwest Territory and is frequently called the Northwest Ordinance. ..... Click the link for more information. established a form of government for territories and a method of admitting them as states to the Union. But the national government floundered. It could not obtain commercial treaties or enforce its will in international relations, and, largely because it could not raise adequate revenue and had no executive authority, it was weak domestically. Local economic depressions bred discontent that erupted in Shays's Rebellion Shays's Rebellion, 1786–87, armed insurrection by farmers in W Massachusetts against the state government. Debt-ridden farmers, struck by the economic depression that followed the American Revolution, petitioned the state senate to issue paper money and to halt foreclosure ..... Click the link for more information. , further revealing the weakness of the federal government. Advocates of strong central government bitterly attacked the Articles of Confederation; supported particularly by professional and propertied groups, they had a profound influence on the Constitution drawn up by the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The Constitution created a national government with ample powers for effective rule, which were limited by "checks and balances" to forestall tyranny or radicalism. Its concept of a strong, orderly Union was popularized by the Federalist papers (see Federalist, The Federalist, The, series of 85 political essays, sometimes called The Federalist Papers, written 1787–88 under the pseudonym "Publius." Alexander Hamilton initiated the series with the immediate intention of persuading New York to approve the Federalist Constitution. ..... Click the link for more information. ) of Alexander Hamilton Hamilton, Alexander, 1755–1804, American statesman, b. Nevis, in the West Indies. Early Career He was the illegitimate son of James Hamilton (of a prominent Scottish family) and Rachel Faucett Lavien (daughter of a doctor-planter on Nevis and the estranged ..... Click the link for more information. , James Madison Madison, James, 1751–1836, 4th President of the United States (1809–17), b. Port Conway, Va. Early Career A member of the Virginia planter class, he attended the College of New Jersey (now Princeton), graduating in 1771. ..... Click the link for more information. , and John Jay Jay, John, 1745–1829, American statesman, 1st chief justice of the United States, b. New York City, grad. King's College (now Columbia Univ.), 1764. He was admitted (1768) to the bar and for a time was a partner of Robert R. Livingston. ..... Click the link for more information. , which played an important part in winning ratification of the Constitution by the separate states. Washington, Adams, and Jefferson The first person to be elected President under the Constitution was the hero of the Revolution, George Washington Washington, George, 1732–99, 1st President of the United States (1789–97), commander in chief of the Continental army in the American Revolution, called the Father of His Country. Early Life He was born on Feb. 22, 1732 (Feb. 11, 1731, O.S. ..... Click the link for more information. . Washington introduced many government practices and institutions, including the cabinet. Jay's Treaty Jay's Treaty, concluded in 1794 between the United States and Great Britain to settle difficulties arising mainly out of violations of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 and to regulate commerce and navigation. ..... Click the link for more information. (1794) allayed friction with Great Britain. Hamilton, as Washington's Secretary of the Treasury, promulgated a strong state and attempted to advance the economic development of the young country by a neomercantilist program; this included the establishment of a protective tariff, a mint, and the first Bank of the United States Bank of the United States, name for two national banks established by the U.S. Congress to serve as government fiscal agents and as depositories for federal funds; the first bank was in existence from 1791 to 1811 and the second from 1816 to 1836. ..... Click the link for more information. as well as assumption of state and private Revolutionary debts. The controversy raised by these policies bred divisions along factional and, ultimately, party lines. Hamilton and his followers, who eventually formed the Federalist party Federalist party, in U.S. history, the political faction that favored a strong federal government. Origins and Members In the later years of the Articles of Confederation there was much agitation for a stronger federal union, which was crowned with success when the ..... Click the link for more information. , favored wide activity by the federal government under a broad interpretation of the Constitution. Their opponents, who adhered to principles laid down by Thomas Jefferson Jefferson, Thomas, 1743–1826, 3d President of the United States (1801–9), author of the Declaration of Independence, and apostle of agrarian democracy. Early Life Jefferson was born on Apr. 13, 1743, at "Shadwell," in Goochland (now in Albemarle) co. ..... Click the link for more information. and who became the Democratic Republican or Democratic party Democratic party, American political party; the oldest continuous political party in the United States. Origins in Jeffersonian Democracy When political alignments first emerged in George Washington's administration, opposing factions were led by Alexander Hamilton ..... Click the link for more information. , favored narrow construction—limited federal jurisdiction and activities. To an extent these divisions were supported by economic differences, as the Democrats largely spoke for the agrarian point of view and the Federalists represented propertied and mercantile interests. Extreme democrats like Thomas Paine Paine, Thomas, 1737–1809, Anglo-American political theorist and writer, b. Thetford, Norfolk, England. The son of a working-class Quaker, he became an excise officer and was dismissed from the service after leading (1772) agitation for higher salaries. ..... Click the link for more information. had ebullient faith in popular government and popular mores; Joel Barlow Barlow, Joel , 1754–1812, American writer and diplomat, b. Redding, Conn., grad. Yale, 1778. He was one of the Connecticut Wits and a major contributor to their satirical poem The Anarchiad (1786–87). ..... Click the link for more information. , too, envisioned a great popular culture evolving in America. From such optimists came schemes for broad popular education and participation in government. Men like John Adams Adams, John, 1735–1826, 2d President of the United States (1797–1801), b. Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass., grad. Harvard, 1755. John Adams and his wife, Abigail Adams, founded one of the most distinguished families of the United States; their son, John Quincy ..... Click the link for more information. had mixed views on the good sense of the masses, and many more conservative thinkers associated the "people" with vulgarity and ineptitude. The Federalists generally represented a pessimistic and the Democrats an optimistic view of man's inherent capacity to govern and develop himself; in practice, however, the values held by these two groups were often mixed. That a long road to democracy was still to be traveled is seen in the fact that in the late 18th cent. few but the economically privileged took part in political affairs. The Federalists were victorious in electing John Adams to the presidency in 1796. Federalist conservatism and anti-French sentiment were given vent in the Alien and Sedition Acts Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798, four laws enacted by the Federalist-controlled U.S. Congress, allegedly in response to the hostile actions of the French Revolutionary government on the seas and in the councils of diplomacy (see XYZ Affair), but actually designed to destroy Thomas ..... Click the link for more information. of 1798 and in other acts. Deteriorating relations with France were seen in the XYZ Affair XYZ Affair, name usually given to an incident (1797–98) in Franco-American diplomatic relations. The United States had in 1778 entered into an alliance with France, but after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars was both unable and unwilling to lend aid. ..... Click the link for more information. and the "half war" (1798–1800), in which U.S. warships engaged French vessels in the Caribbean. The so-called Revolution of 1800 swept the Federalists from power and brought Jefferson to the presidency. Jefferson did bring a plainer and more republican style to government, and under him the Alien and Sedition Acts and other Federalist laws were allowed to lapse or were repealed. Jefferson moved toward stronger use of federal powers, however, in negotiating the Louisiana Purchase Louisiana Purchase, 1803, American acquisition from France of the formerly Spanish region of Louisiana. Reasons for the Purchase The revelation in 1801 of the secret agreement of 1800, whereby Spain retroceded Louisiana to France, aroused uneasiness in the United ..... Click the link for more information. (1803). In foreign policy he steered an officially neutral course between Great Britain and France, resisting the war sentiment roused by British impressment impressment, forcible enrollment of recruits for military duty. Before the establishment of conscription, many countries supplemented their militia and mercenary troops by impressment. ..... Click the link for more information. of American seamen and by both British and French violations of American shipping. He fostered the drastic Embargo Act of 1807 Embargo Act of 1807, passed Dec. 22, 1807, by the U.S. Congress in answer to the British orders in council restricting neutral shipping and to Napoleon's restrictive Continental System. The U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. in an attempt to gain recognition of American rights through economic pressure, but the embargo struck hardest against the American economy, especially in New England. Madison, Monroe, and Adams Under Jefferson's successor, James Madison Madison, James, 1751–1836, 4th President of the United States (1809–17), b. Port Conway, Va. Early Career A member of the Virginia planter class, he attended the College of New Jersey (now Princeton), graduating in 1771. ..... Click the link for more information. , the continued depredations of American shipping, combined with the clamor of American "war hawks" who coveted Canada and Florida, led to the War of 1812 War of 1812, armed conflict between the United States and Great Britain, 1812–15. It followed a period of great stress between the two nations as a result of the treatment of neutral countries by both France and England during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, ..... Click the link for more information. , which was, however, opposed in New England (see Hartford Convention Hartford Convention, Dec. 15, 1814–Jan. 4, 1815, meeting to consider the problems of New England in the War of 1812; held at Hartford, Conn. Prior to the war, New England Federalists (see Federalist party) had opposed the Embargo Act of 1807 and other government measures; ..... Click the link for more information. ). The Treaty of Ghent (see Ghent, Treaty of Ghent, Treaty of, 1814, agreement ending the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain. It was signed at Ghent, Belgium, on Dec. 24, 1814, and ratified by the U.S. Senate in Feb., 1815. The American commissioners were John Q. Adams, James A. ..... Click the link for more information. ) settled no specific issues of the war, but did confirm the independent standing of the young republic. Politically, the period that followed was the so-called era of good feeling. The Federalists had disintegrated under the impact of the country's westward expansion and its new interests and ideals. Democrats of all sections had by now adopted a Federalist approach to national development and were temporarily in agreement on a nationalist, expansionist economic policy. This policy was implemented in 1816 by the introduction of internal improvements, a protective tariff, and the second Bank of the United States. The same policies were continued under James Monroe Monroe, James, 1758–1831, 5th President of the United States (1817–25), b. Westmoreland co., Va. Early Life Leaving the College of William and Mary in 1776 to fight in the American Revolution, he served in several campaigns and was wounded (Dec. ..... Click the link for more information. . The Monroe Doctrine Monroe Doctrine, principle of American foreign policy enunciated in President James Monroe's message to Congress, Dec. 2, 1823. It initially called for an end to European intervention in the Americas, but it was later extended to justify U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. (1823), which proclaimed U.S. opposition to European intervention or colonization in the American hemisphere, introduced the long-continuing U.S. concern for the integrity of the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, the strength of the federal government was increased by the judicial decisions of John Marshall Marshall, John, 1755–1835, American jurist, 4th chief justice of the United States (1801–35), b. Virginia. Early Life The eldest of 15 children, John Marshall was born in a log cabin on the Virginia frontier (today in Fauquier co., Va. ..... Click the link for more information. , who had already helped establish the power of the U.S. Supreme Court. By 1820, however, sectional differences were arousing political discord. The sections of the country had long been developing along independent lines. In the North, merchants, manufacturers, inventors, farmers, and factory hands were busy with commerce, agricultural improvements, and the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. In the South, Eli Whitney's cotton gin had brought in its wake a new staple; cotton was king, and the new states of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi were the pride of the cotton kingdom. The accession of Florida (1819) further swelled the domain of the South. The American West was expanding as the frontier rapidly advanced. Around the turn of the century settlement of territory W of the Appalachians had given rise to the new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Settlers continued to move farther west, and the frontier remained a molding force in American life. The Missouri Compromise Missouri Compromise, 1820–21, measures passed by the U.S. Congress to end the first of a series of crises concerning the extension of slavery. By 1818, Missouri Territory had gained sufficient population to warrant its admission into the Union as a state. ..... Click the link for more information. (1820) temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in new states, but under the presidency of John Quincy Adams Adams, John Quincy, 1767–1848, 6th President of the United States (1825–29), b. Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass.; son of John Adams and Abigail Adams and father of Charles Francis Adams (1807–86). ..... Click the link for more information. sectional differences were aggravated. Particular friction, leading to the nullification nullification, in U.S. history, a doctrine expounded by the advocates of extreme states' rights. It held that states have the right to declare null and void any federal law that they deem unconstitutional. ..... Click the link for more information. movement, was created by the tariff of 1828, which was highly favorable to Northern manufacturing but a "Tariff of Abominations" to the agrarian South. In the 1820s and 30s the advance of democracy brought manhood suffrage to many states and virtual direct election of the President, and party nominating conventions replaced the caucus. Separation of church and state became virtually complete. Jackson to the Mexican War An era of political vigor was begun with the election (1828) of Andrew Jackson Jackson, Andrew, 1767–1845, 7th President of the United States (1829–37), b. Waxhaw settlement on the border of South Carolina and North Carolina (both states claim him). Early Career A child of the backwoods, he was left an orphan at 14. ..... Click the link for more information. to the presidency. If Jackson was not, as sometimes represented, the incarnation of frontier democracy, he nonetheless symbolized the advent of the common man to political power. He provided powerful executive leadership, attuned to popular support, committing himself to a strong foreign policy and to internal improvements for the West. His stand for economic individualism and his attacks on such bastions of the moneyed interests as the Bank of the United States won the approval of the growing middle class. Jackson acted firmly for the Union in the nullification controversy. But the South became increasingly dissident, and John C. Calhoun Calhoun, John Caldwell , 1782–1850, American statesman and political philosopher, b. near Abbeville, S.C., grad. Yale, 1804. He was an intellectual giant of political life in his day. Early Career Calhoun studied law under Tapping Reeve at Litchfield, Conn. ..... Click the link for more information. emerged as its chief spokesman with his states' rights states' rights, in U.S. history, doctrine based on the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states, "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ..... Click the link for more information. doctrine. Opponents of Jackson's policies, including both Northern and Southern conservative propertied interests, amalgamated to form the Whig party Whig party, one of the two major political parties of the United States in the second quarter of the 19th cent. Origins As a party it did not exist before 1834, but its nucleus was formed in 1824 when the adherents of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay joined forces ..... Click the link for more information. , in which Henry Clay Clay, Henry, 1777–1852, American statesman, b. Hanover co., Va. Early Career His father died when he was four years old, and Clay's formal schooling was limited to three years. ..... Click the link for more information. and Daniel Webster Webster, Daniel, 1782–1852, American statesman, lawyer, and orator, b. Salisbury (now in Franklin), N.H. Early Career He graduated (1801) from Dartmouth College, studied law, and, after an interval as a schoolmaster, was admitted (1805) to the bar. ..... Click the link for more information. were long the dominant figures. Jackson's successor, Martin Van Buren Van Buren, Martin, 1782–1862, 8th President of the United States (1837–41), b. Kinderhook, Columbia co., N.Y. Early Career He was reared on his father's farm, was educated at local schools, and after reading law was admitted (1803) to the bar. ..... Click the link for more information. , attempted to perpetuate Jacksonian policies, but his popularity was undermined by the panic of 1837. In 1840, in their "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign, the conservative Whigs adopted and perfected the Democratic party's techniques of mass appeal and succeeded in electing William Henry Harrison Harrison, William Henry, 1773–1841, 9th President of the United States (Mar. 4–Apr. 4, 1841), b. "Berkeley," Charles City co., Va.; son of Benjamin Harrison (1726?–1791) and grandfather of Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901). ..... Click the link for more information. as President. The West was winning greater attention in American life, and in the 1840s expansion to the Pacific was fervently proclaimed as the "manifest destiny" of the United States. Annexation of the Republic of Texas (which had won its own independence from Mexico), long delayed primarily by controversy over its slave-holding status, was accomplished by Harrison's successor, John Tyler Tyler, John, 1790–1862, 10th President of the United States, b. Charles City co., Va. Early Career Educated at the College of William and Mary, he studied law under his father, John Tyler (1747–1813), governor of Virginia from 1808 to 1811, and was ..... Click the link for more information. , three days before the expiration of his term. Tyler's action was prompted by the surprising victory of his Democratic successor, James K. Polk Polk, James Knox , 1795–1849, 11th President of the United States (1845–49), b. Mecklenburg co., N.C. Early Career His family moved (1806) to the Duck River valley in Tennessee and there, after graduating from the Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. , who had campaigned on the planks of "reoccupation of Oregon" and "reannexation of Texas." The annexation of Texas precipitated the Mexican War Mexican War, 1846–48, armed conflict between the United States and Mexico. Causes While the immediate cause of the war was the U.S. annexation of Texas (Dec., 1845), other factors had disturbed peaceful relations between the two republics. ..... Click the link for more information. ; by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 1848, peace treaty between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican War. Negotiations were carried on for the United States by Nicholas P. Trist. The treaty was signed on Feb. ..... Click the link for more information. the United States acquired two fifths of the territory then belonging to Mexico, including California and the present American Southwest. In 1853 these territories were rounded out by the Gadsden Purchase Gadsden Purchase , strip of land purchased (1853) by the United States from Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) had described the U.S.-Mexico boundary vaguely, and President Pierce wanted to insure U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. . Although in the dispute with Great Britain over the Columbia River country (see Oregon Oregon , state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. It is bordered by Washington, largely across the Columbia River (N), Idaho, partially across the Snake River (E), Nevada and California (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W). ..... Click the link for more information. ), Americans demanded "Fifty-four forty or fight," under President Polk a peaceful if more modest settlement was reached. Thus the United States gained its Pacific Northwest, and "manifest destiny" was virtually fulfilled. In California the discovery of gold in 1848 brought the rush of forty-niners, swelling population and making statehood for California a pressing question. The westward movement was also stimulated by many other factors. The great profits from open-range cattle ranching brought a stream of ranchers to the area (this influx was to reach fever pitch after the Civil War). The American farmer, with his abundant land, was often profligate in its cultivation, and as the soil depleted he continued to move farther west, settling the virgin territory. Soil exhaustion was particularly rapid in the South, where a one-crop economy prevailed, but because cotton profits were frequently high the plantation system quickly spread as far west as Texas. Occupation of the West was also sped by European immigrants hungry for land. Slavery, Civil War, and Reconstruction By the mid-19th cent. the territorial gains and westward movement of the United States were focusing legislative argument on the extension of slavery to the new territories and breaking down the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The Wilmot Proviso Wilmot Proviso, 1846, amendment to a bill put before the U.S. House of Representatives during the Mexican War; it provided an appropriation of $2 million to enable President Polk to negotiate a territorial settlement with Mexico. ..... Click the link for more information. illustrated Northern antislavery demands, while Southerners, too, became increasingly intransigent. Only with great effort was the Compromise of 1850 Compromise of 1850. The annexation of Texas to the United States and the gain of new territory by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo at the close of the Mexican War (1848) aggravated the hostility between North and South concerning the question of the extension of slavery into the ..... Click the link for more information. achieved, and it was to be the last great compromise between the sections. The new Western states, linked in outlook to the North, had long since caused the South to lose hold of the House of Representatives, and Southern parity in the Senate was threatened by the prospective addition of more free states than slaveholding ones. The South demanded stronger enforcement of fugitive slave laws fugitive slave laws, in U.S. history, the federal acts of 1793 and 1850 providing for the return between states of escaped black slaves. Similar laws existing in both North and South in colonial days applied also to white indentured servants and to Native American slaves. ..... Click the link for more information. and, dependent on sympathetic Presidents, obtained it from Millard Fillmore Fillmore, Millard, 1800–1874, 13th President of the United States (July, 1850–Mar., 1853), b. Locke (now Summer Hill), N.Y. Because he was compelled to work at odd jobs at an early age to earn a living his education was irregular and incomplete. ..... Click the link for more information. and especially from Franklin Pierce Pierce, Franklin, 1804–69, 14th President of the United States (1853–57), b. Hillsboro, N.H., grad. Bowdoin College, 1824. Admitted to the bar in 1827, he entered politics as a Jacksonian Democrat, like his father, Benjamin Pierce, who was twice elected governor of ..... Click the link for more information. and James Buchanan Buchanan, James, 1791–1868, 15th President of the United States (1857–61), b. near Mercersburg, Pa., grad. Dickinson College, 1809. Early Career Buchanan studied law at Lancaster, Pa. ..... Click the link for more information. . The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act Kansas-Nebraska Act, bill that became law on May 30, 1854, by which the U.S. Congress established the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. By 1854 the organization of the vast Platte and Kansas river countries W of Iowa and Missouri was overdue. ..... Click the link for more information. (1854), which repealed the Missouri Compromise, led to violence between factions in "bleeding Kansas" and spurred the founding of the new Republican party Republican party, American political party. Origins and Early Years The name was first used by Thomas Jefferson's party, later called the Democratic Republican party or, simply, the Democratic party. ..... Click the link for more information. . Although there was sentiment for moderation and compromise in both North and South, it became increasingly difficult to take a middle stand on the slavery issue, and extremists came to the fore on both sides. Southerners, unable to accept the end of slavery, upon which their entire system of life was based, and fearful of slave insurrection (especially after the revolt led by Nat Turner Turner, Nat, 1800–1831, American slave, leader of the Southampton Insurrection (1831), b. Southampton co., Va. Deeply religious from childhood, Turner was a natural preacher and possessed some influence among local slaves. ..... Click the link for more information. in 1831), felt threatened by the abolitionists abolitionists, in U.S. history, particularly in the three decades before the Civil War, members of the movement that agitated for the compulsory emancipation of the slaves. ..... Click the link for more information. , who regarded themselves as leaders in a moral crusade. Southerners attempted to uphold slavery as universally beneficial and biblically sanctioned, while Northerners were increasingly unable to countenance the institution. Vigorous antislavery groups like the Free-Soil party Free-Soil party, in U.S. history, political party that came into existence in 1847–48 chiefly because of rising opposition to the extension of slavery into any of the territories newly acquired from Mexico. ..... Click the link for more information. had already arisen, and as the conflict became more embittered it rent the older parties. The Whig party was shattered, and its Northern wing was largely absorbed in the new antislavery Republican party. The Democrats were also torn, and the compromise policies of Stephen A. Douglas Douglas, Stephen Arnold, 1813–61, American statesman, b. Brandon, Vt. Senatorial Career He was admitted to the bar at Jacksonville, Ill., in 1834. After holding various state and local offices he became a U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. were of dwindling satisfaction to a divided nation. Moderation could not withstand the impact of the decision in the Dred Scott Case Dred Scott Case, argued before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1856–57. It involved the then bitterly contested issue of the status of slavery in the federal territories. In 1834, Dred Scott, a black slave, personal servant to Dr. John Emerson, a U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , which denied the right of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories, or the provocation of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry Harpers Ferry, town (1990 pop. 308), Jefferson co., easternmost W Va., at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers; inc. 1763. The town is a tourist attraction, known for its history and its scenic beauty. John Brown's seizure of the U.S. arsenal there on Oct. ..... Click the link for more information. (1859). The climax came in 1860 when the Republican Abraham Lincoln Lincoln, Abraham , 1809–65, 16th President of the United States (1861–65). Early Life Born on Feb. 12, 1809, in a log cabin in backwoods Hardin co., Ky. (now Larue co.), he grew up on newly broken pioneer farms of the frontier. ..... Click the link for more information. defeated three opponents to win the presidency. Southern leaders, feeling there was no possibility of fair treatment under a Republican administration, resorted to secession from the Union and formed the Confederacy Confederacy, name commonly given to the Confederate States of America (1861–65), the government established by the Southern states of the United States after their secession from the Union. ..... Click the link for more information. . The attempts of the seceding states to take over federal property within their borders (notably Fort Sumter in Charleston, S.C.) precipitated the Civil War Civil War, in U.S. history, conflict (1861–65) between the Northern states (the Union) and the Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederacy. ..... Click the link for more information. (1861–65), which resulted in a complete victory for the North and the end of all slavery. The ensuing problems of Reconstruction Reconstruction, 1865–77, in U.S. history, the period of readjustment following the Civil War. At the end of the Civil War, the defeated South was a ruined land. The physical destruction wrought by the invading Union forces was enormous, and the old social and economic ..... Click the link for more information. in the South were complicated by bitter struggles, including the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson Johnson, Andrew, 1808–75, 17th President of the United States (1865–69), b. Raleigh, N.C. Early Life His father died when Johnson was 3, and at 14 he was apprenticed to a tailor. ..... Click the link for more information. in 1868. Military rule in parts of the South continued through the administrations of Ulysses S. Grant Grant, Ulysses Simpson, 1822–85, commander in chief of the Union army in the Civil War and 18th President (1869–77) of the United States, b. Point Pleasant, Ohio. He was originally named Hiram Ulysses Grant. ..... Click the link for more information. , which were also notable for their outrageous corruption. A result of the disputed election of 1876, in which the decision was given to Rutherford B. Hayes Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 1822–93, 19th President of the United States (1877–81), b. Delaware, Ohio, grad. Kenyon College, 1843, and Harvard law school, 1845. He became a moderately successful lawyer in Cincinnati and was made (1858) city solicitor. ..... Click the link for more information. over Samuel J. Tilden Tilden, Samuel Jones, 1814–86, American political figure, Democratic presidential candidate in 1876, b. New Lebanon, N.Y. Admitted to the bar in 1841, Tilden was an eminently successful lawyer, with many railroad companies as clients. ..... Click the link for more information. , was the end of Reconstruction and the reentry of the South into national politics. The Late Nineteenth Century The remainder of the 19th cent. was marked by railroad building (assisted by generous federal land grants) and the disappearance of the American frontier. Great mineral wealth was discovered and exploited, and important technological innovations sped industrialization, which had already gained great impetus during the Civil War. Thus developed an economy based on steel, oil, railroads, and machines, an economy that a few decades after the Civil War ranked first in the world. Mammoth corporations such as the Standard Oil trust were formed, and "captains of industry" like John D. Rockefeller Rockefeller, John Davison, 1839–1937, American industrialist and philanthropist, b. Richford, N.Y. He moved (1853) with his family to a farm near Cleveland and at age 16 went to work as a bookkeeper. ..... Click the link for more information. and financiers like J. P. Morgan (see under Morgan Morgan, American family of financiers and philanthropists. Junius Spencer Morgan, 1813–90, b. West Springfield, Mass., prospered at investment banking. As a boy he became a dry-goods clerk in Boston; later he entered a brokerage house in New York City. ..... Click the link for more information. , family) controlled huge resources. In the latter part of the 19th cent. rapid industrialization had made the United States the world's largest, most productive, and most technically advanced nation, and the era saw the rise of the modern American city. These urban areas attracted huge numbers of people from foreign countries as well as rural America. The widespread use of steel and electricity allowed innovations that transformed the urban landscape. Electric lighting made cities viable at night as well as during the day. Electricity was also used to power streetcars streetcar, small, self-propelled railroad car, similar to the type used in rapid-transit systems, that operates on tracks running through city streets and is used to carry passengers. ..... Click the link for more information. , elevated railways, and subways. The growth of mass transit mass transit, public transportation systems designed to move large numbers of passengers. Types and Advantages Mass transit refers to municipal or regional public shared transportation, such as buses, streetcars, and ferries, open to all on a nonreserved basis. ..... Click the link for more information. allowed people to live further away from work, and was therefore largely responsible for the demise of the "walking city." With the advent of skyscrapers skyscraper, modern building of great height, constructed on a steel skeleton. The form originated in the United States. Development of the Form Many mechanical and structural developments in the last quarter of the 19th cent. contributed to its evolution. ..... Click the link for more information. , which utilized steel construction technology, cities were able to grow vertically as well as horizontally. Into the "land of promise" poured new waves of immigrants; some acquired dazzling riches, but many others suffered in a competitive and unregulated economic age. Behind the facade of the "Gilded Age," with its aura of peace and general prosperity, a whole range of new problems was created, forcing varied groups to promulgate new solutions. In the 1870s the expanding Granger movement Granger movement, American agrarian movement taking its name from the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, an organization founded in 1867 by Oliver H. Kelley and six associates. Its local units were called granges and its members grangers. ..... Click the link for more information. attempted to combat railroad and marketing abuses and to achieve an element of agrarian cooperation; this movement stimulated some regulation of utilities on the state level. Labor, too, began to combine against grueling factory conditions, but the opposition of business to unions was frequently overpowering, and the bulk of labor remained unorganized. Some strike successes were won by the Knights of Labor Knights of Labor, American labor organization, started by Philadelphia tailors in 1869, led by Uriah S. Stephens. It became a body of national scope and importance in 1878 and grew more rapidly after 1881, when its earlier secrecy was abandoned. ..... Click the link for more information. , but this union, discredited by the Haymarket Square riot Haymarket Square riot, outbreak of violence in Chicago on May 4, 1886. Demands for an eight-hour working day became increasingly widespread among American laborers in the 1880s. ..... Click the link for more information. , was succeeded in prominence by the less divisive American Federation of Labor (see American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), a federation of autonomous labor unions in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Panama, and U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Massachusetts led the way (1874) with the first effective state legislation for an eight-hour day, but similar state and national legislation was sparse (see labor law labor law, legislation dealing with human beings in their capacity as workers or wage earners. The Industrial Revolution, by introducing the machine and factory production, greatly expanded the class of workers dependent on wages as their source of income. ..... Click the link for more information. ), and the federal government descended harshly on labor in the bloody strike at Pullman, Ill., and in other disputes. Belief in laissez faire and the influence of big business in both national parties, especially in the Republican party, delayed any widespread reform. The Presidents of the late 19th cent. were generally titular leaders of modest political distinction; however, they did institute a few reforms. Both Hayes and his successor, James A. Garfield Garfield, James Abram, 1831–81, 20th President of the United States (Mar.–Sept., 1881). Born on a frontier farm in Cuyahoga co., Ohio, he spent his early years in poverty. As a youth he worked as farmer, carpenter, and canal boatman. ..... Click the link for more information. , favored civil service civil service, entire body of those employed in the civil administration as distinct from the military and excluding elected officials. The term was used in designating the British administration of India, and its first application elsewhere was in 1854 in England. ..... Click the link for more information. reforms, and after Garfield's death Chester A. Arthur Arthur, Chester Alan, 1829–86, 21st President of the United States (1881–85), b. Fairfield, Vt. He studied law and before the Civil War practiced in New York City. In the war he was (1861–63) quartermaster general of New York State. ..... Click the link for more information. approved passage of a civil service act; thus the vast, troublesome presidential patronage system gave way to more regular, efficient administration. In 1884 a reform group, led by Carl Schurz Schurz, Carl , 1829–1906, American political leader, b. Germany. He studied at the Univ. of Bonn and participated in the revolutionary uprisings of 1848–49 in Germany. ..... Click the link for more information. , bolted from the Republicans and helped elect Grover Cleveland Cleveland, Grover (Stephen Grover Cleveland), 1837–1908, 22d (1885–89) and 24th (1893–97) President of the United States, b. Caldwell, N.J.; son of a Presbyterian clergyman. ..... Click the link for more information. , the first Democratic President since before the Civil War. Under President Benjamin Harrison Harrison, Benjamin, 1833–1901, 23d President of the United States (1889–93), b. North Bend, Ohio, grad. Miami Univ. (Ohio), 1852; grandson of William Henry Harrison. ..... Click the link for more information. the Sherman Antitrust Act Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890, first measure passed by the U.S. Congress to prohibit trusts; it was named for Senator John Sherman. Prior to its enactment, various states had passed similar laws, but they were limited to intrastate businesses. ..... Click the link for more information. was passed (1890). The attempt of the Greenback party Greenback party, in U.S. history, political organization formed in the years 1874–76 to promote currency expansion. The members were principally farmers of the West and the South; stricken by the Panic of 1873, they saw salvation in an inflated currency that would wipe out ..... Click the link for more information. to combine sponsorship of free coinage of silver (see free silver free silver, in U.S. history, term designating the political movement for the unlimited coinage of silver. Origins of the Movement Free silver became a popular issue soon after the Panic of 1873, and it was a major issue in the next quarter century. ..... Click the link for more information. ) and other aids to the debtor class with planks favorable to labor failed, but reform forces gathered strength, as witnessed by the rise of the Populist party Populist party, in U.S. history, political party formed primarily to express the agrarian protest of the late 19th cent. In some states the party was known as the People's party. ..... Click the link for more information. . The reform movement was spurred by the economic panic of 1893, and in 1896 the Democrats nominated for President William Jennings Bryan Bryan, William Jennings , 1860–1925, American political leader, b. Salem, Ill. Although the nation consistently rejected him for the presidency, it eventually adopted many of the reforms he urged—the graduated federal income tax, popular election of senators, woman ..... Click the link for more information. , who had adopted the Populist platform. He orated eloquently for free silver, but was defeated by William McKinley McKinley, William, 1843–1901, 25th president of the United States (1897–1901), b. Niles, Ohio. He was educated at Poland (Ohio) Seminary and Allegheny College. After service in the Union army in the Civil War, he returned to Ohio and became a lawyer at Canton. ..... Click the link for more information. , who gained ardent support from big business. Expansionists and Progressives By the 1890s a new wave of expansionist sentiment was affecting U.S. foreign policy. With the purchase of Alaska (1867) and the rapid settlement of the last Western territory, Oklahoma, American capital and attention were directed toward the Pacific and the Caribbean. The United States established commercial and then political hegemony in the Hawaiian Islands and annexed them in 1898. In that year expansionist energy found release in the Spanish-American War Spanish-American War, 1898, brief conflict between Spain and the United States arising out of Spanish policies in Cuba. It was, to a large degree, brought about by the efforts of U.S. expansionists. ..... Click the link for more information. , which resulted in U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and Guam, and in a U.S. quasi-protectorate over Cuba. American ownership of the Philippines involved military subjugation of the people, who rose in revolt when they realized that they would not be granted their independence; the Philippine Insurrection (1899–1901) cost more American lives and dollars than the Spanish-American War. Widening its horizons, the United States formulated the Open Door Open Door, maintenance in a certain territory of equal commercial and industrial rights for the nationals of all countries. As a specific policy, it was first advanced by the United States, but it was rooted in the typical most-favored-nation clause of the treaties concluded ..... Click the link for more information. policy (1900), which expressed its interest in China. Established as a world power with interests in two oceans, the United States intervened in the Panama revolution to facilitate construction of the Panama Canal Panama Canal, waterway across the Isthmus of Panama, connecting the Atlantic (by way of the Caribbean Sea) and Pacific oceans, built by the United States (1904–14, on territory leased from the republic of Panama) and expanded by Pamana (2007–16). ..... Click the link for more information. ; this was but one of its many involvements in Latin American affairs under Theodore Roosevelt Roosevelt, Theodore, 1858–1919, 26th President of the United States (1901–9), b. New York City. Early Life and Political Posts Of a prosperous and distinguished family, Theodore Roosevelt was educated by private tutors and traveled widely. ..... Click the link for more information. and later Presidents. By the time of Roosevelt's administration (1901–9), the progressive reform movement had taken definite shape in the country. Progressivism was partly a mode of thought, as witnessed by the progressive education progressive education, movement in American education. Confined to a period between the late 19th and mid-20th cent., the term "progressive education" is generally used to refer only to those educational programs that grew out of the American reform effort known as the ..... Click the link for more information. program of John Dewey Dewey, John, 1859–1952, American philosopher and educator, b. Burlington, Vt., grad. Univ. of Vermont, 1879, Ph.D. Johns Hopkins, 1884. He taught at the universities of Minnesota (1888–89), Michigan (1884–88, 1889–94), and Chicago (1894–1904) and at ..... Click the link for more information. ; as such it was a pragmatic attempt to mold modern institutions for the benefit of all. Progressives, too, were the muckrakers muckrakers, name applied to American journalists, novelists, and critics who in the first decade of the 20th cent. attempted to expose the abuses of business and the corruption in politics. ..... Click the link for more information. , who attacked abuse and waste in industry and in society. In its politics as shaped by R. M. La Follette La Follette, Robert Marion , 1855–1925, American political leader, U.S. Senator from Wisconsin (1906–25), b. Primrose, Wis. Early Career Admitted (1880) to the Wisconsin bar, he practiced in Madison, Wis. ..... Click the link for more information. and others, progressivism adopted many Populist planks but promoted them from a more urban and forward-looking viewpoint. Progressivism was dramatized by the magnetic Roosevelt, who denounced "malefactors of great wealth" and demanded a "square deal" for labor; however, in practice he was a rather cautious reformer. He did make some attacks on trusts, and he promoted regulation of interstate commerce as well as passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and legislation for the conservation of natural resources conservation of natural resources, the wise use of the earth's resources by humanity. The term conservation came into use in the late 19th cent. and referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons, of such valuable natural resources as timber, fish, game, topsoil, ..... Click the link for more information. . Roosevelt's hand-picked successor, William H. Taft Taft, William Howard, 1857–1930, 27th President of the United States (1909–13) and 10th chief justice of the United States (1921–30), b. Cincinnati. Early Career After graduating (1878) from Yale, he attended Cincinnati Law School. ..... Click the link for more information. , continued some reforms but in his foreign policy and in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, 1909, passed by the U.S. Congress. It was the first change in tariff laws since the Dingley Act of 1897; the issue had been ignored by President Theodore Roosevelt. ..... Click the link for more information. , passed in his administration, favored big business. Taft's conservatism antagonized Roosevelt, who split with the Republican party in 1912 and ran for the presidency on the ticket of the Progressive party Progressive party, in U.S. history, the name of three political organizations, active, respectively, in the presidential elections of 1912, 1924, and 1948. Election of 1912 ..... Click the link for more information. (see also Insurgents Insurgents, in U.S. history, the Republican Senators and Representatives who in 1909–10 rose against the Republican standpatters controlling Congress, to oppose the Payne-Aldrich tariff and the dictatorial power of House speaker Joseph G. Cannon. ..... Click the link for more information. ). But the presidency was won by the Democratic reform candidate, Woodrow Wilson Wilson, Woodrow (Thomas Woodrow Wilson), 1856–1924, 28th President of the United States (1913–21), b. Staunton, Va. Educator He graduated from Princeton in 1879 and studied law at the Univ. of Virginia. ..... Click the link for more information. . Wilson's "New Freedom" brought many progressive ideas to legislative fruition. The Federal Reserve System Federal Reserve System, central banking system of the United States. Established in 1913, it began to operate in Nov., 1914. Its setup, although somewhat altered since its establishment, particularly by the Banking Act of 1935, has remained substantially the same. ..... Click the link for more information. and the Federal Trade Commission Federal Trade Commission (FTC), independent agency of the U.S. government established in 1915 and charged with keeping American business competition free and fair. The FTC has no jurisdiction over banks and common carriers, which are under the supervision of other governmental ..... Click the link for more information. were established, and the Adamson Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act Clayton Antitrust Act, 1914, passed by the U.S. Congress as an amendment to clarify and supplement the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. It was drafted by Henry De Lamar Clayton. ..... Click the link for more information. were passed. Perhaps more than on the national level, progressivism triumphed in the states in legislation beneficial to labor, in the furthering of education, and in the democratization of electoral procedures. Wilson did not radically alter the aggressive Caribbean policy of his predecessors; U.S. marines were sent to Nicaragua, and difficulties with Mexico were capped by the landing of U.S. forces in the city of Veracruz and by the campaign against Francisco (Pancho) Villa Villa, Francisco , c.1877–1923, Mexican revolutionary, nicknamed Pancho Villa. His real name was Doroteo Arango. When Villa came of age, he declared his freedom from the peonage of his parents and became notorious as a bandit in Chihuahua and Durango. ..... Click the link for more information. . World War I The nation's interest in world peace had already been expressed through participation in the Hague Conferences Hague Conferences, term for the International Peace Conference of 1899 (First Hague Conference) and the Second International Peace Conference of 1907 (Second Hague Conference). Both were called by Russia and met at The Hague, the Netherlands. ..... Click the link for more information. , and when World War I burst upon Europe, Wilson made efforts to keep the United States neutral; in 1916 he was reelected on a peace platform. However, American sympathies and interests were actively with the Allies (especially with Great Britain and France), and although Britain and Germany both violated American neutral rights on the seas, German submarine attacks constituted the more dramatic provocation. On Apr. 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies and provided crucial manpower and supplies for the Allied victory. Wilson's Fourteen Points Fourteen Points, formulation of a peace program, presented at the end of World War I by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in an address before both houses of Congress on Jan. 8, 1918. ..... Click the link for more information. to insure peace and democracy captured the popular imagination of Europe and were a factor in Germany's decision to seek an armistice; however, at the Paris Peace Conference after the war, Wilson was thwarted from fully implementing his program. In the United States, isolationist sentiment against participation in the League of Nations League of Nations, former international organization, established by the peace treaties that ended World War I. Like its successor, the United Nations, its purpose was the promotion of international peace and security. ..... Click the link for more information. , an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles (see Versailles, Treaty of Versailles, Treaty of, any of several treaties signed in the palace of Versailles, France. For the Treaty of Versailles of 1783, which ended the American Revolution, see Paris, Treaty of, 1783. ..... Click the link for more information. ), was led by Senator William E. Borah Borah, William Edgar , 1865–1940, U.S. Senator (1907–40), b. near Fairfield, Ill. Admitted to the bar in Kansas in 1887, after 1890 he became prominent in law and politics at Boise, Idaho. ..... Click the link for more information. and other "irreconcilables." The majority of Republican Senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge Lodge, Henry Cabot, 1850–1924, U.S. senator (1893–1924), b. Boston. He was admitted to the bar in 1876. Before beginning his long career in the U.S. Senate he edited (1873–76) the North American Review, ..... Click the link for more information. , insisted upon amendments that would preserve U.S. sovereignty, and although Wilson fought for his original proposals, they were rejected. Isolationist sentiment prevailed during the 1920s, and while the United States played a major role in the naval conferences naval conferences, series of international assemblies, meeting to consider limitation of naval armaments, settlement of the rules of naval war, and allied issues. The London Naval Conference ..... Click the link for more information. for disarmament and in the engineering of the Kellogg-Briand Pact Kellogg-Briand Pact , agreement, signed Aug. 27, 1928, condemning "recourse to war for the solution of international controversies." It is more properly known as the Pact of Paris. In June, 1927, Aristide Briand, foreign minister of France, proposed to the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , which outlawed war, its general lack of interest in international concerns was seen in its highly nationalistic economic policies, notably its insistence (later modified) on collecting the war debts war debts. This article discusses the obligations incurred by foreign governments for loans made to them by the United States during and shortly after World War I. For international obligations arising out of World War II, see lend-lease. ..... Click the link for more information. of foreign countries and the passage of the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act, 1930, passed by the U.S. Congress; it brought the U.S. tariff to the highest protective level yet in the history of the United States. President Hoover desired a limited upward revision of tariff rates with general increases on farm products and ..... Click the link for more information. . From Prosperity to Depression The country voted for a return to "normalcy" when it elected Warren G. Harding Harding, Warren Gamaliel , 1865–1923, 29th President of the United States (1921–23), b. Blooming Grove (now Corsica), Ohio. After study (1879–82) at Ohio Central College, he moved with his family to Marion, Ohio, where he devoted himself to journalism. ..... Click the link for more information. President in 1920, but the ensuing period was a time of rapid change, and the old normalcy was not to be regained. The Republican governments of the decade, although basically committed to laissez faire, actively encouraged corporate mergers and subsidized aviation and the merchant marine. Harding's administration, marred by the Teapot Dome Teapot Dome, in U.S. history, oil reserve scandal that began during the administration of President Harding. In 1921, by executive order of the President, control of naval oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyo., and at Elk Hills, Calif., was transferred from the Navy Dept. ..... Click the link for more information. scandal, gave way on his death to the presidency of Calvin Coolidge Coolidge, Calvin, 1872–1933, 30th President of the United States (1923–29), b. Plymouth, Vt. John Calvin Coolidge was a graduate of Amherst College and was admitted to the bar in 1897. He practiced (1897–1919) law in Northampton, Mass. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the nation embarked on a spectacular industrial and financial boom. In the 1920s the nation became increasingly urban, and everyday life was transformed as the "consumer revolution" brought the spreading use of automobiles, telephones, radios, and other appliances. The pace of living quickened, and mores became less restrained, while fortunes were rapidly accumulated on the skyrocketing stock market, in real estate speculation, and elsewhere. To some it seemed a golden age. But agriculture was not prosperous, and industry and finance became dangerously overextended. In 1929 there began the Great Depression Great Depression, in U.S. history, the severe economic crisis generally considered to have been precipitated by the U.S. stock-market crash of 1929. Although it shared the basic characteristics of other such crises (see depression), the Great Depression was unprecedented in its ..... Click the link for more information. , which reached worldwide proportions. In 1931, President Herbert Hoover Hoover, Herbert Clark, 1874–1964, 31st President of the United States (1929–33), b. West Branch, Iowa. Wartime Relief Efforts After graduating (1895) from Stanford, he worked as a mining engineer in many parts of the world. ..... Click the link for more information. proposed a moratorium on foreign debts, but this and other measures failed to prevent economic collapse. In the 1932 election Hoover was overwhelmingly defeated by the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt Roosevelt, Franklin Delano , 1882–1945, 32d President of the United States (1933–45), b. Hyde Park, N.Y. Early Life Through both his father, James Roosevelt, and his mother, Sara Delano Roosevelt, he came of old, wealthy families. ..... Click the link for more information. . The new President immediately instituted his New Deal New Deal, in U.S. history, term for the domestic reform program of the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt; it was first used by Roosevelt in his speech accepting the Democratic party nomination for President in 1932. ..... Click the link for more information. with vigorous measures. To meet the critical financial emergency he instituted a "bank holiday." Congress, called into special session, enacted a succession of laws, some of them to meet the economic crisis with relief measures, others to put into operation long-range social and economic reforms. Some of the most important agencies created were the National Recovery Administration National Recovery Administration (NRA), in U.S. history, administrative bureau established under the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933. In response to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's congressional message of May 17, 1933, Congress passed the National Industrial ..... Click the link for more information. , the Agricultural Adjustment Administration Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), former U.S. government agency established (1933) in the Dept. of Agriculture under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 as part of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal program. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Public Works Administration Public Works Administration (PWA), in U.S. history, New Deal government agency established (1933) by the Congress as the Federal Administration of Public Works, pursuant to the National Industrial Recovery Act. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Civilian Conservation Corps Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), established in 1933 by the U.S. Congress as a measure of the New Deal program. The CCC provided work and vocational training for unemployed single young men through conserving and developing the country's natural resources. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the Tennessee Valley Authority Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), independent U.S. government corporate agency, created in 1933 by act of Congress; it is responsible for the integrated development of the Tennessee River basin. ..... Click the link for more information. . This program was further broadened in later sessions with other agencies, notably the Securities and Exchange Commission Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), agency of the U.S. government created by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and charged with protecting the interests of the public and investors in connection with the public issuance and sale of corporate securities. ..... Click the link for more information. and the Works Progress Administration (later the Work Projects Administration Work Projects Administration (WPA), former U.S. government agency, established in 1935 by executive order of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt as the Works Progress Administration; it was renamed the Work Projects Administration in 1939, when it was made part of the Federal ..... Click the link for more information. ). Laws also created a social security social security, government program designed to provide for the basic economic security and welfare of individuals and their dependents. The programs classified under the term social security differ from one country to another, but all are the result of government legislation ..... Click the link for more information. program. The program was dynamic and, in many areas, unprecedented. It created a vast machinery by which the state could promote economic recovery and social welfare. Opponents of these measures argued that they violated individual rights, besides being extravagant and wasteful. Adverse decisions on several of the measures by the U.S. Supreme Court Supreme Court, United States, highest court of the United States, established by Article 3 of the Constitution of the United States. Scope and Jurisdiction ..... Click the link for more information. tended to slow the pace of reform and caused Roosevelt to attempt unsuccessfully to revise the court. Although interest centered chiefly on domestic affairs during the 1930s, Roosevelt continued and expanded the policy of friendship toward the Latin American nations which Herbert Hoover had initiated; this full-blown "good-neighbor" policy proved generally fruitful for the United States (see Pan-Americanism Pan-Americanism, movement toward commercial, social, economic, military, and political cooperation among the nations of North, Central, and South America. In the Nineteenth Century ..... Click the link for more information. ). Roosevelt was reelected by an overwhelming majority in 1936 and won easily in 1940 even though he was breaking the no-third-term tradition. World War II The ominous situation abroad was chiefly responsible for Roosevelt's continuance at the national helm. By the late 1930s the Axis nations (Germany and Italy) in Europe as well as Japan in East Asia had already disrupted world peace. As wars began in China, Ethiopia, and Spain, the United States sought at first to bulwark its insular security by the Neutrality Act Neutrality Act, law passed by the U.S. Congress and signed by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in Aug., 1935. It was designed to keep the United States out of a possible European war by banning shipment of war materiel to belligerents at the discretion of the President and by ..... Click the link for more information. . As Axis aggression led to the outbreak of the European war in Sept., 1939, the United States still strove to stay out of it, despite increasing sympathy for the Allies. But after the fall of France in June, 1940, the support of the United States for beleaguered Britain became more overt. In Mar., 1941, lend-lease lend-lease, arrangement for the transfer of war supplies, including food, machinery, and services, to nations whose defense was considered vital to the defense of the United States in World War II. The Lend-Lease Act, passed (1941) by the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. aid was extended to the British and, in November, to the Russians. The threat of war had already caused the adoption of selective service selective service, in U.S. history, term for conscription. Conscription was established (1863) in the U.S. Civil War, but proved unpopular (see draft riots). The law authorized release from service to anyone who furnished a substitute and, at first, to those who paid $300. ..... Click the link for more information. to build the armed strength of the nation. Hemisphere defense was enlarged, and the United States drew closer to Great Britain with the issuance of the Atlantic Charter Atlantic Charter , joint program of peace aims, enunciated by Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of the United States on Aug. 14, 1941. ..... Click the link for more information. . In Asian affairs the Roosevelt government had vigorously protested Japan's career of conquest and its establishment of the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere." After the Japanese takeover of French Indochina (July, 1941), with its inherent threat to the Philippines, the U.S. government froze all Japanese assets in the United States. Diplomatic relations grew taut, but U.S.-Japanese discussions were still being carried on when, on Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese bombs fell on Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor, land-locked harbor, on the southern coast of Oahu island, Hawaii, W of Honolulu; one of the largest and best natural harbors in the E Pacific Ocean. In the vicinity are many U.S. military installations, including the chief U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. . The United States promptly declared war, and four days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. (For an account of military and naval events, see World War II World War II, 1939–45, worldwide conflict involving every major power in the world. The two sides were generally known as the Allies and the Axis. Causes and Outbreak ..... Click the link for more information. .) The country efficiently mobilized its vast resources, transforming factories to war plants and building a mighty military force which included most able-bodied young men and many young women. The creation of a great number of government war agencies to control and coordinate materials, transportation, and manpower brought unprecedented government intervention into national life. Rationing, price controls, and other devices were instituted in an attempt to prevent serious inflation or dislocation in the civilian economy. The war underscored the importance of U.S. resources and the prestige and power of the United States in world affairs. A series of important conferences outlined the policies for the war and the programs for the peace after victory; among these were the Moscow Conferences Moscow Conferences, meetings held between 1941 and 1947 at Moscow, USSR. At a conference in Sept.–Oct., 1941, American and British representatives laid the basis for lend-lease aid to the USSR in World War II. In Aug., 1942, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and W. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Casablanca Conference Casablanca Conference, Jan. 14–24, 1943, World War II meeting of U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at Casablanca, French Morocco. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Cairo Conference Cairo Conference, Nov. 22–26, 1943, World War II meeting of U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek of China at Cairo, Egypt. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Tehran Conference Tehran Conference, Nov. 28–Dec. 1, 1943, meeting of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Premier Joseph Stalin at Tehran, Iran. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the Yalta Conference Yalta Conference, meeting (Feb. 4–11, 1945), at Yalta, Crimea, USSR, of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. ..... Click the link for more information. , at which Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin planned for postwar settlement. Roosevelt was also a key figure in the plans for the United Nations United Nations (UN), international organization established immediately after World War II. It replaced the League of Nations. In 1945, when the UN was founded, there were 51 members; 193 nations are now members of the organization (see table entitled United Nations Members). ..... Click the link for more information. . After Roosevelt's sudden death in Apr., 1945, Harry S. Truman Truman, Harry S., 1884–1972, 33d President of the United States, b. Lamar, Mo. Early Life and Political Career He grew up on a farm near Independence, Mo., worked at various jobs, and tended the family farm. ..... Click the link for more information. became President. A month later the European war ended when Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945. Truman went to the Potsdam Conference Potsdam Conference, meeting (July 17–Aug. 2, 1945) of the principal Allies in World War II (the United States, the USSR, and Great Britain) to clarify and implement agreements previously reached at the Yalta Conference. ..... Click the link for more information. (July–August), where various questions of the peacetime administration of Europe were settled, many on an ad interim basis, pending the conclusion of peace treaties. Before the war ended with the defeat of Japan, the United States developed and used a fateful and revolutionary weapon of war, the atomic bomb atomic bomb or A-bomb, weapon deriving its explosive force from the release of nuclear energy through the fission (splitting) of heavy atomic nuclei. The first atomic bomb was produced at the Los Alamos, N.Mex., laboratory and successfully tested on July 16, 1945. ..... Click the link for more information. . The Japanese surrender, announced Aug. 14, 1945, and signed Sept. 2, brought the war to a close. Peacetime readjustment was successfully effected. The government's "G.I. Bill" enabled many former servicemen to obtain free schooling, and millions of other veterans were absorbed by the economy, which boomed in fulfilling the demands for long-unobtainable consumer goods. The shortening of the postwar factory work week and the proportionate reduction of wages precipitated a rash of strikes, causing the government to pass the Taft-Hartley Labor Act Taft-Hartley Labor Act, 1947, passed by the U.S. Congress, officially known as the Labor-Management Relations Act. Sponsored by Senator Robert Alphonso Taft and Representative Fred Allan Hartley, the act qualified or amended much of the National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act of ..... Click the link for more information. (1947). Some inflation occurred by 1947 as wartime economic controls were abandoned. Congress passed a host of Truman's measures relating to minimum wages, public housing, farm surpluses, and credit regulation; thus was instituted acceptance of comprehensive government intervention in times of prosperity. The nation's support of Truman's policies was signified when it returned him to the presidency in 1948 in an upset victory over Thomas E. Dewey. The United States in a Divided World The most striking postwar development was America's new peacetime involvement in international affairs. U.S. support for the United Nations symbolized its desire for peace and order in international relations. However, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union worsened during the late 1940s. In addition, a serious human problem was presented by Europe, prostrated and near starvation after years of war. The Truman Doctrine attempted to thwart Soviet expansion in Europe; massive loans, culminating in the Marshall Plan Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program, project instituted at the Paris Economic Conference (July, 1947) to foster economic recovery in certain European countries after World War II. The Marshall Plan took form when U.S. Secretary of State George C. ..... Click the link for more information. , were vital in reviving European economies and thus in diminishing the appeal of Communism. As the cold war cold war, term used to describe the shifting struggle for power and prestige between the Western powers and the Communist bloc from the end of World War II until 1989. Of worldwide proportions, the conflict was tacit in the ideological differences between communism and ..... Click the link for more information. intensified, the United States took steps (1948) to nullify the Soviet blockade of Berlin Berlin , city (1994 pop. 3,475,400), capital of Germany, coextensive with Berlin state (341 sq mi/883 sq km), NE Germany, on the Spree and Havel rivers. Formerly divided into East Berlin (156 sq mi/404 sq km) and West Berlin (185 sq mi/479 sq km), the city was reunified along ..... Click the link for more information. and played the leading role in forming a new alliance of Western nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), established under the North Atlantic Treaty (Apr. 4, 1949) by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States. ..... Click the link for more information. (NATO). In the Korean War Korean War, conflict between Communist and non-Communist forces in Korea from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korean) and U.S. (South Korean) zones of occupation. ..... Click the link for more information. , U.S. forces played the chief part in combating the North Korean and Chinese attack on South Korea. Thus the United States cast off its traditional peacetime isolationism and accepted its position as a prime mover in world affairs. International policy had significant repercussions at home. The fear of domestic Communism and subversion almost became a national obsession, culminating in such sensational events as the Alger Hiss Hiss, Alger , 1904–96, American public official, b. Baltimore. After serving (1929–30) as secretary to Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Hiss practiced law in Boston and New York City. ..... Click the link for more information. case and the trial and execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (see Rosenberg Case Rosenberg Case, in U.S. history, a lengthy and controversial espionage case. In 1950, the Federal Bureau of Investigation arrested Julius Rosenberg (1918–53), an electrical engineer who had worked (1940–45) for the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Security measures and loyalty checks in the government and elsewhere were tightened, alleged Communists were prosecuted under the Smith Act of 1940, and employees in varied fields were dismissed for questionable political affiliations, past or present. The most notorious prosecutor of alleged Communists was Senator Joseph McCarthy McCarthy, Joseph Raymond, 1908–57, U.S. senator from Wisconsin (1947–57), b. near Appleton, Wis. He practiced law in Wisconsin and became (1940) a circuit judge. He served with the U.S. marines in the Pacific in World War II, achieving the rank of captain. ..... Click the link for more information. , whose extreme methods were later recognized as threats to freedom of speech and democratic principles. Two decades of Democratic control of the White House came to an end with the presidential election of 1952, when Dwight D. Eisenhower Eisenhower, Dwight David , 1890–1969, American general and 34th President of the United States, b. Denison, Tex.; his nickname was "Ike." Early Career When he was two years old, his family moved to Abilene, Kans., where he was reared. ..... Click the link for more information. was swept into office over the Democratic candidate, Adlai E. Stevenson Stevenson, Adlai Ewing, 1900–1965, American statesman, b. Los Angeles; grandson of Adlai Ewing Stevenson (1835–1914). A graduate (1922) of Princeton, he received his law degree from Northwestern Univ., was admitted (1926) to the bar, and practiced law in Chicago. ..... Click the link for more information. . Although it did not try to roll back the social legislation passed by its Democratic predecessors, the Eisenhower administration was committed to a laissez-faire domestic policy. By the mid-1950s, America was in the midst of a great industrial boom, and stock prices were skyrocketing. In foreign affairs the Eisenhower administration was internationalist in outlook, although it sternly opposed Communist power and threatened "massive retaliation" for Communist aggression. Some antagonism came from the neutral nations of Asia and Africa, partly because of the U.S. association with former colonial powers and partly because U.S. foreign aid more often than not had the effect of strengthening ruling oligarchies abroad. In the race for technological superiority the United States exploded (1952) the first hydrogen bomb, but was second to the USSR in launching (Jan. 31, 1958) an artificial satellite and in testing an intercontinental guidedmissile. However, spurred by Soviet advances, the United States made rapid progress in space exploration space exploration, the investigation of physical conditions in space and on stars, planets, and other celestial bodies through the use of artificial satellites (spacecraft that orbit the earth), space probes (spacecraft that pass through the solar system and that may or may not ..... Click the link for more information. and missile research. In the crucial domestic issue of racial integration integration, in U.S. history, the goal of an organized movement to break down the barriers of discrimination and segregation separating African Americans from the rest of American society. ..... Click the link for more information. , the U.S. Supreme Court in a series of decisions supported the efforts of African-American citizens to achieve full civil rights. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states of the Union. Despite hopes for "peaceful coexistence," negotiations with the USSR for nuclear disarmament failed to achieve accord, and Berlin remained a serious source of conflict. In 1961, the older Eisenhower gave way to the youngest President ever elected, John F. Kennedy Kennedy, John Fitzgerald, 1917–63, 35th President of the United States (1961–63), b. Brookline, Mass.; son of Joseph P. Kennedy. Early Life While an undergraduate at Harvard (1936–40) he served briefly in London as secretary to his father, who was ..... Click the link for more information. , who defeated Republican candidate Richard M. Nixon Nixon, Richard Milhous, 1913–94, 37th President of the United States (1969–74), b. Yorba Linda, Calif. Political Career to 1968 A graduate of Whittier College and Duke law school, he practiced law in Whittier, Calif. ..... Click the link for more information. . President Kennedy called for "new frontiers" of American endeavor, but had difficulty securing Congressional support for his domestic programs (integration, tax reform, medical benefits for the aged). Kennedy's foreign policy combined such humanitarian innovations as the Peace Corps Peace Corps, agency of the U.S. government, whose purpose is to assist underdeveloped countries in meeting their needs for trained manpower. The Peace Corps was established in 1961 by executive order of President Kennedy; Congress approved it as a permanent agency within the ..... Click the link for more information. and the Alliance for Progress Alliance for Progress, Span. Alianza para el Progreso, U.S. assistance program for Latin America begun in 1961 during the presidency of John F. Kennedy. It was created principally to counter the appeal of revolutionary politics, such as those adopted in Cuba (see Fidel ..... Click the link for more information. with the traditional opposition to Communist aggrandizement. After breaking relations with Cuba, which, under Fidel Castro, had clearly moved within the Communist orbit, the United States supported (1961) an ill-fated invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro forces. In 1962, in reaction to the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, the United States blockaded Soviet military shipments to Cuba and demanded the dismantling of Soviet bases there. The two great powers seemed on the brink of war, but within a week the USSR acceded to U.S. demands. In the meantime, the United States achieved an important gain in space exploration with the orbital flight around the earth in a manned satellite by Col. John H. Glenn Glenn, John Herschel, Jr., 1921–, American astronaut and politician, b. Cambridge, Ohio. On Feb. 20, 1962, he became the first American and the third person to orbit the earth, circling the globe three times in a vehicle launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla. ..... Click the link for more information. . The tensions of the cold war eased when, in 1963, the United States and the Soviet Union reached an accord on a limited ban of nuclear testing. The Great Society and the Vietnam War On Nov. 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Tex. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson Johnson, Lyndon Baines, 1908–73, 36th President of the United States (1963–69), b. near Stonewall, Tex. Early Life Born into a farm family, he graduated (1930) from Southwest Texas State Teachers College (now Southwest Texas State Univ.), in San Marcos. ..... Click the link for more information. , proclaimed a continuation of Kennedy's policies and was able to bring many Kennedy measures to legislative fruition. Significant progress toward racial equality was achieved with a momentous Civil Rights Act (1964), a Voting Rights Act (1965), and the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished the poll tax. Other legislation, reflecting Johnson's declaration of a "war on poverty" and his stated aim of creating a "Great Society," included a comprehensive Economic Opportunity Act (1964) and bills providing for tax reduction, medical care for the aged, an increased minimum wage, urban rehabilitation, and aid to education. Public approval was given in the landslide victory won by Johnson over his Republican opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater Goldwater, Barry Morris, 1909–98, U.S. senator (1953–65, 1969–87), b. Phoenix, Ariz. He studied at the Univ. of Arizona, but left in 1929 to enter his family's department-store business. ..... Click the link for more information. , in the 1964 presidential election. The victory also represented voter reaction against Senator Goldwater's aggressive views on foreign policy. Ironically, international problems dominated Johnson's second term, and Johnson himself pursued an aggressive course, dispatching (Apr., 1965) troops to the Dominican Republic during disorders there and escalating American participation in the Vietnam War Vietnam War, conflict in Southeast Asia, primarily fought in South Vietnam between government forces aided by the United States and guerrilla forces aided by North Vietnam. The war began soon after the Geneva Conference provisionally divided (1954) Vietnam at 17° N lat. ..... Click the link for more information. . Authorization for the latter was claimed by Johnson to have been given (Aug., 1964) by Congress in the Tonkin Gulf resolution Tonkin Gulf resolution, in U.S. history, Congressional resolution passed in 1964 that authorized military action in Southeast Asia. On Aug. 4, 1964, North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin were alleged to have attacked without provocation U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , which was passed after two U.S. destroyers were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese PT boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. The federal military budget soared, and inflation became a pressing problem. The Vietnam War provoked increasing opposition at home, manifested in marches and demonstrations in which casualties were sometimes incurred and thousands of people were arrested. An impression of general lawlessness and domestic disintegration was heightened by serious race riots that erupted in cities across the nation, most devastatingly in the Watts Watts, residential section of south central Los Angeles. Named after C. H. Watts, a Pasadena realtor, the section became part of Los Angeles in 1926. Artist Simon Rodia's celebrated Watts Towers are there. ..... Click the link for more information. district of Los Angeles (1965) and in Detroit and Newark (1967), and by various racial and political assassinations, notably those of Martin Luther King King, Martin Luther, Jr., 1929–68, American clergyman and civil-rights leader, b. Atlanta, Ga., grad. Morehouse College (B.A., 1948), Crozer Theological Seminary (B.D., 1951), Boston Univ. (Ph.D., 1955). ..... Click the link for more information. , Jr., and Senator Robert F. Kennedy Kennedy, Robert Francis, 1925–68, American politician, U.S. Attorney General (1961–64), b. Brookline, Mass., younger brother of President John F. Kennedy and son of Joseph P. Kennedy. A graduate of Harvard (1948) and the Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. (1968). Other manifestations of social upheaval were the increase of drug use, especially among youths, and the rising rate of crime, most noticeable in the cities. Opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War so eroded Johnson's popularity that he chose not to run again for President in 1968. The Nixon Years Johnson's position as leader of the Democratic party had been seriously challenged by Senator Eugene McCarthy McCarthy, Eugene Joseph, 1916–2005, U.S. political leader, b. Watkins, Minn. He served (1942–46) as a technical assistant for military intelligence during World War II and then taught (1946–49) at the College of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minn. ..... Click the link for more information. , who ran as a peace candidate in the primary elections. Antiwar forces in the Democratic party received a setback with the assassination of Senator Kennedy, also a peace candidate, and the way was opened for the nomination of Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey Humphrey, Hubert Horatio, 1911–78, U.S. Vice President (1965–69), b. Wallace, S.Dak. After practicing pharmacy for several years, Humphrey taught political science and became involved in state politics. ..... Click the link for more information. , a supporter of Johnson's policies, as the Democratic candidate for President. Violence broke out during the Democratic national convention in Chicago when police and national guardsmen battled some 3,000 demonstrators in what a national investigating committee later characterized as "a police riot." The Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon, ran on a platform promising an end to the Vietnam War and stressing the need for domestic "law and order"; he won a narrow victory, receiving 43.4% of the popular vote to Humphrey's 42.7%. A third-party candidate, Gov. George C. Wallace Wallace, George Corley, 1919–98, governor of Alabama (1963–67, 1971–79, 1983–87), b. Clio, Ala. Admitted to the bar in 1942, he was active in the Alabama Democratic party, serving in the state assembly (1947–53) and as a district court judge ..... Click the link for more information. of Alabama, carried five Southern states. The Congress remained Democratic. Pronouncing the "Nixon doctrine"—that thenceforth other countries would have to carry more of the burden of fighting Communist domination, albeit with substantial American economic aid—Nixon began a slow withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. Criticism that he was not moving fast enough in ending the war increased and massive antiwar demonstrations continued, and when Nixon in the spring of 1970 ordered U.S. troops into neutral Cambodia to destroy Communist bases and supply routes there, a wave of demonstrations, some of them violent, swept American campuses. Four students were killed by national guardsmen at Kent State Univ. in Ohio, and 448 colleges and universities temporarily closed down. Antiwar activity declined, however, when American troops were removed from Cambodia after 60 days. The institution of draft reform, the continued withdrawal of U.S. soldiers from Vietnam, and a sharp decrease in U.S. casualties all contributed toward dampening antiwar sentiment and lessening the war as an issue of public debate. Racial flare-ups abated after the tumult of the 1960s (although the issue of the busing of children to achieve integration continued to arouse controversy). The growing movement of women demanding social, economic, and political equality with men also reflected the changing times. A dramatic milestone in the country's space program was reached in July, 1969, with the landing of two men on the moon, the first of several such manned flights. Significant unmanned probes of several of the planets followed, and in 1973 the first space station was orbited. In domestic policy Nixon appeared to favor an end to the many reforms of the 1960s. He was accused by civil-rights proponents of wooing Southern support by seeking delays in the implementation of school integration. Such actions by his administration were overruled by the Supreme Court. Nixon twice attempted to appoint conservative Southern judges to the U.S. Supreme Court and was twice frustrated by the Senate, which rejected both nominations. In an attempt to control the spiraling inflation inherited from the previous administration, Nixon concentrated on reducing federal spending. He vetoed numerous appropriations bills passed by Congress, especially those in the social service and public works areas, although he continued to stress defense measures, such as the establishment of an antiballistic missiles (ABM) system, and foreign aid. Federal budget cuts contributed to a general economic slowdown but failed to halt inflation, so that the country experienced the unprecedented misfortune of both rising prices and rising unemployment; the steady drain of gold reserves after almost three decades of enormous foreign aid programs, a new balance-of-trade deficit, and the instability of the dollar in the international market also affected the economy. In Aug., 1971, Nixon resorted to the freezing of prices, wages, and rents; these controls were continued under an ensuing, more flexible but comprehensive program known as Phase II. Another significant move was the devaluation of the dollar in Dec., 1971; it was further devalued in 1973 and again in 1974. In keeping with his announced intention of moving the United States from an era of confrontation to one of negotiation, Nixon made a dramatic visit to the People's Republic of China in Feb., 1972, ending more than 20 years of hostility between the two countries and opening the way for a normalization of relations. A trip to Moscow followed in the spring, culminating in the signing of numerous agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union, the most important being two strategic arms limitations accords, reached after lengthy talks begun in 1969. The attainment of a degree of friendly relations with China and the USSR was especially surprising in view of the provocative actions that the United States was taking at that time against North Vietnam. Although U.S. ground troops were being steadily withdrawn from Vietnam, U.S. bombing activity was increasing. Finally Congress halted the bombing and limited Nixon's power to commit troops. A cease-fire in Vietnam was not achieved until Jan., 1973. In the presidential election of 1972, the Democratic party reforms that increased the power of women and minority groups in the convention resulted in the nomination of Senator George S. McGovern McGovern, George Stanley , 1922–2012, U.S. senator from South Dakota (1963–81), b. Avon, S.Dak. He was a decorated B-24 bomber pilot during World War II. He later obtained degrees from Dakota Wesleyan Univ. (B.A., 1946) and Northwestern (Ph.D. ..... Click the link for more information. for President. Senator McGovern called for an immediate end to the Vietnam War and for a drastic cut in defense spending and a guaranteed minimum income for all citizens. His candidacy was damaged by the necessity to replace his original choice for Vice President and by the continuing perception of McGovern as a radical. Nixon was reelected (Nov., 1972) in a landslide, losing only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia. But Nixon's second term was marred, and finally destroyed, by the Watergate affair Watergate affair, in U.S. history, series of scandals involving the administration of President Richard M. Nixon; more specifically, the burglarizing of the Democratic party national headquarters in the Watergate apartment complex in Washington, D.C. ..... Click the link for more information. , which began when five men (two of whom were later discovered to be direct employees of Nixon's reelection committee) were arrested after breaking into the Democratic party's national headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in Washington, D.C. Nixon resigned on Aug. 9, the first president in the history of the republic to be driven from office under the threat of impeachment. Ford and Carter Nixon was succeeded by Vice President Gerald R. Ford Ford, Gerald Rudolph, 1913–2006, 38th president of the United States (1974–77), b. Omaha, Nebr. He was originally named Leslie Lynch King, Jr., but his parents were divorced when he was two, and when his mother remarried he assumed the name of his stepfather. ..... Click the link for more information. . (Nixon's first Vice President, Spiro T. Agnew Agnew, Spiro Theodore , 1918–96, 39th Vice President of the United States (1969–73), b. Baltimore. Admitted to the bar in 1949, he entered politics as a Republican and was elected (1961) chief executive of Baltimore co. ..... Click the link for more information. , had resigned in Oct., 1973, after being charged with income tax evasion.) Ford promised to continue Nixon's foreign policy, particularly the improvement of relations with China and the USSR (in his last days in office, Nixon had made trips to the Middle East and the Soviet Union to promote peace). In domestic affairs, the United States was hurt by skyrocketing fuel prices due to an Arab oil embargo. The embargo was imposed (1973) in retaliation for U.S. support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War (see Arab-Israeli Wars Arab-Israeli Wars, conflicts in 1948–49, 1956, 1967, 1973–74, and 1982 between Israel and the Arab states. Tensions between Israel and the Arabs have been complicated and heightened by the political, strategic, and economic interests in the area of the great powers. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Ford attempted to formulate new policies to stem the ever-increasing inflation rate, which by late 1974 had reached the most severe levels since the period following World War II. He was also confronted with mounting unemployment and with the threat of a devastating world food crisis. Ford's popularity suffered a sharp setback when he granted Nixon a complete and unconditional pardon for any crimes that Nixon may have committed during his term as President. The public disapproval of this decision, along with the deteriorating economy, contributed to a sharp reversal in Republican fortunes in the elections of 1974. In Dec., 1974, Nelson A. Rockefeller Rockefeller, Nelson Aldrich, 1908–79, U.S. public official, governor of New York (1959–73), Vice President of the United States (1974–77), b. Bar Harbor, Maine; grandson of John D. Rockefeller. ..... Click the link for more information. , a former governor of New York, was sworn in as Vice President following extensive hearings before Congressional committees. Thus, neither the President nor the Vice President had been popularly elected, both having been chosen under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment. Ford's tenure as President was hindered by difficult economic times and an inability to work with the Democrat-controlled Congress. Ford vetoed dozens of bills, many of which were overridden by Congress to provide funding for social programs. Ford also lacked broad support within his own party, as former California governor (and future President) Ronald Reagan Reagan, Ronald Wilson , 1911–2004, 40th president of the United States (1981–89), b. Tampico, Ill. In 1932, after graduation from Eureka College, he became a radio announcer and sportscaster. ..... Click the link for more information. made a strong challenge for the Republican presidential nomination. The Democratic contender in the 1976 presidential election, former Georgia governor James E. "Jimmy" Carter Carter, Jimmy (James Earl Carter, Jr.), 1924–, 39th President of the United States (1977–81), b. Plains, Ga, grad. Annapolis, 1946. Carter served in the navy, where he worked with Admiral Hyman G. Rickover in developing the nuclear submarine program. ..... Click the link for more information. , ran a brilliant and tireless campaign based on populist appeals to honesty and morality. His position as a newcomer to national politics was considered an asset by an untrusting nation in the wake of the Watergate scandal. In spite of a late surge by Ford, Carter narrowly won the election. The day after being sworn in as President, Carter pardoned thousands of draft evaders from the Vietnam War. In domestic affairs, Carter focused a great deal of attention on energy issues, creating the Department of Energy in 1977 and insisting on the necessity of nuclear energy as an alternative to fossil fuel consumption. However, nuclear energy in the United States suffered a severe setback in 1979 when an accident at the Three Mile Island Three Mile Island, site of a nuclear power plant 10 mi (16 km) south of Harrisburg, Pa. On Mar. 28, 1979, failure of the cooling system of the No. 2 nuclear reactor led to overheating and partial melting of its uranium core and production of hydrogen gas, which raised fears of ..... Click the link for more information. power facility near Harrisburg, Penn. resulted in the partial meltdown of the reactor core. States with large energy industries such as Texas, Louisiana, Wyoming, and Colorado all benefited from extremely high energy prices throughout the 1970s. Alaska's economy also boomed as the Alaska pipeline began transporting oil in 1977. Soaring oil prices as well as increased foreign competition dealt a severe blow to American industry, especially heavy industries such as automobile and steel manufacturing located in America's Rust Belt Rust Belt or Rustbelt, economic region in the NE quadrant of the United States, focused on the Midwestern (see Midwest) states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, as well as Pennsylvania. ..... Click the link for more information. . Central cities in the United States experienced great hardship in the 1960s and 70s. Rising crime rates and racial unrest during the 1960s accelerated the outmigration of people and businesses to the suburbs suburb, a community in an outlying section of a city or, more commonly, a nearby, politically separate municipality with social and economic ties to the central city. In the 20th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. . By the late 1970s, many large cities had lost their middle class core populations and suffered severe budgetary problems. Inflation continued to rise dramatically as it had during Ford's administration and eventually reached a 30-year high in 1979. Efforts to control inflation such as raising interest rates plunged the economy into recession. In 1977 Carter signed the Panama Canal Panama Canal, waterway across the Isthmus of Panama, connecting the Atlantic (by way of the Caribbean Sea) and Pacific oceans, built by the United States (1904–14, on territory leased from the republic of Panama) and expanded by Pamana (2007–16). ..... Click the link for more information. Treaty and a year later Congress voted to turn over the canal to Panama in 1999. Carter's greatest achievement in foreign policy came in 1978 when he mediated unprecedented negotiations between Egypt and Israel at Camp David, Md. The talks led to the signing of a peace treaty (see Camp David accords Camp David accords, popular name for the peace treaty forged in 1978 between Israel and Egypt at the U.S. presidential retreat at Camp David, Md. The official agreement was signed on Mar. 26, 1979, in Washington, D.C. ..... Click the link for more information. ) by Egyptian president Anwar al- Sadat Sadat, Anwar al- , 1918–81, Egyptian political leader and president (1970–81). He entered (1936) Abbasia Military Academy, where he became friendly with Gamal Abdal Nasser and other fellow cadets committed to Egyptian nationalism. ..... Click the link for more information. and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin Begin, Menachem , 1913–92, Zionist leader and Israeli prime minister (1977–83), b. Russia. He became (1938) leader of a Zionist youth movement in Poland, where he also earned a law degree. ..... Click the link for more information. in 1979. Also in that year the United States resumed official diplomatic relations with China and Carter entered into a second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) with the Soviet Union. Carter's pledge to stand against nations that abused human rights resulted in a grain and high-technology embargo of the Soviet Union in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Carter also organized a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. His decision in 1979 to allow Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi , 1919–80, shah of Iran (1941–79). Educated in Switzerland, he returned (1935) to Iran to attend the military academy in Tehran. He ascended the throne in 1941 after his father, Reza Shah Pahlevi, suspected of collaboration with the ..... Click the link for more information. , the deposed leader of Iran, to receive medical treatment in the United States inflamed the already passionate anti-American sentiment in that nation. On Nov. 4, 1979, a group of militants seized the U.S. embassy in Iran, taking 66 hostages. The Iran hostage crisis Iran hostage crisis, in U.S. history, events following the seizure of the American embassy in Tehran by Iranian students on Nov. 4, 1979. The overthrow of Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi of Iran by an Islamic revolutionary government earlier in the year had led to a steady ..... Click the link for more information. destroyed Carter's credibility as a leader and a failed rescue attempt (1980) that killed eight Americans only worsened the situation. (The hostages were only released on Jan. 20, 1981, the day Carter left office.) With the hostage crisis omnipresent in the media and the nation's economy sliding deeper into recession, Carter had little to run on in the 1980 presidential election. Republican nominee Ronald Reagan promised to restore American supremacy both politically and economically. The Reagan Years The nation enthusiastically responded to Ronald Reagan's neoconservative message as he soundly defeated Carter and third-party candidate John Anderson to become, at the age of 70, the oldest man to be elected president. Reagan's coattails proved to be long as the Republicans made large gains in the House of Representatives and won control of the Senate for the first time since 1954, ushering in a new wave of conservatism. His program of supply-side economics supply-side economics, economic theory that concentrates on influencing the supply of labor and goods as a path to economic health, rather than approaching the issue through such macroeconomic concerns as gross national product. ..... Click the link for more information. sought to increase economic growth through reduced taxes which would in turn create even greater tax revenue. Critics argued that his tax cuts only benefited corporations and wealthy individuals. Reagan drastically cut spending on social programs as part of his vow to balance the federal budget. In labor disputes, Reagan was decidedly antiunion. This was never more evident than in 1981 when he fired 13,000 striking air traffic controllers. In Mar., 1981, Reagan was wounded in an assassination attempt but fully recovered, dispelling doubts regarding his age and health. The U.S. economy continued to worsen; in 1983 the unemployment rate reached its highest point since the Great Depression at almost 11%. By the end of that year, however, oil prices began to drop, slowing the inflation rate and helping the economy to begin a recovery. Reagan's deregulaton of the banking, airline, and many other industries spurred enormous amounts of economic activity. In 1984 the unemployment rate fell and the dollar was strong in foreign markets. With the economy recovering, Reagan was unstoppable in the 1984 presidential election. Democratic nominee Walter F. Mondale Mondale, Walter Frederick (Fritz Mondale), 1928–, Vice President of the United States (1977–81), b. Ceylon, Minn., LL.B., Univ. of Minn., 1956. A liberal Democrat, he was active in the Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party and served as state attorney general (1960–64). ..... Click the link for more information. chose U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro Ferraro, Geraldine Anne , 1935–2011, American political leader, b. Newburgh, N.Y., grad. Marymount College (1956), Fordham Law School (1960). A Democrat from Queens, N.Y., she began her career as a criminal prosecutor and later served three terms in the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. as his running mate; she was the first woman to gain a major party's vice presidential nomination. Reagan scored an overwhelming victory, carrying 49 states and winning a record 525 electoral votes. Economic recovery did not last, however; while Reagan was cutting government funding for social programs the defense budget skyrocketed to levels not seen since World War II. The federal budget deficit also soared and in 1987, Reagan submitted the first trillion-dollar budget to Congress. In addition, the deregulated economy proved extremely volatile; financial scandals were prevalent and the trade imbalance grew. Finally in 1987 the stock market crashed, falling a record 508 points in a single day. Reagan's foreign policy was aggressively anti-Communist as he discarded the policy of détente employed by Nixon, Ford, and Carter. He revived Cold War rhetoric, referring to the Soviet Union as the "evil empire" and used increased defense spending to enlarge the U.S. nuclear arsenal and fund the Strategic Defense Initiative Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), former U.S. government program responsible for research and development of a space-based system to defend the nation from attack by strategic ballistic missiles (see guided missile). ..... Click the link for more information. , a plan popularly known as "Star Wars." In 1981, Reagan imposed sanctions against Poland after the establishment of a military government in that country. Reagan also sought aid for the Contras—counterrevolutionaries seeking to overthrow the Marxist-oriented Sandanista government in Nicaragua. At the same time the United States was secretly mining Nicaraguan harbors. In 1983 241 U.S. marines stationed in Beirut, Lebanon as part of a UN peacekeeping force were killed by terrorists driving a truck laden with explosives in a suicide mission. Later that year Reagan ordered the invasion of the tiny Caribbean nation of Grenada; the action was roundly criticized by the world community, but succeeded in toppling the pro-Cuban regime. In 1986 the space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after liftoff, killing the entire seven-person crew, including six astronauts and a civilian schoolteacher. Reagan's aggressive policies in the Middle East worsened already bad relations with Arab nations; he ordered (1986) air strikes against Libya in retaliation for the Libyan-sponsored terrorist attack in West Berlin that killed two American servicemen. Although the president had vowed never to negotiate with terrorists, members of his administration did just that in the Iran-contra affair Iran-contra affair, in U.S. history, secret arrangement in the 1980s to provide funds to the Nicaraguan contra rebels from profits gained by selling arms to Iran. The Iran-contra affair was the product of two separate initiatives during the administration of President Ronald ..... Click the link for more information. . Against the wishes of the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, Reagan officials arranged the illegal sale of arms to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages in the Middle East. The profits from the sales were then diverted to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Reagan improved his image before he left office, however, by agreeing to a series of arms reduction talks initiated by Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich , 1931–, Soviet political leader. Born in the agricultural region of Stavropol, Gorbachev studied law at Moscow State Univ., where in 1953 he married a philosophy student, Raisa Maksimovna Titorenko (1932?–99). ..... Click the link for more information. . Reagan was also able leave a powerful legacy by appointing three conservative Supreme Court justices, including Sandra Day O'Connor O'Connor, Sandra Day, 1930–, U.S. lawyer and associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1981–2006), b. El Paso, Tex. Graduating from Stanford law school (1952), she returned to practice in her home state of Arizona. ..... Click the link for more information. , the first woman to serve on the high court. Bush, Clinton, and Bush Reagan had groomed his Vice President, George H. W. Bush Bush, George Herbert Walker, 1924–, 41st President of the United States (1989–93), b. Milton, Mass., B.A., Yale Univ., 1948. Career in Business and Government ..... Click the link for more information. , to succeed him. The presidential election of 1988 was characterized by negative campaigning, low voter turnout, and a general disapproval of both candidates. The mudslinging especially hurt the Democratic nominee, Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis Dukakis, Michael Stanley , 1933–, American political leader, b. Brookline, Mass. He was a Democratic member of the Massachusetts house of representatives (1963–70) and was twice elected governor of Massachusetts (1975–79; 1983–91). ..... Click the link for more information. , who rapidly lost his lead in the polls and eventually lost by a substantial margin. Bush vowed a continuation of Reagan's policies and in foreign affairs he was as aggressive as his predecessor. In 1989, after a U.S.-backed coup failed to oust Panamanian President Manuel Noriega Noriega, Manuel Antonio , 1938–, Panamanian general. Commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces from 1983, Noriega consolidated the strong-armed rule inherited from Gen. Omar Torrijos Herrera, and became the de facto leader of Panama. A one-time operative for the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , Bush ordered the invasion of Panama by U.S. troops. Noriega was eventually captured in early 1990 and sent to Miami, Fla. to stand trial for drug trafficking (see Panama Panama , Span. Panamá, officially Republic of Panama, republic (2005 est. pop. 3,039,000), 29,760 sq mi (77,081 sq km), occupying the Isthmus of Panama, which connects Central and South America. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Bush's major military action, however, was the Persian Gulf War Persian Gulf Wars, two conflicts involving Iraq and U.S.-led coalitions in the late 20th and early 21st cent. The First Persian Gulf War, also known as the Gulf War, Jan.–Feb. ..... Click the link for more information. . After Iraq invaded Kuwait on Aug. 2, 1990, Bush announced the commencement of Operation Desert Shield, which included a naval and air blockade and the steady deployment of U.S. military forces to Saudi Arabia. In November the United Nations Security Council approved the use of all necessary force to remove Iraq from Kuwait and set Jan. 15, 1991, as the deadline for Iraq to withdraw. A few days before the deadline Congress narrowly approved the use of force against Iraq. By this time the United States had amassed a force of over 500,000 military personnel as well as thousands of tanks, airplanes, and personnel carriers. Less than one day after the deadline, the U.S.-led coalition began Operation Desert Storm, beginning with massive air attacks on Baghdad. Iraqi troops were devastated by continual air and naval bombardment, to the point that it took only 100 hours for coalition ground forces to recapture Kuwait. On Feb. 27, with the Iraqi army routed, Bush declared a cease-fire. The quick, decisive U.S. victory, combined with an extremely small number of American casualties, gave President Bush the highest public approval rating in history. Mounting domestic problems, however, made his popularity short-lived. When Bush took office, he announced a plan to bail out the savings and loan savings and loan association (S&L), type of financial institution that was originally created to accept savings from private investors and to provide home mortgage services for the public. The first U.S. S&L was founded in 1831. ..... Click the link for more information. industry, which had collapsed after deregulation during the Reagan administration. In 1996 it was determined that the savings and loan crisis had cost the U.S. government some $124 billion. The United States went through a transitional period during the 1980s and early 90s, economically, demographically, and politically. The severe decline of traditional manufacturing which began in the 1970s forced a large-scale shift of the economy to services and other sectors. States with large service, trade, and high-technology industries (such as many Sun Belt states) grew in population and thrived economically. Meanwhile, states heavily dependent on manufacturing, including much of the Midwest, suffered severe unemployment and outmigration. Midwestern states grew less than 5% during the 1980s while Sun Belt states grew between 15% and 50%. In addition, the end of the Cold War, precipitated by the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of Soviet Communism, resulted in a reduction of the U.S. armed forces as well as the opening of new markets in an increasingly global economy. In Apr., 1992, after the severe police beating of an African American, one of the worst race riots in recent U.S. history erupted in Los Angeles, killing 58, injuring thousands, and causing approximately $1 billion in damage. Smaller disturbances broke out in many U.S. cities. After the Persian Gulf War the nation turned its attention to the domestic problems of recession and high unemployment. Bush's inability to institute a program for economic recovery made him vulnerable in the 1992 presidential election to the Democratic nominee, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton Clinton, Bill (William Jefferson Clinton), 1946–, 42d President of the United States (1993–2001), b. Hope, Ark. His father died before he was born, and he was originally named William Jefferson Blythe 4th, but after his mother remarried, he assumed the surname of his ..... Click the link for more information. . Clinton won the election, gaining 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes. Incumbent Bush won 38% of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes. Although independent candidate H. Ross Perot Perot, H. Ross (Henry Ross Perot), 1930–, American business executive and political leader, b. Texarkana, Tex., grad. Annapolis, 1953. In 1957 he resigned his commission and became a salesman for IBM. ..... Click the link for more information. did not win a single electoral vote, he made a strong showing with 19% of the popular vote, after a populist campaign in which he vowed to eliminate the $3.5 trillion federal deficit. Clinton, generally considered a political moderate, was particularly successful in appealing to voters (especially in the Midwest and West) who had previously abandoned the Democratic party to vote for Reagan. Bush, for his part, was unable to convince voters that he could transform his success in international affairs into domestic recovery. One of his last actions as president was to send (Dec., 1992) U.S. troops to Somalia as part of a multinational peacekeeping force administering famine relief. The economy gradually improved during Clinton's first year in office, and this, along with a tax increase and spending cuts, caused some easing of the budget deficit. The North American Free Trade Agreement North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), accord establishing a free-trade zone in North America; it was signed in 1992 by Canada, Mexico, and the United States and took effect on Jan. 1, 1994. ..... Click the link for more information. , signed by the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 1992 and designed to make its participants more competitive in the world marketplace, was ratified in 1993 and took effect Jan. 1, 1994. During his first two years in office, Clinton withdrew U.S. troops from Somalia after they had suffered casualties in an ill-defined mission; he also sent troops to Haiti to help in reestablishing democratic rule there. The president proposed a major overhaul of the way American health care is financed, but it died in Congress. Clinton's problems with Congress were exacerbated in 1994 after the Republicans won control of both the Senate and the House and attempted, largely unsuccessfully, to enact a strongly conservative legislative program, dubbed the "Contract with America." There were prolonged stalemates as the president and Congress clashed over the federal budget; in Apr., 1996, a fiscal 1995 budget was agreed upon after seven months of stopgap spending measures and temporary government shutdowns. In Apr., 1995, in the worst act of terrorism ever on American soil, a bomb was exploded at the federal building in Oklahoma City, Okla., killing 169 people. Late in 1995, the antagonists in the Yugoslavian civil war (see Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina , Serbo-Croatian Bosna i Hercegovina, country (2013 pop. 3,791,622), 19,741 sq mi (51,129 sq km), on the Balkan peninsula, S Europe. It is bounded by Croatia on the west and north, Serbia on the northeast, and Montenegro on the southeast. ..... Click the link for more information. ; Croatia Croatia , Croatian Hrvatska, officially Republic of Croatia, republic (2011 pop. 4,284,889), 21,824 sq mi (56,524 sq km), in the northwest corner of the Balkan Peninsula. ..... Click the link for more information. ) accepted a U.S.-brokered peace plan, which U.S. troops were sent to help monitor. U.S. efforts also contributed to Arab-Israeli acceptance of agreements to establish limited Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza. By 1996, President Clinton had improved his standing in the polls by confronting House Republicans over the federal budget, and he subsequently adopted a number of Republican proposals, such as welfare reform, as his own, while opposing the more conservative aspects of those proposals. Clinton won his party's renomination unopposed and then handily defeated Republican Bob Dole Dole, Bob (Robert Joseph Dole), 1923–, American political leader, b. Russell, Kan.; husband of Elizabeth Hanford Dole. While serving in World War II, he was seriously wounded and required several years of convalescence. After obtaining his law degree from Washburn Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. and Reform party candidate Ross Perot Perot, H. Ross (Henry Ross Perot), 1930–, American business executive and political leader, b. Texarkana, Tex., grad. Annapolis, 1953. In 1957 he resigned his commission and became a salesman for IBM. ..... Click the link for more information. in the November election. As his second term began, Clinton's foes in and out of Congress pursued investigation of Whitewater Whitewater, popular name for a failed 1970s Arkansas real estate venture by the Whitewater Development Corp., in which Governor (later President) Bill Clinton and his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, were partners; the name is also used for the political ramifications of this ..... Click the link for more information. and other alleged improprieties or abuses by the president. By late 1997 independent prosecutor Kenneth Starr Starr, Kenneth Winston, 1946–, American public official, b. Vernon, Tex., grad. George Washington Univ. (B.A., 1968), Brown (M.A., 1969), Duke (J.D., 1973). After clerking for Chief Justice Warren Burger and working in the Justice Dept. ..... Click the link for more information. had been given information that led to the Lewinsky scandal Lewinsky scandal , sensation that enveloped the presidency of Bill Clinton in 1998–99, leading to his impeachment by the U.S. House of Representatives and acquittal by the Senate. ..... Click the link for more information. , which burst on the national scene in early 1998. Battle lines formed and remained firm through Clinton's impeachment impeachment, in Great Britain and United States, formal accusation issued by a legislature against a public official charged with crime or other serious misconduct. In a looser sense the term is sometimes applied also to the trial by the legislature that may follow. ..... Click the link for more information. (Oct., 1998), trial (Jan., 1999), and acquittal (Feb., 1999), with a core of conservative Republicans on one side and almost all Democrats on the other. The American people seemed to regard the impeachment as largely partisan in intent. Lying behind their attitude, however, was probably the sustained economic boom, a period of record stock-market levels, relatively low unemployment, the reduction of the federal debt, and other signs of well-being (although critics noted that the disparity between America's rich and poor was now greater than ever). This, combined with the afterglow of "victory" in the cold war, continued through the end of the 1990s. In foreign affairs, the United States (as the only true superpower) enjoyed unprecendented international influence in the late 1990s, and in some areas it was able to use this influence to accomplish much. There was steady, if sometimes fitful, progress toward peace in the Middle East, and George Mitchell, a U.S. envoy, brokered what many hoped was a lasting peace in Northern Ireland. On the other hand, America had little influence on Russian policy in Chechnya Chechnya or Chechen Republic , republic (1990 est. pop. 1,300,000, with neighboring Ingushetia), c.6,100 sq mi (15,800 sq km), SE European Russia, in the N Caucasus. Grozny is the capital. Prior to 1992 Chechnya and Ingushetia comprised the Checheno-Ingush Republic. ..... Click the link for more information. , and it remained locked in a contest of wills with Iraq's President Saddam Hussein nine years after the end of the Persian Gulf War. The reluctance of the Congress to pay the country's UN dues nearly led to the embarrassment of the loss of the American General Assembly vote in 1999 even as Secretary-General Kofi Annan expressed a desire for greater American involvement in the organization. Meanwhile, in Kosovo Kosovo , Albanian Kosova, Serbian Kosovo i Metohija and Kosmet, officially Republic of Kosovo, republic (2011 est. pop. 1,826,000), 4,126 sq mi (10,686 sq km), SE Europe, a former province of Serbia that unilaterally declared its independence in 2008. ..... Click the link for more information. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, led by the United States, was unable to prevent a Yugoslav campaign against Kosovar Albanians but ultimately forced the former Yugoslavia to cede contral of the province; U.S. and other troops were sent into Kosovo as peacekeepers. That conflict showed that the United States was again reluctant to commit military forces, such as its army, that were likely to suffer significant casualties, although it would use its airpower, where its great technological advantages enabled it strike with less risk to its forces. Negotiations in the Middle East, which continued in 2000, broke down, and there was renewed violence in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank late in the year. The Clinton administration worked to restart the negotiations, but the issues proved difficult to resolve. In the United States, the NASDAQ Internet and technology stock bubble, which had begun its rise in 1999, completely deflated in the second half of 2000, as the so-called new economy associated with the Internet proved to be subject to the rules of the old economy. Signs of a contracting economy also appeared by year's end. The George W. Bush Presidency, 9/11, and Iraq The 2000 presidential election, in which the American public generally appeared uninspired by the either major-party candidate (Vice President Al Gore Gore, Albert Arnold, Jr., 1948–, Vice President of the United States (1993–2001), b. Washington, D.C., grad. Harvard, 1969. After serving in the army in Vietnam and working as a reporter, he was elected (1976) to the U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. and the Republican governor of Texas, George W. Bush Bush, George Walker, 1946–, 43d President of the United States (2001–9), b. New Haven, Conn. The eldest son of President George H. W. Bush, he was was raised in Texas and, like his father, attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Mass., and Yale, graduating in 1968. ..... Click the link for more information. ) ended amid confusion and contention not seen since the Hayes-Tilden election in 1876. On election night, the television networks called and then retracted the winner of Florida twice, first projecting Gore the winner there, then projecting Bush the winner there and in the race at large. The issue of who would win Florida and its electoral votes became the issue of who would win the presidency, and the determination of the election dragged on for weeks as Florida's votes were recounted. Gore, who trailed by several hundred votes (out of 6 million) in Florida but led by a few hundred thousand nationally, sought a manual recount of strongly Democratic counties in Florida, and the issue ended up being fought in the courts and in the media. Ultimately the U.S. Supreme Court called a halt to the process, although its split decision along ideological lines was regarded by many as tarnishing the court. Florida's electoral votes, as certified by the state's Republican officials, were won by Bush, who secured a total of 271 electoral votes (one more than needed) and 48% of the popular vote (Gore had 49% of the popular vote). Bush thus became the first person since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 to win the presidency without achieving a plurality in the popular vote. The slowing economy entered a recession in Mar., 2001, and unemployment rose, leading to continued interest rate reductions by the Federal Reserve Board. The Bush administration moved quickly to win Congressional approval of its tax-cut program, providing it with an early legislative victory, but other proposed legislation moved more slowly. The resignation of Senator Jeffords of Vermont from the Republican party cost it control of the Senate, a setback due in part to administration pressure on him to adhere to the party line. Internationally, the United States experienced some friction with its allies, who were unhappy with the Bush administration's desire to abandon both the Kyoto Protocol (designed to fight global warming global warming, the gradual increase of the temperature of the earth's lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in greenhouse gases since the Industrial Revolution. Global warming and its effects, such as more intense summer and winter storms, are also referred to as climate ..... Click the link for more information. ) and the Antiballistic Missile Treaty (in order to proceed with developing a ballistic missile defense system). Relations with China were briefly tense in Apr., 2001, after a Chinese fighter and U.S. surveillance plane collided in mid-air, killing the Chinese pilot. The politics and concerns of the first eight months of 2001 abruptly became secondary on Sept. 11, when terrorists hijacked four planes, crashing two into the World Trade Center World Trade Center, former building complex in lower Manhattan, New York City, consisting of seven buildings and a shopping concourse on a 16-acre (6.5-hectare) site; it was destroyed by a terrorist attack on Sept. 11, 2001. ..... Click the link for more information. , which was destroyed, and one into the Pentagon Pentagon, the, building accommodating the U.S. Dept. of Defense. Located in Arlington, Va., across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C., the Pentagon is a vast five-sided building designed by Los Angeles architect G. Edwin Bergstrom. ..... Click the link for more information. ; the fourth crashed near Shanksville Shanksville, borough (1990 pop. 235), in Somerset co., SW Pa., on the Stonycreek River, which is spanned by an 1881 covered bridge. Shanksville is situated in an agricultural area where corn, oats, and livestock are raised; there also are dairy farms and windpower facilities. ..... Click the link for more information. , Pa. Some 3,000 persons were killed or missing as a result of the attacks. Insisting that no distinction would be made between terrorists and those who harbored them, Bush demanded that Afghanistan's Taliban Taliban or Taleban , Islamic fundamentalist militia of Afghanistan and later Pakistan, originally consisting mainly of Sunni Pashtun religious students from Afghanistan who were educated and trained in Pakistan. ..... Click the link for more information. government turn over Osama bin Laden bin Laden, Osama or Usama , 1957?–2011, Saudi-born leader of Al Qaeda, a terrorist organization devoted to uniting all Muslims and establishing a transnational, strict-fundamentalist Islamic state. ..... Click the link for more information. , a Saudi-born Islamic militant whose Al Qaeda Al Qaeda or Al Qaida [Arab.,=the base], Sunni Islamic terrorist organization with the stated goals of uniting all Muslims and establishing a transnational, strict-fundamentalist Islamic state. ..... Click the link for more information. group was behind the attacks. The U.S. government sought to build an international coalition against Al Qaeda and the Taliban and, more broadly, against terrorism, working to influence other nations to cut off sources of financial support for terrorists. In October, air strikes and then ground raids were launched against Afghanistan by the United States, with British aid. Oman, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan permitted the use of their airspace and of bases within their borders for various operations. The United States also provided support for opposition forces in Afghanistan, and by December the Taliban government had been ousted and its and Al Qaeda's fighters largely had been routed. Bin Laden, however, remained uncaptured, and a force of U.S. troops was based in Afghanistan to search for him and to help with mopping-up operations. The terrorist attacks stunned Americans and amplified the effects of the recession in the fall. Events had a severe impact on the travel industry, particularly the airlines, whose flights were temporarily halted; the airlines subsequently suffered a significant decrease in passengers. Congress passed several bills designed to counter the economic effects of the attacks, including a $15 billion aid and loan package for the airline industry. A new crisis developed in October, when cases of anthrax anthrax , acute infectious disease of animals that can be secondarily transmitted to humans. It is caused by a bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) that primarily affects sheep, horses, hogs, cattle, and goats and is almost always fatal in animals. ..... Click the link for more information. and anthrax exposure resulted from spores that had been mailed to media and government offices in bioterror attacks. Although consumer spending and the stock market rebounded by the end of the year from their low levels after September 11, unemployment reached 5.8% in Dec., 2001. Nonetheless, the economy was recovering, albeit slowly, aided in part by increased federal spending. In early 2002 the Bush administration announced plans for a significant military buildup; that and the 2001 tax cuts were expected to result in budget deficits in 2002–4. Prompted by a number of prominent corporate scandals involving fraudulent or questionable accounting practices, some of which led to corporate bankruptcies, Congress passed legislation that overhauled securities and corporate laws in July, 2002. The fighting in Afghanistan continued, with U.S. forces there devoted mainly to mopping up remnants of Taliban and Al Qaeda forces. U.S. troops were also based in Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan to provide support for the forces in Afghanistan. In the Philippines, U.S. troops provided support and assistance to Philippine forces fighting guerrillas in the Sulu Archipelago that had been linked to Al Qaeda, and they also trained Georgian and Yemeni forces as part of the war on terrorism. During 2002 the Bush administration became increasingly concerned by the alleged Iraqi development and possession of weapons of mass destruction, and was more forceful in its denunciations of Iraq for resisting UN arms inspections. In March, Arab nations publicly opposed possible U.S. military operations against Iraq, but U.S. officials continued to call for the removal of Saddam Hussein. President Bush called on the United Nations to act forcefully against Iraq or risk becoming "irrelevant." In November the Security Council passed a resolution offering Iraq a "final opportunity" to cooperate on arms inspections, this time under strict guidelines, and inspections resumed late in the month, although not with full Iraqi cooperation. Meanwhile, the U.S. Congress voted to authorize the use of the military force against Iraq, and the United States continued to build up its forces in the Middle East. The November election resulted in unexpected, if small, gains for the Republicans, giving them control of both houses of Congress. After the election, Congress voted to establish a new Department of Homeland Security Homeland Security, United States Department of (DHS), executive department of the federal government charged with protecting the security of the American homeland as its main responsibility. ..... Click the link for more information. , effective Mar., 2003. The department regrouped most of the disparate agencies responsible for domestic security under one cabinet-level official; the resulting government reorganization was the largest since the Department of Defense was created in the late 1940s. Dec., 2002, saw the negotiation of a free-trade agreement with Chile (signed in June, 2003), regarded by many as the first step in the expansion of NAFTA to include all the countries of the Americas. President Bush ordered the deployment of a ballistic missile defense system, to be effective in 2004; the system would be designed to prevent so-called rogue missile attacks. In advance of this move the United States had withdrawn from the Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty with Russia in June. North Korea, often described as one of the nations most likely to launch a rogue attack, had admitted in October that it had a program for developing nuclear weapons, and the United States and other nations responded by ending fuel shipments and reducing food aid. In the subsequent weeks North Korea engaged in a series of well-publicized moves to enable it to resume the development of nuclear weapons, including withdrawing from the nuclear nonproliferation treaty. The United States, which had first responded by refusing to negotiate in any way with North Korea, adopted a somewhat less confrontational approach in 2003. President Bush continued to press for Iraqi disarmament in 2003, and expressed impatience with what his administration regarded as the lack of Iraqi compliance. In Feb, 2003, however, the nation's attention was pulled away from the growing tension over Iraq by the breakup of the space shuttle Columbia as it returned to earth. Seven astronauts were killed in this second shuttle mishap, and focus was once again directed toward the issues of the safety of the space shuttle and the dynamics of the decision-making process at NASA. Despite vocal opposition to military action from many nations, including sometimes rancorous objections from France, Germany, and Russia, the United States and Great Britain pressed forward in early 2003 with military preparations in areas near Iraq. Although Turkey, which the allies hoped to use as a base for opening a northern front in Iraq, refused to allow use of its territory as a staging area, the bulk of the forces were nonetheless in place by March. After failing to win the explicit UN Security Council approval desired by Britain (because the British public were otherwise largely opposed to war), President Bush issued an ultimatum to Iraqi president Saddam Hussein on March 17th, and two days later the war began with an air strike against Hussein and the Iraqi leadership. Ground forces invaded the following day, and by mid-April the allies were largely in control of the major Iraqi cities and had turned their attention to the rebuilding of Iraq and the establishment of a new Iraqi government. No weapons of mass destruction, however, were found by allied forces during the months after the war, and sporadic guerrilla attacks on the occupying forces occurred during the same time period, mainly in Sunni-dominated central Iraq. The cost of the military campaign as well as of the ongoing U.S. occupation in Iraq substantially increased what already had been expected to be a record-breaking U.S. deficit in 2003 to around $374 billion. The size of the deficit, the unknown ultimate cost of the war, and the continued weak U.S. economy (the unemployment rate rose to 6.4% in June despite some improvement in other areas) were important factors that led to the scaling back of a tax cut, proposed by President Bush, by more than half to $350 billion. In Aug., 2003, a massive electrical blackout affected the NE United States. Much of New York and portions of Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and neighboring Ontario, Canada, lost power, in many cases for a couple days. The widespread failure appeared to be due in part to strains placed on the transmission system, its safeguards, and its operators by the increased interconnectedness of electrical generation and transmission facilities and the longer-distance transmission of electricity. An investigation into the event, however, laid the primary blame on the Ohio utility where it began, both for inadequate system maintenance and for failing to take preventive measures when the crisis began. The economy improved in the latter half of the 2003. Although the unemployment rate inched below 6% and job growth was modest, overall economic growth was robust, particularly in the last quarter. A major Medicare overhaul was enacted and signed in December, creating a prescription drug benefit for the first time. The same month the Central American Free Trade Agreement was finalized by the United States, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, and in early 2004, Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic agreed to become parties to the accord. The United States also reached free-trade agreements with Australia and Morocco. U.S. weapons inspectors reported in Jan., 2004, that they had failed to find any evidence that Iraq had possessed biological or chemical weapons stockpiles prior to the U.S. invasion. The assertion that such stockpiles existed was a primary justification for the invasion, and the report led to pressure for an investigation of U.S. intelligence prior to the war. In February, President Bush appointed a bipartisan commission to review both U.S. intelligence failures in Iraq and other issues relating to foreign intelligence; the commission's 2005 report criticized intelligence agencies for failing to challenge the conventional wisdom about Iraq's weapon systems, and called for changes in how U.S. intelligence gathering is organized and managed. The Senate's intelligence committee, reviewing the situation separately, concluded in its 2004 report that much of the CIA's information on and assessment of Iraq prior to the war was faulty. Also in February, U.S., French, and Canadian forces were sent into Haiti to preserve order. Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide had resigned under U.S.-French pressure after rebel forces had swept through most of the country and threatened to enter the capital. U.S. forces withdrew from Haiti in June when Brazil assumed command of a UN peacekeeping force there. By March, John Kerry Kerry, John Forbes, 1943–, U.S. politician, b. Denver, grad. Yale, 1966, Boston College law school, 1976. A decorated navy veteran who served two tours in Vietnam after graduating from Yale, Kerry won national notice as an outspoken opponent of the war when he returned ..... Click the link for more information. had all but secured the Democrat nomination for president. With both major party nominees clear, the focus of the political campaigns quickly shifted to the November election. Both Bush and Kerry had elected not to accept government funding, enabling them each to raise record amounts of campaign funding, and the post-primary advertising campaign began early. In July, Kerry chose North Carolina senator John Edwards Edwards, John Reid (Johnny Reid Edwards), 1953–, U.S. politician, b. Seneca, S.C., grad. North Carolina State Univ. (B.A., 1974), Univ. of North Carolina (J.D., 1977). ..... Click the link for more information. , who had opposed him in the primaries, as his running mate. U.S. forces engaged in intense fighting in Iraq in Apr., 2004, as they attempted to remove Sunni insurgents from the town of Falluja. The battling there was the fiercest since the end of the invasion, and ultimately U.S. forces broke off without clearing the fighters from the city, a goal that was not achieved until after similar fighting in November. Guerrilla attacks by Sunni insurgents continued throughout the year. Also in April a radical cleric attempted to spark a Shiite uprising, and there was unrest and fighting in a number of other Iraqi cities. By mid-April the Shiite militia was in control only in the region around An Najaf, but the militia did not abandon its hold there until after intense battling in August. At the end of June, Paul Bremer, the head of the U.S.-led Coalition Provisional Authority, turned over sovereignty to an Iraqi interim government. Nonetheless, the unrest called into question the degree to which Iraq had been pacified, and the 160,000 U.S.-led troops still in Iraq were, for the time being, the true guarantor of Iraqi security. Meanwhile, the prestige of the U.S. military had been damaged by revelations, in May, that it had abused Iraqis held in the Abu Ghraib prison during 2003–4. In July, 2004, the U.S. commission investigating the terror attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, criticized especially U.S. intelligence agencies for failings that contributed to the success of the attacks, and called for a major reorganization of those agencies, leading to the passage of legislation late in the year. In the following months the country's focus turned largely toward the November presidential election, as the campaigns of President Bush and Senator Kerry and their surrogates escalated their often sharp political attacks. In a country divided over the threat of terrorism and the war in Iraq, over the state of the economy and the state of the nation's values, election spending reached a new peak despite recent campaign financing limitations, and fueled a divisive and sometimes bitter mood. Ultimately, the president appeared to benefit from a slowly recovering economy and the desire of many voters for continuity in leadership while the nation was at war. Amid greatly increased voter turnout, Bush secured a clear majority of the popular vote, in sharp contrast to the 2000 election that first made him president. Republicans also increased their margins of control in both houses of Congress, largely through victories in the more conservative South. The very active 2005 hurricane season saw several significant storms make landfall on the U.S. coast. In August, Hurricane Katrina devastated the Mississippi and SE Louisiana coasts, flooded much of New Orleans for several weeks, and caused extensive destruction inland in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, making it the most expensive natural disaster in U.S. history. The following month, Hurricane Rita caused devastation along the SW Louisiana coast and widespread destruction in inland Louisiana and SE Texas. Katrina displaced many Louisiana residents, some permanently, to other parts of the state and other states, particularly Texas. Some 200,000 persons were left at least temporarily unemployed, reversing job gains that had been made in the preceding months. The storm had a noticeable effect on the economy, driving up the already higher prices of gasoline, heating oil, and natural gas (as a result of well and refinery damage) to levels not seen before, and causing inflation to rise and industrial output to drop by amounts not seen in more than two decades. The striking ineffectiveness of federal, state, and local government in responding to Hurricane Katrina, particularly in flooded New Orleans but also in other areas affected by the storm, raised questions about the ability of the country to respond to major disasters of any kind. President Bush—and state and local officials—were criticized for responding, at least initially, inadequately to Katrina, but the Federal Emergency Management Agency in particular seemed overwhelmed by the disaster's scale and incapable of managing the federal response in subsequent weeks. Many Americans wondered if the lessons of the events of Sept. 11, 2001, and the changes in the federal government that followed had resulted in real improvements or if those very changes and their emphasis on terror attacks had hindered the ability of the United States to respond to natural disasters. The perceived failings in the federal response to Katrina seemed to catalyze public dissatisfaction with President Bush, as Americans became increasingly unsettled by the ongoing war in Iraq, the state of the U.S. economy, and other issues less than a year after Bush had been solidly reelected. Congress, meanwhile, passed a $52 billion emergency spending bill to deal with the effects of Katrina, but did not make any significant spending cuts or reductions in tax cuts to compensate for the additional outlays until Feb., 2006, when Congress passed a bill cutting almost $40 billion from a variety of government benefit programs, including Medicare, Medicaid, and student loans. Internationally and domestically, the United States government was the subject of condemnation from some quarters for aspects of its conduct of the "war on terror" in the second half of 2005. In Aug., 2005, Amnesty International (AI) denounced the United States for maintaining secret, underground CIA prisons abroad. Subsequent news reporting indicated that there were prisons in eight nations in E Europe and Asia, and in December the United States acknowledged that the International Committee of the Red Cross had not been given access to all its detention facilities. (A year after the AI report the U.S. for the first time acknowledged that the CIA had maintained a group of secret prisons.) A Swiss investigator for the Council of Europe indicated (Dec., 2005) that reports that European nations and the United States had been involved in the abduction and extrajudicial transfer of individuals to other nations were credible, and he accused (Jan., 2006) the nations of "outsourcing" torture. In Jan., 2006, the New York–based Human Rights Watch accused the U.S. government of a deliberate policy of mistreating terror suspects. The U.S. policy toward terror suspects was subsequently denounced in 2006 by the UN Human Rights Council, the UN Committee on Torture, and the European Parliament. In Dec., 2005, the National Security Agency was revealed to be wiretapping some international communications originating in the United States without obtaining the legally required warrants. The practice had begun in 2002, at the president's order. The administration justified it by asserting that the president's powers to defend the United States under the Constitution were not subject to Congressional legislation and that the legislation authorizing the president to respond to the Sept., 2001, terror attacks implicitly also authorized the wiretapping. Many politicians, former government officials, and legal scholars, however, criticized the practice as illegal or unconstitutional. The revelations and assertions did not derail the renewal of most nonpermanent parts of the USA PATRIOT Act, a sometimes criticized national security law originally enacted in 2001 after the Sept. 11th attacks; with only minor adjustments most of the law was made permanent in Mar., 2006. President Bush subsequently agreed (July, 2006) to congressional legislation that would authorize the administration's domestic eavesdropping program while placing a few limitations on it, but House and Senate Republicans disagreed over aspects of the proposed law, and it was not passed before the November elections. Meanwhile, in August, a federal judge declared the program illegal, a decision that the Justice Dept. appealed. In Jan., 2007, however, the Bush administration indicated the eavesdropping program would be overseen by the secret federal court responsible for issuing warrants for foreign intelligence surveillance. The administation's position on the president's powers had been implicitly criticized by the Supreme Court when it ruled in June, 2006, that military commissions that had not been authorized by Congress could not be used to try the foreign terror suspects held at Guantánamo Bay. The Court also ruled that the Geneva Conventions applied to the suspects, who had been taken prisoner in Afghanistan; that ruling was a defeat for the administration, which had also come under increasing foreign government criticism for holding the suspects without trying them. As a result of the ruling, the Bush administration won the passage (Sept., 2006) of legislation that established special military tribunals to try foreign terror suspects, such as those held at Guantánamo, but the law was criticized by human rights advocates and others for stripping suspects of habeas corpus habeas corpus [Lat.,=you should have the body], writ directed by a judge to some person who is detaining another, commanding him to bring the body of the person in his custody at a specified time to a specified place for a specified purpose. ..... Click the link for more information. and other rights long enshrined as part of American law. Illegal immigration also became a contentious political topic in 2006. While the House of Representatives, dominated by conservative Republicans, sought to require greater government efforts to restrict illegal immigration and greater penalities for illegally entering the United States, the Bush administration and the Senate emphasized developing a guest-worker program and allowing some long-term illegal immigrants the opportunity to become citizens as well as increasing border security. The differences between the houses of Congresses stalled legislative action on illegal immigration while maintaining it as a political issue as the 2006 congressional elections approached; ultimately the only legislation passed on the issue was a Oct., 2006, law that called for adding 700 mi (1,100 km) of fencing along the U.S.-Mexico border. A new attempt at passing an immigration overhaul in 2007 died in Congress in June. In the 2006 congressional elections the Republicans suffered significant reversals, losing control of both the Senate and the House, although the some of the seats lost in the Senate were the result of very narrow Democratic wins. Congressional corruption and sex scandals during 2006 appeared to loom large with many voters, as did the ongoing lack of significant progress in the fighting in Iraq. The president had hoped to benefit from improvement in the economy—the national unemployment rate had gradually dropped during 2005–6 and high oil prices earlier in the year had fallen—but some polls indicated the economy was a significant issue mainly in areas where voters felt that they had not benefited from the broad national trends. Iraq, where 3,000 U.S. military personnel had died by the end of 2006, remained the nation's focus into early 2007. The congressionally commissioned Iraq Study Group, headed by James Baker Baker, James Addison, 3d, 1930–, U.S. political leader, b. Houston, Tex. After graduating from Princeton, he served in the U.S. Marines and earned a law degree from the Univ. of Texas. ..... Click the link for more information. and including prominent Republicans and Democrats, recommended a number of changes in U.S. efforts relating to Iraq, including greatly diminishing the role of U.S. combat forces and replacing them with Iraqi troops, making diplomatic overtures to Syria and Iran to gain their support for a resolution of the fighting in Iraq, and attempting to bring peace to Iraq as part of a broader Middle East peace initiative. Military aspects of the plan were received with skepticism by U.S. military experts, but the president ultimately choose to increase U.S. forces in Iraq temporarily, beginning in Jan., 2007, an attempt to control sectarian strife and increase security, principally in Baghdad. The president's decision was not well received in Congress, both by the newly empowered Democrats and some Republicans, but congressional opponents of the course pursued by the administration in Iraq lacked both the numbers and the unanimity necessary to confront the president effectively, as was demonstrated when a war funding bill was passed (May, 2007) without any binding troop withdrawal deadlines. By the mid-2008, when the "surge" in U.S. forces in Iraq had ended, it, along with a change in counterinsurgency tactics and other factors, appeared to have been successful in reducing violence and helping to establish control over some parts of Iraq. The second half of 2007 saw the economy become a significant concern as problematic mortgage lending involving adjustable rate mortgages and, often, borrowers of marginal creditworthiness roiled U.S. and international financial markets and companies as a result of the securitization of mortgages, which both had hidden the risk involved in such mortgages and distributed that risk among many financial companies and investors. Concerns over creditworthiness issues led to a contraction in mortgage lending and housing construction and also led to some difficulties in commercial lendings. By the end of 2007, it was clear that a housing bubble that had contributed significantly to economic growth since 2001 had burst, and many banks and financial firms suffered significant losses as a result. That, dramatic increases in crude oil prices, and other worsening economic conditions contributed to the beginning of a recession by year's end. In early 2008 the economic slowdown led to job losses and increased unemployment, while credit uncertainties contributed to the near-collapse of a major Wall Street investment firm; mortgage deliquencies also rose. The deteriorating economy led to the passage of a federal economic stimulus package, government measures designed to increase the availability of federally insured mortgages, lower interest rates, and moves by the Federal Reserve Board to assure the availability of credit and shore up the financial markets. In July, 2008, the president also signed a housing bill designed to help shore up the U.S. corporations that guarantee most American mortgages and also to provide mortgage relief to some homeowners, but ongoing problems with mortgage defaults led to increasing losses at those corporations and resulted in a government takeover of the institutions in September. The deterioration of financial and economic conditions in the country and the world accelerated in mid-September, forcing the government and the Federal Reserve to intervene still more actively. The government also took over insurance giant AIG, whose financial health been undermined by credit default swaps it had sold (credit default swaps are contracts that pay, in return for a fee, compensation if a bond, loan, or the like goes into default). The nation also experienced its largest bank failure ever as the FDIC took over and sold Washington Mutual. By the end of the month the four remaining major Wall Street investment banks had disappeared through bankruptcy, merger, or conversion to bank holding companies, and banks had become unusually reluctant to lend. The economic crisis, which was the most severe since the early 1980s, also became increasingly international in scope, with particularly dramatic consequences in such diverse nations as Iceland, Russia, and Argentina. Congress passed a $700 billion financial institution rescue package in early October, giving the Treasury secretary broad leeway in using government funds to restore financial stability, but the unsettling economic situation led stock prices to erode daily in early October, compounding the nation's financial difficulties and anxieties. The government subsequently moved to recapitalize the banking system in an attempt to restart lending, and the Federal Reserve began buying commercial paper (short-term debt with which companies finance their day-to-day operations), becoming the lender of last resort not just for the banking system but the economy at large. The Federal Reserve also eventually lowered its federal funds interest rate target to below .25%; it did not raise the rate to .5% until Dec., 2015. The effects of housing price drops, mortgage difficulties, the credit crunch, and other problems meanwhile slowed consumer spending, which contributed to a decrease in the GDP in the third and fourth quarters of 2008. By October unemployment had increased to 6.5% (and rose to 7.2% by the end of the year), and the economy had become a major factor in the presidential election campaign. Democrat Barack Obama Obama, Barack (Barack Hussein Obama 2d), , 1961–, 44th president of the United States (2009–), b. Honolulu, grad. Columbia (B.A. 1983), Harvard Law School (J.D. 1991). ..... Click the link for more information. handily defeated Republican John McCain McCain, John Sidney, 3d, 1936–, U.S. politician, b. Panama Canal Zone. A much decorated navy veteran, he was born into a career naval family and attended the U.S. Naval Academy, graduating in 1958. ..... Click the link for more information. in Nov., 2008, to become the first African American to be elected to the presidency, and Democrats also increased their majorities in the U.S. Congress. Although the inauguration of President Obama in Jan., 2009, was acknowledged by most Americans as a historic watershed, the economic difficulties and international conflicts confronting the United States were sobering and had all but forced Obama to name his cabinet and highest advisers as quickly as possible once he became president-elect. The economy continued in recession in 2009, with unemployment reaching 9.8% in September. The Obama administration continued and expanded the previous administration's antirecessionary measures, winning passage of a $787 billion stimulus package and offering aid especially to the U.S. financial industry; the automobile industry, with Chrysler and General Motors forced into bankruptcy and reorganized by July, 2009; and (to a more limited extent) to homeowners. Those and other measures were expected to result in a series of budget deficits that, as a percentage of GDP, were the largest since World War II. By mid-2010 congressional anxiety about voter reaction to the deficit made it difficult to pass additional jobs measures. In October, when the administration announced the 2009 deficit was $1.4 trillion (roughly triple that of the year before), it appeared clear that a depression had been avoided, and subsequently there were signs of a likely end to the recession, with the economy reported to have expanded moderately in the third quarter and significantly in the last quarter of 2009. Housing, however, remained in the doldrums at best at year's end and into 2010, and the unemployment rate increased to 10% in the last months of 2009 and diminished only a little by mid-2010. Also in 2009, Obama announced that U.S. forces in Afghanistan would increase in 2010 by 30,000 combat and training troops in an escalation designed to counteract Taliban gains. In Mar., 2010, the Obama administration secured passage of health insurance legislation that was intended to increase the number of Americans covered by such insurance. The most significant piece of social welfare legislation since the 1960s, it called for a combination of expanding Medicaid, providing subsidies to low- and middle-income families, and tax increases on high-income families in addition to other measures to achieve that goal. Passage of the legislation proved the most difficult and divisive achievement of Obama's presidency to date, with Republicans in Congress strongly opposed and many conservatives participating in public protests against it. The law was challenged in the courts, but largely upheld (2012) by the U.S. Supreme Court. Russia and the United States signed the New START treaty in Apr., 2010. Replacing the START I nuclear disarmament treaty that had expired at the end of 2009, it established lower levels for deployed nuclear warheads. In August, U.S. combat operations in Iraq officially ended. In July, 2010, Congress enacted legislation overhauling the U.S. financial regulatory system; the law gave expanded tools to regulators to respond to crises similar to the those that occurred in 2008 and also provided for increased consumer protections. The second half of the year saw the Federal Reserve Board resume its measures to stimulate the economy, which remained in a lackluster recovery with persistent high unemployment, a situation that did not show much improvement until the end of 2011. Those economic conditions coupled with an invigorated conservative movement that at times was unhappy even with conservative Republicans contributed to a Republican resurgence in the 2010 midterm elections. The party won control of the U.S. House of Representatives and also made gains in the U.S. Senate and many statehouses. Obama nonetheless won passage of additional legislation, with varying degrees of Republican support, in the post-election lame-duck session of Congress. In Jan., 2011, a Democratic congresswoman, Gabrielle Giffords, and 13 others were injured and 6 persons killed in a shooting in Tucson, Ariz. Although the attack on Giffords and those at her constituent event did not appear politically motivated, it focused attention on the rancor that had marked the election year of 2010 and, for a time at least, subdued the political rhetoric and the nation's mood. Weeks later, however, partisan disagreements over cutting the budget threatened to stall the budget's passage and force a federal government shutdown, but that was avoided (Apr., 2011) with a last minute agreement on $38.5 billion in reductions. The normally routine approval of an increase in the national debt ceiling was delayed in mid-2011 by renewed partisan conflicts over the budget and debt; those conflicts subsequently affected bills concerned with disaster aid, jobs creation, and other issues into 2012. The last U.S. forces in Iraq were withdrawn in Dec., 2011, ending all U.S. military operations there. Economic conditions in general gradually improved beginning in 2011, but by the fall of 2012 unemployment had only returned to level it was at when Obama had been elected in 2008. In the summer of 2012 the country experienced the worst drought it had seen in roughly 50 years; some two thirds of the country was affected, and in some areas the drought continued into 2013. Despite the economic situation, Obama won reelection in Nov., 2012, defeating Mitt Romney Romney, Mitt (Willard Mitt Romney) , 1947–, American politician and business executive, b. Detroit, Mich., grad. Brigham Young Univ. (B.A., 1971), Harvard (M.B.A., 1975, J.D., 1975). Son of George W. Romney, he worked for Bain and Co. ..... Click the link for more information. , his Republican challenger. With some attrition, the voters who had elected Obama in 2008—women, racial minorities, Hispanics, and younger voters—voted for him again. Democrats also made modest gains in the Congress and in the state houses, but Republicans retained control of the House. In Dec., 2012, the country was horrified by the killings of 26 children and teachers at a Newtown, Conn., elementary school. The murders led President Obama to propose (Jan., 2013) an assault weapons ban and other gun-control measures, but passage of any measures in Congress proved impossible. In Mar., 2013, an across-the-board reduction in federal spending known as a sequester took effect under the debt ceiling legislation enacted in Aug., 2011; the failure to enact an alternative made the cuts automatic. The annual Boston Marathon, in April, was the target of a double bombing that killed three people and injured more than 260; it was the most serious terror attack against civilians in the United States since Sept., 2011. June, 2013, saw the beginning of a series of revelations concerning the massive telecommunications data collection efforts of the National Security Agency National Security Agency (NSA), an independent agency within the U.S. Dept. of Defense. Founded by presidential order in 1952, its primary functions are to collect and analyze communications intelligence information and data and to protect the security of U.S. ..... Click the link for more information. , based on documents collected by a former agency employeee, Edward Snowden Snowden, Edward Joseph, 1983–, American computer systems administrator and antigovernment activist, b. Elizabeth City, N.C. Snowden worked for the Central Intelligence Agency from 2007 and then (2009) for private contractors working for the National Security Agency. ..... Click the link for more information. . The details of the data collection (which in some cases was generally known prior to the revelations and in some cases occurred in cooperation with U.S. allies) caused international controversy and created public difficulties with some U.S. allies. The revelations ultimately led, in June, 2015, to passage of changes to the USA PATRIOT Act that placed some restrictions on the mass collection of telecommunications data. A chemical weapons attack in August that killed more than 1,400 in Damascus, Syria, was linked by Western governments to the Syrian government, and led to the threat of an attack from the United States, but it did not occur after President Obama decided to seek congressional approval first. Ultimately, however, the Syrian government agreed to the supervised destruction of its chemical weapons stockpile. In the fall of 2013, conservative Republicans in the House of Representatives insisted on a defunding or delay of the 2010 health insurance legislation, which was begin to come into effect in Oct., 2013, as a condition for the passage of a new budget, a condition Democrats refused to agree to. The resulting failure to enact budget legislation led to a partial federal government shutdown in the first half of October, but the health-care legislation took effect unimpeded. (There were difficulties in late 2013 with the implementation of the law, but the situation appeared to have improved markedly by Apr., 2014.) In late 2013, the budget impasse grew into a threat to once again deny an increase in the national debt ceiling, potentially resulting in a more severe curtailment of government operations and debt payments as well as international financial difficulties (because of the role played by the dollar as a reserve currency). The threatened crisis was averted, but the agreement to continue federal funding and suspend the debt ceiling was temporary (until early 2014). In Dec., 2013, however, Congress agreed to a two-year budget deal, and a new, year-long debt limit suspension passed uneventfully in Feb., 2014. The political crisis in Ukraine, which resulted in Feb., 2014, in the removal of President Yanukovych Yanukovych, Viktor Fedorovych , 1950–, Ukrainian politician, president of Ukraine (2010–14). The graduate of a mining college and a polytechnic institute (1980), he was a mechanical engineer and member of the Soviet Communist party, and became manager of a ..... Click the link for more information. , led to the worst tensions with Russia since the cold war after Russia occupied and annexed Ukraine's Crimea Crimea , Rus. and Ukr. Krym, peninsula and republic (1991 est. pop. 2,363,000), c.10,000 sq mi (25,900 sq km), SE Europe, linked with the mainland by the Perekop Isthmus. The peninsula is bounded on the S and W by the Black Sea. ..... Click the link for more information. region in March and then actively supported pro-Russian rebels in E Ukraine. In response to the annexation and Russian support for the rebels, the United States (and some other Western nations) imposed sanctions on Russia. In the second half of 2014 the United States also launched air strikes in Iraq and Syria aimed at thwarting the Islamic State Islamic State (IS), Sunni Islamic militant group committed to the establishment of an Islamic caliphate that would unite Muslims in a transnational, strict-fundamentalist Islamic state. ..... Click the link for more information. , Sunni Islamist militants who sought to create a a transnational Islamic fundamentalist regime. Late 2014 also saw an increase in racial tensions in the United States, sparked by a number of cases in which young black men were shot and killed by police officers, with the most notable incidents of protest and violence occurring in Ferguson, Mo., during August. A similar incident sparked rioting in Baltimore, Md., in Apr., 2015, and in June, 2015, the nation was stunned by the murder of African-American worshipers in Savannah, Ga., by a white supremacist. Two police shootings in July, 2016, in which black men died, sparked revenge killings of police officers that same month. Mass shootings in San Bernandino, Calif. (Dec., 2015), and Orlando, Fla. (June, 2016), were Islamist-inpsired; the latter, in which 50 died, was the worst in U.S. history. The Nov., 2014, elections resulted in gains for the Republican party, which won a majority in the U.S. Senate, retained control of the House, and made gains at the state level as well. Following the elections the Obama administration announced a change in immigration policy that would avoid deporting law-abiding illegal aliens who were long-term U.S. residents and also had children who were U.S. citizens; the policy change was subsequently challenged in the courts. It also reached an agreement with Cuba on restoring diplomatic relations and easing some travel and commerce restrictions (the embargo was unaffected, though Obama called for Congress to consider ending it). There were new tensions over the passage of a budget in Dec., 2014, but a government shutdown was avoided. In July, 2015, the United States signed multinational agreement with Iran that placed limits on its nuclear program in return for easing economic sanctions; Senate Democrats subsequently blocked Republican attempts to force a vote on the agreement. The agreement was implemented in Jan., 2016, and nuclear-related sanctions on Iran were lifted, but the same month the United States imposed new sanctions related to Iran's ballistic missile program as a result of a test launch that was said to violate UN Security Council resolutions. In Oct., 2015, the president announced that the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Afghanistan would be slowed, and that several thousand troops would remain there into 2017. Also in October, the United States and 11 other Pacifc Rim nations agreed to the Trans-Pacific Partnership, which would reduce or end trade tariffs on many goods; the agreement was formally signed in Feb., 2016. Related Articles There are a great number of articles on Americans of major importance, on the principal government agencies and departments, and on numerous topics of American history, e.g., Whiskey Rebellion Whiskey Rebellion, 1794, uprising in the Pennsylvania counties W of the Alleghenies, caused by Alexander Hamilton's excise tax of 1791. The settlers, mainly Scotch-Irish, for whom whiskey was an important economic commodity, resented the tax as discriminatory and detrimental to ..... Click the link for more information. , Ohio Company Ohio Company, organization formed (1747) to extend settlements of Virginia westward. The members were mostly Virginia planters interested in land speculation and the fur trade. ..... Click the link for more information. , Independent Treasury System Independent Treasury System, in U.S. history, system for the retaining of government funds in the Treasury and its subtreasuries independently of the national banking and financial systems. In one form or another, it existed from the 1840s to 1921. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Santa Fe Trail Santa Fe Trail, important caravan route of the W United States, extending c.780 mi (1,260 km) from Independence, Mo., SW to Santa Fe, N.Mex. Independence and Westport, Mo., were the chief points where wagons, teams, and supplies were obtained. ..... Click the link for more information. . There are also articles on more than 2,000 cities, towns, and villages in the United States. The state articles supply bibliographies for state history. Aspects of American culture are discussed under American architecture American architecture, the architecture produced in the geographical area that now constitutes the United States. Early History American architecture properly begins in the 17th cent. with the colonization of the North American continent. ..... Click the link for more information. , American art American art, the art of the North American colonies and of the United States. There are separate articles on American architecture, North American Native art, pre-Columbian art and architecture, Mexican art and architecture, Spanish colonial art and architecture, and Canadian ..... Click the link for more information. , American literature American literature, literature in English produced in what is now the United States of America. Colonial Literature American writing began with the work of English adventurers and colonists in the New World chiefly for the benefit of readers in the mother country. ..... Click the link for more information. , and jazz jazz, the most significant form of musical expression of African-American culture and arguably the most outstanding contribution the United States has made to the art of music. Origins of Jazz Jazz developed in the latter part of the 19th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. . Many general articles (e.g., slavery slavery, historicially, an institution based on a relationship of dominance and submission, whereby one person owns another and can exact from that person labor or other services. ..... Click the link for more information. ; diplomatic service diplomatic service, organized body of agents maintained by governments to communicate with one another. Origins Until the 15th cent. any formal communication or negotiation among nations was conducted either by means of ambassadors specially appointed for a ..... Click the link for more information. ) have useful material and bibliographies relating to the United States. Bibliography The writings on American history are voluminous. Useful bibliographies are F. Freidel and R. K. Showman, ed., Harvard Guide to American History (2 vol., rev. ed. 1974) and C. Fitzgerald, ed., American History: A Bibliographic Review (4 vol., 1986–89). Major Historians and Works Some of the classic works on American history are those of Henry Adams Adams, Henry, 1838–1918, American writer and historian, b. Boston; son of Charles Francis Adams (1807–86). He was secretary (1861–68) to his father, then U.S. minister to Great Britain. ..... Click the link for more information. , C. M. Andrews Andrews, Charles McLean, 1863–1943, American historian, b. Wethersfield, Conn. He was associate professor at Bryn Mawr (1889–1907) and professor at Johns Hopkins (1907–10) and Yale (1910–31). ..... Click the link for more information. , George Bancroft Bancroft, George, 1800–1891, American historian and public official, b. Worcester, Mass. He taught briefly at Harvard and then at the Round Hill School in Northampton, Mass., of which he was a founder and proprietor. He then turned definitively to writing. His article (Jan. ..... Click the link for more information. , Charles A. Beard Beard, Charles Austin, 1874–1948, American historian, b. near Knightstown, Ind. A year at Oxford as a graduate student gave him an interest in English local government, and after further study at Cornell and Columbia universities he wrote, for his doctoral dissertation at ..... Click the link for more information. , Carl L. Becker Becker, Carl Lotus, 1873–1945, American historian, b. Blackhawk co., Iowa. He taught history at Dartmouth College (1901–2), at the Univ. of Kansas (1902–16), and at Cornell (1917–41). ..... Click the link for more information. , G. L. Beer Beer, George Louis, 1872–1920, American historian, b. Staten Island, N.Y. He was a tobacco importer for 10 years but also lectured on European history at Columbia from 1893 to 1897. ..... Click the link for more information. , Alfred Chandler, John Fiske Fiske, John, 1842–1901, American philosopher and historian, b. Hartford, Conn. Born Edmund Fisk Green, he changed his name in 1855 to John Fisk, adding the final e in 1860. He opened a law practice in Boston but soon turned to writing. ..... Click the link for more information. , Eugene Genovese, Herbert Gutman, J. B. McMaster McMaster, John Bach, 1852–1932, American historian, b. Brooklyn, N.Y. Having practiced engineering in New York City and written two books, McMaster was appointed (1877) an instructor in civil engineering at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton). ..... Click the link for more information. , H. L. Osgood Osgood, Herbert Levi, 1855–1918, American historian, b. Canton, Maine. He taught at Worcester Academy (1877–79) and Brooklyn High School (1883–89). From 1890 to 1896 he was adjunct professor and, after 1896, professor of history at Columbia. ..... Click the link for more information. , Francis Parkman Parkman, Francis, 1823–93, American historian, b. Boston. In 1846, Parkman started a journey along the Oregon Trail to improve his health and study the Native Americans. On his return to Boston he collapsed physically and moved to Brattleboro, Vt. ..... Click the link for more information. , Vernon Louis Parrington Parrington, Vernon Louis, 1871–1929, American literary historian and scholar, b. Aurora, Ill. His cultural interpretation of American literature was an expression of his belief in democratic idealism. His Main Currents in American Thought (3 vol. ..... Click the link for more information. , Ulrich B. Phillips Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell, 1877–1934, American historian, an authority on the antebellum South, b. La Grange, Ga. After teaching at the Univ. of Wisconsin (1902–8), he was professor of history and political science at Tulane Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. , James Ford Rhodes Rhodes, James Ford, 1848–1927, American historian, b. Ohio City (now part of Cleveland). While studying in Europe he visited ironworks and steelworks in Germany and Great Britain, and upon his return he investigated for his father iron and coal deposits in Georgia, North ..... Click the link for more information. , and Frederick Jackson Turner Turner, Frederick Jackson, 1861–1932, American historian, b. Portage, Wis. He taught at the Univ. of Wisconsin from 1885 to 1910 except for a year spent in graduate study at Johns Hopkins. ..... Click the link for more information. . Other works of significance are by Bernard Bailyn Bailyn, Bernard , 1922–, U.S. historian, b. Hartford, Conn. After receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard (1953), he taught (1953–93; emeritus 1993–) U.S. colonial history there, becoming a full professor in 1961. ..... Click the link for more information. , S. F. Bemis Bemis, Samuel Flagg , 1891–1973, American historian, b. Worcester, Mass. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1916 and taught history at various schools before becoming Farnum professor of diplomatic history at Yale (1935). ..... Click the link for more information. , Ray Allan Billington, Daniel Boorstin, Bruce Catton Catton, Bruce, 1899–1978, American historian, b. Petoskey, Mich. He studied at Oberlin College and then entered upon a varied career as a journalist (1926–42) and public official (1942–52). ..... Click the link for more information. , H. S. Commager Commager, Henry Steele , 1902–98, American historian, b. Pittsburgh, Pa. He received his Ph.D. from the Univ. of Chicago in 1928 and taught history at New York Univ. (1926–38), Columbia (1938–56), and Amherst (1956–94). ..... Click the link for more information. , David Donald Donald, David Herbert, 1920–2009, American historian, b. Goodman, Miss. After receiving his Ph.D. from the Univ. of Illinois in 1946, he taught at Columbia (1947–49; 1951–59), Smith (1949–51), Princeton (1959–62), Johns Hopkins (1962–1972), ..... Click the link for more information. , D. S. Freeman Freeman, Douglas Southall , 1886–1953, American editor and historian, b. Lynchburg, Va. He was editor of the Richmond News Leader from 1915 to 1949, when he retired to devote most of his time to historical writing. ..... Click the link for more information. , L. H. Gipson Gipson, Lawrence Henry , 1880–1971, American historian, b. Greeley, Colo. A Rhodes scholar, he received his Ph.D. from Yale in 1918 and taught at several schools before becoming (1924) professor of history and head of the department of history and government at Lehigh Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. , Richard Hofstadter Hofstadter, Richard , 1916–70, American historian, b. Buffalo, N.Y. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1942 and began teaching there in 1946, becoming full professor in 1952 and De Witt Clinton professor of American history in 1959. ..... Click the link for more information. , John F. Jameson Jameson, John Franklin, 1859–1937, American historian, b. Somerville, Mass. After teaching at Johns Hopkins, Brown, and the Univ. of Chicago he was director (1905–28) of the department of historical research of the Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C. ..... Click the link for more information. , Perry Miller Miller, Perry, 1905–63, U.S. historian, b. Chicago. He received his Ph.D. from the Univ. of Chicago in 1931 and taught at Harvard from 1931 until his death. A towering figure in the field of American intellectual history, Miller wrote extensively, especially about colonial ..... Click the link for more information. , S. E. Morison Morison, Samuel Eliot, 1887–1976, American historian, b. Boston. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1912 and began teaching history there in 1915, becoming full professor in 1925 and Jonathan Trumbull professor of American history in 1941 before retiring in 1955. ..... Click the link for more information. , R. B. Morris Morris, Richard Brandon, 1904–89, American historian, b. New York City. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1930, taught (1927–49) at the College of the City of New York, became a professor at Columbia in 1949, and was made Gouverneur Morris professor of history ..... Click the link for more information. , Allan Nevins Nevins, Allan, 1890–1971, American historian, b. Camp Point, Ill. After studying at the Univ. of Illinois, he followed a career in journalism until 1927. Teaching at Columbia from 1928, he became a full professor in 1931 and was made De Witt Clinton professor of American ..... Click the link for more information. , A. M. Schlesinger Schlesinger, Arthur Meier , 1888–1965, American historian, b. Xenia, Ohio. After teaching at Ohio State Univ. and the State Univ. of Iowa, he was a professor of history (1924–54) at Harvard and in 1928 became an editor of the New England Quarterly. ..... Click the link for more information. , A. M. Schlesinger Schlesinger, Arthur Meier, Jr., 1917–2007, American historian and public official, b. Columbus, Ohio, as Arthur Bancroft Schlesinger; son of Arthur Meier Schlesinger. ..... Click the link for more information. , Jr., T. J. Wertenbaker, Gordon Wood, and C. Vann Woodward Woodward, C. Vann (Comer Vann Woodward), 1908–99, American historian, b. Vanndale, Ark. He graduated from Emory Univ. (1930), received his Ph.D. in history from the Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. . Standard reference works are R. B. Morris and H. S. Commager, ed., Encyclopedia of American History (rev. ed. 1970); H. S. Commager, ed., Documents of American History (8th ed. 1968); and the cooperative "New American Nation Series" (ed. by H. S. Commager and R. B. Morris, 1954–). Another cooperative work is the "History of the South" series (ed. by W. H. Stephenson and E. M. Coulter, 10 vol., 1947–67). See also U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States (latest ed.) and Susan B. Carter et al., ed., Historical Statistics of the United States (2006). Brief general histories include D. J. Boorstin, The Americans (3 vol., 1958–73); H. J. Carman, H. C. Syrett, and Bernard Wishy, A History of the American People (3d ed., 2 vol., 1967); S. E. Morison, The Oxford History of the American People (3 vol., 1972); S. E. Morison and H. S. Commager, The Growth of the American Republic (7th ed. 1980); J. A. Garraty, A Short History of the American Nation (5th ed. 1988); P. Johnson, A History of the American People (1998); W. A. McDougall, Freedom Just around the Corner: A New American History: 1585–1828 (2004) and Throes of Democracy: The American Civil War Era, 1829–1877 (2008); D. Reynolds, America, Empire of Liberty (2009); S.-M. Grant, A Concise History of the United States of America (2012). Specialized Topics in American History Specialized topics are treated in such studies as M. Curti, The Growth of American Thought (3d ed. 1964); A. Heimert, Religion and the American Mind (1966); R. A. Billington and J. B. Hedges, Westward Expansion (3d ed. 1967); M. J. Frisch, ed., American Political Thought (1971); S. E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the United States (1972); R. E. Spiller et al., ed., Literary History of the United States (4th ed. rev., 2 vol., 1974); J. S. Adams, Contemporary Metropolitan America (4 vol., 1976); J. Garreau, The Nine Nations of North America (1981) and Edge City: Life on the New Frontier (1991); P. O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America (1981); M. E. Armbruster, The Presidents of the United States and Their Administrations from Washington to Reagan (7th rev. ed. 1982); J. P. Greene, Encyclopedia of American Political History (3 vol., 1984); K. T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier (1985); J. Agnew, The United States in the World (1987); E. S. Gaustad, Faith of Our Fathers: Religion and the New Nation (1987), Historical Atlas of Religion in America (rev. ed. 2001), and with L. Schmidt, A Religious History of America (rev. ed. 2002); W. H. Frey and A. Speare, Regional and Metropolitan Growth and Decline in the United States (1988); J. Schlesinger, America at Century's End (1989); A. King, The New American Political System (1990); A. H. Kelly et al., The American Constitution (7th ed. 1991); C. Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (1991); J. J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (2000); N. F. Cott, No Small Courage: A History of Women in the United States (2001); A. Fairclough, Better Day Coming: Blacks and Equality, 1890–2000 (2001); A. Taylor, American Colonies (2001); L. M. Friedman, Law in America (2002) and History of American Law (3d ed. 2005); I. Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves (2003); S. Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy (2005); D. W. Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (2007); D. S. Reynolds, Waking Giant: America in the Age of Jackson (2008); G. C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (2008); J. Lears, Rebirth of a Nation: The Making of Modern America, 1877–1920 (2009); G. S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (2009); H. W. Brands, American Colossus (2010); D. Lacorne, Religion in America: A Political History (2011); D. K. Richter, Before the Revolution: America's Ancient Pasts (2011); B. Wineapple, Ecstatic Nation: Confidence, Crisis, and Compromise, 1848–1877 (2013). Geographical Studies Geographical works include N. M. Fenneman, Physiography of Western United States (1931) and Physiography of Eastern United States (1938); R. H. Brown, Historical Geography of the United States (1948); National Geographic Society, Atlas of North America: Space Age Portrait of a Continent (1985); David Clark, Post-Industrial America: A Geographical Perspective (1985); D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America (1986); J. P. Allen and E. J. Turner, We the People: An Atlas of America's Ethnic Diversity (1987); P. L. Knox et al., The United States: A Contemporary Human Geography (1988); S. S. Birdsall and J. W. Florin, Regional Landscapes of the United States and Canada (4th rev. ed. 1992); Wilbur Zelinsky, The Cultural Geography of the United States (rev. ed. 1992); T. L. McKnight, Regional Geography of the United States and Canada (1992). United States Official name: United States of America Capital city: Washington, D.C. Internet country code: .us Flag description: Thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small white five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; known as Old Glory; the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including Chile, Liberia, Malaysia, and Puerto Rico National anthem: “The Star-Spangled Banner” National bird: Bald eagle National mottoes: E pluribus unum (Out of Many, One) and “In God We Trust” Geographical description: North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean, between Canada and Mexico Total area: 3,794,062 sq. mi. (9,826,630 sq. km.) Climate: Mostly temperate, but tropical in Hawaii and Florida, arctic in Alaska, semiarid in the Great Plains west of the Mississippi River, and arid in the Great Basin of the southwest; low winter temperatures in the northwest are ameliorated occasionally in January and February by warm chinook winds from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains Nationality: noun: American(s); adjective: American Population: 301,139,947 (July 2007 CIA est.) Ethnic groups: European 81.7%, black 12.9%, Asian 4.2%, Amerindian and Alaska native 1%, native Hawaiian and other Pacific islander 0.2% (note: a separate listing for Hispanic is not included because the United States Census Bureau considers Hispanic to mean a person of Latin American descent, including persons of Cuban, Mexican, or Puerto Rican origin, living in the U.S. who may be of any race or ethnic group - white, black, Asian, etc.) Languages spoken: English 82.1%, Spanish 10.7%, other Indo-European 3.8%, Asian and Pacific island 2.7%, other 0.7% Religions: Protestant 52%, Roman Catholic 24%, Mormon 2%, Jewish 1%, Muslim 1%, other 10%, none 10% Legal Holidays:	Mount Whitney
What was the name used by the aircraft hijacker who, in 1971, leapt from the back of a Boeing 727 over the American Pacific Northwest, after collecting a $200,000 ransom, and was never seen again?	Geography INTRODUCTION United States (Geography), study of the land, physical features, and climate of the United States of America, and the interaction between these natural features and the plants, animals, and people that live in the country. The United States of America is a federal republic on the continent of North America. It has an area of 9,629,047 sq km (3,717,796 sq mi) and is the third largest country in the world after Russia and Canada. The estimated U.S. population for the year 2003 is 290,342,550, third in the world behind China and India. The United States consists of 48 contiguous states and the noncontiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii. In addition, the United States includes a number of outlying areas, such as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States, which are located on the Caribbean Sea, and the islands of American Samoa and Guam, located in the Pacific Ocean. The national capital is Washington, D.C., located along the banks of the Potomac River between the states of Maryland and Virginia. The 50 U.S. states vary widely in size and population. The largest states in area are Alaska at 1,593,438 sq km (615,230 sq mi), followed by Texas, and California. The smallest state is Rhode Island, with an area of 3,188 sq km (1,231 sq mi). The state with the largest population is California (35,116,033, 2002 estimate), followed by Texas, and New York. Only 498,703 people (2002 estimate) live on the plateaus and rugged mountains of Wyoming, the least populous state. Each state is subdivided into counties, with the exception of Louisiana, where comparable political units are called parishes. Within these counties and parishes, there are communities that range in size from small villages to towns to cities. Extensive areas of urban sprawl exist in larger metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles, California; Chicago, Illinois; and New York City. This is one of seven major articles that together provide a comprehensive discussion of the United States of America. For more information on the United States, please see the other six major articles: United States (Overview), United States (People), United States (Culture), United States (Economy), United States (Government), and United States (History). II Cultural Diversity The United States is certainly one of the most diverse countries of the world, both from a cultural and an environmental perspective. The land that is now the United States was home to diverse cultures when the first Europeans and Africans arrived. It was inhabited by a variety of Native American peoples who spoke more than 300 different languages. The Europeans and Africans added their own varying cultures to this diversity. The 13 colonies they founded along the eastern seaboard became the United States in the late 18th century. see United States (History). During the following century, the new nation added huge chunks of territory, and millions of immigrants arrived, mainly from Europe and especially during the years from 1860 to 1914. A second migration occurred in the Southwest, where Hispanics pushed northward from Mexico, leaving an indelible imprint. see Immigration. In addition, slaves were brought from Africa to work on agricultural estates in the South, where they formed a large percentage of the population. see Slavery in the United States. Of those who chose to come to the United States, many saw it as a land of plenty, and certainly that was true. However, many Americans faced extraordinary hardships as they adapted to a natural and cultural environment that was sometimes harsh and demanding. B Geographic Diversity During the settlement of the nation, immigrants moved westward across the United States and found a rich and varied natural environment. From the original coastal colonies, settlers made their way over the Appalachian Mountains beginning in the 1700s. Beyond the mountains lay the vast rolling territory drained by the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. There settlers encountered the rich farmlands of the Ohio Valley, the Mississippi Delta, and the Great Plains. For decades, the rugged peaks of the Rocky Mountains and the arid landscape of the Southwest discouraged movement further west. In the mid-1800s, however, spurred by the discovery of gold in California, determined settlers followed trails through the mountain passes to reach the West Coast. In the valleys of California and Oregon, they found productive agricultural land, and they began harvesting the timber reserves from the untouched forests of the Pacific Northwest. The purchase of Alaska in 1867 added a mountainous northern territory rich in natural resources. The annexation of Hawaii in 1898 gave the United States what would be its only tropical state. The United States has been blessed with many natural advantages, such as climates favorable for agriculture, extensive internal waterways, and abundant natural resources. All four of the worldï¿½s most productive agricultural climates are found in the United States. These climatic regions display a favorable mix of rain and sun as well as a long growing season, and together, they cover more than a third of the country. Favorable climates have allowed farmers to produce vast quantities of grain for human consumption and crops to feed animals. These remarkable climatic areas make the United States one of the worldï¿½s leading agricultural countries. Another major natural advantageï¿½one that is taken for granted by most Americansï¿½is that the major river systems (the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Colorado, and Rï¿½o Grande systems) flow south. If these rivers flowed north, as rivers do in Russian Siberia, ice and frozen soil would block the meltwater, causing floods that would saturate the land and render it unusable for agriculture. Instead, when spring thaws arrive in the interior mountains of the United States, meltwater flows unimpeded through the river systems to the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico or the Gulf of California. This almost uninterrupted flow of water provides ample supplies for drinking water and for crop irrigation and industrial production. The United States has many other natural advantages. A wide array of valuable mineral resources, such as oil, natural gas, iron ore, coal, lead, zinc, phosphate, silver, and copper, benefits mining and industry. The shallow waters along the coastline, known as the continental shelf, serve as a rich breeding ground for marine life, which promotes commercial and sport fishing. The comprehensive network of rivers also provides transportation routes for bulk cargo and the potential for the development of hydroelectricity. C Americans and the Environment The people of the United States used this remarkable array of natural resources to build their society. At first, and for many years, the United States was primarily an agricultural society. Until the second decade of the 20th century, most Americans lived and worked on farms. Rich agricultural land allowed Americans to produce, process, and deliver enough food, not only for the United States, but also for millions of people in other countries. Americans developed the landï¿½s natural resources in many other ways as well. They used water from the nationï¿½s vast river systems to irrigate arid land and to transport people and goods. They built harbors for ports along the coastlines in order to ship and receive goods from all over the world. They exploited the forests and the fisheries, building major industries providing goods for domestic consumption and for export. Industry developed early in the United States. During the first half of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution spread from Europe and stimulated the rapid growth of industry in the Northeast. Raw materials were brought to the Northeast from other parts of the country by ship and by a rapidly expanding rail system. Industrial plants processed the raw material into finished products for export and for domestic consumption. From 1850 to 1920, industrial expansion continued and moved westward. Chicago, Illinois, became the leading meatpacking center of the United States. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became synonymous with steel. Detroit, Michigan, emerged as the automobile capital of the world. Other large U.S. cities developed their own specialties. By the beginning of World War I (1914-1918), America had become the worldï¿½s greatest industrial giant. see United States (History). However, as Americans developed the land and its resources, they sometimes created environmental problems. Forests and natural grasslands began disappearing as early as colonial times (17th and 18th centuries), as settlers converted more and more wilderness into farmland. In the 20th century, urban sprawl and industrial expansion led to pollution of the air and water. A growing population, and its demands for a convenient lifestyle, generated tremendous amounts of pollution and waste. By the mid-1990s, Americans created 2.0 kg (4.3 lbs) of trash per person per day. Often the highest hill around a typical U.S. city consisted of the waste buried at the local sanitary landfill. See also Air Pollution; Water Pollution. In the last 30 years of the 20th century, however, Americans have become more aware of environmental problems and have begun programs to reduce pollution and conserve natural areas. People also learned to recycle, to reuse resources, and to protect endangered species. See also Conservation. D From Diversity, a Unified Country The United States resembles a colorful quilt stitched together from geographic regions that maintain unique cultural patterns. Life in rural Alabama, for example, is quite different from life in suburban California or in the highly urbanized environment of New York City. Despite these differences, however, the various regions of the United States mesh together to form a single fabric. An extensive transportation system, a sophisticated communications network, and a common culture bind the nation into an indivisible unit. The study of geography helps people understand the complicated mosaic of life in the United States and how despite their differences, Americans still exhibit characteristics of unity that make the United States a country very distinct from all the other nations in the world. III The Nature of Regions When examining a large geographic unit, such as the United States, geographers often divide the country into smaller regions. Dividing into parts allows us to better understand unique areas of the nation and how they combine into a whole. By analyzing regions, geographers can better understand how humans occupy and use the surface of the earth. Regions can vary greatly in size. A region may be as small as a backyard or as large as a continent. For instance, a salesman making business calls in an unfamiliar town will need to learn about a relatively small geographic region. On the other hand, a traveler making a trip around the world or a geographer compiling statistics about a large nation will examine a region of considerably larger scope. What is important is understand how knowledge of these regions helps us more fully appreciate the world in which we live. Regions are not as clearly defined in our real lives as they are on our maps. Sharp and distinct borders are rare. Most boundaries are transitional as regions merge comfortably into each other. The characteristics that distinguish one region gradually give way to the characteristics of its neighbor. Nonetheless, each geographic region has specific characteristics that can be experienced in the real world and that clearly differentiate it from neighboring regions. Geographers have defined two kinds of regionsï¿½uniform and functional. A uniform region is distinguished by some characteristicï¿½such as climate, soil, landforms, language, religion, and social customsï¿½that is common throughout the region. Some uniform regions are natural regionsï¿½their common characteristic is a feature of the natural environment. Examples include the Rocky Mountains or the Appalachians, which both have the common characteristic of mountains. The Pacific Northwest shares a common climate: It has wet weather and mild temperatures. Other uniform regions are classified on the basis of human or cultural characteristics. Areas that are not physically different from neighboring geographic locations might be classified as distinct regions because of factors such as the type of economy, political organization, or historical background, or because the population shares a similar ethnic or national background, language, religion, or racial origin. Examples of such uniform regions include the Midwest, which has a common agricultural economy emphasizing the production of corn, hogs, and soybeans; the Amish religious communities of eastern Pennsylvania; the Chinatowns of New York and San Francisco; the concentrations of African Americans in most major cities; or the Hispanic cultural areas in Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The second type of region is the functional region. A functional region is defined by its internal organization, which usually centers on some focal point. This could be a city, a school in an educational district, a shopping center in a large market area, or a large company that employs a sizeable number of workers. The best example of a functional area is a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). The United States Bureau of the Census identifies an MSA as a central city of 50,000 people or more, the surrounding county, and all adjacent counties in which jobs or commercial activity link a significant portion of the workforce to the central city or central county. There are presently almost 300 MSAs in the United States. They range from urban giants, such as the New York City MSA, which includes 18.3 million residents (1997 estimate) in the city and in the surrounding suburbs of New York, New Jersey, and Long Island, to smaller communities, such as Enid, Oklahoma, with a population of 57,000. The concept of a functional region is important because the United States is an urban society, and people typically live or work in a central city. They shop in the city, read the urban newspaper, watch television programs that are broadcast from the central city, and generally identify themselves as residents of a particular metropolitan area. Moreover, an area can be a cultural uniform region, a natural uniform region, and a functional region all at the same time. For example, the Heartland region of the United States, southeast of the Great Lakes, can be categorized as a uniform region due to common natural characteristics such as the prevalence of trees, the abundance of small bodies of water, and the presence of productive soils. It also shares common cultural factors such as a mixture of agricultural and manufacturing-based economies. The Heartland is a functional region as well, unified by a system of rails, roads, and inland waterways that serve the areaï¿½s economy. B Regional Breakdowns The geographic regions described here are adapted from the work of professor Tom McKnight in his Regional Geography of the United States and Canada (1992). McKnight captures the dynamic nature of the natural and cultural environment in the United States and presents regions that make the task of understanding the geography of the United States a bit easier. These regions are largely uniform regions. Some display similar natural characteristics, for example climate and landforms. Others share cultural characteristics, such as economic or historical considerations. Taken together, these regions reflect the geographical tapestry of the United States. Separately, each region offers its own story, emphasizing how extraordinary differences can exist side by side and yet can meld into a single great country. B1 Megalopolis The region known as Megalopolis is a heavily populated area extending more than 800 km (500 mi) along a northeast-southwest axis from southern Maine to southern Virginia. Although it encompasses only 130,000 sq km (50,000 sq mi), or about 1 percent of the continent, Megalopolis held some 45 million people in the late 1990s, the second largest population of any U.S. region. It contains the world's greatest concentration of urban areas. Three characteristics define Megalopolis as a distinct region: high population density, major urban centers growing toward one another, and a large demand for primary goods that are brought in from other regions. Moreover, it is a region of social and economic superlativesï¿½urban conveniences and problems, great wealth and poverty, high population concentrations, and one of the worldï¿½s most varied population mixes. The region sits on the coastal plain along the northeast edge of the United States. The eastern boundary of Megalopolis is the Atlantic shoreline. On the western boundary of Megalopolis, high urban population densities and land-use patterns fade gradually into the lower population densities and land-use patterns of rural areas. The inland boundary is defined toward the south by the Appalachian hill lands and in the north by a transition zone that gradually gives way to the rural communities of upstate New York and northern New England. The western portion of Megalopolis appears quite different from the skyscrapers and urban frenzy of the east. The small farms and gentle hills, however, serve the east with agricultural products and with quiet, beautiful scenery that provides a welcome escape for city dwellers whose day-to-day contact with the natural environment is practically nonexistent. B1a Natural Features The most widespread aspect of the regional environment is the sea and its boundary with the land. Waterfront features include irregular coastlines; prominent peninsulas such as Cape Cod in Massachusetts, Cape May in New Jersey, and the Delmarva Peninsula of Chesapeake Bay; numerous offshore islands; and rivers that flow into the ocean in a variety of shapes and patterns. Geologically, Megalopolis rests on a coastal plain, under which are unconsolidated sediments. Beneath these sediments is a base of ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks. Thousands of years ago, geological uplift produced a series of broad, open valleys. During the last Ice Age, glaciers scoured and flattened the northern parts of the coastal plain. The glaciers rounded the contours of the mountains and shaped a terrain of low rolling hills before they receded about 10,000 years ago. Long Island, New York, which extends east from New York City parallel to the coast of Connecticut, marks the southern limit of the last great ice sheet to move through the area. The land that makes up the island consists of earth and stone pushed southward by the ice and left behind when the glacier receded. Most of the rivers in the region are fairly short and do not allow for inland navigation over long distances. However, important commercial transportation routes are found on some rivers. The Erie Canal joins the Hudson River in New York to create a passageway to the Great Lakes via Lake Erie, thus providing a valuable water transport route to the central regions of the United States. Canals also link the rivers of Delaware and Chesapeake bays. Natural vegetation tends to be a mixture of trees and low brush, and soils are typically thin and infertile. However, agriculture abounds because of the urban demand for produce, the favorable climate, and the generous application of fertilizer. B1b Economy Megalopolis lies along a busy oceanic route that extends across the North Atlantic to Western Europe. The presence of the sea has played an important role in the regionï¿½s economy since the colonial period. Early merchants transported goods via ocean trade routes, while rivers and land routes promoted trade with interior regions of the colonies and promoted economic growth. Trade and commerce were leading generators of wealth until the mid-1800s, when manufacturing became dominant. After World War II (1939-1945), the basis of the regionï¿½s economy shifted to service industries. In the late 1990s, service industries remained the basis of the regionï¿½s economy. Megalopolis houses the headquarters of 33 percent of the largest industrial corporations in the nation, 28 percent of the largest retailing companies, 44 percent of the largest life insurance companies, and 60 percent of the largest diversified financial companies. Tourism is also important throughout this region. New York City is one of the top tourist attractions in the nation for international travelers. Almost continuous beaches attract summer visitors, who support resort towns. Most states in the region have capitalized on their rich historical background to attract tourism. Agriculture is important to meeting the demand for food from this large urban area. Commercial fishing has declined, though the region still accounts for about one-quarter of the U.S. catch. Chesapeake Bay yields more crabmeat than all other parts of the country combined. B1c Population The proximity to the ocean has also had a lasting effect on the population. Megalopolis was the first region of the country to be settled by immigrants during the 17th century. Over succeeding centuries, many immigrants to the United States entered the country through the Megalopolis region, with a large percentage deciding to settle in the area. As a result, the population displays a remarkable ethnic and racial mix. The regionï¿½s cities have many distinct ethnic neighborhoods, but at the same time immigrants continuously blend into the mainstream culture of the United States, adapting their customs to U.S. society and contributing aspects of their own heritage to the patchwork of U.S. culture. The population of Megalopolis is highly urbanized. About 1,000 locations in the region are classified as urban by the U.S. Census Bureau. More than 90 percent of the population lives in urban areas, a percentage that is increasing as suburban development fills the spaces between cities. Several very large metropolitan areas dominate the region, including New York City (1997 estimate, 8.6 million); Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1997 estimate, 4.9 million); Washington, D.C. (1997 estimate, 4.6 million); and Boston, Massachusetts (1997 estimate, 5.8 million). The region has a high population density, with more than 350 persons per sq km (900 per sq mi). Density ranges from low in rural Virginia to more than 30,900 persons per sq km (about 80,000 per sq mi) on Manhattan Island in New York City. Megalopolis has a high population growth rate as well, adding continuously to the 45 million people, or one-sixth of the nationï¿½s citizens, who live in this region. B1d Cities Megalopolis is a region of extensive urban metropolitan areas, many of which are located a relatively short distance from each other. New York City, the nationï¿½s largest city, is located here, as is Washington, D.C, the seat of government in the United States. Other major urban areas focus around Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, Maryland. B2 The Atlantic Northeast In great contrast to the highly urbanized character of Megalopolis, the Atlantic Northeast is mainly rural in character. It includes the less-populated, less-developed parts of northern New England and upper New York state. The southern boundary of this region skirts the northern edge of Megalopolis just north of the urbanized areas of Portland, Maine, the Merrimack Valley in New Hampshire, the small cities of western Massachusetts, and the Mohawk Valley of New York. On the west and north, the region is bounded by Canada. The Atlantic Ocean forms the eastern boundary. The Atlantic Northeast is a land of bare rock, thin soils, rugged coastlines, swift streams, and slow-growing forests. Because of its location away from the highly populated and economically active urban core, this region developed its own unique way of life characterized by a high degree of self-reliance. Often families live in the same community for generations. Many communities celebrate local holidays that date to colonial times. In addition, unlike more urbanized regions of the nation, the presence of the forest and the sea continue to have a direct influence on people's lives. In rural areas, the house of the nearest neighbor is often beyond sight and sound, while the most dramatic presence is that of undeveloped natural environment. B2a Natural Features Natural forces have contributed greatly to the present-day geography of this region. For example, mountains and hills consisting of hard crystalline rock were scoured by ice sheets that receded from the region 10,000 years ago. When the ice receded, it left thin soils and an undulating surface favorable for fast-running streams and bright, clear lakes. In Vermont, the rounded summits of the Green Mountains are more pronounced in slope, reaching elevations of nearly 1,900 m (6,300 ft). The Maine coastline is rugged and deeply indented with river channels that are often flooded by the sea. The landscape is covered with a relatively dense mixed forest of coniferous and deciduous trees. The original trees were cut down for lumber, shipbuilding, and fuel, or were cleared for agriculture. Virtually all of the remaining trees are second-growth. Second-growth trees are usually a less desirable variety because they produce less wood and wood of a lower quality than old-growth trees. B2b Economy As a region with limited resources, poor soils, and a location distant from the main flow of U.S. commercial activity, the economy of the region is very restricted and offers limited employment opportunities. A harsh climate, thin soils, and a short growing season rule out most cultivated crops. Some corn is grown, but the main rural economy depends on dairy and poultry farms. The timber industry is a mere fraction of what it once was. Commercial fishing, once important to the region, has lagged in recent years. Overfishing has severely depleted the stock. Cod and lobster are, by far, the most important catch. Tourism has become more important in the economy of northern New England. Second homes, weekend cabins, and lake properties are signs of the influx of urbanites from the south. B2c Population There are no large cities in the region. Urban centers include Bangor, Maine; Burlington, Vermont; and Glens Falls, New York. The region prides itself on its small hamlets and villages. The Atlantic Northeast has consistently experienced one of the slowest population growths in the nation. It had an overall population density of fewer than 4 persons per sq km (fewer than 10 per sq mi) in the late 1990s. Almost two-thirds of the populace live in a few moderately sized urban centers, largely port cities. The limited regional growth that has occurred took place as urbanites from the crowded Megalopolis area became increasingly attracted to the rural qualities the Atlantic Northeast. Many of these new arrivals often settled in small communities along the southern edges of the Atlantic Northeast, but commuted to jobs in Megalopolis. B3 The Appalachians and the Ozarks Separated by several hundred miles, these two mountainous geographic areas are quite similar. The Appalachians border the eastern coastal plain, and the Ozarks lie mainly in Missouri and Arkansas. These two regions of hill-and-mountain country have similar physical and cultural characteristics. Although there are geological differences between the Appalachian and Ozark areas, both are dominated by steep slopes and narrow valleys. As a result, towns and cities compete with highways, railroads, industrial and commercial enterprises, and fast-moving streams for the small amount of flat land. In addition, both Appalachia and the Ozarks have a history of depressed economic conditions and are sparsely populated. Whether as farmers or miners, industrial workers, or commercial employees in small towns and cities, people struggle continuously to improve their living conditions. B3a Natural Features The Appalachian Region consists of highlands running from the mountains of west-central New York in the north to central Alabama in the south. It includes the Appalachian Mountains and a number of surrounding features. The mountains lie roughly parallel to the Atlantic Coast and rise from the Coastal Plain, a flat, low-lying area that stretches along the East Coast from southern Maine to Texas. Between the coastal plain and the mountains is the Piedmont, an area of rolling foothills. To the west of the Appalachians is the Appalachian Plateau, an area of hilly uplands that extends from Pennsylvania to Alabama and descends gradually to the lowlands of the central United States. The Appalachian Region terminates in the south at the edge of the coastal plain. The northeastern boundary of the Appalachian region lies along the western edge of Megalopolis where urban land use changes to rural land use. The eastern edge follows the change in topography between the rolling uplands of the Southern Piedmont and the Blue Ridge Mountains (the highest range of the Appalachians). To the west, the boundary runs along the western edge of the Appalachian Plateau. The Appalachian area consists of four distinct landform regions: the Northern Piedmont, the Blue Ridge-Great Smoky Mountains, the Ridge and Valley section, and the Appalachian Plateau. The Northern Piedmont is a gently undulating surface on the inland section of the coastal plain. It reaches only a few hundred feet above sea level at its highest elevations. The western portion of the Northern Piedmont contains productive soils that are fine agricultural lands. The Blue Ridge is made up of igneous and metamorphic crystalline rocks and includes the highest mountains in the eastern United States. In North Carolina, Mount Mitchell, in the Great Smoky Mountains, is the highest point in the region at 2,037 m (6,684 ft) above sea level. Because of heavy rainfall and warm temperatures, the Blue Ridge area is covered with an impressive forest. The ridges vary in shape and size, but the valleys are mostly flat, narrow, and cleared for agriculture. Just west of the Blue Ridge is the Great Valley, a natural lowland route running northeast-southwest. The valley is known locally as the Cumberland Valley and the Shenandoah Valley. To the west of the valley, the Appalachian Plateau is chiefly hill country. The Ozarks include two geographic areas: the Ouachita Mountains and Valleys, and the Ozark Plateau. Together, they represent the only large area of rugged topography between the Appalachians and the Rockies. The rugged Boston Mountains constitute the highest section of the Ozark Plateau. The mountains reach a maximum elevation of more than 850 m (more than 2,800 ft) near Pettigrew, Arkansas. Several popular recreation spots, including Devilï¿½s Den State Park, are located in the Boston Mountains. Oak and pine forests cover the Ouachita Mountains, which stretch about 360 km (about 220 mi) between Little Rock, Arkansas, on the east end to Atoka, Oklahoma, on the west. B3b Economy Historically, the economy of the region has been depressed. In many parts, natural resources were meager, and agricultural land was scarce and often rocky or hilly. In addition, in some areas, industry was isolated from markets by poor transportation networks. In the 20th century, employment in coal mining, which had brought prosperity to parts of this region, declined. The depressed economy of Appalachia was one consideration in the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) project in the mid-1930s. TVA built dams, created reservoirs, and improved river navigation. TVAï¿½s work decreased flooding and erosion. Its facilities provided electric power, creating jobs by allowing industries and businesses to locate in much of Appalachia. The TVA helped Appalachiaï¿½s economy, but until the 1970s, the region was still synonymous with poverty, depressed living conditions, poor education, and little hope for change. In the 1990s, the regionï¿½s economy has benefited from government facilities such as a center for research on nuclear energy and environmental management at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Such facilities have stimulated employment opportunities in manufacturing and recreational services, generating pockets of prosperity. Another spur to growth at the close of the 20th century was tourism. Both Appalachia and the Ozarks contain spectacular scenery and pristine wilderness areas. The Pennsylvania Piedmont and the Shenandoah Valley, treasure troves of American Civil War (1861-1865) history, have drawn sightseers from all over the world. In addition, specialized economic activities have recently helped boost prosperity in parts of the Ozarks. Branson, Missouri has become a country music haven with big hotels and concert halls, while the Ozark-Ouachita uplands have recently experienced a surge of development as a resort and recreation area. In the agricultural sector, specialized crops have done well. Tobacco farms in the Appalachian valleys and dairy and apple farms in the Ozarks have increased in importance, while lumber milling can still be found in almost every county in both areas. At the close of the 20th century, urban growth patterns, agricultural specialization, and diversified economies have developed in the Appalachian and Ozarks regions. Because of its scarce resources, the economy in the Appalachians and the Ozarks will probably never be dynamic and expansive. Businesses will have to capitalize on the regionï¿½s few strong points, including a pleasant environment, extraordinary mountain scenery, low living costs, outdoor recreational activities, and desirable retirement accommodations. B3c Population Cities throughout both the Appalachian and Ozark regions are few and, except for Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, they are not very large. For decades, people moved out of this region in large numbers, and the total population declined. However, this trend seems to be reversing in many sections. In southwestern Appalachia (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama) and in the Ozarks, the population in the late 1990s was growing, and statistics suggest that the growth trend is likely to continue. Pittsburgh is the most important urban area in the Appalachian region and has made the transition from a steel center to a modern service and commercial hub. Smaller cities include Scranton, Reading, Lancaster, York, and Harrisburg in Pennsylvania; Huntington, West Virginia; Ashland, Kentucky; and Chattanooga and Knoxville in Tennessee. Most have a diversified industrial and regional service economy. Larger communities in the Ozarks include Springfield and Columbia in Missouri, and Fort Smith and Fayetteville in Arkansas. B4 The Southeastern Coast The Southeastern Coast region is a narrow strip along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The region begins in the Great Dismal Swamp of southeastern coastal Virginia, extends along the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and ends along the sandy beaches of Padre Island, Texas, at the border with Mexico. The coastal lowlands of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas are included. The inland boundary of the Southeastern Coast is a transition zone that separates poorly drained coastal lowlands from better-drained areas inward. The Southeastern Coast region is dynamic, with a range of both traditional and modern characteristics in its culture and economy. Burgeoning cities and factories are found here, as well as rural seaside villages and towns. B4a Natural Features The Southeastern Coast is a land of gentle slopes, poor drainage, and fragile environment. Except in Florida, sediments of marine origin underlie almost the entire region. These sedimentary beds extend into the sea as part of the Continental Shelf, the gently sloping edge of the continent covered by seawater. The peninsula of Florida is a recently-emerged mass of carbonate rocks, largely limestone. It is characterized by an immense area of inadequate drainage in the south and by underground streams, sinkholes, and pits in the north. Below the surface, limestone formations contain caverns. Most are water-filled. Sometimes the fragile roof of a cavern collapses, creating sinkholes that soon fill with water to become small lakes. Many great rivers empty into the sea in this region, including the Mississippi and Rï¿½o Grande rivers. At the mouths of these rivers is a rich mixture of inland silt, fresh water, and sea water, which provides an ecological niche that supports a remarkable range of birds, reptiles, fish, and mammals, as well as distinctive plant life. Natural features include the shallow, sluggish waterways of the Everglades and Lake Okeechobee in Florida, the Okefenokee Swamp on the Georgia-Florida border, and the bayous of the Mississippi delta. Along the Southeastern Coast, human activitiesï¿½industry, construction, and miningï¿½have often damaged wetlands and caused ecological problems. This region has seen confrontations between developers and preservationists over a number of issues. The effects of pesticides are heatedly debated in southern Louisiana. In southern Florida, the future of the Everglades, a vast marsh, remains unresolved because much of the water that formerly drained into the marsh is being diverted for agricultural irrigation and household use. The regionï¿½s natural features and geography are closely connected to its economic development. Poor drainage and poor soils are problems for agriculture, but these are partially offset by the advantages of a long growing season and adequate moisture. These advantages allow growing of subtropical, off-season specialty crops, such as vegetables and citrus fruits. The growing season of this region is typically more than 320 days a year. Productive agriculture, much of it subtropical, thrives. Crops include rice, sugarcane, citrus fruits, cotton, and grain sorghum. Beef cattle are grazed in the region. The nearness of the ocean provides ports for shipping and supports a fishing industry. The ocean, beaches, and a warm climate also support the tourist industry. B4b Economy Mineral production along the Southeastern Coast is substantial, with oil and natural gas leading the way. Much of the production is offshore, with wells drilled into the Continental Shelf. Salt domesï¿½underground geological formations that trap deposits of petroleum, natural gas, and sulfurï¿½are widespread in the "tidelands,ï¿½ as the shelf is called. Huge quantities of phosphates (used for fertilizers) are mined, as well as salt and sulfur. Extraction of minerals such as phosphate rock, salt, sulfur, petroleum, and natural gas contributes greatly to the economy. The economy of the Southeast coastal region benefits from the Intracoastal Waterway , a series of canals and protected water routes extending for about 1,740 km (about 1,080 mi) along the Atlantic Coast and for about 1,770 km (about 1,100 mi) along the Gulf of Mexico coast. Because of modest depth, the waterway is used primarily by barges and small boats. Two-thirds of its traffic is concentrated on the section between Houston, Texas, and the Mississippi River. Key commodities include oil, grain, cotton, sulfur, and petrochemicals. The waterway connects with the Mississippi River system, allowing barge traffic to travel far inland to the extremities of the Mississippi navigational system. New Orleans, Louisiana, has developed its legacy as a former French colony into a world-renowned tourist destination. In addition, it has used its location at the mouth of the Mississippi River to develop a major port, particularly for trade between the United States and Latin America. Other ports in the region include Mobile, Alabama; Pensacola, Tampa, Miami, and Jacksonville in Florida; and Galveston and Corpus Christi, in Texas. B4c Population The present population of the region is 38 million. In particular, the population of Florida has grown spectacularly. Floridaï¿½s population in 1990 was 12,937,926, more than 13 times the size of its 1920 population of 968,470. In the ten years after 1980, when 9,746,961 people lived there, Floridaï¿½s population increased by 32.7 percent. Major cities in the region include Miami, Florida; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Houston, Texas. Urban areas, especially the larger ones, are significant destinations for migrants, particularly by people from outside the region. Cotton and oil production contributed to Houstonï¿½s growth, from a population of 1,595,138 in 1980 to an estimated population of 4,177,646 in 2000. Today, Houston is a diversified industrial center and a world leader in the petrochemical industry. The cities of Florida have absorbed most of the stateï¿½s rapid population growth. Miami has grown, to a large extent, because of migration from Cuba after a communist government was established in Cuba in the early 1960s (see Cuban Americans). Orlando has grown explosively as a convention and tourist center. Jacksonville, Tampa, and Fort Lauderdale have swelled from migration of retirees from northern states. Smaller Florida cities, such as Destin, a weekend resort location, and West Palm Beach, a winter resort and tourist haven, have also experienced stunning growth. B5 The Inland South The Inland South is a transition zone between the Southeastern Coast and the Heartland. It occupies much of the coastal plain surrounding the southern sections of the Appalachians and Ozarks. Portions of Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia are included. The Inland South has certain economic, demographic, and political characteristics that bestow regional uniqueness. The economy of the region was originally based on slave labor and on the large-scale production of crops, particularly cotton. In most parts of the region, manufacturing replaced agriculture as the primary source of income during the second half of the 20th century. As a legacy of slavery, both rural and urban areas have a mix of black and white populations. The region remains for the most part politically conservative. This combination of black and white populations and conservative political values helps to distinguish the Inland South as a distinctive region. B5a Natural Features The region consists of rolling plains and hills covered by grassland and mixed forest. It includes the foothills of the Appalachians and the hill lands south of the Ozark plateau and the Ouachita Mountains. Elevations range from 50 feet in the south to 600 feet in the east, west, and north. The underlying rocks near the coast consist of unconsolidated sediments, while the interior has a section of older, crystalline rocks. Soils of moderate fertility support a fast-growing cover of mainly coniferous trees, such as the southern pine, which is able to reach full growth in 20 years. In some areas, such as the Black Belt of Alabama and Mississippi and the Black Waxy Prairie of central Texas, deep, dark, naturally fertile soils support productive agriculture. Alluvial soils, which are deposited by the areaï¿½s many large rivers, are also dark, rich in nutrients, and highly productive. B5b Economy Agriculture has long been a major part of the regionï¿½s economy. Cotton cultivation was a catalyst for settlement in the 19th century, when large cotton plantations developed. These plantations had a long-lasting effect on the make-up of society in the Inland South. About 70 percent of the population is white and 28 percent is African American, mainly descendants of slaves originally brought from Africa to work the plantations. During the 20th century, the rural economy diversified enormously with substantial acreage devoted to soybeans, corn, beef cattle, poultry, rice, and peanuts. Cotton is still important, particularly in the Mississippi lowland. Tobacco dominates the gentle slopes on the coastal plain of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Oil and natural gas have historically played a strong role in the regionï¿½s economy, particularly in the states of Texas and Louisiana. Manufacturing has also increased in importance. During the last half of the century, many manufacturing facilities formerly located in the Heartland and Megalopolis have relocated to the South. Many of these companies moved to the Inland South to take advantage of the lower wages and the lack of strong labor unions in the region. Since 1947, the Southï¿½s share of the nationï¿½s manufacturing workers has increased significantly. B5c Population In the early 1990s, estimates indicated that about 40 million people were living in the Inland South region. This population, concentrated primarily in urban areas, is about 70 percent white and 28 percent black. The population density varies from fewer than 4 persons per sq km (about 10 per sq mi) in the less populated rural areas to more than 190 per sq km (more than 500 per sq mi) in the regionï¿½s largest cities. The major urban areas of the Inland South are Atlanta, Georgia, and Houston, Texas. Atlanta is the business center of the southeastern United States. It is a major center for national conventions and trade. Houston is the fourth largest city in the United States. It serves as a major financial, distribution, and manufacturing center for the South. These two regional economic centers were growing at a rapid rate in the late 1990s, as the industrial and economic base of the Inland South strengthened and more people migrated from other areas of the country. The Inland South is also home to a number of the nationï¿½s fastest growing medium-sized metropolitan centers, including Memphis, Tennessee; Fort Worth, Texas; and Birmingham, Alabama. Tremendous population growth occurred in the 1990s in the highly industrialized district of North Carolina, which includes the cities of Charlotte, Winston-Salem, and Greensboro. This area attracted large numbers of people to jobs in high-technology and manufacturing industries. B6 The Heartland The Heartland extends eastward along the southern shores of lakes Erie and Ontario and along the western slopes of the Appalachian Plateau. To the south, there is a transition to the Inland South and the Ozark-Appalachian region. The boundary to the west is also a transition zone, where Heartland cornfields give way to the vast wheat fields of the Great Plains. In the north, the boundary merges into the Northern Forest region of the Great Lakes. The Heartland includes southern Wisconsin, lower Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, most of Ohio except for its far eastern part, Iowa, northern Missouri, far eastern South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and parts of Tennessee and Kentucky. The Heartland has the largest population and the most economic output of any U.S. region. It is the most extensive area of highly productive farmland in the United States, as well as the industrial core of the continent. B6a Natural Features Almost all of the Heartland is in the vast central lowland of North America. The land is mostly level with some gently rolling hills. Horizontal sedimentary strata of limestone, sandstone, shale, and dolomite underlie the entire region. The gentle slopes of the region result mainly from glacial action during the Pleistocene Epoch (1.6 million to 10,000 years ago). The flatlands and productive soils were produced during the last Ice Age at the close of the Pleistocene Epoch, as were the Great Lakes, which were formed by glacial scouring and then filled with the melt water of retreating glaciers. Almost all of the surface water in the Heartland drains into the river systems that feed the Mississippi River, and flooding is a natural hazard in the spring. Both the Great Lakes and the Mississippi have long served as vital transportation links that contribute to the economy of the region. B6b Economy The Heartland has a varied economy that underwent a major transformation late in the 20th century. The region possesses the largest area of highly productive farmland in North America. Industry also plays a major role in the region. For more than a century, the Heartland supported a thriving center of manufacturing. Since the 1970s, manufacturing has declined. By the end of the 20th century, the economic sector generating the most revenue was the service sector, including commerce and trade. Despite the increase in service industry jobs, the Heartland remains the agricultural and industrial center of the nation. Both industry and agriculture benefit from an extensive waterway system that includes the Great Lakes and the drainage basins of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers. Navigation is improved by hundreds of canals, locks, and dams, which also improve flood control and generate hydroelectricity. Water transportation moves millions of tons of iron ore and coal to steel mills and other heavy industries. In addition, the relatively level terrain has facilitated construction of a dense network of highways and railroads. Agriculture continues to be a major economic force in the region. Rich, deep soils and plentiful rain, complemented by a sunny, hot growing season, give rise to vast and productive croplands specializing in corn, soybeans, alfalfa, hay, and fruits such as apples and cherries. The livestock industry is widespread in the region, with huge feedlot operations supporting cattle production in the west. Hogs, found mainly in Iowa and Illinois, are raised with corn and soybeans. Dairy cattle are found throughout the northern part of the region, particularly in the southern Wisconsin Dairy Belt, famous for its milk, cheese, and butter production. For more than a century, the U.S. manufacturing beltï¿½including Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, western Pennsylvania, western New York, southern Michigan, and southern Wisconsinï¿½served as one of the great industrial areas of the world. By 1980 the regionï¿½s industrial dominance began to wane, challenged by vigorous industrial growth in the South and West and by the decline of manufacturing in favor of service industries. In the last three decades of the 20th century, the regionï¿½s share of North American factory production declined significantly. Although industrial jobs have been leaving the Heartland, the region's industrial districts are still important. Today, auto assembly is important in Cleveland, Ohio. Tire and rubber manufacturing continue in Akron, Ohio. The automobile industry is important in southern Michigan, particularly in Detroit, Flint, Pontiac, Ann Arbor, Ypsilanti, and Lansing, as well as in Toledo, Ohio. Centers of heavy manufacturing include Chicago, Illinois; Gary, Indiana; and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The steel industry is still important in the Chicago-Gary region, though much business was lost to competition from Asian steel producers during the closing decades of the 20th century. Indiana and Ohio have diversified industry with factories producing secondary automotive products such as batteries, radios, and automotive transmissions. The middle Ohio River, an 800-km (500-mi) stretch of the Ohio River valley, has been a major center of heavy manufacturing, benefiting from large supplies of industrial coal from western Pennsylvania and West Virginia and from low cost river transportation. Examples of heavy manufacturing in this area include iron and steel, metal products, and fabricated metals and machinery, such as motor vehicle manufacturing and assembly. In the western section of the Heartland, St. Louis, Missouri, located at the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, is a center of diversified industry, with an emphasis on aircraft manufacturing and automotive assembly. The western Heartland also includes major food processing industries in cities such as Des Moines, Iowa; Omaha, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; Council Bluffs, Iowa; and Lincoln, Nebraska. B6c Population As the largest productive agricultural region and the industrial nucleus of the United States, the Heartland contains the largest population of any region of the nation. Population density varied dramatically throughout the region during the 1990s, from fewer than 4 persons per sq km (about 10 per sq mi) in rural areas to more than 4,642 per sq km (more than 12,024 per sq mi) in the heart of Chicago. The vast majority of the population is concentrated in the many urban areas that developed around manufacturing centers. A decline in manufacturing jobs since the 1970s slowed the rate of expansion in many urban areas, but these cities continued to grow as people chose urban living over rural lifestyles. Large cities in the region include Chicago, Illinois; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Detroit, Michigan; St. Louis and Kansas City in Missouri; Indianapolis, Indiana; and Cleveland, Ohio. Chicago is the dominant metropolis. It serves as a wholesale center and transportation hub for the region. St. Louis is a commercial and transportation hub that is the largest urban center between Chicago and the Pacific Coast. Other major cities include Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Detroit, Michigan; and Minneapolis and Saint Paul in Minnesota. Urban expansion continues, although it slowed toward the end of the 20th century, as the region lost population to the South and West. B7 The Northern Forests While the physical characteristics of the Northern Forests region extend through much of central Canada and Alaska, the portion that lies within the contiguous United States is limited to the upper Great Lakes area. This region includes much of northeastern Minnesota as well as northern Wisconsin and Michigan. The common characteristics that make the Northern Forests a distinctive region are its vast forests and its abundant rivers and lakes. The regionï¿½s economy focuses on the export of a few primary products via the shipping routes of the Great Lakes. B7a Natural Features The Canadian Shield, a vast, gently rolling surface made up of granitic rocks, underlies the eastern two-thirds of the region. During the Pleistocene Epoch, ice sheets scoured the land, remolding the surface and removing most of the existing soil to expose bare rock and rounded hills almost devoid of soil. To the west of the shield is a large, broad lowland that is underlain by softer sedimentary materials, deposited by rivers flowing across the Rocky Mountains and the Canadian Shield. B7b Economy The natural environment has dominated the economic development of the region. In most areas, the economy is based on a single commercial activity. The primary source of income derives from the transportation of iron ore and minerals on the waterway system. Lake Superior, northern Lake Michigan, and northern Lake Huron as well as thousands of small lakes and rivers provide major water transport routes in this area. Logging, pulpwood production, and fishing are important activities in many communities. The region suffered from economic stagnation in the last decades of the 20th century. B7c Population The Northern Forest region is an area of low population density, with fewer than 4 persons per sq km (less than 10 per sq mi) in most of the region. Less than 2 percent of the U.S. population lives in this area. Overall there has been a net loss of population as people moved out of the region. The few small urban centers include Duluth, Minnesota; Superior and Ashland in Wisconsin; and Marquette and Sault Sainte Marie in Michigan. These are all port cities that function as principal hubs for water and land transportation routes from the upper Great Lakes area. B8 The Great Plains The Great Plains region is a vast area stretching from Canada in the north to Mexico in the south. The frontal ranges of the Rocky Mountains define the regionï¿½s boundary to the west. To the east, the boundary is the transition zone stretching from southern Texas and eastern Oklahoma in the south to the western reaches of Minnesota in the north, where large-scale wheat production gives way to the corn-hog-soybean and general farming complex of the Heartland. The Great Plains region is known for its extensive farming and ranching; fertile soils; production of minerals such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas; and dramatic variations in climate. Although periodic droughts do occur on the Great Plains, water is extensive in many areas, with rivers originating in the Rocky Mountains and flowing eastward to connect with the Mississippi drainage system or the Gulf of Mexico. B8a Natural Features The landscape is characterized by flat to gently sloping land, with elevations of 1,500 to 1,800 m (5,000 to 6,000 ft) in the west, sloping gradually to elevations of 500 m (1,500 ft) in the east. Sedimentary strata underlie most of the region. Although much of the Great Plains is relatively flat, several interesting geographical features dot the landscape. They include the Hill Country of Central Texas, the deep cut Palo Duro Canyon of the Texas Panhandle, the Flint Hills of Kansas, the Nebraska Sand Hills, the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming, and the dramatic and highly eroded Badlands of the Dakotas and Nebraska. B8b Economy Vast wheat farms, using large-scale machinery, dominate the northern plains landscape. The winter wheat belt centers on Kansas, while spring wheat dominates in the Dakotas. Other important grain crops include sorghum, barley, and rye. In the south, irrigated acreage and mild climate conditions allow for the cultivation of cotton, onions, spinach, and peanuts. Further north, irrigation favors cantaloupes and sugar beets in the area around Greeley, Colorado. Cattle ranching is another important economic activity. Mineral production in the Great Plains is substantial. Oil and natural gas are produced in Texas and parts of Oklahoma and Kansas. Coal has become important in Wyoming, Montana, and the Dakotas. In these states, vast open-pit mines produce coal with low sulfur content, a cleaner-burning variety much preferred for generating electricity. In the Powder River Basin in north central Wyoming and southern Montana, mining operations have grown rapidly and been accompanied by the growth of related settlements. Each day, dozens of long, coal-laden trains pull out of the area, headed to electricity-generating plants throughout the United States. B8c Population In the 1990s approximately 70 percent of the population of the Great Plains lived in scattered urban areas. Denver, Colorado is by far the largest city of the region, with a metropolitan population of 1.9 million people in 1997. It lies along the western boundary of the region. Denver is a diversified city, serving as a market and industrial center for both the Rocky Mountain region to the west and the Great Plains. Other large urban centers include San Antonio, Texas; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Wichita, Kansas. These cities serve as regional trading centers for surrounding areas. B9 The Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains region can be characterized as an area of breathtaking scenery, rugged terrain, scanty resources, and scattered population. The boundaries of this region are fairly precise, as the sharp relief of the frontal ranges contrasts with the relatively flat Great Plains region to the east. To the west, the Rocky Mountains region is bordered by the plateaus and basins of the Intermontane region. The northern boundary of the U.S. Rockies is considered the Canadian border, although the mountains physically stretch well into Alberta and British Columbia. In the south, the mountain range ends north of Albuquerque, near Santa Fe, New Mexico. B9a Natural Features The Rocky Mountains were formed relatively recently in geologic time. During the Cretaceous Period, from approximately 135 million to 65 million years ago, a saltwater extension of the Gulf of Mexico covered most of this region, as well as the Great Plains. A deep layer of sediment, perhaps as much as 6,000 m (20,000 ft) thick, covered the granitic rocks that now form the Rocky Mountains. Finally, a series of crustal uplifts, accompanied by large-scale erosion, created the mountainous terrain that exists in the region today. . These block-faulted mountains are young compared with many of the worldï¿½s other mountains. They are characterized by a complex system of troughs and ridges that are a result of tectonic uplift and subsidence of adjacent blocks of the earth's crust. Other features of the areaï¿½s landscape have been shaped through glaciation. Many of the major rivers of the western United States, including the Columbia, Fraser, Missouri, Colorado, Arkansas, Rio Grande, and Snake, originate in the upper elevations of the Rocky Mountains. B9b Economy Although irrigated farming, livestock ranching, and lumbering offer limited economic opportunities within the region, the two major commercial activities in the Rocky Mountains are mining and tourism. Small mines are scattered throughout this region, but several have achieved major significance at one time or another. Major finds of gold, lead, zinc, and silver were discovered around Leadville, Colorado, particularly in the last quarter of the 19th century. Today, Leadville continues to be a mining center and is the home of the Climax mine, which employs over 3,000 workers. This mine is the worldï¿½s largest producer of molybdenum, which has a very high melting point and is used to make the heat-resistant steels used in automobiles, aircraft, and various commercial and industrial appliances. The Coeur dï¿½Alene area of northern Idaho also continues to be a productive mining center, producing substantial quantities of silver, lead, and zinc. Tourism is based on abundant natural attractions and outdoor recreation and has become the most vigorous part of the regionï¿½s economy. Resort communities have been established to cater to the regionï¿½s tourist industry, and their population often grows exponentially during peak tourist seasons. Skiing is the dominant winter season activity. Major destinations are Aspen, Vail, Keystone, Breckenridge, and Copper Mountain in Colorado, as well as Sun Valley in Idaho and Snowbird in Utah. In the summer, tourists flood the region to visit points of interest, such as Pikes Peak, Royal Gorge, Rocky Mountain National Park, Yellowstone National Park, Grand Teton National Park, and Glacier National Park. B9c Population There has been little urban development in the Rocky Mountains. Throughout history, the population of the area has been very sparse. Many of the permanent settlements are tied to economic activities such as tourism, forestry, mining, and agriculture. Populations in these locations often vary with economic conditions. For instance, the number of people living in some communities often fluctuates with changes in mining productivity or according to seasonal cycles of employment in the tourism industry. In the late 1990s there were fewer than 4 persons per sq km (10 people per sq mi) and few cities within the area have populations greater than 50,000 people. The one city that exerts the most influence within the region is Denver, Colorado, which is not actually located within the region, but lies at its eastern edge. Denver serves as a commercial, industrial, and distributing center for the Great Plains as well as the Rocky Mountains. B10 The Intermontane Basins and Plateaus The Intermontane Basins and Plateaus region is flanked on the west by the major Pacific coastal mountain ranges and on the east by the Rocky Mountains. In broad terms, the region consists of three distinctive subregions. The extensive Colorado Plateau encompasses parts of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. The Columbia Plateau occupies eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and southern Idaho. And the vast basin and range country lies between and around these two dominant plateau areas. The Intermontane region is characterized by sparse population concentrated in a few major urban centers, a relatively isolated setting between extensive mountainous areas, varied topography, arid and semi-arid climate patterns, limited water assets, and considerable mineral resources. B10a Natural Features The geologic history within the Intermontane region varies by subregion. Basaltic lava covered the Columbia Plateau before a significant network of lakes deposited layers of silt. Faulting and warping created the present-day rugged and varied landscape. The Colorado Plateau features high plateaus and mesas dissected by extensive, steep-sided canyons. The remainder of the region consists of basin and range country, in which mountain ranges alternate with relatively flat basins. The mountain ranges are distinguished by block faulting, which gives them a rough, rectangular shape. The basins are characterized by features such as alluvial fans (soil or mineral deposits left by mountain streams that encountered flat terrain) and salt lakes. Perhaps the best known of these lakes is the Great Salt Lake. B10b Economy The regionï¿½s economy is based on irrigated farming, livestock grazing, mining, and tourism. The most critical resource for this region is water. Water for irrigation comes from the main rivers or from wells dug into aquifers (natural underground water reservoirs). Despite limited water resources, this region contains a number of major river basins, including the Colorado, Snake, Salt, Columbia, and the Rio Grande. The water of these rivers is used intensively. For example, the water of the Colorado River is so fully utilized for irrigation and urban uses that most of it does not reach its mouth in the Gulf of California. Irrigation in this region supports a variety of crops, including potatoes, apples, cotton, sugar beets, peaches, and cherries. Hay and grains are produced, often to support a scattered livestock trade that includes cattle, sheep, and goats. Principal minerals found in the Intermontane Region include coal, petroleum, and copper. The open-pit mine at Bingham Canyon, Utah, is the largest copper mine in the world, contributing to the U.S. position as the worldï¿½s second largest copper producer, after Chile. Tourism is also important for this region, which attracts people from all over the world. Dramatic scenery is provided by the highly differentiated landscape, exemplified by the Grand Canyon, Bryce Canyon, Zion Canyon, Mesa Verde, the Petrified Forest, Death Valley, the Wasatch Mountains, and the Great Salt Lake. B10c Population This Intermontane region has great cultural diversity. The Rocky Mountains are home to approximately 300,000 Native Americans, descendants of the original inhabitants. While Native Americans can be found in all states of the Intermontane region, they are concentrated in the Four Corners area of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. This area is dominated by the vast Navajo Indian Reservation; the Hopi Indian Reservation also lies within its boundaries (see Navajo (People); Hopi). The first European inhabitants of the area were the Spanish, who surveyed the region in search of mineral wealth. Southern areasï¿½the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texasï¿½border on Mexico and have large Hispanic populations. Street names, foods, and annual celebrations attest to strong historical links to Mexico. Many members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (commonly referred to as Mormons) live in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the churchï¿½s sphere of influence covers a much broader area. In the mid-1800s, Mormon farmers migrated to the area around Salt Lake City in search of an isolated area where they could practice their religion in peace. The rush to find gold and other precious minerals prompted sporadic movement into the area later in the 1800s. In general, the Intermontane Basins and Plateaus region is sparsely populated with few significant urban centers. In the 1990s, the overall rate of population growth in the region was high, particularly in the southern regions, as people were increasingly attracted to the mild winters, recreational opportunities, healthful climate, and year-round sunshine. The region has a high immigration rate, both legal and illegal, of citizens from Mexico who move into its southern margins (see Mexican Americans). Border communities have swelled as millions of Hispanics crossed the border to settle in the region. Historically, the population has remained scattered throughout the region until the last half of the 20th century, when many regional urban centers grew rapidly. The cities in the southern part have grown particularly quickly as increasing numbers of people are attracted to the dry, warm desert environment. Between 1960 and 1990, the metropolitan population of Las Vegas, Nevada, increased by six times, and that of Phoenix, Arizona, tripled. During the same time period, populations doubled in the metropolitan areas of Albuquerque, New Mexico; El Paso, Texas; and Tucson, Arizona. The largest city in the region is Phoenix, Arizona, with a metropolitan population of 2.8 million (1997 estimate). Other urban centers include Salt Lake City, Utah; Tucson, Arizona; Las Vegas, Nevada; El Paso, Texas; and Albuquerque, New Mexico. These cities serve as regional market centers, and some of them also have specialized economies. For example, Las Vegas, one of the fastest growing urban areas in the United States with a population of 1.3 million (1997 estimate), is known for legalized gambling. El Paso, with a metropolitan population of 702,000, is closely connected economically and culturally with the neighboring Mexican border city, Ciudad Juï¿½rez. El Paso serves as a gateway and a destination for Hispanic migrants to the United States. B11 The California Region This geographic region encompasses most of the settled part of the state of California, including the coastal area stretching from the northern border of Mexico to north of San Francisco. In the north, the region ends at the northern Coast Ranges, the Klamath Mountains, and the southern Cascades. The eastern boundary falls along the edges of the Sierra Nevada mountains and the Peninsular Ranges of Baja California. To the southeast, the region borders the desert lowlands of Death Valley and the Mojave Desert, and the area around the Salton Sea and the Imperial Valley. Although extremely diverse physically and culturally, this region is generally characterized by productive agriculture, a Mediterranean climate with dry summers and warm, dry winters, extensive urban development, and the presence of high-technology industries. B11a Natural Features There are three broad subregions within this area: the coastal mountains, valleys, and plains; the Central Valley; and the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The coastal mountains parallel the coastline and display prominent fault lines, of which the most widely known is the San Andreas. The coastal plain is narrow and heavily populated and includes giant metropolitan areas, specifically San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Oakland. The Central Valley consists of a broad trough, 100 to 160 km (60 to 100 mi) wide and more than 720 km (450 mi) long, filled with sediment carried down in runoff from nearby mountains. The valley of the Sacramento River dominates the northern portion, and the San Joaquin River dominates the southern half. The Sierra Nevadas are rugged, fault-block mountains with evidence of glacial erosion, such as the impressive deep-cut valleys of Yosemite National Park. The California region lies at the convergence of the North American and Pacific tectonic crustal plates. Tectonic plates are large blocks of the earthï¿½s crust that are moving slowly across the surface of the earth. As these plates collide and grind against each other, they generate tremendous energy. See Plate Tectonics. In California, the forces generated by the friction of these plates create an unstable crustal zone that causes severe earthquakes. Major fault lines trend in a northwest to southeast direction and much of the area's landscape is adorned with fault lines and other characteristic fault features. B11b Economy The California economy is robust and very diversified. The state leads the nation in agricultural production, relying heavily on irrigation. Principal crops include cotton, hay, citrus fruits, and vegetables. The making of wine is also a major industry. Dairy farming, as well as cattle and chicken production, are also important. Most of these endeavors are supported by irrigation, and aqueducts transfer much of the water from areas that receive more precipitation, such as the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. In the southern part of the state, the main industries include aircraft manufacturing, oil refining, aerospace technology, electronics, printing and publishing, and the movie and entertainment industry. In the north, the economy is quite different, with an emphasis on high technology, government activities, and insurance and banking services. In both the north and the south, tourism is prominent, and Los Angeles and San Francisco are major convention destinations. In the Central Valley, food processing and transportation are important, with the larger cities serving as regional marketing centers. B11c Population Approximately 32 million people live in the California region. Californiaï¿½s population growth has been one of the most impressive stories in the historical development of the United States. People moved to California to take advantage of the mild, Mediterranean climate, the abundant resources, and the promise of prosperity. Growth has been due in part to migration from other states, but also to foreign immigration, some legal and some not. In any case, the regionï¿½s population is very diverse. It accounts for more that a third of the nationï¿½s Armenians, Chinese, Filipinos, Iranians, Japanese, Koreans, Mexicans, and Vietnamese. B11d Cities California is a state of giant cities and urban sprawl. According to the Bureau of the Census, the greater Los Angeles metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is the second largest MSA in the United States, and San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose is the nationï¿½s fifth largest MSA. Other big urban centers include San Diego, Sacramento, and the cities of the Central Valley, including Stockton, Fresno, and Bakersfield. B12 The Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest region is a strip 300 km (200 mi) wide of mountainous land that stretches along the coastline of northern California, Oregon, and Washington. The southern and eastern boundaries of the region are defined by the Cascade Range, while a series of coastal ranges, including the Coast Ranges, the Klamath Mountains, and the Olympic Mountains, skirt the western boundary along the Pacific coastline. The Canadian border defines the northern boundary of the area, though the geographic characteristics continue northward through Canada into southwestern Alaska. Lying between the coastal ranges and the interior mountains is an inner trough, including the Willamette Valley in Oregon and Puget Sound in Washington. The region is characterized by spectacular scenery, mountainous terrain, a temperate marine climate with abundant precipitation, significant natural resources, and a population which lives in relative remoteness on the western fringes of the United States, isolated in part by substantial physical barriers. B12a Natural Features The Coast Ranges and the Cascade Mountains dominate the terrain of the Pacific Northwest. These two north-south mountain systems run in ridges parallel to the Pacific Coast. Most of the population of the Pacific Northwest lives in the lowlands between these two mountain systems. Another major geographic feature of the Pacific Northwest is the Columbia River, one of the nationï¿½s largest rivers. It cuts through a deep gorge in the Cascade Mountains along the border between Washington and Oregon before crossing lower-elevations of the coastal mountains to empty into the Pacific. The Cascade Mountains extend almost due north and south across central Washington, Oregon, and northern California. The mountains lie about 160 to 240 km (about 100 to 150 mi) inland from the Pacific Coast. The higher elevations of the Cascades have a continuous snow cover. A number of east-west highways built through passes provide fairly easy travel through these mountains, except in winter, when they are periodically blocked by snow. The Cascades include a series of volcanic peaks, including Mount Rainier, which rises (4,392 m/14,410 ft), Mount Adams (3,742 m/12,276 ft), and Mount Baker (3,285 m/10,778 ft) in Washington; Mount Hood (3,426 m/11,239 ft) in Oregon; and Mount Shasta at (4,317 m/14,162 ft) in California. Some of these volcanoes are still active, including Mount Saint Helens in Washington(2,550 m/8,365 ft), which erupted violently on May 18, 1980, blowing 400 m (1,300 ft) in elevation from the peak and sending a column of ash as high as 19 km (12 mi) high. In addition, the region experiences periodic mild earthquakes. To the west of the Cascades lies a depression containing Oregonï¿½s Willamette Valley and Washingtonï¿½s Puget Sound. In the south end of the depression, the winding Willamette River drains Oregonï¿½s central Willamette Valley before entering the Columbia River at Portland. The lowland depression continues north into Washington, where it submerges beneath Puget Sound, an inland extension of the Pacific Ocean lined with jagged peninsulas. The sound contains more than 300 islands, including the San Juan Islands. The Strait of Juan de Fuca provides shipping access to Puget Sound. The strait cuts west at the northern end of the sound and separates Canadaï¿½s Vancouver Island from Washingtonï¿½s Olympic Peninsula. To the west, the Olympic Mountains on the Olympic Peninsula are the northernmost of the U.S. Coast Ranges. Because they rise from a dense coniferous forest that lies just above sea level, the Olympics are among the most visually impressive peaks in the United States. They reach a maximum elevation of 2,428 m (7,965 ft) at Mount Olympus. The Coast Ranges continue south through the Oregon Coast Range and the Klamath Mountains before continuing down through California and the Baja California peninsula in northwestern Mexico. B12b Economy The Pacific Northwest has a large but limited natural resource base, leading to an economy that is not highly diversified. The areaï¿½s abundant precipitation and temperate climate support dense, coniferous forests, which are the basis of the regionï¿½s dominance in the production of lumber, plywood, particleboard, pulp, and paper. Mountainous terrain and high levels of precipitation have provided this region with an enormous hydroelectric potential, focused on a system of dams and power-generating plants located on the Columbia and Snake rivers. The mountainous terrain means that little land is suitable for agriculture, and dairy farming and grazing are the primary agrarian activities. Other agricultural activities include the growing of fruits, vegetables, grass seeds, mint, and hardier grain crops. The waters of the Pacific Northwest coast are ranked as one of the major fishing centers of the world. Salmon is the most important fish commercially, but the region has significant catches of herring, halibut, pollack, cod, and shellfish. Additional economic activities in the region include the aerospace industry, shipping, high-technology enterprises, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of wood products. B12c Population Regional population has remained relatively low, though two major urban centers have developed in the region. Portland, Oregon, is a dominant commercial center at the mouth of the Columbia River, and Seattle, Washington, is a large urbanized development on the shores of Puget Sound. B13 Alaska The Alaska region includes the entire state of Alaska and encompasses approximately one-sixth of the total landmass of the United States, with about 1,600,000 sq km (about 615,000 sq mi) in area. The region is a sparsely populated area of vast wilderness and spectacular natural beauty, with varieties of animal life that are unique in the United States. Long winters, short summers, and large seasonal fluctuations in the length of days and nights characterize the harsh arctic climate that exists in much of this region. The exception is the narrow area that runs along the southeastern coast, where long, mild, wet winters and short, dry summers predominate. B13a Natural Features The topography of the region is extremely varied, with mountainous zones in southern and central Alaska, narrow coastal areas in the southwestern portion, and sweeping coastal plains to the north. The Alaska Range occupies south central Alaska, while the Wrangell Mountains skirt the southeastern Alaskan coastline along the border with Canada. The arctic portion of Alaska is composed largely of flat, featureless coastal plains bounded in part by the massive Brooks Mountain Range. Conifer forests, often referred to as taiga, dominate Central Alaska, covering relatively flat terrain stretching hundreds of miles. Water, found in countless lakes and in extensive river basins such as the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, is abundant in the region. B13b Economy A few specialized activities dominate the regionï¿½s commercial economy, including fishing in the waters off southwestern Alaska, logging activities, reindeer herding on the Seward Peninsula, and extensive oil and gas exploration along Prudhoe Bay, located on the north coast along the Arctic Ocean. Alaskaï¿½s North Slope provides one-fifth of all U.S. oil production, ranking second in yield after Texas. B13c Population A harsh environment, remote location, and inadequate transportation have kept the population in Alaska small. Historically, the Inuit (often referred to as Eskimos) lived in widely scattered settlements and relied on subsistence activities, such as hunting, fishing, and trapping. More recently, the trend has been toward larger concentrations of settlements. Some 15,000 whites have moved into the region, many of whom are military personnel, government employees, or oil company workers. Anchorage, the dominant population and economic center in Alaska, contains approximately half of the stateï¿½s inhabitants, with a population of 260,283 (2000). Other large communities include Fairbanks and Juneau, the state capital. B14 Hawaii The 2,600-kilometer-long (1,600-mile-long) string of tropical islands, islets, and reefs known as the Hawaiian Islands is the smallest geographic region in the United States, covering a total area of 16,729 sq km (6,459 sq mi). The region is located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, more than 3,200 km (2,000 mi) southwest of California. The majority of the land area is concentrated on eight islands, with the largest and easternmost island of Hawaii possessing almost twice as much area as the other seven major islands combined. Hawaii is the only island state of the United States. It has a tropical climate and spectacular mountain scenery that attracts millions of tourists each year. The population is varied, composed of a mix of Asian immigrants, native Hawaiians, and settlers from the U.S. mainland. B14a Natural Features Lying in a line that extends from southeast to northwest, the Hawaiian Islands themselves are the visible portion of a submarine mountain range, built through volcanic activity. The bases of these volcanoes lie some 5,000 m (18,000 ft) below sea level on the deep ocean floor of the mid-Pacific. The islands formed as the Pacific crustal plate moved slowly over a geological hot spot that sent an upwelling of magma, or molten lava, toward the earthï¿½s surface. This process gradually created each of the islands. The older islands, located in the west, are no longer volcanically active. They display various degrees of erosion, which often creates rugged and visually impressive terrain. The big island of Hawaii in the east is the only island that remains volcanically active. The mountainous terrain, characterized by steep slopes, precipitous cliffs, and rugged canyons, dominates the physical environment of Hawaii. The two highest volcanic peaks in the region, both found on the big island of Hawaii, are Mauna Kea (elevation 4,205 m/13,796 ft), and Mauna Loa (elevation 4,170 m/13,680 ft). Mauna Loa is the worldï¿½s largest active volcano, estimated to have collectively discharged more lava than any other volcano in history. Lava and ash have covered thousands of acres of land, displaced entire communities, and disrupted transportation on the islands. During eruptions, lava often pours into the ocean, generating steam clouds and super heating coastal waters. B14b Economy Tourism has become the most lucrative and fastest growing sector of the Hawaiian economy as 6.5 million visitors find their way to the region each year. Tourists crossing the Pacific from either direction stop to take advantage of the mild climate, the extraordinary scenery, and the ocean beaches. Defense expenditures generate the second highest amount of wealth in the area, with the federal government employing almost 20 percent of Hawaiiï¿½s labor force. Hawaii is the headquarters of the U.S. Navyï¿½s Pacific Command because of its strategic location in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Hawaii has 582,747 hectares (1,440,000 acres) of farmland, devoted to sugarcane, pineapples, and tropical specialty crops, such as coffee. However, most of Hawaiiï¿½s agricultural land is used for cattle ranching. B14c Population In 2002 Hawaiiï¿½s population was 1,244,898 and was very diverse, with no single ethnic group forming a majority. The original island inhabitants are thought to be Polynesian, or Pacific Islanders, who may have arrived as early as ad 750. Beginning in the mid-1800s, immigrants from China, Japan, the Philippines, Korea, Samoa, and other Pacific islands moved to Hawaii in response to U.S. sugar plantersï¿½ need for inexpensive labor. According to the 2000 census, people of Asian ancestry make up 41.6 percent of Hawaiiï¿½s permanent population. In recent years, a large influx of whites has added to the rich and complex ï¿½melting potï¿½ found in the Hawaiian region. During the 1980s, Hawaiiï¿½s population grew by 23 percent, with the majority of this growth occurring in the city of Honolulu, located on the central island of Oahu. Honolulu is the major city of the islands and the state capital. Approximately 75 percent of Hawaiiï¿½s citizens live in this metropolitan area, making it the stateï¿½s dominant economic, political, and population center. The islandsï¿½ other main urban centers, also located on Oahu, include Aiea, Kailua, Kaneohe, Pearl City, and Waipahu. All have fewer than 50,000 residents. IV CLIMATES AND CLIMATIC REGIONS Many people confuse weather with climate. Although the two are closely related, they have distinctly different meanings. Weather changes from day to day and sometimes from one hour to the next. It involves the temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind factors at a particular time. Short-term decisions about matters such as whether to play baseball during the afternoon or carry an umbrella to work are based on weather. Climate, however, represents weather conditions over extended periods of time. Repeating cycles of precipitation and temperature, along with complex interactions of wind patterns and seasonal sun, give us our climates. Long-term decisions about storing heating fuels, planning for irrigation, raising particular crops, or choosing particular features for housing designs all require a consideration of climate. The United States is a large country, and different types of climates are found in different parts of the country. A Climate and Soil Climate has a profound effect on soil composition. Soil types are composed of minerals, organic matter (decaying plant and animal material), water, and air. Soils differ depending on how much of these different ingredients they contain, and climate contributes to those differences. Climatic conditions, such as high wind and heavy rain, can accelerate the breakup of rocks into the small particles that form the basic material of soil. In addition, precipitation controls the movement of nutrients and chemicals in soils. For example, continuous heavy rains can cause leaching, a percolating process that carries away minerals that support plant life. Climate also affects soils indirectly by acting through vegetation and animal life. A favorable climate that supports a large number of plants and animals may produce more productive soil due to the presence of humus, decaying plant and animal material that adds rich nutrients to the soil. In the United States, soil characteristics vary considerably by climatic region. For example, soils in cooler continental climates are known as podzols, a soil type that is not very fertile. The leaching action of heavy rain and water runoff removes many of the nutrients from podzols. Lateritic soils, one of the least fertile soil types, are found in wetter and hotter climates. They are the dominant soil type in the southeast, particularly in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Rich, dark soils called chernozems are found in the Midwest and in grassland areas to the west. These are some of the richest soils in the world. B Climate and Ecological Systems Climate plays a crucial role in establishing a regionï¿½s ecological system. Climate influences the processes that make soil, and it interacts with the soil to determine what plants and animals are able to live in a particular place. A dry, hot climate with poor soil will limit the variety of plants and animals to those specially adapted to survive on small amounts of water and few nutrients. On the other hand, a wet and warm climate with productive soil will promote a rich and varied range of plant and animal species. Climate also influences the living habits of humans. Individuals in regions with severe winters wear heavy clothing to protect themselves from the cold, and they live in houses that are insulated for warmth. Those who reside in tropical regions wear lighter clothing and live in houses with maximum ventilation for relief from the heat. Economically, climate has a strong effect on agricultural activities. In climates that have long warm seasons and plentiful rain, agricultural crops thrive, but in drier regions, cattle ranching tends to be more prominent. In order to understand all of the complexities of climates, geographers have long classified them according to temperature, moisture, and vegetation. As a result, unique plant varieties came to be associated with certain climatic regions. Also, animal groups depend on particular kinds of vegetation for food. When a natural interactive system of plants and animals develops, it is called an ecosystem. It includes the living organismsï¿½plants, animals, bacteria, and virusesï¿½as well as the nourishing matter they depend on. Nonliving matter includes water, soil nutrients, oxygen, and carbon dioxide from the air. Ecosystems consist of all the plants and animals in a specific area and the ways in which they interact with nonliving elements of the environment. Ecosystems exist in water (both fresh and salt water) and on land, and they also include interactions with atmospheric influences. Examples of natural ecosystems are the equatorial and tropical zone rain forests, the monsoon forests, subtropical evergreen forests, midlatitude deciduous forests, cold needle-leaf forests, tall grass prairie, semideserts, desert, and arctic and alpine tundra. C Climatic Regions of the United States Because of its midlatitude location and vast size, the United States experiences a wide variety of climates. At one extreme are the tropical islands of Hawaii; at the other, the arctic conditions of northern Alaska. The majority of Americans live between these two extremes in a group of climatic regions with unique moisture and temperature patterns. Geographers have traditionally divided the 48 contiguous United States into two broad patterns of continental climate: the humid East and the arid West. The dividing line most often used is 100 degrees west longitude, an imaginary north-south line extending through the Great Plains from Texas to North Dakota. The humid east receives abundant precipitation throughout the year. Winters in the northern part are very cold with much snowfall. In the southern part, rainfall is plentiful; summers are very hot but winters are mild. Because of its bountiful moisture, the humid east has also traditionally been a very important agricultural area. Once a land of vast forests, early settlers cleared the land as they moved westward. In some areas, cleared lands were cultivated, abused, exhausted, and eroded away. In other areas, vast forests have been replanted, as in the South, the Appalachians, and parts of the Midwest. A climatic transition zone occurs on either side of the 100 degrees west longitude line. The eastern woodlands gradually give way to tall grass prairies, which in turn give way to steppes, where short grasses flourish. Few natural tall grass prairies exist today on the Plains. Over the past few centuries, farmers cultivated and planted most of the region with corn or wheat. In the arid West, precipitation diminishes from east to west and eventually reaches the point where it becomes impossible to raise crops without irrigation. Some desert areas of Arizona, Nevada, and southern California receive less than 125 mm (5 in) of precipitation annually. The grazing of livestock is an important agricultural activity in these areas of mesquite bushes and cacti. Not all of the West is dry. In fact, one of the wettest areas of the United States is located in the Pacific Northwest. On the west-facing slopes of the Cascades and the Coast Ranges, moisture-laden winds blow from the Pacific Ocean and drop their rain on the mountain slopes. This type of mountain-induced rainfall is known as orographic precipitation. It occurs when wet air rises along the slope of a mountain. As the air moves upward into cooler temperature zones, it expands and cools, releasing the moisture as precipitation. Because of this effect, the climate of the Northwest is cool and moist, and the land is covered with vast, coniferous forests. C1 Humid Continental Climates The eastern part of the United States includes two climate types: Humid Continental and Subtropical. Humid Continental is the largest climate type in the United States. It has two subtypes: those areas with hot summers and those with warm summers. The Humid Continental climates are transitional climates between the severe Subarctic climate region in Canada and the warmer Humid Subtropical region of the southern and southeastern United States. These climates are battlegrounds between cold polar air masses surging southward and tropical air moving northward. Humid Continental climates have four distinct seasons and large variations in temperature. They are warm in summer and cold enough to sustain winter snow for some months. These climate zones were similar to the climates of Europe and allowed European settlers to continue farming as they had in their homelands. They established family farms and concentrated on raising crops and using some of the produce to feed the farmï¿½s livestock. Eventually, this system of general crop and livestock farming spread westward across the United States. C1a Humid Continental (Hot Summer) This subregion extends from the East Coast deep into the continental interior, south of the Great Lakes. Located between 35 and 45 degrees north latitude, it includes Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and southern New York, as well as New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, southern Wisconsin, and southern Michigan. Portions of neighboring states are also included. In this climate zone, winters are cold and summers are hot. January temperatures usually average below 0ï¿½ C (32ï¿½ F), while July temperatures average between 18ï¿½ C (65ï¿½ F) and 24ï¿½ C (75ï¿½ F). Summers are humid with thunderstorms that may produce hail or tornadoes. Annual precipitation averages from 500 to 1,000 mm (between 20 and 40 in). Long, hot summer days provide ideal conditions for rapid plant growth. Most of the regionï¿½s soils are alfisols and mollisols, soil types with a high clay content that retains nutrients. Nowhere else on the continent is there such a large area that combines fertile soils with a humid climate. The ecosystem generated by this climate supports hardwood forests and grasses. Hardwood forests consist primarily of trees possessing broad leaves, including species such as oaks, elms, hickories, sugar maples, aspens, poplars, and cottonwoods. As settlers established farms, the tall, stiff-stemmed wild grasses that originally grew in this climatic region gave way to cultivated crops. The famous Corn Belt of the Midwest lies within this climatic region. Corn, soybeans, alfalfa, and hay are significant crops. In the Middle Atlantic area, vegetable gardening is found on the sandy soils of the New Jersey and Delaware coastal plain. C1b Humid Continental (Warm Summer) The "warm summer" subregion lies farther north than the "hot summer" area. It falls roughly from 45 degrees to 60 degrees north latitude. It lies astride the United States-Canadian border and includes most of the Great Lakes region. States in this climate zone are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, upper New York, upper Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, as well as North Dakota, part of South Dakota, Montana, and sections of surrounding states. Winters in this area are harsh; snow remains on the ground for periods of up to five months. January average temperatures are less than -15ï¿½ C (5ï¿½ F). Summers, on the other hand, are pleasantly cool but short, with average monthly temperatures ranging from 18ï¿½ C to 20ï¿½ C (64ï¿½ F to 68ï¿½ F). This region is famous for its large annual temperature range. The difference between a warm summer day and a cold winter night may be as much as 40ï¿½ C (100ï¿½ F). For much of the region, the frost-free period is less than 150 days per year. The cool, short summers are not especially conducive to farming. Precipitation is ample in all months; annual precipitation averages 800 mm (32 in). In the summer, precipitation is high when thunderstorms form along moving cold fronts and squall lines. Much of the winter precipitation is snow, which remains on the ground for long periods. The western area of prairie is a bit drier than the east. The soils vary in the region, but spodosols are dominant. They are naturally poor soils in terms of agricultural productivity. Fertile mollisol soils are found in the Great Plains in the western part of the region. These soils support grasslands. Much of this region was originally covered with a mixture of woodland and forest. The vegetation in the area has changed since the arrival of European settlers, who introduced nonnative trees and plants to the region. In the 20th century, dominant tree species included pitch pine, oak, hickory, and maple. Around the Great Lakes, dairy farming became important because dairy cattle can graze on the rich grass that grows in this moist climate. The Great Lakes region is the dairy center of the United States and is well known for the production of cheese and butter. Potatoes and other root crops, along with hay and some hardy grains, are the primary agricultural crops. C2 Humid Subtropical This climate region, characterized by long, hot, sultry summers, is found in the southeastern United States. North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and portions of surrounding states are included. In some areas, the growing season lasts for eight months or more. Temperatures average 26ï¿½ C (80ï¿½ F) in the summer and range from 4ï¿½ C to 10ï¿½ C (40ï¿½ F to 50ï¿½ F) in the winter. The Humid Subtropical climate receives ample precipitation, averaging about 760 mm (30 in) annually in the western part of the region to more than 1,500 mm (60 in) per year in the southern part. Most precipitation occurs in the summer months as rainfall. A polar air mass can push southward and bring an infrequent snowstorm, but snow seldom stays on the ground for more than a few days. Ultisols are the dominant soil type of this climatic region. This red soil is less fertile because abundant summer rainfall leaches mineral nutrients from the topsoil. Without fertilizers, these soils can support crops for only two or three years before nutrients are exhausted. The use of fertilizer extends land use in this climatic region. The natural vegetation in the Humid Subtropical climate zone is the subtropical evergreen forest. This forest occurs in two forms: broadleaf and needle-leaf. The subtropical broadleaf evergreen forest often has a well-developed lower layer of vegetation, including ferns, small palms, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. The subtropical needle-leaf evergreen forest of the southeastern United States is known as the southern pine forest. Loblolly and slash pines dominate the uplands. Bald cypress grows in the swamps of this area. Timber companies have created many plantations in the area yielding valuable lumber and pulp. The long growing season, ample precipitation, and the substantial use of fertilizers and other additives necessary for high, sustained crop yields makes this region an important agricultural area. Rapid tree growth supports the pulp, plywood, and lumbering industries. Specialty crops such as tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, citrus fruits, and rice are also grown. C3 Semiarid The Semiarid climates are found in sections of the Great Plains regions, parts of Texas, New Mexico, the intermontane basin of Nevada, parts of eastern Washington and Oregon, and sections of neighboring states. This climate is a transitional one between the desert types and the humid types. The temperature range is extreme. During winter the temperature can drop as low as -1ï¿½ C (30ï¿½ F). Summer temperatures often are in the upper 30ï¿½s C (lower 100ï¿½s F). Average temperatures vary across this large region extending from Canada to Mexico. For example, in eastern Washington state, January temperatures range from less than -7ï¿½ C (20ï¿½ F) to -1ï¿½ C (30ï¿½ F) and often drop down to -18ï¿½ C (0ï¿½ F). July averages are from 18ï¿½ to 24ï¿½ C (65ï¿½ to 75ï¿½ F). Temperatures are considerably higher in Las Vegas, Nevada, located at the southern end of the region. The average July temperature is 32ï¿½ C (90ï¿½ F) and the highest temperature ever recorded there was 48ï¿½ C (118ï¿½ F). The average high temperature in Las Vegas in January is in the lower 10ï¿½s C (lower 50ï¿½s F) and average lows are near freezing. Annual rainfall is from 250 to 500 mm (from 10 to 20 in), which is enough to support grasses but not enough to maintain a forest cover. Rainfall in the semiarid climate is sparse and unpredictable. The regionï¿½s aridisol soil is alkaline and supports very sparse vegetation. With irrigation, it can support crops but not without encountering problems such as salt buildup and waterlogging. Despite these problems, the steppe grasslands are used for some grain cultivation. Hay and alfalfa are common agricultural products. The steppe has a vegetation type consisting of short grasses occurring in sparse clumps or bunches. Scattered shrubs and low trees may also be found there. The steppe occupies vast regions of semidesert. Cattle, sheep, and angora goats are adaptable to the steppe, where they graze over vast acres of open range. Skunks, raccoons, coyotes, snakes, rodents, and pronghorns also inhabit the ecosystem. America's Wheat Belt lies on the Great Plains. In the southern portion (Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado) farmers sow winter wheat in the fall to be harvested in the spring. In the northern part (North Dakota, South Dakota and parts of Montana), where winters are more severe, farmers sow the seeds in the spring and harvest the crop in the fall. C4 Desert The most arid climate in the United States is found in the Southwest. This area comprises southern inland California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Nevada and Texas. Sections of neighboring states are also included. Moisture is meager and erratic. The area receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rainfall annually. High temperatures cause any moisture to evaporate rapidly. Many areas with arid climates can be found on the dry side of mountain ranges. These mountains create a rain-shadow effect, with a belt of arid climate to the leeward side (the side opposite the prevailing winds) of the mountain barrier. Air that has released its moisture while passing over the mountain summit descends the leeward slopes of the range and is compressed. Cooling no longer occurs, and cloud droplets and ice crystals evaporate. The air continues to warm as it descends. By the time it reaches the base of the mountain, the air is hot and dry because it has released its moisture. Temperatures are higher in the desert than in any other climatic region because clear desert skies allow the earthï¿½s surface to heat up rapidly during the day. In the evening, temperatures drop quickly, resulting in great variations in temperature within a 24-hour period. Winter is brief and mild. Summer is long and scorchingly hot. Temperatures during the hottest months average from 29ï¿½ C to 35ï¿½ C (from 85ï¿½ F to 95ï¿½ F), and the midday readings of 40ï¿½ C to 43ï¿½ C (105ï¿½ F to 110ï¿½ F) are common. The winter daily maximum usually averages 18ï¿½ C to 24ï¿½ C (65ï¿½ F to 75ï¿½ F). Winter nights are chilly, averaging 7ï¿½ C to 13ï¿½ C (45ï¿½ F to 55ï¿½ F). Soils in the desert climate are classified as aridisols. They are low in organic matter and high in salts. Humus is lacking because the climate supports only a very sparse vegetation. Vegetation has adapted to conditions in the desert. Cacti and other succulent plants store water in their thick leaves. Shrubs especially adapted to the desert, such as sagebrush and creosote bush, have special forms of roots and stems. Their waxy leaves help them limit water loss. Because there is little moisture in the soil, the ground between plants is generally barren in the desert. Some desert plants are small flowering annuals that can remain dormant for long periods and quickly germinate when water becomes available. Following a rare shower, the desert landscape is often painted with brightly colored flowers that bloom for a brief period. Like the plants, animals that live in deserts have become adapted so that they require less water. Most desert animals have small bodies, which help them more easily dissipate heat. Some burrow into the ground when the hot sun beats down and then come out at night to feed. Small desert animals include mice, hares, rabbits, kangaroo rats, and spade foot toads. Among the larger desert animals are the coyote, and mule deer. Historically, few people have lived in desert regions. Settlements occurred only where a natural oasis or a permanently flowing stream existed. The desert was extremely marginal land that was used for occasional grazing of cattle, sheep, and goats. However, many deserts have soils rich in the minerals that plants need to grow. When these deserts are irrigated, they grow abundant and useful crops such as vegetables, fruits, and grains. With the ability to pump groundwater, divert streams, and build dams and reservoirs, the desert Southwest boomed. Large urban settlements, retirement communities, and irrigated agriculture all expanded. However, in many areas, groundwater is being withdrawn from aquifers (underground reserves of water) faster than the aquifers are being recharged. Consequently the future of water supplies in California and the Southwest has become a matter of serious concern for residents and businesses that depend on groundwater. C5 Mediterranean The Mediterranean climate of central and coastal California is characterized by dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The name was given to this climate because it is also found in areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Summer temperatures range from 20ï¿½ to 25ï¿½ C (70ï¿½ to 80ï¿½ F), and winter temperatures are a mild 4ï¿½ to 10ï¿½ C (40ï¿½ to 50ï¿½ F). The average precipitation of 360 mm to 640 mm (14 in to 26 in) per year occurs during the cool winter season and contrasts sharply to the area's dry summer months. There is a complex variety of soils in this region, which vary greatly in moisture, temperature, slope, and elevation. The Mediterranean climate pattern reverses the traditional growing seasons: Plants thrive in the wet winter and wither during the dry summer. In order to survive the dry summers, plants have developed deep taproots, thick bark, and leathery leaves to obtain and conserve moisture. These types of plants are called sclerophylls. Trees are relatively small, with branches close to the ground and gnarled trunks. Chaparral, a low-growing woody shrub, dominates the valleys and lower mountain slopes. Sclerophyll forests grow along the California Coast Ranges, where live oak and white oak dominate. Grassland occupies the open ground between the scattered oaks. Game birds include grouse, mourning doves, and quail. Deer, foxes, minks, wildcats, wolverines, and a few mountain sheep roam the mountain and forest areas. To allow crops to grow during the summer months, large-scale irrigation projects have been constructed. Most irrigation occurs in the Great Valley of California, where the Central Valley Water Project provides water through a series of dams and aqueducts. Irrigation has transformed this area into a region of high productivity; the total value of farm products sold in California is higher than in any other state. In the 1990s California with its numerous vineyards was the major wine producer in the nation. The climatic conditions and rich alluvial soils in valleys allow California farmers to grow more than 200 different crops, making the state one of the nation's leading agricultural producers. Dairy cows, livestock, and poultry also flourish. C6 Marine West Coast The Marine West Coast climate stretches from northern California through the coastal sections of Oregon, Washington, and southern Alaska. Mild winters and summers distinguish this climate, even though inland climates at the same latitude have bitter winters and hot summers. In the Marine West Coast region, summer temperature averages range from 15ï¿½ C to 20ï¿½ C (from 59ï¿½ F to 68ï¿½ F), and the coldest months have a temperature range of 4ï¿½ C to 10ï¿½ C (40ï¿½ F to 50ï¿½ F). These locations receive the prevailing westerly winds, which bring moist air off the Pacific Ocean. The Marine Northwest experiences frequent storms involving cool, moist air masses. Where the coast is mountainous, the moist air from the ocean rises as it climbs over the mountains and releases its moisture; the result is high annual precipitation with extensive cloud development and profuse rainfall. With the exception of a few warm, sunny summer months, the area experiences fog, drizzle, and gray, leaden skies almost daily. The annual total rainfall may be as much as 1,450 mm (57 in), most of which falls during the winter months. The region has thin podzol soil, which is poor in agricultural productivity because of excess acidity. Farmers must apply lime and heavy fertilizers to make agriculture viable. Agricultural crops include deciduous fruits (apples and pears), berries, grapes, winter wheat, and horticultural items. Because of the mild winters and lush grasses, dairy farming is also an important agricultural activity. The Marine West Coast is a land of magnificent coniferous forests with huge stands of tall trees, particularly Douglas fir. In California, some giant sequoias, known as redwoods, reach heights of more than 90 m (300 ft). C7 Subarctic The Subarctic climate is found in most of interior Alaska, reaching as far north as the Arctic Circle (60ï¿½ north latitude), where it gives way to a Tundra climate zone. Summer is very brief in the Subarctic climate and lasts for one to three months. Summer temperatures average about 10ï¿½ C (50ï¿½ F). Winter arrives as early as October. During winter some areas experience average temperatures of less than -15ï¿½ C (5ï¿½ F) for at least three or four months. Precipitation is usually less than 500 mm (20 in) annually, and most falls as rain during the brief summer. During the winter, when the region is dominated by cold, dry air masses, precipitation is meager. Snow may accumulate to depths of one foot or more. Because the earthï¿½s axis is tilted, daylight hours vary considerably in the extreme northern latitudes of Alaska. During the summer months, when the North Pole tilts toward the sun, days average 17 to 22 hours of sunlight. During the winter, when the pole tilts away from the sun, nights with 18 hours or more of darkness are the rule. The soils of the Subarctic climate are inceptisols, which form primarily from minerals that are broken down by frost action and glacial grinding. Inceptisols are young, undeveloped soils that tend to easily lose their mineral content. Layers of peat, a dark brown organic matter composed of partially decayed vegetation, are often present between the mineral layers. One characteristic of the Subarctic climate is permafrost, permanently frozen subsoil. Summer warmth thaws only the upper 1 to 4 m (3 to 12 ft) of frozen soil. Because surface water cannot drain into the frozen subsoil, swamp and bog conditions develop during the summer months. These wetlands become home to countless mosquitoes and black flies. Permafrost requires that buildings be constructed to prevent heat losses. Escaping heat can melt adjacent frozen subsoils, causing construction projects to slowly sink into saturated soils. Although the ground is waterlogged during the summer, the soil is frozen much of the year, and water is accessible to plant roots only during the short warm season. Many of the regionï¿½s trees are xerophytic in nature, meaning that they have adapted to dry weather conditions by developing special features that allow them to retain water. The Subarctic contains a vast needle-leaf type of forest known as taiga. The forest consists of relatively few tree species, including the jack pine, balsam fir, white and black spruce, poplar, and willow trees. On the shaded forest floor, vegetation is meager; mosses and lichens are the most common plant forms. Animal life is not as abundant as in the midlatitude forests further south. Caribou, wolf, bear, fox, otter, mink, ermine, squirrel, lynx, and sable inhabit the Subarctic. Trapping is an important occupation, as animals living in the cold climate tend to grow heavy fur pelts. This area is not highly favorable for human settlement because the growing season is short and the impoverished soils of the region limit agricultural opportunities. A few crops, such as potatoes and hardy grain, are raised in this climate. The sparse population of the area supports itself by logging, fishing, and mining, and by trapping animals. C8 Tundra Tundra climate extends north of the Arctic Circle, from the Subarctic region to the Arctic Ocean. Like the Subarctic region, the Tundra experiences extremely long periods of daylight in the summer and extended periods of darkness during winter months. Here, only two to six months of the ï¿½warmï¿½ season are above freezing, and frost may occur on any day of the year. The average temperature for July, the warmest month, never exceeds 10ï¿½ C (50ï¿½ F). Temperatures vary according to location, but data recorded at the weather station at Barrow, Alaska, the northernmost community in the United States, show average temperatures of ï¿½25ï¿½ C (ï¿½13ï¿½ F) for January and 4ï¿½Cï¿½ (39ï¿½ F) for July. Annual precipitation is less than 360 mm (less than 14 in), and much of the precipitation falls during the warm season in the form of rain or occasional wet snows. The meager winter snowfall is usually dry and powdery so that it forms a very compact cover. Frequently, the small amount of snow that falls is blown by strong winds. Since no forests break the force of the wind or anchor the snow cover, the wind blows the snow into drifts while leaving patches of bare ground. Tundra soils are largely undeveloped inceptisols. More specifically Tundra soil is of the subdivision cryaquepts, meaning ï¿½icy cold,ï¿½ because permafrost appears close to the surface at a depth of about 40 to 60 cm (16 to 24 in). When not frozen, the top layer of soil is permanently saturated with water, and the prevailing soil conditions are those of a bog. Unlike bogs found in the midlatitudes, the Arctic regionï¿½s large areas cannot be drained and are unsuited to agriculture. Better-drained sites of the Arctic fringe regions have soils that are slightly richer in organic material. There are no trees; natural vegetation consists of mosses, lichens, short bushes, and sedges. These plants provide food for grazing caribou, musk ox, and reindeer. Seals, walruses, and whales are found in adjacent seas. Polar bears roam the shore and nearby ice floes to search for seals and other marine creatures. C9 Tropical Rain Forest Hawaii, a chain of islands more than 3,000 km (2,000 mi) from the mainland, is the only U.S. state outside North America and the only one with a Tropical Rain Forest climate. Hawaiiï¿½s rain forests thrive in wet windward locations (essentially the northeast sides of the islands). Steady trade winds blowing from the northeast push moist ocean air over the land. As moisture-laden winds rise over the islandï¿½s volcanic mountains, the air expands, cools, and becomes incapable of retaining moisture. Heavy rains result. As the same air descends on the leeward side of a mountain (the side away from the wind), it contracts, becomes warmer, and absorbs more moisture; thus rainfall is unlikely. For example, Mount Waialeale, on the island of Kauai, is the wettest place on earth, with an average of 11,455 mm (451 in) of rain annually. Yet the city of Honolulu, located on the dry southern coast of Oahu, faces water shortages with a 640-mm (25-in) average annual rainfall. Although the islands lie within the hot climate zone of the tropics, the continuous Northeast trade winds produce pleasant sea breezes that moderate the temperature. July temperatures average around 21ï¿½ C (70ï¿½ F), and winter temperatures are only slightly lower. The average soil in agricultural areas is red (due to high iron content), moderately fertile, and relatively productive for agriculture. Most of the soils are highly weathered, and water has leached much of the humus from the soil. The better-watered areas are noted for thick growth of tropical trees and shrubs. In dry areas, the dominant vegetation includes xerophytic plants, which have special characteristics to retain moisture. The Hawaiian Island chain is one of the most remote groups of islands in the world, isolated from the worldï¿½s continents by the vast expanses of the Pacific Ocean. This isolation engendered a variety of native plants and animals. Although the islands have a limited variety of species, these exhibit many unusual characteristics. Nearly 15 bird species and all native varieties of plants are unique to the islands. Only one species of mammal, the hoary bat, is native to the island. Because of human carelessness, numerous species of animals and plants are either rare or endangered. Both the hoary bat and monk seal are endangered, as well as 227 species of plants and 250 insects. Warm temperatures, abundant precipitation, and moderately fertile volcanic soils encourage the growth of tropical fruits and vegetables. Pineapples and sugar cane were the leading crops for a century, but agriculture at the end of the 20th century was more diverse. Specialty crops include papayas, macadamia nuts, and exotic flowers. Because of its tropical climate, Hawaii is the only place in the nation that raises coffee. V LAKES, RIVERS, AND COASTLINES Water features, including lakes, rivers, and coastlines, have played an important role in the development of the United States. For centuries, Native Americans used rivers, lakes, and coastal waters extensively for transportation and as a source of food and drinking water. Beginning in the 16th century, the first Europeans arrived by sea in what would become the United States, settling along coastal regions and exploring inland on water routes such as the Mississippi and St. Lawrence rivers and the Great Lakes. In the 17th and 18th centuries, English colonists in settlements along the Atlantic coast relied on sea trade with Europe, both as an origin of essential imports and a destination for exported goods. Before railroads were extended across the western frontier, settlers traveled by river as they moved away from coastal settlements into the interior of the continent. The Ohio River was the main water route leading to the old Northwest Territory west of the Appalachian Mountains. When the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from the French in 1803, the Mississippi and Missouri rivers provided access to the newly acquired lands of the west. Water transportation remains important to the American economy today. Shipping commodities by water is time-consuming but relatively inexpensive, especially for commodities that are bulky, but relatively inexpensive by weight, such as coal, wood products, petroleum, metallic ores, and foodstuffs. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and canals are used to carry enormous quantities of raw materials and finished products throughout the United States as well as to overseas destinations. The coastlines of the United States are dotted with port cities that serve as gateways for goods being exported from or imported into the country. The fresh water provided by U.S. lakes and rivers also plays an important role as a natural resource. Vast quantities of water must be available for basic daily activities, including drinking, cleaning, and washing, as well as for commercial activities, such as crop irrigation and industrial production. Arid regions of the nation, such as the desert Southwest and southern California, as well as many large U.S. cities, including New York and Los Angeles, have outgrown local supplies. Water must be piped to these locations from sources hundreds of miles away. Americans have addressed water distribution problems by building dams, reservoirs, and other engineering projects. The structures found in the eastern portion of the United States, such as the dams constructed in the Appalachian region, were built largely for flood control. Many of those located in the West were built primarily to irrigate arid land; one example is the Central Valley Project in California. See also Water Policy in the American West. These water control programs have important secondary uses, such as generating electricity and creating recreational opportunities. Hydroelectric facilities, particularly in the Pacific Northwest and in the Tennessee Valley, provide considerable electrical energy. The reservoirs behind many of the countryï¿½s larger dams afford a variety of recreational water activities that otherwise would not be available. A Major Lakes and River Systems Two enormous drainage systems dominate the U.S. landscape: the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River and the Mississippi-Missouri rivers drainage areas. More than 75 percent of the freight moved along U.S. inland waterways moves on these waterways. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River system serves the northern reaches of the country, from the Midwest to the eastern seaboard. The St. Lawrence Seaway, an extensive network of waterways and locks, allows ship traffic to pass between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. The Mississippi-Missouri River drainage system encompasses much of the central United States. The headwaters of the Mississippi are located in Lake Itasca in Minnesota, and the Missouri originates in the Rocky Mountain region of Montana. This huge system also includes the Ohio River, draining the Midwest and the northern segment of the Appalachian Mountains, and the Tennessee River, dominating the southern Appalachian region. Several other river systems have played important roles in the economic and cultural growth of the United States. In the Pacific Northwest, the Columbia River and its tributaries drain much of the northern Pacific coastal mountain ranges. The semiarid and arid lands of the Southwest get life-sustaining water from the Rï¿½o Grande and Colorado river systems. The Central Valley of California depends on irrigation networks linked to the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The rugged interior regions of Alaska have become accessible largely because of river transportation on the Yukon River and its tributaries. A1 Great Lakes The Great Lakes, forming the largest continuous freshwater body in the world, include five massive inland lakes (Superior, Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Erie), encompassing 244,100 sq km (94,250 sq mi) in the upper reaches of the midwestern United States. Lake Michigan is the only one of the lakes that is located entirely in the United States. The other four lakes lie on the border between the United States and Canada. Several thousand years ago, these enormous water features were shaped when an ice sheet extended over the region and created five large depressions. As the ice sheet receded, meltwater filled the basins and created the lakes. While many streams and rivers flow into the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence, beset with rapids and waterfalls, offers the only natural outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. During the early part of the 19th century, the Great Lakes were of only limited value as a transportation route because rapids and waterfalls prevented ships from traveling across the Great Lakes and down the St. Lawrence to the Atlantic Ocean. Transportation improved when a number of canals were built between the various lakes and between the lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. The Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie with New Yorkï¿½s Hudson River, opened in 1825. The canal offered the first navigable water connection to the East Coast from the lakes region. Small ships and barges began to move raw materials and supplies to and from the Great Lakes area. The Welland Ship Canal, built in 1829 to bypass Niagara Falls, made the Great Lakes accessible to small oceangoing vessels via the St. Lawrence River. In 1855 the Sault Sainte Marie Canal opened, enabling lake traffic to proceed from Lake Superior to Lake Huron. As settlers began to flow into the Great Lakes territory, inland port cities and other urban settlements grew. In the late 1950s, the U.S. and Canadian governments cooperated to build the St. Lawrence Seaway to allow large oceangoing vessels access to the Great Lakes. The seaway consists of 720 km (450 mi) of improvements to the St. Lawrence River, which flows mainly through Canada. These improvements included numerous locks and canals between Lake Erie and Montrï¿½al, Canada. The Seawayï¿½s 8.2-meter-deep (27-foot-deep) channel is not adequate to handle todayï¿½s largest oceangoing vessels and containerships. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence system is a waterway of major commercial importance, even though it is open for navigation only nine months of the year. In the winter, ice blocks the channels and the edges of the lakes. This waterway is used to ship bulk cargo, including iron ore, grain, limestone, timber, and coal, among inland ports of the region, the Atlantic coast, and beyond. It has allowed many Great Lakes port cities to become international trade centers. Today, almost 20 percent of the U.S. population lives along the shores of the Great Lakes, concentrated in five large cities: Chicago, Illinois; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Detroit, Michigan; Cleveland, Ohio; and Buffalo, New York. These urban centers benefit greatly because of the movement and manufacture of goods throughout the Great Lakes region. A1b Great Salt Lake The Great Salt Lake is located in Utah and lies within the Great Basin, an inland water drainage area that encompasses most of Nevada and parts of Utah, Oregon, Idaho, and California. The Great Salt Lake is the remnant of Lake Bonneville, the largest of many lakes formed in the region when retreating ice sheets melted at the end of the last Ice Age. The Great Salt Lake acquired its name because its water has a high salt content. The lake receives mountain runoff that carries suspended salts, and it has no outlet to the ocean because high mountains surround the Great Basin. The streams and rivers that replenish the Great Salt Lake flow only intermittently. The Great Salt Lake varies substantially in size, depending on precipitation, the amount of runoff that replenishes the lake, and the amount of water that is pumped out for irrigation. As the frontier of the United States expanded westward in the 19th century, many people traveled through the Great Basin on the way to the West Coast. Few decided to settle there permanently. One notable exception was the Mormon pioneers, members of a religious group who began arriving in the area as early as the 1850s. In their search for religious freedom, they settled near the shores of the Great Salt Lake, began raising crops with irrigated farming, and built a settlement that became Salt Lake City, the regionï¿½s major urban center. A2 Mississippi River As North Americaï¿½s longest river, the Mississippi River flows 3,770 km (2,340 mi) from its source at Lake Itasca, Minnesota, to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to the Great Lakes system, the Mississippi drainage complex is one of the two largest natural inland waterway systems on the continent. The Mississippi River and its network of tributaries, which includes the Ohio, Missouri, Tennessee, Arkansas, Red, and Illinois rivers, drains most of the central United States. In some areas, the main channel of the Mississippi reaches a width of nearly 1.6 km (1 mi). The river has a channel ranging in depth from more than 7 m (more than 25 ft) in New Orleans, Louisiana, to 2.7 m (9 ft) in Saint Paul, Minnesota. Deepwater vessels can navigate the river as far north as Baton Rouge, Louisiana, while smaller ships can navigate the Mississippi for more than 2,900 km (1,800 mi). As early settlers moved away from the Atlantic coast, they used the Mississippi River system to travel to interior locations and to ship their agricultural products to markets. New Orleans, situated on the Mississippi about 160 km (about 100 mi) north of the Gulf of Mexico, became an important shipping and trade center. At first people and goods traveled on flatboats, which were powered by oars or poles. Then in the early 1800s, engine-driven steamboats were introduced, offering improved transportation and shorter travel times. Steamboats led to increased trade and travel on the Mississippi, and several urban settlements, including St. Louis, Missouri, quickly grew to become major inland ports. The Mississippi still serves as an important transportation route to and from America's Heartland, especially for barges loaded with raw materials, crops, and other bulky goods. More than half of the freight transported on inland waterways in the United States travels on the Mississippi. Dams built for flood control and power generation lie along the entire course of the waterway, and locks provide a means for vessels to bypass these structures. Several large manufacturing, service, and transportation centers have developed along the Mississippi River system because of the traffic along the waterway. These include Saint Louis, Missouri; Saint Paul, Minnesota; and Memphis, Tennessee. New Orleans, Louisiana, has become the busiest port city in the Southeast. A2b Ohio River The Ohio River is one of the main tributaries of the Mississippi River, draining the northern portions of the Appalachian Mountains and the Midwest. At a length of 1,580 km (981 mi), the Ohio River is relatively short compared with other major rivers in the United States, yet it played a major role in the opening of the American Midwest to settlement. It became the main transportation route leading westward from the eastern portion of the United States, and until the opening of the Erie Canal, it was the safest, cheapest, and most convenient way to ship freight to and from the interior regions of the continent. As settlers moved westward along the Ohio River, urban centers began to develop along these routes. These centers included cities such as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Cincinnati, Ohio; and Louisville, Kentucky. The river provided the means for moving the Appalachian coal that fueled Pittsburghï¿½s steel industry, as well as for transporting the finished steel to market. More than 800 km (500 mi) of the Middle Ohio Valley developed as a major heavy-manufacturing district, centered on the inexpensive transportation offered by the river. Originally, the Ohio River was too shallow in many places for transportation during the dry months of late summer. To correct this, the federal government built a network of more than 40 dams along the riverï¿½s course, creating a waterway deep enough to sustain reliable navigation. As a source of inexpensive and dependable transportation, the Ohio has become one of America's leading carriers of bulk commodities, such as coal, iron ore, sand, steel, and gravel. A2c Tennessee River The 1,050-km (652-mi) Tennessee River drains much of the southern Appalachian Mountains before it joins the Ohio River in western Kentucky. Improvements have made the Tennessee River navigable to small boats as far upstream as Knoxville, Tennessee. In 1985 the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway was completed, providing a barge route to the Gulf of Mexico via the Tombigbee River in Alabama. At a cost of $1.8 billion, this was the nationï¿½s largest navigation improvement scheme. Unfortunately, it has failed to increase traffic significantly on the water route. While almost every major U.S. river has been used for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation projects, or flood control measures, the management of the Tennessee River is the best example of a regional approach to watershed development. The federal government created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in 1933 partly in response to the desperate economic situation created by the Great Depression of the 1930s. The TVA built more than 20 dams on the Tennessee River and has improved navigation as far upstream as Knoxville, Tennessee. As a result, the Tennessee Valley became one of the most important hydro-electricity producing areas of the United States. This inexpensive power attracted industries to the region, which has developed as a diversified manufacturing center. As a result, cities such as Knoxville and Chattanooga in Tennessee and Huntsville in Alabama have grown. Due to improved flood controls and extensive conservation measures, agricultural output has improved in the Tennessee River Valley, especially in the Great Valley of East Tennessee. A2d Missouri River The 3,726-km (2,315-mi) Missouri River, which originates in the mountains of northern Montana, is a major tributary of the Mississippi. Its drainage basin encompasses most of the northern Great Plains region. Along with the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, the Missouri served as a major water highway, carrying settlers into the interior regions as the frontier expanded westward. However, larger vessels could not use the Missouri because of shifting currents and sandbars. In 1944 the U.S. government established the Pick-Sloan Plan to improve the Missouri River. The plan addressed the different needs of the two parts of the drainage basin. The western reaches of the river basin receive very little rainfall, less than 380 mm (less than 15 in) per year. In contrast, the eastern end receives more than 1,000 mm (more than 40 in) of rainfall annually. Residents of the western area wanted irrigation systems and reservoirs for storing water. People living in the eastern part of the river valley were interested in hydroelectric power, flood control measures, and improvement of navigation. The Pick-Sloan Plan called for regional land management, the construction of reservoirs and irrigation projects, improvement of river navigation, and flood control infrastructure along the Missouri River valley. However, the government never implemented a comprehensive plan for the Missouri River valley. Instead it gradually completed individual projects, including the construction of six dams to provide irrigation water, and to regulate water levels in the navigation channel. During the 1950s and 1960s, as part of the Pick-Sloan Plan, the channel of the Missouri was improved to accommodate high volumes of modern river traffic. Despite a tremendous investment in dams, reservoirs, and other engineering projects, commercial traffic on the Missouri has remained light. A2e Rï¿½o Grande River The Rio Grande River flows southward from its source in the Rocky Mountains for 3,100 km (1,900 mi) until it joins the Gulf of Mexico. Along its entire course from the dry, high plateau region to the humid, flat coastal plain, people have historically depended on water from the Rï¿½o Grande for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses. The demand for this riverï¿½s water is so high along its entire route that downstream locations are often left with inadequate supplies for the amount of agricultural acreage under cultivation. There have been occasions when the riverbed of the Rï¿½o Grande near El Paso, Texas was totally dry. To ensure that Mexico is guaranteed use of a certain amount of the riverï¿½s water, the United States agreed to build a series of dams across the Rï¿½o Grande. Accompanying reservoirs were then used to hold water for use by Mexican citizens. An increase in international trade between the United States and Mexico has spawned the rapid growth of cities and industries on both sides of the Rï¿½o Grande. Several trade and transportation centers have developed along the river, including Albuquerque, New Mexico, and El Paso, Texas. Brownsville, Texas, located at the mouth of the river, maintains an excellent deep-water port. A2f Colorado River Originating in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, the Colorado River extends for 2,330 km (1,450 mi) to the Gulf of California in Mexico. The river flows through the extensive, high Colorado Plateau region in the states of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. For millions of years, the Colorado River and its tributaries have been carving deep canyons, including the scenic Grand Canyon, into the arid Southwestern landscape. Portions of this spectacular feature reach a width of 29 km (18 mi) and a depth of more than 1,500 m (more than 5,000 ft). As the only major river flowing through the driest portion of the United States, the water of the Colorado is in great demand by several states as well as by Mexico. To meet this demand for water, dams were constructed in the Colorado River drainage basin beginning in the early 1900s. These dams supported large-scale irrigation projects. As the demand for water in the region increased, more dams were constructed to help control water usage and provide electricity to nearby states. In 1923 the states of the upper basin (Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming) and those of the lower basin (Arizona, Nevada, and California) met to divide usage of the river's water. The upper basin states agreed upon a subdivision of their total allotment, but the lower basin states went to court to set their distribution shares. Those totals have not been revised for three decades while the populations in many of the areas served by these allotments have grown rapidly. See Water Policy in the American West. In the 1930s Hoover Dam was built on the border between the states of Arizona and Nevada. It is the largest of four dams built on the lower course of the river and holds back the waters of Lake Mead, one of the world's largest reservoirs. Beginning in 1973, the Central Arizona Project used a variety of canals, tunnels, pumping stations, and pipelines to carry water from the Colorado to desert cities such as Phoenix and Tucson in Arizona. The Colorado River is the chief source of water for the state of Arizona. Today, there is more Colorado River water claimed through various agreements than actually exists. A2g Rivers of Californiaï¿½s Central Valley Mountain ranges surround the Central Valley of California, which is about 640 km (about 400 mi) in length and about 80 km (about 50 mi) wide. To the west are the Coast Ranges, consisting of small mountains of 600 to 1,200 m (2,000 to 4,000 ft). To the east, the massive peaks of the Sierra Nevada Mountains reach a height of 4,418 m (14,494 ft) at Mount Whitney. Two large river systems drain the valley: the Sacramento River flowing southward from the northern end of the valley, and the San Joaquin River flowing northward from the southern portion. These rivers converge and flow into the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay at a break in the coastal mountain barrier. The northern part of the Central Valley has adequate rainfall for crop cultivation. Substantial runoff from the Sierra Nevada range replenishes the Sacramento River system. However, at the southern end of the valley, the climate becomes drier. Desert conditions exist in much of the southern Central Valley. Early settlers to the southern part of the Central Valley region recognized the agricultural value of the land and began practicing irrigation agriculture as early as the late 19th century. The Central Valley Project was built in the 1930s to divert surplus water from the Sacramento River to the San Joaquin River in the drier southern region. It was the first part of a system of dams, canals, and pumping stations that draws off water to irrigate about 2 million hectares (about 5 million acres). By the 1950s, growing urban areas and expanding farmlands were demanding more water than could be supplied by the existing distribution system. The 1960 California State Water Plan provided additional infrastructure to carry more water to address the shortages. In the 1990s, the Central Valley was Californiaï¿½s largest irrigated district and one of the stateï¿½s leading agricultural areas, producing about 75 percent of Californiaï¿½s agricultural output. Urban centers such as Sacramento, Fresno, and Stockton serve as distribution centers for agricultural products. A2h Columbia River The Columbia River, the principal river of the Pacific Northwest, originates in Canada and flows for 2,000 km (1,240 mi). It occupies a portion of the Rocky Mountain Trench, a huge depression that extends from Montana to the Yukon Territory in Alaska. Its main tributary, the Snake River, drains part of Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. The Snake joins the Columbia for the riverï¿½s lower 480 km (300 mi). The deep valley of the Columbia River forms part of the border between Washington and Oregon, before breaking the north-south trend of the Cascade Mountains and entering the Pacific Ocean. The river has a steep gradient, descending almost 400 meters (almost 1,300 feet) over its 1,190-km (740-mi) U.S. segment. In addition, it has an annual flow rate of about 8,000 cubic meters per second (about 265,000 cubic feet per second), which is exceeded only by that of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence rivers. As a result, the Columbia possesses the greatest hydroelectric potential of any waterway in North America. A total of 11 dams have been constructed on the river in the states of Washington and Oregon to improve navigation and produce electricity. The Rock Island Dam built in Washington in 1929 was the first dam built on the river. In the 1930s the Grand Coulee Dam, also in Washington, was completed. As the largest hydroelectric plant in the world, and one of the largest dams in the nation, it impounds water used to irrigate more than 400,000 hectares (more than 1 million acres) of semiarid land in central Washington. Many other dams have been constructed on the tributaries of the Columbia River. Large urban areas in Washington and Oregon use most of the power produced in the Columbia Basin. Spokane, Washington, is the dominant urban center in the central interior lowland portion of the Columbia Basin. Portland, Oregon, has become the principal commercial center of the Lower Columbia Valley, with modern port facilities at the confluence of the Columbia and Willamette rivers. A2i Yukon River The Yukon River, whose source lies in the mountains of western Canada, flows into the Bering Sea along the western coastline of Alaska. The drainage basin of this river occupies much of central Alaska. As a water route that crosses the vast expanse of Alaska for almost 3,200 km (almost 2,000 mi), the Yukon has offered an attractive alternative to traversing the rugged mountainous terrain of the region. When gold was discovered in Alaskaï¿½s interior Klondike region in the late 1890s, many prospectors traveled the Yukon by barge, raft, or riverboat to reach Alaskaï¿½s prosperous mining areas. Several thousand indigenous people, who live mainly by hunting and trapping, depend on the river for transportation. Because of the regionï¿½s cold climate and limited economy, no large urban centers have developed along the Yukon. Fairbanks is the areaï¿½s largest city. It is located near the Tanana River, a major tributary of the Yukon. B Atlantic Coastline The Atlantic coastline stretches 3,330 km (2,069 mi), from the northern reaches of Maine to the southern tip of Florida. While the New England region is characterized by hilly, rocky terrain, most of the remaining eastern coastline lies on a broad coastal plain, dotted with many large bays and numerous rivers. Since the outer reaches of the coastal plain are almost at sea level, it is not uncommon for extensive coastal marshes to develop in areas where fresh water from rivers mixes with ocean salt water. Sandy barrier islands parallel much of the Atlantic shoreline. Early European colonists landed on the coast of the Atlantic. The first permanent English colony was founded at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Settlements quickly sprung up along the entire East Coast. Located most commonly in the New England and Middle Atlantic states, port cities grew and became increasingly more important. Colonists shipped crops and raw materials back to Europe, in exchange for manufactured goods. Cities such as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia became distribution centers, offering supplies to pioneers traveling westward by railroad, waterways, or trails. Immigration helped to increase the population of coastal cities. Commerce along the East Coast uses the water transportation routes of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway, which maintains a channel for barges and other light vessels from Boston, Massachusetts, to Key West, Florida. The waterway also utilizes rivers, bays, coastal sounds, and canals to provide a navigable route with a minimum depth of 4 m (12 ft) throughout most of its length. Today, numerous major urban centers can be found along the entire length of the Atlantic coastline. To the south, the population of Miami, Florida, has swelled with the flow of immigrants from Latin America. In the north, the Megalopolis region is home to the largest concentration of people in the United States, stretching from Maine to Virginia. Anchored by New York City, this area also includes Boston, Massachusetts; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland; and Washington, D.C. B2 Gulf Coastline The Gulf of Mexico coastline extends 2,625 km (1,631 mi), from the southern tip of Texas to the southern reaches of Florida. The Spanish and French were the first Europeans to colonize the area. The United States expanded into the region in the early 19th century after purchasing Florida from Spain and Louisiana from the French. In 1845 the United States annexed Texas, which had recently won its independence from Mexico. During the westward expansion of the 19th century, New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mississippi, grew to become the most important port city on the Gulf Coast. The discovery of large oil fields in Texas in the 1930s and the subsequent development of industry, beginning in the 1940s, spurred the economy of the Gulf Coast. Approximately 20 percent of the U.S. petroleum output comes from an area known as the Gulf Coast Petroleum Province, on the coastal plain between New Orleans, and the mouth of the Rï¿½o Grande in Texas. Pipelines carry crude oil from regional and inland oil fields to many port cities. The southeastern portion of the Gulf Coast has become a major supplier of natural gas. In addition, nearly 25,000 oil and gas wells have been dug offshore, on the shallow continental shelf along the coastline. The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway connects 9 of the 15 largest ports in the United States. This water route, primarily designed to accommodate barge traffic carrying bulk goods, consists of lagoons and canals protected by barrier islands along the Gulf Coast. Houston, Texas, has become the largest city on the coast, with an economy based largely on oil refining. Its port is one of the busiest in the United States. New Orleans remains a prominent port city, supporting transportation of goods up and down the Mississippi River. B3 Pacific Coastline Unlike other coastal regions in the coterminous United States, the 2,081-km (1,293-mi) Pacific Coast has very little flat land associated with it, except in southern California, which has a relatively smooth coastline. In other areas, the Coast Ranges plunge directly into the ocean in many places. In northern California, Oregon, and Washington, the coastline becomes increasingly irregular, consisting of a variety of bays, fjords, peninsulas, and islands. The population along the Pacific coastline is concentrated in large urban centers. Los Angeles is the busiest port and largest city on the West Coast. Although the entire Pacific coastline is threatened by the dangers of earthquakes and violent Pacific storms, the population continues to grow. People from across the United States have flocked to the Pacific states, and immigrants from around the world, especially from Asia, have established homes in this area. Many of the regionï¿½s coastal cities began as ports for shipping lumber or as processing locations for the fishing activities that are still important along the entire length of the coast. During the last half of the 20th century, as the focus of U.S. trade began shifting away from Europe toward Latin America and Asia, the importance of international business, shipping, and transportation functions grew in cities such as Los Angeles and San Francisco in California, and Seattle in Washington. B4 Alaska Coastline The coastline of Alaska, bordering the Pacific and Arctic oceans, is 10,690 km (6,640 mi) long. Much of Alaskaï¿½s southern coastline has large bays, inlets, and prominent fjords, which were created largely through glaciation. High mountains of the Alaska Range skirt this part of the coastline, often plunging directly into the Pacific Ocean. Hundreds of islands, including the Aleutians, are concentrated off the southern coastal area. The large Yukon River delta is a dominant feature of the western coastline. The tundra landscape of the northern coastline lies on the flat Arctic Coastal Plain adjacent to the Arctic Ocean. Much of Alaskaï¿½s economy is based on profitable offshore fisheries and on 2.2 million hectares (5.5 million acres) of commercial forests. Both of these businesses are tied directly to the coastal areas, where warm Pacific winds keep most of Alaskaï¿½s coastline ice-free year round, allowing for continuous fishing and transportation for logging operations. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline connects the oil fields of the Arctic coastal area to the southern Alaska coastline, at Prince William Sound. Approximately 1.5 million barrels of oil are transported through this pipeline every day. Most of the urban settlements in Alaska are concentrated along the coastline, with the notable exception of Fairbanks, situated in the heart of Alaska along a tributary of the Yukon River. B5 Hawaii Coastline Hawaii has a coastline totaling 1,210 km (750 mi) in length. The scenic vistas and tropical beaches of Hawaiiï¿½s shores attract millions of tourists each year and have contributed greatly to the stateï¿½s economy. Because the islands are composed of fairly soft volcanic rock, which erodes quickly, the coastline is generally rocky. Areas of sheer cliffs, such as the rugged Na Pali coast on the island of Kauai, tower above the sea and beaches of white coral sand often lie tucked between the headlands. Several black sand beaches, worn from lava, dot the southeastern shore of the island of Hawaii, where the most recent lava flows meet the sea. The scenic vistas and tropical beaches of Hawaiiï¿½s shores attract millions of tourists each year and have contributed greatly to the stateï¿½s economy. Although the coastline is extremely beautiful, it can also conceal hidden dangers. Large waves often break over the coral reefs that form just offshore of many beaches. These waves create perfect conditions for surfing, which originated in Hawaii and nearby Pacific islands, but it can also cause treacherous undertows that threaten swimmers. On rare occasions, offshore earthquakes trigger tsunamis, or giant sea waves, which can reach heights of about 9 m (about 30 ft). Tsunamis can cause extensive damage to low-lying coastal areas. Hawaii is one of the worldï¿½s most isolated island chains. It is impossible for imports and exports to travel by land and expensive for them to arrive by air. Consequently, ships carry most of the commercial trade among the islands and between Hawaii and the mainland. Honolulu on Oahu is by far the leading port of the islands. Other important ports include Barbers Point on Oahu, Kahului on Maui, Hilo on Hawaii, and Nawiliwili Harbor on Kauai. Hawaiiï¿½s strategic mid-Pacific location also makes the island important to United States naval defense. Pearl Harbor naval base, a major military installation, is situated on Oahu. VI ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY When European settlers first arrived in what would become the United States, they found an environment rich in natural resources. Succeeding generations of Americans took full advantage of these resources. The United States became a major agricultural producer and later emerged as the worldï¿½s leading industrial nation. As the U.S. economy developed, the nationï¿½s natural environment changed dramatically. Farms and ranches replaced the vast forests of the North and Northeast and the wild grasses of the Great Plains. Wildlife was affected, too, as trapping, hunting, and the encroachment of human settlements reduced the populations of many indigenous animals. In the 20th century, industrial output rose sharply in the nation as urban centers expanded and the population exploded. Pollution increased correspondingly. A movement to conserve Americaï¿½s wilderness areas first gained momentum in the later half of the 19th century, and the government set aside selected areas as wilderness reserves. Little was done to address the issue of pollution, however, until the 1960s, when the deteriorating environment became a matter of intense public debate. As a result, the government took action to preserve wildlife, reduce pollution, and design policies that would lessen the impact of human activity on ecological systems. By the end of the 20th century, significant efforts at conservation and at wise management of the environment were under way. Yet at the same time a variety of complex environmental issues, many of them international in scope, still lay ahead. A Transformation of the American Landscape Before the arrival of European settlers in the western hemisphere, Native Americans occupied the land. The earliest groups were nomadic hunters and gatherers who moved from place to place, taking advantage of the plants and animals spread over a variety of locations. The environment supplied them with the food and resources they needed to survive. When the development of agriculture supplemented hunting and gathering among most Native American groups, they no longer had to move in search of food. Communities settled in small, permanent villages with houses constructed of local materials. Although a culture known as the Mound Builders constructed large towns centered around raised earthen platforms along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, Native American groups seldom left permanent marks on the countryside. European settlers, upon their arrival in North America, had a very different attitude about the environment than did Native Americans. The settlers, who founded colonies mainly along the Atlantic Coast, sought to exploit what seemed to them to be a land of plenty. They cleared trees and other natural vegetation from the land to establish farms and towns. They harvested trees to build houses and to export lumber to England. Trappers decimated the population of beaver, otter, muskrat, mink, and other animals, whose fur pelts were in high demand on European markets. By offering European goods in exchange for pelts, colonists also encouraged Native Americans to increase their take of these animals. Almost as soon as the early colonists were permanently settled along the coast, they began moving west. Trappers and hunters usually established the first European presence in a frontier region. When they returned from western lands to the eastern colonies, they told tales of gold, silver, furs, and endless free land. These stories attracted farmers westward. They followed the routes established by trappers and hunters. As pioneers cleared huge tracts of forest, wilderness gave way to farms, cattle ranches, and organized settlements. By the mid-1800s much of the vast forest that had covered the northern and eastern regions of the nation had disappeared. On wide areas of the Great Plains, cultivated crops, such as corn and wheat, replaced natural grasses. As human presence grew and transformed the landscape, it affected the native animal population in the United States. Trappers and hunters reduced the population of certain animal species. Animals with commercially valuable pelts decreased in number, first in the Northeast and Great Lakes region, then further west. Hunters decimated the massive herds of bison, also known as buffalo, that roamed the Great Plains, reducing the population to a small fraction of its former size. Many predatory animals, including eagles, grizzly bears, and wolves, declined drastically in number as their natural habitat decreased. Farmers and ranchers, seeking to protect their livestock from potential attacks, hunted and poisoned many of these animals. Human interference with animal species also extended to offshore waters. The U.S. whaling industry, which included about 80 percent of the worldï¿½s whalers by the mid-1800s, hunted some species of whales, such as the gray whale and the blue whale, almost to extinction. B Early Conservation Movement From colonial times through the early decades of U.S. independence, most Americans viewed the wilderness either as a dangerous, untamed region that needed to be brought under control, or as a storehouse of raw material to be exploited for commerce. Few were concerned with preserving wilderness in its natural state. Attitudes toward nature began to change in the United States in the 1830s with the emergence of transcendentalism, a philosophical and literary movement that included writers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Among the basic tenets of transcendentalism was the belief that divinity was present in all aspects of the world and that man should treat the wonders of nature with respect and awe. However, little action was taken to preserve the natural environment until later in the 19th century. Public concern over dwindling wilderness areas began to grow after conservationist George Perkins Marsh detailed the destruction to the natural landscape in the United States when he published Man and Nature (1864). Appreciation of areas of great natural beauty increased following an expedition by photographer William Henry Jackson and artist Thomas Moran into Wyomingï¿½s Yellowstone area in 1871. Their depictions persuaded the public to preserve the area. In 1872 the U.S. government created Yellowstone National Park, the nationï¿½s first national park. In 1891 the first U.S. National Forests were set aside, but almost immediately a controversy began over the use of public wilderness areas. To some extent, that controversy continues today. The prevailing attitude in the 19th century, typified by the policies of Gifford Pinchot, first head of the U.S. Forest Service, was that wilderness areas should be used mainly as a reserve of resources for commercial use. Meanwhile, a growing number of dedicated conservationists began advocating the preservation of nature for its own sake. They pushed for restrictions on the commercial exploitation of wilderness areas. The movement to preserve untainted wilderness areas owes much to naturalist John Muir, who dedicated considerable time to observing the wildlife, plants, and natural wonders of the United States. He worked to raise awareness among politicians and the public of the shrinking wilderness in the nation. His efforts led to the creation of both Yosemite National Park and Sequoia National Park in California in 1890. Muir also helped found one of the nationï¿½s leading conservation organizations, the Sierra Club, in 1892. He became a close friend of U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt, who greatly expanded the national parks and national forests during the early decades of the 20th century. Another major conservation push by the federal government took place in the 1930s following a major ecological disaster known as the Dust Bowl. For years, farmers had practiced agricultural techniques that left the land vulnerable to erosion. Many of the natural grasses that anchored the dirt had been replaced with farm crops. When a prolonged drought struck the Great Plains in the 1930s, much valuable topsoil was carried away by high winds that hit the region. In response the government instituted a number of programs to educate farmers on soil conservation techniques. C Industrialization, Urban Growth, and Pollution Serious pollution problems did not develop in the United States until the 20th century for three reasons: a relatively small population, a modest industrial base, and the presence of only a few really large urban areas. Pollution was limited mainly to urban centers and the areas surrounding them. These areas suffered when prevailing winds dissipated fumes from industrial factories and burning trash or when rivers dispersed sewage. The environmental situation changed dramatically in the 20th century, when both industry and population grew rapidly, causing a corresponding rise in pollution. This was particularly true of the decades following World War II (1939-1945), when many of the industrial nations of Europe were rebuilding economies damaged by the war. As one of the few developed nations to suffer almost no damage to its industrial base during the war, the United States emerged as the worldï¿½s leading manufacturing country. The nation underwent a period of phenomenal industrial growth. At the same time a major increase in population resulted from the so-called baby boom that followed the war. Urban sprawl and roadways connecting large cities began covering an increasingly larger percentage of land once occupied by farms. Automobiles and industry polluted the air, and clouds of smog hung over major industrial centers and cities with large commuter populations. The convenient way of life demanded by Americans as the century progressed resulted in enormous mounds of solid waste. Sewage and industrial waste fouled rivers and coastal waters, particularly in the heavily industrialized Heartland and Northeast. D Growth of Environmental Awareness Public awareness of pollution and other environmental problems began to grow during the 1960s and 1970s. Marine biologist Rachel Carson raised widespread concern about the effects of pesticides and pollution on animals and humans with the publication of Silent Spring (1962). The book suggested that a time might come when animal populations would be so reduced by exposure to pesticides that birds would no longer be heard singing in the spring. Other events in the 1960s caused growing public concern. A number of studies began linking pollution with health problems. These studies indicated that heart attacks, emphysema, and asthma might be linked to air pollution. Scientists became aware that toxic materials in the water supply can be transmitted to humans through the food chain. A dramatic example of the effects of pollution occurred in 1969, when industrial waste caused the severely contaminated Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, to catch on fire several times. Growing concern over environmental problems led about 20 million Americans to take part in the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970. Citizens gathered at various events held across the country to protest abuse of the environment. Earth Day, the events leading up to it, and its aftermath helped change U.S. policy toward the environment. E Environmental Legislation As a result of growing public concern, the Congress of the United States enacted a series of major legislative acts designed to protect the environment and limit pollution. In 1970 Congress established an independent government agency, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), to coordinate efforts to preserve the environment. The EPA sets environmental standards, approves state pollution control plans, and coordinates efforts with industries to clean up polluted land. The EPA has established federal limits on air pollutants from industrial emission. It sets water quality standards and regulates regional water pollution controls. The agency also monitors radiation levels in the environment as well as the disposal, handling, and control of hazardous wastes and chemical substances, including pesticides. In addition, it conducts research to improve techniques of solid waste disposal and reuse, and to determine sources of water pollution and their effects. The Clean Air Act of 1970 established limits on pollution levels in the air and tightened pollution emission levels for industrial factories and automobile exhaust fumes. By 1995 the emission of major air pollutants in the United States had decreased by 30 percent, even though the population had increased by 28 percent and automobile travel miles by 116 percent. Congress also moved to improve the quality of water in 1972 with the passage of the Clean Water Act. The goal of the act was to end all pollution discharges into surface water, such as lakes, river and streams, wetlands, and coastal waters. The law also provided federal funds to help local governments construct facilities to treat sewage and remove other pollutants from water before it is discharged into the environment. Since the passage of the law, the discharge of pollutants into rivers and lakes has been greatly reduced, primarily through the construction of municipal sewage treatment plants and programs to monitor the discharge of waste from factories. Many rivers and lakes that once had only negligible animal or plant life now support healthy ecological systems. One example is Lake Erie, considered ï¿½deadï¿½ in the 1960s. By the 1990s the lakeï¿½s waters had transformed from brown to clear and a variety of fish and plant life had returned. The government also took action to protect wildlife with the Endangered Species Act of 1973. This legislation set up provisions for identifying endangered species and prohibited the government, businesses, and individuals from harming any animal on the endangered species list or damaging its habitat. Some species have made dramatic recoveries since the adoption of the Endangered Species Act. In 1964 scientists recorded only 417 pairs of nesting adult bald eagles in the United States. By 1993, bald eagles had been removed from the endangered list and 4,016 pairs of nesting adults were known to exist. In the Southeast, hunting and habitat destruction reduced the number of alligators to the brink of extinction in the 1960s. By the 1990s, more than 1 million alligators lived in Florida. Other endangered species have not fared as well. Conservationists are worried that the populations of some species may be so depleted that, despite conservation efforts, there may not enough genetic variety to allow these populations to continue breeding successfully. Some large predatory land mammals that need large habitat areas to survive, such as the grizzly bear and the Florida panther, are threatened as humans encroach on their territory. F Emerging Problems During the 1970s and 1980s, research on the environment expanded and a number of previously unsuspected environmental issues emerged. The dangers of chemical waste disposal came to the forefront of public attention with incidents in communities such as Love Canal near Niagara Falls, New York, in 1979 and Times Beach, Missouri, in 1983. Developers built the communities on contaminated land that had once served as hazardous-waste disposal sites. After complaints by residents, the government declared both communities uninhabitable. In 1980 the government established what came to be known as a Superfund to clean up areas where hazardous waste had been dumped. By 1998 the Superfund had financed 500 emergency hazardous-waste cleanups at sites that presented urgent danger to public health. Scientists also discovered acid rain, which results when pollutants combine with the moisture in the air to form acid. Winds can carry the acid clouds far from the source of the pollution before it is eventually deposited by rain. The acid rain can destroy plants and make streams and lakes unable to support aquatic life. Other human-generated hazards have disrupted life in the United States. An oil spill in Prince William Sound in Alaska, when the supertanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on a reef in 1989, alerted the public to how fragile the northern environments are. Oil spills from offshore rigs have also polluted beaches and wetlands along the Gulf Coast. There have been problems in the nuclear energy industry as well. An accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear facility in Pennsylvania in 1979 released small amounts of radioactive gas. The accident almost resulted in a meltdown, in which radioactive fuel overheats and explodes, releasing dangerous levels of radioactive material into the atmosphere. Environmental contamination in industrialized countries such as the United States can affect conditions around the world. In 1985 scientists observed a serious deterioration of the ozone gas layer in the earthï¿½s atmosphere. The ozone layer forms a shield against hazardous ultraviolet radiation. The cause of ozone depletion seems to be the release into the atmosphere of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals once used heavily in industrial nations as refrigerants and aerosols. A thinning or disappearing of the ozone layer could damage the environment and cause medical problems for humans, particularly skin cancer. Another potential problem surrounds global warming. Industrial development has led to increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. These gases are referred to as greenhouse gases, because they trap heat radiated by the earth, causing the atmosphere to warm. The warming of the planetï¿½s atmosphere could have cataclysmic results. For example, accelerated melting of the polar ice caps could cause sea level to rise, increasing erosion and flooding in coastal cities, and disrupting the world economy. G Environmental Controversies Not all Americans viewed the growing government efforts to preserve the environment as positive. Some individuals believed that environmental regulations unjustly limited the rights of individuals to use their land or prevented companies from conducting business as they saw fit. This attitude was particularly strong in western states, where the mining and lumber industries employed many people. In the late 1970s development-minded business executives and politicians in western states organized a movement known as the Sagebrush Rebellion. Many of them supported the election of U.S. president Ronald Reagan, who took office in 1980. Reagan relaxed environmental standards, stating that the time and expense spent complying with government regulations caused undue hardships for U.S. businesses. Reaganï¿½s environmental policies slowed a trend toward more government legislation and regulation to protect and improve the quality of the environment. Existing environmental laws remained in effect, but they were not always enforced stringently. The Sagebrush Rebellion typified one of the most difficult issues regarding the environment: establishing a balance between economic development and environmental protection. Many people view the natural environment as a national treasure, something to be preserved for future generations. On the other hand, most Americans also want to preserve the high standard of living in the United States, characterized by high levels of consumption. The consumer culture in the United States depends on vigorous industrial output and an expanding economy to provide jobs and income. Almost all forms of economic growth have some kind of effect on the environment. Policy-makers have found it difficult to reconcile those opposing forces. Public controversies have often emerged when environmental issues delay or cancel projects that developers claim will boost economic growth and create new jobs. For example, in 1974 the discovery of a rare fish known as the snail darter caused a four-year delay in the opening of the $100 million Tellico Dam in Tennessee. It was feared the dam would have flooded the only known habitat of the fish. Congress exempted the dam from the Endangered Species Act. Snail darter communities were later found to exist in other locations. A similar controversy focused on the northern spotted owl during the 1990s. This rare species breeds in old-growth forests rather than second-growth forests (areas that have grown back after being cleared). In 1990s the United States Fish and Wildlife Service limited the sale of timber from areas where the spotted owl is known to nest. People in the logging industry protested, saying that the limitation prevented them from harvesting valuable timber. They compared the spotted owl episode to the snail darter controversy. Conservationists, however, pointed to the need to protect the dwindling old-growth forests, not only for the spotted owl, but also for a variety of plants and animals that live in that ecosystem. During the 1980s and 1990s, sustainable development has emerged as the most acceptable approach to environmental problems. Sustainable development advocates policies that would allow for economic growth while at the same time minimizing damage to the environment. However, at the close of the 20th century, those who promote development and those who support environmental preservation were still working to find an acceptable balance between these contradictory goals. A variety of organizations and community groups have taken the lead in implementing sustainable development programs in the United States during the 1990s, some of them national in scope and others local. In one of the countryï¿½s first significant efforts at sustainable development, the nonprofit Ford Foundation provided grants to communities on Virginiaï¿½s Eastern Shore, a rural peninsula of about 45,000 residents located between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The money funded programs to develop long-range economic planning, promote jobs with minimum impact on the environment, and protect the wildlife and ecosystems of the regionï¿½s barrier islands and coastal marshes. At the same time, environmentalists on the peninsula worked closely with businesses and residents to ensure that economic prosperity and social services were not sacrificed by efforts to preserve the environment. For example, they promoted the construction of a new industrial park in the port of Cape Charles for companies dedicated to minimizing waste and pollution in their production processes. Community groups also purchased low-income rental units in rural areas and upgraded the unitsï¿½ antiquated plumbing systems in order to decrease the impact of pollution from sewage. The tax-exempt Sonoran Institute has provided assistance to communities in the western United States. Established in 1991 with technical and financial assistance from World Wildlife Fund, the institute works mainly with cities and towns adjacent to protected lands. The institute assists these communities in identifying local goals for development and environmental preservation, drawing up specific timetables and plans, and monitoring progress toward their goals. H International Issues The United States has been involved in efforts to coordinate an international response to environmental issues that effect the worldwide environment. The most notable example is the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. Known as the Rio Conference, this meeting of international leaders addressed complex environmental problems. Although the participants did not reach binding agreements on all the issues raised, they made progress in a number of areas. The conference resulted in the adoption of the Framework Convention on Climate Change, an agreement to limit the amount of greenhouse gases that nations could emit. The conference also adopted nonbinding resolutions encouraging sustainable development throughout the world and urging industrialized nations to provide financial assistance to developing nations so that they could expand their economies with minimal environmental damage. However, the United States refused to sign the Convention on Biological Diversity, which sought to protect plant and animal species and their habitats. The United States objected to provisions granting biotechnology companies access to genetic material from species around the world in exchange for a guarantee that developing nations share the benefits gained from any products manufactured from the genetic material. The U.S. government felt that the treaty did not adequately protect the rights of biotechnology companies. The Rio Conference also revealed conflicts between industrialized nations and countries that were still struggling to develop modern economies. Many developing nations complained that nations with high levels of industrial development and consumption should not ask less developed nations to slow their industrial growth. Developing nations pointed out that they were being asked to conserve their natural resources, when developed nations, particularly the United States, were consuming a very large proportion of the worldï¿½s total resources. Many of these developing countries had large and growing populations of poor citizens. Many had few choices other than economic activities that endangered the environment; the alternative in many cases was poverty and starvation. I The U.S. Environment at the Close of the 20th Century In the last decades of the 20th century, the United States made major strides in protecting the environment. Reductions in air and water pollution have been dramatic. Research in the United States has excelled in developing techniques to monitor the environment and in designing solutions to environmental problems. Many endangered and threatened wildlife species are rebounding, and the U.S. national park and forest systems are among the best in the world. At the same time, major environmental problems still persist. Many of these obstacles result directly from the high standard of living that most U.S. residents have come to expect. The United States remains the worldï¿½s largest user of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), resulting in continued generation of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Runoff from large amounts of fertilizers used in agriculture affects the ecosystems in waterways. Solid waste disposal remains a problem, with Americans producing large amounts of trash on a daily basis. The high level of consumption in the United States encourages the wise management of natural resources while at the same time poses difficult problems involving the protection of the air, water, and land. VII MORE INFORMATION This is one of seven major articles that together provide a comprehensive discussion of the United States of America. For more information on the United States, please see the other six major articles: United States (Overview), United States (People), United States (Culture), United States (Economy), United States (Government), and United States (History). This article was written by Richard G. Boehm, with the exception of the Environment and Society section.	i don't know
The 1980 film 'Coal Miner's Daughter', starring Sissy Spacek. portrayed which country singer's rise to fame?	Coal Miner's Daughter (1980) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Biographical story of Loretta Lynn , a legendary country singer that came from poverty to worldwide fame. She rose from humble beginnings in Kentucky to superstardom and changing the sound and style of country music forever. Director: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC a list of 32 titles created 28 Apr 2011 a list of 27 titles created 28 Jan 2012 a list of 24 titles created 16 Mar 2013 a list of 29 titles created 20 Jan 2015 a list of 28 titles created 09 Jan 2016 Title: Coal Miner's Daughter (1980) 7.5/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Won 1 Oscar. Another 8 wins & 13 nominations. See more awards » Photos Jessica Lange stunningly portrays Patsy Cline, the velvet-voiced country music singer who died in a tragic plane crash at the height of her fame. Director: Karel Reisz A young single mother and textile worker agrees to help unionize her mill despite the problems and dangers involved. Director: Martin Ritt In the Deep South in the 1930s, a widow and her family try to run their cotton farm with the help of a disparate group of friends. Director: Robert Benton It's 1944 in the small town of Gregory, Texas. Divorcée Nita Longley has been brought into the town by the telephone company to work as its switchboard operator, a job which requires her to... See full summary » Director: Jack Fisk A woman is determined to reveal the truth about an insidious political corruption. In doing so she risks her safety, career and reputation but will not stop asking questions until the truth is known. Director: Roger Donaldson Edit Storyline At only thirteen years of age, Loretta Webb marries Doolittle Lynn and is soon responsible for a sizeable family. Loretta appears destined to a life of homemaking, but Doolittle recognises his wife's musical talent, and buys her a guitar as an anniversary present one year. At eighteen, the mother of four children and busy housewife still finds time to write and sing songs at small fairs and local honky-tonks. This gift sets Loretta Lynn on the gruelling, tumultuous path to superstardom and country music greatness. Written by Shannon Patrick Sullivan <[email protected]> See All (54) » Taglines: She was married at 13. She had four kids by the time she was 20. She's been hungry and poor. She's been loved and cheated on. She became a singer because it was the only thing she could do. She became a star because it was the only way she could do it. Genres: 7 March 1980 (USA) See more » Also Known As: La hija del minero See more » Filming Locations: Did You Know? Trivia Joe Don Baker , who bears a strong resemblance to the real Doolittle Lynn, was the producers' first choice to play him, but he was unable to accept the offer. See more » Goofs The modern "Ludwig" logo on her drummer's bass drum did not appear until many years later. Levon Helm , who played Loretta's father, might have noticed this, since he was the drummer for The Band, a successful rock group of the '60's and 70's, but he was not on set during the filming of Loretta's successful country music singing career See more » Quotes Excellent Performances Touch Every High Note. 13 August 2004 \| by tfrizzell (United States) – See all my reviews The true-life story of Loretta Lynn (dominant Oscar-winner Sissy Spacek) from her youth where she married at the tender age of 13 all the way to country music stardom. Along for the ride is her husband (Tommy Lee Jones' first legitimate role), an amazingly complex individual who has anger management and jealousy issues. Beverly D'Angelo (in arguably her finest career performance) is also a solid scene-stealer playing doomed singer Patsy Cline. Spacek and D'Angelo actually did all the singing themselves and that just elevates an already high level of performances. The direction by Michael Apted is adequate and so is the Oscar-nominated adaptation, but the excellent work by the three leads makes "Coal Miner's Daughter" one of the finest pictures of the early-1980s. 4.5 out of 5 stars. 12 of 16 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Loretta Lynn
What is the SI unit of force, equal to one kilogram metre per second squared?	Loretta Lynn \| Biography and Filmography \| 1932 Inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in NYC 2004 Made a comeback with Van Lear Rose; co-written and produced by Jack White of The White Stripes; won Grammy Awards for Best Country Album and Best Country Collaboration with Vocals in 2005 2004 Wrote the cookbook You're Cookin' It Country: My Favorite Recipes and Memories 2003 Recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors 2002 Published second bestselling autobiography Still Woman Enough 2000 Became the first woman in country music to chart singles in five decades with "Country In My Genes" 1995 Presented with the Pioneer Award at the 30th Academy of Country Music Awards 1993 Released trio album Honky Tonk Angels with fellow country icons Dolly Parton and Tammy Wynette 1988 Elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame 1985 Last Top 20 hit, "Heart Don't Do This to Me" 1982 Made acting debut with a guest starring role on "Fantasy Island" (ABC) 1982 Last Top 10 record as a solo artist, "I Lie" 1980 Life story and 1976 autobiography inspired the feature film "Coal Miner's Daughter"; Sissy Spacek portrayed Lynn 1979 Named spokeswoman for Procter & Gamble's Crisco Oil 1977 Released the album Tribute in honor of her friend Patsy Cline, who died in a plane crash in 1963 1977 Became first female country artist to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame 1976 Penned her autobiography Coal Miner's Daughter with the help of writer Geroge Vecsey; became first country music artist to make the New York Times bestseller list 1973 Became the first country star to appear on the cover of Newsweek 1972 Released the controversial single "Rated 'X'"; song went to No. 1 in country charts even though it was banned by several outlets 1972 Became first woman to win the Country Music Association's Entertainer of the Year 1970 Released the title track to the album One's on the Way, penned by poet and author Shel Silverstein 1970 Recorded five consecutive No. 1 duets with Conway Twitty including "After the Fire Is Gone" (1971) and "Louisiana Woman, Mississippi Man" (1973) 1969 Wrote and recorded the autobiographical song "Coal Miner's Daughter"; landed at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart; Lynn's first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (No. 83) 1967 Made her No. 1 debut on the country albums chart with Don't Come Home a Drinkin' (With Lovin' on Your Mind) 1966 Became first country female recording artist to write a No. 1 hit with "You Ain't Woman Enough" 1963 Released debut album Loretta Lynn Sings 1962 Released the Top 10 single "Success" 1960 Signed a contract with Zero Records; recorded "I'm A Honky Tonk Girl" 1959 With a guitar her husband bought as an anniversary gift, taught herself how to play (date approx.); also began singing at local clubs 1951	i don't know
In which US city do the American Football team known as the 'Falcons' play their home games?	Atlanta Falcons News - Atlanta Falcons Net Worth Atlanta Falcons News Read more... Atlanta Falcons Atlanta Falcons Net Worth is 837 $Million. The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta, Georgia. They are a member of the South Division of the National Football Con. The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta... Atlanta Falcons Net Worth is 837 $Million. Atlanta Falcons Net Worth is 837 $Million. The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta, Georgia. They are a member of the South Division of the National Football Con The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta, Georgia. They are a member of the South Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League . The Falcons play their home games at the Georgia Dome in downtown Atlanta, but construction is likely to begin in 2014 on a new stadium with play beginning in the 2017 season. Their headquarters and practice facilities are located at a 50-acre site in Flowery Branch, Georgia. The Falcons joined the NFL in 1965 as an expansion team, after the NFL offered then-owner Rankin Smith a franchise to keep him from joining the rival American Football League . The AFL instead granted a franchise to Miami, Florida . In their 45 years of existence, the Falcons have compiled a record of 300a??402a??6 with division championships in 1980, 1998, 2004, 2010 and 2012. Their only Super Bowl appearance was Super Bowl XXXIII. Over the past four years the Falcons, under Gene...	Atlanta
What was the name of the nineteenth century American saloon keeper and judge who called himself 'The Law West Of The Pecos'?	Atlanta Falcons Football News, Schedule, Roster, Stats by Kenneth Arthur Field Gulls Jan 9, 2017, 2:00pm EST The Seattle Seahawks and Atlanta Falcons meet on Saturday afternoon for the right to go to the NFC Championship game. The Seahawks were there in 2013 and 2014, the Falcons most recently in 2012. It...	i don't know
Who was the Colombian footballer who was murdered after scoring an own goal whilst playing for his country during the 1994 World Cup?	Colombia's own-goal star shot dead \| The Independent Colombia's own-goal star shot dead Saturday 2 July 1994 23:02 BST Click to follow The Independent Online ANDRES ESCOBAR, the Colombian defender whose own goal against the United States helped eliminate his nation from the World Cup, was shot dead early yesterday in his home town, the cocaine cartel city of Medellin. Escobar, 27, thought to be no relation to Pablo Escobar, the cartel boss killed by troops last December, was shot 12 times by three men who fled in off-road vehicles of the type favoured by drugs and gambling mafiosi. 'Thanks for the own goal,' said one, according to witnesses. The killing heightened speculation that gangsters from either the United States or Colombia had tried to 'fix' the US-Colombia match, which the US team won 2-1 in a major upset. The Colombian coach, Francisco Maturana, and several players were said to have received death threats before the game. Midfielder Gabriel Gomez refused to play. There was talk of big money, both American and Colombian, riding on a US win at long odds. Some said US mafiosi with a financial interest in the host side's success may have bribed or threatened the Colombian team. But Medellin police said a lot of Colombian money, including cocaine funds, was riding on a Colombian win. Medellin police said the men had argued with Escobar, who played for the local First Division side Nacional Medellin, over the fateful own goal as he left a restaurant with a woman friend at 3.30am yesterday. In the match against the US in Pasadena on 23 June, Escobar stretched to cut out a cross from the left but instead stabbed the ball past his own goalkeeper for the opening goal. In a normal game, it would have looked like bad luck. In the context of Colombia, where betting on football is like horse-race betting in Britain, there was just a suggestion that he should have been able to steer the ball wide for a corner. For the rest of the game the Colombians continued to play below form. Carlos 'the Kid' Valderrama, their peroxide- dreadlocked midfield star, could not hit a straight pass. As for the normally-dazzling leftwinger, Faustino Asprilla, 'he didn't even try' in the words of the man who marked him, US right-back Fernando Clavijo. The US team, who were rank outsiders, went on to qualify for the last 16 of the tournament while Colombia, who had been tipped by the great Brazilian star Pele to win the tournament, had to pack their bags in disgrace. Already out of the tournament, they showed their true form in beating Switzerland 2-0 in their final group match. Colombia had joined the ranks of the favourites to win the World Cup after dominating their South American qualifying group with electrifying performances. The high point was reached with a 5-0 humiliation of Argentina in Buenos Aires. Dozens were killed in the boisterous celebrations that followed in Colombia. Escobar is not the first football victim of Colombian violence. Another leading player and at least one top referee have been shot dead in Medellin by cocaine-financed gambling mafias who bet millions of dollars on matches. After the US match, the disappointing star Asprilla told reporters: 'It's not the end of the world.' It was for Escobar. (Photograph omitted)	Andrés Escobar
The original Route 66 highway ran from Los Angeles to which city?	Andres Escobar Own Goal in 94 World Cup - YouTube Andres Escobar Own Goal in 94 World Cup Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Jul 6, 2006 The Own Goal that led to his murder when Colombia were eliminated from the World Cup. Category	i don't know
In Roman Catholicism, what name is given to the transportation of the Virgin Mary's body and soul to heaven?	The Assumption of Mary into Heaven kiwicatholic.com : Christianity and Christian Apologetics / Catholicism and Catholic Apologetics / Household of God / Other Stuff / Site Map and Search The Assumption of Mary into Heaven You are here: Home > Catholicism Index > Mary's Bodily Assumption into Heaven Index >The Assumption of Mary into Heaven (Last Updated: 07 Oct 2000 ) The miraculous assumption of Mary into heaven is, for many people, one of the more difficult Catholic doctrines to accept, in part because it does not seem to appear explicitly in Scripture, and also because the dogmatic definition of the doctrine did not happen until quite recently (1950, in fact, although the belief itself is ancient). This article is intended to provide an outline of the reasons why Catholics believe in this wonderful event. The article is based upon some notes I put together for a presentation on the Assumption, hence its question-and-answer format in parts. The Assumption: Definition "Finally the Immaculate Virgin, preserved free from all stain of original sin, when the course of her earthly life was finished, was taken up body and soul into heavenly glory, and exalted by the Lord as Queen over all things, so that she might be the more fully conformed to her Son, the Lord of lords and conqueror of sin and death. [LG 59; cf. Pius XII, Munificentissimus Deus (1950): DS 3903; cf. Rev 19:16.] "The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin is a singular participation in her Son's Resurrection and an anticipation of the resurrection of other Christians: "In giving birth you kept your virginity; in your Dormition you did not leave the world, O Mother of God, but were joined to the source of Life. You conceived the living God and, by your prayers, will deliver our souls from death." [Byzantine Liturgy, Troparion, Feast of the Dormition, August 15th.]" - (Catechism of the Catholic Church, #966). Did Mary Die? It's an open question in Catholic theology (note how carefully the definition is phrased); but most theologians think she did, hence the ancient title of the feast of the Assumption, the "Feast of the Dormition", i.e., Mary's "falling asleep" in death). Is the Assumption in Scripture? Ludwig Ott, author of the excellent book Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma candidly says, "Direct and express scriptural proofs are not to be had." But there is plenty of indirect evidence, which we'll explore. What about John 3:13, "No one has ascended into heaven but he who descended from heaven, the Son of man"? The name "Assumption" is important, and one should be careful not to mix expressions here; in Catholic terminology, the "Assumption" is something that God did to Mary in bringing her into heaven, over which she had no control, while "Ascension" is what Jesus, being divine, did under his own power. When is the last time Mary is directly mentioned in Scripture? See Acts 1:14, and Gal 4:4. Why is she not mentioned much? It's not that surprising, because Mary was alive when most of the New Testament was being written, and her humble nature may well have led her to shun the limelight. Her role was to bring the Messiah into the world and nurture and teach him, and the focus of much of the New Testament is primarily the life of Jesus and the apostolic ministry which followed his resurrection. What happened to her after Pentecost? Mary the mother of Jesus was given into John's care (John 19:26-27), and John was a "pillar" of the Church in Jerusalem for some time (Gal 2:9), before living in Ephesus until his exile to Patmos. Biblical Precedent: Who has been assumed into heaven? There is good Biblical precedent for someone who is close to God being assumed bodily into heaven. Elijah Elijah is a good example - he was assumed bodily into heaven by a whirlwind (2 Kings 2:11). Enoch Similarly, as Gen 5:24 says, Enoch "walked with God; and he was not, for God took him". He "was taken up so that he should not see death; and he was not found, because God had taken him" (Heb 11:5; see also Sirach 44:16). Moses Jude gives us a hint about what may have happened to Moses after his death, and refers to the Assumption of Moses (a non-canonical book, but one which obviously contained information important to Jude), in Jude 9 ("the archangel Michael, contending with the devil, disputed about the body of Moses"). It seems fair to speculate that Moses was taken up to heaven bodily, given that at the Transfiguration (Matt 17:1-8), Moses appeared with Elijah, who we are told explicitly was assumed into heaven. Some Other Old Testament Saints? Matthew 27:52-53: "the tombs also were opened, and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised, and coming out of the tombs after his resurrection they went into the holy city and appeared to many". There is no record of these Old Testament saints dying and having to be buried again. Who will be assumed into heaven? At the Second Coming we know that "the dead in Christ will rise first; then we who are alive, who are left, shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air" (1 Thes 4:16-17). The Assumption can be thought of as an example of what will happen at "The Rapture". There are also the two witnesses of Revelation 11. John prophesies that they will be assumed into heaven three and a half days after they are killed: "And in the sight of their foes they went up to heaven in a cloud" (Rev 11:12). Mary and the Ark of the Covenant in the Book of Revelation Read Rev 11:19 - 12:5 (and maybe a bit before, to get context). In Revelation 11:19 the Ark of the Covenant is seen in heaven. If you are familiar with Biblical typology, you may know that many scholars see the Ark of the Covenant as a "type" of Mary. The Contents of the Ark We know the contents of the ark from Heb 9:4 (and various passages in the Pentateuch). The ark held: the tablets with the Decalogue, the ten Words of God, which were a "type" of Jesus, the incarnate Word of God (John 1:1); it held the manna, the bread from heaven, another "type" of Jesus, the true bread from heaven (John 6:32); and it held Aaron's high priestly rod, the token of Aaron's Levitical high priesthood, another "type" of Jesus, our Great High Priest (Heb 4:14). Other Clues Mary held Jesus in her womb, so she is the ark's "antitype", or fulfilment, the New Testament Ark of the Covenant. There are also some interesting parallels between 2 Samuel 6 (which talks about David's attempt to bring the ark to Jerusalem) and Luke 1 (which talks about Mary's visit to her cousin Elizabeth). The ark was in Judah, and Mary went to Judah; David asked "How can the ark of the Lord come to me?" and Elizabeth asked "Who am I that the mother of my Lord should come to me?"; the ark stayed in the house of Obed-edom for three months, and Mary stayed in the house of Zachariah for three months; David leaped and danced before the ark, and the baby John the Baptist leaped in Elizabeth's womb when she heard Mary's greeting. In John's revelation the ark is replaced by a woman who gives birth to the male child, who apparently is Jesus (based, among other things, on Rev 12:5, "one who is to rule all the nations with a rod of iron", which corresponds closely with the messianic implications of Psalm 2:7-9). This means the woman is Mary (it is important to note though that this is a "polyvalent" passage, with the woman being symbolic of not only Mary, but also of the Church, and of Israel). Since the ark is seen in God's temple in heaven, and since Mary's physical body is the New Testament ark, Mary is physically in heaven (not just her spirit, cf Heb 12:23). Historical evidence In the early Church the relics of saints and martyrs were zealously sought after and prized, but no one ever claimed to have the bones of Mary. In fact, St John Damascene tells us: "St. Juvenal, Bishop of Jerusalem, at the Council of Chalcedon [AD 451], made known to the Emperor Marcian and Pulcheria, who wished to possess the body of the Mother of God, that Mary died in the presence of all the Apostles, but that her tomb, when opened, upon the request of St. Thomas, was found empty; wherefrom the Apostles concluded that the body was taken up to heaven" (St John of Damascus, in Migne's Patrologia Graeca Cursus Completus 96:1). Many Christian apologists have pointed out that the First Century Jewish or Roman authorities could have quickly squashed the early Christian faith in Christ's resurrection by simply producing the body of Jesus; similar reasoning can be applied with respect to Mary's Assumption. The fact that there is no hint in history of a claim to the possession of her relics is a good point in favour of the doctrine. Why is the Assumption not much mentioned, compared with other doctrines? The very early Church was preoccupied with resolving Christological questions, particularly about Christ's incarnation and his divine and human natures and wills. Once these more important doctrines were hammered out, the Church gradually was able to turn its attention to Mary and explore what it meant for a woman to be chosen as Theotokos, and in what ways it would have been fitting for God to honour her. Summary Mary is in many ways the "prototype" of the Church; what happened to her prefigures what will happen to Christians when we die and go to heaven, or at the Second Coming. For example, she was preserved by God from sin, and in heaven we will not sin; her glorified body was caught up to heaven, and on the Last Day the glorified bodies of all the saints will be taken into heaven. The doctrine of the Assumption is also based largely on the "fittingness" of the privilege given to her by God. Grounds for this include the fact that she was chosen to be the Mother of God the Son, and her perfect acquiescence to God's will. Since Jesus, who fulfilled the commandments perfectly, would have honoured his mother perfectly, it is not unreasonable to posit the Assumption as one of the ways in which she was honoured by her son. It is "fitting" then that she should be given the full effects of the Redemption, which is the glorification of the soul and body. The doctrine of the Assumption points us toward the glorious promise that awaits us co-heirs of God's kingdom, and it illustrates and reinforces the dignity we have as sons and daughters of God. If you have questions or comments about material on this site, or if you come across any broken links, feel free to email me. My address is: "mischedj - at - paradise - dot - net - dot - nz". (I've written it like that to avoid spam robots) Except where specified otherwise, the contents of this website are © copyright KiwiCatholic.com. Articles may be downloaded or printed out for private reading, but may not be uploaded to another Internet site or published, electronically or otherwise, without express permission from the author. Random Quote: "At any rate, following Cookie Monster, I say of it, 'Me not know art, but me know what me like.'" Mark Shea, quoting Cookie Monster	Assumption of Mary
Which Scottish castle, near Dundee, is thought to have been the setting for Shakespeare's 'Macbeth'?	Ken Raggio teaches "The Spirit of Mary in the Roman Catholic Church Is it really MARY, or some other spirit? By Ken Raggio When Turkish gunman Ali Agca attempted to assassinate Pope John Paul II in 1981, the Pope's first whispered cry was heard to be, "Mary, my mother...!" before losing consciousness. According to author Tad Szulc in his book, "Pope John Paul II - The Biography," the pope believed that his life was saved as a "real miracle" by the Virgin of Fatima, whose feast day is May 13 (the date of his assassination attempt). John Paul II went to her shrine in Fatima, Portugal on the first anniversary of Agca's attack to thank the Virgin for saving him and to place the bullet that had struck him on her altar. That the Pope called on Mary to save his life, and not Jesus Christ, is significant. Mariology is one of the cardinal doctrines of the Catholic Church. It ascribes scores of titles to Mary that are in many cases utterly scandalous and blasphemous: "Ark of the Covenant," "Gate to Heaven," "Moses' Burning Bush," "Tower of David," "Queen of the Universe," "Morning Star," "Refuge of Sinners," and many more outrageous misnomers. Mariology asserts four primary dogmas pertaining to Mary: 1. That she is a Perpetual Virgin; that Mary was virgin before, during and after giving birth. (This is entirely irrational and unscriptural. She bore an entire family of humanly-conceived children). 2. That she is the Mother of God - "Theotokos" - It is called "divine maternity." The Roman Catholic Church (RCC) holds that since Jesus was both God and man, Mary was the mother of God. The extension of this idea would make Mary divine, which is a blasphemous notion. However, only a human was conceived in Mary's womb. God was NOT conceived, nor was God born of a woman. God was IN Christ by incarnation. The deity in Christ was the Father in His ancient fullness. God was neither conceived nor born. Mary is NOT the mother of God in any way. 3. That she was Immaculately Conceived - The Immaculate Conception is a false doctrine that states that Mary, from the moment of her conception, was "full of grace," and "never stained" by sin. 4. That she was "Assumed" into Heaven. The false doctrine of the Assumption asserts that Mary was caught up alive into Heaven - body, soul and spirit, and never tasted death. Not one shred of scriptural evidence supports this belief, which in fact contradicts fourth century Catholic writings by Epiphanius that stated that no one knew the fate of Mary. But we do know that "it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgment," Hebrews 9:27. If Jesus could not escape that divine appointment, we have NO REASON to believe that Mary could. The Assumption doctrine erroneously appropriates the twelfth chapter of the book of Revelation, in which the nation of Israel (symbolized by 12 stars around her head) is depicted as a woman bearing the man-child Messiah. The RCC ignores the true meaning of this chapter and interprets to say that MARY is the woman crowned by twelve stars (leaving that detail unexplained). One of the real detriments of this false doctrine is that it is impossible to CORRECTLY interpret the prophetic meaning of Revelation 12 while believing the Catholic interpretation. The prophecy accurately depicts the nation of Israel during the last 3 1/2 years before Armageddon, during the time called "Jacob's Trouble," or the "Great Tribulation." It is NOT about MARY at all! Israel would never receive this end-time warning from God if it was left to the Roman Catholic Church. They hijacked the true meaning of those scriptures. Veneration of Mary Furthermore, the very heart and soul of Mariology is the Veneration of Mary - holding her to be sacred, and highly revered. Despite all arguments to the contrary, "veneration" in the Roman Catholic Church amounts to full-blown idolatry. All around the world, lavish feasts and celebrations are held where hundreds of millions of people celebrate and give offerings to the Virgin Mary - "Our Lady." Flowers are placed at her feet; delicacies are baked, and laid at the base of her idol. Her image is placed in the most conspicuous, highly visible focal points at the head of "churches," in prominent places in private homes, in most noticeable places in parks and yards and businesses. Mary's image is worn on necklaces and bracelets, and hung in portraits on walls, and massive statues are constructed in public places to venerate and glorify Mary. It is impossible to overstate the amount of superstitious power, charm and blessing that is believed to be in the images of Mary. This CANNOT be, and IS NOT, acceptable with God. It is a flagrant and offensive manifestation of idolatry in its purest form. There are few subjects in the Bible for which God has more hostility than idolatry and the worship of false gods. And in Catholicism, Mary really is a false god. Let me pose a hypothetical example to illustrate what a gross offense Mariology is to the truth of God as set forth in scriptures. Just suppose that the President of the United States arrived at his inauguration ceremonies to assume his duly-elected powers in office. But instead of finding a legitimate inauguration ceremony being conducted, he found hundreds of thousands of American citizens celebrating a strange woman who claimed to be his wife. Can you imagine the thoughts that would pass through the President's mind as he watched the multitudes totally usurp his inauguration? This strange woman, with whom he has NEVER had a relationship, is receiving ALL the honors, all the praise, all the accolades. She is standing in the podium where the President was supposed to stand. Meanwhile, the President is being ignored. In a final, horrifying, blasphemous act, this strange woman stands and takes the Oath of Office! And to make matters worse, NOBODY objects to this travesty of justice! Nobody raises a voice to decry the illegality of this ceremony, nor to condemn the impostor! This hypothetical example shows exactly how outrageous and scandalous it is that this DEMON SPIRIT by the name of MARY, or the BLESSED VIRGIN, or "Our Lady," posing as a non-existent perpetually virgin, "immaculately conceived," "Mother of God," "Queen of Heaven," who never died, stands in the midst of hundreds of millions of religious worshipers around the world and STEALS THE WORSHIP AND GLORY THAT IS ONLY DUE TO JESUS CHRIST ALONE! I cannot imagine anything on earth being more abominable. In the end of time, Almighty God will certainly destroy all such images, as well as all those who worship them. "Mother of the Church" Mary is held to be the eschatological (prophetic) fulfillment of the Church. Mary is called the Bride of God and the Queen of Heaven, and first manifestation, first embodiment of the church. Since Vatican II, she is called the Mother of the Church. If that is so, then the doctrine of the New Birth (as taught by Jesus and all the apostles) is moot and irrelevant. If Mary was the embodiment of the church before Calvary, then there is a church that is not born again -- a notion we cannot accept. This furthermore suggests that all believers must be born of Mary into the Roman Catholic Church, rather than as Jesus taught, "born again" of water and of Spirit into the kingdom of God. The stark reality is that Mary had to be born again just like every other New Testament believer. Mary was one of the 3,120 seekers who were born into the kingdom of God on the Day of Pentecost. If Mary had not been born again as a result of her own repentance, baptism and infilling of the Holy Spirit, she would not even be in Heaven now. She would have died and gone to Hell along with every other sinner. Another tenet of Mariology that presents a major problem is the concept of Mary being the Mother of God. Whose mother was she? God's, or the Son of God's? "When the fulness of time came, Mary brought forth her firstborn son and laid him in a manger." Jesus was certainly God, but God wasn't born that day -- a man in whom God dwelt was born. How can anybody in their right mind believe that God has a mother? Mary had a baby boy named Jesus. He was the incarnation of the Father. Mary was only a human body bearing a human body; a vessel producing a vessel. She is NOT the mother of any kind of deity. She is the mother of the man, Jesus Christ. Immaculate Conception The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not as it may sound. Anyone who is uninitiated to the idea would probably presume that the Immaculate Conception refers to Mary's virginity at the time of Jesus' conception. But that is NOT what the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is about. Instead, it posits that Mary HERSELF was born immaculately -- without sin; that SHE was immaculately conceived. That is a heretical doctrine that cannot be supported by ANYTHING in the Bible. Psalm 51:5 says, "Behold, I was shapen in iniquity; and in sin did my mother conceive me." Neither did Mary remain immaculate throughout her life. In contradiction of that obvious truth, Pope Pius XII said, "If the popular praises of the Blessed Virgin Mary be given the careful consideration they deserve, who will dare to doubt that she, who was purer than the angels and at all times pure, was at any moment, even for the briefest instant, not free from every stain of sin?" But the Bible is certain on that matter: "ALL have sinned and come short of the glory of God," Romans 3:23. The baptism of the Holy Ghost, which was experienced by all those in the Upper Room on the Day of Pentecost, according to Peter's exhortation in Acts 2:38, had to be preceded by repentance. If Mary was among those who repented, she must have had sin. And of course, she did. Mary was born again after the same fashion of all her other brothers and sisters in the early church. She had to repent, be baptized in the name of Jesus for the remission of her sins, and receive the baptism of the Holy Ghost. Yes - Mary spoke in unknown tongues as the Spirit gave her the utterance. She was a tongue-talking Pentecostal! Not a Roman Catholic icon. She would be completely aghast at the horrific abominations being perpetrated in her name today. This Roman heresy of the Immaculate Conception ascribes sinless perfection to Mary, which cannot possibly be true. It is an intolerable, devious doctrine intended to divert the glory for which only God is worthy, to an unworthy human being, and ultimately, a deceiving spirit - a devil! Was Mary a Sinner? We found Mary among the 120 believers praying in the Upper Room on the Day of Pentecost. "And suddenly there came a sound from heaven as of a rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting. And there appeared unto them cloven tongues like as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance," Acts 2:2-4. Mary was one of the believers upon whom the Holy Ghost fell at Pentecost. When the multitudes in Jerusalem heard the news of what had happened, they inquired as to how they, too, could experience the baptism of the Holy Ghost. Peter answered them in a straight-forward formulaic manner. "Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost. For the promise is unto you, and to your children, and to all that are afar off, even as many as the Lord our God shall call," Acts 2:38-39. Peter showed the people that if they wanted to receive the Holy Spirit as the others had, they should repent of their sins, and be baptized by immersion in water in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins. Then, he said, they would receive the Holy Ghost. In consideration of Peter's formula, we can deduct that all those 120 believers had already repented of their sins, and been baptized in the name of Jesus. That includes Mary. Yes, Mary had repented of her sins. Yes, she was a sinner just like every other person who comes to God. Prayers to Mary (same as prayers to the dead) The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is a false doctrine with a deceptive and destructive purpose. Any time a false doctrine is preached, it misleads the people, and necessarily distracts them from the pure and infallible doctrines of the Word of God. In the case of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, the deception is that people are encouraged to turn their love and devotion to a human being, encouraged to PRAY to her, VENERATE her, keep icons and images of her, give gifts to her, and look to her to perform signs, wonders and miracles for them. Unfortunately, to the discredit of this doctrine, the TRUE Mary is in Heaven and is ENTIRELY OBLIVIOUS to these religious practices. Mary has absolutely no awareness of what is going on in earth, "...for who shall bring him [the dead] to see what shall be after him?" Ecclesiastes 3:22. "Wherefore I praised the dead... who hath not seen the evil work that is done under the sun." Those whose spirits are now in Heaven or Hell are very conscious of their surroundings there, but not of anything on earth. Solomon said, "The living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing, ...Also their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished," Ecclesiastes 9:5-6. What does that mean? That means that MARY CANNOT HEAR ANYBODY'S PRAYERS! Sainthood Finally, the Veneration doctrine includes not only the "veneration," or "highly honoring" of Mary, but also is preliminary to her declared Sainthood. Sainthood, (another extra-biblical heresy created and promoted by the Roman Catholic Church) among other things, is the esteeming of some purportedly great Christian to the office of Sainthood in the Roman Catholic Church, and subsequently holding him or her to be a heavenly intercessor, or one to PRAY to. This is seriously wrong. To begin with, there are absolutely no scriptural precedents for such behavior. Not one scripture even suggests that we should attempt to communicate with any deceased person, saint or sinner. In fact, the scriptures declare that the body of the dead returns to the earth, "ashes to ashes and dust to dust," and "the spirit returns to God who gave it." In His story of the rich man and Lazarus, Jesus taught that when a person dies, he is taken either to a place of torment if he was wicked, or a place of rest in the Presence of God if he was righteous. Between those two eternal abodes, there is a great gulf fixed which cannot be crossed by either party. When the wicked rich man called to God from Hell, asking that someone be sent from there to his brothers, to warn them of the perils of Hell, he was told that would not be possible. An evil King Saul tried to communicate with the dead prophet Samuel by going to the witch of Endor. She purported to raise the spirit of Samuel, which condemned Saul to death that night. To be absolutely sure, she did NOT raise the spirit of Samuel. To believe that she did opens the door to believing that witches have power over God to pull down righteous souls from Heaven, back into this evil domain on earth. That is frighteningly heretical. Witches CANNOT bypass the throne of God to bring down saints of God from Heaven. You MUST understand that witches ONLY communicate with devils. The witch of Endor only raised a "familiar spirit" of Samuel's. The witch's ONLY access to the nether world was by a familiar spirit (demon). That was NOT Samuel. It was a familiar spirit POSING as Samuel! That "Samuel" was a lying devil. To believe otherwise is to break every other Biblical precedent. The tragic fact is that Saul died within twenty-four hours of communicating with that forbidden spirit. We must similarly conclude that when anyone claims to be able to communicate with the dead, they are only communicating with "familiar spirits," or demons! It is an evil thing to have communications with Mary. The spirits and apparitions that appear around the world, performing hundreds of miracles, including weeping statues, bleeding statues, images dripping oil, et cetera - ALL are demonic manifestations that deceive and delude the masses. Therefore, on the basis of that reasoning, we must conclude that any prayer to the Virgin Mary could only be heard by God Himself or by a familiar spirit demon. Mary, who has for 2000 years been beyond the grave, was and is NOT ABLE to communicate with the living today. Her mortal body has returned to the dust, and is awaiting the resurrection of the dead - the putting on of a new body. Her spirit is now in the presence of Jesus Christ in Heaven, and completely oblivious to circumstances going on in the earth. ANYONE posing as Mary today would HAVE TO BE AN IMPOSTOR SPIRIT, a powerful and influential devil that no Christian in their right mind would want to have ANY dealings with! How can it NOT be an abomination to pray to the devil?? Apparitions and Miracles by Mary The horrifying reality is that powerful demons are the impostors of Mary. All the miracles that are presently attributed to the "Blessed Virgin" in over 600 sites around the world that are officially recognized by the RCC, are not miracles of Mary or of God, but DEMONIC DECEPTIONS, perpetrated to keep men and women from ever believing in the true, infallible Bible doctrines contained in the (non-Catholic) gospel of Jesus Christ. By now, the apparitions of the Virgin are almost countless. They spread from Medjugorje, Yugoslavia, to Lourdes, France; from Fatima, Portugal to the Hill of Tepeyac, Guadalupe, Mexico; including Mbuye, Uganda; Zaragoza, Spain; the Esquiline Hill in Rome, Italy; Walsingham, England; Cambridge, England; Prouille, France; Saint-ï¿½tienne-le-Laus and Paris, France; La Salette, Pontmain, Beauraing, Banneux, and even Lubbock, Texas! All these demonic appearances have NOT resulted in millions of people being born again into the kingdom of God, but have drawn millions of people AWAY from the true gospel into the mystical clutches of Roman Catholic spiritual perversions. The Virgin's miracles do NOT promote the TRUE Gospel of Jesus Christ or the preaching of the pure, unadulterated word of God. In fact, they accomplish the EXACT OPPOSITE of spreading the gospel. Because of the GROSS DECEPTIONS of Mariology, the TRUE gospel of Jesus Christ is being supplanted and side-stepped in nations all over the world. In places where the Roman Catholic Church is the predominate religion, the people have NEVER been taught the truth that Mary CANNOT do ANYTHING for them, and that only JESUS CHRIST can save their souls, heal their sicknesses, or write their names in the Lamb's Book of Life. So Mariology is leading people astray! It is distracting hundreds of millions of people from the real and true doctrines of the early Apostolic Pentecostal Church. You can and should believe that Almighty God will ultimately condemn Mariology in every form. Those whose religion was based upon Mariology will find themselves in the gravest of positions, never having been taught the truth about being Born Again by repentance, baptism in Jesus name, and being filled with the Holy Ghost. Instead, they will find themselves standing before Jesus Christ at the final judgment, accused and guilty of both idolatry and witchcraft. If Mary could speak from Heaven, (which she CANNOT), she would soundly denounce all such teaching, in the same manner in which the angel rebuked John in Revelation 22:8-9. "And I John saw these things, and heard them. And when I had heard and seen, I fell down to worship before the feet of the angel which shewed me these things. Then saith he unto me, See thou do it not: for I am thy fellowservant, and of thy brethren the prophets, and of them which keep the sayings of this book: worship God." "Give unto the LORD the glory due unto his name; worship the LORD in the beauty of holiness," Psalms 29:2. "I am the LORD: that is my name: and my glory will I not give to another, neither my praise to graven images," Isaiah 42:8. It is a blasphemous abomination to bow before an image of the "Virgin Mary." All glory belongs to God, and He will not tolerate the glory being given to any human or idol. "That no flesh should glory in his presence," 1 Corinthians 1:29. The Spirit of Mary "Prophesies" Fire Will Fall In a book called, 'The Thunder of Justice' written by Ted and Maureen Flynn, with the foreword written by prominent Vatican insider, the late Malachi Martin, Mary predicts profound changes on the world scene imminently. "Our Lady" is quoted as saying prophetically (in the very opening chapter), "A chastisement worse than the flood is about to come upon this poor and perverted humanity. FIRE will descend from Heaven and this will be a sign that the justice of God has as of now fixed the hour of His great manifestation." THEY think this is Mary speaking. Actually, it is a DEMON! These words of "Mary" recall Revelation 13:13-14, which refers to the "False Prophet" of the apocalypse: "and he doeth great wonders, so that he maketh FIRE come down from heaven on the earth in the sight of men, and deceiveth them that dwell on the earth by means of those miracles which he had power to do in the sight of the beast..." First, the Fire, then the Antichrist? The surrounding verses describe the most powerful religious leader in the world performing a miracle that is presently being predicted by the "Blessed Virgin" herself! The Pope prays daily to the "Blessed Virgin," and he is the principal defender of her role in reconciling the world to God. He has said that Jesus Christ is the MEDIATOR between God and Mary! The demon spirit behind the entire "Blessed Virgin" deception is the same spirit that drives the Antichrist, who will soon be revealed in these last days. The prophecy states that the Pope has the "power to give life to the image of the beast." Is it possible that the IMAGE of the Antichrist, the image of the Beast, is the image of the Virgin Mary? The European Union already wears the "image" of Mary. The twelve stars of the Virgin Mary have been permanently incorporated into the flag of the European Union. The artist-designer of the EU Flag, Arsï¿½ne Heitz, of Strasbourg, was a devout Catholic, and devotee of the Virgin Mary, who prayed the rosary daily. He acknowledged that twelve-star halo of the Virgin Mary helped to inspire him. A former secretary-general of the Council of Europe, Leon Marchal, affirmed that the stars are those of the woman in the book of Revelation. "It is wonderful that we have gotten back to the Introit of the new Mass of the Assumption. It is the corona stellarum duodecim (the crown of the twelve stars) of the woman of the Apocalypse." The flag was adopted on December 8, 1955, the Catholic Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, decreed in 1854 by Pope Pius IX. On October 21, 1956, the Council of Europe presented the city of Strasbourg, its official seat, with a stained glass window for Strasbourg Cathedral depicting a Madonna underneath a circle of 12 stars, as found on the statue of Mary venerated inside the cathedral. The twelve stars of Mary are on every license plate and banknote in the European Union. Vatican-issued Euro coins have the Pope's image with twelve stars. It has been reported that on September 2, 1958, Archbishop Montini of Milan (who later became Pope Pius XII) introduced a twenty-meter high statue of Mary on Mount Serenissima, and called it "Our Beloved Lady, Ruler of Europe." Pope Pius XII called Mary "Mother of all Nations." Bishop Dr. Graber said on September 9, 1978: "We pray and ask in silence that the western world one day will be as it was: an IMPERIUM MARIANUM [Mary's Imperial Kingdom]." On June 9, 2007, Bishop Victor J. Dammertz OSB dedicated a chapel in honor of Mary, Mother of Europe near the Benedictine monastery of Beuron, Germany. Ultimately, the Spirit of Mary will assert itself increasingly on the world stage, predominantly (at first) in Europe, then at the United Nations (World Government). The spirit of Mary is the spirit of the Antichrist, whose ultimate goal is nothing less than total world dominion. The Catholic Church is a driving force behind the New World Order "Beast" Government that will finally declare the implementation of the Mark of the Beast. When all these facts are taken into consideration, no one who wants to be saved should remain in the Roman Catholic Church. "And I heard another voice from heaven, saying, Come out of her, my people, that ye be not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of her plagues. For her sins have reached unto heaven, and God hath remembered her iniquities. Reward her even as she rewarded you, and double unto her double according to her works: in the cup which she hath filled fill to her double." Revelation 18:4-6 (KJV) Don't believe the Catholic Church is behind the New World Order?? Here is a video showing Pope Benedict calling for a New World Order!	i don't know

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