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What nationality is tennis player Eugenie Bouchard? | Eugenie Bouchard — Ethnicity of Celebs | What Nationality Ancestry Race
by stlucas on November 16, 2015
Place of Birth: Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Date of Birth: February 25, 1994
Ethnicity: French-Canadian, some Irish
Eugenie Bouchard is a Canadian professional tennis player. She is the daughter of mother Julie Leclair and father Michel Bouchard. She has a fraternal twin sister, Beatrice, who is six minutes older. Eugenie speaks both French and English.
Eugenie’s paternal grandparents are Gilles Bouchard (the son of Gerard Bouchard and Rollande Monte) and Huguette Martin (the daughter of Juvenal Martin and Georgette Martineau).
Eugenie’s maternal grandparents are Dorval Leclair (the son of Lorenzo Leclair and Gertrude Levesque) and Coleen-Jean-Margaret Murphy (the daughter of Daniel Murphy and Jeanne-d’Arc Nault). Daniel was of Irish descent, the son of William Murphy and Margaret Fleming. Eugenie’s matrilineal great-great-great-great-grandmother, Mary-Margaret Lynn, was also Irish, born in Finvoy, Antrim.
Source: Genealogy of Eugenie Bouchard – http://www.nosorigines.qc.ca
Photo by Prphotos.com
| Canadians |
The 1798 Battle of the Nile is also known as the Battle of which Bay? | Introducing Eugenie Bouchard - A dozen curious facts about the rising tennis star
Introducing Eugenie Bouchard - A dozen curious facts about the rising tennis star
Top 5 / Top 10 20 Jan 2014, 00:35 IST
Canada’s Eugenie Bouchard during her 4th round match against Casey Dellacqua
Eugenie “Genie” Bouchard is making waves and a parched WTA is happy getting drenched in a celebration wet with anticipation and promise. The 19-year-old Canadian showed immense resolve to survive a tough opening set loss to Casey Dellacqua as she carved her way into the quarter-finals of the Australian Open. The tennis world has been unanimous in their praise for the bold and talented girl from Westmount in Quebec, but what has astounded experts is the tenacity and composure of the Canadian teenager. As she prepares for her maiden Grand Slam quarter-finals, due on Tuesday, here are 10 interesting facts about the emerging star.
1. Attitude: Eager to get on with it, Bouchard demanded action from the very moment she stepped on court. As a little girl, she was put in a kids tennis clinic on Nun’s Island when she was just five. The clinic would start with some fun and games, involving props such as hoola hoops and balloons just to get the kids involved. While her fellow kids enjoyed the routine, Genie was itching to get her racquet swinging at the tennis balls. “All of the kids, including my sister, loved the games, except me. I hated them, because I just wanted to hit more balls and actually play tennis,” Bouchard told the Globe and Mail last year. “My parents were like, ‘Oh, she really wants to play tennis!’ So eventually, I started playing three times a week, then took private lessons and played my first tournament when I was eight. I loved it right away.”
2. Wimbledon Champion, already: Genie got her first real taste of big stage success as a junior. Still only 17, she had a brilliantly memorable fortnight at Wimbledon in 2012 where she ended up with a double – winning both the girls singles and doubles titles. Seeded five, she defeated the third seed Elina Svitolina 6-2, 6-2 to clinch the title. In doing so, she became the first Canadian ever, junior or professional, to win a Grand Slam title in singles. Incidentally she also won the doubles title for the second year running, partnering the American Taylor Townsend (another American Grace Min was her partner in 2011), after beating Belinda Bencic and Ana Konjuh 6–4, 6–3 in the final. She has already dreamt about the real deal and wishes to go on and capture the Ladies title at the coveted tournament.
3. Highest ranked teenager: In a game that has turned ever more physical since the turn of the millenium, it is unsurprising yet curious to note that Eugenie is among just a few teenage players among the elite of the WTA. Not too long ago, a certain Martina Hingis had already collected five Grand Slam titles by the time she was done being a teenager. Times have changed and now there are only seven of their tribe in the top 100 of women’s tennis. The Canadian is currently the highest ranked teenager at 31st in the world and set to scale higher peaks on the strength of her performances at the Australian Open.
4. Her family: The Bouchard family made home in an upscale Montreal suburb, with the former Prime Minister Brian Mulroney living on the same street. Her parents Julie and Mike had each of their four kids dabble in tennis, but it was Eugenie who took an active interest in the sport. The 19-year-old has a fraternal twin, Beatrice, and two younger siblings – sister Charlotte and a brother called William. The family moved to Florida for a few years to help Eugenie train with Nick Saviano, but moved back to Montreal once Tennis Canada assigned an exclusive trainer, Roberto Brogin, to the promising young woman. Her father Mike is an investment banker, but he will be hard pressed to find a better investment than the one he has made in his talented daughter.
5. Her best friend: She considers fellow player Laura Robson among the best of her friends. The two of them have known each other for nearly 10 years and share a special bond. In fact, Eugenie wished that she made no more friends on the tour since it was emotionally hard to deal with a victory over Robson last year. The two go out for dinner almost every night when they are at the same tournament and apparently have a very strong friendship. The player and her mother lived at Robson’s home last year when they were out there to play Wimbledon.
6. And a video that went viral: Eugenie and Laura produced a video featuring tennis players, Maria Sharapova among them, performing the Gangnam style dance moves while on their travels worldwide. The video went viral and has garnered nearly half a million views since being uploaded last year. Here is the video, in case it awakens your curiosity:
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Torquay United and which other team were promoted from the Conference to the Football League Division Two at the end of the 2008/9 season? | Torquay United F.C. - The Full Wiki
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Torquay United
Current season
Torquay United Football Club, nicknamed the Gulls, is an English association football club based in the seaside resort town of Torquay , Devon . They played in the Conference National in 2008–09, but were promoted to Football League Two after a 2–0 win over Cambridge United on 17 May 2009. The return to the The Football League ends a two-year absence after 82 successive seasons. The club plays in a distinctive yellow kit.
Torquay United pride themselves on remaining debt-free despite the debacle of the ITV Digital collapse. 'Penny-wise and pound-foolish' was an oft-repeated observation of things at Plainmoor, particularly under the chairmanship of Mike Bateson who was widely criticised by fans and media for lack of investment and for shutting down the reserve and youth teams at the club to save money when in fact they were making money from selling a couple of players a year.[citation needed]
Torquay's traditional rivals are fellow Devon clubs Plymouth Argyle and Exeter City . However the latter has always been the fiercer rivalry as Argyle have tended to be in a higher division throughout their history and so the two teams rarely meet.
Contents
For more details on this topic, see Torquay United F.C. seasons .
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Formation to World War One
The original Torquay United was formed in 1899 by a group of school-leavers under the guidance of Sergeant-Major Edward Tomney. The newly founded club played its inaugral match against an Upton Cricket Club XI on one of Farmer John Wright's fields, which was situated at the top of Penny's Hill, on Teignmouth Road on the site of modern Parkhurst Road.
After a season of friendlies the club joined the East Devon League and moved into the Recreation Ground, their home for the next four years, Plainmoor being occupied by Torquay Athletic Rugby Club at this time in a reversal of the current situation. In 1904 Athletic secured the lease on the Recreation Ground from underneath United and Torquay and District League rivals Ellacombe took over the lease of Plainmoor leaving United homeless for the first time in their existence and facilitating a return to the farmers fields on Teignmouth Road, however the club was on the move again when the fields were sold to be developed into what would later be known as Parkhurst Road. United soon found another home, sharing with Torquay Cricket Club in nearby Cricketfield Road (a site still used for football in the modern day by South Devon League side Upton Athletic) for four years and during that time won their first honour, the Torquay and District League title in 1909.
Following this breakthrough for the club, the club merged with local rivals Ellacombe in 1910, adopted the name Torquay Town and finally moved into Plainmoor where they would remain to the modern day, during this period the ground was shared with the team's remaining local rival Babbacombe FC. Both sides were playing in the same league, the Plymouth and District League alongside the reserve teams of Exeter City and Plymouth Argyle , Torquay Town would later win the league in the 1911-12 season.
Election to The Football League
In 1920 after the resumption of the Football League following World War I , United's local rivals Plymouth Argyle and Exeter City were both elected to the Football League as founder members of the Football League Third Division , this prompted a movement in the town to merge the two remaining teams together and create a new entity capable of competing at this level and being elected into the new league.
Relations between the two Torquay clubs were poor, but in 1921 matters finally came to a head. Torquay Town was desperate to join its local rivals in the league and after many discussions Babbacombe at last agreed to a merger, enabling the new club to become the sole representative of the town and turn professional to further its case for league election, the new team was to be called Torquay United again, reverting back back to Town's name of circa 1910.
The new club entered the Southern Football League , famous for being the league that Tottenham Hotspur played in when becoming the only non league team to win the FA Cup , once again playing alongside Plymouth and Exeter's reserve sides and also Boscombe (later to become A.F.C. Bournemouth ). Torquay went on to finish in sixth place that season and during the summer break had the audacity to apply for Football League status, but failed to gain a single vote, seeing Boscombe elected to the league instead. From 1923 onwards the league was split into Eastern and Western halves and Torquay United found themselves playing in the Western section.
In 1925, the club battled through five qualifying rounds to reach the first round proper of the FA Cup for the first time in the club's history. Captain Percy Mackrill lead the team through two 1-1 draws before a strong Reading side won the second replay 2-0 at Plainmoor.
In 1927, Torquay finally won their first league title since the Torquay and District League of 1912, winning the western division of the Southern League, United had the same number of points as Bristol City Reserves , but their 3-1 win on the final day of the season helped them to win the league on goal difference. The club then went on to lose the Southern League Championship final against the Eastern Champions Brighton and Hove Albion Reserves 4-0 but it was the start of an upturn in the club's fortunes.
The Torquay United team as it lined up in 1927, before its first ever league match against Exeter City which resulted in a 1-1 draw.
Capitalising on this momentum, the club once again applied for league membership and were successful this time, joining the Football League Third Division at the expense of Aberdare Athletic , who dropped out after failing to be re-elected to the league. Finally the town of Torquay had a professional league team and had joined Plymouth and Exeter in the football league at last.
A new wooden grandstand costing £150 was erected at Plainmoor for United's inaugural season in the Football League, it had previously stood at Buckfastleigh Racecourse, where its twin can still be seen today.
It was also during this period that United changed its club colours from the early colours of light and dark blue, into black and white stripes which led to the club being dubbed 'the magpies' like their fellow league club Newcastle United
United's first match in the league took place on 27 August 1927 was aptly against Exeter City at Plainmoor . The side for that first game was Millsom ; Cook , Smith ; Wellock , Wragge , Conner , Mackey , Turner , Jones, McGovern, Thomson . A crowd of 11,625 watched a 1-1 draw with Torquay's goal coming from Bert Turner, however the team's first season in the league was not a success, they followed up the draw with Exeter with a 9-1 thrashing away at Millwall and of the 48 games played that first season, Torquay won 8, drew 14 and lost 20 finishing bottom on 30 points and had to win re-election to remain in the league.
Throughout the 1930s Torquay struggled against financial problems, such as having to replace the stadium roof when it was blown off in 1930. They also failed to finish higher than 10th in twelve seasons. In the last few seasons before league football was suspended during the Second World War , Torquay struggled in Division Three South, finishing 20th, 20th and 19th out of 22 teams.
Notable Torquay players from the pre-war era include Paignton -born George Stabb , who scored 24 goals during the 1932/33 season, stalwart Albert Hutchinson (84 goals in 338 games from 1930–38) and Dartmouth -born winger Ralph Birkett , who later went on to play with distinction for Arsenal and Middlesbrough and win one full England cap.
In 1939, Torquay qualified for the final of the Third Division South Cup , a competition in which the club had previously lost 1-0 to Exeter City in the 1934 final. However, the 1939 final (which would have been against either Queen's Park Rangers or Port Vale ) was never played due to the outbreak of World War II .
Webber era
When league football was resumed in 1946, United continued to struggle and finished 19th. However, thanks partly to the goals of their new striker Sammy Collins, the club broke the top ten barrier in 1949 for the very first time, finishing 9th and then 5th in 1950 off the back of Collin's goalscoring antics.
In 1954 United changed their club colours again, the black and white stripes being changed to gold and blue to reflect the resort's sun, sand and sea image, colours which the club has maintained to this day, with the change of colours came a change in fortunes starting with the club's greatest ever FA Cup moment that very season.
After defeating Cambridge United 4-0 at home and Blyth Spartans 1-3 away, Torquay were drawn against Leeds United in the third round of the cup. Nobody expected the team to go to Elland Road and get any kind of favourable result, so when they managed a 2-2 draw in Yorkshire , the scene was set for over 11,000 fans to crowd into Plainmoor on a Wednesday afternoon, 12 January.
Incredibly, with goals from Collins, Harold Dobbie, Ronnie Shaw and captain Don Mills, playing against his old club, Torquay ran out 4-0 winners, to set up a fourth round clash with Huddersfield Town .
The Torquay United versus Huddersfield Town fourth round FA Cup game at Plainmoor will always live on in the memory of those who attended the match on the 29 January 1955. Just how 21,908 people managed to fit into the ground is a mystery. Although Torquay lost 0-1 to the Division One club, the record crowd is never likely to be beaten due to the current state of the club and the stadium.
Following their FA Cup heroics, in the 1956/57 season Torquay just missed out on promotion to Division Two on goal difference , the season had begun well and by April the possibility of a first promotion to Division Two was the talk of the town. After home wins against Northampton Town , Southampton , Newport County and Queens Park Rangers , United found themselves sitting at the top of the table, with future World Cup winning manager Alf Ramsey's Ipswich Town just one point behind.
A trip to Crystal Palace for the team and over 1,500 Torquay fans travelling on the last day of the season beckoned. Torquay only needed to win the game to be certain of going up, but they managed only a 1-1 draw at Selhurst Park and Ipswich, who won their final match away to Southampton, took the title on goal-average.
United failed to repeat this form the following season and after finishing 22nd in the league and were placed in the new Division Four , created by the deregionalisation of the two third level divisions.
With Eric Webber still in charge, United ended their first season in the League's new basement division in twelfth place, but the next season, the club returned to form and on 27 April 1960, 8,749 fans saw Torquay United beat Gillingham 2-0 at Plainmoor to return to the Third Division with two games of the season remaining. However, after only two seasons in the Third Division they were again relegated on the last day of the campaign, with a 4-2 away defeat at Barnsley .
Torquay came very close to regaining their Division Three status when they finished sixth and sixth again at the end of both the 1962/63 and 1963/64 campaigns. In 1963, Webber signed striker Robin Stubbs for a club record fee of £6,000 from Birmingham City , he went on to be the club's top goalscorer at the end of the 1963/64 scoring 24 goals in 34 games in his debut season.
Torquay's FA Cup run of 1964/65 was the highlight of a disappointing mid-table season as United again failed to return to the Third Division. After travelling to Canterbury City in the first round and beating them 6-0, United disposed of Colchester United in the second round 2-0 at Plainmoor, in the third round, Torquay were drawn at home to giants Tottenham Hotspur.
In front the Plainmoor's second ever largest attendance, just over 20,000 fans turned up to watch the match, and the team gave a display that few there that day will ever forget. Billy Atkinson put United 1-0 up from the penalty spot after Robin Stubbs had been felled, Spurs responded turning on the style to give themselves a 3-1 lead with two goals from Alan Gilzean and one from Maurice Norman , and then, in the last few minutes, it was the turn of hero of the hour Stubbs, to net two goals and make it 3-3.
The first attempt at a replay in London was cancelled, with the majority of United's travelling fans having already arrived in the capital. A week later though, in front of 55,000 at White Hart Lane , the match went ahead, Jimmy Greaves scored a hat trick as Tottenham showed their class to win 5-1, Stubbs hitting Torquay's consolation goal.
After finishing in 12th at the end of the season, Eric Webber was finally sacked after 15 years as manager by new chairman Tony Boyce who felt the club needed refreshing, Boyce and Webber's successor were soon to write their own part of United's history.
Webber had succeeded Alex Massie in 1951, originally as player-manager, he hung up his boots in 1955 and began building arguably Torquay United's best ever squad. The respect he gained from his players drove the club to the verge of promotion to Division Two and to the fourth round of the FA Cup twice.
O'Farrell era
Webber's replacement was Frank O'Farrell who arrived fresh from winning the Southern League title with Weymouth . In his first season in charge, O'Farrell oversaw Torquay's second promotion when they finished third in Division Four, while England won the World Cup on home soil.
During the following couple of seasons O'Farrell used his connections at West Ham United to bring many ex-Hammers to Plainmoor, John Bond and ex-international Ken Brown being two famous Upton Park names to appear in gold and blue. At the end of their 1966/67 campaign United finished in seventh, and at the end of their 1967/68 season, United came very close to promotion to Division Two, once again.
With Torquay leading the table during Easter 1968, United got their first ever coverage on Match of the Day beating beating promotion rivals Bury 3-0 in front of more than 10,000 at Plainmoor but a poor run-in saw United finish fourth by two points, behind the promoted trio Oxford United , Bury and Shrewsbury Town , this period also coincided with the club's fans being voted the 'Best Behaved Supporters In The League'.
The O'Farrell era ended in 1968/69, when he left to manage First Division Leicester City and later Manchester United .
Lower league disappointment
During the following end of season clear-out Stubbs was sold to Bristol Rovers for £12,000, along with Sammy Collins he was probably the best striker to wear the colours of United. Another two seasons of indifference in Division Three saw the club finish in mid-table positions, then at the end of the 1971/72 campaign, United found themselves in the relegation zone, and back in the basement division.
This led to a relatively uneventful decade with consistently mid-table finishes. Although in January 1977 Pat Kruse, a centre-half for Torquay, created a world record by scoring an own goal after just six seconds in a league match against Cambridge United at Plainmoor.
O'Farrell made a return to Plainmoor in 1976 when Malcolm Musgrove lost his job after a disappointing FA Cup defeat against non-league outfit Hillingdon Borough. He soon moved upstairs into the position of consultant manager, and ex-Plymouth Argyle promotion winning captain Mike Green was brought in to control first team matters.At the end of the 1977/78 season Green saw his Gulls finish in ninth place, with Willie Brown finishing up as top goalscorer with 12 goals.
Halfway through the campaign, just before Green's arrival, O'Farrell bought a local Devon born striker from Bristol City , his name was Colin Lee and he duly scored on his Torquay debut, and went on to score 10 goals in 23 games. His time at Plainmoor was short for in October of the following season United accepted a £60,000 offer from Tottenham Hotspur for his services, Lee would famously go on to score four goals on his debut for the London club during their 9-0 demolition of Bristol Rovers and would return to United in various capacities in later years ranging from caretaker manager, to director of football and to his present position within the club, that of Chief Executive.
Mike Green left the club, to be replaced at the helm, for the third time, by Frank O'Farrell, O'Farrell didn't stay in charge of team matters for long, bringing in ex-Scotland international Bruce Rioch to become player-coach, after a great start to the 1981/82 season, the Gulls soon started to flag, and ended up in fifteenth place.
During the following summer Rioch was named manager, and the following 1982/83 campaign saw United again off to a flying start. They finished twelfth, but reached the fourth round of the FA Cup for the third time, going out of the competition at Plainmoor after a thrilling 2-3 defeat at the hands of Sheffield Wednesday .
During this period United as all English clubs were at the time were struggling with falling attendances and a negative perception of football in the country as a whole and by the end of the season on 2 May 1984 only 967 spectators watch the 1-0 victory over Chester City at Plainmoor .
Money was tight at the club and the club's board was putting pressure on Rioch to sell Colin Anderson the club's star player at the time to balance the books, following Rioch claiming "a good few for Anderson could well save the club", Anderson's form nosedived infuriating Rioch, culminating in Rioch punching the player in the jaw after Anderson nutmegged him during a five aside match in training, faced with the prospect of Anderson going to the PFA over the matter, the club suggested Rioch resign, which he promptly did, 20 years later he would state "what I did was inexcusable. It was a period of my career which I deeply regret, but I learned from the experience". [1]
In February 1984 former Chelsea favourite Dave Webb bought the club, optimism within the walls of Plainmoor was quite high. Webb brought in ex-Bournemouth players Derek Dawkins and goalkeeper Kenny Allen to strengthen the squad, and also attracted the former internationals Eddie Kelly and Tony Currie to the club, United would go on to finish the season in a strong 9th place.
At the end of the 1984–85 season United finished bottom of Division Four and had to apply for re-election to stay in the Football League for the first time since 1928. To further emphasise the problems the club was enduring, a 'suspicious' fire destroyed half of the grandstand on 17 May 1985 just just six days after the Bradford Stadium fire, destroying a third of the old grandstand. Nobody was hurt, but as a result, the ground's capacity fell to below 5,000.
For the 1985–86 season David Webb became managing director and appointed Stuart Morgan as manager. However, for the second successive year United finished bottom of Division Four and again had to apply for re-election. The last side to finish bottom of the league two seasons in a row, Workington lost their league place, but Torquay's bid was successful.
The 1986–87 season introduced automatic relegation into the Nationwide Conference for the first time. With the final game of the season to go, Torquay were third from bottom on 47 points, below them was Burnley on 46 points, and Tranmere , also on 47 points but with an inferior goal difference. Lincoln City had 48 points and seemed in least danger.
The final game of the season was against Crewe Alexandra, featuring a young David Platt , at Plainmoor. At half-time Crewe were leading 2-0 and things looked bad for Torquay, two minutes into the second-half Torquay's centre-half, Jim McNichol, scored from a free kick but despite an all-out attack, Torquay seem unable to get the equaliser even hitting the crossbar. Tranmere secured safety by winning their final game on the Friday night. Burnley were winning their game, and while Lincoln were being beaten by Swansea, they would still finish above Torquay by a single point as things stood.
Seven minutes from time a piece of football folklore was created. A Police dog by the name of Bryn appeared to think that Jim McNichol was running to attack his handler, and sank his teeth into the centre-half's thigh. It was from the resultant four minutes of injury time that Paul Dobson scored possibly the most important goal in the clubs history, and kept them in the Football League, with Lincoln dropping into the GM Vauxhall Conference .
The start of the 1987/88 season marked the dawn of a new era in Torquay United's history. Cyril Knowles became manager marking a turn for the better in the club's fortunes. The season started with a 6-1 victory over Wrexham at Plainmoor, and ended with Torquay just missing out on automatic promotion, but earning a Play-Off place, losing in the Play-Off Final to Swansea City after losing 1-2 in Wales, and battling to a 3-3 draw at a rain-soaked Plainmoor, the Swans being promoted on a 5-4 aggregate. Also during this season, Torquay United beat Tottenham Hotspur 1-0 at Plainmoor reviving memories of the great cup tie of 1965, Derek 'The Dude' Dawkins scoring the important goal in the first leg of a League Cup game. The team also reached the southern semi-final of the Football League Trophy . During the season Knowles also introduced a 16 year old left winger called Lee Sharpe to the team.
In May 1988 Lee Sharpe transferred to Manchester United for £180,000 in one of the biggest transfers of Torquay United's history at that time, he would later go on to represent England on the international stage as well.
Nearly a year later in May 1989, United made their first appearance at Wembley in the final of the Sherpa Van Trophy (the successor to the Freight Rover Trophy). Torquay had disposed of Swansea and Cardiff in the group stages before beating Gillingham , Bristol Rovers , Hereford United and finally Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Southern final to reach the final. A crowd of 46,513 saw Dean Edwards put Torquay 1-0 up against Bolton Wanderers but Bolton won 4-1.
The Bateson era
Mike Bateson took over as Torquay chairman in May 1990, taking over from Webb. The beginning of the 1990/91 season saw Torquay off to a wonderful start - they were unbeaten for 14 games and were clear leaders in November but they faded dramatically, Bateson sacked Smith in April and appointed former United captain and then youth coach John Impey as manager. Impey proceeded to breathe new life into the team, guiding them to 7th place and the play-offs for a second time.
Torquay won promotion again on 31 May 1991, winning a play-off final on the club's second visit to Wembley against higher-placed Blackpool . Goals from Wes Saunders and Dean Edwards earned Torquay a 2-2 draw in normal time. No further goals in extra time resulted in a penalty shoot-out. Successful penalties by Micky Holmes , Wes Saunders , Paul Holmes , Chris Myers and goalkeeper Gareth Howells, combined with Dave Bamber 's miss for the opposition, made Torquay winners 5-4 on penalties. The Gulls were promoted to Division Three due to this victory.
However, despite the high profile signing of Justin Fashanu , football's first openly gay footballer, the appointment of Ivan Golac as manager and well publicised visits of Julie Goodyear to the dressing room, United were relegated again after just one season. Golac's time at United was brief and Paul Compton was appointed to replace him in 1992. The introduction of the FA Premier League at the end of the season meant they were relegated from Division Three to Division Three.
Paul Compton invited Neil Warnock to help him as consultant in January 1993, but shortly after this he resigned leaving Warnock in charge. The former Scarborough and Notts County manager guided the club through another close shave with relegation and then left.
His major addition to United's playing staff, player-coach Don O'Riordan, took the senior job. O'Riordan continued to play an important midfield role and he managed, on a tight budget, to guide United to the play-offs again during the 1993/94 season, finishing sixth and once again qualifying for the Play-Offs, unfortunately the team missed out on a third trip to Wembley after an ill-tempered Play-Off semi-final against Preston North End , 2-0 up after the First Leg, Torquay United lost 4-1 at Deepdale in the final match played on their artificial pitch.
At the end of the 1995/96 season Torquay finished bottom of Division Three after a disastrous campaign and were threatened with relegation to the Football Conference . However, they were saved from relegation when Stevenage Borough's ground was deemed unfit for League football.
In the 1997/98 season after finishing fifth at the end of the league season, Torquay United were once again in the promotion Play-Offs. Had the team won a point in their final game of the season at Leyton Orient , they would have gone up automatically, but they lost the game 2-1. An emphatic 7-2 (on aggregate) victory over Scarborough in the semi-final, including 4 goals from star striker Rodney Jack , resulted in Torquay United's third appearance at Wembley. However, United lost 1-0 to Colchester United in the Wembley final (played on a Friday night due an England game the following day meaning that thousands of fans were unable to get to the game).
On the 5 May 2001, the final game of the 2000/2001 season saw United away to Barnet . Before the start of the game Barnet were bottom of the Third Division, one point behind Torquay. The Gulls needed to avoid defeat to keep their League status, Barnet needed to win. Thousands of fans were locked outside the tiny Underhill ground as United stormed to a 3-0 lead, with goals from Kevin Hill , Jason Rees , and David Graham . Barnet fought back to 3-2, but United held on for the win to condemn Barnet to the Football Conference . [2]
The end of the 2003/2004 season saw United win automatic promotion for the third time in their history, against all odds in a nail-biting finale at Southend . However their stay in the upper echelon of the football pyramid was only to last for one season, as a final day defeat against Colchester United condemned the Gulls to a return to the 4th division of the leagues after narrowly being edged out by Milton Keynes Dons for safety in Football League One . The fact that it was the MK Dons that had stayed up at Torquay's expense saw messages of sympathy from fans of other clubs, mainly out of a dislike for the franchising of football.
In the 2005/2006 FA Cup 3rd round Torquay managed to pull off a 0 - 0 draw with Premiership strugglers Birmingham City . However they lost the replay at St Andrews 2-0. Despite this achievement (and the windfall generated by the replay) the club fell into the relegation places of League Two. Former Exeter City manager John Cornforth took over as caretaker manager from Leroy Rosenior and soon after was appointed as manager until the end of the season. The side's form worsened however, and Ian Atkins replaced Cornforth in April. Torquay Uniteds form immediately turned around going on a 4-match unbeaten run, Atkins managed to rescue the side and lift them a comfortable three points from relegation. However, some poor ownership in the following season saw Atkins' sacked to replaced by a non-English speaking manager.
In October 2006, Bateson stepped down as chairman to be replaced by Chris Roberts , who soon afterwards sacked Atkins, [3] replacing him with former Czech international Luboš Kubík . [4] Despite his credentials as a player, there was some concern raised that Kubik had no real history as a coach, and he did little to endear himself to fans by bringing in Richard Hancox as coach. Torquay's dire form continued, and the club crashed to the bottom of the table. Kubik eventually quit on 5 February, and Colin Lee was soon after appointed as the new director of football. [5] Keith Curle was appointed as Head Coach on 7 February 2007. Roberts resigned amid growing pressure from supporters and the board of directors, all of whom were unhappy with his conduct as chairman, on 21 February 2007. [6] Local hotel owner Keith Richardson was announced as the new chairman the following day. [7] However, on 7 March 2007 former chairman Mike Bateson was reappointed as chairman, the move following Chris Roberts' company, Torquay United Holdings, inability to meet the next payment to purchase the club from Bateson. [8]
Torquay United lost their 80 year Football League status on 14 April 2007, following a 1-1 draw at home to Peterborough United . [9]
The side's post-season soon descended into chaos, as Mike Bateson stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Mervyn Benney, after which Colin Lee was sacked, and Keith Curle was not invited back to coach Torquay United and soon took a coaching job at Crystal Palace instead. Former manager Leroy Rosenior was reappointed, only to be sacked on the same day. Finally, a new consortium headed by Alex Rowe and Kris Boyce bought the club from Bateson, and Rowe was installed as the new chairman. Former player Paul Buckle was appointed the club's new manager for its first season in the Conference National, and quickly set to rebuilding the team.
Two years in the Conference National
The Torquay supporters at Wembley Stadium
Torquay United started their first season in the Conference National well beating Aldershot Town 3-0 and went unbeaten until losing 3-1 away to Burton Albion in September, this defeat spurred them on though and they won 5 straight games on the trot leading the table by the end of October. Their form in the league dipped through November and December but a 4-1 victory over rivals Yeovil Town in the FA Cup , live on the BBC , gave the club a massive boost. They couldn't take advantage of this and dropped numerous points over the Christmas period including a 4-3 defeat to arch rivals Exeter City . Torquay got their revenge beating Exeter City 1-0 a week later however by the end of January, Torquay were second, three points behind Aldershot Town . An unbeaten February followed but Torquay were now 5 points off Aldershot Town . Away from the league, Torquay were progressing well in the FA Trophy and had reached the semi-finals by the end of the month. March started horribly with Torquay losing their first three league games of the month including a 2-1 defeat at home to leaders Aldershot Town , this caused Torquay to fall 14 points off the top and drop to fourth. On Saturday 15 March 2008 Torquay reached Wembley for the first time in ten years with a 2-1 aggregate win over York City in the semi finals of the FA Trophy .
After finishing 3rd in the Conference National Torquay had to play their fiercest rivals Exeter City to determine who would reach the play off final to play either Cambridge United or Burton Albion . Torquay had to play Exeter City away first with the return leg at Plainmoor. Torquay started the 1st leg poorly and were fortunate when Tim Sills scored just before half-time but Exeter City levelled when Wayne Carlisle equalized and just when the game looked like a draw Chris Zebroski pounced on a poor clearance by Paul Jones to make the final score 2-1 to Torquay. Torquay knew going into the 2nd leg that if they scored one goal Exeter City would need two goals to force extra time and when Kevin Hill scored in the second half in his record equalling appearance the match seemed all over but Exeter City then scored four goals in the space of 18 minutes to dump Torquay out of the play offs to ensure they had to have another season in the non league.
On 10 May 2008, Torquay lost 1-0 in the FA Trophy final to Ebbsfleet United at Wembley , with former Gulls striker Chris McPhee scoring the winner just before half-time. [10]
Torquay started their second season in the Conference National as bad as the first one had finished, picking up only 5 points from their opening 7 games. The following 3 months however were to be the best in years, as Torquay remained unbeaten from 7 September 2009 to 2 December 2009, setting a 17 game unbeaten record. They reached the FA Cup 3rd round with a 2-0 win over Oxford United at the end of November. The start of 2009 was shaky but on 3 January 2009 Torquay beat Blackpool 1-0 at home in the FA Cup 3rd round to reach the 4th round of the competition for the first time in 19 years where they faced Coventry City . They struggled for goals throughout January and against Coventry City with a sell out crowd of 6,018 they lost a game which they should have won; losing dramatically late on to an 87th minute goal by Elliot Ward. At the end of the month they lost to Southport 3-0 in the FA Trophy 3rd round.
Torquay United were promoted back to the Football League on 17 May 2009 after a 2-0 victory over Cambridge United in the Conference National play off final at Wembley.
With goals from club captain Chris Hargreaves and leading scorer Tim Sills Torquay triumphed 2-0 over Cambridge in an entertaining match watched by over 35,000 fans. Lee Phillips played for Cambridge that day, and set a record (for a non-league player) of losing at Wembley 3 times in 3 years with 3 different clubs, In 2006/07 season he lost 2-1 to Morecambe in the Play-Off Final versus Exeter City, even after putting Exeter 1-0 ahead in the game, then in the 2007/08 season he lost in the FA Trophy final to Ebbsfleet with Torquay United 1-0 thanks to a goal from former Gull, Chris McPhee and then in the 2008/09 season he lost to Torquay United in the Blue Square Premier Play-Off Final.
Stadium
United played their very first game, a friendly, against an Upton Cricket Club XI on one of farmer John Wright’s fields, which was situated at the top of Penny’s Hill, on Teignmouth Road.
After a season of friendlies the club joined the East Devon League and moved to the Recreation Ground, which was to be their home for the following four years. In 1904 Torquay Athletic Rugby Football Club secured the lease of the Recreation Ground (it remains their home today) and United moved back to the Teignmouth Road site, but again was forced to move when the field was sold to developers to build Parkhurst Road. At the time Torquay Cricket Club were located nearby in Cricketfield Road, and so this site was United’s next home.
The club remained in Cricketfield Road for four years. In 1910 United merged with Ellacombe to become Torquay Town. Ellacombe’s Plainmoor ground became the home of the new club, and the shared home of local rivals Babbacombe.
Torquay Town and Babbacome finally merged and became Torquay United (again) in 1921. The club has remained at Plainmoor ever since.
Possible move
Following his takeover of the club in October 2006, chairman Chris Roberts went on record stating his desire to move the club to a new multipurpose stadium catering for football, rugby and athletics. Speculation placed the site of the new complex at the Torquay Recreation Ground, currently occupied by Torquay Athletic Rugby Club. Since Roberts' resignation this move has become unlikely, with succeeding chairman Alex Rowe distancing himself from the plans saying that the club and the fans wish to remain at Plainmoor and will build upon the current ground to increase capacity. The club are looking to buy the houses behind the away end and building an extension to the away end and also to acquire the school (Westlands) and build a bigger grandstand to increase the capacity to around 9,000. [11]
Players
As of 15 January 2010.
Current squad
Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
No.
| Burton Albion F.C. |
Which family has lived at Alnwick Castle since 1309? | torquay united f c : definition of torquay united f c and synonyms of torquay united f c (English)
For more details on this topic, see List of Torquay United F.C. seasons .
Formation to World War One
The original Torquay United was formed in 1899 by a group of school-leavers under the guidance of Sergeant-Major Edward Tomney. The newly founded club played its inaugural match against an Upton Cricket Club XI on one of Farmer John Wright's fields, which was situated at the top of Penny's Hill, on Teignmouth Road on the site of modern Parkhurst Road.
After a season of friendlies the club joined the East Devon League and moved into the Recreation Ground, their home for the next four years, Plainmoor being occupied by Torquay Athletic Rugby Club at this time in a reversal of the current situation. In 1904 Athletic secured the lease on the Recreation Ground from underneath United and Torquay and District League rivals Ellacombe took over the lease of Plainmoor leaving United homeless for the first time in their existence and facilitating a return to the farmers fields on Teignmouth Road, however the club was on the move again when the fields were sold to be developed into what would later be known as Parkhurst Road. United soon found another home, sharing with Torquay Cricket Club in nearby Cricketfield Road (a site still used for football in the modern day by South Devon League side Upton Athletic) for four years and during that time won their first honour, the Torquay and District League title in 1909.
Following this breakthrough for the club, the club merged with local rivals Ellacombe in 1910, adopted the name Torquay Town and finally moved into Plainmoor where they would remain to the modern day, during this period the ground was shared with the team's remaining local rival Babbacombe . Both sides were playing in the same league, the Plymouth and District League alongside the reserve teams of Exeter City and Plymouth Argyle , Torquay Town would later win the league in the 1911–12 season.
Election to The Football League
In 1920 after the resumption of the Football League following World War I , United's local teams Plymouth Argyle and Exeter City were both elected to the Football League as founder members of the Football League Third Division , this prompted a movement in the town to merge the two remaining teams together and create a new entity capable of competing at this level and being elected into the new league.
Relations between the two Torquay clubs were poor, but in 1921 matters finally came to a head. Torquay Town was desperate to join its local rivals in the league and after many discussions Babbacombe at last agreed to a merger, enabling the new club to become the sole representative of the town and turn professional to further its case for league election, the new team was to be called Torquay United again, reverting back to the town's name of circa 1910.
The new club entered the Southern Football League , famous for being the league that Tottenham Hotspur played in when becoming the only non league team to win the FA Cup , once again playing alongside Plymouth and Exeter's reserve sides and also Boscombe (later to become A.F.C. Bournemouth ). Torquay went on to finish in sixth place that season and during the summer break had the audacity to apply for Football League status, but failed to gain a single vote, seeing Boscombe elected to the league instead. From 1923 onwards the league was split into Eastern and Western halves and Torquay United found themselves playing in the Western section.
In 1925, the club battled through five qualifying rounds to reach the first round proper of the FA Cup for the first time in the club's history. Captain Percy Mackrill lead the team through two 1–1 draws before a strong Reading side won the second replay 2–0 at Plainmoor.
In 1927, Torquay finally won their first league title since the Torquay and District League of 1912, winning the western division of the Southern League, United had the same number of points as Bristol City Reserves , but their 3–1 win on the final day of the season helped them to win the league on goal difference. The club then went on to lose the Southern League Championship final against the Eastern Champions Brighton and Hove Albion Reserves 4–0 but it was the start of an upturn in the club's fortunes.
The Torquay United team as it lined up in 1927, before its first ever league match against Exeter City which resulted in a 1–1 draw.
Capitalising on this momentum, the club once again applied for league membership and were successful this time, joining the Football League Third Division at the expense of Aberdare Athletic , who dropped out after failing to be re-elected to the league. Finally the town of Torquay had a professional league team and had joined Plymouth and Exeter in the football league at last.
A new wooden grandstand costing £150 was erected at Plainmoor for United's inaugural season in the Football League, it had previously stood at Buckfastleigh Racecourse, where its twin can still be seen today.
It was also during this period that United changed its club colours from the early colours of light and dark blue, into black and white stripes which led to the club being dubbed 'the magpies' like their fellow league club Newcastle United
United's first match in the league took place on 27 August 1927 was aptly against Exeter City at Plainmoor . The side for that first game was Millsom ; Cook , Smith ; Wellock , Wragge , Conner , Mackey , Turner , Jones , McGovern , Thomson . A crowd of 11,625 watched a 1–1 draw with Torquay's goal coming from Bert Turner, however the team's first season in the league was not a success, they followed up the draw with Exeter with a 9–1 thrashing away at Millwall and of the 48 games played that first season, Torquay won 8, drew 14 and lost 20 finishing bottom on 30 points and had to win re-election to remain in the league.
Throughout the 1930s Torquay struggled against financial problems, such as having to replace the stadium roof when it was blown off in 1930. They also failed to finish higher than 10th in twelve seasons. In the last few seasons before league football was suspended during the Second World War , Torquay struggled in Division Three South, finishing 20th, 20th and 19th out of 22 teams.
Notable Torquay players from the pre-war era include Paignton -born George Stabb , who scored 24 goals during the 1932/33 season, stalwart Albert Hutchinson (84 goals in 338 games from 1930–38) and Dartmouth -born winger Ralph Birkett , who later went on to play with distinction for Arsenal and Middlesbrough and win one full England cap.
In 1939, Torquay qualified for the final of the Third Division South Cup , a competition in which the club had previously lost 1–0 to Exeter City in the 1934 final. However, the 1939 final (which would have been against either Queens Park Rangers or Port Vale ) was never played due to the outbreak of World War II .
Webber era
When league football was resumed in 1946, United continued to struggle and finished 19th. However, thanks partly to the goals of their new striker Sammy Collins, the club broke the top ten barrier in 1949 for the very first time, finishing 9th and then 5th in 1950 off the back of Collin's goalscoring antics.
In 1954 United changed their club colours again, the black and white stripes being changed to gold and blue to reflect the resort's sun, sand and sea image, colours which the club has maintained to this day, with the change of colours came a change in fortunes starting with the club's greatest ever FA Cup moment that very season.
After defeating Cambridge United 4–0 at home and Blyth Spartans 1–3 away, Torquay were drawn against Leeds United in the third round of the cup. Nobody expected the team to go to Elland Road and get any kind of favourable result, so when they managed a 2–2 draw in Yorkshire , the scene was set for over 11,000 fans to crowd into Plainmoor on a Wednesday afternoon, 12 January.
Incredibly, with goals from Collins, Harold Dobbie, Ronnie Shaw and captain Don Mills , playing against his old club, Torquay ran out 4–0 winners, to set up a fourth round clash with Huddersfield Town .
The Torquay United versus Huddersfield Town fourth round FA Cup game at Plainmoor will always live on in the memory of those who attended the match on the 29 January 1955. Just how 21,908 people managed to fit into the ground is a mystery. Although Torquay lost 0–1 to the Division One club, the record crowd is never likely to be beaten due to the current state of the club and the stadium.
Following their FA Cup heroics, in the 1956/57 season Torquay just missed out on promotion to Division Two on goal difference , the season had begun well and by April the possibility of a first promotion to Division Two was the talk of the town. After home wins against Northampton Town , Southampton , Newport County and Queens Park Rangers , United found themselves sitting at the top of the table, with future World Cup winning manager Alf Ramsey's Ipswich Town just one point behind.
A trip to Crystal Palace for the team and over 1,500 Torquay fans travelling on the last day of the season beckoned. Torquay only needed to win the game to be certain of going up, but they managed only a 1–1 draw at Selhurst Park and Ipswich, who won their final match away to Southampton, took the title on goal-average.
United failed to repeat this form the following season and after finishing 22nd in the league and were placed in the new Division Four , created by the deregionalisation of the two third level divisions.
With Eric Webber still in charge, United ended their first season in the League's new basement division in twelfth place, but the next season, the club returned to form and on 27 April 1960, 8,749 fans saw Torquay United beat Gillingham 2–0 at Plainmoor to return to the Third Division with two games of the season remaining. However, after only two seasons in the Third Division they were again relegated on the last day of the campaign, with a 4–2 away defeat at Barnsley .
Torquay came very close to regaining their Division Three status when they finished sixth and sixth again at the end of both the 1962/63 and 1963/64 campaigns. In 1963, Webber signed striker Robin Stubbs for a club record fee of £6,000 from Birmingham City , he went on to be the club's top goalscorer at the end of the 1963/64 scoring 24 goals in 34 games in his debut season.
Torquay's FA Cup run of 1964/65 was the highlight of a disappointing mid-table season as United again failed to return to the Third Division. After travelling to Canterbury City in the first round and beating them 6–0, United disposed of Colchester United in the second round 2–0 at Plainmoor, in the third round, Torquay were drawn at home to giants Tottenham Hotspur.
In front the Plainmoor's second ever largest attendance, just over 20,000 fans turned up to watch the match, and the team gave a display that few there that day will ever forget. Billy Atkinson put United 1–0 up from the penalty spot after Robin Stubbs had been felled, Spurs responded turning on the style to give themselves a 3–1 lead with two goals from Alan Gilzean and one from Maurice Norman , and then, in the last few minutes, it was the turn of hero of the hour Stubbs, to net two goals and make it 3–3.
The first attempt at a replay in London was cancelled, with the majority of United's travelling fans having already arrived in the capital. A week later though, in front of 55,000 at White Hart Lane , the match went ahead, Jimmy Greaves scored a hat trick as Tottenham showed their class to win 5–1, Stubbs hitting Torquay's consolation goal.
After finishing in 12th at the end of the season, Eric Webber was finally sacked after 15 years as manager by new chairman Tony Boyce who felt the club needed refreshing, Boyce and Webber's successor were soon to write their own part of United's history.
Webber had succeeded Alex Massie in 1951, originally as player-manager, he hung up his boots in 1955 and began building arguably Torquay United's best ever squad. The respect he gained from his players drove the club to the verge of promotion to Division Two and to the fourth round of the FA Cup twice.
O'Farrell era
Webber's replacement was Frank O'Farrell who arrived fresh from winning the Southern League title with Weymouth . In his first season in charge, O'Farrell oversaw Torquay's second promotion when they finished third in Division Four, while England won the World Cup on home soil.
During the following couple of seasons O'Farrell used his connections at West Ham United to bring many ex-Hammers to Plainmoor, John Bond and ex-international Ken Brown being two famous Upton Park names to appear in gold and blue. At the end of their 1966/67 campaign United finished in seventh, and at the end of their 1967/68 season, United came very close to promotion to Division Two, once again.
With Torquay leading the table during Easter 1968, United got their first ever coverage on Match of the Day beating beating promotion rivals Bury 3–0 in front of more than 10,000 at Plainmoor but a poor run-in saw United finish fourth by two points, behind the promoted duo Oxford United and Bury with Shrewsbury Town in third place. This period also coincided with the club's fans being voted the 'Best Behaved Supporters In The League'.
The O'Farrell era ended in 1968/69, when he left to manage First Division Leicester City and later Manchester United .
Lower league disappointment
During the following end of season clear-out Stubbs was sold to Bristol Rovers for £12,000, along with Sammy Collins he was probably the best striker to wear the colours of United. Another two seasons of indifference in Division Three saw the club finish in mid-table positions, then at the end of the 1971/72 campaign, United found themselves in the relegation zone, and back in the basement division.
This led to a relatively uneventful decade with consistently mid-table finishes. Although in January 1977 Pat Kruse, a centre-half for Torquay, created a world record by scoring an own goal after just six seconds in a league match against Cambridge United at Plainmoor.
O'Farrell made a return to Plainmoor in 1976 when Malcolm Musgrove lost his job after a disappointing FA Cup defeat against non-league outfit Hillingdon Borough. He soon moved upstairs into the position of consultant manager, and ex-Plymouth Argyle promotion winning captain Mike Green was brought in to control first team matters.At the end of the 1977/78 season Green saw his Gulls finish in ninth place, with Willie Brown finishing up as top goalscorer with 12 goals.
Halfway through the campaign, just before Green's arrival, O'Farrell bought a local Devon born striker from Bristol City , his name was Colin Lee and he duly scored on his Torquay debut, and went on to score 10 goals in 23 games. His time at Plainmoor was short for in October of the following season United accepted a £60,000 offer from Tottenham Hotspur for his services, Lee would famously go on to score four goals on his debut for the London club during their 9–0 demolition of Bristol Rovers and would return to United in various capacities in later years ranging from caretaker manager, to director of football and to his present position within the club, that of Chief Executive.
Mike Green left the club, to be replaced at the helm, for the third time, by Frank O'Farrell, O'Farrell didn't stay in charge of team matters for long, bringing in ex-Scotland international Bruce Rioch to become player-coach, after a great start to the 1981/82 season, the Gulls soon started to flag, and ended up in fifteenth place.
During the following summer Rioch was named manager, and the following 1982/83 campaign saw United again off to a flying start. They finished twelfth, but reached the fourth round of the FA Cup for the third time, going out of the competition at Plainmoor after a thrilling 2–3 defeat at the hands of Sheffield Wednesday .
During this period United as all English clubs were at the time were struggling with falling attendances and a negative perception of football in the country as a whole and by the end of the season on 2 May 1984 only 967 spectators watch the 1–0 victory over Chester City at Plainmoor .
Money was tight at the club and the club's board was putting pressure on Rioch to sell Colin Anderson the club's star player at the time to balance the books, following Rioch claiming "a good few for Anderson could well save the club", Anderson's form nosedived infuriating Rioch, culminating in Rioch punching the player in the jaw after Anderson nutmegged him during a five aside match in training, faced with the prospect of Anderson going to the PFA over the matter, the club suggested Rioch resign, which he promptly did, 20 years later he would state "what I did was inexcusable. It was a period of my career which I deeply regret, but I learned from the experience". [1]
In February 1984 former Chelsea favourite Dave Webb bought the club, optimism within the walls of Plainmoor was quite high. Webb brought in ex-Bournemouth players Derek Dawkins and goalkeeper Kenny Allen to strengthen the squad, and also attracted the former internationals Eddie Kelly and Tony Currie to the club, United would go on to finish the season in a strong 9th place.
At the end of the 1984–85 season United finished bottom of Division Four and had to apply for re-election to stay in the Football League for the first time since 1928. To further emphasise the problems the club was enduring, a 'suspicious' fire destroyed half of the grandstand on 17 May 1985 just just six days after the Bradford Stadium fire, destroying a third of the old grandstand. Nobody was hurt, but as a result, the ground's capacity fell to below 5,000.
For the 1985–86 season David Webb became managing director and appointed Stuart Morgan as manager. However, for the second successive year United finished bottom of Division Four and again had to apply for re-election. The last side to finish bottom of the league two seasons in a row, Workington lost their league place, but Torquay's bid was successful.
The 1986–87 season introduced automatic relegation into the GM Vauxhall Conference for the first time. With the final game of the season to go, Torquay were third from bottom on 47 points; below them were Burnley on 46 points and Tranmere , also on 47 points but with an inferior goal difference. Lincoln City had 48 points and seemed in least danger.
The final game of the season was against Crewe Alexandra, featuring a young David Platt , at Plainmoor. At half-time Crewe were leading 2–0 and things looked bad for Torquay, two minutes into the second-half Torquay's centre-half, Jim McNichol, scored from a free kick but despite an all-out attack, Torquay seem unable to get the equaliser even hitting the crossbar. Tranmere secured safety by winning their final game on the Friday night. Burnley were winning their game, and while Lincoln were being beaten by Swansea, they would still finish above Torquay by a single point as things stood.
Seven minutes from time a piece of football folklore was created. A Police dog by the name of Bryn appeared to think that Jim McNichol was running to attack his handler, and sank his teeth into the centre-half's thigh. It was during the resultant four minutes of injury time that Paul Dobson scored possibly the most important goal in the club's history, and kept them in the Football League, with Lincoln dropping into the GM Vauxhall Conference .
The start of the 1987/88 season marked the dawn of a new era in Torquay United's history. Cyril Knowles became manager marking a turn for the better in the club's fortunes. The season started with a 6–1 victory over Wrexham at Plainmoor, and ended with Torquay just missing out on automatic promotion, but earning a Play-Off place, losing in the Play-Off Final to Swansea City after losing 1–2 in Wales, and battling to a 3–3 draw at a rain-soaked Plainmoor, the Swans being promoted on a 5–4 aggregate. Also during this season, Torquay United beat Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 at Plainmoor reviving memories of the great cup tie of 1965, Derek 'The Dude' Dawkins scoring the important goal in the first leg of a League Cup game. The team also reached the southern semi-final of the Football League Trophy . During the season Knowles also introduced a 16 year old left winger called Lee Sharpe to the team.
In May 1988 Lee Sharpe transferred to Manchester United for £180,000 in one of the biggest transfers of Torquay United's history at that time, he would later go on to represent England on the international stage as well.
Nearly a year later in May 1989, United made their first appearance at Wembley in the final of the Sherpa Van Trophy (the successor to the Freight Rover Trophy). Torquay had disposed of Swansea and Cardiff in the group stages before beating Gillingham , Bristol Rovers , Hereford United and finally Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Southern final to reach the final. A crowd of 46,513 saw Dean Edwards put Torquay 1–0 up against Bolton Wanderers but Bolton won 4–1.
The Bateson era
Mike Bateson took over as Torquay chairman in May 1990, taking over from Webb. The beginning of the 1990/91 season saw Torquay off to a wonderful start – they were unbeaten for 14 games and were clear leaders in November but they faded dramatically, Bateson sacked Smith in April and appointed former United captain and then youth coach John Impey as manager. Impey proceeded to breathe new life into the team, guiding them to 7th place and the play-offs for a second time.
Torquay won promotion again on 31 May 1991, winning a play-off final on the club's second visit to Wembley against higher-placed Blackpool . Goals from Wes Saunders and Dean Edwards earned Torquay a 2–2 draw in normal time. No further goals in extra time resulted in a penalty shoot-out. Successful penalties by Micky Holmes , Wes Saunders , Paul Holmes , Chris Myers and goalkeeper Gareth Howells, combined with Dave Bamber 's miss for the opposition, made Torquay winners 5–4 on penalties. The Gulls were promoted to Division Three due to this victory.
However, despite the high profile signing of Justin Fashanu , football's first openly gay footballer, the appointment of Ivan Golac as manager and well publicised visits of Julie Goodyear to the dressing room, United were relegated again after just one season. Golac's time at United was brief and Paul Compton was appointed to replace him in 1992. The introduction of the FA Premier League at the end of the season meant they were relegated from Division Three to Division Three.
Paul Compton invited Neil Warnock to help him as consultant in January 1993, but shortly after this he resigned leaving Warnock in charge. The former Scarborough and Notts County manager guided the club through another close shave with relegation and then left.
His major addition to United's playing staff, player-coach Don O'Riordan, took the senior job. O'Riordan continued to play an important midfield role and he managed, on a tight budget, to guide United to the play-offs again during the 1993/94 season, finishing sixth and once again qualifying for the Play-Offs, unfortunately the team missed out on a third trip to Wembley after an ill-tempered Play-Off semi-final against Preston North End , 2–0 up after the First Leg, Torquay United lost 4–1 at Deepdale in the final match played on their artificial pitch.
At the end of the 1995/96 season Torquay finished bottom of Division Three after a disastrous campaign and were threatened with relegation to the Football Conference . However, they were saved from relegation when Stevenage Borough's ground was deemed unfit for League football.
In the 1997/98 season after finishing fifth at the end of the league season, Torquay United were once again in the promotion Play-Offs. Had the team won a point in their final game of the season at Leyton Orient , they would have gone up automatically, but they lost the game 2–1. An emphatic 7–2 (on aggregate) victory over Scarborough in the semi-final, including 4 goals from star striker Rodney Jack , resulted in Torquay United's third appearance at Wembley. However, United lost 1–0 to Colchester United in the Wembley final (played on a Friday night due an England game the following day meaning that thousands of fans were unable to get to the game).
On the 5 May 2001, the final game of the 2000/2001 season saw United away to Barnet . Before the start of the game Barnet were bottom of the Third Division, one point behind Torquay. The Gulls needed to avoid defeat to keep their League status, Barnet needed to win. Thousands of fans were locked outside the tiny Underhill ground as United stormed to a 3–0 lead, with goals from Kevin Hill , Jason Rees , and David Graham . Barnet fought back to 3–2, but United held on for the win to condemn Barnet to the Football Conference . [2]
The end of the 2003/2004 season saw United win automatic promotion for the third time in their history, against all odds in a nail-biting finale at Southend . However their stay in the upper echelon of the football pyramid was only to last for one season, as a final day defeat against Colchester United condemned the Gulls to a return to the 4th division of the leagues after narrowly being edged out by Milton Keynes Dons for safety in Football League One . The fact that it was the MK Dons that had stayed up at Torquay's expense saw messages of sympathy from fans of other clubs, mainly out of a dislike for the franchising of football.
In the 2005/2006 FA Cup 3rd round Torquay managed to pull off a 0 – 0 draw with Premiership strugglers Birmingham City . However they lost the replay at St Andrew's 2–0. Despite this achievement (and the windfall generated by the replay) the club fell into the relegation places of League Two. Former Exeter City manager John Cornforth took over as caretaker manager from Leroy Rosenior and soon after was appointed as manager until the end of the season. The side's form worsened however, and Ian Atkins replaced Cornforth in April. Torquay Uniteds form immediately turned around going on a 4-match unbeaten run, Atkins managed to rescue the side and lift them a comfortable three points from relegation. However, some poor ownership in the following season saw Atkins' sacked to replaced by a non-English speaking manager.
In October 2006, Bateson stepped down as chairman to be replaced by Chris Roberts , who soon afterwards sacked Atkins, [3] replacing him with former Czech international Luboš Kubík . [4] Despite his credentials as a player, there was some concern raised that Kubik had no real history as a coach, and he did little to endear himself to fans by bringing in Richard Hancox as coach. Torquay's dire form continued, and the club crashed to the bottom of the table. Kubik eventually quit on 5 February, and Colin Lee was soon after appointed as the new director of football. [5] Keith Curle was appointed as Head Coach on 7 February 2007. Roberts resigned amid growing pressure from supporters and the board of directors, all of whom were unhappy with his conduct as chairman, on 21 February 2007. [6] Local hotel owner Keith Richardson was announced as the new chairman the following day. [7] However, on 7 March 2007 former chairman Mike Bateson was reappointed as chairman, the move following Chris Roberts' company, Torquay United Holdings, inability to meet the next payment to purchase the club from Bateson. [8]
Torquay United lost their 80 year Football League status on 14 April 2007, following a 1–1 draw at home to Peterborough United . [9]
The side's post-season soon descended into chaos, as Mike Bateson stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Mervyn Benney, after which Colin Lee was sacked, and Keith Curle was not invited back to coach Torquay United and soon took a coaching job at Crystal Palace instead. Former manager Leroy Rosenior was reappointed, only to be sacked on the same day. Finally, a new consortium headed by Alex Rowe and Kris Boyce bought the club from Bateson, and Rowe was installed as the new chairman. Former player Paul Buckle was appointed the club's new manager for its first season in the Conference National, and quickly set to rebuilding the team.
Two years in the Conference National
The Torquay supporters at Wembley Stadium
Torquay United started their first season in the Conference National well beating Aldershot Town 3–0 and went unbeaten until losing 3–1 away to Burton Albion in September, this defeat spurred them on though and they won 5 straight games on the trot leading the table by the end of October. Their form in the league dipped through November and December but a 4–1 victory over rivals Yeovil Town in the FA Cup , live on the BBC , gave the club a massive boost. They couldn't take advantage of this and dropped numerous points over the Christmas period including a 4–3 defeat to arch rivals Exeter City . Torquay got their revenge beating Exeter City 1–0 a week later however by the end of January, Torquay were second, three points behind Aldershot Town . An unbeaten February followed but Torquay were now 5 points off Aldershot Town . Away from the league, Torquay were progressing well in the FA Trophy and had reached the semi-finals by the end of the month. March started horribly with Torquay losing their first three league games of the month including a 2–1 defeat at home to leaders Aldershot Town , this caused Torquay to fall 14 points off the top and drop to fourth. On Saturday 15 March 2008 Torquay reached Wembley for the first time in ten years with a 2–1 aggregate win over York City in the semi finals of the FA Trophy .
After finishing 3rd in the Conference National Torquay had to play their fiercest rivals Exeter City to determine who would reach the play off final to play either Cambridge United or Burton Albion . Torquay had to play Exeter City away first with the return leg at Plainmoor. Torquay started the 1st leg poorly and were fortunate when Tim Sills scored just before half-time but Exeter City levelled when Wayne Carlisle equalized and just when the game looked like a draw Chris Zebroski pounced on a poor clearance by Paul Jones to make the final score 2–1 to Torquay. Torquay knew going into the 2nd leg that if they scored one goal Exeter City would need two goals to force extra time and when Kevin Hill scored in the second half in his record equalling appearance the match seemed all over but Exeter City then scored four goals in the space of 18 minutes to dump Torquay out of the play offs to ensure they had to have another season in the non league.
On 10 May 2008, Torquay lost 1–0 in the FA Trophy final to Ebbsfleet United at Wembley , with former Gulls striker Chris McPhee scoring the winner just before half-time. [10]
Torquay started their second season in the Conference National as bad as the first one had finished, picking up only 5 points from their opening 7 games. The following 3 months however were to be the best in years, as Torquay remained unbeaten from 7 September 2009 to 2 December 2009, setting a 17 game unbeaten record. They reached the FA Cup 3rd round with a 2–0 win over Oxford United at the end of November. The start of 2009 was shaky but on 3 January 2009 Torquay beat Blackpool 1–0 at home in the FA Cup 3rd round to reach the 4th round of the competition for the first time in 19 years where they faced Coventry City . They struggled for goals throughout January and against Coventry City with a sell out crowd of 6,018 they lost a game which they should have won; losing dramatically late on to an 87th minute goal by Elliot Ward. At the end of the month they lost to Southport 3–0 in the FA Trophy 3rd round.
Torquay United were promoted back to the Football League on 17 May 2009 after a 2–0 victory over Cambridge United in the Conference National play off final at Wembley.
With goals from club captain Chris Hargreaves and leading scorer Tim Sills Torquay triumphed 2–0 over Cambridge in an entertaining match watched by over 35,000 fans. Lee Phillips played for Cambridge that day, and set a record (for a non-league player) of losing at Wembley 3 times in 3 years with 3 different clubs, In 2006/07 season he lost 2–1 to Morecambe in the Play-Off Final versus Exeter City, even after putting Exeter 1–0 ahead in the game, then in the 2007/08 season he lost in the FA Trophy final to Ebbsfleet with Torquay United 1–0 thanks to a goal from former Gull, Chris McPhee and then in the 2008/09 season he lost to Torquay United in the Blue Square Premier Play-Off Final.
Recent FA Cup Run
On the 29th January 2011, Torquay United had the possibility of progressing through to the fifth round of the FA Cup, thus equalling their best previous run in the competition. However, they ended up losing 0–1 on the day to Blue Square Premier leaders Crawley Town. More misery was piled on the Torquay United fans on 30th January 2011 during the draw for the FA Cup fifth round, as Crawley Town were drawn away to Manchester United, a disappointing draw for Torquay, who would have benefitted from the money that such a tie generates, had they been drawn Manchester United.
2009–2012
In their first season back in League 2, Torquay finished the season 17th with 57 points. The following season, Torquay came 7th, guaranteeing a play-off place on the final day of the season on goal difference.
Torquay contested the play off final at Old Trafford following a 2–0 aggregate win in the play off semi final against Shrewsbury Town. They lost 1–0 to Stevenage on Saturday 28th May, 2011, and remained in League Two for the 2011–12 season. Paul Buckle resigned the day after the play-off final defeat, and moved to Bristol Rovers .
For their 3rd season Torquay United looked stronger than ever before, being at a record high of 2nd of League 2 throughout the campaign. However towards the end of the season their form dipped and they had to settle for a 6th placed play-off tie against Cheltenham Town where they lost the away leg 2-0 then lost the home leg 2-1 (agg. 4-1) which put a disappointing end to what had been an excellent season.
Stadium
United played their very first game, a friendly, against an Upton Cricket Club XI on one of farmer John Wright’s fields, which was situated at the top of Penny’s Hill, on Teignmouth Road.
After a season of friendlies the club joined the East Devon League and moved to the Recreation Ground, which was to be their home for the following four years. In 1904 Torquay Athletic Rugby Football Club secured the lease of the Recreation Ground (it remains their home today) and United moved back to the Teignmouth Road site, but again was forced to move when the field was sold to developers to build Parkhurst Road. At the time Torquay Cricket Club were located nearby in Cricketfield Road, and so this site was United’s next home.
The club remained in Cricketfield Road for four years. In 1910 United merged with Ellacombe to become Torquay Town. Ellacombe’s Plainmoor ground became the home of the new club, and the shared home of local rivals Babbacombe.
Torquay Town and Babbacome finally merged and became Torquay United (again) in 1921. The club has remained at Plainmoor ever since.
Possible move
Following his takeover of the club in October 2006, chairman Chris Roberts went on record stating his desire to move the club to a new multipurpose stadium catering for football, rugby and athletics. Speculation placed the site of the new complex at the Torquay Recreation Ground, currently occupied by Torquay Athletic Rugby Club. Since Roberts' resignation this move has become unlikely, with succeeding chairman Alex Rowe distancing himself from the plans saying that the club and the fans wish to remain at Plainmoor and will build upon the current ground to increase capacity. The club are looking to buy the houses behind the away end and building an extension to the away end and also to acquire the school (Westlands) and build a bigger grandstand to increase the capacity to around 9,000. [11]
However, recently plans for an extended grandstand have been submitted to the council for planning permission, in co-operation with Westlands school. [12] This was approved on 9th June 2011 with the increased cost believed to be approximately £2 million with the new structure to be named "Bristow's Bench" in memory of the late Paul Bristow who essentially underwrote the Gulls' return to the football league. Bristow's Bench gets go-ahead With the Grandstand going under destruction and it not being ready for the 2011/2012 season Plainmoor capacity will be 4,500 for the 2011/2012 season.
Players
As of 18 June 2012.
Current squad
Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
No.
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In which country is the city of Samarkand? | Samarkand travel guide - Wikitravel
Registan
Gur-Emir
Registan Ensemble. Registan became the city square when the life in Afrosiab stopped. Since that time Registan was reconstructed several times. Today it is surrounded by the three medreses Ulugbek, Shirdor and Tilla Kari. edit
Shirdor Medrese, (on Registan, opposite Ulugbek medrese). Medrese Shirdor repeats the facade and composition of Ulugbek medrese opposite. In Shirdor medrese the first floor is preserved, whereseas it is destroyed in Ulugbek medrese. The decorations of entrance portal are illustrating the tiger (“shir” that’s why it is called Shirdor. Ornaments and decorations are very rich, but its quality is worse than of Ulugbek medrese. Shirdor medrese was erected by order of Uzbek feudal lord Yalangtush in 1619-1632. Inscriptions of medrese show the names of the masters Abdaldjabbar and Muhammad-Abbas. edit
Ulugbek Medrese, (on the western side of Registan Square). The oldest medrese on Registan is a large rectangular building with monumental portal and a yard with four-verandahs, surrounded by cells for students and with four classrooms in the corners. In the western part is a winter mosque. The corners of the building are decorated with high minarets. The decorations consists of glazed and unglazed bricks, mosaics, majolica,carving marble. The most beautiful decorations are zhose of the main portal, where geometric, vegetative and epigraphic decorations were used. Inscriptions mention Ulugbek and several dates relating to the stages of construction. In 823 (1420) when the construction of the medrasah was finished. edit
Tilla Kari Medrese. edit
Gur Emir Mausoleum (Gur-e Amir Mausoleum), Akhunbabayev. 8-19. (aka Amir Temur Mausoeum) As a conqueror there are few that are Tamerlane equal, both in territory and lives taken. It is said that he made pyramids out of the skulls of his vanquished. Today one can visit his tomb in the beautifully reconstructed Gur-Emir Mausoleum (1404-1405, 15-17 centuries) and reflect on his life while looking at the largest piece of jade (greenstone) in the world. [Aug 2012] entrance $4.50, camera $3. edit
Bibi-Khanym Mosque, Tashkent kochasi (on the pedestrian by Siob Bazaar). The restored Mosque Bibi-Khonym (named after the wife of Temur 1399-1404) is one of best known architectural attractions of Central Asia. The Mosque was erected on Timur's order after his raid of Delhi. The Minaret of the Mosque was supposed to be the tallest. [Aug 2012] uzs 8000. edit
Shakhi-Zinda Ensemble. Another point of interest is ancient necropolis Shakh-i-Zinda (9-14, 19 centuries)situated on southeastern mound of Afrosiab. This architectural complex consists of 44 tombs in more than 20 mausoleums. The greatest Significance of Shah E Zinda is that he was the First cousin of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH and resembles the Prophet the most. (Hadrat Hissam Ibne Abbass or Kissam Ibne Abbass) {GPS N 39.39.42.4 , E 066.59.16.5} uzs 5000. edit
Afrosiab, Tashkent kochasi (on an irrigated valley of the Zerafshan River, a few hundred meters from the center of the city). The ruined site of ancient and medieval Samarqand in the northern part of the modern town. This place always ensured favorable conditions for human settlements. As proof, one can freely walk through the ancient ruins. A museum is in the center of the remains. The famous Persian Pehlvan Rustam and Sohrab belonged to the Afrosiyob. edit
Khazrat-Khizr, Tashkent kuchasi. 8-18. This mosque is one of the ancient edifices of Samarkand was destroyed by Genghis Khan's hordes. It was rebuilt in 19 cent. A beautiful Mosque stands on the elevation at the entrance of town from where their eye wanders over Bibi-Khonym Mosque, the big bazaar and the mountains in the South. edit
Tomb of Prophet Daniel, Afrosiab (Off Tashkent Kochasi, Northeast of Registan). Amongst other curiosities in Samarkand is the tomb of the Hebrew Prophet Daniel, which is in the cemetery section of Afrosiab next to a pleasant stream. For a small fee you may enter the tomb, which contains a burial chamber around 18 meters long. Muslim men will offer prayers while you listen respectfully. After the conquest of Syria the grave was transported to Samarkand under the orders of Amir Temur. edit
Ulugbek's Observatory: Another curiosity is the observatory of Ulugbek (Timur's grandson). It was located by the Russian archeologists. Only the foundations remain but it is truly extraordinary. Ulugbek was an astronomer, scientist and architect. His scientific and astronomical discoveries greatly advanced knowledge in these fields. The monument is situated in the north-east outskirts of city at the foot Chupan-ata mountain, which in medieval times was called Kukhak. That was three floor round building, decorated by glazed tiles, majolica, mosaic, but it was destroyed. The only thing that was preserved is a part of huge sextant – major astronomic instrument, the lowest part of which was in a deep trench (11km). Both arcs of this instrument are made of marble with indication of degrees. During the excavation works there were found a lot of remains of other astronomic instruments. Even being preserved partially, the observatory of Ulugbek is unique not only for Central Asia, but also for the whole world. The remains of observatory were conserved at the beginning of 60s XX. Here was also organized museum, where collecting the unique astronomic information and instruments related to Timurids epoch.
The Mausoleum of Al Buxori Al Bukhari located in a suburb of Samarkand, at Payerik. Al Buxori was collector of the sayings of prophet Muhamed and compiled them in to a book Known as Hadith Bukhari Sharif or Bukhari Sahih. He was buried in the place where his mausoleum is located now. His Mausoleum was reconstructed by Uzbek Government and supported by some Muslim Governments, the bricks were delivered from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The project was financed by the Iranian government. The constructers and artists from all Uzbekistan and Iran were working to reonstruct the complex. The Green Marble was supplied by the Pakistan Government. According to newspaper articles Imam Bukhari's grave is visited every day by about 1.000 visitors from all over the world. The present building was constructed on top of the original grave of Imam Al-Bukhari in 1997, 1225 years after the imam's death. The complex consists of Al Bukhari's mosque and grave and a museum exhibiting Qurans from some Muslim countries.
Abu Mansoor Al Matrudi Mausoleum Newly Renovated the Mausoleum of great Sunni Faqi is located 1 Km from masjid Bibi Khanum inside the Residential area. Visitor has to walk. Mirza Zaheer Ud Din Babur in his book Babur Noma has praised the knowledge and Command on Fiqah of Abu Mansoor Al Matrudi.
Rukhabat Mausoleum, Akhunbabayev (between Registan square and Gur-Emir ensemble). This is a central square mausoleum without portal with four identical facades. The arch entrance is decorated by blue glazed tiles and eventually the cupola was also covered by glazed tiles. According to manuscripts Rukhabat mausoleum ("place of spirit presence") was the burial place of the Samarkand sufi Burkhan ad-Din Sagardji, who died in 1380s. The mausoleum was built at a time, when central compositions were not popular and decorations of burial architecture was very rich. On the occasion of anniversary of Amir Timur in 1996 all buildings, which were not related to the monument, were destroyed and the ruins of constructions of Rukhabat complex – the mosque, khidjras, medrese and minaret came to light. edit
Abdi Darun Ensemble, (in the north-east part of city). The mausoleum was erected over the grave of famous lawyer. It has been reconstructed for several times. A 'ziaratkhana' was built in front of mausoleum during the reign of Ulugbek. The portal and cupola drum are decorated with geometric ornaments and inscriptions from glazed bricks. In the cemetery are 'dahmas' (large grave constructions), dating to the 15 cent., covered with glazed tiles. The mosque was constructed at the beginning of 20 cent. It consists of a winter room and a summer column aivan, decorated by pottery carving and colored paintings. A small medrese was added at the end of 19th cent. edit
Ishrat-khana Mausoleum, Sadriddin Ayniy. Ruined and atmospheric with no people at all {GPS N 39.38.35.0 , E 066.59.26.5} [Aug 2012] free. edit
Ak-Saray Mausoleum. edit
Khodja Ahrar Ensemble, (in the northern part of city near the cemetery). The grave of the famous religious and state benefactor of 15th cent. Nakshbandi Ubeidallah Ahrar is decorated by white marble tiles covered by inscriptions. The Medrese of Nadira divan-begi is a one floor building with a traditional four-aivans yard composition. The main entrance is decorated by portal, two khudjras are situated on the both sides of it as well as in the north and south parts of building. The western part of building is a mosque with a huge portal, main hall (mikhrab) and four rooms. The mosque was probably built in 15th cenr., but the medrese was erected in 1040-1045 (1630-1636) according to the order of well-known official Nadira divan-begi by architect Dust-Mukhammad. The decoration are very typical for ?VII: majolica, mosaic of high quality. The decorations of entrance portal are illustrating tigers and does. The summer mosque was built in XVII in the south from medrese. The decorations of mikhrab niche of this mosque are very similar to medrese. The column aivan (verandah) between medrese and summer mosque was constructed or reconstructed in later period. At the beginning of XX century ceiling of aivan was covered by vivid paintings. A small minaret, which is situated opposite to aivan, was erected in 1909 by Sadulla architect. edit
Hotel Regal Palace (Regal Palace Hotel Building), Kunaev Street, Samarkand Airport (Samarkand Airport), ☎ +998 97 4431080 ( [email protected] ), [1] . checkin: 14.00; checkout: 12.00. $65-85 including breakfast. edit
Hotel Malika, 37, Khamraev Street, ☎ +998 662 330197 ( [email protected] ), [2] . $40-65 including breakfast. edit
Hotel Zarafshan, 65 Sharaf Rashidov St (beside Central Park in the new part of town), ☎ +998 662 333 372. A recently renovated old Soviet hotel with loads of moody charm. Rooms are variable, so ask to see more than one if the first isn't to your liking. The front desk staff were very helpful. $15-30. edit
Bahodir B&B, Mulokandov 132 (In the city centre, on the east side of the Registan, behind the museum.), ☎ +998 622 35-47-59, +998 622 35-43-05. checkout: 12:00. This place seems to be the main meeting point for backpackers in Samarkand. The courtyard with teabeds makes a nice place for few beers and sharing travel stories. The staff is friendly, honest and willing to sell beer from their fridge. However, if staying in the dorm, the shared bathroom and toilet is a bit claustrophobic, but not bad. There is WiFi but had some kind of problem [Aug 2012] {GPS N 39° 39.366 E 066° 58.753} US$ 8 for a dorm bed, doubles from US$ 24 , breakfast is included and a dinner costs US$3 extra.. edit
B&B Davr, Samarkand,Republik of Uzbekistan,Ali Kushchi st.43 (In the city centre, close to the Registan), [3] . checkout: 12:00. B&B with rooms set around a courtyard. They also do dinners on request which are a delicious and massive spread and very reasonable. The son of the owner speaks English. US$ 15 per person per night incl breakfast. edit
Jahongir B&B, Chirokchi #4 (50 metres behind the wall on Suzangaron str. from the SUPERMARKET store on the corner), ☎ +998 66 391 92 44 ([email protected]), [4] . checkin: 15:00; checkout: 11:00. Jahongir B&B is located in the heart of Historical part of Samarkand within 5 minutes from Registan Ensemble. Comfortable rooms with modern amenities. Nice, shady hangout area in the courtyard, scrumptous breakfasts! Services include: dinners on request, wireless internet, taxi on call, guide services, laundry & dry clean. single US$25, double US$40. (39°39'3.35С,66°58'39.71E) edit
President Hotel, 53, Shokhrukh Str, ☎ 2334086, [5] . four star hotel opened 2004, centrally located, restaurant, swimming pool single USD105, double USD165 incl buffet breakfast. edit
Orient Star Hotel, 33. Daghitskaja Str., ☎ 2322906. opened 2001, in the heart of the old town, restaurant, swimming pool edit
Hotel Abdurahmon, 1/7 Buxara Str., ☎ +998 662 35 47 27. Simple and clean accommodations in Registan. Great hospitality and shared balcony. Limited parking (maximum two cars). USD25 per night for two-bed room, $35 per night for three-bed room (as of July 2012). Snacks and tea are provided on arrival and breakfast is included. Located a couple of minutes down a narrow street by car - you might think you're going the wrong way when you aren't. (39°39'3.42С,66°59'00.9E) edit
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What is the first Christian name of astronaut 'Buzz' Aldrin? | Samarkand, Uzbekistan | History of Samarkand
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Samarkand, Uzbekistan | History of Samarkand
Home / Cities of Uzbekistan /Samarkand, Uzbekistan | History of Samarkand
History of Samarkand
Regardless of what type of vacation you are planning and with whom, Samarkand Uzbekistan can be a wonderful destination for anyone. During the city’s almost-three-thousand-year existence, it has always been the crossroads of civilizations, cultures, and peoples.
Being commonly known in different parts of the planet as a fantastic place with a unique oriental flavor that enriches Uzbekistan history, this city is both ancient and at the same time forever young.
Marks of the Ancient Times
Samarkand, being kind of an old greybeard among other cities of the world, embodies the stories of countries and nations and shows how time influences generations of people. Just like the locations of the first civilizations – Rome, Athens, Babylon, Alexandria, Byzantium, and Memphis – Samarkand’s fate was to go through dangerous periods in history that would test its strength and the vigor of its citizens.
The city, with its beautiful blue domes that charm millions of tourists, has a rich history that is thousands of years long. Analysis of the archaeological findings indicates that people first appeared in the city several millennia BC.
Samarkand has a great geographical position. Favorable climate, sufficient rainfall, proximity to mountains with a variety of animals to hunt – all of it created a convenient environment for settling on that territory.
The stone walls and towers surrounding the temples and palaces of Samarkand rulers appeared there a few centuries before our era. The first mentions of Samarkand (alternatively Samarcand or Samarqand) have been found in historical chronicles that date back to Alexander the Great and his conquests: Maracanda is how they called the city in 329 BC.
At that time, it was a densely populated city with highly developed culture, trade, and crafts. A ten-kilometer (six miles) long defensive wall and a mighty fortress were built to protect the city from potential invaders.
Today, it is widely known that Samarkand was founded around the 6th-4th centuries BC. Archeological researches prove that it was developing really fast even back to those days. Throughout the history, the old streets of a dusty city had to withstand the Greek-Macedonian troops, cruel Kara Khitai hordes and Genghis Khan. The city also had to survive destructive invasions of the Arabs who, by the way, were the ones to bring a new religion called Islam.
Tamerlane’s Rule
Amir Timur, more widely known as Tamerlane, is a famous conqueror of a Turco-Mongol origin. In 1370, supported by the noble class, Timur succeeded in defeating his predecessor Hussain. As soon as he took over the power in the city, he proclaimed himself the ruler of the Timurid Empire, and Samarkand was announced to be its capital.
Waging wars for 35 years, Timur had managed to establish a glorious empire, which was stretching from the Volga River to the Ganges, from the Tien Shan to the Bosporus. The richest countries of the East became subdued by him. In 1397-1398 years, Tamerlane invaded the northern part of India. Then, it was the time for Georgia, the Caucasus, and Syria. In 1400, Timur started the war with the Turkish and Egyptian sultans, which ended successfully too.
Timur and his son Miran Shah held diplomatic correspondence with the rulers of the West European nations. In particular, they exchanged letters with Genoa, Venice, Turkey, Byzantium, Spain, France, and England. Thousands of skilled craftsmen were forced to move from conquered countries to Samarkand, where they were supposed to help with transforming it into a big and glorious city. Tamerlane’s plan for his capital was to make it surpass all the other world’s capitals in every possible way. When you visit Samarkand, you will be able to observe some of his constructions:
the flamboyant complex of mausoleums called Shah-i-Zinda;
the Bibi-Khanym Mosque;
and other magnificent monuments.
Golden Ages
Samarkand had been a capital of the Timurid Empire for 35 years. After Tamerlane died, the power to rule passed to his sons and grandsons. Ulugh Beg was the grandson who got Samarkand along with some territories surrounding it. He had been ruling the city for 40 years.
Ulugh Beg was known as a peaceful man who took a very small part in aggressive and invasive campaigns. He frequently visited other countries but it was just for the purpose of studying their culture, traditions, and trade. He was a talented scientist – a great mathematician and astronomer – who gathered scientists from different parts of the planet to work with him on his researches, which eventually resulted in compiling a star catalogue, one of the greatest in entire human history.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, Samarkand was truly blossoming. It’s fair to say that it was going through its golden age, existing behind strong walls that protected the city’s gardens and parks. Most of the buildings, monuments, and other architectural objects that were constructed then are the primary urban tourist attractions today. And what had been built under the rule of the Timurid dynasty is equal to the masterpieces of the ancient Egypt, India, Rome, China, or Greece in terms of cultural importance and historical heritage.
Samarkand Today
Now, similar to most cities in the world, Samarkand is divided into new and old districts. The new part of the city looks rather modern. There are cultural, industrial, and educational establishments in the area. The old neighborhoods have much to show you too. But it’s not only monuments of historical value, it’s also old private houses and little shops.
You can go for one of the tours will show you around the old districts of Samarkand. You will see that the city’s current population is around 500,000 people, but it is a cosmopolitan city with over 100 nationalities represented. Besides, Samarkand is one of the Uzbekistan’s biggest cities, second to Tashkent.
Oriental Beauty
For many centuries, this city has been full of life. Some of the greatest scientific discoveries as well as some brilliant poetry lines have been made right there. And it all happened with beautiful architecture and natural beauty in the background. Everyone who comes to Samarkand for the first time will be impressed by numerous historical layers overlapping there.
More than once, the city had to revive after the most severe adversities to restore its true splendor. Owing to the famous people of Samarkand, its sons and daughters, the city has become the heart of economic and social life, science and art, the intersection of old and new.
History and Sightseeings
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Who wrote 'Harry's Game', 'The Glory Boys' and 'Holding The Zero'? | Gerald Seymour – The Art of Danger
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This site is 100% unofficial!
Please note that this website is 100% unofficial. It is not affiliated with Gerald Seymour, his agents or his publishers. I'm just a fan who has been enjoying the books since 1987.
Having said that the nice folk at Hodder do send me advance copies of each new book for my reading enjoyment. And long may that continue.
- Jack
| Gerald Seymour |
Who played the part of 'Constance Colby' in 'The Colbys'? | Gerald Seymour – The Art of Danger
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This site is 100% unofficial!
Please note that this website is 100% unofficial. It is not affiliated with Gerald Seymour, his agents or his publishers. I'm just a fan who has been enjoying the books since 1987.
Having said that the nice folk at Hodder do send me advance copies of each new book for my reading enjoyment. And long may that continue.
- Jack
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'Simply Red' had their only UK number one in September 1995 - what was the name of the song? | Simply Red | New Music And Songs |
Simply Red
About Simply Red
Led by the vocalist Mick Hucknall, the English blue-eyed soul band Simply Red became international stars with their debut album, Picture Book. On the hit ballad "Holding Back the Years," Hucknall proved that he could sing soulfully without affectation, while their cover of the Valentine Brothers' "Money's Too Tight (To Mention)" proved that they could do light funk capably. With each album, their fan base expanded, especially in the U.K.
The band was formed in 1984 by singer Mick "Red" Hucknall (born Michael James Hucknall, June 8, 1960, Manchester, England) with three ex-members of Durutti Column -- bassist Tony Bowers (born October 31, 1952), drummer Chris Joyce (born October 11, 1957, Manchester, England), and keyboardist/brass player Tim Kellett (born July 23, 1964, Knaresborough, England) -- plus guitarist Sylvan Richardson and keyboardist Fritz McIntyre (born September 2, 1956, Birmingham, England).
The group signed to Elektra Records and released Picture Book (October 1985), which featured "Money's Too Tight (To Mention)," a Top 40 cover of a 1982 R&B chart single by the Valentine Brothers, and "Holding Back the Years," a Hucknall original that topped the U.S. charts. The single caused the album to go platinum, and made the group one of the major successes of 1986. Men and Women (March 1987), which featured two collaborations between Hucknall and soul songwriter Lamont Dozier, was less popular, though it generated the Top 40 hit "The Right Thing." (In the U.K., "Infidelity" and a cover of Cole Porter's "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye" also made the Top 40.) Richardson left in 1987 and was replaced by guitarist Aziz Ibrahim, who was replaced by Heitor T.P. (born in Brazil). The third album, A New Flame (February 1989), went gold due to the cover of the 1972 Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes hit "If You Don't Know Me by Now" that hit number one and became a gold single. (In the U.K., "It's Only Love" and "A New Flame" also made the Top 40.)
By the time of the fourth album, Stars (September 1991), Bowers and Joyce had left, with Shaun Ward joining on bass and Gota on drums, and saxophonist Ian Kirkham had become a permanent member. Stars was a relative commercial disappointment in the U.S. (though it spawned Top 40 hits in "Something Got Me Started" and "Stars" and eventually went gold), but it became a major success elsewhere, especially in the U.K., where it was the best-selling album of 1991, topped the charts for 19 weeks, and spawned the Top Ten hits "Stars" and "For Your Babies" and the Top 40 hits "Something Got Me Started," "Thrill Me," and "Your Mirror." Worldwide, it had sold eight and a half million copies by the second quarter of 1993.
Ward and Gota were gone by the release of Simply Red's fifth album, Life (October 1995), leaving a lineup of Hucknall, McIntyre, Heitor T.P., Kirkham, and backup singer Dee Johnson. The album again proved more of a success at home than in America, topping charts all over Europe, as did its leadoff single, "Fairground," while spending only three months in the U.S. charts. Blue followed in May 1998. It topped the British charts and spawned Top Ten hits in "Say You Love Me" and a cover of the Hollies' "The Air That I Breathe" at home, but was a negligible seller in the U.S. In November 1999, Simply Red issued Love and the Russian Winter, which reached the U.K. Top Ten, with the single "Ain't That a Lot of Love" (a cover of a Sam & Dave song) hitting the Top 20.
After establishing the simplyred.com label, the band released Home in April 2003. It reached number two in the U.K., with the singles "Sunrise" and a cover of the Stylistics' "You Make Me Feel Brand New" becoming Top Ten hits. Two years later came Simplified, a collection of old and new songs that hit number three in Britain and number two in the Eurochart. Another two-year absence followed before the notable Stay in April 2007. It hit number four in the U.K. and number two in the Eurochart. By the time of its release, the lineup of Simply Red consisted of Hucknall, Kirkham, Sarah Brown (background vocals), David Clayton (keyboards), Peter Lewinson (drums), Steve Lewinson (bass), Kevin Robinson (trumpet), and Kenji Suzuki (guitar). Hucknall then decided to retire Simply Red but he revived the band in 2015, making a splash with the new album Big Love. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine & William Ruhlmann, Rovi
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Which composer, born in Grenoble in 1803, married an Irish actress. His first opera was 'Benvenuto Cellini'? | Mick Hucknall - IMDb
IMDb
Soundtrack | Actor | Composer
Mick Hucknall sang in a punk band called the Frantic Elevators, who released four singles, all of which failed to chart. They disbanded in 1982 and Hucknall formed a more successful venture, Simply Red, in 1984. Their first single, a cover of the Valentine Brothers' "Money's Too Tight (to Mention)", was a no. 13 hit in 1985. But the band's next ... See full bio »
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- Episode #5.10 (2016) ... (writer: "Stars")
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1999 An Audience with Tom Jones (TV Special) (performer: "Ain't That a Lot of Love")
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Which enormously successful painter was knighted in both Spain and England? | Multiple Sketch for the Banqueting House Ceiling by Peter Paul Rubens - Art Fund
Art Fund
Tate
Art Funded in 2008
Rubens was commissioned by James I to create an allegorical painted ceiling for the new Banqueting House at Whitehall.
Multiple Sketch for the Banqueting House Ceiling by Peter Paul Rubens, 16291630
Details
Oil on wooden board Dimensions: 94.7 x 63 cm
Art Fund grant:
£600,000 ( Total: £5,700,000; Tax remission)
Acquired in:
Vendor:
Christie's
The ceiling was designed to celebrate the peaceful union of Scotland and England following the death of Elizabeth I. This work is Rubens's preliminary sketch for seven of the nine eventual compartments of the ceiling. In the centre, the apotheosis of James I is shown set in an oval. At the two shorter sides are processions of children, infant Bacchants and cherubs with chariots, animals, a festoon, and a cornucopia of fruit. At the longer sides, in ovals, are Hercules and Minerva, and personifications of Abundance and Temperance, triumphing over personifications of vices. This work was acquired after a public campaign where donations could be made through a special Art Fund website. This work was acquired with assistance from the Wolfson Foundation.
Provenance
? Acquired in Rome by a syndicate including Thomas Trevor, 2nd Viscount Hampden, Motteux and O'Brien; Christie's, 1799; private collection; Glynde Place, Glynde; by descent to Mrs H Brand; by descent to Lord Hampden of Glynde.
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| Peter Paul Rubens |
Other than Margaret Thatcher, which Prime Minister, in the last 100 years, has spent the longest term in office? | Peter Paul Rubens
Knowledge Base > Art & Architecture > Art
Peter Paul Rubens
Sir Peter Paul Rubens (28 June 1577 – 30 May 1640), was a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical
Graduate of Fordham Gabelli School of Business. Splitting time between New York and Russia. Interested in economic forecasting and 19th century Romanticism.
Curated Facts
His influence in contemporary artists was vast, with his students, notably Anthony van Dyck, becoming successful. Even Rembrandt's dramatic style of the 1630s can be traced to the model of Rubens. Rubens's work was also influential outside his home country. During his mission to Madrid in 1628 he had enormous influence on the Spanish painter Diego Velazquez. Rubens was not only admired by other pointers, but awl celebrated in the writing of contemporary humanists. His reputation remained strong throughout most of the remainder of the seventeenth century.
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In 1626 his wife Isabella died. The archdukes Isabella asked Rubens to go on a diplomatic mission to the Spanish king, which he accepted, perhaps to escape loneliness. His creative force and genius, nevertheless, continued to express themselves in numerous commissioned paintings and sketches for wall tapestries. His work reaches the pinnacle of Baroque art during this period. The contours of the personae are less sharp but the dynamic forces between the various elements in his paintings show through more than ever. In 1628 the Spanish king Fillip IV asked Rubens to undertake a diplomatic mission to the English king Charles I in London. Charles I knighted Rubens thanking him for his contribution to the peace process between Spain and England. In England he made nine paintings for the Hélène Fourment, the second Mrs. Rubens.ceiling of Banqueting Hall in Whitehall, London.
Article: The Life of Peter Paul Ru...
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The work of Rubens shows continuous development and can be divided roughly into periods. The first covers his formative years, his stay in Italy and Antwerp. Colors were laid on broadly, the paintings were strong in contrast with harsh modelling of the figures and academic drawings. The influences of Titian, Veronese, and Tintoretto is very evident. The second took place very gradually starting around 1612. The paint became more luminous, though still opaque. Fluency and facility combined and formed an exuberant style suitable to workshop practice and the mass production of paintings. During the final phase which started about 1625, he achieved complete mastery with his vital, free, and expressive brushwork. His brilliance of color and the sensual feeling for the tactile- human flesh and materials- has not been paralleled since.
Article: Peter Paul Rubens
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2010 will be the Chinese year of what? | The Chinese Zodiac
Imaginative, generous, successful, popular, curious
Feb 10, 1948 – Jan 28, 1949
Jan 28, 1960 – Feb 14, 1961
Feb 15, 1972 – Feb 2, 1973
Feb 2, 1984 – Feb 19, 1985
Feb 19, 1996 – Feb 6, 1997
Feb 7, 2008 – Jan 25, 2009
Jan 25, 2020 – Feb 11, 2021
Chou (ox)
Confident, honest, patient, conservative, strong
Jan 29, 1949 – Feb 16, 1950
Feb 15, 1961 – Feb 4, 1962
Feb 3, 1973 – Jan 22, 1974
Feb 20, 1985 – Feb 8, 1986
Feb 7, 1997 – Jan 27, 1998
Jan 26, 2009 – Feb 13, 2010
Feb 12, 2021 – Jan 31, 2022
Yin (tiger)
Sensitive, tolerant, brave, active, resilient
Feb 17, 1950 – Feb 5, 1951
Feb 5, 1962 – Jan 24, 1963
Jan 23, 1974 – Feb 10, 1975
Feb 9, 1986 – Jan 28, 1987
Jan 28, 1998 – Feb 15, 1999
Feb 14, 2010 – Feb 2, 2011
Feb 1, 2022 – Jan 21, 2023
Mao (rabbit)
Affectionate, kind, gentle, compassionate, merciful
Feb 6, 1951 – Jan 26, 1952
Jan 25, 1963 – Feb 12, 1964
Feb 11, 1975 – Jan 30, 1976
Jan 29, 1987 – Feb 16, 1988
Feb 16, 1999 – Feb 4, 2000
Feb 3, 2011 – Jan 22, 2012
Jan 22, 2023 – Feb 9, 2024
Chen (dragon)
Enthusiastic, intelligent, lively, energetic, innovative
Jan 27, 1952 – Feb 13, 1953
Feb 13, 1964 – Feb 1, 1965
Jan 31, 1976 – Feb 17, 1977
Feb 17, 1988 – Feb 5, 1989
Feb 5, 2000 – Jan 23, 2001
Jan 23, 2012 – Feb 9, 2013
Feb 10, 2024 – Jan 28, 2025
Si (snake)
Charming, intuitive, romantic, highly perceptive, polite
Feb 14, 1953 – Feb 2, 1954
Feb 2, 1965 – Jan 20, 1966
Feb 18, 1977 – Feb 6, 1978
Feb 6, 1989 – Jan 26, 1990
Jan 24, 2001 – Feb 11, 2002
Feb 10, 2013 – Jan 30, 2014
Jan 29, 2025 – Feb 16, 2026
Wu (horse)
Diligent, friendly, sophisticated, talented, clever
Feb 3, 1954 – Jan 23, 1955
Jan 21, 1966 – Feb 8, 1967
Feb 7, 1978 – Jan 27, 1979
Jan 27, 1990 – Feb 14, 1991
Feb 12, 2002 – Jan 31, 2003
Jan 31, 2014 – Feb 18, 2015
Feb 17, 2026 – Feb 5, 2027
Wei (sheep)
Artistic, calm, reserved, happy, kind
Jan 24, 1955 – Feb 11, 1956
Feb 9, 1967 – Jan 29, 1968
Jan 28, 1979 – Feb 15, 1980
Feb 15, 1991 – Feb 3, 1992
Feb 1, 2003 – Jan 21, 2004
Feb 19, 2015 – Feb 7, 2016
Feb 6, 2027 – Jan 25, 2028
Shen (monkey)
Witty, lively, flexible, humorous, curious
Feb 12, 1956 – Jan 30, 1957
Jan 30, 1968 – Feb 16, 1969
Feb 16, 1980 – Feb 4, 1981
Feb 4, 1992 – Jan 22, 1993
Jan 22, 2004 – Feb 8, 2005
Feb 8, 2016 – Jan 27, 2017
Jan 26, 2028 – Feb 12, 2029
You (rooster)
Shrewd, honest, communicative, motivated, punctual
Jan 31, 1957 – Feb 17, 1958
Feb 17, 1969 – Feb 5, 1970
Feb 5, 1981 – Jan 24, 1982
Jan 23, 1993 – Feb 9, 1994
Feb 9, 2005 – Jan 28, 2006
Jan 28, 2017 – Feb 15, 2018
Feb 13, 2029 – Feb 2, 2030
Xu (dog)
Loyal, honest, responsible, courageous, warm-hearted
Feb 18, 1958 – Feb 8, 1959
Feb 6, 1970 – Jan 26, 1971
Jan 25, 1982 - Feb 12, 1983
Feb 10 1994 – Jan 30, 1995
Jan 29, 2006 – Feb 17, 2007
Feb 16, 2018 – Feb 4, 2019
Feb 3, 2030 – Jan 22, 2031
Hai (boar/pig)
| Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing |
What product was advertised with the phrase 'Forces grey out, forces white in'? | The Chinese Zodiac, 12 Zodiac Animals, Find Your Zodiac Sign
The Chinese animal zodiac, or shengxiao (/shnng-sshyaoww/ ‘born resembling’), is a repeating cycle of 12 years, with each year being represented by an animal and its reputed attributes. Traditionally these zodiac animals were used to date the years.
The 12 Animals of the Chinese Zodiac
In order, the 12 animals are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig.
What Your Chinese Zodiac Animal Sign Is
Your Chinese Zodiac sign is derived from your birth year, according to the Chinese lunar calendar. See the years of each animal below or use the calculator on the right to determine your own sign.
Rat: 2008, 1996, 1984, 1972, 1960
Ox: 2009, 1997, 1985, 1973, 1961
Tiger: 2010, 1998, 1986, 1974, 1962
Rabbit: 2011, 1999, 1987, 1975, 1963
Dragon: 2012, 2000, 1988, 1976, 1964
Snake: 2013, 2001, 1989, 1977, 1965
Horse: 2014, 2002, 1990, 1978, 1966
Goat: 2015, 2003, 1991, 1979, 1967
Monkey: 2016, 2004, 1992, 1980, 1968
Rooster: 2017 , 2005, 1993, 1981, 1969
Dog: 2018, 2006, 1994, 1982, 1970
Pig: 2019, 2007, 1995, 1983, 1971
Find Your Chinese Zodiac Sign
Choose your date of birth and find out about your Chinese zodiac sign.
You are a:
Love:
Health:
Those born in January and February take care: Chinese (Lunar) New Year moves between 21 January and February 20. If you were born in January or February, check whether your birth date falls before or after Chinese New Year to know what your Chinese zodiac year is.
Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility — Is He/She Right for You?
People born in a certain animal year are believed to have attributes of that animal, which could either help or hinder a relationship.
An important use of Chinese Zodiac is to determine if two people are compatible, in a romantic relationship or any kind of relationship. In ancient times people were faithful to Chinese Zodiac compatibility and often referred to it before a romantic relationship began. Even nowadays some people still refer to it.
Take our online test on the right and find how suitable you and your partner are. See our Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Charts
Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Test Is she/he compatible with you? Take the test and see...
Boy's Name:
Date of Birth:
It’s BAD LUCK When Your Zodiac Year Comes Around!
As the Chinese zodiac recurs every 12 years, your animal year will come around when you are 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, etc.
According to ancient Chinese superstition, in your birth sign year, he will offend the God of Age, and will have bad luck during that year. The best way to avoid bad luck during this year is by wearing something red given by an elder (relative), such as socks, a neck cord, underwear, a waistband, a bracelet, or an anklet.
Read more on How to be Lucky in Your Zodiac Year .
Chinese Zodiac Years Have Two Different Starts!
There are two dates a Chinese zodiac year could be said to start on, and neither is January 1! China traditionally uses two calendars: the solar calendar and the lunar calendar.
The traditional solar calendar has 24 fifteen-day solar terms, and the first, called ‘Start of Spring’, falls on February 4 (or 5).
The lunar calendar has 12 or 13 months and starts on Chinese New Year, which is somewhere in the period January 21 to February 20.
Most Chinese people use lunar New Year as the start of the zodiac year. But for fortune telling and astrology, people believe ‘Start of Spring’ is the beginning of the zodiac year.
Chinese Zodiac Origins — Why 12 Animals
The 12 animals were chosen deliberately, after many revisions. The zodiac animals are either closely related to ancient Chinese people’s daily lives, or have lucky meanings.
The ox, horse, goat, rooster, pig, and dog are six of the main domestic animals raised by Chinese people. The other six animals: rat, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, and monkey are all loved by the Chinese people.
Why the 12 Zodiac Animals Are in That Order
The 12 Chinese Zodiac animals are in a fixed order according to Chinese Yin and Yang Theory and perceived attributes.
The yin or the yang of the animals is defined based on the odd or even number of their claws (or toes, hoofs). The animals are then arranged in an alternating (complementary) yin-yang sequence.
Usually an animal has is the same number of claws on its front and rear legs. However the rat has four toes on its fore legs and five on its hind legs. As the old saying goes, “a thing is valued in proportion to its rarity”, so the Rat ranks first of the 12 zodiac animals. It uniquely combines the attributes of odd (yang) and even (yin). 4+5=9, and yang is dominant, so the Rat is classified as odd (yang) overall.
Zodiac Animal
Amiability without fidelity leads to immorality.
Chinese Zodiac Hours — Each Hour is Associated with a Zodiac Animal
Chinese zodiac hours
It is widely known that each year is associated with a Chinese zodiac animal, but in Chinese culture the 12 zodiac animals are also associated with hours of a day.
In ancient times, in order to tell the time, people divided a day into twelve 2-hour periods, and designated an animal to represent each period, according to each animal’s “special time”.
According to Chinese astrology, though not popularly used, a person’s personality and life is more decided by his/her birth hour than year. The zodiac hour is widely used for character and destiny analysis.
Rat
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"""If you want to find Cherry Tree Lane, all you have to do is ask a policeman at the crossroads"", is the first line of which children's novel?" | P. L. Travers - Wikiquote
P. L. Travers
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You do not chop off a section of your imaginative substance and make a book specifically for children , for — if you are honest — you have no idea where childhood ends and maturity begins . It is all endless and all one .
Pamela Lyndon Travers ( August 9 1899 – April 23 1996 ) was a British author, born Helen Lyndon Goff in Maryborough, Queensland, Australia , most famous as the creator of the " Mary Poppins " series of stories.
See also
Thinking is linking.
We pass. But what the bee knows , the wisdom that sustains our passing life — however much we deny or ignore it — that for ever remains.
You can ask me anything you like about my work , but I'll never talk about myself .
The silky hush of intimate things, fragrant with my fragrance, steal softly down, so loth to rob me of my last dear concealment.
From a poem (c. 1920) in the Australian publication The Triad, as quoted in Out of the Sky She Came: The Life of P.L. Travers, Creator of Mary Poppins (1999) by Valerie Lawson,
ISBN 0743298160
]
It is clear from Gurdjieff 's writings that hypnotism, mesmerism and various arcane methods of expanding consciousness must have played a large part in the studies of the Seekers of Truth . None of these processes, however, is to be thought of as having any bearing on what is called Black Magic , which, according to Gurdjieff, "has always one definite characteristic. It is the tendency to use people for some, even the best of aims, without their knowledge and understanding , either by producing in them faith and infatuation or by acting upon them through fear . There is, in fact, neither red, green nor yellow magic . There is " doing ." Only "doing" is magic." Properly to realise the scale of what Gurdjieff meant by magic, one has to remember his continually repeated aphorism, "Only he who can be can do," and its corollary that, lacking this fundamental verb, nothing is "done," things simply "happen."
"Gurdjieff" in Man, Myth and Magic : Encyclopedia of the Supernatural (1970)
Could it be ... that the hero is one who is willing to set out, take the first step, shoulder something? Perhaps the hero is one who puts his foot upon a path not knowing what he may expect from life but in some way feeling in his bones that life expects something of him.
"The World of the Hero" (1976)
A writer is, after all, only half his book . The other half is the reader and from the reader the writer learns .
As quoted in The New York Times (2 July 1978)
A great friend of mine at the beginning of our friendship (he was himself a poet ) said to me very defiantly, "I have to tell you that I loathe children's books." And I said to him, "Well, won't you just read this just for my sake?" And he said grumpily, "Oh, very well, send it to me." I did, and I got a letter back saying: "Why didn't you tell me? Mary Poppins with her cool green core of sex has me enthralled forever."
Interview by Edwina Burness and Jerry Griswold, The Paris Review No. 86 (Winter 1982)
“ Myth , Symbol , and Tradition ” was the phrase I originally wrote at the top of the page, for editors like large, cloudy titles. Then I looked at what I had written and, wordlessly, the words reproached me. I hope I had the grace to blush at my own presumption and their portentousness. How could I, if I lived for a thousand years, attempt to cover more than a hectare of that enormous landscape?
So, I let out the air , in a manner of speaking, dwindled to my appropriate size, and gave myself over to that process which, for lack of a more erudite term, I have coined the phrase “ Thinking is linking.” I thought of Kerenyi — “Mythology occupies a higher position in the bios, the Existence, of a people in which it is still alive than poetry, storytelling or any other art.” And of Malinowski — “Myth is not merely a story told, but a reality lived.” And, along with those, the word “Pollen,” the most pervasive substance in the world, kept knocking at my ear. Or rather, not knocking, but humming. What hums? What buzzes? What travels the world? Suddenly I found what I sought. “What the bee knows,” I told myself. “That is what I’m after.”
But even as I patted my back, I found myself cursing, and not for the first time, the artful trickiness of words, their capriciousness, their lack of conscience. Betray them and they will betray you. Be true to them and, without compunction, they will also betray you, foxily turning all the tables, thumbing syntactical noses. For — note bene! — if you speak or write about What The Bee Knows, what the listener, or the reader, will get — indeed, cannot help but get — is Myth, Symbol, and Tradition! You see the paradox ? The words , by their very perfidy — which is also their honorable intention — have brought us to where we need to be. For, to stand in the presence of paradox, to be spiked on the horns of dilemma, between what is small and what is great, microcosm and macrocosm, or, if you like, the two ends of the stick, is the only posture we can assume in front of this ancient knowledge — one could even say everlasting knowledge.
"What the Bee Knows" in Parabola : The Magazine of Myth and Tradition, Vol. VI, No. 1 (February 1981); later published in What the Bee Knows : Reflections on Myth, Symbol, and Story (1989)
The Sphinx, the Pyramids, the stone temples are, all of them, ultimately, as flimsy as London Bridge; our cities but tents set up in the cosmos . We pass. But what the bee knows , the wisdom that sustains our passing life — however much we deny or ignore it — that for ever remains.
What the Bee Knows : Reflections on Myth, Symbol, and Story (1989)
The Irish, as a race, have the oral tradition in their blood . A direct question to them is an anathema, but in other cases, a mere syllable of a hero 's name will elicit whole chapters of stories .
As quoted in No Word for Time: The Way of the Algonquin People (2001) by Evan T. Pritchard
You do not chop off a section of your imaginative substance and make a book specifically for children , for — if you are honest — you have no idea where childhood ends and maturity begins . It is all endless and all one .
As quoted in Sticks and Stones : The Troublesome Success of Children's Literature from Slovenly Peter to Harry Potter (2002) by Jack Zipes
You can ask me anything you like about my work, but I'll never talk about myself.
As quoted by Valerie Lawson, in an interview: "The Mystic Life of P.L. Travers" (7 May 2003)
For me there are no answers, only questions, and I am grateful that the questions go on and on. I don't look for an answer, because I don't think there is one. I'm very glad to be the bearer of a question.
Mary Poppins (1934)[ edit ]
"How funny ! I've never seen that happen before," said Michael.
Such a thing, Jane and Michael knew , had never been done before. …They gazed curiously at the strange new visitor.
ISBN 0152017178
Tonight the small are free from the great and the great protect the small
We are all made of the same stuff, remember , we of the Jungle , you of the City . The same substance composes us — the tree overhead, the stone beneath us, the bird , the beast , the star — we are all one , all moving to the same end . Remember that when you no longer remember me, my child .
If you want to find Cherry-Tree Lane all you have to do is ask the Policeman at the cross-roads. He will push his helmet slightly to one side, scratch his head thoughtfully, and then he will point his huge white-gloved finger and say: "First to your right, second to your left, sharp right again, and you're there. Good-morning."
And sure enough, if you follow his directions exactly, you will be there — right in the middle of Cherry-Tree Lane, where the houses run down one side and the Park runs down the other and the cherry-trees go dancing right down the middle.
If you are looking for Number Seventeen — and it is more than likely that you will be, for this book is all about that particular house — you will very soon find it.
Ch. 1 "East-Wind"
Jane and Michael sat at the window watching for Mr. Banks to come home, and listening to the sound of the East Wind blowing through the naked branches of the cherry-trees in the Lane. The trees themselves, turning and bending in the half light, looked as though they had gone mad and were dancing their roots out of the ground.
"There he is!" said Michael, pointing suddenly to a shape that banged heavily against the gate. Jane peered through the gathering darkness.
"That's not Daddy," she said. "It's somebody else."
Then the shape, tossed and bent under the wind, lifted the latch of the gate, and they could see that it belonged to a woman, who was holding her hat on with one hand and carrying a bag in the other. As they watched, Jane and Michael saw a curious thing happen. As soon as the shape was inside the gate the wind seemed to catch her up into the air and fling her at the house. It was as though it had flung her first at the gate, waited for her to open it, and then had lifted and thrown her, bag and all, at the front door. The watching children heard a terrific bang, and as she landed the whole house shook.
"How funny! I've never seen that happen before," said Michael.
Ch. 1 "East-Wind"
Presently they saw their Mother coming out of the drawing-room with a visitor following her. Jane and Michael could see that the newcomer had shiny black hair — "Rather like a wooden Dutch doll," whispered Jane. And that she was thin, with large feet and hands, and small, rather peering blue-eyes.
"You'll find that they are very nice children," Mrs. Banks was saying.
Michael's elbow gave a sharp dig at Jane's ribs.
"And that they give no trouble at all," continued Mrs. Banks uncertainly, as if she herself didn't really believe what she was saying. They heard the visitor sniff as though she didn't either.
"Now, about reference —" Mrs. Banks went on.
"Oh, I make it a rule never to give references," said the other firmly.
Ch. 1 "East-Wind"
Mrs. Banks did not notice what was happening behind her, but Jane and Michael, watching from the top landing, had an excellent view of the extraordinary thing the visitor now did.
Certainly she followed Mrs. Banks upstairs, but not in the usual way. With her large bag in her hands she slid gracefully up the banisters, and arrived at the landing at the same time as Mrs. Banks. Such a thing, Jane and Michael knew, had never been done before. Down, of course, for they had often done it themselves. But up — never! They gazed curiously at the strange new visitor.
Ch. 1 "East-Wind"
What I want to know is this: Are the stars gold paper or is the gold paper stars?
Jane in Ch. 8 "Mrs. Corry"
Tonight the small are free from the great and the great protect the small.
Hamadryad, the King Cobra in Ch. 10 "Full-Moon"
It may be that to eat and be eaten are the same thing in the end . My wisdom tells me that this is probably so. We are all made of the same stuff, remember , we of the Jungle , you of the City . The same substance composes us — the tree overhead, the stone beneath us, the bird , the beast , the star — we are all one , all moving to the same end . Remember that when you no longer remember me, my child .
Hamadryad, the King Cobra in Ch. 10 "Full-Moon"
"Bird and beast and stone and star — we are all one , all one —" murmured the Hamadryad, softly folding his hood about him as he himself swayed between the children.
"Child and serpent, star and stone — all one."
Ch. 10 "Full-Moon"
This darkness will not last forever . There will some day come a Fifth of November — or another date, it doesn't matter — when fires will burn in a chain of brightness…
Mary Poppins herself had flown away, but the gifts she had brought would remain for always .
The Fifth of November is Guy Fawkes' Day in England . In peacetime it is celebrated with bonfires on the greens, fireworks in the parks and the carrying of "guys" through the streets. "Guys" are stuffed, straw figures of unpopular persons; and after they have been shown to everybody they are burnt in the bonfires amid great acclamation. The children black their faces and put on comical clothes, and go about begging for a Penny for the Guy. Only the very meanest people refuse to give pennies and these are always visited by Extreme Bad Luck.
The Original Guy Fawkes was one of the men who took part in the Gunpowder Plot . This was a conspiracy for blowing up King James I and the Houses of Parliament on November 5th, 1605. The plot was discovered, however, before any damage was done. The only result was that King James and his Parliament went on living but Guy Fawkes, poor man, did not. He was executed with the other conspirators. Nevertheless, it is Guy Fawkes who is remembered today and King James who is forgotten. For since that time, the Fifth of November in England, like the Fourth of July in America, has been devoted to Fireworks. From 1605 till 1939 every village green in the shires had a bonfire on Guy Fawkes' Day.
NOTE (on Guy Fawkes' Day )
In the village where I live, in Sussex , we made our bonfire in the Vicarage paddock and every year, as soon as it was lit, the Vicar's cow would begin to dance . She danced while the flames rose up to the sky , she danced till the ashes were black and cold. And the next morning — it was always the same — the Vicar would have no milk for his breakfast. It is strange to think of a simple cow rejoicing at the saving of Parliament so many years ago.
NOTE
Since 1939, however, there have been no bonfires on the village greens. No fireworks gleam in the blackened parks and the streets are dark and silent. But this darkness will not last forever . There will some day come a Fifth of November — or another date, it doesn't matter — when fires will burn in a chain of brightness from Land's End to John O' Groats . The children will dance and leap about them as they did in the times before. They will take each other by the hand and watch the rockets breaking, and afterwards they will go home singing to the houses full of light...
NOTE (on Guy Fawkes' Day, during World War II )
Mary Poppins herself had flown away, but the gifts she had brought would remain for always ..
Ch. 8 "The Other Door"
We'll never forget you, Mary Poppins!
Ch. 8 "The Other Door"
The Paris Review interview (1982)[ edit ]
I’ve always been interested in the Mother Goddess .
It is only through the ordinary that the extraordinary can make itself perceived .
Remember that all the King’s horses and all the King’s men couldn’t put Humpty-Dumpty together again. There’s such a tremendous truth in that.
Friend Monkey is really my favorite of all my books because the Hindu myth on which it is based is my favorite — the myth of the Monkey Lord who loved so much that he created chaos wherever he went.
I’ve always been interested in the Mother Goddess . Not long ago, a young person, whom I don’t know very well, sent a message to a mutual friend that said: “I’m an addict of Mary Poppins , and I want you to ask P. L. Travers if Mary Poppins is not really the Mother Goddess.” So, I sent back a message: “Well, I’ve only recently come to see that. She is either the Mother Goddess or one of her creatures — that is, if we’re going to look for mythological or fairy-tale origins of Mary Poppins.”
I’ve spent years thinking about it because the questions I’ve been asked, very perceptive questions by readers, have led me to examine what I wrote. The book was entirely spontaneous and not invented, not thought out. I never said, “Well, I’ll write a story about Mother Goddess and call it Mary Poppins.” It didn’t happen like that. I cannot summon up inspiration; I myself am summoned.
Once, when I was in the United States, I went to see a psychologist . It was during the war when I was feeling very cut off. I thought, Well, these people in psychology always want to see the kinds of things you’ve done, so I took as many of my books as were then written. I went and met the man, and he gave me another appointment. And at the next appointment the books were handed back to me with the words: “You know, you don’t really need me. All you need to do is read your own books.”
That was so interesting to me. I began to see, thinking about it, that people who write spontaneously as I do, not with invention, never really read their own books to learn from them. And I set myself to reading them. Every now and then I found myself saying, “But this is true. How did she know?” And then I realized that she is me. Now I can say much more about Mary Poppins because what was known to me in my blood and instincts has now come up to the surface in my head.
It is only through the ordinary that the extraordinary can make itself perceived.
I think if she comes from anywhere that has a name , it is out of myth . And myth has been my study and joy ever since — oh, the age, I would think . . . of three. I’ve studied it all my life. No culture can satisfactorily move along its forward course without its myths, which are its teachings, its fundamental dealing with the truth of things, and the one reality that underlies everything.
She doesn’t hold back anything from them. When they beg her not to depart, she reminds them that nothing lasts forever. She’s as truthful as the nursery rhymes. Remember that all the King’s horses and all the King’s men couldn’t put Humpty-Dumpty together again. There’s such a tremendous truth in that. It goes into children in some part of them that they don’t know, and indeed perhaps we don’t know. But eventually they realize — and that’s the great truth.
My Zen master, because I’ve studied Zen for a long time, told me that every one (and all the stories weren’t written then) of the Mary Poppins stories is in essence a Zen story . And someone else, who is a bit of a Don Juan , told me that every one of the stories is a moment of tremendous sexual passion, because it begins with such tension and then it is reconciled and resolved in a way that is gloriously sensual. … A great friend of mine at the beginning of our friendship (he was himself a poet) said to me very defiantly, “I have to tell you that I loathe children’s books.” And I said to him, “Well, won’t you just read this just for my sake?” And he said grumpily, “Oh, very well, send it to me.” I did, and I got a letter back saying: “Why didn’t you tell me? Mary Poppins with her cool green core of sex has me enthralled forever.”
Friend Monkey is really my favorite of all my books because the Hindu myth on which it is based is my favorite — the myth of the Monkey Lord who loved so much that he created chaos wherever he went. … when you read the Ramayana you’ll come across the story of Hanuman on which I built my version of that very old myth.
I love Friend Monkey. I love the story of Hanuman. For many years, it remained in my very blood because he’s someone who loves too much and can’t help it. I don’t know where I first heard of him, but the story remained with me and I knew it would come out of me somehow or other. But I didn’t know what shape it would take.
I never wrote my books especially for children. … When I sat down to write Mary Poppins or any of the other books, I did not know children would read them. I’m sure there must be a field of “children’s literature” — I hear about it so often — but sometimes I wonder if it isn’t a label created by publishers and booksellers who also have the impossible presumption to put on books such notes as “from five to seven” or “from nine to twelve.” How can they know when a book will appeal to such and such an age?
If you look at other so-called children’s authors, you’ll see they never wrote directly for children. Though Lewis Carroll dedicated his book to Alice , I feel it was an afterthought once the whole was already committed to paper. Beatrix Potter declared, “I write to please myself!” And I think the same can be said of Milne or Tolkien or Laura Ingalls Wilder .
I certainly had no specific child in mind when I wrote Mary Poppins. How could I? If I were writing for the Japanese child who reads it in a land without staircases, how could I have written of a nanny who slides up the banister? If I were writing for the African child who reads the book in Swahili, how could I have written of umbrellas for a child who has never seen or used one?
But I suppose if there is something in my books that appeals to children, it is the result of my not having to go back to my childhood; I can, as it were, turn aside and consult it ( James Joyce once wrote, “My childhood bends beside me”). If we’re completely honest, not sentimental or nostalgic, we have no idea where childhood ends and maturity begins. It is one unending thread, not a life chopped up into sections out of touch with one another.
Once, when Maurice Sendak was being interviewed on television a little after the success of Where the Wild Things Are , he was asked the usual questions: Do you have children? Do you like children? After a pause, he said with simple dignity: “I was a child.” That says it all.
I make a point of writing , if only a little, every day, as a kind of discipline so that it is not a whim but a piece of work .
I read myths and fairy tales and books about them a great deal now, but I very seldom read novels. I find modern novels bore me. I can read Tolstoy and the Russians, but mostly I read comparative mythology and comparative religion. I need matter to carry with me.
When I write it’s more a process of listening. I don’t pretend that there is some spirit standing beside me that tells me things. More and more I’ve become convinced that the great treasure to possess is the unknown. I’m going to write, I hope, a lot about that. It’s with my unknowing that I come to the myths. If I came to them knowing, I would have nothing to learn. But I bring my unknowing, which is a tangible thing, a clear space, something that’s been made room for out of the muddle of ordinary psychic stuff, an empty space.
You know C. S. Lewis , whom I greatly admire, said there’s no such thing as creative writing. I’ve always agreed with that and always refuse to teach it when given the opportunity. He said there is, in fact, only one Creator and we mix. That’s our function, to mix the elements He has given us. See how wonderfully anonymous that leaves us? You can’t say, “I did this; this gross matrix of flesh and blood and sinews and nerves did this.” What nonsense! I’m given these things to make a pattern out of. Something gave it to me.
I’ve always loved the idea of the craftsman, the anonymous man. For instance, I’ve always wanted my books to be called the work of Anon , because Anon is my favorite literary character. If you look through an anthology of poems that go from the far past into the present time, you’ll see that all the poems signed “Anon” have a very specific flavor that is one flavor all the way through the centuries. I think, perhaps arrogantly, of myself as “Anon.” I would like to think that Mary Poppins and the other books could be called back to make that change. But I suppose it’s too late for that.
Myth, Symbol, and Meaning in Mary Poppins (2007)[ edit ]
These men — Yeats , James Stephens , and the rest — had aristocratic minds . For them, the world was not fragmented. An idea did not suddenly grow … all alone and separate.
Quotes of Travers from Myth, Symbol, and Meaning in Mary Poppins: The Governess as Provocateur (2007) by Giorgia Grilli
These men — Yeats , James Stephens , and the rest — had aristocratic minds . For them, the world was not fragmented. An idea did not suddenly grow … all alone and separate. For them, all things had long family trees. They saw nothing shameful or silly in myths and fairy stories , nor did they shovel them out of sight and some cupboard marked "Only For Children." They were always willing to concede that there was more things in heaven and earth than philosophy dreamed of. They allowed for the unknown. And, as you can imagine, I took great heart from this. It was Æ who showed me how to look and learn from one's own writing. "Popkins" he said once — he always called her just plain Popkins, whether deliberately mistaking the name or not I never knew. His humor was always subtle — " Popkins had she lived in another age, in the old times to which she certainly belongs, she would undoubtedly have had long golden tresses, a wreath of flowers in one hand , and perhaps a spear in the other. Her eyes would have been like the sea , her nose comely, and on her feet winged sandals. But, this age being the Kali Yuga , as the Indus call it — in our terms, the Iron Age — she comes in habiliments suited to it."
Ch. 2, p. 38
The true fairytales … come straight out of myth; they are, as it were, minuscule reaffirmation of myths, or perhaps the myth made accessible to the local folky mind. One might say that fairytales are the myths falling into time and locality … is the same stuff, all the essentials are there, it is small, but perfect. Not minimized, not to be made digestible for children.
Ch. 2, p. 39
Quotes about Travers[ edit ]
Mary Poppins arrives with the wind , and intervenes in the lives of ordinary humans , making magic , but never admitting that it has taken place. ~ Mark Bostridge
Travers's Mary Poppins was a natural phenomena , ancient as mountain ranges, on first-name terms with the primal powers of the universe , adored and respected by everything that saw the world as it was. And she was a mystery . … philosophically, I suspect now, the universe of Mary Poppins underpins all my writing … ~ Neil Gaiman
Mary Poppins threatens to leave at a point of time which only she controls. She tells her charges she will be with them until the wind changes or until her necklace breaks. She never tells them where she has come from, where she intends to go or who she really is. But she leaves many clues. ~ Valerie Lawson
Mary Poppins arrives with the wind , and intervenes in the lives of ordinary humans , making magic , but never admitting that it has taken place. She understands the language of animals and birds , and between her visits to mortals returns to some secret source. Although the Poppins books have much in common with other works of children's literature — all the way back to the early 19th century and ETA Hoffmann 's inspiration of making toys come alive — Travers was adamant that she didn't write specifically for children , and that there was no such thing as children's books . Poppins, she said, "had come up of the same well of nothingness as the poetry , myths and legends that had absorbed me all my writing life ." This was something else that connected Travers to Disney , who maintained that his films were not directed at children, but at the innocence within us all.
| Mary Poppins |
Which American state has a border with only one other state? | Memorable First Sentences | Book talk | LibraryThing
Memorable First Sentences
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From One Hundred Years Of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez:
"Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendia was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice."
From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife."
edited to add the end quotation mark
Off the top of my head, from Herman Melville 's Moby Dick : "Call me Ishmael."
Also, from Beowulf : "Hwæt!" which roughly means "be quiet and listen" or "Hark!"
From This Is Not Civilization by Robert Rosenberg:
'The idea of using porn films to encourage the dairy cows to breed had been a poor one.'
7 Bookmarque
Apr 18, 2007, 11:58am
For me one of the most evocative first sentences is from Mystic River by Dennis Lehane. When I first read it, I had to read this first line several times just to absorb the beauty of it.
"When Sean Devine and Jimmy Marcus were kids, their fathers worked together at the Coleman Candy plant and carried the stench of warm chocolate back home with them."
What did it for me was the word stench - not something normally associated with the smell of chocolate and totally gave me the idea that it had become a bad smell for everyone because it was so pervasive. Once sentence later, this was borne out with this:
"By the time they were eleven, Sean and Jimmy had developed a hatred of sweets so total that they took their coffee black for the rest of their lives and never ate dessert."
It also sets the whole idea that they are a blue collar family and all that that entails. Genius first line.
Edited: Apr 24, 2007, 2:44pm
A random selection of my favorites:
"If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were occupied and all before they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don't feel like going into it, if you want to know the truth." - Catcher in the Rye
"Marley was dead: to begin with." - A Christmas Carol
"Serene was a word you could put to Brooklyn, New York; especially in the summer of 1912." - A Tree Grows in Brooklyn
"The drought had lasted now for ten million years, and the reign of the terrible lizards had long since ended." - 2001: A Space Odyssey
I have more - but I'll stop now!! :-)
edited to add Touchstones
Edited: Apr 25, 2007, 6:35am
If it has to be one sentence rather than one paragraph, the shortest one is this:
"London."
Bleak House (not even a sentence, but it says it all. It gets even better after that, but as we are restricted to opening sentences only....)
"I write this sitting in the kitchen sink."
I capture the Castle
The Adventures of Augie March
"With a single drop of ink for a mirror, the Egyptian sorcerer
undertakes to reveal to any chance comer far-reaching visions of
the past."
Adam Bede
And my absolute favourite:
"It was the afternoon of my 81st birthday and I was in bed with my catamite when Ali announced that the archbishop had come to call."
Earthly Powers
Apr 25, 2007, 9:03am
Two favourites:
"Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo..."
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce
"Mrs Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself."
Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf . I love this sentence because it is the opening for one of my favourite chapters in English literature.
15 uffishread
Apr 25, 2007, 10:36am
In the second century of the Christian Aera, the empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilized portion of mankind.
More random selections (Random is my best thing):
"What can you say about a twenty-five-year-old girl who died?" Love Story
"The Wednesday in every month was a Perfectly Awful Day - a day to be awaited with dread, endured with courage and forgotten with haste." Daddy Long Legs
"At five o'clock that morning reveille was sounded as usual, by the blows of a hammer on a length of rail hanging up near the staff quarters." One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich
"If you want to find Cherry-Tree Lane, all you have to do is ask the Policeman at the crossroads." Mary Poppins
"I am Sam. Sam I am." Green Eggs and Ham
"Mr. and Mrs. Dursley, of number four, Privet Drive, were proud to say that they were perfectly normal, thank you very much." Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone
"The Hermans were absolutely the worst kids in the history of the world." Best Christmas Pagaent Ever
"I will always remember when the stars fell down around me and lifted me up above the George Washington Bridge." Tar Beach
"'Christmas won't be Christmas without any presents,' grumbled Jo, lying on the rug." Little Women
More? I have more. I collect these!
21 agentrv007
Apr 25, 2007, 5:44pm
"As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a gigantic insect." ~ The metamorphosis by Franz Kafka
"On an exceptionally hot evening early in July a young man came out of the garret in which he lodged in S. Place and walked slowly, as though in hesitation, towards K. bridge." ~Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky
"In the department of -- but it is better not to mention the department. There is nothing more irritable than departments, regiments, courts of justice, and, in a word, every branch of public service." ~The Overcoat by Nikolai V. Gogol
"Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the famous town of Troy." ~The Odyssey by Homer
"TRUE! - nervous - very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad?" ~The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allen Poe
"WHEN Farmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth spread till they were within an unimportant distance of his ears, his eyes were reduced to chinks, and diverging wrinkles appeared round them, extending upon his countenance like the rays in a rudimentary sketch of the rising sun." ~ Far from the Madding Crowd by Thomas Hardy (My FAVORITE opening line. So very descriptive!)
I'll post more later!
Edited: Apr 25, 2007, 6:05pm
Hey, isn't more fun to try to guess what book the sentences are from?
"I can feel the heat closing in, feel them out there making their moves, setting up their devil-doll stool pigeons, crooning over my spoon and dropper I throw away at Washington Square station, vault a turnstile and two flights down the iron stairs, catch an uptown A train."
"I sing of warfare and a man at war." - the Aeneid
My favorite opening line.
24 prophetandmistress
Apr 25, 2007, 8:54pm
"There was a point at which, after the Baker/Pottville melee had wound down with the last twenty or thirty handcuffed Soderbrook poultry-plant wetbacks, Buzzard's-Roost Hessians, Dowler Street trolls, and east-side Baker factory rats being crammed into Sheriff Tom Dippold's departmental paddy wagon and sent on their way to the overstuffed abattoirs at Keller and Powell, the trash fires along Main St. had been hosed down and blown apart amid the smoldering wreckage of Gingerbread row, the school gymnasium had been gassed and raided by a poorly equipped and this-side-of-flabbergasted outfit of regional deputies, the general looting along Geiger had tapered off, the the 3rd and Poplar riot had been subdued,an outraged pack of coal-truck operators from Ebony Steed's reservoir number six had long since paid its ill-fated reconciliatory midnight visit to the Patokah-side river rats in a barreling steam-roller procession of Dodge Rams, and the rest of the community had become so far entombed in its own excrement that even Pottville 6's newscasters were having tp admit Baker appeared to be awaiting the arrival of the four horsemen--there was a point at which, in the full pitch midst of it all, every cognizant and functioning citizen left in Greene County knew exactly who and what John Kaltenbrunner was all about."
And yes, it's all one sentence.
26 MerryMary
Edited: Jun 27, 2007, 12:52pm
A few more. (I feel quite frivolous next to some of you - you cite books much more sophisticated than mine. But I am a k-12 librarian and this is what I know.)
"Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do; once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversation in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice, 'without pictures or conversations?'" Alice in Wonderland
"All children, but one, grow up." Peter Pan
"Miyax pushed back the hood of her sealskin parka and looked at the Arctic sun." Julie of the Wolves
"'Where's Papa going with that ax?"' Charlotte's Web
>28 jenknox: Love that Pooh Bear line.
Here's a few more:
"There are songs that come free from the blue-eyed grass, from the dust of a thousand country roads." The Bridges of Madison County
"The terror, which would not end for another twenty-eight years - if it ever did end - began, so far as I know or can tell, with a boat made from a sheet of newspaper floating down a gutter swollen with rain." It
"He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish." The Old Man and the Sea
Just let me say right off the bat, it was a bike accident. Mick Harte Was Here
"Once upon a time, sixty years ago, a little girl lived in the Big Woods of Wisconsin, in a little gray house made of logs." Little House in the Big Woods
Edited: Apr 27, 2007, 10:11pm
"I have never begun a novel with more misgiving." The Razor's Edge by W. Somerset Maugham
Apr 27, 2007, 12:09pm
#29
man, It scares me so much even the opening line creeps me out. I'm scared of three things: Clowns, needles, and spiders and that book has an abundance of all of them :-(
Here's another opening line:
"Maman died today." - The Stranger by Albert Camus
Remembering all the first sentences from novels I read in high school tends to come in little trickles. :P
Apr 29, 2007, 1:10am
My very favourite:
"If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to kno is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how may parents were ocupied and all before they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don't feel like going into it, if you want the truth."
And some others I like:
"They're all dead now."
-- Fall On Your Knees by Ann-Marie MacDonald
"The Santa Anas blew in hot from the desert, shriveling the last of the spring grass into whiskers of pale straw."
And the first line from Rebecca by Daphne du Maurier, but I am not sure I have it right:
"I dreamed of Manderlay again last night."
41 llamagirl
Apr 29, 2007, 2:40am
"Everyone now knows how to find the meaning of life within himself. But mankind hasn't always been so lucky." -Sirens of Titan -- Kurt Vonnegut (2 i know, but they work so well together and technically the second is an incomplete)
"Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins." -Lolita -- Vladimir Nabakov
"There was once a boy named Milo who didnt know what to do with himself - not just sometimes, but always." -The Phantom Tollbooth -- Norton Juster
"Oomm, yoom, yoom, um?" -Tiny Alice -- Edward Albee
"One thing was certain, that the white kitten had had nothing to do with it - it was the black kitten's fault entirely." -Through the Looking Glass --Lewis Carroll
"What's the worst thing you've ever done?" -Ghost Story -- Peter Straub
"This is a beautiful library, timed perfectly, lush and American." The Abortion -- Richard Brautigan
"It has been reported that Tanuki fell from the sky using his scrotum as a parachute." -Villa Incognito -- Tom Robbins
"I have noticed that when someone asks for you on the telephone and, finding you out, leaves a message begging you to call him the moment you come in, as it's important, the matter is more often important to him than to you." - Cakes and Ale -- W. Somerset Maugham
wow...kinda went overboard, but there's oh so many lovely ones out there....
42 FrancesS
Apr 29, 2007, 3:09am
"If you are interested in stories with happy endings, you would be better off reading some other book"
The Bad Beginning: A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket
Apr 29, 2007, 1:13pm
"They called him Moshe the Beadle, as though he had never had a surname in his life."
My favorite first line is from " The Sea and Little Fishes " by Terry Pratchett :
"Trouble began, and not for the first time, with an apple."
46 thorold
May 2, 2007, 3:17pm
He sat, in defiance of municipal orders, astride the gun Zam-Zammah on her brick platform outside the old Ajaib-Gher -- the Wonder House, as the natives call the Lahore Museum. --- Kim
I wish either my father or my mother, or indeed both of them, as they were in duty both equally bound to it, had minded what they were about when they begot me. --- The life and opinions of Tristram Shandy, gentleman
(the second one is a bit of a cheat, because it ends on a semicolon...)
47 pomonomo2003
May 2, 2007, 7:42pm
First, in order to provide touchstones to the unattributed sentence in #22 I add Naked Lunch by William S. Burroughs .
Now,
"Supposing Truth is a woman - what then?" Beyond Good and Evil by Nietzsche .
"Some of the evil in my tale may have been inherent in our circumstances." Seven Pillars of Wisdom by T. E. Lawrence .
"Already, beneath him, through the golden evening, the shadowed hills had dug their furrows and the plains grew luminous with long-enduring light." Night Flight by Saint-Exupery.
48 blackcat348
May 6, 2007, 8:10pm
"In the early nineties (it might have been 1992, but it's hard to tell when you're having a good time) I joined a rock-and-roll band composed mostly of writers"
On Writing by Stephan King although technically its the first line in the first forward.
"this is a short book because most books about writing are filled with bullshit."
the first sentance of the second forward.
May 7, 2007, 7:02am
Dick Francis is a good man for an excellent first line: pithy, to the point and irresistable.
"I told the boys to be quiet while I went to fetch my gun." - Twice Shy
"There was a God-awful cock-up in Bologna." - The Danger
and my absolute favourite:
"Art Mathews shot himself, loudly and messily, in the centre of the parade ring at Dunstable races." - Nerve
50 janehyde
May 7, 2007, 9:38am
"On my naming day when I come 12 I gone front spear and kilt a wyld boar he parbly ben the las wyld pig on the Bundel Downs any how there hadnt ben none for a long time before him nor I aint looking to see none agen."
56 thorold
Jun 6, 2007, 5:01pm
"A gentleman friend and I were dining at the Ritz last evening and he said that if I took a pencil and paper and put down all of my thoughts it would make a book." -- Gentlemen Prefer Blondes
"After distributing the eight ice-creams -- they were the largest vanilla, chocolate and raspberry super-bumpers, each in yellow, brown and almost purple stripes -- Pop Larkin climbed up into the cab of the gentian blue, home-painted thirty-hundredweight truck laughing happily." -- The darling buds of May (a good one to cite if anyone tells you that real writers don't use adjectives!)
60 drbubbles
Edited: Jun 28, 2007, 10:09am
"It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents – except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness."
(The criterion is just "memorable" – nothing about 'good' or 'interesting' – and this sentence, or at least its first clause, is remembered by more people than have even heard of the book.)
Edited for HTML
Jun 28, 2007, 10:08am
> #21
In accordance with Tim's diktat that "A Greek edition of Homer is not the same as an English translation" (from the right sidebar of the Combine Works page), I'm going to have to disagree with you on the first line of Homer 's The Odyssey . Not that it's not memorable; just what it actually is. I submit the following:
ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, μου̂σα, πολύτροπον, ὃς μάλα πολλὰ
πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν:
πολλω̂ν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω,
πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν,
ἀρνύμενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων.
(Why, yes; I am bored. Why do you ask?)
And this is from the "not a first sentence but good enough that it should've been" category (although evidently the Vulgate Bible didn't come with punctuation so I can say this is in the first sentence if I want to, and maybe I do):
dixitque Deus fiat lux
That's got a whole lot more "sha-ZAM!" to it than, "God said, 'Let there be light.'" (Maybe if they translated it, "There WILL be light"....)
63 alexbook
Edited: Jun 28, 2007, 11:05pm
"Christmas crept into town like a creeping Christmas thing: dragging garland, ribbon, and sleigh bells, oozing eggnog, reeking of pine, and threatening festive doom like a cold sore under the mistletoe."
-- The Stupidest Angel: A Heartwarming Tale of Christmas Terror by Christopher Moore
"No one would have believed in the last years of the nineteenth century that this world was being watched keenly and closely by intelligences greater than man's and yet as mortal as his own; that as men busied themselves about their various concerns they were scrutinised and studied, perhaps almost as narrowly as a man with a microscope might scrutinise the transient creatures that swarm and multiply in a drop of water."
Jun 29, 2007, 9:20am
I posted these in the other thread in Green Dragon, but I'll add them again here:
"I am doomed to remember a boy with a wrecked voice - not because of his voice, or because he was the smallest person I ever knew, or even because he was the instrument of my mother's death, but because he is the reason I believe in God; I am a Christian because of Owen Meany." - A Prayer for Owen Meany by John Irving
"It was hell's season, and the air smelled of burning children." - Gone South by Robert McCammon
67 sophies_choice
Jun 29, 2007, 9:21am
"The man in black fled across the desert and the gunslinger followed." from Stephen King 's The Gunslinger
68 Nickelini
Edited: Jun 29, 2007, 11:15am
The opening line of The Trial : "Someone must have been slandering Josef K., for one morning, without having done anything wrong, he was arrested." Franz Kafka
69 paghababian
Edited: Jun 30, 2007, 8:24am
"This is not for you." House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski I think, technically, that may be the dedication, but it might as well be the first line.
Edit: This makes it sound like I didn't like the book, which is not the case at all.
Jun 29, 2007, 11:54pm
I don't think anyone has mentioned this one yet:
"You are about to begin reading Italo Calvino's new novel, If on a winter's night a traveler."
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Which vocal group consisted of Tim Hauser, Laurel Masse, Alan Paul, and Janis Siegel? | Janis Siegel | The Manhattan Transfer
The Manhattan Transfer
Janis Siegel
Over the years, Janis’ unmistakable voice has become one of the group’s most recognizable trademarks. She sang lead on some of the Transfer’s biggest hits, such as “Operator,” “Chanson D’Amour,” “Twilight Zone,” “Birdland,” “The Boy from N.Y.C.” “Spice of Life”, ”Ray’s Rockhouse”, “The Shaker Song”, “Mystery”, and co-wrote and sang lead on the Grammy winning “Sassy”. She also gained a reputation as a vocal arranger by writing five of the charts for the group’s acclaimed masterwork, Vocalese, seven charts for the group’s Grammy-winning album Brasil, and won a Grammy herself in 1980 for her arrangement of “Birdland.” In 1993, she and her Manhattan Transfer colleagues received their honorary doctorates from the Berklee School of Music, and in 1999 they were among the first class of inductees into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame.
These days, you can find Janis in the place she loves most, the studio, producing various ventures for other artists and singing on a wide array of projects, touring with her trio, teaching at universities and high schools, and paying tribute to her idol Ella Fitzgerald in a new show called “ELLA- A Life in Song.”
2012 found Janis and her Manhattan Transfer partner Alan Paul representing America as teachers and judges for the very first online singing competition in China , “ROCK THE WEB!” The finals of this competition were televised from Beijing.
Her 10th solo CD, released on Palmetto Records, is called “NightSongs” and her two most recent solo collaborations are “HONEY & AIR” a Brazilian/jazz vocal adventure with her group REQUINTE TRIO, along with percussionist/singer Nanny Assis and pianist John di Martino and “SOME OTHER TIME” a tribute to Leonard Bernstein with trombonist/singer Nils Landgren.
Siegel – who is a life-long resident and lover of Manhattan, feels that some styles are timeless and universal, regardless of prevailing trends. “I think people will always respond to emotion and to great songs sung well,” she says. “When you come down to it, people want to feel something.”
Click Here to buy Requinte Trio’s debut album on iTunes
| The Manhattan Transfer |
Since World War II, which United States President has been awarded a Nobel prize? | Alan Paul | The Manhattan Transfer
The Manhattan Transfer
Alan Paul
Alan Paul is one of the founding members of The Manhattan Transfer and an eight-time Grammy Award recipient. He was born and raised in Newark, New Jersey and began his professional career on Broadway at the age of 12 in the original Broadway cast of Oliver. As a child actor, he worked extensively in stage, film and TV; some of the productions include The King and I, The Pawnbroker, The Pursuit of Happiness and The Patty Duke Show.
Alan left his professional career in order to go to college and expand his musical studies. He graduated from Kean University earning a BA in Music Education. After graduating from college, Alan returned to New York to pursue his musical career and was cast in the original Broadway production of Grease where he created the roles of Teen Angel and Johnny Casino.
In 1972, while still performing in Grease, Alan met Janis Siegel, Tim Hauser and Laurel Masse’ and together formed a vocal group know as The Manhattan Transfer. Cheryl Bentyne replaced Laurel Masse’ in 1979 and with a career spanning over 45 years, The Manhattan Transfer has recorded over thirty albums, were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame and have received ten Grammy Awards. Known for their eclectic range of singing, they were the first group to ever receive two Grammys in both jazz and pop categories for their top ten recordings of “Boy From NYC” and jazz rendition of Count Basie’s “Corner Pocket.” Their album, Vocalese, received twelve Grammy nominations of including Best Male jazz vocalist for his rendition of “I Remember Clifford.” Vocalesewon three Grammy Awards that year.
In 1992 Alan received two Honorary Doctorate degrees, one in The Humanities from Kean University and another in Music from Berklee College of Music along with his Transfer partners.As a writer and arranger Alan is also well represented having penned such songs as: Twilight Zone/Twilight Tone, Code Of Ethics, Smile Again, Spies In The Night, Malaise en Malaisie, All Heart, The Quietude, What Goes Around Comes Around, Santa Man, Its Good Enough To Keep, Stompin! At Mahogany Hall, Nothin! Could Be Hotter Than That and Ragtime In Pixiland.
Alan has recorded two solo albums, Another Place in Time and most recently, Shu Bop. The latter was produced by Paul and Ted Perlman and pays tribute to classic doo-wop and popular music from the 1950’s and early 60’s. Some of the singers, vocal groups and arrangers that influenced the making of this album were Dion DiMucchi (Dion and The Belmonts), The Platters, Jackie Wilson and Jimmy Beaumont and The Skyliners. Shu Bop also features two songs that were arranged and conducted by the legendary Ray Ellis who worked on the critically acclaimed Billy Holiday LP, A Lady In Satin.
Another Place and Time, Alan’s first solo album, is a compilation of classic standards by writers such as Hoagy Carmichael, Frank Losser, and Michel Legrand. The album features Paul’s crooning and swinging sensibilities as beautifully juxtaposed against a tapestry of orchestral and big band arrangements.
In 2006, Alan produced an album for singer Laura Ellis entitled Here Lies Love that was released on King Records in Japan.
In 2016, his latest record Shu Bop was released. This album pays tribute to classic doo-wop and popular music from the 1950’s and early 60’s. It also features two songs that were arranged and conducted by the legendary Ray Ellis who worked on the critically acclaimed Billy Holiday LP, A Lady In Satin.
Shu Bob is now available on iTunes, Amazon and CD.
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Which British group was formed by former members of 'The Housemartins', Paul Heaton and David Hemingway? | The Housemartins - Beautiful South & Paul Heaton Fans
Beautiful South & Paul Heaton Fans
The Housemartins
The Band
was formed in late 1983 by Paul Heaton (vocals) and Stan Cullimore (guitar), and they initially performed as a busking duo. They recorded a demo tape with Ingo Dewsnap of Les Zeiga Fleurs, which brought them to the attention of Go! Discs. They then expanded by recruiting Ted Key (bass), former guitarist with The Gargoyles, and Chris Lang. The band often referred to themselves as "the fourth best band in Hull", referring to Hull, their home base. The three bands that were ‘better’ were Red Guitars, Everything But The Girl and The Gargoyles.
In 1986, having recorded two John Peel sessions, the band broke through with the single "Happy Hour", which reached #3 in the UK singles chart. The single's success was helped by a animated pop promo of a type that was in vogue at the time, featuring a cameo by TV comedian Phil Jupitus, who toured with the band under his stage name of 'Porky the Poet'.
The Housemartins debut album, London 0 Hull 4 was released in 1986. At the end of 1986 they had their only UK #1 single on 16 December with a cover version of Isley-Jasper-Isley's 'Caravan of Love'. It was knocked off the top spot by Jackie Wilson's 'Reet Petite' on 23 December, denying the Housemartins the coveted Christmas number 1 single.
The band’s second album, The People Who Grinned Themselves to Death was released in 1987. The band split in 1988, but the members have remained friends and have worked on each other's projects. Norman Cook has enjoyed significant success with Beats International and then as Fatboy Slim, while Heaton, Hemingway and roadie Sean Welch formed The Beautiful South. Paul has called upon Norman to help, and he can be seen to be referred to as ‘Rhythm consultant’ on the 1998 Beautiful South release ‘Quench’.
In August 2009, Mojo magazine arranged for The Housemartins original members to get together for a photo-shoot and interview. The bands debut album, London 0 Hull 4 was re-released on 22 June 2009 as "London 0 Hull 4 Deluxe", a limited edition package, with a bonus disc.
The People Who Grinned Themselves To Death
Now That's What I Call Quite Good
The Best of The Housemartins
The Housemartins, Live at the BBC
London 0 Hull 4 Deluxe
Band Biography
Paul David Heaton (b. 9 May 1962, Humberside)
Chris Lang
Chris Lang is now best known a writer, actor and producer for British TV. He has written for British television shows including Alias Smith and Jones, The Bill, Casualty, Soldier Soldier etc. He served as an Assistant Producer on Sirens, Lawless, and Amnesia and as an executive producer on Torn. He has also written two episodes of popular series Primeval. As an actor, he has appeared in such shows as Paul Merton, Drop the dead donkey, Jo Brand through the cakehole etc. He has also worked as a voice actor for films, video games (such as Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban), and cartoons. His voice work in children's television series includes the voice of Pigling Bland in The world of Peter Rabbit and friends, and voices for almost all of the characters (except for Kipper) in Kipper the dog.
Prior to his (now extensive) TV work, alongside his brother Nick Lang, Chris Lang was a drummer in the unsigned new wave rock band The Acidicx, later becoming a member of The Housemartins (for whom he also played drums) alongside school friends Quentin Cook (AKA Norman Cook - Fatboy Slim) and Paul Heaton. Lang left the band in 1984 to be replaced by Hugh Whittaker.
Ted Key
Ted Key (b. Anthony Matthew Key, 1 July 1960, Hull) was the original bass player in The Housemartins. He was replaced in 1985 by Norman Cook. Key originally played with a local band called The Gargoyles, which links him to several other Housemartins members…
Hugh Whitaker
Hugh Whitaker (b. 18 May 1961, Hull) is the former drummer for the indie band The Housemartins. He replaced original drummer Chris Lang and drummed for the band's first album, London 0 Hull 4, and its attendant single releases. He left the band before the recording of their second album, The People Who Grinned Themselves To Death. Whitaker left the band on amicable terms and even participated in the video for the band's first single without him, "Five Get Over Excited", wherein he was kidnapped by his replacement, David Hemingway, and locked in a hessian sack.
Stan Cullimore
Stan Cullimore – not to be confused with the footballer of the same name! (b. Ian Peter Cullimore, 6 May 1962, Hull) played guitar, between 1983 and 1988, for The Housemartins. Cullimore studied maths at the University of Hull, graduating in 1984. He answered a local newspaper advert in 1983 placed by Paul Heaton that said 'Trombonist seeks street musicians' around the city. After leaving the band, he ran a whole food shop for about five years.
Norman Cook
Quentin Leo Cook (b. 31 July 1963, Bromley) was raised in Reigate, Surrey, and was educated at Reigate Grammar School. He played drums in Disque Attack (a British new-wave-influenced rock band). When front man Charlie Alcock was told by his parents that he had to give up the band to concentrate on his O levels, Cook took over as lead vocalist. At Reigate college he also met Paul with whom he formed the Stomping Pond frogs. At 18, he went to the Brighton Polytechnic to study a BA in English, politics and sociology. Although he had begun DJing some years before, it was at this time that he began to develop his skills on the thriving Brighton club scene.
Known as DJ Quentox (The OX that Rocks) Cook and DJ Baptiste started putting on Youth Club Hip Hop jams in Brighton, sowing the seeds of the City's flourishing Hip Hop scene today. These primitive 80s block parties are recalled in the music documentary 'South Coast' which documents Brighton's cult Hip Hop scene from its grass roots to the present day.
By 1985 Paul Heaton had formed a band called 'The Housemartins' and Quentin was better known as Norman. Their bass player (Ted Key) quit on the eve of their first national tour, so Cook agreed to move to Hull to join them. By the time the band eventually split in 1988, Heaton and the band's drummer Dave Hemingway went on to form 'The Beautiful South', and Cook moved back to Brighton to pursue his interest in the style of music he preferred.
David Hemingway
David Hemingway (b. 20 Sep 1960) was in the same class as The Housemartins' future drummer, Hugh Whitaker at school. The two shared an interest in drumming, and one day, when the class were asked who would like to learn drums, they put their hands up first. Hemingway followed Whitaker into bands, first the Newpolitans with David Rotheray on bass, and then the Velvetones.
His break came when he got a call from Rotheray telling him Whitaker had left The Housemartins. Rotheray recommended him to Housemartins guitarist Stan Cullimore, who phoned him. He was working as a purchase ledger clerk at the time for the Crystal Motor Group. Hemingway quit his job on 6 March 1987, and soon found himself in the recording studio, recording the band's second album, The People Who Grinned Themselves To Death.
Disclaimer:
We would like to make you aware that beautifulsouthfans.co.uk is not maintained nor authorised by the now defunct Housemartins, Beautiful South, Paul Heaton, David Rotheray, David Stead, Sean Welch, Jacqueline Abbot, Briana Corrigan, Dave Hemingway, Alison Wheeler, Ted Key, Stan Cullimore, Hugh Whittaker, Norman Cook or by anyone acting on their behalf. Moreover we have no connection to any of the band members or any of their management team(s). The site is a non profit organisation maintained purely for the enjoyment of the fans.
Please understand these facts before contacting us. Thank you.
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| The Beautiful South |
Which composer was born in Italy in 1792, but is buried in Paris. He had the nickname 'Monsieur Crescendo'? | The Beautiful South Reunion What Have We Become - YouTube
The Beautiful South Reunion What Have We Become
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Published on May 1, 2014
Great news Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott get back together, for more go to -- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5bq9E... ---- The Beautiful South was an English pop/rock group formed at the end of the 1980s by two former members of Hull group The Housemartins, Paul Heaton and Dave Hemingway, both of whom performed lead and backing vocals. Other members throughout the band's tenure were former Housemartins roadie Sean Welch (bass), Dave Stead (drums) and Dave Rotheray (guitar). After the band's first album (recorded as a quintet), they were joined by a succession of female vocalists, all of whom performed lead and backing vocals alongside Heaton and Hemingway -- Briana Corrigan for albums two and three, followed by Jacqui Abbott for the fourth through seventh albums, and finally Alison Wheeler for the final three Beautiful South albums.The group broke up in January 2007, claiming the split was due to "musical similarities", having sold around 15 million records worldwide. In January 2009, it was announced that the former members Dave Hemingway, Alison Wheeler, and Dave Stead would reform under the name "New Beautiful South" which was later changed to "The South".
Category
| i don't know |
In medicine, which joint is controlled by the Radial Nerve? | Radial nerve dysfunction: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
An illness in the whole body that damages a single nerve
Direct injury to the nerve
Long-term pressure on the nerve
Pressure on the nerve caused by swelling or injury of nearby body structures.
Radial neuropathy occurs when there is damage to the radial nerve, which travels down the arm and controls:
Movement of the triceps muscle at the back of the upper arm.
Ability to bend the wrist and fingers backward.
Movement and sensation of the wrist and hand.
When damage destroys the nerve covering ( myelin sheath ) or part of the nerve itself, nerve signaling is slowed or prevented.
Damage to the radial nerve can be caused by:
Broken arm bone and other injury
Diabetes
Long-term or repeated constriction of the wrist (for example, from wearing a tight watch strap)
Long-term pressure on the nerve, usually caused by swelling or injury of nearby body structures
Pressure to the upper arm from arm positions during sleep or coma
In some cases, no cause can be found.
Symptoms
Symptoms may include any of the following:
Abnormal sensations in the back and thumb side of the hand, or in the thumb, 2nd, and 3rd fingers
Weakness, loss of coordination of the fingers
Problem straightening the arm at the elbow
Problem bending the hand back at the wrist, or holding the hand
Pain, numbness , decreased sensation, tingling, or burning sensation in the areas controlled by the nerve
Exams and Tests
The health care provider will examine you and ask about your symptoms and medical history. You may be asked what you were doing before the symptoms started.
Tests that may be needed include:
Blood tests
Imaging tests to view the nerve and nearby structures
Electromyography ( EMG ) to check the health of the radial nerve and the muscles it controls
Nerve biopsy to examine a piece of nerve tissue (rarely needed)
Nerve conduction tests to check how fast nerve signals travel
Treatment
The goal of treatment is to allow you to use the hand and arm as much as possible. Your provider will find and treat the cause, if possible. Sometimes, no treatment is needed and you will get better on your own.
If medicines are needed, they may include:
Over-the-counter or prescription pain medicines
Corticosteroid injections around the nerve to reduce swelling and pressure
Your provider will likely suggest self-care measures. These may include:
A supportive splint at either the wrist or elbow to help prevent further injury and relieve the symptoms. You may need to wear it all day and night, or only at night.
An elbow pad of the radial nerve is injured at the elbow. Also, avoid bumping or leaning on the elbow.
Physical therapy exercises to help maintain muscle strength in the arm.
Occupational therapy or counseling to suggest changes in the workplace may be needed.
Surgery to relieve pressure on the nerve may help if the symptoms get worse, or if there is proof that part of the nerve is wasting away.
Outlook (Prognosis)
If the cause of the nerve dysfunction can be found and successfully treated, there is a good chance that you will fully recover. In some cases, there may be partial or complete loss of movement or sensation.
Possible Complications
Mild to severe deformity of the hand
Partial or complete loss of feeling in the hand
Partial or complete loss of wrist or hand movement
Recurrent or unnoticed injury to the hand
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your provider if you have an arm injury and develop numbness, tingling, pain, or weakness down the back of the arm and the thumb and your first 2 fingers.
Prevention
Avoid prolonged pressure on the upper arm.
Alternative Names
Neuropathy - radial nerve; Radial nerve palsy; Mononeuropathy
Images
Radial nerve dysfunction
References
Katirji B. Disorders of peripheral nerves. In: Daroff RB, Jankovic J, Mazziotta JC, Pomeroy SL, eds. Bradley's Neurology in Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 107.
Shy ME. Peripheral neuropathies. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 25th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 420.
Wolfe VM, Rosenwasser MP, Tang P. Entrapment neuropathies of the arm, elbow, and forearm. In: Miller MD, Thompson SR, eds. DeLee and Drez's Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: Principles and Practice. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2015:chap 67.
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In which film did Sidney Poitier play a disruptive pupil, and Glenn Ford a harassed teacher? | Radial Tunnel Syndrome (Radial Nerve Entrapment) - Plano Orthopedic Sports Medicine & Spine Center Plano Orthopedic Sports Medicine & Spine Center
Radial Tunnel Syndrome (Radial Nerve Entrapment)
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» Radial Tunnel Syndrome (Radial Nerve Entrapment)
What is it?
Radial Tunnel Syndrome is a condition thought to be a compression injury to the radial nerve, which runs by the bones and muscles of the forearm and elbow. This condition can often be confused with tennis elbow. It most often occurs due to repetitive motions such as pushing or pulling, twisting, gripping with the hand or bending the wrist. It can also be caused by a direct trauma to the area or injury.
Symptoms
Radial Tunnel Syndrome symptoms include, cutting, piercing, or stabbing pain at the top of the forearm or back of the hand, especially when you try to extend or straighten your wrist and fingers. Unlike the cubital tunnel syndrome patients rarely feel numbness or tingling because this particular nerve affects the muscle. The pain worsens when the arm is being used.
Treatment
Treatment options include rest, immobilization with a splint, cushioning of the nerve with an elbow pad, and anti-inflammatory medications. Your physician may perform an EMG (electromyography), a nerve conduction study or both to properly diagnosis this condition. This will allow them to identify the area of nerve damage and determine the severity of damage that occurred to the nerve. In some cases surgery may be performed to alleviate the pressure on the radial nerve.
Watch a video to learn more
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In which year did Franco capture Madrid and win the Spanish Civil War? | Madrid during the Spanish Civil War
Madrid during the Spanish Civil War
▼ Primary Sources ▼
Madrid during the Spanish Civil War
In 1936 Madrid, the capital of Spain, had a population of 900,000 people. Madrid had few industries but both the Union General de Trabajadores (UGT) and the National Confederation of Trabajo (CNT) were active in the city. However, the Socialist Party (PSOE) was strong in the city and regularly won more votes than any other party in Spain's general elections. Julián Besteiro , the leadrer of moderates in the party, had a large following in the city.
Two major strikes took place in Madrid in June 1936. The first was in the construction union and the second in the electrical trade. In both cases the workers demanded a 20 per cent salary increase, a 36 hour week and four weeks paid holiday a year. The UGT agreed a deal of 10 per cent increase and a 40 hour week but it was rejected by the CNT . This led to fighting in the streets between the two rival unions.
On 12th June José Castillo , a lieutenant in the Assault Guards , and an active member of the Socialist Party , was murdered by a Falangist gang as he left his home in Madrid. The following day a group of Castillo's friends took revenge by murdering José Calvo Sotelo . This event resulted in a military uprising led by Emilio Mola , Francisco Franco and José Sanjurjo and heralded the start of the Spanish Civil War .
On the outbreak of the war Madrid was under the control of the Popular Front government. Emilio Mola and Francisco Franco were anxious to capture the capital city of Spain as soon as possible. The first bombing raids by the Nationalist airforce began on 28th August, 1936.
By the 1st November 1936, 25,000 Nationalist troops under General José Enrique Varela had reached the western and southern suburbs of Madrid. Five days later he was joined by General Hugo Sperrle and the Condor Legion . This began the siege of Madrid that was to last for nearly three years.
Francisco Largo Caballero and his government decided to leave Madrid on 6th November, 1936. This decision was criticized by the four anarchists in his cabinet who regarded leaving the capital as cowardice. At first they refused to go but were eventually persuaded to move to Valencia with the rest of the government.
Spanish Civil War Encyclopedia
Largo Caballero appointed General José Miaja as commander of the Republican Army in Madrid. He was given instructions to set up a Junta de Defensa (Defence Council), made up of all the parties of the Popular Front , and to defend Madrid "at all costs". He was aided by his chief of staff, Vicente Rojo .
Miaja's task was helped by the arrival of the International Brigades . The first units reached Madrid on 8th November. Led by the Soviet General, Emilo Kléber , the 11th International Brigade was to play an important role in the defence of the city. The Thaelmann Battalion , a volunteer unit that mainly consisted of members of the German Communist Party and the Communist Party of Great Britain , was also deployed to defend the city.
On 14th November Buenaventura Durruti arrived in Madrid from Aragón with his Anarchist Brigade . Six days later Durruti was killed while fighting on the outskirts of the city. Durruti's supporters in the CNT claimed that he had been murdered by members of the Communist Party (PCE) .
Santiago Carrillo , the Councillor for Public Order in the Defence Council, argued that the main reason that the Nationalist forces was attempting to capture Madrid was the desire to release the large number of Nationalist Army officers in Madrid's prisons. Carrillo was given permission to take them out of the city by bus.
An estimated 2,000 Nationalist soldiers were murdered at Paracuellos del Jarama and Torrejón de Ardoz. Communists later claimed that the buses were hijacked by Anarchists and they were responsible for the killings. However, no evidence has emerged to support this claim. In fact, after the war Francisco Franco claimed that Carrillo and his Communists were guilty of killing 12,000 Nationalists in Madrid.
On 13th December 1936, the Nationalists attempted to cut the Madrid-La Coruna road to the north-east of Madrid. After suffering heavy losses the offensive was brought to an end over Christmas. On 5th January 1937, the attack was resumed. During the next four days the Nationalist gained ten kilometres of road and lost around 15,000 men. The International Brigades , defending the road, also suffered heavy losses during this battle.
Helen Grant worked as an interpreter for a group sent to Madrid by the Society of Friends . She wrote in her diary in April 1937: "The main impression on walking about Madrid is that nobody even thinks about danger. Nevertheless, the majority of the houses and shops in the Gran Via have been hit... Although the guns roar almost continually and sometimes they are quite deafening, no one appears to take any notice."
General Francisco Franco came under pressure from Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini to obtain a quick victory by taking Madrid. He eventually decided to use 30,000 Italians and 20,000 legionnaires to attack Guadalajara, forty miles northeast of the capital. On 8th March the Italian Corps took Guadalajara and began moving rapidly towards Madrid. Four days later the Republican Army with Soviet tanks counter-attacked. The Italians suffered heavy losses and those left alive were forced to retreat on 17th March. The Republicans also captured documents which proved that the Italians were regular soldiers and not volunteers. However, the Non-Intervention Committee refused to accept the evidence and the Italian government boldly announced that no Italian soldiers would be withdrawn until the Nationalist Army was victorious.
The siege of Madrid continued until 1939. Segismundo Casado , commander of the Republican Army of the Centre, was growing increasingly unhappy by the large number of his soldiers being killed. He was also aware that although Juan Negrin and his ministers were talking about the need to fight to the bitter end, they were organizing aircraft for their flight out of the country. With the support of the socialist leader, Julián Besteiro and disillusioned anarchist leaders, Casedo established an anti-Negrin National Defence Junta.
On 6th March José Miaja in Madrid joined the rebellion by ordering the arrests of Communists in the city. Negrin, about to leave for France, ordered Luis Barceló , commander of the First Corps of the Army of the Centre, to try and regain control of the capital. His troops entered Madrid and there was fierce fighting for several days in the city. Anarchists troops led by Cipriano Mera , managed to defeat the First Corps and Barceló was captured and executed.
Segismundo Casado now tried to negotiate a peace settlement with General Francisco Franco . However, he refused demanding an unconditional surrender. Members of the Republican Army still left alive, were no longer willing to fight and the Nationalist Army entered Madrid virtually unopposed on 27th March.
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Primary Sources
(1) Franz Borkenau , wrote about Madrid and Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War in his book Spanish Cockpit: An Eyewitness Account of the Political and Social Conflicts of the Political and Social Conflicts of the Spanish Civil War (1937)
Certainly there are fewer well-dressed people than in ordinary times, but there are still lots of them especially women, who display their good clothes in the streets and cafes without hesitation or fear, in complete contrast to thoroughly proletarian Barcelona. Because of the bright colors of the better-dressed female element, Madrid has a much less lugubrious aspect than even the Ramblas in Barcelona. Cafes are full, in Madrid as in Barcelona, but here they are filled by a different type of people, journalists. State employees, all sorts of intelligentsia; the working class element is still in a minority. One of the most striking features is the strong militarization of the armed forces. Workers with rifles, but in their ordinary civilian clothes, are quite exceptional here. The streets and cafes are full of militia, all of them dressed in their monos, the new dark blue uniforms; most of them do not wear any party initials on their caps. We are under the sway of the liberal Madrid government, which favors the army system as against the militia system favored by Barcelona and the anarchists. Churches are closed but not burned here. Most of the requisitioned cars are being used by Government institutions, not political parties or trade unions. Here the governmental element is much more in evidence. There does not even exist, in Madrid, a central political committee. Very little expropriation seems to have taken place. Most shops carry on without even control, let alone expropriation. To sum up, Madrid gives, much more than Barcelona, the impression of a town in social revolution.
(2) André Marty , letter sent to the General Consul of the Soviet Union in Barcelona (11th October, 1936)
The Madrid government and general staff have shown a startling incapacity for the elementary organization of defense. So far they have not achieved agreement between the parties. So far they have not created an appropriate relationship for the government and War Ministry to take control. Caballero, having arrived at the need to establish the institution of political commissars, so far has not been able to realize this, because of the extraordinary bureaucratic sluggishness of the syndicalists, whom he greatly criticizes and yet without whom he considers it impossible to undertake anything. The general staff is steeped in the traditions of the old army and does not believe in the possibility of building an army without experienced, barracks-trained old cadres. Meanwhile, the capable military leaders who have been fighting at the front for two months in various detachments, and who might have been the basis for the development of significant military units, have been detailed all over the place. Up to four thousand officers, three-fourths of the current corps, are retained in Madrid and are completely idle. In Madrid up to ten thousand officers are in prison under the supervision of several thousand armed men. In Madrid no serious purge of suspect elements is in evidence. No political work and no preparation of the population for the difficulty of a possible siege or assault is noticeable. There are no fewer than fifty thousand armed men in Madrid, but they are not trained, and there are no measures being taken to disarm unreliable units. There are no staffs for fortified areas. They have put together a good plan for the defense of Madrid, but almost nothing has been done to put this plan into practice. Several days ago they began fortification work around the city. Up to fifteen thousand men are now occupied with that, mostly members of unions. There has been no mobilization of the population for that work. Even the basics are extraordinarily poorly taken care of, so the airport near the city is almost without any protection. Intelligence is completely unorganized. There is no communication with the population behind the enemy's rear lines. Meanwhile, White spies in the city are extraordinarily strong. Not long ago, a small shell factory was blown up by the Whites; an aerodrome with nine planes was destroyed because the aerodrome was lit up the entire night; a train carrying 350 motor-cycles was destroyed by enemy bombs.
Caballero attentively listens to our advice, after a while agrees to all our suggestions, but when putting them into action meets an exceptional amount of difficulty. I think that the main difficulty is Caballero's basic demand, now in place, to carry out all measures on a broad democratic basis through syndicalist organizations. Sufficient weapons, in particular machine guns, are now flowing to the city to raise the morale of the populace somewhat. Masses of peasants and workers are thronging to the city - volunteers. They end up for the most part in the Fifth Regiment, where they go through a very short training course, as they receive their weapons only about two days before going to the front.
(3) Edward Knoblaugh , Correspondent in Spain (1937)
Twenty-five thousand International Brigadesmen arrived from Albacete, where they had been training. Huge quantities of arms and munitions were rushed into the city. Franco succeeded in forcing his way into University City but could get no farther. Thousands of men had been working day and night in the brief interval throwing up fortifications. The completely demoralized militia had regained sufficient courage to help back up the International Brigades. Franco could get no farther into Madrid. Military men know how difficult it is to capture a large city which has been converted into a veritable fortress, unless that city can be completely surrounded and its communications cut. Franco took Malago and Bilbao and other cities by pincering them in this fashion. Madrid was a more difficult problem.
A large city, its circumference of nearly 32 miles made a tremendous number of effectives necessary. Foreign military observers said a minimum of 150,000 men would be needed to carry out this strategy. Franco did not have nearly that number then available. He would not call on his reserves of new Spanish recruits until they had completed their period of training in Melilla. Most of his trained men were scattered along a front some 400 miles long. He probably did not have at his disposition for the November assault on Madrid more than 35,000 or 40,000 men.
The defenders had the physical advantage. Their lines of communications were reduced to minimum length now that they had their backs to the wall. Franco could have destroyed Madrid - razed it to a pile of rubble - but he did not want to do this. He did not want to destroy the city which, if he were victorious, would become his capital. Moreover, to have done so would have imperiled the lives of thousands of sympathizers he knew were waiting to welcome him as liberator. A third reason advanced by many, in explanation of Franco's obvious reluctance to convert Madrid into a city of ruins, was that most of the buildings, the elegant palaces and apartment houses that made the Spanish capital one of the most beautiful in the world, belonged to the men who were financing his campaign.
(4) Geoffrey Cox , Eyewitness: A Memoir of Europe in the 1930s (1999)
I could validly argue that my work could now be better done from Valencia, that even if I witnessed the fall of the city Franco's censors would never allow me to send out the story, that I might find myself for several weeks in a Franco gaol. But I opted to stay. I did so less from a journalistic desire to cover the big story than from the feeling that history was about to be made, and I had the chance to witness it.
(5) The Manchester Guardian (19th November 1936)
Tremendous damage is being done to Madrid by Franco's airmen and gunners. Streets are in ruins, palaces damaged, and there are great numbers of killed and wounded. As the results of Tuesday's bombing and shelling it is semi-officially estimated that 200 people were killed and 500 wounded. Yesterday the rebel airmen set buildings on fire with incendiary bombs.
This bring the civilian casualties in Madrid in the last week up to about 500 killed and 1,200 wounded, the majority being women and children. The attacks on Tuesday night were preceded by the dropping of pamphlets telling the people that the worst air raids they had experienced were to come.
(6) Mikhail Koltzov, the Soviet journalist, recorded the evacuation of Madrid by the Popular Front government on 6th November 1936.
I made my way to the War Ministry, to the Commissariat of War. Hardly anyone was there. I went to the offices of the Prime Minister. The building was locked. I went to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was deserted. In the Foreign Press Censorship an official told me that the government, two hours earlier, had recognized that the situation of Madrid was hopeless and had already left. Largo Caballero had forbidden the publication of any news about the evacuation "in order to avoid panic". I went to the Ministry of the Interior. The building was nearly empty. I went to the central committee of the Communist Party. A plenary meeting of the Politburo was being held. They told me that this very day Largo Caballero had suddenly decided to evacuate. His decision had been approved by the majority of the cabinet. The Communist ministers wanted to remain, but it was made clear to them that such a step would discredit the government and that they were obliged to leave like all the others. Not even the most prominent leaders of the various organizations, nor the departments and agencies of the state, had been informed of the government's departure. Only at the last moment had the Minister told the Chief of the Central General Staff that the government was leaving. The Minister of the Interior, Galarza, and his aide, the Director of Security Munoz, had left the capital before anyone else. The staff of General Pozas, the commander of the central front, had scurried off. Once again I went to the War Ministry. I climbed the stairs to the lobby. Not a soul! On the landing two old employees are seated like wax figures wearing livery and neatly shaven waiting to be called by the Minister at the sound of his bell! It would be just the same if the Minister were the previous one or a new one. Rows of offices! All the doors are wide open. I enter the War Minister's office. Not a soul! Further down, a row of offices - the Central General Staff, with its sections; the General Staff with its sections; the General Staff of the Central Front, with its sections; the Quartermaster Corps with its sections; the Personnel Department, with its sections. All the doors are wide open. The ceiling lamps shine brightly. On the desks there are abandoned maps, documents communiqués, pencils, pads filled with notes. Not a soul!
(7) Arturo Barea, The Forging of a Rebel (1972)
When Luis Rubio Hidalgo told me that the government was leaving and that Madrid would fall the next day, I found nothing to say. What could I have said? I knew as well as anybody that the Fascists were standing in the suburbs. The streets were thronged with people who in sheer desperation, went out to meet the enemy at the outskirts of their town. Fighting was going on in the Usera district and on the banks of the Manzanares. Our ears were forever catching the sound of bombs and mortar explosions, and sometimes we heard the cracking of rifle shots and the rattle of machine guns. But now the so-called War Government was about to leave, and the Head of its Foreign Press Department expected Franco's troops to enter. I was stunned while he spoke on urbanely.
(8) In his autobigraphy A Moment of War (1991) Laurie Lee described how Madrid changed during the Spanish Civil War .
I found the Puerta del Sol smothered in a pall of greyness, and I remembered the one-time buzz of the cafes, the tram bells, the cries of the lottery-ticket sellers, the high-stepping servant girls with their baskets of fresh-scrubbed vegetables, the parading young men and paunchy police at street corners.
Now there was emptiness and silence - the cafes closed, a few huddled women queuing at a shuttered shop. Poor as it had been when I'd known it, there had always been some sense of holiday in the town, a defiant zest for small treats and pleasures, corner stalls selling popcorn, carobs, sunflower seeds, vile cigarettes, and little paper packets of bitter sweets. Nothing now, of course, no smell of bread, oil, or the reek of burnt fish that used to enliven the alleys round the city centre - just a fusty aroma of horses, straw, broken drains and fevered sickness.
(9) Helen Grant , diary entry (April, 1937)
The main impression on walking about Madrid is that nobody even thinks about danger. Nevertheless, the majority of the houses and shops in the Gran Via have been hit... The telephone building is marked on every storey by shells although the rapidity with which the effects of bombardment are cleared up gives a superficial appearance of order.... Although the guns roar almost continually and sometimes they are quite deafening, no one appears to take any notice.
(10) A member of the Labour Party , Emanuel Shinwell initially argued that the British government should give support to the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War . He wrote about his visit to Spain in his autobiography, Conflict Without Malice (1955)
While the war was at its height several of us were invited to visit Spain to see how things were going with the Republican Army. The fiery little Ellen Wilkinson met us in Paris, and was full of excitement and assurance that the Government would win. Included in the party were Jack Lawson, George Strauss, Aneurin Bevan, Sydney Silverman, and Hannen Swaffer. We went by train to the border at Perpignan, and thence by car to Barcelona where Bevan left for another part of the front.
We travelled to Madrid - a distance of three hundred miles over the sierras - by night for security reasons as the road passed through hostile or doubtful territory. It was winter-time and snowing hard. Although our car had skid chains we had many anxious moments before we arrived in the capital just after dawn. The capital was suffering badly from war wounds. The University City had been almost destroyed by shell fire during the earlier and most bitter fighting of the war.
We walked along the miles of trenches which surrounded the city. At the end of the communicating trenches came the actual defence lines, dug within a few feet of the enemy's trenches. We could hear the conversation of the Fascist troops crouching down in their trench across the narrow street. Desultory firing continued everywhere, with snipers on both sides trying to pick off the enemy as he crossed exposed areas. We had little need to obey the orders to duck when we had to traverse the same areas. At night the Fascist artillery would open up, and what with the physical effects of the food and the expectation of a shell exploding in the bedroom I did not find my nights in Madrid particularly pleasant.
The famous and gallant defender of Madrid, General Miaja, invited us to dinner at his headquarters in a vault well below the ground. Most of his staff was there, with their wives. I was struck by the Semitic appearance of many of the women and mentioned to the Chief-of-Staff, who was my neighbour, that exactly similar women could be seen any day in London's East End. He told me that in the days of the Spanish Inquisition large numbers of Jews were given the choice of the stake or conversion, and many preferred the latter.
We were asked to make many speeches to large audiences of soldiers and civilians to encourage them in their struggle. The enthusiasm was there, but I could not help but feel that arms and food would have been of greater value than words if we had only been able to provide them. The most popular speaker was Hannen Swaffer who had years before reported the marriage of Alfonso and Isabella. He invariably took as his theme the contrast between the opulence of the royal court as he saw it then and the miserable poverty of the ordinary people as he now observed it for the first time. The Latin temperament found this type of generalization much more to their taste than a mundane but factual recital of the true facts about the military and political situation.
It is sad and tragic to realize that most of the splendid men and women, fighting so obstinately in a hopeless battle, whom we met have since been executed, killed in action - or still linger in prison and in exile. The reason for the defeat of the Spanish Government was not in the hearts and minds of the Spanish people. They had a few brief weeks of democracy with a glimpse of all that it might mean for the country they loved. The disaster came because the Great Powers of the West preferred to see in Spain a dictatorial Government of the right rather than a legally elected body chosen by the people. The Spanish War encouraged the Nazis both politically and as a proof of the efficiency of their newly devised methods of waging war. In the blitzkrieg of Guernica and the victory by the well-armed Fascists over the helpless People's Army were sown the seeds for a still greater Nazi experiment which began when German armies swooped into Poland on 1st September, 1939.
It has been said that the Spanish Civil War was in any event an experimental battle between Communist Russia and Nazi Germany. My own careful observations suggest that the Soviet Union gave no help of any real value to the Republicans. They had observers there and were eager enough to study the Nazi methods. But they had no intention of helping a Government which, was controlled by Socialists and Liberals. If Hitler and Mussolini fought in the arena of Spain as a try-out for world war Stalin remained in the audience. The former were brutal; the latter was callous. Unfortunately the latter charge must also be laid at the feet of the capitalist countries as well.
(11) David Marshall was badly wounded at Cerro de los Angeles while defending Madrid in 1937.
We were due to capture Cerro de Los Angeles - the Hill of the Angels - eight miles south of Madrid. It was a bollocks of a battle, but you don't see that at the time. We had to attack across a flat plain, in the face of artillery fire and machine-gunning. A bloke got on to me, a sharpshooter, and he put four or five bullets around me. You could hear them hitting the soil nearby. Then I got hit in the foot. It went clean through.
I was panicking by then. I was doubly frightened because they said that our flank was open and there were Moroccan troops on that side. I crawled back to some olive trees and sat down, and while I was sitting there a bloke came at me with a fixed bayonet. Luckily, it was one of the brigade, a Belgian bloke, who was as disorientated as I was. A lad helped me limp back until we met stretcher bearers and they put me on the floor of a lorry. We drove back for quite a long time until we got to a field hospital. I spent the night shivering.
(12) Luis Bolin , Spain, the Vital Years (1967)
Madrid itself was never an objective for our guns. We resorted to counter-battery fire only when we had to - i.e. when the enemy shelled us from the western outskirts of the town. Because of this, some buildings were demolished or defaced, but most of the city remained untouched until the end. We nursed it carefully, almost tenderly. The damage caused inside it by shells or bombs falling wide of their mark was used as copy by writers of international repute, eager to thrill their editors and readers with visions of danger and destruction, but Madrid itself suffered less in the course of its thirty months' siege than many Allied or German towns in a single night of terror during the Second World War.
(13) After her visit to Madrid in April 1937, Eleanor Rathbone wrote to her constituents about the Spanish Civil War .
In these days of defeatism, it is something to have seen a great city full of men and women who throughout a year of privation, terror and suffering have looked death in the face without losing their courage, their complete confidence in the victory of their cause, or even their high spirits. The Civil War had thrown up a great people - great at least in the qualities of courage and devotion to unselfish ends. Think of those men and women, with centuries of oppression behind them, bred in bitter poverty and ignorance, deserted by most of their natural leaders, delivered over defenceless to their enemies by the democracies which should have aided them. Think of them as I saw them last April in Madrid and Valencia, men and women, young and old, without a trace of fear or dejection in their faces though bombs were crashing a few yards away and taking their daily toll of victims, going about their daily business in cheerful serenity, building up a system of social services that would have been a credit to any nation at war, submitting to unaccustomed discipline, composing their party differences, going to the front or sending their men to the front as though to a. fiesta, unstimulated - most of them - by hope of Heaven or fear of Hell, yet willing to leave the golden Spanish sunshine and all the lovely sights and sounds of spring and go into the blackness of death or the greater blackness of cruel captivity without a thought of surrender.
(14) In his autobiography A Moment of War (1991) Laurie Lee described how in Madrid soldiers searched for Nationalist supporters during bombing attacks.
It had happened before, when night-shelling was heavy and precise - someone, some 'Franco agent', would have been flashing a torch from a rooftop or an upper window, and then, when the bombardment was heaviest, would toss a few grenades down into the street to confuse the fire-trucks and rescue parties.
After two winters of siege, the inside war was still active, and not everyone, even in this poor bare tavern, as he talked and moved his eyes about, could be absolutely sure of the man who sat beside him.
'We caught one of them, anyway,' the younger soldier said fiercely. 'Running across the tiles with a cart lamp.'
'Could have been trying to save his skin,' said someone.
'Did you arrest him?'
'Hell, no. We just threw him off the roof. He'd done enough. His body's outside in a barrow.'
Someone drew back the shutters on the cold grey street. A boy sat on the shafts of a hand-barrow, smoking. Stretched out on sacks between the high wooden wheels lay the crumpled body of a thin, old man. It was smartly dressed, and the head which hung down from the tailboard still wore a white-haired look of distinction.
(15) Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko , General Consul of the Soviet Union in Barcelona , top secret document sent to NKVD (14th October, 1936)
In Madrid there are up to fifty thousand construction workers. Caballero refused to mobilize all of them for building fortifications around Madrid ("and what will they eat") and gave a total of a thousand men for building the fortifications. In Estremadura our Comrade Deputy Cordon is fighting heroically. He could arm five thousand peasants but he has a detachment of only four thousand men total. Caballero under great pressure agreed to give Cordon two hundred rifles, as well. Meanwhile, from Estremadura, Franco could easily advance into the rear, toward Madrid. Caballero implemented an absolutely absurd compensation for the militia - ten pesetas a day, besides food and housing. Farm labourers in Spain earn a total of two pesetas a day and, feeling very good about the militia salary in the rear, do not want to go to the front. With that, egalitarianism was introduced. Only officer specialists receive a higher salary. A proposal made to Caballero to pay soldiers at the rear five pesetas and only soldiers at the front ten pesetas was turned down. Caballero is now disposed to put into effect the institution of political commissars, but in actual fact it is not being done. In fact, the political commissars introduced into the Fifth Regiment have been turned into commanders, for there are none of the latter. Caballero also supports the departure of the government from Madrid. After the capture of Toledo, this question was almost decided, but the anarchists were categorically against it, and our people proposed that the question be withdrawn as inopportune. Caballero stood up for the removal of the government to Cartagena. They proposed sounding out the possibility of basing the government in Barcelona. Two ministers - Prieto and Jimenez de Asua - left for talks with the Barcelona government. The Barcelona government agreed to give refuge to the central government. Caballero is sincere but is a prisoner to syndicalist habits and takes the statutes of the trade unions too literally.
(16) Dorothy Parker , broadcast, Madrid Radio (October 1937)
I came to Spain without my axe to grind. I didn't bring messages from anybody, nor greetings to anybody. I am not a member of any political party. The only group I have ever been affiliated with is that not especially brave little band that hid its nakedness of heart and mind under the out of date garment of a sense of humour. I heard someone say, and so I said it too, that ridicule is the most effective weapon. I don't suppose I ever really believed it, but it was easy and comforting, and so I said it. Well, now I know that there are things that have never really been funny, and never will be. And I know that ridicule may be a shield, but it is not a weapon.
In spite of all the evacuation, there are still nearly a million people here in Madrid. Some of them - you may be like that yourself - won't leave their homes and their possessions, all the things they have gathered together through the years. They are not at all dramatic about it. It is simply that anything else than the life they have made for themselves is inconceivable to them. Yesterday I saw a woman who lives in the poorest quarter of Madrid. It has been bombarded twice by the fascists; her house is one of the few left standing. She has seven children. It has been suggested to her that she and the children leave Madrid for a safer place. She dismisses such ideas easily and firmly.
Every six weeks, she says, her husband has 48 hours leave from the front. Naturally he wants to come home to see her and the children. She, and each one of the seven, are calm and strong and smiling. It is a typical Madrid family.
(17) Bernard Knox , John Cornford: A Memoir (1938)
Our baptism of fire was sharp and unexpected. We were scattered with our machine-guns along a crest which we had every reason to believe was as safe as anything could be in the Madrid area (which wasn't very safe), when we heard our first shell. Nobody minded much, because it burst a good forty yards behind us, but the next two or three showed us that they were feeling for the crest we were occupying. They got it, and then the barrage started. I remember shouting to John that we ought to go over the crest into the valley, but I don't think he heard me. A few minutes later it became apparent that nothing could remain on that crest and live, so everybody went over, pell-mell. When we sorted ourselves out down below I found that John had taken command of two machine-gun crews and brought them over with guns and ammunition complete. Our commander had gone up to advanced positions that night with one of our gun-crews, so John took over command that morning, inspecting the positions we had taken up, and criticising ruefully the way in which most of us came down the cliff. But it was not a bad performance for raw troops taken by surprise in a barrage.
Our first experience of open warfare (as distinct from the dull business of holding on at all costs in the University) was a great flanking attack on the Fascist lines at Aravaca. I remember it well because after we had been withdrawn to rest-positions after a gruelling day and night in a trench captured from the Fascists (their gunners naturally knew the range to an inch), John was the first to go up again and volunteer as an extra stretcher-bearer, to bring in the badly mangled Poles who were attacking over half a mile of completely open country under accurate shrapnel fire.
| 1939 |
In Norse mythology, what was the name of Odin's eight legged horse? | The Spanish Civil War
The Causes
Spain was once the World’s most powerful country. By the 20th century it was a poor and backward country where corruption was rife. It had lost nearly all of its overseas possessions (e.g. Cuba, the Philippines) and great extremes of wealth and poverty caused severe social tensions. Industry was confined mainly to Barcelona and the Basque country. Spaniards were divided on the type of government that they wanted. Monarchists were conservative and Catholics and did not want to reform Spain. Those who wanted a republic were anti-clerical and hoped to reform Spanish society. There were a number of areas where it was felt reform were needed:
1. Agriculture
Spain was essentially an agricultural country. In the south were the vast private estates or latifundia worked by landless laborers. 7000 owners owned 15 million acres of land. In the north small farmers worked farms that were in many cases not economically viable. It is estimated that half of the agricultural workers lived on the edge of starvation. The former granary of the Roman Empire had the lowest agricultural productivity in Europe.
2. The Church
The power and wealth of the Catholic Church was greatly resented by many. It was closely identified with the wealthy classes and was seen as an enemy of change. Although the majority of Spaniards did not go to mass it had a strong following in the countryside where religious devotion was strong. It had a virtual monopoly of education. Curbing the power of the church was seen as essential if a fairer Spain was to be created.
3. The Army
The army was grossly over-officered with about one general to every hundred poorly equipped soldier. It had grown progressively conservative and was prone to interfere in politics.
4. Regionalism
Spain is a country divided by rivers and mountain ranges with distinct languages and traditions in many areas. Both the Basques and the Catalans wanted to control their own affairs. Republicans sympathised with their demands especially that of the Catalans while conservatives opposed them on the grounds that it would weaken Spain.
The Countdown to War
In 1936 an election was called. A Popular Front of Communists, Socialists, Republicans and Separatists was formed to oppose the government. The right wing formed the National Front. For the Popular Front the right’s victory would lead straight to fascism; for the National Front, a popular Front victory would lead to “Bolshevik Revolution”.
The Popular Front narrowly won the election. Manuel Azana was appointed president and Casares Quiroga became Prime Minister. The new government proceeded to reintroduce the reforms of the 1931-3 government.
Disorder and political violence spread throughout the country. Peasants seized land and there were many strikes. The Falange started to grow dramatically as disillusioned supporters of the more moderate CEDA joined its ranks. Its members used political violence and attack and counterattack became common.
More seriously the army was plotting to overthrow the new government. The generals were at heart monarchist and were very alarmed at the growing influence of the socialists and anarchists. The leader of the plot was General Mola.
On the 13th of July the monarchist politician, Calvo Sotelo was assassinated by Republican police in revenge for the murder of one of their men by a Falangist. The military now had the perfect pretext to make their move. The revolt began on the 17th of July in Spanish Morocco.
The Civil War
The Nationalists were supported by the Church, army, landowners, and industrialists, some of the middle-class and the Catholic peasantry. Liberals, Socialists, Communists and Anarchists supported the Republicans.
1936
The military hoped to capture Spain in a week but they failed. About half of the army remained loyal to the government and the revolt failed in Madrid, Valencia, Barcelona and the Basque country. Workers and peasants militias were formed to defend the government.
Crucially the elite army of Morocco supported the revolt. It was led by General Franco. By August the rebels held most of the North and North West while the government controlled the South and the North Coast. Both sides appealed for foreign aid but fatally for the Republic, the French and the British decided on a policy of non-Intervention.
The Germans and the Italians helped the Nationalists while the USSR sent aid to the republicans. German transport planes helped ferry Franco’s army from Morocco to Spain, the first example of direct foreign involvement.
The main Nationalist setback was their failure to capture Madrid. Bloody battles were to follow over the next months as the Republicans beat off attempts to encircle Madrid until the Nationalists called off their offensive in November.
Communist influence inside the city increased greatly and arrests and summary executions were carried out against suspected Nationalists.
In September Nationalists forces captured Toledo and relieved a Nationalist garrison that had held out since the end of July. Largo Caballero became Prime Minister. The Republican government was moved to Valencia in November. In October General Franco was appointed head of the Nationalist government of Spain.
Most of the Spanish gold reserves (the fourth largest in the world) were sent to the USSR in exchange for military equipment that began arriving in October. The transfer of the gold led to a dramatic rise in inflation on the republican zone. Foreign volunteers, organized into the International Brigades, started to arrive.
1937 AND BEYOND….
After two and a half years of resistance, the Republic collapsed rapidly during the first three months of 1939. In January, the Nationalists occupied Barcelona and in March they captured Madrid which effectively marked the end of the war. On April 1st, Franco declared the war at an end.
About a half a million people were killed in the war with hundreds of thousands dying in atrocities committed by both sides. Most were killed by the Nationalists who were ruthless in establishing control in the areas they captured. For example when they captured Badajoz in August 1936 over 1500 of the towns defenders were shot in batches in the town’s bull ring. In all about 200,000 people were executed by the Nationalists. From a document by Stephen Tonge : LINK
The Spanish Civil War
The House of Bernarda Alba
by Federico García Lorca
directed by Toby Bercovici
Federico García Lorca wrote The House of Bernarda Alba during the tumultuous times that would lead to the Spanish Civil War, beginning in 1936. This war would see the rise of Gen. Francisco Franco, a cruel, fascist dictator and a repressive regime that would last nearly 40 years. It is important to maintain some historical context when dealing with Bernarda Alba – the rise of the civil war surely affected him greatly. Ultimately, in August of 1936, just a few short months after putting the finishing touches on his last play, The House of Bernarda Alba, Federico García Lorca was abducted by Franco’s troops, taken to a field, and then shot.
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At 524 feet, the highest cathedral spire ever constructed in England was blown down in 1584. Which cathedral was this spire part of? | Full text of "The cathedral church of Saint Patrick; a history & description of the building, with a short account of the deans"
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mmm m ST. PATRICK'S cathedral:dublin LIBRARY ANNEX WITH PLAN AND ILLUSTRATIONS BELCS CATHEDRAL SERIES fVA College of Ar^itecture L^m [)o ^°™ell UaiTersity BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME PROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Hetirg m. Sage 1S91 j^>.-?>L.2..:^.\.»^. , .-X.^XSAAlXx^trr.... 1357 NA 5460.08'""" ""'"""""■"'"'^ ^l?M.1r?!.'il?,!?"' church of Saint Patrick: a 3 1924 015 342""645" The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924015342045 BELL'S CATHEDRAL SERIES SAINT PATRICK'S Tnic^^^"^ THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF SAINT PATRICK A HISTORY & DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING, WITH A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE DEANS BY J. H. BERNARD, D.D., D.C.L DEAN OF ST. PATRICK'S WITH XXXIII ILLUSTRATIONS SEAL OF THE CHAPTER LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS. 1905 m 0. 1U\ A.£b2.3\fe CHISWICK PRESS : CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. AUTHOR'S PREFACE Of the authorities for the history of St. Patrick's Cathedral, the most important are the early charters and papers preserved in the archives. The extant Chapter Acts do not go back further than 1636, but a very valuable collection of miscellaneous docu- ments is preserved in the " Dignitas Decani," a vellum book which was compiled in the fifteenth century for record purposes. These sources, along with the manuscripts in the custody of the Archbishop of DubUn, were carefully studied by Mr. Monck Mason, whose "History of St. Patrick's Cathedral" (1820) is the most complete work on the subject, and is indispensable to any future historian. It gives much information about the consti- tutional history of the Cathedral, and deals largely with the privileges of the Dean and Chapter, besides providing biograph- ical notices of all the Deans up to 1819. No less than 220 pages are devoted to the life of Swift. But it is of little use to the student of architecture, as Mr. Mason had no special knowledge of that subject. The succession of dignitaries, prebendaries and other Cathedral officials is best given in Cotton's "Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae" (vols, ii., v., 1848 and 1878), a work of which a new and revised edition is needed. Of recent years the important historical volumes published under the direction of the Master of the Rolls, in particular the Patent Rolls and the Papal Registers, have furnished much additional early material, and they have been examined for the purposes of this little book. I have had to trespass on the kindness of many friends during its prepara- tion, but I may be permitted to offer special thanks to Sir Thomas Drew, F.S.A., for much information as to the archi- tectural history of the fabric. J. H. B. CONTENTS CHAP. I. The History of the Church II. The Exterior and the Precincts III. The Interior IV. Historical Memorials List of the Deans of St. Patrick's . Index • . ... PAGE 3 . 25 . 41 . . . 65, . 81 . . . 87 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE St. Patrick's Cathedral from the south-east frontispiece Seal of the Chapter . ... title-page The Nave, looking east .... 2 The Cathedral FROM the south IN 1739 . ... 3 The West Front in 1795 ... .5 The Cross which marked the Site of St. Patrick's Well . . . ... 7 The West Front in 1733 .... 12 The Cathedral from the north-east in 1814 17 The Choir, looking west, in 1817 ... 19 The west end of the Nave in 1828 ... 21 The Cathedral from the north-east in 1837 24 The Palace of St. Sepulchre, 1771 . 25 Plan of the Ancient Precincts 27 The Cathedral from the south about 181 5 . 30 The Tower and West Front in 1792 . 32 The Cathedral from the north in 1733 • 34 The Cathedral from the north-east 35 The Library of St. Sepulchre . . 38 The Choir and east end . . . 40 The Nave Piers, looking north-west . . -42 The Spiral Staircase . . . 44 The Boyle Monument .... 46 The North Aisle, looking west . . . 49 The Choir and Nave from the east end . . .51 The Lady Chapel . ..... 53 xi xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Brass qf Dean Sutton .... . . 58 Plan of the Cathedral in 1754 ... .60 Bust of Dean Swift . . 63 View FROM THE SOUTH-EAST, about 1805 .... 65 The ANCIENT Chapter Seal .... -69 The Organ Chamber and Triforium of the Choir 79 Brass of Dean Fyche . . .... 82 Plan of the Cathedral end Photo. G. M. Roche. THE NAVE, LOOKING EAST. THE CATHEDRAL FROM THE SOUTH IN 1739- FroTti an engraDing hi IVai-e's '''' Aiitiquities" after a sketch by J . Blaiuyres. ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. The existence of St. Patrick has been called in question by some writers, but there is no room for reasonable doubt as to the main facts of his life, although many details must always remain obscure. He was born about the year 372, possibly near Dumbarton on the Clyde, but the place of his birth has not as yet been identified with certainty. Carried captive at an early age by Irish raiders, he served as a slave in co. Antrim for seven years. After his escape he went to Gaul, to return many years later as a missionary to Ireland. He landed on the Wicklow coast, but soon sailed northward as far as Strangford Lough, on his way to the place of his bondage in Antrim. Tara was the scene of his most famous encounter with Paganism, and he proceeded thence to found churches in Meath, Connaught, and Ulster, establishing among others the church of Armagh. Turning southward again, he penetrated through Meath and Kildare as far as Cashel. His death took place, most probably in the year 461, at Saul near Downpatrick. 3 4 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. His Confession, and also a letter to a British chieftain called Coroticus, are extant; and a noble hymn or incantation in an archaic form of Irish is attributed to him by tradition. In the fifth century Dublin was a small village situated be- side a ford or bridge of hurdles over the Liffey. Insignificant a place as was Baile-ath-acliath, "the Ford of the Hurdles^' a good deal of traffic must have passed through it, for it was on the main road from Meath to Wicklow. We know that St. Patrick founded churches within twenty-five miles of it, in Meath, Wicklow, and Kildare; and it is highly probable that he crossed the Liffey at this point on one of his many journeys. But the earliest explicit statement of a visit of the saint to Dublin is too late to be relied on with confidence. The monk Jocelyn, writing in the twelfth century, tells that Patrick performed notable miracles here, raising from the dead Eochaid and Dublinia, the son and daughter of the " king " of the place. This feat made! so deep an impression on the inhabitants that the king and his daughters were forthwith baptized at a well which Jocelyn de- scribes as " St. Patrick's Well, near the city, towards the south;" He adds that a church was built hard by. It is obvious that; little credit can be given to the particulars of this marvellous'^ tale. Not to dwell on other points, the name " Dublinia" for ^ the king's daughter is clearly due to an attempt to explain the name " Dublin " by one who was ignorant of its true etymology^ {Duibh-linn = Black Pool). But that local tradition in the twelfth' century associated the name of St. Patrick with a church beside a sacred vs^ell is quite certain; and it is to be borne in mind thati in Celtic times churches were never dedicated to non-Scriptural saints except in the case of the actual founders. There is thus' a prima facie presumption that St. Patrick visited Dublin,^ although early documentary evidence is oot forthcoming. The memory of ■' St. Patrick's Well " hves in the locality to the present day, and its exact site has been determined to a . high degree of probability. In the year 1509 John Andowe, the ' Proctor of the Economy, describes the house of the Prebendary of Howth as situated "juxta fontem S. Patricii.'" Again, >; The thirteenth century homily in the " Lebar Brecc " also mentions a visit of St. Patrick to Dublin (W. Stokes, "Tripartite Life of St. Patrick,'" II., 466). ^ The original document is printed in Monck Mason's "History of St. Patrick's Cathedral," Appendix, No. XVII. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Ussher, writing in 1634, quotes Jocelyn's story, and says that the well had been seen by himself " in St. Patrick's Close, not far from the Bell Tower, lately inclosed by private houses and choked up.'" In the eighteenth century Dr. John Lyon noted that the well had been situated "in the outer court of the Arch- deacon of Glendaloch's cloister." And lastly, Malton in his illustrated account of Dubhn, published in 1 795, states that " under the stall contiguous to the ruin [shown to the north of the tower in the illustration on page 5] is the Well of St. Patrick . . . where he baptized the people on his first coming to Dub- lin." Putting together these scattered notices. Sir Thomas Drew, the cathedral architect, mark- ed in 1890 on his map of the precincts the spot where any trace of the well might be looked for; ^ and when excavations were made there in 1901, a granite stone marked with an ancient Celtic cross was found. There is no reason- able cause for doubting that this stone (now pre- served at the north-west corner of the nave), originally stood over St. Patrick's Well, and that it dates from the ninth or tenth century at latest. We know nothing with certainty, of St. Patrick's Church until the year 1178, at which date one Edan, "Presbyter of St. Patrick's," was a subscribing witness to Archbishop Laurence O'Toole's charter to Christ Church Cathedral. In the next year, 1 179, a Bull of Pope Alexander III. addressed to the same pre- ^ "Brit. Eccl. Ant.," c. xviii. ("Works," vol. vi , p. 424). 2 See Plan, p. 27. THE CROSS WHICH MARKED THE SITE OF ST. PATRICK'S WELL. 8 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. late, expressly mentions among the Dublin churches " Ecclesia S. Patricii in Insula. "^ This is all that we know of the old parish church. Were we able to trust Hector Boece, the Scottish his- torian, we should, indeed, have an earlier notice. Writing circa 1500, he tells that Gregory, King of Scotland, in an expedition to Dublin about the year 890, "ad Divi Patricii templum voti numine adequitavit." But Boece is not a writer upon whom reliance can be placed in the absence of corroborative evidence, although this statement may be true, and was accepted as such by Holinshed and other Scottish historians. In the year 1191 St. Patrick's was raised to the status of a collegiate church by John Comyn, the first Anglo-Norman Arch- bishop of Dublin. His palace was situated beside the Danish Priory of the Holy Trinity (Christ Church, founded in 1038), which lay within the city ; and the archbishop was thus unable to exercise civil jurisdiction within the precincts. This restric- tion was intolerable to him, and accordingly he determined to build a palace and to establish a great collegiate church outside the city walls, where he was lord of the soil. St. 'Patrick's de Insula was fixed on as the site of the new establishment, and — according to one tradition — the ancient " wooden " church hav- ing been rebuilt " in hewn stone, in the form of a cross, right goodly to be seen with fair erabowed works, fine pavements, and an arched roof overhead of stonework "^ was solemnly dedicated to "God, our Blessed Lady Mary and St. Patrick'"* on St. Patrick's Day (March 17th), 1191. Thirteen prebendaries were established in the church, and they were provided for by the gift of lands belonging to the archiepiscopal estates, and by the revenues of churches which had, for the most part, been recently attached to the see of Dublin on their severance from Glendalough. The prebendaries were given many privileges, among which was exemption from the archdeacon's jurisdiction, and they were encouraged to de- vote themselves to study. This charter was confirmed by a Bull of Pope Celestine III. In a subsequent ordinance * Comyn gave ' The church was said to be in insula, because it was situated be- tween the two branches of the Poddle River, which now runs under- ijround. ^ Is^ac Butler's MS. (circa 1765) now in the cathedral archives; see p. 9 below. ■' Dudley Loftus MS. "Annals of Ireland." ■* These charters are pvinted in the Appendix to Mason's "St. Patrick's." HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 9 liberties to the prebendaries similar to those enjoyed by the secular canons of Salisbury. Comyn's successor in the see of Dublin was Henry, com- monly called Henri de Loundres, who had previously held many ecclesiastical preferments in England. In the year 12 13 he granted a new charter to St. Patrick's Collegiate Church, whereby it was raised to the status of a cathedral. It has been suggested ' that former controversies with monastic chapters had inspired him with distrust of establishments on a monastic basis, like that of Christ Church, and that he was desirous to have a cathedral chapter which should not be entirely hostile to his jurisdiction. However that may be, Archbishop Henry's charter gave large privileges to th-e Canons of St. Patrick's, and it has always been appealed to as the Magna Charta of their rights. In drafting the constitution of the cathedral, he took Salisbury as his model," and established four dignitaries, the dean, precentor, chancellor, and treasurer, providing suitable prebends for their maintenance. ■ Comyn's great design, as has been said, was to build a Col- legiate Church of St. Patrick, to take the place of the old parish church. The existing cathedral is clearly, however, a quarter of a century later than Comyn's time. It is pure Early English work, and could not be dated so far back as 1191. There are slight indications indeed of older work in the under architecture of the two western bays of the south aisle of the nave ; and it is a plausible suggestion (due to Sir Thomas Drew) that the arches of this chamber formed part of the gateway into Comyn's church. However that may be, the first authentic record we have of build- ing operations dates from April 3rd, 1225, on which day a Pro- tection "was issued for four years for the preachers of the fabric of the church of St. Patrick's, Dublin, going through Ireland to beg alms for that fabric."' It seems that Comyn formed a project for a great church and possibly began to carry it out, but that the existing building was erected in the next genera- tion. The example of Salisbury, built in the purest Early English style, must have been present to the minds of the architects of 1 See Stokes, " Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church," p. 271. = He was present at the consecration of Salisbury Cathedral in 1225. See p. 69 below. 3 "Patent R-lls." lo ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. St. Patrick's, the connection between the two foundations being so close and intimate.' The existing building, then, may confidently be ascribed to the years 1220 to 1260 ; and the elevation of St. Patrick's to the dignity of a cathedral by Archbishop Henry must have stimu- lated the progress of the work. The design is one of perfect symmetry and simplicity, being that of a Latin cross of beauti- ful proportions. The church consists of a nave, choir, and tran- septs, all of which have aisles, together with a Lady Chapel. The existence of an altar of St. Mary appears in records of the years 1235 and 1240; but the tradition' that the present Lady Chapel is due, so far as its plan is concerned, to Archbishop Fulk de Saundford, and was finished about 1270, is probably true. The site is so extraordinarily unsuitable for a great building that the choice of it calls for explanation. The thirteenth cen- tury builders were men who thoroughly understood their busi- ness; and it is safe to say that they would not have dreamed of building upon the marshes of the Poddle River, on which St. Patrick's stands, had they been given a choice. AH through its history* the lack of a crypt (impossible in such a situation), and the moist clay of the foundations through which springs per- petually flow, have been injurious to tlie fabric. We have in the ' See p. 69. ^ Recorded by Ware in his ' ' Antiquities. '' * It is worth while to mention some of the numerous notices of inunda- tions, always dangerous and sometimes disastrous, which are to be found in the cathedral records. In 1437 a commission was appointed to inquire into the obstruction of the water coming near the cathedral. In 1493, on the representation by the Dean and Chapter of the damage which was being done by the overflow of the Poddle River, Parliament enacted that the in- habitants of the precincts were to be held responsible for keeping the drains cfear. In 1664 the aid of Parliament was again invoked. In 1687 the whole city suffered from an inundation, and the water rose above "the desks" in the cathedral. In 1701 boats plied in the adjoining streets. In 1744 the Chapter were obliged to ask for the use of the sister Cathedral of Christ Church for their Lenten services, as St. Patrick's was " dangerous to as- semble in from the late floods. " I n 1 762 there were five feet of water in the choir; and there was trouble again in 1778, in 1791 and in 1795. It was said, indeed, that within the last half of the eighteenth century there were five great inundations "all of which took place on a Saturday." Similar floodings occurred from time to time during the nineteenth century. At the present day the level of the water is only 7J feet below the floor of the nave, although much has been done to provide an eflTective system of drainage. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ii adoption of this site another argument, if such is needed, estab- lishing the belief of Dublin at the beginning of the thirteenth century, that the "island" of the Poddle River was a place of peculiar sanctity and worthy of special veneration in virtue of its association with the name of Patrick. The history of the cathedral fabric since the thirteenth cen- tury is not easy to write in detail; but we have sufficient ma- terial to assure us that the building as it now stands, although it has undergone more than one " restoration," presents all the main features of the original design. In 1 316 the spire was blown down by a violent storm, and in the same year the church was set on fire by the citizens, who hoped by burning the suburbs to check the approach of Edward Bruce, brother to King Robert Bruce, whose army lay encamped as near as Castleknock. On this occasion the cathedral was robbed of many of its treasures by thieves, who took advantage of the panic and confusion. It does not appear, however, that any irreparable damage was done. A more serious fire broke out in 1362 (as tradition says, "by negligence of John the Sexton,") by which the north-west end of the nave was burnt. There is extant a Petition to the Pope from Thomas Minot, Archbishop of Dublin, of date 1363, "for relaxation of seven years and seven quadragene of enjoined penance to those who lend a helping hand to the repair of the Church of St. Patrick, Dublin, which by negligence and fire has so greatly suffered that the tower and bells are destroyed." ' The damage was made good by the exertions of the Archbishop, who employed "sixty idle and straggling fellows to assist in repairing the church and rebuilding the steeple." The four western bays in the north aisle of the nave, which are loftier and wider than the rest (for what reason cannot now be determined), were built about this time.^ Minot's great work, however, was the construction of the noble tower, which is fully described in the next chapter. We have little account of the condition of the building during the fifteenth century, and we must pass on to the Reforma- tion period. By an order from Thomas Cromwell (to which the Dean and Chapter strongly objected), the images of saints ^ The belated answer to this Petition will be found in the "Papal Letters" of 8 Kal. Jan., 1394. ^ See p. 42. 12 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. in the niches in the choir were demoHshed in the year 1537. We know that an image of St. Patrick was standing in the nave THE WEST FRONT IN 1 733. From ail unpublished sketch by Blamyres. in I s 14, for Dean Alley ne's will directed that he should be buried "ante pedes ymaginis S. Patricii, quae stat in navi , . . ante sive juxta columpnam borealem solii sancte crucis sive crucifixi HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 13 ibidem." It was part of the policy of Henry VIII. to confis- cate cathedral revenues whenever possible, and accordingly St. Patrick's with all its privileges was given up to his commis- sioners. The dean of the day, Bassenet, actually imprisoned his chapter until they gave their consent to the surrender of their cathedral. Swift has characteristically written across an old lease (now in the archives), issued in the name of one Bassenet, that he "was kin to the scoundrel who surrendered the deanery to that beast Henry VIII." ^ In pursuance of his father's schemes, Edward VI. issued letters patent reducing the cathe- dral to the status of a parish church,^ and directing that part of the building should be used for a court house. Orders were given in 1559 "to new paint the walls, and instead of pictures and popish fancies to place passages or texts of Scripture on the walls." The Palace of St. Sepulchre was handed over to the Lord Deputy as his place of residence, and the Deanery house was given to the Archbishop. The Vicar's Hall became a grammar school, and that of the minor canons was fitted up as an alms- house.' On the accession of Mary, however, the spoliation of Henry and Edward was redressed, and the cathedral was restored (by the Charter of Philip and Mary of 1555) to all its ancient dignity and privilege.' Meantime the building had suffered much. About 1 544 the great stone roof of the nave had fallen in at its western end and destroyed many ancient monuments. It is recorded that one of the first public clocks put up in Dublin was erected in "St. Patrick's steeple "in the year 1560, and that the citizens were greatly pleased with it. The next notice we have of the building dates from 1606, when Ussher, writing to Camden, mentions the tiled pavement ' See p. 83. Such misappropriation of cathedral property always ex- cited Swift's indignation. Across a shameful lease of the manor of Colemine he wrote that it was "made by that rascal Dean Jones, and the knaves or fools, his chapter. " - 'The best of the church "plate, ornaments, and jewels" were ordered to be transferred to Christ Church Cathedral, and by an order of the Privy Council of date, Jan. 6th, 1549, the Dean was directed " to deliver to Mr. Agard 1,000 ounces of plate, of crosses and such like, for the mint." ^ See p. 29. * The full statement of the repairs and of the moneys then expended on church furniture (about ;^37o) is preserved in the archives, and is printed in Mason's "St. Patrick's," p. xxxii. 14 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. and stone roof.^ The cathedral was used for all sorts of pur- poses at this period. In 1626 Viscount Falkland, then Lord Deputy, "held a convention of the nobility and gentry ... at St. Patrick's Cathedral in order to consider by what means they might raise 500 horse and 5,000 foot in order to protect the kingdom against invasion and rebellion; but the Popish party, insisting upon terms disagreeable and detrimental to the Pro- testant interest, a stop was put to their proceedings and nothing was done." A letter^ written in 1633 by Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork, to Archbishop I^aud in reference to the monument^ which he had recently set up to his wife's memory, gives us some interesting information as to the state of the fabric. It appears that the Lady Chapel was in ruins, and that a lath-and-plaster partition wall, on which were inscribed the Ten Commandments, had closed the arch at the east end of the choir. The holy table stood several feet to the west of this, and the memory of the position of the high altar in pre-Reformation times had almost died out. " The earthen floor at the upper end of the chancel was often overflown " when the inundations took place, to which the cathedral had been subject for centuries.'' Boyle erected his great monument where the partition wall had been, and placed in front of it a screen or "grating." He also paved the floor of the sacrarium, and raised it three steps higher than it had been before. He says nothing about the condition of the nave, but it is probable that the roof at the west end had not been thoroughly restored. A contemporary description of the cathedral in 1635 may next be quoted: "It is in the best repaire and the most neatly whited and kept of any church I have seen in Scotland or Ire- land, especially the Chauncel, wherein itt is curiously and very artificially arched and whited overhead; the bodye of the Church is a strong auntient structure, wherein are great and strong pillars, but this is not floored overhead. This structure affoards two parrish Churches, under one roofe, in either of which there is a sermon every Sabbath; in a corner, a small part of the middle isle, there is a prettie neate convenient place framed wherein there is a sermon every sabbaoth at 10 hour, and this ' Ussher's "Works," xv. p. 12. ^ This letter is printed in Prynne's " Canterburie's Doome," p. 83. ' See p. 47. ■• See p. 10. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 15 though it be very little and narrow, yett it is sufficiently enlarged to receave a great congregation, by reason of capacious galleries round about, wherein are abundance of seates placed one above another, with great advantage of roome; there is also at one houre a sermon in the quire. '"^ " The prettie neate convenient place " mentioned by this writer, was the north transept, which was used as the parish church of St. Nicholas Without.^ During the episcopate of Alex- ander de Bicknor(i3i7-i349), the old city parish of St. Nicholas was extended without the city so as to include the liberties of St. Sepulchre and of the Deanery of St. Patrick's; and the north transept of the cathedral was screened off as a parish church for the use of the residents, the Dean and Chapter re- serving the patronage of both the churches dedicated to St. Nicholas. St. Nicholas Without is described in the " Reper- torium Viride" of Archbishop Alan (1532) as "intra navem ecclesise cathedralis S. Patricii in suburbiis." This church was in use as a place of worship down to the nineteenth century, and it is recorded in 1765^ that in addition to the Sunday ser- vice at ten and the monthly communion, matins were said in it daily at six o'clock. The transept fell into ruins at the end of the eighteenth century (1784) and remained so for some time, but it was rebuilt as a parish church, although with no regard to the design of the cathedral, during the episcopate of Arch- bishop Magee, about 1822. It was rehandled by the Eccle- siastical Commissioners in 1835, and was in use up to 1861, when the parish of St. Nicholas Without was united to that of St. Luke. All the extant accounts show that the dignity of the interior must have been much impaired in the sixteenth century by un- sightly walls and partitions. The ancient rood screen" over which the organ was placed* stood in the western arch of the crossing, and thus the choir at this time and for two centuries afterwards was larger than at present by the whole length of the ' See Sir W. Brereton's "Travels" (Chetham Society, 1844), p. 138. ■■^ St. Nichola.s of Myra was the patron saint of sailors. The church of St. Nicholas Within in Nicholas Street was used for divine service until 1835, when it was unroofed and partly taken down by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. 3 Isaac Butler's MS. * It had a fine groined doorway, which has, of course, now disappeared. ' See p. 19. 1 6 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. crossing, equal to two bays of the nave. Matters were not im- proved during the time of the Commonwealth, we may be sure. After the Restoration in 1660 great efforts were made to re- pair the fabric. The terms of an appeal to the citizens issued by some Dublin people are significant. "Withdoleful regret," they say, "we look upon the decayed and ruinous state of the ancient and once most famous and beautiful church of St. Patrick, occasioned by the sacrilege and impiety of these later times." In February, 1668, as the roof was in danger of falling, it was taken down and the organs removed. In 1671 the nave roof was completed, the son cf the great Strafford contributing forty tons of timber from " his wood at Shillelagh." Buttresses were erected, four on the north side and five on the south. Pro- bably it was at this time that the ugly Perpendicular window at the west end was put up, which lasted until 1830.^ In 1681 a stone roof " painted of an azure colour and inlaid with stars of gold" was built over the choir, which was fitted in 1685 "with seats, stalls, and galleries." We now come to the days of Swift. The chapter minutes show with what anxiety he watched over the fabric of which he was custodian, and reveal a side of his character which has not received full acknowledgement. There has never been a Dean of St. Patrick's who devoted more time and thought to the pre- servation of the monuments of his cathedral, or who was more desirous to keep alive the memory of its connection with the historic past. But no work of repair of any magnitude was un- dertaken in his time. Some efforts were made by Dean Corbet towards restoration. A railing (not shown in the illustrations) was put up at the west end in 1758. " In taking down the plaster at the back of the altar in the choir," says the " Dublin Gazette" of December 8th, 1 774, "a lofty Gothic arch has been discovered, the recess to which will be ornamented with a splendid glory." The "stone arch over the choir" was declared to be decayed in 1787 ; and in 1792 the south wall and the roof of the nave were also in a bad condition, the wall being two feet out of the per- pendicular. In consequence divine service was temporarily sus- pended, the roof being propped by wooden supports until the work could be taken in hand. An exhaustive report by the cathedral architect, Mr. Park, was presented to the Lord Lieutenant in 1805, in which it was ^ See p. 22. E-' a 2 ^. o t z -a H :» t- - §1 « -S < u g^ <! o X H r8 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. represented that even for temporary repairs a sum of ;^ 16,000 would be necessary. As has been said, the south wall was de- fective ; the nave needed a new roof; so did the north transept or Church of St. Nicholas Without, which was indeed in ruins; the south transept, used as the Chapter House, was in a totter- ing condition. In truth, it seems that no part of the building was protected from the weather except the choir. No grant of public funds could be procured, and the Chapter's best efforts only availed to rebuild the roof of the nave, which had been supported by scaffolding for a quarter of a century, and to re- pair the roof of the choir. As to this last, the stone roof of 1 68 1 had to be taken down, as it was feared that the piers were not strong enough to support it,^ and it was replaced by a groined ceiling of stucco. It is recorded, that in the year 1818 there was " an altarpiece representing a curtain behind a handsome Gothic arch, and presenting a glory to the view."^ There was a movable pulpit, which used to be wheeled into the centre of the choir when a sermon was to be preached.' Little was done, however, to preserve the building from ruin, during the first forty years of the nineteenth century. Archbishop Magee caused huge galleries to be put up against the walls separating the nave from the north transept, which considerably weakened the great piers ; and the galleries in the choir were equally unsightly and equally detrimental to the stability of the fabric. Dean Dawson did good service in repairing the tower, and he also rebuilt the Perpendicular west window, but he was unable to find funds for more thorough restoration. Dean Pakenham made a great effort in the years 1845-1852 to restore his Cathedral to a decent condition. He described its state in the following terms:* " At the east and south of the choir, where the graveyard lies . . . the ground was raised from five to eleven feet, which conducted a most offensive damp into the Cathedral." He lowered the floor to its original level, " thereby discovering the bases of the pillars which had been hidden for centuries. ... All the arches in the choir were entirely closed, and four in the other parts of the building. ' Whitelaw's " History of Dublin," p. 483. ^ This was said to have been designed by Sir John Stevenson, when a youth. ' "The Ecclesiologist " for 1862, p. 252. * In a letter to " The Ecclesiologist," February, 1850, p. 326. THE CHOIR, LOOKING WEST, IN 1817. From Mason's "S£. Fairzc/e's." HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 21 Monuments filled some, and galleries cut across others, for the support of which the capitals of the pillars were cut away to let THE WEST END OF THE NAVE IN 1828. Fioin a sketch by R. O'C. Newenham. in joists. . . . The lower windows of the choir were of all sorts of shapes and heights." In a report on the building, issued in 22 ' ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. 1845, he explained that the floor of the nave was at least three feet above its original level ; that the western wall of the south transept "is rent from the roof to the ground, and is now sup- ported almost entirely by flying buttresses, erected in the six- teenth century, which are themselves by no means safe." The Dean did much to remedy this state of things, and although most of his work was only useful as a temporary measure, it served to keep the building from falling to pieces. The re- storation of the Lady Chapel, which is due to him, is described in Chapter IIL Lack of means prevented Dean Pakenham from prosecuting his designs (for the great famine of 1846 diverted to other objects the generosity of those who could have helped him), and it was not until 1864 that the Cathedral was restored to anything like its original appearance. Through the princely generosity of Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, a complete restora- tion of the fabric was effected. He took down and rebuilt five bays of the south aisle of the nave, the roof being shored up meanwhile. The south wall was rebuilt of Irish granite. In the nave the bays of the original triforium had disappeared, and they also were rebuilt. The clerestory throughout was refaced, except on the north side of the choir and at the east end ; the west clerestory of the south transept was rebuilt. The south front of the south transept was renewed. The nave roof was restored.^ Two flying buttresses were added at the north side of the nave, between which a porch was constructed. The porch at the souths west corner was also added. The north transept (which had been used as a parish church) was rebuilt, The disfiguring screens and chambers which had been erected in the Cathedral were taken down ; and the building resumed its cruciform shape, which had not been apparent to the worshippers for many generations. Dean Dawson's Perpendicular window at the west end was replaced by a three light Early English window.'^ The interior was throughout beautified, and fitted up for service. Had it not been for the public spirit of Sir Benjamin Guinness, ' See p. 43. ^ Originally, the nave roof seems to have been considerably higher than it is at present, as is evidenced by a great Early English moulded arch still visible in the west gable. The original Early English window was higher than the Perpendicular window erected in the seventeenth century, and still liigher than the present triplet. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 23 St. Patrick's Cathedral would not be standing to-day ; and the Church of Ireland owes him an abiding debt of gratitude for the preservation of one of the most splendid of her ancient temples. Since 1865 the sons of this benefactor, Lord Ardilaun and Lord Iveagh, have done much to maintain and preserve the fabric ; and within the last few years Lord Iveagh has borne the gi-eat cost of a very complete and careful restoration of the choir, thus extending his father's designs. A beautiful stone roof has taken the place of the lath-and-plaster ceiling of the choir, and a fine organ chamber has been added at the triforium level on the north side. This work was carried out by the highly com- petent firm of Messrs. Thompson, of Peterborough, acting under the Cathedral architect. Sir Thomas Drew. A fuller descrip- tion of the main features of the interior as restored by Sir Ben- jamin Guinness and Lord Iveagh will be given in Chapter III. This brief sketch of the history of the fabric since the year 1 191 shows that, while the building has suffered from the ravages of time and from the neglect of its custodians more seriously than most great churches have suffered, yet enough remains of the old work to show that the present Cathedral faithfully preserves the main features which it exhibited in the thirteenth century. C5 X • H O z H I S S O p4 (!. iJ < Q W o a H THE PALACE OF ST. SEPULCHRE. From a dra'wi7ig by G. Berenger, ' ' Hibernian Magazine, ' CHAPTER II. THE EXTERIOR AND THE PRECINCTS. Archbishop Comyn was fond of building, and he chose an excellent site for his new Palace of St. Sepulchre, on see lands to the north of the church, the name being suggested by the project of the Crusaders, then on every tongue, for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the Moslems. In 1184 Heraclius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, visited England to induce Henry II. to embark on this adventurous enterprise,^ and Comyn may very well have come under his influence. The Archbishop's manor adjoined the city, and took in parts of the old parishes of St. Peter, St. Kevin and St. Nicholas. In 1326 the Palace is said to have contained "a stone hall, badly roofed with shingles and weak, a chamber annexed to the said hall, a kitchen, a chapel badly roofed, valued at nothing because nothing can be received from them, but they need much repair. And there was a certain prison now broken and thrown to the ground." Mr. Berry suggests that the house was probably injured during the frenzy See Stokes, ' Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church," p. 224. 2l 26 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. of the suburbs at the time of Bruce's invasion.' It remained the home of the Archbishops of Dublin for 600 years; and the in- dependent jurisdiction which Comyn established in " the Arch- bishop's Liberty" existed in one form or another until the middle of the nineteenth century. The site of the Palace is now occupied by the barracks of the mounted police of the city, having been handed over to the Government in 1806, during the episcopate of Charles Agar, Earl of Normanton. In ancient times the Archbishop's grounds touched the Dean's garden, for Guinness Street, which intersects Kevin Street just beyond the police barracks, was not made until 1863. We leave the Archbishop's manor and enter the Dean's •' Liberty " at this point. Among his other benefactions, Comyn bestowed upon the church a plot of ground surrounding it to the extent of about five and a half acres, and in this small kingdom the Dean of St. Patrick's was supreme. His jurisdiction was recognized many times in Acts of Parliament and -Letters Patent, and was considerable in its powers. Not only did the privilege of sanctu- ary belong to the close, but the goods as well as the persons of law-breakers were secure within the Dean's Liberty, which was independent of the Archbishop as well as of the Sheriff of the county. The Dean and Chapter had their own seneschal, who held courts leet within their manor; and among other privileges which the Dean used to exercise was that of issuing marriage licences to the inhabitants of his Liberty. Before 1676, as appears from an old lease, the deartery house stood a few feet to the north-east of its present situation. It was rebuilt in 1713 by Dean Stearne, but this house (in which Swift lived) was burnt in 1781, and nothing remains of it except the vaulted kitchens. As the matter has been disputed, it may be well to add that an examination of Rocque's Survey of 1756 and of other contemporary maps leaves it not doubtful that the present deanery is on the same site as that which Swift's house occupied. The central part of the building was finished by Dean Cradock in 1782, the wings at either end having been added in 1890 and 1902. It contains some portraits of former deans, of which the most interesting is a full-length picture of Swift, painted for the Chapter by Bindon in 1739; there is also on the staircase a fine picture of the Marquess of Buckingham who, ' " Register of Wills in the Diocese of Dublin," by H. F. Berry, p. 204. jn -Z ^ "■? S " " &' " §Q 3"g 3" J « i'"- r* ra i; c e =3 So g « «■« J|-3S§3Ss|=ai3i rt «J c fc.^ £; ca.H « rt.5 K < fo Q <j o u fao> « m >< c « -a •g c . •JTI O C o|c5i c JJ-«0 O (J rt Xj U ' i S'^kJ "*^ " rt ii u ^ 1 cJ rn ^ lo^d t^od d« d ^^ « (*i •*+ in-o t^cd o o [ SS^atfSfB 28 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, was the first Grand Master of the Order of St. Patrick (1783). Comyn was anxious that his prebendaries should build houses for themselves, and we know the situation of the more important of these. The Chancellor's manse lay to the south of the deanery, and is described in 1546 as being "without the pre- cincts and in the parish of St. Kevin." The site was to the west of the squalid alley now known as Cathedral Lane. A little further up this lane we come to the " French Burying- Ground," assigned in the seventeenth century to the Huguenot congregation which used to worship in the Lady Chapel.' This has been closed .since 1858. It was formerly a portion of another burying-ground hard by, known as "The Cabbage Garden," a plot of land which was set apart^ by the Dean and Chapter in 1666 for the purposes of a cemetery for the inhabitants of the Close and of St. Nicholas Without, as the Green Churchyard had become overcrowded. A field, still further to the south, which used to form part of the Economy estate, was attached to the deanery in 1721,^ and in it Dean Swift laid out the garden which he called "Naboth's Vineyard." The wall of it still exists in the grounds of the Meath Hospital. The portion of the deanery property surrendered to the Economy estate in exchange for Naboth's Vineyard lay at the west side of the deanery garden, and upon it stood what was known as the Residentiary House, which seems to have been occupied in ancient times by the officiating prebendaries during their turn of duty. It was leased to the verger at the end of the seventeenth century, on the condition that he provided accommodation on the second floor for the canon in residence. Passing by Chapter Lane, formerly called Mitre Alley, we note that the ground lying between the South Close and Kevin Street formerly belonged to the vicars-choral, whose property extended as far southward as St. Kevin's glebe. Here the Vicars' College stood, with their hall and out-offices, known by the ' See p. ss. ^ It was consecrated by Archbishop Margetson in 1668; the order of the consecration is still extant (Trinity College MSS., No. 647). The popular tradition that the name, the " Cabbage Garden" (which sufficiently explains itself), is a corruption of " the Capuchins' Garden" is a fiction, and without foundation. ^ The lease, to which the name of Esther Johnson (Stella) is signed as a witness, is now in the Cathedral archives. THE EXTERIOR AND THE PRECINCTS. 29 curious name of Ballygorran. During the days of Edward VI. the hall was used as a school, but it was restored to the vicars by the charter of Philip and Mary. The last vestiges of this building did not disappear until 1 889. The sexton's house, on the vicars' ground, was built in 171 2 as "a school for 20 poor boys." Between it and the present school-house for the choristers, which stands on the Archdeacon of Dublin's portion (adjoining the vicars-choral ground), an almshouse was erected by Swift. The Mission House also stands on what was the Archdeacon's land. It is possible that originally there were cloisters surround- ing this area on the east side (occupying the space now taken up by Chapter Lane) and on the south. There seems also to have been a gate with a tower, called " Castleragge," on the boundary of the precincts at the south side. The south-east portion of the churchyard is still called the Vicars' Bawn, and may at some time have been appropriated to that body. It was formerly known as " The Green Churchyard," and was opened in the fourteenth century, when the ancient burying ground near the tower was closed. When we are standing on the vicars' ground we are opposite the south transept of the Cathedral. The south window of this transept was originally of three lights (as it is now), but it was blown in about 1808, and a wretched debased window of smaller dimensions was substituted for it. This remained until 1863, when Sir Benjamin Guinness erected the present window after the old design. Formerly a gate, called St. Paul's Gate, was placed at the south-west angle of the transept, and admitted to its western aisle, St. Paul's Chapel being in the eastern aisle. During part of the nineteenth century a wall extended southward from the east side of this gate, separating the vicars' ground from that of the Archdeacon of Dublin. An interesting architectural feature of St. Patrick's is the form of the battlement round the roof, a feature which it shares with several other Anglo-Irish churches. At Kildare Cathedral there is a somewhat similar passage between the slope of the roof and the battlements, along which, there as here, it is possible to walk round the church. All the turrets are crowned with a crenellated structure, consisting of two or three steps and end- ing in an acute point formed by chamfering off the outsides, which gives the effect of an inward slope. One of the original turrets may be seen on the south transept. The genuine Irish THE EXTERIOR AND THE PRECINCTS. 31 battlements of the turrets at the west end have at some time had late gables added to their crests.' The south-west porch (the usual entrance to the Cathedral) was added by Sir B. L. Guinness,* who also constructed the public road which leads from St. Sepulchre's through the Close. This road was taken out of the Dean's garden. The heads carved as the terminals of the arch over the south-western door represent, on the east side, Dean Pakenham, in whose time the Guinness restoration was begun, and on the west side Primate James Ussher, the greatest scholar that Ireland has produced since the middle ages. He was Chancellor of St. Patrick's at the beginning of the seventeenth century. It will be apparent to the visitor when he reaches the west end that Patrick Street now stands several feet above its original level, and that this affects the dignity of the Cathedral as viewed from the west. The fact is that the Poddle River flows under the present street, which could not be lowered without uncover- ing the stream. The window at the south side of the western wall opens, not into the south aisle as we should expect but, into a small vault where the remains of Dean Keatinge were placed in 181 7. It helps to light the baptistery, however, as there is a smaller window inside ; it was the work of Sir B. L. Guinness, all trace of the original window having been lost as far back as 1733. The west door was renovated about 1832. The great west win- dow of the original building, as has already been stated (p. 16), was replaced by a Perpendicular window in the seventeenth century, which was restored by Dean Dawson in 1830. The present Early English window with three lights took its place during the Guinness restoration. The carved heads at either side of the door represent Deans Dawson (north) and Vers6hoyle (south). The arms on the shield next the tower are Dean Dawson's ; on the south side are those of the Cathedral.* The Decorated window at the west end of the north aisle of the nave remains in its original form. We have now come to the tower. This great work of Arch- bishop Minot's is unrivalled in Ireland, and unsurpassed as a ' See J. H. Parker in " Gentleman's Magazine" for Janiury, 1864. ^ His statue, by Foley, stands in the Close, a little to the east of the south- west door. ' See p. 69, THE TOWER AND WEST FRONT IN 1 792. Fi-om- a sketch by Gandon in Grose's ^''Antiquities.'^ THE EXTERIOR AND THE PRECINCTS. 33 belfry in the United Kingdom. It stands 147 feet in height from the nave floor to the battlements, and is 39 feet square at the base, with walls 10 feet thick of Irish limestone. No unskilled labourers like those of whom tradition speaks ^ could have executed such soHd work, and Minot must have employed as forernen the best masons of his time. The great floors occupying the different stages were of massive Wicklow oak, which remained in situ until 1897, when they were replaced by floors of concrete with iron girders. Traces of a porch, which Minot may have intended to be used as a door of entry to the church, may, per- haps, still be discerned in the north wall. The floor on the first stage would have served well as a library. At the next stage is provided the chamber for the ringers, 26 feet square, which was refitted and lined with oak by Lord Iveagh's generosity in 1897. The bells '■' hang in a chamber two floors above the ringers. The windows in the north side of the tower were probably added in the fifteenth century, and the arms of Archbishop Tregury^ are placed above one of them. All the windows are insignificant, except in the belfry stage, where they are of two lights, transomed with simple tracery. The granite spire (loi feet high) which, although quite incongruous to an architect's eye, is not dis- pleasing in effect, was not built until r 749 after a design furnished by George Semple ; the cost being defrayed by a legacy left for that purpose by Bishop Stearne.' Passing by the tower we come to St. Patrick's Gate, and beyond it to the gardens which the public spirit of Lord Iveagh has recently (1903) provided for the poor of the neighbourhood. The area covered by St. Patrick's Park was part of the Dean's Liberty, and in ancient times was appropriated to the use of various Cathedral officials ; but for generations it had been occupied by miserable tenement houses, and of late years was reckoned one of the most wretched districts in the city of Dublin. The clearance of this area has been an incalculable benefit to the inhabitants of the Cathedral precincts. Before we leave Patrick Street we note that the ground exactly opposite St. Patrick's Gate was formerly the portion of the Prebendary of Clonmethan (see Plan p. 27), and it remained in his hands up to the nineteenth century. A few feet to the north of St. Patrick's Gate is the traditional ' See p. II. - See p. 76. ' See p. 57. "' See p. 84. 34 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. site of St. Patrick's Well, where a remarkable inscribed stone was found in 1901.' This end of the park belonged to the Economy Estate, the Archdeacon of Glendalough's ground adjoining it on the east side. Still further' east lay the Minor Canons' ground, with their hall; and the Precentor's orchard and manse, close to the place where the gardener's house now stands. The Treasurer's manse lay almost due east of the Cathedral, and opposite the Precentor's ; it was occupied by a well-known THE CATHEDRAL FROM THE NORTH IN I733. From an jtnfiitblisheti sketch by J. Blajtiyres. antiquary, Dr. John Lyon, in the middle of the eighteenth century, and its ruins were still visible in 1820. The path eastward through the north Close from St. Patrick's Gate used to be part of Canon Street, now closed in pursuance of the Act of Parliament which gave Lord Iveagh authority to clear the park area. Following it past the Tower, we come to the north porch of the Cathedral. This, like the south-west porch, was added by Sir B. L. Guinness,^ as was also the entire north transept. The illustration above shows the north aspect ' See p. 7. ' It was much improved in 1903 by Lord Iveagh. THE EXTERIOR AND THE PRECINCTS. 37 of the building in 1733, when this transept was used as the Parish Church of St. Nicholas Without.' In ancient times St. Nicholas Gate was opposite the north- west end of the north transept, where a porch is represented in the illustration, p. 34. This was the ordinary door of entrance for the congregation who worshipped in the Parish Church of St. Nicholas Without. The smaller door at the northeast end led to the Lady Chapel through the east aisle of the transept. The two buttresses on either side of the north porch, support- ing the clerestory wall by flying arches, were added during the restoration of 1863; but the buttresses supporting the choir wall go back to the seventeenth century," although they have undergone restoration. The buttress next but one to the north transept on the east side was repaired in Dean Pakenham's time, but so imperfectly that it fell in 1882, kiUing three persons in Canon Street. Some remains may still be seen of the original bases of the outer wall of the north transept, of severe Early English design, which has been copied in all the new work. The bases at the Lady Chapel end are later in character and belong to the Perpendicular period. The Organ Chamber, built in 1901, on the north side of the choir, rising from the triforium level, is a well-conceived addition to the building (see p. 35). It was designed by Sir Thomas Drew, and adds richness to the aspect of the Cathedral viewed from the north-east. Of the Lady Chapel, which was rebuilt about 1850, something will be said in the next chapter. The diagonal flying buttresses at each angle of the choir were rebuilt by Lord Iveagh in 1901, as they were in a dangerous condition. They are neces- sarily diagonal, as the aisles are brought forward past the end of the choir. The capital mistake made in Dean Pakenham's restoration of the Lady Chapel in 1850 was that soft Caen stone was used, under the erroneous idea that the Cathedral had originally been built with it. The stone which was used by the thirteenth-century builders of St. Patrick's was fine durable stone from the great oolite quarries of Somerset, of which Salisbury and Wells were also built ; and much of it still remains sound and good, while the Caen stone has crumbled away within half a century. As we walk through the Close round the east end we come to the public library of St. Sepulchre, commonly called "Marsh's ^ See p. 15. ^ See p. 16. 38 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. Library,'' in recognition of its foundation and endowment by- Archbishop Narcissus Marsh at the beginning of the eighteenth Photo. T. Mason. THE LIBRARY OF ST. SEPDI.CHRF. century. There are here about 20,000 printed volumes, mostly theological, including the library of Stillingfleet, Bishop of Wor- THE EXTERIOR AND THE PRECINCTS. 39 cester, and about two hundred MSS., of which the most notable are the service books and some half-dozen on Irish subjects. Swift's notes on the margins of Clarendon's " History of the Re- bellion," and Laud's on a copy of Bellarmine, are often inspected by curious visitors. The stalls for the books remain as they were two hundred years ago, and the interior has a quaint old-world appearance. CHAPTER III. THE INTERIOR. The dimensions of the Cathedral, which is the largest church in Ireland, are as follows : from the west end to the east wall of the Lady Chapel, 300 feet external measurement and 286 feet internal measurement; length of nave, 132 feet 6 inches; width of nave (excluding aisles) and of the choir, 30 feet; length of the choir, 56 feet 6 inches; length of Lady Chapel, 55 feet; breadth of Lady Chapel, 35 feet ; across the transepts, 156 feet external measurement and 144 feet internal ; height from floor to roof in the nave and choir, 56 feet 3 inches. It is to be borne in mind that the floor of the nave was originally 4 inches lower than the present level. There are 8 bays on each side of the nave, 4 in the choir and 3 in each transept. We have seen that few of the original architectural details have survived, so far as the exterior of the building is concerned. The interior, sadly neglected as it was for centuries, has fared better, and presents much of interest to the student of architec- ture. The Early English piers of the nave are octagonal, having eight attached and filleted shafts with carved capitals. Origin- ally these piers had shafts on the cardinal faces only, those on the north and south being the vaulting shafts of the nave and aisle. The four intermediate faces are slightly hollowed to re- ceive the shafts which carry the outer order of the arch mould- ings. The piers and arches are built of Somersetshire stone with a core of Irish limestone. The casing of Caen stone was added ■during the Pakenham and Guinness restorations.^ The three piers on the north side, nearest the west end, and ' Quite recently (in 1903) two piers on the north side have^teen rebuilt of Portland stone, as they were found to be unstable. 41 42 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. the respond, were built by Archbishop Minot in the fourteenth century, when this part of the church was burnt ; in the arches of these bays Cheshire stone takes the place of the original Somersetshire stone. These arches are wider and higher than vnmr. THE NAVE PIERS LOOKING NORTH-WEST. T. Mason, those next or opposite to them, occasioning a break in the string- course and interfering with the vaulting shafts which have here to spring from corbels in the triforium stage (elsewhere through- out the church they reach the ground). Thus, too, the clerestory windows at this end do not stand centrally over their arches. Hefore the Guinness restoration they were (unlike the others) of THE INTERIOR. 43 two lights with a quatrefoil in the head, and had a row of ball flower.' These piers are octagons with three shafts, two of which support the inner order of the arch mouldings, the third support- ing the aisle groining. These shafts have capitals, and between the capitals the abacus is continued round the piers, forming a support for the shallow arch mouldings above. The nave roof is a restoration of 1863 ; the ribs are of plaster, and the vaulting cells are filled in with lath and plaster only, as the old walls were deemed too weak to sustain a greater weight. The wall ribs are trefoiled, inasmuch as if the curves of the springers were continued they would cross the clerestory windows. There is no string-course under these windows, which are single lancets, but their marble shafts are carried down to the great string-course over the arches. The space between the bottom of the windows and this string-course is spanned by a small arch with shallow quatrefoils in the spandrels, which is again subdivided by a marble shaft. The crossing is ancient, the four beautiful arches and stone roof having been lately repaired, but not altered in any detail. The original groining is only to be seen here, in the north and south aisles of the choir, in the aisles of the south transept, and in part of the south aisle of the nave. The south transept is one of the most attractive parts of the church. Sir B. L. Guinness restored the roof, following the evidence of the springers, as he did in the nave ; but the ancient stone-roofed aisles are still sound. In the eastern aisle the piers are square in section, with a roll moulding at the outer edge reaching to the ground; the arches having flat soffits in the outer part, with an inner order of mouldings resting upon a shaft. The centre bay of the triforium is a, round-headed opening (re- stored in igo2 to its original form of a double arch with central shaft), having a sort of chevron moulding. The walls were stripped of plaster in 1902, and the limestone ashlar, with its warm and rich colour, has a fine effect. The north transept was rebuilt (on the model of the south transept) in 1863,^ except the western aisle, which is a survival ' So it is stated in a critical article in the " Ecclesiologist " for 18&S, p. 87, ff. ; see also illustration, p. 34. The " Dublin Builder" for January and February, 1863, contains an interesting discussion of the restoration then in progress. ^ See pp. 15, 22. 44 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. of old work. The beautiful staircase— designed in 1901 by Sir Thomas Drew, after the model of a similar structure at Mayence Plwto. THE SPIRAL STAIRCASK. Cathedral — leads to the new organ chamber, which fills three bays of the choir at the triforium level. The choir, as is fitting, is the finest part of the building. The arches are narrower than those of the nave, and the mouldings THE INTERIOR. 45 are richer. The piers are octagonal as in the nave, and be- tween the shafts a roll moulding is continued to the ground. The noble groined roof of stone, with its great bosses repre- senting the four evangelic symbols, follows strictly the lines of the ancient wall ribs which survived in 1900; and the graceful Early English arches at the triforium and clerestory levels are of beautiful design. The rich mouldings of the triforium open- ings rest on detached shafts of Irish limestone, two on each side, with foliaged capitals ; the central shaft is also of limestone. The triforium is returned across the east end, over a dignified arch, opening into the Lady Chapel. The aumbrey recesses at either side of the sacrarium are an interesting feature. The absence of a reredos impoverishes the general appearance of the choir, but there is some compensation in the uninterrupted view of the Lady Chapel which can be had from the nave. In former days the trefoiled niches in the spandrels of the triforium contained figures of saints.' The choir aisles retain their ancient vaulting. In the north choir aisle, near the small organ, one of the thirteenth-cen- tury shafts has survived intact, base and capital remaining as a model which has been faithfully followed in recent restora- tions." After this hasty general survey, we may return to the south- west porch, and make a more systematic inspection of details. In the Baptistery, which is probably the oldest part of the struc- ture,' and of which the vaulting is of early character, the chief object of interest is the rude stone font.* This used to stand against one of the piers on the north side of the nave; but was removed to its present position in 1863. The ancient tiles in the Baptistery originally formed the pavement of the altar-pace in St. Paul's Chapel in the south transept, the ruins of which were uncovered in Dean Pakenham's time. In a case in the Baptistery are shown a few of the ancient charters from the Cathedral archives, one of the year 12 19 conferring certain ^ See p. 12. ^ Many of the ancient capitals and bases remain, but in this case both are perfect. ^ See p. 9. * In ancient times it was often provided in legal documents that payment of debts should be made at "the font in St. Patrick's Church." See the "Fiants" of April i, 1597. 46 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. privileges on the Chapter, and one of King Edward IV. with the royal seal attached, confirming the rights of the Cathedral, THE BOYLE MONUMENT. FrojH Masons ^' St. Patrick's." being specially worthy of note. Some interesting seals and some Swift autographs are also exhibited. THE INTERIOR. 47 As we come into the nave, we see the old colours of various Irish regiments hanging on the walls. The west window,' by Wailes, of Newcastle, represents various scenes in St. Patrick's life; but the treatment is not bold enough. The great monu- ment against the south wall is " the very famous, sumptuous, glorious tombe" of black marble and alabaster, erected by Richard Boyle,* first Earl of Cork, in 1631, in memory of his second wife. Originally it stood against the east wall of the choir where the high altar used to be, and was built over the family vault, constructed at the same time. Owing to the repre- sentations of Laud and Strafford it was removed in 1634, after much controversy, to a place inside the sacrarium, against the south wall. Here it remained until 1863 when it was placed in its present position. Boyle never forgave this interference, and it was not the least of the causes which led to Strafford's exe- cution. The inscriptions show that the kneeling figures in the two lowest tiers represent the Earl's children, among whom was the famous Robert Boyle, one of the founders of the Royal Society.^ His efifigy is in the central arch in the lowest stage; it is a curious circumstance that it is the only memorial to a man of science in the Cathedral. The recumbent figures in the second tier from the ground are effigies of the Earl and his Countess, Katherine Fenton, daughter of Sir Geoffray Fenton, the Irish Secretary of State. In the third tier the kneeling figures are those of Sir Geoffray and his wife, Alice Weston, whose father, Robert Weston ■* was Lord Chancellor of Ireland and also — although a layman — Dean of St. Patrick's. The re- cumbent effigy of Dean Weston occupies the highest tier of the monument. At the top is the family motto of Lord Cork: " God's Providence is our Inheritance." A great many persons are buried in the Boyle vault under the altar, including Michael Boyle, Archbishop of Armagh (1702); but the Earl of Cork himself lies in Youghal parish church, where a handsome monu- ment, not unlike this, was erected to his memory. In the north-west corner of the nave will be seen the old wooden pulpit which was used in the time of Swift and from which he preached." The fine statue of Captain Boyd, by Farrell, > See p. 31. ^ See p. 14. ' The description of Robert Boyle as "the father of Pneumatic Philo- sophy and the brother of the Earl of Cork " is well known. * See p. 83. ° It is represented in the illustration, p. 19. 48 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. with memorial verses by Archbishop Alexander, also deserves notice. Mention was made in a former chapter' of the ancient Celtic cross discovered on the reputed site of St. Patrick's well. It is now preserved at the north-west end of the nave, along with some other inscribed stones, which doubtless were taken from the old Celtic cemetery for building purposes by the Anglo- Norman masons of the thirteenth century. The inscription placed by Swift against the west wall of the north aisle records that here the Consistorial Court used to be held in ancient times (there is a record of it as early as 1277); it was removed in 1724 to a building'^ erected for the purpose against the south wall of the nave and adjoining the south transept, which has now happily disappeared. The glass of the Decorated window at this end of the aisle, in memory of Lord Mayo, who was assassinated in India in 1872, is by Heaton and Butler. It is said that this part of the building was used by King James's soldiers as a stable in 1688, a story which may be true. Passing by the door into the tower and the Choir Robing- Room, we come to Archbishop Jones's monument, upon which the effigies of the prelate (who was also Lord Chancellor) and of his son. Lord Ranelagh, are represented. It originally stood in the choir; and was restored in the time of Swift. It is not necessary to describe in detail the modern statues and windows in this aisle, as they explain themselves. The statue of Chief Justice Whiteside is by Bruce Joy, a fine piece of work ; and the memorial windows (which are all good) are by Burlison and Grylls, A. Moore, and Heaton and Butler respect- ively. The monuments of Curran, the orator, of Carolan, the last of the Irish bards, and of Samuel Lover, the song writer and novehst, have each an interest of its own. The north transept,' contains a good many military memor- ials, of which the best is a fine piece of sculpture by Farrell re- presenting the storming of the Shoe Dagon Pagoda, Rangoon, on April 14th, 1832. On the north wall of its east aisle, below the memorial to Spray, a notable tenor singer, there is an inter- esting monument erected early in the seventeenth century to the memory of Dame Mary St. Leger, with a quaint inscription ' .See p. 7. 2 See illustrations, pp. 3, 30. ' See p. 43. THE INTERIOR. 49 setting forth the names of her four husbands, and her death at the age of thirty-seven. The inscription runs as follows : " Heare lieth bvried y'^ bodie of Dame Mary Sent Leger, late wife to S"' G. M. Roche. THE NORTH AISLE, LOOKING WEST. Anthony Sentleger, Knyght, M"' of f Rolls and of his Ma'"® privie Covnsell of estate in the realm of Ireland, davghter to Francis Sovthwell of Wyndham Hall in Norfolk, Esqvire, first maried Tho. Sidney of Wyken in y" said Covntie, Esqvire, by E 50 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. whom shee had issue 3 davghters, Eleanor who died yonge; Anne w""" died 3'' of October 1602, and is heare likewise bvried; and Thomazin maried to S'' W" Godolphin, knyght, after y^ said Dame Mary was maried to Nicholas Gorge of London, Esqvire, by whom shee had no issve; And to her third husband shee maried S'' Conyers Clyfford of Bobbinge-court in Kent, Knyght, Governor of Connagh & of y'^ privie Covnsell of estate in this Realme, by whom shee had issve two sonnes and a davghter, Henry and Coyniers, now livinge, Francis the davghter died yonge, lastly shee maried y'^ said Sir Anth. Sentleger by whom she had issue, Anthony and Francis, a davghter who died fower dayes after her byrth, and of whom y^ said Dame Mary died in childbed y° 19 day of December 1603, being 37 yeares of age, whose sovle (noe dovbt) resteth in all joyfull blessednes in y" heavens w' her Saviore Jesus Christe whose trve and faithfvll servant shee lived and dyed." The blazon sculptured on the monument is: " Qy i & 4 azure, fretty argent, a chief or; 2 & 3 argent, 3 barnacles tied, gules: impaling argent 3 cinquefoils gules." We have already noted the spiral staircase, leading to the organ chamber; and we shall therefore go into the choir, to look at the banners of former knights of St. Patrick which still hang there, although the order was dissociated from the church in 1 87 1. The escutcheons of the knights since the foundation of the order in 1781 (as well as the titles of the Prebendaries) are blazoned on the back of the stalls ; and, with the banners and insignia, give colour and variety to the choir. The Dean, Precentor, Chancellor and Treasurer, being the "pillars of the choir," according to the old Sarum tradition, have their stalls at the four corners, the Dean's "Stall of Honour " being at the south-west. Above it and also above the Precentor's, there is a representation of a crescent and a star, which has an interesting history. Richard I., to commemorate his victory over the Turks, had assumed as his badge a blazing star (the Star of Bethlehem) issuing from between the horns of a crescent. This was adopted by King John, who was in Ireland in 1 2 10, and was a considerable benefactor to St. Patrick's when it was given cathedral rank. Accordingly this device was placed, of old, on the piers at the east side of the crossing ; and it was preserved in the Guinness restoration. For the same reason, a king's head (that of John) is carved as the south terminal of the THE INTERIOR. SI arch at the east end of the choir, the head of Archbishop Henry of London being the north terminal. Photo. G. M. Rcche. THE CHOIR AND NAVE FROM THE EAST END. Over the Loftus vault, at the south-east end of the choir, hang the Loftus device of a boar's head, the cannon-ball which 52 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. killed Lord Lisburne (one of the Loftus family) at the siege of Limerick, and- his spurs. The dignified quintuplet of windows over the east arch repre- sents St. Patrick, St. Columba and St. Brigid, the "Trias Thaumaturga" of Ireland, with allegorical figures at each side; they were erected by Lord Iveagh during his restoration in 1 90 1, and are the work of Clayton and Bell. The rich mosaic pavement (by Davison) in the sacrarium, and the steps of black Kilkenny marble, with the finely carved oak sedilia and oak screens are also Lord Iveagh's gift. We may now go into the north choir aisle, where there are two interesting memorials. The battered marble effigy of an Archbishop on the north side (which for a long time was con- cealed in the darkness of the Baptistery), is traditionally held to be that of Fulk de Saundford, who died in 1271 as Arch- bishop of Dublin. The character of the old work would corre- spond with this date. Opposite to it is Swift's epitaph over the Duke of Schomberg's grave, a characteristic piece of writing. Schomberg, who was killed at the Boyne in 1690, was buried on the north side of the altar, and in 1731 Swift suggested to his descendants that it would be fitting to erect a monument over his remains. Failing in his endeavours to persuade the Duke's kinsfolk to contribute to the cost, the Dean put up the plain slab on which is set forth their carelessness of the memory of their famous ancestor. " Plus potuit fama virtutis apud alienos quam san- guinis proximitas apud suos." A "furious libel " Macaulay calls this, but the rebuke was not ill-deserved. In one of his letters Swift grimly tells that the two most scathing passages of the epitaph which he had originally drafted were omitted by the advice of his more prudent and easy-going Chapter. "The treat- ment " he declares " given us by the Schomberg family deserved a great deal worse." The Duke's skull, with a bullet hole through it, was turned up during the progress of repairs about half a century ago, and, horribile dictu, was kept for years in a press in the Robing-Room for the edification of curious visitors. It was buried in its former resting place in 1902. The beautiful three-light Crucifixion window by Kempe, which terminates the north choir aisle, was erected by subscrip- tion in 1903 to the memory of Dean Jellett, whose fine qualities are set forth on the memorial brass below. The curious sacris- THE INTERIOR. 55 tan's chest which is in this aisle is of great antiquity ; it used to be kept in the south transept. The Lady Chapel — as has been said above (p. to) — was finished about 1270. The design may, perhaps, have been taken fi-om the Lady Chapel of Salisbury Cathedral, although it is planned on a much smaller scale, being only 55 feet long by 35 feet wide. It fills four bays and is divided into choir and aisles under one high-pitched roof. Up to the time of the Reformation it was, no doubt, in constant use, and we have records of occasional donations (e.g. in 1285 and in 147 1) to " the Chapel of St. Mary." " Nicholas Mangan, clericus Beatae Mariae" is named in 1555. But from the reign of EHzabeth onward it was neglected, and it is said to have been in ruins in 1633.1 In 1663 it was appropriated by the Dean and Chapter to the congregation of French Protestant refugees, who had sought a home in Dublin;^ it being made a condition that the congregation should conform to the rites and discipline of the Church of Ireland, and be subject to the Archbishop's jurisdic- tion, and also that the chapel should be available when necessary for the meetings of Convocation." After the necessary repairs had been executed a solemn service was held on Sunday, April 29th, 1666, when the Duke of Ormond, then Lord- Lieutenant, and the Archbishops of Armagh and Dublin at- tended. The Prayer Book service was read in French by M. Hierome, the new minister, who was Chaplain to the Duke, a circumstance which doubtless weighed with the cathedral authorities in granting the chapel to the French settlers. There they continued to worship until 1816, when the congregation became extinct. They used the chapel on the south side, dedicated to St. Stephen, as their vestry room. For the first quarter of the nineteenth century, when the north transept was in ruins, the Lady Chapel was used also by the parishioners of St. Nicholas Without. While this part of the building was in the hands of the French congregation, it was treated without any regard to its architectural history, galleries being actually erected in the ' See p. 14. ^ A similar thing was done at Canterbury Cathedial. " Convocation met in the Lady Chapel in 1661, and also in 1869, after the Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Missing Page Missing Page S8 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. We have now to examine four interesting brasses. The first is to the memory of Sir Henry Wallop, the rival of the great Earl of Cork; he was Vice-Treasurer of Ireland, and a colleague of Loftus in the office of Lord Justice. He died in 1599. Here BRASS OF DEAN SUTTON. From MasojCs "St Pcitrick^s." also is commemorated his son, 01iver,"who was slayne in service against the movntain rebells," an epitaph which reminds us of the disturbed condition of Dubhn in the days of Elizabeth.' Of Dean Sutton's brass (d. 1528)^ a good idea may be ^ A State Paper, dated 23 December, 1 598, describes how two days before "a very few of the Mountain Rebels at 8 o'clock at night brake into the bawn of St. Patrick's, and took out of the same a number of cows belonging to my Lord Chancellor's tenants of St. Patrick's St." ^ See "Memorial Brasses of Sir E. Fitton and Dean Sutton," by THE INTERIOR. 59 obtained from the illustration. It originally was placed on the north side of the altar, but was moved to its present situation in 1863. An interesting feature is the erasure which has been made in the right-hand corner. As Mr. Grylls has pointed out to the writer, it is probable that there was here a symbolic representation of the Blessed Trinity — the Eternal Father seated, with our Lord on the Cross in front, and a Dove brooding over His head. But such things were regarded as idolatrous in the early Reformation period, and the figures have been partially erased, R S — the Dean's initials — being rudely inscribed in their place. The monogram RS in two other places on the brass is original. Dean Fyche (d. 1537) comes next. (See p. 82.) Like Dean Sutton, he is represented in a kneeling posture, and wearing the almiice or fur tippet which was worn by canons in choir. This is an extremely beautiful brass, and the work on it is of great merit. It will be observed that above the altar there was a Pieta, or sculptured representation of the Virgin bearing up the dead Christ; neither cross nor candlesticks are represented, as it was not customary then to place them upon the altar. This brass formerly stood under Sutton's in the sacrarium. The obits of both Deans used to be duly observed at Christ Church, to which establishment Fyche (at least) was a benefactor. On the west side of the south-east door is an interesting brass commemorating Sir Edward Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire, and his wife, Anne Warburfon, with their arms on either side.^ They were married, after a fashion not uncommon in Tudoj times, at the early age of twelve years, and they had fifteen children, who are represented kneeling behind their parents, the boys on the father's side and the girls on the mother's. Sir Edward Fitton was sent over by EUzabeth as President of Thomond and Connaught, and spent some stormy years in Athlone, where he was opposed by the Clanricarde Burkes. He left in 1572, when Athlone was burnt by the Irish; and, sus- F. Renaud (Manchester, 1894), for a full description of this and the Fitton brass. ' Sir Edward's arms are curiously marshalled, viz. . 1, Orreby; 2, Siddington; 3, Harbottle; 4, Welwick; 5, Bechton; 6, Fitton; 7, Monboucher ; 8, Rosse. The Warburton coat on the sinister side is quarterly of six, viz. . I, Warburton; 2, Button; 3, Warburton, ancient; 4, Grosvenor of Holme ; 5, Winnington ; 6, Eaton. THE INTERIOR. 6i pecting Lord Clanricarde of treachery, he committed him to prison without consulting the deputy, Lord Fitzwilliam. He returned to Ireland in 1573 as Vice-Treasurer, and again came into conflict with Fitzwilliam. A faithful, if imperious, servant of the Queen, he had some pretensions to learning as well as to statesmanship, and translated a treatise of Luther's. He died in 1579 "from the disease of the country," and was laid beside his wife, who had been buried in 1573 with a pompous funeral. At the top of the brass above the long inscription are the words: " Glorify Thy name: hasten Thy kingdom; comforteThy flock: confound Thy adversaries." The south transept was used for many centuries as a Chap- ter House, and we have records of proceedings held therein as early as the fifteenth century. The ancient Chapter House door is still preserved in the eastern aisle, with the hole which was pierced in it to enable Lord Ormonde and Lord Kildare to shake hands from opposite sides, when on a memorable day in 1492 they nearly came to blows inside the church. Stanihurst's account of this angry conference sets forth that Kildare "pur- suing Ormond to the chapiter-house doore undertooke on his honor that he should receive no villanie, whereupon the recluse craving his lordship's hand to assure him his life, there was a clift in the chapiter-house doore, pearsed at a trise, to the end both the earles should have shaken hands and be reconciled ; but Ormond surmising that this drift was intended for some further treacherie, that if he would stretch out his hand, it had been percase chopt off, refused that proffer; until Kildare stretcht in his hand to him, and so the doore was opened, they both imbraced, the storme appeased, and all their quarrels, for that present, rather discontinued than ended." During the eighteenth century the Chapter House, with official seats for the Dean and Prebendaries, occupied the central part of the transept, along with the western aisle, to which access was obtained by St. Paul's Gate at the south-west angle. The eastern aisle was used as a Registry chamber, and later — in the nine- teenth century — for the purpose of choir robing-rooms. Three notable monuments of former Archbishops, Marsh, Smyth, and Whately, stand against the south wall. That of Marsh (d. 17 13) stood originally in the churchyard against the Library wall, but was brought into the church in the eighteenth century. Smyth's monument (d. 1771), by Van Nost, with its 62 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. splendid pillars of Siena marble, used to be on the north side of the nave,' but Sir B. L. Guinness moved it to its present more dignified position. The Latin inscription was written by Bishop Lowth of London. The large window with three lights which is above this monument is the work of Wailes, and re- presents the Fall, the Redemption, and the Evangelical Pro- mises. Whately's recumbent figure was executed by Farrell ; it was moved from the north transept to its present place by Dean West, in whose memory there is hard by a window in the west wall. The Brooke tablet, designed from a window in a Venetian palace (figured in Ruskin's " Stones of Venice "), and Lady Doneraile's memorial are both good pieces of work. At the southern end of the west wall there is an unpretending slab, erected by Swift to the memory of his servant Alexander McGee (known in the Deanery household as " Saunders "). And to the north of this there is a remarkable fourteenth-century figure, which the cathedral tradition asserts to be intended for St. Patrick. It was discovered about 1833 during some restora- tion work, and for two generations was hidden in the obscurity of the Baptistery. It is now placed on a curious stone corbel or bracket which was attached to one of the pillars of the nave^ in the eighteenth century, but was removed here in 1863. Possibly the bracket may originally have supported a small pulpit, but this is only conjecture. As we pass down the south aisle, we notice two or three modern military memorials and some windows of painted glass which are hardly worthy of the musicians whose names are in- scribed upon them. Balfe is best known as a composer of English operas; Stevenson for his association with Moore in the publication of the " Irish Melodies " and for his anthems, which are still sung at St. Patrick's; Francis Robinson was the eldest of four musical brothers, who were all honourably asso- ciated for forty years with the choral services of the Dublin cathedrals. A much better window is that to the memory of Joseph Robinson, in the north aisle opposite. The brass to Charles Inglis, a native of Donegal, who was the first bishop of a British colony (Nova Scotia), was erected in the bicentenary year (i 900-1) of the Society for the Propagation of ' See illustration, p. 21. ^ See illustration, p. 21. THE INTERIOR. 63 the Gospel by friends of the Society in the United Kingdom and in America. On the left of the door leading up to the Robing-Room is the best extant bust of Dean Swift. It was executed in Carrara marble by an artist called Cunningham, and was presented to Photo. T.Mason. BUST OF DEAN SWIFT HY CUNNINGHAM. the cathedral in 1775 by a nephew of Alderman Faulkner, who had been the Dean's Dublin publisher. It is said that it used to stand over his shop-door. The great Dean is buried in the nave, the spot being marked by a plain brass. The famous epitaph, which no one but himself could have written, is on a slab which now stands over the Robing-Room door:' ^ It was (until 1863) attached to the pillar beside his grave. 64 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. Hie depositum est corpus Jonathan Swift S.T.t). Hujus Ecclesiae Cathedralis Decani ubi saeva indignatio ulteriiis cor lacerare nequit. Abi Viator et imitare si poteris strenuum pro virili Libertatis Vindicatorem. Obiit 19° die mensis Octobris A.D. 1745. Anno Aetatis 78°. To the west of the door is Stella's epitaph, a co.mmonplace and poor piece of writing. She is buried two or three feet to the west of the spot where Swift lies. Her sad and strange history has never been fully revealed to the world, and her relations with the Dean will, probably, always be a mystery. But that she was, in his estimation, "the truest, most virtuous and valuable friend that I, or perhaps any other person, was ever blessed with," is certain; and his love has made her name known wherever Eng- lish literature has found a home. The Robing-Rooms for the cathedral clergy and for the boys of the choir will not repay a visit, as they are cramped and un- worthy of the church. Their main interest, apart from some curious old prints which hang on the walls, resides in the fact that they occupy the chambers where the ancient grammar school of the cathedral used to be held, and in which, accord- ing to tradition, the great Archbishop Ussher received his early education. VIEW FROM THE SOUTH-EAST, ABOUT iSog. From a sketch by /. Franklin. CHAPTER IV. HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. The Prebendaries and their Prebends. — Among the privileges granted in Archbishop Henry's charter to the Chapter of St. Patrick's is that of electing the Dean from their own number, " ut de gremio eiusdem ecclesiae idoneam sibi eligant personam," a privilege which has been jealously maintained to the present day.' The Archbishop reserved to himself and his successors a vote at the election, " tanquam Canonicus," the prebend of Cullen (from the see lands) being established and ^ Since Disestablishment, of course, the Crown has had no voice in the election. But even before Disestablishment, the Crown had a right to pre- sent to the Deanery only if the vacancy were caused by the holder's pro- motion to a bishopric, or vacante sede archiepiscopali. Otherwise it rested with the Archbishop to issue a conf;e d'elire. The rights of the Chapter were challenged several times, but were always vindicated with success. So many Deans were preferred to bishoprics, however, that during the three hundred years preceding Disestablishment, out of twenty-eight appointments to the Deanery, sixteen were made by the Crown. SeeList of Deans, p. 8i ff. 65 F 66 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. annexed to the Archbishopric.^ The prebends named in Pope Celestine's Bull of 1191 are Swords'^ (afterwards called the " Golden Prebend '"), Clonmethan (near Swords), Ireland's Eye (afterwards transferred to Howth), Finglas, Clondalkin, Imelach or Tallaght, Kilmesantan (in Tallaght), Taney, Donnachime- lecha or Blessington, 6'/«^i9;2// (near Powerscourt), St. Nicholas' (Dublin), Bally more (on the borders of Kildare and Wicklow), Dovenaumore or Yagoe {i.e., the Church of St. Yago or St. James near Ballymore), and Kilkevin or Tipper (near Naas). In his charter of 1219 Archbishop Henry annexed Clondalkin (with some other Church lands) to the Deanery; he provided for the Precentor by the churches of Lusk,* and -St. Andrew's, Dublin, etc. ; Finglas (with St. Werburgh's, then called St. Martin's) was attached to the Chancellorship; the Treasurer was given, inter alia, the new Church oi St. Audoen's and Clonkene;' and St. Nicholas' was marked off for the Economy or Common Fund, to which also Stagonil was probably appropriated at first. We have a taxation list of the year 1227 which names twenty- two prebends, viz., all of Comyn's except Tallaght (probably reckoned with Kilmesantan), Stagonil, and St. Nicholas' (which being communal did not provide for prebendaries) ; Lusk ; Clonkene; Castleknock (which no Aa\i!otmQ\\xd.e.AMulhuddarf'); Monmohenock {i.e., Moone, near Castledermot in co. Kildare); Dunlavin; Newcastle {i.e , Newcastle-Lyons near Hazelhatch); Tassagard-^ Rathmichael (near Shankill); the Church of St. ' The Archbishop takes his turn of residence, just as any other Canon does. •^ The names of churches from which the Prebendaries at present derive their titles are printed in italics. ^ The famous William of Wykeham was Prebendary of Swords in the fourteenth century, and Cardinal Brande, of Placentia, held the prebend in 1423. The number of Englishmen who obtained prebends is not surprising when we find it laid down in a Bull of Leo X. (1550) that by an "ancient custom" of the cathedral no Irishman "natione aut moribus vel sanguine" could be admitted a member! '' Richard de Bury, afterwards Bishop of Durham, the learned author of the " Philobiblon," was given the prebend of Lusk in 1332. ° Clonkene was handed over to Christ Church by Archbishop Luke. ' Richard Bancroft, who became Bishop of London and afterwards Arch- bishop of Canterbury, was Prebendary of Mulhuddart {1567-1597). In 1584 he was the bearer of a letter to Burghley, written by Archbishop Loftusfrom his palace of St. Sepulchre, protesting against Sir John Perrot's scheme for the dissolution of the cathedral. See p. 75. ^ Tigli-Sagart = House of the Priest. HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. 67 Michael; and two others. Such was the splendid provision made by Archbishop Henry for his new cathedral. It is convenient here to observe that Ballymore was merged in the treasurership by Archbishop Luke, and to trace the pre- bendal history a little further. The man or o f Tymothan or Tym on near Tallaght (it never had a church) was made a prebend in 1247; Maynooth'vsx 1248; the double prebend oi Donoughmore was at first attached to the Economy (in 1267); another double prebend, Tipperkevin (near Blessington), was established in 1303, in which year also Stagonil became a distinct prebend ; IVick- lowyias attached to the Archdeaconry of Glendalough in 1332 ; and Kilmactalway was added to the precentorship in 1366. It was not until 1467 that Kilmactalway, St. Audoen's, and Wick- low were constituted distinct canonical prebends. The order of precedence now observed among the canons is that followed in the Restitution Charter of Philip and Mary (1555), and before that by Archbishop Alan in his Register (1530) ; with the excep- tion that the Archdeacons of Dublin and Glendalough ceased at Disestablishment (1870) to be ex officio members of the Chapter, and that the prebend of Newcastle formerly attached to the latter archdeaconry takes its place in the list.' Further important changes in the constitution of the Chapter followed the Disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1869. By an Act of the General Synod it was ordained that "the Collegiate and Cathedral Church of St. Patrick should cease to belong exclusively to the See of Dublin and Glendalough, and should be a National Cathedral, having a common relation to all the dioceses of the church";^ that the benefices should be ' The order is: Dean, Precentor, Chancellor, Treasurer; and the pre- bendaries of Taney, Newcastle, Kilmactalway, Swords, Yagoe, St. Audoen, Clonmethan, Wicklow, Tymothan, Mulhuddart, Castleknock (the last nine, with CuUen, being sacerdotal prebends); Tipper, Tassagard, Dunlavin, Maynooth [diaconal prebends) ; and Howth, Rathmichael, Monmohenock, Tipperkevin, Donoughmore, Stagonil {subdiaconal). ^ In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Economy Fund of the cathedral used to receive contributions from the dioceses in the province of Dublin, which are often mentioned in leases under the title of "St. Patrick's Ridges." Thus a " Protection" was issued in 1562 to the Dean and Chapter and their proctors " to enable them to collect the first fruits of the province of Dublin, which had been accustomed to be had, for repair of the Cathedral ; provided that they do not carry about pastoral staves, crosses, books or other like things." The diocesan subscriptions which have been given to the National Cathedral since Disestablishment are, therefore, not a novelty, but the continuance and extension of an ancient and laudable custom. 68 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. separated from the prebendal stalls to which they had beeri here- tofore appropriated^ that each diocese should have the right of nominating one prebendary; and that the remaining eight pre- bendaries should be co-opted by the Chapter as vacancies arose, the Dean having the offices of Precentor, Chancellor and Treas- urer in his gift. In accordance with ancient privilege, the Dean is the Ordinary, and the Archbishop of Dublin the Visitor, his visitations to be held in the Chapter House only. The Vicars and Minor Canons. — At the foundation of the cathedral establishment, Henri de Loundres created a Col- lege of Vicars, to which from time to time various grants and privileges were given. They lived in the precincts, had a com- mon hall, and were under obligation to attend regularly at the Divine office. At the confiscation under Henry VIII. they were disestablished, but the charter of Philip and Mary restored their status; and in 1640 an important new charter was granted by Charles I. Formerly they had been sixteen in number, but henceforth there were only twelve, of whom five were in priest's orders. The Dean's Vicar was the senior member of the college, and next in precedence was the Chanter's Vicar or Succentor; these two had seats (although not votes) at the Chapter. We first hear of Minor or Petty Canons in 1431, when Archbishop Talbot established a new corporation of six minor canons in priest's orders (including the Dean's Vicar and Succentor) and six " choristae cantores "; they got a new charter (still preserved in the archives) in 1519, by which they became entitled to use a common seal. At Disestablishment in 1870 all the privileges of the vicars and the minor canons disappeared along with their property; but the College of Vicars choral is still. kept up in name. There are now four clerical vicars, representing the four dignitaries; four minor canons (appointed by the Chapter); and eight lay vicars choral (appointed by the Dean). The Chapter Seals. — The oldest extant Chapter seal is one which dates from the thirteenth century, representing the figure of St. Patrick with the Pastoral Staff. A representation of it as reproduced on the Winstanley choristers' medal is here given. A second, more elaborate, seal is attached to an instru- ment by Archbishop Talbot, dated February 20th, 1420. Again, in 1555 a sum of <)s. 8d. was expended pro sculptura communis sigilli. The present seal (see title-page) dates from 1574. Above HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. 69 are the royal arms, France (as borne by Elizabeth) and England, quarterly; with the Tudor rose and portcullis on either side. The device is an olive tree with branches breaking off, underneath which a figure (St. Paul) stands, saying Noli altutn sapere, "Be not high-minded" (Rom. xi. 20). This was the device of the famous French printer Estienne (Stephanus),' but why it was adopted by the Chapter in 1574 is not known. Below, under a canopy, is the demi-figure of a bishop. On the dexter side is a shield bearing a robed figure impaling a plain cross; on the sinister are the arms (seemingly) of Browne impaling those of the see of Dublin. Arch- the ancient bishop Browne was the first bishop in Ireland chaptek seal. to conform to the Reformation, which may account for the prominence here given to his arms. The Cathedral Use. — Ever since its foundation, the traditions of St. Patrick's have followed those of Salisbury. In his charter of 1235 Archbishop Luke refers to the ordinances of that church. In 1285 Thomas de Chaddesworth, the Dean, and his Chapter wrote a letter of inquiry ^ to the Chapter of Salisbury (whose Dean, Walter Scamnell, had formerly been a canon of St. Patrick's) as to their statutes. A Bull of Innocent III. orders the Sarum Use to be adopted;' and one of the best and earliest MSS. of the Sarum Consuetudinary* was written for the use of St. Patrick's in the thirteenth century. In this MS., inter alia, the Salisbury statute of 12 14 "Concerning Vicars" has been incorporated. An ordinance of 1359 for the visitations of the Chapter speaks of "ad instar Ecclesiae Sarisburiensis predictae Ecclesia S. Patricii fundata." Similar language is employed in Archbishop Talbot's charter of 143 1. A royal charter of 1467 places the archdeacons of Dublin and Glen- dalough next in rank to the four chief dignitaries (who are ' His mother was a MontoHvet, which probably accounts for his choice ofthe device. 2 This letter (in which St. Patrick's is described as "in terra quasi deserta et hostili fundata") and the reply to it are printed in Mason's "St. Patrick's," p. iv. ^ "Liber Niger," p. 140. * Now Add. MS. 710 in the Cambridge University Library. 70 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. described as " tanquam postes et columnae collegii "), in this again following the Sarum order. Notable Services.^ — Of the details of the actual ordering of Divine service we have few early records. In the fifteenth century Archbishop Tregury gave the vicars a piece of land near Clondalkin that " the Mass of Jesus should be the more honourably performed in the Cathedral every Friday." In 1434 we hear of the Mayor and citizens proceeding barefoot, by way of penance, to St. Patrick's as well as to Christ Church and to St. Mary's Abbey. By a custom coeval with the foundation of the cathedral, the choir service was for many generations inter- mitted on Easter Monday. On that day in the year 1209 a large number of Dublin folk had been massacred by the O'Byrnes and O'Tooles from the Dublin mountains, who descended upon the citizens making holiday at Cullenswood. The day was always called " Black Monday," and was observed at the place; and the minor canons were permitted to be absent from the cathedral that they might read prayers for the assembly in the open air. A notable service is recorded as having been held on St. Patrick's Day, 1484, when Archbishop Walton, then aged and blind, preached before the Earl of Kildare and many dis- tinguished persons, "to the admiration of all present." On Sunday, June 19th, 1541, Henry VIII. was publicly proclaimed as King in the cathedral, the Lord Deputy and other nobles being present in state. In 1559 Archbishop Heath of York presented to St. Patrick's Cathedral and to Christ Church " two large Bibles to be read for the instruction of those who pleased." ' The reformed Liturgy, which had ceased to be read publicly on the death of Edward VI., was used thenceforth. There is a letter among the State Papers (Ireland) from Arch- bishop Loftus to Cecil, dated January 25th, 1568, vindicating himself against charges of introducing innovations and describ- ing the mode of the administration of the Holy Communion at St. Patrick's "about Easter last," when, he says, there were over four hundred communicants. " By reason of whyche great nom- bre of comunycants," the Archbishop writes, " I caused the Comvnyon table to be placyd in the body of the Churche vnder the pulpit (as it is orderyd and allowyd of, by the boke of Comone prayer) and savinge, that we had not the curious sing- inge, whiche at other tymes is vsyd, we observid in all respects, 1 Dudley Loftus, MS. "Annals." HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. 71 the order therin set forth." We hear of various state ceremonials being held in the cathedral during this period, such as that of creating Sir Theobald de Butler Baron of Cahir, on May 9th, 1584, " being Ascension Day"; of the service at the opening of Parliament in 1612; and of the great "commencements" or conferring of degrees by Dublin University in 1614, when James Ussher proceeded to the degree of D.D. But we do not know much about the ordering of the services, except that they were very slovenly. A letter of Archbishop Abbot in 1613 complains that "at the Cathedral churches in Dublin, as also at the Col- lege, the Prebendaries and dignitaries of the one, and the Provost and Fellows of the other, do refuse to come into the quire or into the chapel on Sundays and holydays in their surplices and hoods fit for their degrees."' It was at St. Patrick's that the Convocation sat which issued the discursive pronouncement known as the "Irish Articles of 1615." In the next year, in accordance with custom, the Lord Deputy, Sir Oliver St. John, took the oath and received the sword of state "before the Communion Table in the Choir." ^ Strafford attended a service at the opening of Parliament in 1634, which must have been a very splendid spectacle ; it consisted, however, only of a Te Deum and of a sermon from Gen. xlix. 10, preached by Arch- bishop Ussher. Mention has already been made " of Strafford's indignation at finding that Lord Cork's family monument occu- pied the place of the Holy Table in the choir. In 1647 the Book of Common Prayer was prohibited by the Parliamentary Commissioners,, an arbitrary act which called forth a dignified and firm remonstrance from the principal clergy, including the Deans of St. Patrick's and Christ Church, in which they speak infer alia of the loss sustained by the intermission of the " daily accustomed service of God in the two Cathedrals," and of "the monthly communion."* This was, however, of no avail; and in 1649 Archbishop Bulkeley preached his farewell sermon to his clergy in St. Patrick's, the Book of Common Prayer being used (in defiance of civil authority) by Mr. William Pilsworth," an act for which all present ^ See Elrington's " Life of Ussher," p. 32 n. ^ State Papers (Ireland), August, 1616. ' Page 47. * See Mason's " St. Patrick's," p. 187 fif., where this document is quoted. 5 D'Alton's "Archbishops of Dublin," p. 273. 72 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. _ were committed to prison. Thenceforth the Directory was used in the Cathedral as in all other places of worship in Dublin, except Trinity College Chapel (then reckoned as in the suburbs); a certain Robert Chambers^ being appointed "Reader at St. Patrick's," on Dean Culme's retirement to England. On January 27 th, 1660, the Restoration was inaugurated by a truly remarkable service at the Cathedral, at which twelve bishops were consecrated by Archbishop Bramhall, the sermon being preached by Jeremy Taylor, Bishop-elect of Down and Connor. The anthem was composed for the occasion by the Dean (Fuller); its merits may be gathered from the words of the chorus: " Angels, look down, and joy to see, Like that above, a monarchie. Angels, look down, and joy to see. Like that above, an hierarchie. " But allowance must be made for some natural exuberance of feeling on so joyful an occasion. It seems that a weekly communion was instituted by Swift; and Dr. Delany, in 1754, speaks of St. Patrick's as "the only church in the city wherein the primitive practice of receiving the Sacrament every Lord's day was renewed and is still con- tinued."^ Swift was very regular in his attendance at the Cathedral services. " I go every day once to prayers," he wrote to Bolingbroke in 17 14. And he took measures to secure a like regularity on the part of others. The caustic reproofs which he administered to his recalcitrant vicars-choral may still be read in the documents prepared by himself for his visitations. Although himself no musician, he did what he could to foster the growth of church music. Dublin folk are proud of the fact that the first performance of Handel's Messiah tpok place in the Fishamble Street Music Hall on April 13, 1742; and there is extant a minute of the Governors of Mercer's Hospital (in aid of whose funds the performance was given) which shows that the assist- ance of the choirs of St. Patrick's and Christ Church on the occasion was mainly due to a suggestion made by Dean Swift and his chapter. Subsequently he preached to a Nonconformist congregation in Plunket Street. See Urwick's " Early History oCTrinity College, DubUn,"pp. 56, 82. ^ Delany's "Observations," p. 32. HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. 73 In " Pue's Occurrences " of Feb. i ith, 1 758, it was announced that " On every Sunday in Lent the Rev. Anthony Burke will pieach a sermon in Irish in St. Patrick's Cathedral, and every day in Passion Week in the same language at 10 a.m.;" from which it seems that Dublin folk were better acquainted with that tongue in the eighteenth century than they are in the twentieth.' • During the first half of the nineteenth century, while the musical rendering of the choral service on Sundays had a very high reputation for its excellence, the ordering of the daily services was careless and irreverent, and they were for long periods intermitted. At one time the choir never attended ex- cept on Sunday afternoons. Dean Dawson did much to put things on a better footing, and he is deserving of grateful re- membrance for his efforts to restore the true idea of the office of a cathedral church. Relations between Christ Church and St. Patrick's. — Having regard to the circumstances of the establishment of St. Patrick's as a collegiate and cathedral church,^ it is not sur- prising that disputes between the two chapters were at first frequent and acute. However, an agreement was arranged in 1300 by Archbishop Ferings, which is significantly called jPacM Compositio? By this it was decided (i) that the consecration and enthronization of the Archbishop of Dublin should take place in Christ Church. This was never regarded as binding. It was for many generations the custom that the archbishops should be enthroned in both cathedrals ; and Tregury and Fitzsimons, at any rate, were consecrated for the see of Dublin in St. Patrick's. The second clause declared (2) "quod Ecclesiae pre- dictae sint adinvicem cathedrales etiam metropoliticae: itaquod Ecclesia S. Trinitatis tanquam major, matrix, et senior, in omni- bus juribus Ecclesiae seu negotiis praeponatur." This does not assert that Christ Church is the larger church — which it of course never was; or that it is the older ecclesiastical founda- tion, which would be equally inaccurate, as St. Patrick's goes ' Swift would certainly have refused to allow sermons to be preached in Trish, which, he considered, "it would be a noble achievement to abolish." It ought not to be forgotten, however, that the first book printed in the Irish character in Dublin was the work of John Kearney, Chancellor of St. Patrick's. It was an Introduction to the Irish Tongue, with the Catechism in Irish, and was printed in 1571 from types sent over by Queen Elizabeth. ^ See pp. 8, 9, above. ^ It is printed in full in Mason's " St. Patrick's,'' p. viii. 74. ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. back to the Celtic period, whereas Christ Church is of Danish estabhshment; or that the Dean and Chapter of Christ Church can claim greater antiquity, for as a corporate body in their pie- sent form they date from 1541,' when they were reconstituted on the model of St. Patrick's; but the point is that Christ Church was regarded as the mother church of the diocese of Dublin eighty years before St. Patrick's received cathedral status, and that the fabric dates from an earlier period. This is the ground on which, within the diocese, Christ Church was granted formal precedence; (3) The cross, mitre and ring of departed prelates were to be in the custody of Christ Church ; (4) the archbishops were to be buried alternately in Christ Church and St. Patrick's, ("alternis vicibus sepehatur in dictis ecclesiis"), un- less they desired other arrangements to be made. As a matter of fact, since \\<^\ fifteen archbishops (at least) have been buried in St. Patrick's, while nine are known to be buried in Christ Church; (5) " Consecratio chrismatis et olei in die Coenae Domini, et solemnitates penitentium sint in Ecclesia S. Trini- tatis." And the last clause of this formidable Pads Compositio provided (6) " Quod dictae ecclesiae cathedrales et metropoli- ticae sint una et in omnibus libertatibus pares habeantur.'"' Happily these bickerings are now things of the past. Projects for a University in connection with the Cathedral. — In 13 11 Archbishop Leech procured a Bull from Pope Clement V. empowering him to establish a university in Dublin, but the project was not accomplished until 1320, when his successor, Alexander de Bicknor, obtained a confirmation of draft statutes from Pope John XXII. In this Confirmation it is provided that the new establishment should be without prejudice to the rights of the Chapters of Christ Church and St. Patrick's, which are mentioned conjointly; but it would seem that lectures were to be delivered in the latter cathedral alone. The Dean of St. Patrick's, William Rodyard, was elected the first Chancellor of the University. In 1358 Edward III. by letters patent granted his protection to the students; in 1364 ^ Christ Chinch was founded in 1038; in 1163 it was converted into a Priory of the Regular Order of Arrosian Canons by Archbishop Laurence O'TooIe. The title "Dean of Dublin" as used e.g. in a Bull of Pope Nicholas IV. in 1291 and in many official documents, referred to the Dean of St. Patrick's, who was the only dean in Dublin until the Reformation. ^ See p. 67 for the changes brought about at Disestablishment. HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. 75 a Divinity Lecture was endowed ; and in 1496 the clergy of the province agreed in Synod to provide stipends for the lecturers of the university, who were probably all chosen from among the canons of St. Patrick's. The existence of the institution came to an end with the temporary dissolution of the cathedral estab- lishment in the reign of Henry VIII. Various efforts were made to revive it, and among the Irish State Papers of Dec. loth, 1547, is the "device of George Browne, Archbishop of Dublin, for converting the lately suppressed Cathedral Church of St. Patrick's beside Dublin into a university, the church now called St. Patrick's to be named the Church of the Holy Trinity, and the college to be called Christ's College, of the foundation of King Edward VI." In 1584 a scheme of this sort was taken up by the government, and Sir John Perrot strongly urged it, alleging that " there were two cathedrals in Dublin, of which St. Patrick's, being held in more superstitious veneration than the other, ought to be dissolved." He says in another letter: " St. Patrick's is superfluous except it be to maintain a few bad singers, to satisfy the covetous humours of some that eat up most of the revenue of that church, and to maintain the super- stition of some as much, or more, devoted to St. Patrick's name than to Christ's." ' This scheme was upset by Adam Loftus, then Archbishop of Dublin, who urged that " in all the whole realme there is not one preacher (three busshops excepted, of whom two were preferred out of this church), but only at St. Patrick's." Not improbably Loftus was influenced by interested motives,'' for in 1565 (see a State Paper of January 6th) he was anxious for the conversion of the cathedral into a college ; but in any case Perrot's scheme was rendered unnecessary, as Trinity College was founded in 1 591 on its present site. It is curious that Dean Swift seems to have held that the authority of the Dean and Chapter to confer degrees had never been abrogated.' The tra- dition long lingered that there was some connection between Dublin University and St. Patrick's; the more solemn "com- mencements" were held in the cathedral in the seventeenth ' State Papers, Ireland, Oct. 20th, 1584. - See Heron, "History of the University of Dublin,- p. 11, and"DubIm University Calendar" for 1833, p. 23. In Dr. Todd's Introduction to the last-named volume a full account will be found of the efforts to establish a University of St. Patrick's. ' See Mason's "St. Patrick's," p. 104, and cp. "Dublin University Calendar "for 1833, p. 24. 76 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. century,' and. in the early part of the eighteenth century it was the practice for the members of Trinity College to attend the cathedral in their corporate capacity on Sunday afternoons in Lent. At the Tercentenary Celebrations of the University, July sth, 1892, the opening service of thanksgiving was held at St. Patrick's, and the sermon ^ preached by Dean Jellett from the tpxt PsS-lm 1x111 7 The Knights of St. Patrick — The Order of St. Patrick was estabUshed by King George III. in 1783, and it was arranged, by permission of the Chapter, that the choir of the cathedral should be used as the chapel of the Order, in which the knights should have their stalls. A solemn installation of fifteen knights was held on St. Patrick's Day in that year by the Grand Master of the Order, the Lord-Lieutenant, Earl Temple (afterwards Marquess of Buckingham). The statutes provided that the prelate and chancellor of the Order should be the two Archbishops (of Armagh and Dublin), and that the Dean of St. Patrick's should be registrar. The ceremony of installation was usually omitted by a dispensation from the sovereign on subsequent appointments of knight com- panions, investiture in St. Patrick's Hall at Dublin Castle being taken as sufficient. But on five other occasions — in 1800, 1809, 1819, 1821 (when the sovereign. King George IV. was present in person), and 1868 (when King Edward VII., then Prince of Wales, was installed as a knight) the whole stately ceremonial was observed. By a Royal Warrant of 187 1, the ceremony of installation was abolished, and the Archbishops and Dean de- prived of their offices; but the banners and insignia of the knights who were Companions of the Order in that year still hang over the stalls of the prebendaries. The Bells The first record of bells is dated 1363,^ in a Papal Petition. Again we read that in 1443 the Dean and Chapter represented to Primate Mey their desire to erect a large bell in the tower ; and an indulgence of forty days was granted by him to all persons assisting in the work. When the Cathedral was restored by Philip and Mary in 1555, we hear of "4'' given to John Love for repairing the second bell and 16'' for two stocks for a bell in the Little Belfry. ... 10^ 9'' for repairing ' See above, p. 71. ^ See "Tercentenary Records," p. 79 ff. ' See p. II. HISTORICAL MEMORIALS. 77 two tongues for bells in the Great Belfry. ... 13' 4" for making the machine of St. John's Bell." We have no information from this date until 1670, when the bells were all recast by members of the family of Purdue, well known as bell-founders, who came over from Salisbury for the purpose. These old bells (excepr the tenor) are now preserved in the parvise chamber in the tower, and they bear the following legends ; Bell I. (30I in. diam. ; 29 in. high). " Buret illaesa ad preces excitans usque ad sonitum supremae tubae 1724." Probably this interesting inscription was composed by Swift. Bell II. (siTin. diam.; 29 J in. high). "July the i Anno Domini 1670: Gideon Delaune : Samuel Holt!" Bell III. (32J in. diam.). " Robertus Brady, Virger 1670. WAPARAPAIAP." This gives the initials of William, Roger and John Purdue, with their usual mark — a bell — between the letters. Bell IV. "Anno Domini 1670. AWAPARAPAIAPA." Bell V. " Henry Paris ' made me with good sound To be fift in eight, when all ringe round. At the Charge of Dean Lindsey, of St. Patricks, 1695." This bell was recast in 1864 for Sir B. L. Guinness, and it bears the additional inscription: "Spes mea in Deo. B.L.G. 1864. John Murphy, Dublin." Bell VI. " Johannes Dodson, Johannes Preene, An. Dom. 1670 Non damans sed amans sonat in aure Dei." This was also recast in 1864. Bell VII. " Feare God and honnor the King, for obedienc is a vertuous thing. Anno Domini 1670, AWAPARAPAIAPA" This bell was recast and the following added at a later date: " Recast anno domini 1809. Rev*" James Verschoyle LL.D., Dean; the Rev" Thomas Cradock, LL.D., Preb. of St. Audoen's, Proctor. Cast by James Wells Aldbowen Wiltshire and rehung under the direction of Francis Johnston Architect Dublin in the 50'" year of the reign of King George III." Bell VIII., the Tenor (49 in. diam.), which is still tolled for the daily services. "R""" in X'° Pat. Mich. D. Arch. Dub. et tot. Hib. D. Cane, necnon R. V. Tho. Seele SS. Th. Prof. a.d. 1670 huius eccl. ^ Henry Paris cast bells for St. Audoen's, Dublin, in 1694. 78 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. decano et Rev. lo. Parry eiusd. praecen. et procurante, has campanas fudit G. Pardue^ cum sociis." These old bells rang many a peal in the eighteenth century. The anniversaries of the battles of the Boyne and of Aughrim, and also of CuUoden, used to be celebrated in this fashion. It illustrates the slow pace at which news used to travel, to read that it was not until October 35th, 1798, that a peal was rung -in honour of " Lord Nelson's Victory," i.e., the Battle of the Nile, which was fought on August ist. In 1863 Sir B. L. Guinness added two new bells in F and Of, to ' be used with the carillon clock. Each has the legend : " Spes mea in deo. B.L.G. 1864." This clock plays four hymn tune — at noon and midnight, " Adeste fideles"; at 6 a.m. and p.m., "The Sicilian Mariner's Hymn"; at 3 a.m. and p.m., "Rousseau's Dream''; and at 9 a.m. and p.m., "Martyrdom." In 1897 the noble peal of ten bells now hung (by Taylor of Loughborough) was presented by Lord Iveagh. The bells are in the key of C, and the weight of the peal, including an ad- ditional bell for the carillon, is over nine tons. The tenor weighs 2 1 tons. The inscriptions on these bells are: Treble, Sursum Corda; 2, Venite adoremus et procidamus ; 3, Te laudamus; 4, Tibibene- dicimns; 5, Te adoramus ; 6, Te glorificamus ; 1, Per singidos dies benedicimus Te; 8, Omnis spiritus laudet Dominum; 9, Gloria in excelsis Deo; 10, Ad majorem Dei gloriam. These bells are rung on Sundays and on all great festivals by amateur members of the Irish Association of Change Ringers, under the presidency of R. R. Cherry, Esq., K.C. The Organ and its Predecessors In 147 1 Archbishop Tregury bequeathed "a pair of organs" for the use of the Lady Chapel; but we know nothing of the instruments used in the Cathedral before the Restoration. "William Browne, the organist," was paid ^10 11 j-. at the restoration under Philip and Mary, in 1555. At the consecration of the twelve bishops in 1660,^ after the anthem " the organ continued to play ;" but it ' This William Purdue also cast the tenor bell in Limerick Cathedral where he is buried, his epitaph being: "Here a bell founder, lionest and true, Till the Resurreciion, Ires Purdue." See p. 72. Photo. G. M. Roche. THE ORGAN CHAMBER AND TRIFORIUM OF THE CHOIE. 8o ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. is not until 1695 that we have any details. In that year Dean Lindesay entered into a contract with Renatus Harris to furnish "the great organ case lately put up" (probably over the choir screen in 1685, when many improvements were made) with 800 pipes of metal and wood, for which he was to receive ^^505, to which £ss° w^s afterwards added — a great sum for those days — besides the old organ, valued at ^^65.' This was a fine instrument, and some of the stops are still preserved. It was repaired about 1815 by Messrs. Gray of London. Then Biicher aftd Fleetwood introduced pedal diapasons ; they had charge before 1831, when it was taken over by Telford and Telford of Dublin. In 1865 it was rebuilt by Bevington of London, and again by Telford in 1881, when a solo organ was added.^ The organ stood over the choir screen until 1863, when it was placed in the north choir aisle ; and the arms of the Ormonde family were placed in former days on the west side, facing the nave. When the second Duke of Ormonde was attainted in the reign of George I. the Sheriff of DubHn attempted to remove them ; but Swift refused to allow the Sheriff to interfere in his Cathedral, and the arms remained on the organ case until 1900. They were preserved, until a few years ago, in the tower, along with the keyboard of this organ. The noble organ which the Cathedral now possesses was the gift of Lord Iveagh, and was built by H. Willis, of London, in 1902, at a cost of nearly ;^6,ooo, being erected in a special chamber placed 27 feet above the choir. The mechanical parts of the instrument occupy three triforium arches in the choir (the organist's seat being in the central one) and one arch in the north transept, while the pipes occupy the corresponding clerestory arches. The organ has four manuals, viz.. Great (15 stops), Swell (15 stops). Choir (10 stops), and Solo (10 stops); their compass being from CC to C (five octaves), and that of the pedals from CCCC to G (3 2 notes) The pedal organ contains 1 2 stops. There are 10 couplers, 6 composition pedals, and 2 swell pedals, with two tremulants. The pressure of wind varies from 3j in. to 20 in. The action is tubular pneumatic throughout.^ ' Full particulars as to the specification are given in Mason's "St. Patrick's," p. 214. ^ A specification of the 1881 organ is given in Leeper's " Handbook to St. Patrick's," p. 42. ^ A full specification will be found in the " Musical Times" for Angus*, 1902. LIST OF THE DEANS OF ST. PATRICK'S. The Deans whose names are marked with an asterisk are known to have been buried in the Cathedral or (in later days) in the churchyard. 1 2 19. William FitzGuido, appointed by the Founder. 1238. Richard Gardiner. 1250. Richard de St. Martin, a Prebendary. *i269. John de Saundford, a member of the Franciscan Order and Prebendary of Maynooth ; became Arch- bishop of Dublin, an office in which he succeeded his brother Fulk de Saundford. See p. 10. 1284. Thomas de Chaddesworth, Chancellor. See p. 69. 1 31 2. William Rodyard, Treasurer. See p. 74. 1348. Adam de Kingston appears. 1353. William de Bromley, Treasurer. He was also Chan- cellor of the Exchequer, Keeper of the Great Seal and Treasurer of Ireland. He was maliciously ex- communicated by Ledred, Bishop of Ossory. 1374- John Colton, became Archbishop of Armagh in 1382. He was Chancellor of Ireland, and on one occasion took the field with an armed retinue in an expedition to Munster. 1382. Henry Bowett, papal chaplain; Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1401; Archbishop of York, 1407-23. 1392. William Chambre, Archdeacon of Dublin. During this period, the Pope endeavoured to acquire the patronage of the Deanery, and nominated Landulph, Cardinal of St. Nicholas. The King held the re- venues until the question was decided in favour of the Chapter's rights. 1396. Thomas de Everdon, a Prebendary. He was " Keeper of the Rolls " of Ireland. 81 G 82 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. 1399. John Prene, appointed by Pope Boniface IX., in violation of the Chapter's right of election. He be- came Archbishop of Armagh. 1439. Nicholas Hill, Archdeacon of Dublin. 1457. Philip N orris. Prebendary of Yagoe. He attacked the mendicant friars and was in consequence excom- municated by Pope Eugenius IV. BRASS OF DEAN FYCHE. From MasoJt's "5^. Patrick's.* *i465. John Alleyne, Precentor. His obit was observed at Christ Church, as a benefactor. See p. 12. 1505. Thomas Rochfort, Precentor. 1522. John Rycardes. ♦1527. Robert Sutton, Archdeacon of Dubhn. See p. 58. 1528. Thomas D'Arcy, Prebendary of Howth. He was Master of the Rolls- *i529. Geoffrey Fyche, Treasurer. See p. 59. LIST OF DEANS. 83 1537. Edward Bassenet, a Prebendary. He was elected by the Chapter at the instigation of the government, who feared that an Irishman would be chosen. Arch- bishop Browne wrote to the King that the Chapter had elected Bassenet "only in respect of your Grace's desire." Sir Edward Bassenet took the field in person during one of O'Neill's incursions into the Pale. See p. 13. 1555. Thomas Leverous was appointed by Queen Mary. He had been tutor to the Fitz-Geralds, and saved the life of the young Earl of Kildare when flying from the vengeance of King Henry VIII. He 'be- came Bishop of Kildare, and was one of the two bishops who refused to take the oath of supremacy. After his deprivation he kept a grammar school at Adare, Co. Limerick. *iS6o. Alexander Craike, Prebendary of Clonmethan, became Bishop of Kildare. ♦1564. Adam Loftus. He held the Deanery along with the Archbishopricof Armagh, until he resigned the latter see for Dublin. He was afterwards the first Provost of Trinity College. Seep. 75. *i567. Robert Weston, Chancellor of Ireland. He also held (although a layman), the Deanery of Wells. See p. 47. 1573. William Gerrard, Chancellor of Ireland. Like Wes- ton, he was a layman ; and a letter of Sir Henry Wallop tells that " Chancellor Gerrard with weeping tears confessed how greatly he had been tormented in conscience with keeping the deanery."^ *i58i. Thomas Jones, Chancellor; became Bishop of Meath and afterwards Archbishop of Dublin. See pp. 13 «., 48. *iS84. Richard Meredyth ; became Bishop of Leighlm. 1597. John Ryder; became Bishop of Killaloe. *i6o8. Thomas Moigne, Prebendary of Monmohenock, He became Bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh. 1625. Benjamin Culme, Prebendary of Mulhuddart. From 1649 to 1660, no Dean was appointed. Seep. 72. ' State Papers, Jan. 6th, 1581. 84 ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL. 1660. William Fuller; became Bishop of Limerick, and subsequently of Lincoln. See p. 72. 1666. Thomas Seele, Chancellor. He was a Fellow, and afterwards became Provost, of Trinity .College, Dublin. 1674. Benjamin Parry, Prebendary of Castleknock; be- came Bishop of Ossory. 1677. John Worth, Chancellor. 1688. William King, Chancellor; became Bishop of Derry and subsequently Archbishop of Dublin. Next to Swift's, his is the greatest name in the list of Deans. 1690. Michael Jephson, Chancellor of Christ Church, Dublin. 1693. Thomas Lindesay; became Bishop of Killaloe and subsequently of Raphoe, and ultimately Arch- bishop of Armagh. See p. 80. 1695. Edward Smith, a Fellow of Trinity College and Chaplain to King William III. ; he became Vice- Chancellor of the University of Dublin and subse- quently Bishop of Down and Connor. *i698. Jerome Ryves, Chancellor of Christ Church, Dublin. 1704. John Stearne, Chancellor; became Bishop of Dro- more, and subseque ntly o f Clogher. He was ap- pointed Vice-ChiaaflrfSiSf the University of Dublin in 172 1. See pp. 2b, 2,i-\ *i 7 13. Jonathan Swift, Prebenj^ary of Dunlavin. See pp. 13, 16, '28, 48, 52, 6jr72. *i745. Gabriel James Matann, Prebendary of Mul- huddart. j/^ *i746. Francis Corbe-tj'Treasurer. He is referred to in Wesley's "Journal" (April 9, 1775) as follows: "The good old Dean of St. Patrick's desired me to come within the rails and assist him at the Lord's Supper. This also was a means of removing much prejudice from those who were zealous for the Church." He was one of the executors to Stella's will. 1775. William Cradock, Prebendary of St. Audoen's. See p. 26. 1793. Robert Fowler, Precentor; became Bishop of Ossory in 1813. 1794. James Verschoyle ; became Bishop of Killala. He LIST OF DEANS. 85 was successively Minor Canon, Vicar-Choral, Pre- bendary, Archdeacon of Glendalough, Precentor and Dean, having thus passed through nearly all the grades of office in the Cathedral. *i8io. John William Keatinge. He was the last Chaplain to the Irish House of Commons. See p. 31. 1817. Hon. Richard Ponsonby, Precentor; became Bishop of Killaloe, and subsequently of Derry. *i828. Henry Richard Dawson. See pp. 31 73. 1842. Robert Daly, Prebendary of Stagonil ; became Bishop of Cashel. *i843. Hon. Henry Pakenham. See pp. 18, 22, 56. 1864. John West, Archdeacon of Dublin. See p. 62. ♦1889. Henry Jellett, Prebendary of Tymothan and Arch- deacon of Cloyne. See pp. 52, 76. 1902. John Henry Bernard, Treasurer. INDEX Abbot, Archbishop, 71. Agar, Archbishop, 26. Ardilaun, Lord, 23 Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, 66«. Baptistery, 45. Bassenet, Dean, 13, 83. Battlements, form of, 29. Bells, 76-78. Black Monday, 70. Boyle Monument, 14, 47. Brasses, Memorial, 58. Bulkeley, Archbishop, 71. Buiy, de, Richard, 66 n. Buttresses, 16, 22, 37. Cabbage Garden, 28. Castleragge, 29. Chaddesworth, Dean, 69. Chapter, changes in, 67. Chapter House, 61. Charters, 8, 9, 65. Chest, ancient, 55. Choir, 44 fF. Christ Church, relations wilh, 73. Commonwealth period, 71. Comyn, Archbi.-hop, 8, 9, 25, 20. Consistory Court, 48. Corbet, Dean, 16, 84. Cradock, Dean, 26, 84. Cross, marking St. Patrick's Well, 7,48. Dawson, Dean, 18, 31, 73. Deans, list of, 81 ff. Dean's Liberty, 26, 33. Deanery, 26. Dimensions of Cathedral, 41 . Disestablishment, 67, 68. Dublin, St. Patrick in, 2. Fitton brass, 59. Font, 45. Guinness, Sir B. L., 22, 29, 31, 43. Handel's "Messiah," 72. Inglis brass, 62. Inundation^;, 10 n. Irish language, 72. Iveagh, Lord, 23, 33, 37, 52, 78, 80. Jellett, Dean, 52, 76. John, King, 50. Jones, Archbishop, 13 «, 83. Knights of St. Patrick, 50, 76. Lady Chapel, 10, 28, 37, 55. Loftus, Archbishop, 70, 75, 83. Loundres, Henri de, Archbishop, 9, 10, 65, 68. Magee, Archbishop, 15, 18. Marsh, Archbishop, his library, 38, 61. Minor Canons, 68. Minot, Archbishop, 11, 31, 42. Naboth's Vineyard, 28. INDEX. Nave, 41 ff. Nicholas, St., Church of, 1 5, 18, 37. Organ Chamber, 37, 44. Organs, 78-80. O'Toole, Archbishop, 7. Pakenham, Dean, 18, 22, 56. Patrick, St., i. Images of, 12, 62. Order of, 76. Patrick's, St., Old Church, 7. Siteand Design of present Church, 10. Gate, 33. Ridges, 67 n. Well, 7, 34. Paul, St., Chapel of, 45, 57 «. Perrot, Sir John, 75. Pod die River, 8, 10 «., 31. Porch, North, 34. Prebendaries and Prebends, 8, 65-7. Precedence of Canons, 67 n. Pulpit, old, 47. Reformation, the, 13, 70. St. Leger monument, 49. Salisbury Cathedral, 9, 56, 69. Sarum use, 69. Saundford, Fulk de. Archbishop, 10. nis effigy, 52. Schomberg, Duke of, 52. Seals of Chapter, 68. Sepulchre, St., Palace of, 13, 25. Services, notable, 70. Staircase, spiral, 44. Slearne, Dean, 26, 33, 84. " Stella," 28. Her grave, 64. Stephen, St., Chapel of, 56. Sutton, Dean, his brass, 58. Swift, Dean, 13, 16, 28, 39, 52, 63, 72, 75- Bust of, 63. Portrait of, 26. Talbot, Archbishop, 68, 69. Taylor, Jeremy, Bishop, 72. Tower, 11, 31. Transept, North, 37, 43. South, 43, 61. Tregury, Archbishop, effigy of, 57. Trinity College founded, 75. University, projects for, 74-76. Use, Cathedral, 69. Ussher, Archbishop, 13, 31, 64, 71. Vaulting-shafts, 42. Vicars' Bawn, 29. Vicars, Clerical and Lay, 58. Vicars' College, 28. Walton, Archbishop, 70. Wesley, John, 84. Weston, Robert, Dean, 47, 83. Window, West, 16, 18, 22, 31. Wykeham, William of, 66 n. CHISWICK PRESS : PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS Length (external) 300 ft. Length (internal) 286 „ Length of Nave (internal) 132 „ 6 in Length of Choir (internal) S6 „ 6 ,. Length of Lady Chapel (internal) . 55 „ Width along Transepts (external) . 156 „ Width along Transepts (internal) . 144 „ Width of Nave and Choir (exclusive of Aisles ) 30,, Height from Floor to Roof 56 „ 3 , Area, 21,300 square feet PLAN OF S 1 'Archbishop Tregury's effigy. 2 Wolfe tablet. 3 Wallop brass. 4 Taylor tablet. 5 Sutton brass. 6 Fyche brass. 7 Fitton brass. 8 Ancient door of Chapter-house. 9 Archbishop Marsh's memorial. 10 Archbishop Smyth's memorial. 11 Lady Doneraile's memorial. 1 2 Archbishop Wr 1.3 Figure of St.:S. 14 Historical tabjft 1 5 Bust of Swift. 16 Swift's epitapl) 17 Stella's epitapl 18 Boyle monume 19 Swift's pulpit. 20 Celtic cross. 2 1 Boyd statue. 22 Archbishop Joj PATRICK'S. A K r^ORCAN del ily's effigy. ck. F Deans. memorial. 23 Dean Dawson's statue. 24 Lord Buckingham's statue. 25 Chief-justice Whiteside's statue. 26 Memorials of i8th Royal Irish Regt. 27 Dame St. Leger's monument. 28 Spiral staircase. 29 Archbishop de Saundford's effigy. 30 Schomberg tablet. 31 Small organ. 32 Dean Jellett window. 33 King William III.'s chair.
| Lincoln |
Stretching for 94 miles, off the coast of which country is the Bay of Fundy? | Ecclesiastical Curiosities, William Andrews, ed—A Project Gutenberg eBook
By the Rev. Geo. S. Tyack, B.A.
DOOR AT CROWLE CHURCH.
first impressions have no small influence in moulding the opinions of most people can scarcely be denied; and therefore in our estimate of the architectural value of a church the door is an element of some importance. A shabby and undignified entrance raises no expectations of a lofty and solemn interior; and that interior must be emphatically fine, if we are not to read into it some of the meanness of its portal. On the other hand, though the church be but plain [p 2] and simple—so that it lack not a measure of the dignity which may well accompany simplicity—our thoughts will be raised and fitted to find in it something worthy of its high purpose, if we have been prepared by passing through a noble porch, and beneath a doorway that speaks itself the entrance to no ordinary dwelling.
In primitive times the approach to a church must have been full of dignity, the worshippers being warned, by successive gates and doors, of the sacredness of the building which they were about to enter. Eusebius gives us a full account of a splendid church built at Tyre by Paulinus, from which we may gather the plan on which such buildings were erected in the primitive ages, when the means were forthcoming, and no opposition from the heathen world prevented.
The whole church at Tyre and its precincts were enclosed within a wall, at the front of which was a stately porch, known as the “great porch,” or the “first entrance.” Passing through this the worshipper entered the courtyard, or atrium, round which ran a covered portico, or cloister, and in the centre of which was a fountain, or cistern, of water. Opposite the “great porch” was the door into the church itself; at Tyre [p 3] there were (as in many of our cathedrals) three such doors, a large one in the centre, flanked by smaller ones at some distance along the wall. These opened into a vestibule, or ante-temple, from which admittance was gained into the nave of the church by yet another door or gate.
Each of the spaces formed by these several barriers had its special use. Within the atrium all the worshippers washed their hands as a preparation, both literal and emblematic, for assisting in the sacred mysteries; here, too, penitents under censure for the most flagrant sins remained during the divine offices, and besought the prayers of their brethren as they passed on to those holier courts, from which for a time they were themselves excluded. Within this open courtyard, also, as in a modern churchyard, burials were sometimes permitted. The portico beyond the second entrance was the place for the “hearers,” that is for those who were not yet sufficiently instructed in the faith to be allowed to be present except at the reading of the Scriptures and the sermons (these were catechumens in their noviciate and the heathens and Jews), and also for those Christians who were degraded temporarily to the same position [p 4] as a penance for some sin. Beyond this portico, the nave was still further divided for the separation of different orders of penitents; so that the faithful in possession of all their privileges had quite a number of doors or gates through which to pass before reaching that place, immediately outside the apse, or chancel, which it was their right to occupy.
In order that the several classes of persons attending church might be kept strictly within those portions of the building which were assigned to them, a special order of door-keepers existed in the Church. The keys of the church were solemnly delivered to these ostiarii, and they were accounted to form the lowest in rank of the minor orders. The simple words of the commission, uttered by the bishop to the ostiarius, were, “Behave thyself as one that must give an account to God of the things that are kept under these keys.” Such was the formula prescribed by the fourth Council of Carthage (398 A.D.), and found in the Roman ritual of the eighth century. This order of clergy was almost confined to the west, however; we find traces of its existence at one time at Constantinople, but for the most part the deacons guarded the men’s [p 7] entrance, and sub-deacons or deaconesses the women’s, in the east.
[p 5]
WEST DOOR, HOLY TRINITY, COLCHESTER.
In the earliest English churches the entrance was of a very simple nature; for the artistic skill of the people was small, and their ideals were unambitious. The buildings consisted of a nave without clerestory, and a chancel; the door being placed in the centre of the western wall. A curious example of such a door meets us at Holy Trinity, Colchester, although in this case it gives admittance not into the nave directly, but through the ancient tower. This tower, the oldest part of the church, has been constructed of the fragments of buildings older still; the Roman bricks of the ruined city of Camulodunum having been used to form it. In the western side is a narrow doorway, contained by two square shafts with very simple capitals, and having a triangular head with an equally simple moulding by way of drip-stone. The date is supposed to be between 800 and 1000 A.D. A church perhaps yet older is that of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon, which has a good claim to be the veritable structure reared by S. Aldhelm in the first years of the eighth century. Here there is a northern porch of unusual size in proportion to the rest of [p 8] the building; the entrance to which is by means of an arched doorway, tall and narrow. The narrowness of some of these ancient doorways is remarkable. At Sowerford-Keynes is one, now built up, which, though nearly nine feet high, is but 1 foot 9 inches wide at the springing of the arch, widening towards the base to 2 feet 5½ inches. The jambs are of “short and long” work, and the abacus has a very simple zig-zag moulding. The arch itself is not built up, but carved out of one stone, which is cut square on the upper side and scooped into a parabolic curve on the lower. A double row of cable moulding decorates it. This, which has been called “one of the most characteristic specimens of Saxon architecture in England,” was the northern entrance to the church. Another instance of a western door of simple design is supplied by Crowle, or Croule, in north Lincolnshire. Here we meet with a rectangular doorway, the top of which is formed of one long stone, on which is some antique carving and a fragment of a runic inscription. 1 Above this is a tympanum filled with diamond-shaped stones of small size.
[p 9]
With the rise of the so-called Norman style of architecture the doors of our churches took a handsomer form; and as the churches themselves were now formed on a larger and nobler plan, more than one entrance was often required. The usual door for the people was now commonly placed at the south side, except in churches connected (as were so many of our cathedrals) with monastic foundations. In this latter case the south side was generally occupied by the cloisters and other conventual buildings, and the people’s door was therefore placed upon the north side. At this period, too, the church-porch begins its development; for, although porches in a strict sense were at any rate not usual, the door-way deeply sunk in the massive wall and protected by three, four, or even more concentric arches, suggests the more fully developed shelter of the porch. Of doors of this kind any of our older abbey-churches will supply adequate, and often splendid, examples. The great north door of Durham Cathedral, and the smaller, but not less beautiful doors into the cloisters there, are fine instances. The west and north doors of the little cathedral of Llandaff supply examples in another class of building; and even small and [p 10] obscure parish churches are sometimes dignified with the possession of an entrance full of the massive solemnity of this Norman work. The village church of Heysham, on Morecambe Bay, has a south door well worthy of mention in this connection; and the Lincolnshire church already cited, Crowle, has an interesting doorway of this kind.
As art progressed in Christendom, and exhibited its growing force especially in the churches, the entrances thereto shared in the increasing splendour of the whole. The mouldings of the arches and the pillars, the elaboration of capitals and bases, all showed the evidence of devotion guided by taste and skill. And often something more than mere decoration was attempted; the opportunity was seized to add instruction, and figures of saints and angels, or complete scenes from scriptural or ecclesiastical story, filled the expanse of the tympanum or the niches of the columns. About the twelfth century, also, it became customary to divide the main entrance into two by means of a pillar, or a group of pillars; the two-leaved door being thus made symbolical of the two natures of Christ, of Whom, as Durandus tells us, it is itself [p 11] the emblem, “according to that saying in the Gospel, ‘I am the Door!’”
The Continent presents some splendid examples of these decorated porticoes. The cathedral of Strasburg, preserved as by a series of miracles in spite of every danger that can assail a building, fire, lightning, earthquake, and cannonade, has a very grand west entrance; its tall doors set within a number of receding arches, and the sharply-pointed gable which crowns them flanked and crested with tapering pinnacles. The French artists of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were unrivalled in the beauty and wealth of statuary with which they adorned their churches, and not least their doors. “The glory and the beauty” of the great porch at Amiens has been set forth fully by Ruskin, who has woven into one wonderful whole the meaning of the statues, which, like “a cloud of witnesses,” throng the western front. But Amiens is not alone; S. Denis, Paris, Sens, Angouléme, Poictiers, Autun, Chartres, Laon, Rheims, Vezelay, Auxerre, and other cathedrals are all magnificent in this respect. The principal entrance to Seville cathedral is flanked by columns upholding niches filled with figures of [p 12] saints and angels, while the tympanum contains a carving of the entrance of the Saviour into Jerusalem on the first Palm Sunday. In the island of Majorca, the south door-way of the cathedral of Palma is exceptionally beautiful. The statue of the Blessed Virgin crowns the centre column, and above is the Last Supper. A record of the architect of this splendid piece of work is preserved in an old account book of the cathedral: “On January 29th, 1394, Master Pedro Morey, sculptor, master artificer of the south door, which was begun by him, passed from this life. Anima ejus requiescat in pace. Amen.” The entrance in the west front is also a fine one, and is inscribed, “Non est factum tale opus in universis regnis.”
WEST DOOR, HIGHAM FERRERS CHURCH.
Although in England we cannot match the gorgeousness of detail exhibited by the flamboyant architecture of some of the examples above noticed, yet we too have instances of which we may well be proud. The western front of Peterborough cathedral, over the partial renovation of which there has recently been so much controversy between architects and antiquaries, has been pronounced to be “the grandest portico in Europe;” but this has reference to the whole [p 13] façade rather than to the door-way in itself. If our subject allowed of our taking so wide a view, the splendid west fronts of Exeter, York, and others of our minsters, would demand a place of honour in the list. Gloucester cathedral has a dignified porch over the south door, in which are the figures of a number of saints. The west door [p 14] of Rochester is also interesting; its decorated Norman arches are richly carved, and enclose a tympanum covered with characteristic sculpture. Of a different type is the graceful west door at Ely, whose pointed arches are upheld by delicately cut shafts, the tympanum over the twin doorways being pierced by a double trefoil within a vesica. The parish church of Higham Ferrers has double western doors, separated by a bold shaft, above which is a niche (now unoccupied) for a statue. The tympanum, anciently divided by this figure, has five medallions on each side filled with sculptured scenes from the New Testament, round which runs a scroll of conventional foliage. The neighbouring churches of Rushden and Raunds have also good double-leaved doors. To take one instance from the Northern Kingdom, S. Giles’s, Edinburgh, has a dignified west entrance. Many of the better examples of our modern churches have admirable porticoes, of which one example must suffice. All Saints’ Church, Cheltenham, has double doors within receding arches; the tympanum has the figure of Our Lord enthroned in glory surrounded by the saints, and the central shaft and the side pillars contain other statues.
[p 15]
There is occasionally found in a cathedral, or other large church, a porch of unusual depth, known as a Galilee. Here, during Lent, those assembled who were bidden to do public penance; the coming of Maundy Thursday being the signal for their admission once more into the church itself. Ely has a western Galilee entered by an arch, divided by a central pillar, and filled in the upper part with tracery. Lincoln has a Galilee, deep and dignified in plan, with a vaulted roof. Another English cathedral so provided is that of Chichester; and among parish churches the Galilee is found at Boxley, Llantwit, Chertsey, and S. Woolos.
Of door-ways which, independently of considerations of date, size, or form, are noteworthy for their sculpture, there are many that ought to be mentioned. At Lincoln, for instance, we have a south door carved with a Doom, or Last Judgment, wherein we see the effigy of the Divine Judge surrounded by the dead rising from their opening graves. The north door at Ely, the whole of the surrounding stone-work of which is elaborately carved, is surmounted by the figure of the Lord enthroned within a vesica, while adoring angels kneel before Him. At [p 16] Rougham, in Norfolk, the west door is surmounted by a crucifix, round which runs the emblematic vine. Founhope church, Hereford, has in the tympanum of the arch the Madonna and the Holy Child, a grotesque with birds and beasts surrounding the figures. At Elkstone, Gloucestershire, the south door-way, a specimen (like the one at Founhope) of Norman work, has some interesting sculptures. In the centre of the tympanum is Christ enthroned, with the apocalyptic symbols of the evangelists around Him; beyond these on the right hand of Christ is the Agnus Dei with the flag, an emblem of the Resurrection, while on the left is a wide open pair of jaws, known as a Hell-mouth: above all the Father’s Hand is seen in the attitude of benediction. Elstow church has sculptured figures above the north door; not within the containing arch, but within a separate arched space divided from the door-way by a string-course. Haltham church, in Lincolnshire, has some exceedingly curious designs on the tympanum of the south door; they are mostly cruciform figures within circles, and are arranged with strange irregularity. The north door of Lutterworth church has over it a fresco painting.
NORTH DOOR, ELSTOW CHURCH.
[p 17]
Several of the churches in Brussels have door-ways which, though otherwise not remarkable, are noteworthy from the beauty of the carving of the central post dividing the two leaves of the door. The church of Notre Dame de Bon-Secours has the effigy of its patron saint crowned and robed, bearing the Infant Saviour; below are the emblems of pilgrimage, wallets, gourds, and cockle-shells. The church of La Madeleine has a crucifix with a weeping Magdalene at its foot. The old church of S. Catharine has its patroness on the door-post, and the Chapelle Sainte-Anne similarly has S. Anne holding the Blessed Virgin by the hand. Foliage or scrolls in each case fill up the rest of the column, which is of wood, and in some instances has been painted.
So far, the doorways have occupied our [p 18] attention; something must, however, be said of the doors themselves. The usual form of the old church door is familiar enough to all of us; the massive time-stained oak, the heavy iron nails that stud it, and the long broad hinges that reach almost across its full breadth. There is dignity in the very simplicity of all this; but not seldom far more ornate examples may be found.
The most elementary form of decoration consists in merely panelling the door, as is the case in numberless instances; occasionally the panels themselves are carved, as on the “Thoresby Door,” at Lynn, or the door of S. Mary’s, Bath; or tracery, as in a window, is introduced, as at Alford, Lincolnshire. These are but a few of the many instances which might be cited. Another striking form of decoration is produced by hammering out the long hinges into a design covering, more or less, the surface of the door. The west door at Higham Ferrers, already noticed, has on each of its leaves three hinges, which are formed into wide spreading scrolls. Sempringham Abbey has very fine beaten ironwork spread over almost the entire face of the door. A more curious example is afforded by Dartmouth church; where a conventional tree [p 19] with spreading branches covers the door, and across this the hinges are laid in the form of two heraldic lions. The date is added in the middle of the work, 1631.
DOOR AT LYNN CHURCH.
In the decoration of the church door the mediæval blacksmith proves himself in a thousand instances, at home and abroad, to have been an artist. Free from the hurry of the present age, he could work according to that canon of Chaucer’s,
“There is no workman
That can both worken well and hastilie,
This must be done at leisure, perfectlie.”
[p 20]
With him it was not the hand only that wrought, nor even the hand and head; but the soul within him gave life to both. Of the contrast between old ways and new, few examples are more striking than the hinges of the door at S. Mary Key, Ipswich; where we have a simple but graceful scroll of ancient date, and a clumsy iron bar of to-day, lying side by side. For a beautiful design in beaten iron the doors of Worksop Priory may claim to have not many rivals.
SOUTH PORCH, SEMPRINGHAM ABBEY.
[p 21]
The most splendid doors in the world are probably the bronze doors of the Baptistery at Florence. Other bronze doors there are on the Continent, and all of them fine; Aix-la-Chapelle, Mayence, Augsburg, Hildesheim, Novgorod, all have doors of this kind; at Verona, too, in the church of San Zeno, are ancient examples, whereon are set forth in panels a number of subjects from Holy Scripture and from the life of the patron saint. All, however, fall into [p 22] insignificance beside the “Gates of Paradise,” as the Florentines proudly call their doors.
DOOR AT DARTMOUTH CHURCH.
In 1400 the Gild of Cloth Merchants of Florence decided to make a thank-offering for the cessation of the plague; and the form which it took was a pair of bronze doors for the baptistery of the church of S. Giovanni, to correspond with some already there. These earlier ones are the work of Pisana and his son Nino, from designs by Giotto; the creation of the new ones was thrown open to competition. Many competitors appeared, of whom six were asked to submit specimens of designs for the panels; and, finally, when the choice lay between two only, the elder, Brunellesco, himself advised that the commission should be entrusted to Ghiberti, a youth then barely twenty years of age. The doors when completed contained twenty scenes from the Saviour’s life, together with figures of the four Latin Doctors and the four Evangelists, set in a frame of exquisite foliage. This splendid work was surpassed by a second pair of doors subsequently made for the same place. In this there are ten panels setting forth scenes from the Old Testament history; and the frame is adorned with niches and [p 23] medallions in which are placed some fifty allegorical figures and portrait heads. It was of these last doors, which were only completed in Ghiberti’s mature age, that no less a judge than Michael Angelo said, “They might stand as the gates of Paradise itself.”
Aix-en-Provence claims that her doors are as peerless as examples of the wood-carver’s art, as are the Florentine ones as types of the metal-worker’s. They have been preserved, it is said, from the sixth century, and are still wonderfully fresh and delicate. There are on each door six upper panels filled with figures of the twelve Sybils; and below one large panel, occupied, in one case, by effigies of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah, and in the other by Ezekiel and Daniel. The carving is only occasionally exhibited, two masking doors having been cleverly contrived to protect and cover the real ones.
Many of the doors of our cathedrals and great abbey churches have knockers, often of very striking designs. These as a rule indicate that the places in question claimed the right of sanctuary; and the knocker was to summon an attendant, or watcher, to admit the fugitive from justice at night, or at other times when the [p 24] entrance was closed. A curious head holding a ring within its teeth forms the knocker at Durham cathedral; a lion’s head was not an uncommon form for this to take, as at Adel, York (All Saints), and Norwich (S. Gregory’s); a singularly ferocious lion’s head knocker may be seen at Mayence.
[p 24a]
From a Photo by Albert E. Coe, Norwich.
ERPINGHAM GATE, NORWICH.
The deep porch which we so frequently see over the principal door of the church was formerly something more than an ornament, or even a protection; it was a recognized portion of the sacred building, and had its appointed place in the services of the Church. Baptism was frequently administered in the church porch, to symbolize that by that Sacrament the infant entered into Holy Church. There are still relics of the existence of fonts in some of our porches, as at East Dereham, Norfolk. When baptism was thus administered in the south porch, it was also customary, so it is alleged, to throw wide open the north door; that the devil, formally renounced in that rite, might by that way flee “to his own place.” The font now usually stands just within the door. In the pre-reformation usage of the Church the thanksgiving of a woman after child-birth was also made in, or [p 25] before, the church porch; and concluded with the priest’s saying, “Enter into the temple of God, that thou mayest have eternal life, and live for ever and ever.” The first prayer-book of Edward VI. ordered the woman to kneel “nigh unto the quire door:” the next revision altered the words “to nigh unto the place where the table standeth;” and from Elizabeth’s days the rubric has simply said indefinitely “a convenient place.”
The rubric at the commencement of the Order of the Solemnization of Holy Matrimony according to the Sarum use began also in this way: “Let the man and woman be placed before the door of the church, or in the face of the church, before the presence of God, the Priest, and the People”; at the end of the actual marriage, and before the benedictory prayers which follow it, the rubric says, “Here let them go into the church to the step of the altar.” Chaucer alludes to this usage when in his “Canterbury Tales” he says of the wife of Bath—
“She was a worthy woman all her live,
Husbands at the church dore had she five.”
Edward I. was united to Margaret at the door of [p 26] Canterbury Cathedral on September 9th, 1299, and other mediæval notices of the custom occur.
The first prayer-book of Edward VI. introduced an alteration which has been maintained ever since; the new rubric reading that “The persons to be married shall come into the body of the Church,” just as it does in our modern prayer-books. In France the custom survived as late as the seventeenth century, at least in some instances, for the marriage of Charles I., who was represented by a proxy, and Henrietta Maria was performed at the door of Notre Dame in Paris. In Herrick’s “Hesperides” is a little poem entitled “The Entertainment, or, A Porch-verse at the marriage of Mr. Henry Northly and the most witty Mrs. Lettice Yard.” It commences:—
“Welcome! but yet no entrance till we blesse
First you, then you, then both for white success.”
This was published in the midst of the great Civil War, and seems to show that the custom of marriage at the church porch was still sufficiently known, even if only by tradition, to make allusions to it “understanded of the people.”
Burials sometimes took place in the church [p 27] porch, in those days when interment within the building was much sought after.
Ecclesiastical Courts were frequently held in church porches, as at the south door of Canterbury Cathedral; schools were occasionally established in them; and here the dower of the bride was formally presented to the bridegroom. This last-named use of the porch is illustrated by a deed of the time of Edward I., by which Robert Fitz Roger, a gentleman of Northamptonshire, bound himself to marry his son within a given time to Hawisia, daughter of Robert de Tybetot, and “to endow her at the church door” with property equal to a hundred pounds per annum. We still have evidence of the fact that the church door was of old considered the most prominent and public place in the parish in the continued use of it as the official place for posting legal notices of general interest, such as lists of voters, summonses for public meetings, and so forth.
There are often in connection with ancient ecclesiastical foundations doors and gateways which are of great interest, though they can scarcely be called church doors. Of this class are the entrances to the chapter houses of [p 28] cathedrals, many of which are very fine. At York, for example, the chapter-house, which proudly asserts in an inscription near the entrance that, “as the rose is among the flowers, so is it among buildings,” has a doorway not unworthy of the beautiful interior.
The gateway which gave admittance to the sacred enclosure of the abbey—the garth or close round which were ranged the monastic buildings—is in many cases an imposing and elaborate piece of architecture. Bristol has an interesting Norman gateway, and that at Durham is massive and impressive, as are all the conventual remains there. Norwich is specially rich in this respect. The Erpingham Gate was the gift of Sir Thomas Erpingham, who died in 1420, and whom the King, in Shakespere’s play of “King Henry V.” (Act iv. sc. I), calls a “good old knight;” S. Ethelbert’s Gate was built at the cost of Bishop Alnwick, who ruled the see from 1426 to 1436.
But to speak of these things is to wander from our present subject, and even that is too wide to be dealt with fully in a paper such as this. The legends and traditions of the church porch might occupy many a page, while we gossiped over the mystic rites of S. John’s Eve or of All Hallow [p 29] E’en; or while we told how Ralph, Bishop of Chichester, barred his cathedral door with thorns in his anger against the King and his friends; or how the skins of marauding Danes have in more than one instance been nailed as leather coverings to the doors of English churches. Enough, however, has probably been said to show the wealth of interest which may often be found to hang about the old church porch, in which the village church may often be as rich as the great cathedral or the stately abbey.
1 . See a full account of this stone in “Bygone Lincolnshire,”—Vol. I, William Andrews & Co.
[p 30]
Sacrificial Foundations.
By England Howlett.
In early ages a sacrifice of some sort or other was offered on the foundation of nearly every building. In heathen times a sacrifice was offered to the god under whose protection the building was placed; in Christian times, while many old pagan customs lingered on, the sacrifice was continued, but was given another meaning. The foundation of a castle, a church, or a house was frequently laid in blood; indeed it was said, and commonly believed, that no edifice would stand firmly for long unless the foundation was laid in blood. It was a practice frequently to place some animal under the corner stone—a dog, a wolf, a goat, sometimes even the body of a malefactor who had been executed.
Heinrich Heine says:—“In the middle ages the opinion prevailed that when any building was to be erected something living must be killed, in the blood of which the foundation had to be laid, by which process the building would be [p 31] secured from falling; and in ballads and traditions the remembrance is still preserved how children and animals were slaughtered for the purpose of strengthening large buildings with their blood.”
“ . . . I repent:
There is no sure foundation set on blood,
No certain life achiev’d by other’s death.”
King John, Act iv., Sc. 2.
Shakespeare.
To many of our churches tradition associates some animal and it generally goes by the name of the Kirk-grim. These Kirk-grims are of course the ghostly apparitions of the beasts that were buried under the foundation-stones of the churches, and they are supposed to haunt the churchyards and church lanes. A spectre dog which went by the name of “Bargest” was said to haunt the churchyard at Northorpe, in Lincolnshire, up to the first half of the present century. The black dog that haunts Peel Castle, and the bloodhound of Launceston Castle, are the spectres of the animals buried under their walls. The apparitions of children in certain old mansions are the faded recollections of the sacrifices offered when these houses were first [p 32] erected, not perhaps the present buildings, but the original halls or castles prior to the conquest, and into the foundations of which children were often built. The Cauld Lad of Hilton Castle in the valley of the Wear is well known. He is said to wail at night:
“Wae’s me, wae’s me,
The acorn’s not yet
Fallen from the tree
That’s to grow the wood,
That’s to make the cradle,
That’s to rock the bairn,
That’s to grow to a man,
That’s to lay me.”
Afzelius, in his collection of Swedish folk tales, says: “Heathen superstition did not fail to show itself in the construction of Christian churches. In laying the foundations the people retained something of their former religion, and sacrificed to their old deities, whom they could not forget, some animal, which they buried alive, either under the foundation, or within the wall. A tradition has also been preserved that under the altar of the first Christian churches a lamb was usually buried, which imparted security and duration to the edifice. This was an emblem of the true church lamb—the Saviour, [p 33] who is the corner stone of His church. When anyone enters a church at a time when there is no service, he may chance to see a little lamb spring across the choir and vanish. This is the church-lamb. When it appears to a person in the churchyard, particularly to the grave-digger, it is said to forbode the death of a child that shall be next laid in the earth.”
The traditions of Copenhagen are, that when the ramparts were being raised the earth always sank, so that it was impossible to get it to stand firm. They therefore took a little innocent girl, placed her on a chair by a table, and gave her playthings and sweetmeats. While she thus sat enjoying herself, twelve masons built an arch over her, which when completed they covered over with earth, to the sound of music with drums and trumpets. By this process they are, it is said, rendered immovable. 2
It is an old saying that there is a skeleton in every house, a saying which at one time was practically a fact. Every house in deed and in truth had its skeleton, and moreover every house was designed not only to have its skeleton, but its ghost also. The idea of providing every [p 34] building with its ghost as a spiritual guard was not of course the primary idea; it developed later out of the original pagan belief of a sacrifice associated with the beginning of every work of importance. Partly with the notion of offering a propitiatory sacrifice to mother earth, and partly also with the idea of securing for ever a portion of soil by some sacrificial act, the old pagan laid the foundation of his house in blood.
The art of building in early ages was not well understood, and the true principles of architecture and construction were but little appreciated. If the walls of a building showed any signs of settlement the reason was supposed to be that the earth had not been sufficiently propitiated, and that as a consequence she refused to carry the burden imposed upon her.
It is said that when Romulus was about to found the city of Rome he dug a deep pit and cast into it the “first fruits of everything that is reckoned good by use, or necessary by nature,” and before the pit was closed up by a great stone, Faustulus and Quinctilius were killed and laid under it. The legend of Romulus slaying his twin brother Remus because he jumped the walls of the city to show how poor they were, [p 35] probably arises out of a confusion of the two legends and has become associated with the idea of a sacrificial foundation. To the present day there is a general Italian belief that whenever any great misfortune is going to overtake the city of Rome the giant shadow of Remus may be seen walking over the highest buildings in the city, even to the dome of St. Peter’s.
Sacrifice was not by any means confined to the foundations of buildings only. A man starting on a journey or on any new and important work would first offer a sacrifice. A ship was never launched without a sacrifice, and the christening of a vessel in these days with a bottle of wine is undoubtedly a relic of the time when the neck of a human being was broken and the prow of the vessel suffused with blood as a sacrificial offering.
In our own time the burial of a bottle with coins under a foundation stone is the faded memory of the immuring of a human victim. So hard does custom and superstition die that even in the prosaic nineteenth century days we cannot claim to be altogether free from the bonds and fetters with which our ancestors were bound.
[p 36]
Grimm, in his German Mythology, tells us: “It was often considered necessary to build living animals, even human beings, into the foundations on which any edifice was reared, as an oblation to the earth to induce her to bear the superincumbent weight it was proposed to lay upon her. By this horrible practice it was supposed that the stability of the structure was assured as well as other advantages gained.” Of course the animal is merely the more modern substitute for the human being, just in the same manner as at the present day the bottle and coins are the substitute for the living animal. In Germany, after the burial of a living being under a foundation was given up, it became customary to place an empty coffin under the foundations of a house, and this custom lingered on in remote country districts until comparatively recent times.
With the spread of Christianity the belief in human sacrifice died out. In 1885, Holsworthy Parish Church was restored; during the work of restoration it was necessary to take down the south-west angle of the wall, and in this wall was found, embedded in the mortar and stone, a skeleton. The wall of this part of the church [p 37] had settled, and from the account given by the masons it would seem there was no trace of a tomb, but on the contrary every indication that the victim had actually been buried alive—a mass of mortar covered the mouth, and the stones around the body seemed to have been hastily built. Some few years ago the Bridge Gate of the Bremen city walls was taken down, and the skeleton of a child was found embedded in the foundations. 3
The practice of our masons of putting the blood of oxen into mortar was no doubt in the first instance associated with the idea of a sacrifice; however this may be, the blood had no doubt a real effect in hardening the mortar, just the same as treacle, which has been known to be used in our days. The use of cement when any extra strength is needed has put aside the use of either blood or treacle in the mixing of mortar.
It is a curious instance of the wide spread of the belief in blood as a cement for ancient buildings that Alá-ud-din Khilji, the King of Delhi, A.D. 1296–1315, when enlarging and strengthening the walls of old Delhi, is reported to have mingled in the mortar the bones and [p 38] blood of thousands of goat-bearded Moghuls, whom he slaughtered for the purpose. A modern instance is furnished by advices which were brought from Accra, dated December 8th, 1881, that the King of Ashantee had murdered 200 girls, for the purpose of using their blood to mix with the mortar employed in the building of a new palace.
A foundation sacrifice is suggested by the following curious discovery, reported in the
Yorkshire Herald
of May 31st, 1895: “It was recently ascertained that the tower of Darrington Church, about four miles from Pontefract, had suffered some damage during the winter gales. The foundations were carefully examined, when it was found that under the west side of the tower, only about a foot from the surface, the body of a man had been placed in a sort of bed in the solid rock, and the west wall was actually resting upon his skull. The gentle vibration of the tower had opened the skull and caused in it a crack of about two-and-a-half inches long. The grave must have been prepared and the wall placed with deliberate intention upon the head of the person buried, and this was done with such care that all remained as placed for at least 600 years.”
[p 39]
The majority of the clergy in the early part of the Middle Ages doubtless would be very strongly imbued with all the superstitions of the people. The mediæval priest, half believing in many of the old pagan customs, would allow them to continue, and it is both curious and interesting to notice how heathenism has for so long a period lingered on, mixed up with Christian ideas.
It is said that St. Odhran expressed his willingness to be the first to be buried in Iona, and, indeed, offered himself to be buried alive for sacrifice. Local tradition long afterwards added the still more ghastly circumstance that once, when the tomb was opened, he was found still alive, and uttered such fearful words that the grave had to be closed immediately.
Even at the present day there is a prejudice more or less deeply rooted against a first burial in a new churchyard or cemetery. This prejudice is doubtless due to the fact that in early ages the first to be buried was a victim. Later on in the middle ages the idea seems to have been that the first to be buried became the perquisite of the devil, who thus seems in the minds of the people to have taken the place of the pagan deity. Not in England alone, but all over Northern Europe, [p 40] there is a strong prejudice against being the first to enter a new building, or to cross a newly-built bridge. At the least it is considered unlucky, and the more superstitious believe it will entail death. All this is the outcome of the once general sacrificial foundation, and the lingering shadow of a ghastly practice.
Grimm, in his “Teutonic Mythology,” tells us that when the new bridge at Halle, finished in 1843, was building, the common people got an idea that a child was wanted to wall up in the foundations. In the outer wall of Reichenfels Castle a child was actually built in alive; a projecting stone marks the spot, and it is believed that if this stone were pulled out the wall would at once fall down.
Bones, both human and of animals, have been found under hearthstones of houses. When we consider that the hearth is the centre, as it were, and most sacred spot of a house, and that the chimney above it is the highest portion built, and the most difficult to complete, it seems easy to understand why the victim was buried under the hearthstone or jamb of the chimney.
There is an interesting custom prevailing in Roumania to the present day which is clearly a [p 41] remnant of the old idea of a sacrificial foundation. When masons are engaged building a house they try to catch the shadow of a stranger passing by and wall it in, and throw in stones and mortar whilst his shadow rests on the walls. If no one passes by to throw a shadow the masons go in search of a woman or child who does not belong to the place, and, unperceived by the person, apply a reed to the shadow and this reed is then immured. In Holland frequently there has been found in foundations curious looking objects something like ninepins, but which in reality are simply rude imitations of babies in their swaddling bands—the image representing the child being the modern substitute for an actual sacrifice. Carved figures of Christ crucified have been found in the foundations of churches. Some few years ago, when the north wall of Chulmleigh Church in North Devon was taken down there was found a carved figure of Christ crucified to a vine. 4
A story is told that the walls of Scutari contain the body of a victim. In this case it is a woman who is said to have been built in, but an opening was left through which her infant might be [p 42] passed in to be suckled by her as long as any life remained in the poor creature, and after her death the hole was closed.
The legend of Cologne Cathedral is well known. The architect sold himself to the devil for the plan, and gave up his life when the building was in progress; that is to say, the man voluntarily gave up his life to be buried under the tower to ensure the stability of the enormous superstructure, which he believed could not be held up in any other way.
It is well known that the extinguished torch is the symbol of departed life, and to the present day the superstitious mind always connects the soul with flame. It was at one time a common practice to bury a candle in a coffin, the explanation being that the dead man needed it to give him light on his way to Heaven. It is extremely doubtful, however, whether this was the original idea, for most probably the candle in the first instance really represented an extinguished life, and was thus a substitute for a human sacrifice which, in the pagan times, accompanied every burial. The candle, in fact, took the place of a life, human or animal, and in many instances candles have been found [p 43] immured in the walls and foundations of churches and houses.
Eggs have often been found built into foundations. The egg had, of course life in it—but undeveloped life, so that by its use the old belief in the efficacy of a living sacrifice was fully maintained without any shock to the feelings of people in days when they were beginning to revolt against the practices of the early ages.
Sir Walter Scott speaks of the tradition that the foundation stones of Pictish raths were bathed in human blood. In the ballad of the “Cout of Keeldar” it is said:
“And here beside the mountain flood
A massy castle frowned;
Since first the Pictish race, in blood,
The haunted pile did found.”
From Thorpe’s “Northern Mythology” we learn that in Denmark, in former days, before any human being was buried in a churchyard, a living horse was first interred. This horse is supposed to re-appear, and is known by the name of the “Hel-horse.” It has only three legs, and if anyone meets it it forebodes death. Hence is derived the saying when anyone has survived a dangerous illness: “He gave death a [p 44] peck of oats” (as an offering or bribe). Hel is identical with death, and in times of pestilence is supposed to ride about on a three-legged horse and strangle people.
The belief still lingers in Germany that good weather may be secured by building a live cock into a wall, and it is thought that cattle may be prevented from straying by burying a living blind dog under the threshold of a stable. Amongst the French peasantry a new farmhouse is not entered upon until a cock has been killed and its blood sprinkled in the rooms. 5
It is probable that sacrificial foundations had their origin in the idea of a propitiary offering to the Goddess Earth. However this may be, it is certain that for centuries, through times of heathenism, and well into even advanced Christianity, the people so thoroughly associated the foundation of buildings with a sacrifice that in some form or other it has lingered on to the present century. Now in our own day the laying the foundation of any important building is always attended with a ceremony—the form remains, the sacrifice is no longer offered. For ecclesiastical buildings, or those having some [p 45] charitable object, a religious ceremony is provided, while for those purely secular the event is marked by rejoicings. We cannot bring ourselves to pass over without notice the foundation laying of our great buildings, and who shall venture to say that superstition is altogether dead, and that we are free from the lingering remains of what was once the pagan belief?
2 . “Thorpe’s Northern Mythology,” vol. II., p. 244.
3 . “Strange Survivals,” Baring Gould.
4 . “Strange Survivals,” Baring Gould.
5 . “Strange Survivals,” Baring Gould.
[p 46]
The Building of the English Cathedrals.
By the Rev. Geo. S. Tyack, B.A.
Of all the sins of the nineteenth century, the one which most militates against its attainment of excellence in art is its impatience. A work has been no sooner decided on, than there is a clamour for its completion. Our cathedrals were for the most part reared in far other times, and are therefore admirable. Growing with the stately, deliberate increase of the ponderous oak, they speak of days when art was original, sincere, patient, and therefore capable of great deeds; original, not in extravagance or eccentricity, but in the realization of the natural development of style, advancing from grace to grace, from the perfection of solidity to the perfection of adornment, by an unforced growth; sincere, in its confidence of its own capacity for fulfilling its appointed end, in its grasp of the possibilities in its materials, in its choice of the true, rather than the easy, method of working; and patient, finally, in its contentment to do in each age a little solidly and well, [p 47] rather than a great deal indifferently, in its aim at artistic perfection in preference to material completeness. Thus it is that none of our cathedrals are the work of one age, save those of Salisbury and London, and even they have details which they owe to succeeding times.
The above words are not intended to imply that our mediæval builders made no mistakes. The brief review of some of their work will show us proof to the contrary; but the mistakes were rare exceptions. If, for instance, a captious critic turns to Peterborough, and points us to the defective foundations, which have recently required the rebuilding of the central tower, and the supposed necessity of reconstructing the west front, all that the case will prove is that our great monastic architects’ work was not always absolutely eternal. “So there was jerry-building in those days too!” someone exclaims, with a note of triumph at the dragging down of the great ideals of the past to the level of the paltriness of the present. If such be the case, we reply, there were indeed giants in those days, the very “jerry building” of which rides out the storms of well-nigh seven centuries before revealing any fatal weaknesses.
[p 48]
In considering these splendid buildings, of which the present century has happily proved itself no unappreciative heir, it will be of interest to devote a few lines to the means which were employed to raise funds for their construction. Several illustrations of the methods employed in the case of cathedrals and other churches have come down to us. The story of the foundation of the new buildings at Crowland Abbey in 1112, exhibits an outburst of popular enthusiasm which irresistibly recalls the free gifts of the Hebrew people for the building of the first temple. “The prayers having been said and the antiphons sung,” says Peter Blesensis, vice-chancellor under Henry II., “the abbot himself laid the first corner-stone on the east side. After him every man according to his degree laid his stone; some laid money, others writings by which they offered their lands, advowsons of livings, tenths of sheep and other church tithes; certain measures of wheat, a certain number of workmen or masons, etc. On the other side, the common people, as officious with emulation and great devotion, offered, some money, some one day’s work every month till it should be finished, some to build whole pillars, others [p 49] pedestals, and others certain parts of the walls.”
Indulgences, remitting so many days’ penance, were sometimes issued to encourage the gifts of the faithful. Thus in the time of Henry VIII. a church brief was issued soliciting help towards the repair of Kirby Belers Church, in Leicestershire, part of which runs as follows:—“Also certayne patriarkes, prymates, &c., unto the nombre of sixtie-five, everie one of theym syngularly, unto all theym that put their helpyng handes unto the sayd churche, have granted xl dayes of pardon; which nombre extendeth unto vij yeres and cc dayes, totiens quotiens.” Sometimes, by way of penance itself, a fine was imposed, which was devoted to a local building fund. Gilbert, bishop of Chichester, in certain constitutions promulgated in 1289 rules that every priest in the diocese who shall be convicted of certain scandalous sins shall “forfeit forty shillings, to be applied to the structure of Chichester Cathedral.” In modern money this fine would amount to something like £40. Walter, Bishop of Worcester, also ordained in 1240 that beneficed priests who dressed unclerically should be fined to the extent of a tenth of their annual revenue for the benefit of the [p 50] building of his cathedral. A yet earlier order concerning laity as well as clergy was issued by the Witan at Engsham, in Oxfordshire, in the year 1009, which decides that “if any pecuniary compensation shall arise out of a mulct for sins committed against God, this ought to be applied, according to the discretion of the bishop,” to one of several pious purposes, of which two are “the repair of churches, and the purchase of books, bells, and ecclesiastical vestments.”
Another way of raising money was to exact a contribution from church dignitaries, as a kind of “entrance fee,” on their accepting preferment. William Heyworth, bishop of Coventry, (a see now owning Chester as its mother city), decreed in 1428 that “every canon on commencing his first residence should pay a hundred marks towards the structure of the cathedral, the purchase of ornaments,” and other similar expenses.
In 1247, Bishop Ralph Neville, of Chichester, having died indebted to some of the canons of the cathedral, left by will a sufficient sum to discharge his obligations. But these ecclesiastical creditors decided that it should be devoted to “the completion of a certain stone tower, [p 51] which had remained for a long time unfinished.” The same canons bitterly complained because the Pope had ordained that all vacant prebends throughout the country should remain unoccupied for a year, in order that their revenues might be devoted to the erection of the minster at Canterbury; whereas they not unnaturally felt that the needs of their own cathedral had the first claim upon them.
Those churches which contained the shrines of popular saints drew, for the repair or enlargement of the fabric, no small revenue from the offerings of pilgrims. The eastern part of Rochester Cathedral was paid for by the moneys deposited at the tomb of S. William of Perth; and the large sums given by visitors to the shrine of S. Thomas of Canterbury materially assisted in keeping the building in repair.
Unquestionably the sums needed for rearing these massive piles were in most cases given, either in money or in kind, by the faithful; sometimes the princely offerings of a few wealthy men, sometimes the countless small gifts of the multitude, have become transmuted into tapering spire, or ponderous tower, “long-drawn aisle and fretted vault.” The poor, in some instances, [p 52] as we have seen, voluntarily gave their labour; in others the hands of the monks themselves raised and cut the sculptured stones.
In most cases the cathedrals which we now possess are not the first that have occupied their sites. Some humble building, often reared by one of the pioneers of the faith, was in the majority of instances the shrine that first consecrated the spot to the service of God.
It was in 401, during the visit of Germanus and Lupus, bishops of Auxerre and of Troyes, to aid in exterminating the Pelagian heresy, that the earliest shrine of S. Alban, a simple wooden oratory, was erected at Verulam; S. Deiniol built a little stave-kirk, or timber church, at Bangor about 550; and Kentigern, some ten years later, raised the first religious establishment at Llanelwy, or S. Asaph; while where now the ruined Cathedral of Man rears its weather-beaten gables and sightless windows at Peel, tradition says S. Patrick consecrated S. Germain first bishop of the Southern Isles in 447.
Many causes, however, combined to sweep away not only all traces of these earliest churches, but also in many instances more than one more solidly constructed successor. The [p 53] growth of architectural taste and skill made men impatient of the rudeness of their forefathers’ simple fanes; in a surprising number of instances the lightning-flash or the raging fire destroyed the buildings wholly or in part. The cathedrals of the north felt more than once the shock of the Border wars; and civil strife, or religious fanaticism, wrought mischief in many others. Thus it has come to pass that the centuries have seen four cathedrals in succession at Hereford, at Gloucester, and at Bangor; and three at a multitude of places, Canterbury, London, Winchester, Peterborough, Lichfield, Oxford, and half-a-dozen more.
The incursions of the Danes were answerable for the destruction of several of the earlier foundations. Canterbury had a cathedral, the most ancient part of which had been erected, according to tradition, by Lucius, the first Christian King of the Britons, and afterwards restored by S. Augustine. To this, about the year 740, Cuthbert, the archbishop, added a chapel for the interment of the occupants of the see; and Odo, in the tenth century, enlarged and re-roofed it. But in the days of saintly Alphege, in 1005, the Danish invaders fell upon the city, [p 54] making of the church a ruin, and of its bishop a martyr. A similar fate befell the metropolitan church of the north. On the site where Paulinus baptized King Edwin and his two sons into the Christian faith a little wooden oratory was raised, over which ere long Edwin commenced to build a stone church, which S. Oswald, his successor, completed. This, after having been beautified by S. Wilfred, was burnt about 741, but re-built shortly afterwards by Archbishop Egbert. It was this latter building which fell before the Danes.
At Ely the religious house founded by S. Etheldreda, which was the precursor of the modern cathedral, was burnt by the same marauders about 870. Rochester suffered in the same way; and no trace of the church built, so says the Venerable Bede, by King Ethelbert himself now remains. Peterborough has been particularly unfortunate in this respect. The first building here was begun by Peada, King of Mercia, in the seventh century. In the year 870 the Danes, on one of their forays, burnt church and monastery to the ground, and massacred the abbot and all his monks. In 971 King Edgar raised the place once more from its desolation, [p 55] but again it was seriously damaged, though not absolutely destroyed, by the sea-kings shortly before the Norman Conquest. Oxford was partially burnt in 1002 owing to the same people, but in a different way. A number of Danes took refuge in the tower of S. Frideswide to escape the senseless and brutal massacre organised on S. Brice’s day in that year, and the English fired the structure rather than suffer their prey to escape them.
It will be convenient here, although it may take us in some cases away from those primitive foundations which so far we have considered, to glance at the other instances in which war has left its mark upon our cathedrals. Hereford, lying near the Welsh border, felt the storm and stress of warfare in 1056. Originally founded at some unknown date in very early English times, the church at Hereford was rebuilt about 830 by a noble Mercian, named Milfrid, and was repaired, if not actually renewed, by Athelstan the bishop, who came to the see in 1012. Ten years before the Norman Conquest, however, Griffith, prince of Wales, at the head of a combined host of Welsh and Irish, crossed the marches and plundered and burnt the church [p 56] and city. In the reign of Hardicanute (1039–1041) the citizens of Worcester, having risen against the payment of the ship-tax, were severely punished, a military force being sent to occupy their city. So thoroughly did it carry out the work of inflicting discipline on the malcontents, that the church, amongst other buildings, was left in ruins. The original church at Gloucester was built in 681, as part of a conventual establishment; this was destroyed, and, after an interval, rebuilt by Beornulph, King of Mercia, sometime previous to 825. This church was looted by the Danes, but restored by S. Edward the Confessor. In the year after the Conquest, Gloucester was occupied by the Normans, whose entrance was not, however, accepted quite peaceably by the citizens; and in the tumult the Cathedral was seriously injured by the one or the other party. Exeter provides us with another case. Here was a cathedral in early English days, which lasted until the time of Bishop William Warelwast, who began the erection of a new one in 1112. During the stormy reign of Stephen, the city was held for Matilda and had to stand a siege by the King, to the great damage of the still [p 57] unfinished church. To quote one further illustration only: Bangor, whose wooden church was replaced by a stone one somewhere about 1102, suffered grievously in the wars waged between Henry III. of England, and David, Prince of Wales, an episode in which was the destruction of the Cathedral.
[p 56a]
From a photo by Albert F. Coe, Norwich
NORWICH CATHEDRAL.
The conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy, had a vast influence on the ecclesiastical buildings of the country. On the continent art had advanced at a pace unknown in this island, and the plain and massive churches scattered over the land must have seemed very rude structures in the eyes of the prelates who came in the victor’s train. S. Edward the Confessor, with his Norman predilections, had no doubt accustomed his courtiers to some aspects of foreign art, and through his influence the so-called Norman architecture preceded the Normans in the country; but such instances of it as were to be seen must have been few, and probably confined to the southern counties.
Scarcely had the Conqueror’s throne been secured before his countrymen, placed in the abbeys and sees of England, began to rebuild, on [p 58] new and grander plans, the churches under their charge.
Lanfranc, who ascended the throne of S. Augustine in 1070, set himself to the work of rebuilding Canterbury Cathedral, not contenting himself with any enlargement or embellishment of the older fane, but making a clean sweep of that, and beginning from the foundations. S. Anselm, and the prior of the monastery, Ernulph, took up the work and enlarged upon Lanfranc’s design, pulling down and re-building the choir. Early in the next century, namely in 1130, the new Cathedral, completed under the supervision of Conrad, successor to Ernulph, was solemnly dedicated with great pomp in the presence of the Kings of England and of Scotland.
[p 59]
RIPON CATHEDRAL.
Meanwhile, Thomas of Bayeux, who became Archbishop of York in the same year as that in which Lanfranc obtained his English see, was busy rebuilding his Minster at York. William of Carilef commenced the magnificent pile, forming one of the finest Norman churches in existence, which crowns the Wear at Durham, in 1093; and Ralph Flambard took up the work three years later, completing it in 1128. London [p 61] was deprived of its Cathedral by fire probably about 1088, and the work of restoration was at once undertaken by Maurice, its Norman bishop. In 1079 Bishop Walkelyn began the erection of a cathedral church at Winchester, in the place of the old Saxon building which had first been founded on the conversion of King Cynegils, about 635. In all parts of the land, east and west, north and south, the builders were at work, rearing massive temples to the glory and honour of God. The chink of chisel and the blow of hammer rang everywhere in the ears of the eleventh century in England. Bishop Herbert Losinga laid the first stone of Norwich Cathedral in 1096, at which time Remigius of Fescamp had been some twenty years at work on that of Lincoln, and had passed away, leaving the completion to others. The new Norman Cathedral of Hereford was begun by Robert Losinga, who reigned as bishop from 1079 to 1096. Abbot Simeon began to build the Minster at Ely about 1092; Worcester was commenced by Wulfstan in 1084; five years later the foundation of Gloucester was laid; and in 1091 S. Osmund consecrated the church of S. Nicholas at Newcastle. Other cathedrals which were built, or [p 62] rebuilt, at about the same date include those of Carlisle, S. Albans, Rochester, Chester, Lichfield and Oxford.
Surely never was an age so enthusiastic in building! All these cathedrals, many still remaining largely as their Norman builders left them, most retaining many relics of their work, were commenced within the space of two reigns of by no means great duration, lasting only from 1066 to 1100.
The energy of the time was not, however, exhausted by the fervour of this outburst. The twelfth century took up and vigorously prosecuted the tasks handed on to it by the eleventh.
[p 63]
SOUTHWELL MINSTER.
Among cathedrals which were entirely, or almost entirely, rebuilt during this century we have Chichester, Rochester, Peterborough, Lincoln, Oxford, Bristol, Southwell, S. David’s, Llandaff, and Ripon. In the first of these a great part of the work was done twice over within this period. Ralph de Luffa was bishop of the see when the cathedral was consecrated in 1108; two fires, however, did such serious damage to this building, the first in 1114, and the second in 1186, that it had practically to be re-constructed, and was re-dedicated in the year [p 65] 1199. The Cathedral at Rochester was largely re-built by John of Canterbury between 1125 and 1137, and like Chichester suffered twice during the century from the ravages of fire. Indeed, so frequently do we find mention of conflagrations in the cathedrals in the early mediæval days, that it is quite obvious that William I. was fully justified in taking such precautions against this enemy as the use of the curfew involved. In more than one instance the cathedral went up in flames as part only of a fire which destroyed a large portion of the town.
The undertaking of new work at Peterborough was the result of a similar cause. In the year 1116 fire destroyed almost the whole church and monastery, but in two years’ time the re-erection had commenced, and was continued throughout the remainder of the century. The choir was ready for the resumption of the Divine offices in 1143, but the builders did not reach the end of their labours until 1237. Re-construction was necessitated at Lincoln by the occurrence of an earthquake in 1185, following once more upon a fire which took place in 1141. The stone vaulting and the western towers were undertaken by Alexander, bishop from 1123 to 1147; and in [p 66] 1192 S. Hugh of Avalon, who held the see from 1186 to 1203, began a thorough re-building of the pile. This work marks an epoch in the progress of architecture in England, as in the choir of S. Hugh we meet with the earliest examples of the use of the lancet form of arch to which we can assign a known date. About the middle of this century a new church, not yet advanced to the dignity of a cathedral, was commenced at Oxford, and by the year 1180 it was sufficiently advanced to allow of the translation of the relics of S. Frideswide to their new shrine. In 1142 was founded the Abbey of Bristol, and its church was consecrated on Easter Day, 1148, although the completion of the buildings occupied the attention of the abbots for many years after. Southwell Minster was also building during the first half of the twelfth century; Peter de Leia, who became Bishop of S. David’s in 1176, commenced the erection of his cathedral four years later, following the example of Arban, who entered upon the neighbouring see of Llandaff in 1107, and reared a mother church for his diocese. Finally, Ripon also saw the masons busily at work almost through the century. First Thurstan, [p 67] Archbishop of York in 1114, began the enlargement of the Abbey Church, and after him Archbishop Roger (1154–1181) entirely rebuilt it.
But the record of the churches re-built during this century by no means exhausts the tale of work performed during that time. At Winchester, for example, in 1107 the central tower fell, necessitating the building of a new one. Lucy, bishop here from 1189 to 1205, erected a new Lady Chapel and made other alterations. At Hereford, too, operations were going forward almost throughout the century, the bishops Reynelm (1107–1115) and Betun (1131–1148) being especially energetic in pressing them on; and the closing years of this period saw the rearing of the eastern transepts. At this time also the beautiful Galilee Chapel was added to Durham Cathedral; Ely was consecrated in 1106, and towards the end of the century received its central tower and other additions; and S. Albans, moreover, had a façade built on its western front by John de Cella.
The chronicle of the damages by fire during the twelfth century is not complete without mentioning that S. Paul’s, London, which was re-building during a large portion of that time, [p 68] was injured by it in 1136; and the same foe destroyed the roof of Worcester Cathedral in the early days of the century.
The period which our rapid survey has so far covered embraces broadly the eras of the Norman and of the so-called Early English architecture. In the thirteenth century the Decorated Style came into being, and with its rise arose also the desire for greater richness of ornament even in those churches which had already, to all appearances, been completed. On all hands, therefore, in this new century, we find the pulling down of portions of the stern Norman work and the substitution of lighter and more graceful designs.
The great work of the thirteenth century, however, was begun before the birth of the more florid style, and shows little trace of the dawning of its influence. Salisbury Cathedral was begun in 1220, the work commencing, as was usual, at the eastern end and advancing westward. The whole was proceeded with continuously, and since its completion no alteration of any importance has been made in it. Other cathedrals in England exhibit in almost every case a conglomerate of several orders of architecture, blended generally with great skill, but necessarily [p 69] lacking to some extent in unity of design in consequence. In Salisbury we have one complete and splendid example of English architecture of the best period, carried out from beginning to end with unbroken unity of purpose.
Other churches which then were, or were subsequently to become, cathedrals, dating in their present form from the thirteenth century, are those of Lichfield, Wells, Manchester, Bangor, and S. Asaph.
A Norman church had been reared at Lichfield of which very few relics have survived to the present day, a new building having been begun about the year 1200, and the work of construction carried on for the major part of the century, the west front being reached about 1275. Bishop Joceline was the chief founder of the existing Cathedral at Wells, most of the previous work having been taken down in his time, and the new church solemnly dedicated by him in 1239. The Church at Manchester was probably built about 1220, but the present building is of a later date. The Cathedral at S. Asaph suffered from the great mediæval enemy of such foundations, fire, twice during this period. On the first occasion, in 1247, the [p 70] troops of Henry III. of England must be held responsible for the destruction wrought; on the second, in 1282, the outbreak was probably accidental. Repairs, if not actual rebuilding, took place in consequence of these injuries towards the end of the century. Bangor Cathedral was probably also rebuilt about 1291.
Fire played its old part throughout the century in providing work for the ecclesiastical masons, in other instances besides that referred to in the Welsh diocese. The choir at Carlisle was rebuilt probably about 1250 and the following years, but had scarcely been fully completed before it fell in a fire which destroyed a large portion of the city. In 1216, S. Nicholas, Newcastle, was almost destroyed by the same fatal agency. Worcester Cathedral was again burnt in 1202, and was rebuilt between then and 1218 sufficiently to be re-dedicated; although the retro-choir, the choir, the Lady Chapel, and some details were added at a later time in the same century.
Imperfections in the work of the preceding age were answerable for a certain amount of loss and consequent re-construction (not seldom actually a gain) in this. At Lincoln, for instance, the [p 71] central tower fell in 1237, and was replaced by the present one, which has been described as one of the finest in Europe. The east end of Ripon had to be rebuilt owing to the structure giving way in 1280; and in consequence again of the fall of the tower, repairs had to be undertaken at S. David’s in 1220.
The popular regard for Hugh, the sainted bishop of Lincoln, led to the building of one of the most beautiful sections of that Minster, namely the Angel-choir, erected as a worthy chapel for the shrine of S. Hugh, between 1255 and 1280. At Hereford, the Lady Chapel was built about the middle of this century; and at Ely, the presbytery and retro-choir at about the same date; at Bristol, the elder Lady Chapel probably a little earlier; at Southwell, the choir between 1230 and 1250; and the choir also at S. Albans, in 1256.
Several of our cathedral towers, moreover, besides that at Lincoln, date from the thirteenth century. York, S. Paul’s, Chichester and Gloucester, all had the towers erected during this period.
Passing on to the fourteenth century, we meet with the same wide-spread activity, but it is [p 72] expended now rather in additions and embellishments to existing buildings than in actual re-constructions. At Ripon, the Cathedral was partially burnt by the Scots in 1319, and later in the century the tower was struck by lightning. At S. Alban’s, part of the nave fell in 1323, as did the tower at Ely in 1322. In each of these cases repairs were of course rendered needful. More important works were the rebuilding of the nave and transepts at Canterbury at the end of the century (1378–1410), the erection of the Zouche Chapel at York about 1350, the addition of both the central and the western towers to Wells, the spires to Peterborough, and the towers also to Hereford.
The fifteenth century is specially marked by the growing popularity of chantries and side chapels. We find them erected at this time at Hereford and elsewhere; but little building on a large scale is done. In several cases the vaulting of the roofs dates from this period, and a good deal of internal carving in wood or stone was also done. Among the latter we may note the high altar screen at S. Alban’s, and the stalls at Carlisle and Ripon. Of the former work, reference may be made to the vaulting [p 73] of part of the choir and transepts at Norwich.
The sixteenth century is not a pleasant one to contemplate in connection with our ancient cathedrals. Ignorance and fanaticism were then beginning to show themselves in their treatment of the miracles of art bequeathed to the ages, and soon became more obvious than culture or reverence. This century saw the nave of Bristol taken down, the spires removed from the towers of Ripon, and other precautions against a threatened collapse; but steps were not taken to repair the losses thus caused. And in view of the nameless horrors perpetrated within the hallowed walls of churches and cathedrals, first by the extreme reformers, and in the next century by the Puritans, in the name of religion, it is only wonderful that so much that is beautiful still survives.
The one constructive work of the seventeenth century was, of course, the building of the Cathedral of London, S. Paul’s, in the place of that “Old S. Paul’s” which perished in the fire of 1666. This building shares with Salisbury the credit of complete unity, but is unique among English Cathedrals in being classical in style. However much more admirable the Gothic style may be admitted to be for [p 74] ecclesiastical purposes, probably all will admit that the grandeur of St. Paul’s grows upon one the more familiar one becomes with it; and certainly no tower, or collection of towers, could possibly dominate a vast city like London in the way that Wren’s splendid dome does.
The eighteenth century witnessed, among other things, the removal of most of the spires which down to that time had crowned the towers of many of the cathedrals. Such was the case with Hereford and Wakefield; the same thing was attempted at Lincoln in 1727, but popular tumult saved the spires; only, however, until 1807, when they were removed.
Of one work of construction the eighteenth century was also guilty; the year 1704 gave birth to that abortion among English cathedrals known as S. Peter’s, Liverpool; with which, for nearly twenty years, the population of one of the wealthiest cities in the empire has been content! Something in the way of restoration was attempted in this century, but it was for the most part done ignorantly, and no small part of the restoration of the nineteenth century has consisted in undoing so far as possible the work of the eighteenth.
[p 75]
The present century has seen the commencement, on noble lines, of the Cathedral of Truro; and the beautifying of not a few of our old minsters, which had been stript almost bare by the destroyers of past times. Happily, the guardians of these treasures of art and devotion have for the most part been conscious of the greatness of their trust, and the fabrics have been dealt with reverently and with judgment. Amongst others, Bristol, Chichester, St. Albans, and Peterborough have required more or less extensive measures of re-building.
[p 76]
Ye Chappell of Oure Ladye.
By the Rev. J. H. Stamp.
The sacred buildings designated by this title were dedicated to the service of God, in mediæval times, in honour of the Mother of our Lord. The veneration of S. Mary, the Blessed Virgin, had been growing up in the Church from the fifth century, when the reality of the incarnation of the Son of God was first called into question by men who professed and called themselves Christians. The defence of the true doctrine brought clearly into view the high dignity which God had conferred on the humble maiden of Nazareth, and so reverence for her memory, as the most blessed among women, grew into veneration for her person as the Mother of God. The faithful of the Middle Ages were, therefore, not content with simply retaining her name at the head of the list of saints, but raised the human mother to a position which was almost, if not quite, equal to that of her Divine Son. They conferred on her the title of “Our Lady,” and hailed her as “The [p 77] Queen of Heaven,” just as they were accustomed to address the Saviour as “Our Lord” and worship Him as “The King of Heaven.” This title still survives in the terms which are so familiar to us, namely, “Lady Day” and “Lady Chapel.”
We see evidences of this growth of the cultus of the Blessed Virgin in the erection and elaborate ornamentation of Lady Chapels throughout Christendom. It does not seem probable, however, that our pious forefathers in the ancient Church of England intended to encourage Mariolatry, by the introduction of these buildings into this country; for it is a singular and significant fact that in Spain, where this heretical and superstitious practice chiefly prevailed, Lady Chapels are very rare, because the church itself has been made to serve the purpose. English Churchmen, in their desire to honour the Mother of Christ, were careful to avoid this evil example. The erection of smaller buildings, and the setting apart, for the purpose, of one of the side aisles rather than the sanctuary itself, tend to show that they did not assign to the Blessed Virgin that divine honour which was due only to her Son and Lord. The usual [p 78] position of the Lady Chapel, beyond the choir, has, indeed, been considered as a proof that the honour paid to “Our Lady” exceeded that which was rendered unto our Lord, since the altar dedicated to her was set up beyond the High Altar in the most sacred portion of the church, and, in that position, might be said to overshadow it. But the usual situation of the Lady Chapel, at the east end of the choir or presbytery, proves nothing of the kind. One celebrated writer on the subject disclaims the idea in the following words, “Poole principally objects to the position of the Lady Chapel at the east end, ‘above,’ as he expresses it ‘the High Altar.’ Now we believe the Lady Chapel to have occupied the place merely on grounds of convenience, and not from any design—which is shocking to imagine—of exalting the Blessed Virgin to any participation in the honours of the Deity.” 6
It is true that the Lady Chapel was generally erected at the extreme east end, or one of the aisles near the choir was used for the purpose, because it was considered the most sacred part of the church next to the sanctuary. It was [p 79] erected at the east end of the Abbey Churches of Westminster and S. Albans; in the Cathedral Churches of Winchester, Salisbury, Chichester, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Wells, Hereford, Chester and Manchester; at Christ Church, Hants, where there is a chantry above, called S. Michael’s Loft, which once served as the Chapter House of the Priory, but in modern times has been converted into a schoolroom; and also at the parish church of S. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, where it is situated over a thoroughfare, after the example of several churches in Exeter. But the ecclesiastics and architects of the Middle Ages did not consider themselves bound, by a hard and fast rule, to set up the Lady Chapel at the east end. If an available site could be found beyond the Choir the Chapel was erected in that position, otherwise, the north aisle of the Church, or a convenient site near the Choir, was utilised for the purpose. The building has been erected on the north or south side of the Choir or Nave, and even at the west end when deemed expedient. It was erected on the north side at the Cathedrals of Canterbury, Oxford, Bristol, and Peterborough; at the Abbeys of Glastonbury, Bury St. [p 80] Edmunds, Walsingham, Thetford, Wymondham, Belvoir, Llanthony, Hulme, and Croyland, where there was a second Lady Chapel with a lofty screen, in the south transept. 7 It is on the south side at Kilkenny and at Elgin Cathedral. It stands in a similar position over the Chapter House at Ripon Minster. Sometimes it was placed above the chancel, as in Compton Church, Surrey; Compton Martin, Somerset; and Darenth, Kent; or over the porch, as at Fordham, Cambs. At Ely Cathedral it is connected with the extremity of the north transept. At Wimborne Minster it stands in the south transept, whilst at Rochester Cathedral and at Waltham Abbey, Essex, it was erected at the west of the south transept. At Durham Cathedral an attempt was made to build a Lady Chapel at the east end, but owing, it is said, to the supernatural intervention of S. Cuthbert, whose relics were deposited in the Choir, the building was erected instead at the west end, where it stands under the name of the Galilee Chapel. The original Lady Chapel at Canterbury also stood in this unusual position, until the days of Archbishop Lanfranc, 1070–1089, when [p 81] it was removed and the present building set up at the east end. The aisles were also frequently used as “ye Chappell of oure Ladye,” as at Haddenham, Cambs.
The practice of dedicating Chapels to the Blessed Virgin was introduced into this country during the twelfth century, shortly after the monastic orders had gained the supremacy over the parochial clergy. These buildings were generally founded not only to satisfy the spirit of the age, which demanded the veneration of the Mother of our Lord, but also to afford the necessary accommodation at the east end for the increased number of clergy. The founders, moreover, hoped to secure an augmentation of the revenues, by the offerings of the faithful at the shrines of the new Chapels, as appears to have been the case at Walsingham, Norfolk; All Hallows, Barking; and S. Stephen’s, Westminster. The building, in many instances, became the depository of the relics of a saint. The Galilee Chapel at Durham, dedicated to S. Mary the Virgin in 1175, contains the bones of the Venerable Bede, the earliest historian of the Church of England, who died at Jarrow-on-Tyne, on the eve of Ascension Day, [p 82] A.D. 735. These relics were translated, in 1370, from the tomb of S. Cuthbert, and placed in the Chapel, in a magnificent shrine of gold and silver. The Lady Chapel at Oxford contains the shrine of S. Frideswide, the daughter of the founder of the convent, and its first prioress, whose relics were translated from the north choir aisle in 1289. This Chapel is now called the Dormitory, as the remains of several deans and canons have been laid to rest within its walls.
The Lady Chapel has frequently served as the mausoleum of saints, princes, noblemen, and dignitaries of the Church. The stately and magnificent edifice at Westminster, known as Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, was built for this purpose in 1502, by the first Tudor monarch, on the site of the original Lady Chapel, erected by Henry III. in 1220. The royal founder, his wife, and other royal personages now await the resurrection in the tomb set up in this famous building. The Lady Chapel at S. Mary’s, Warwick, which is said to be the chief ornament of that church, was also built as a tomb-house in 1443, by Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. Their desire to rest in the chapel, dedicated to [p 83] the blessed Virgin, was closely associated with the idea which chiefly moved our forefathers to erect these buildings. They had been taught to believe in the invocation of saints, and were anxious to secure, for themselves and their dear ones, the mediation and intercession of the Mother of our Lord, whose influence with her Divine Son, they supposed, was all prevailing. So they founded these chapels in her honour, and solicited her good offices on their behalf by frequent services and prostrations before her image, which occupied the place of honour above “oure Ladye’s Altar” crowned as the Queen of Heaven, and profusely adorned with splendid jewels and exquisite embroidery. They believed, moreover, that as she could succour the living, so she would prevail with her Son on behalf of the dead. These sacred buildings were, accordingly, used also as chantries, where masses were offered daily, and the intervention of “oure Ladye S. Mary” was solicited to secure the release of the souls of the faithful departed from the flames of purgatory, through which, it was supposed, they must pass, to be purified from all the defilements of their earthly course, and “made meet for the inheritance of the saints in light.” [p 84] In frescoes on the walls, and in paintings on the windows, the Virgin was represented, interceding for the souls of the faithful as they came forth to judgment.
After the dissolution of monasteries by Henry VIII., and the suppression of chantries by Edward VI., many of these buildings shared the fate of the conventual churches to which they were attached. In some places the Lady Chapel was left to decay, and disappeared in the course of a few years, like that at Norwich, which fell into a ruinous condition as early as 1569. In other localities it was allowed to stand until the turbulent days of the Commonwealth, as at Peterborough, where it was taken down to supply materials for the reparation of the Cathedral, which had been greatly injured by Cromwell’s soldiers. In several places it was appropriated to other uses, and even divested of its sacred character. The elegant chapel at Ely, erected 1321–49, and said to have been one of the most perfect buildings of that age, was assigned at the Reformation to the parishioners of Holy Trinity to serve as their Parish Church, and is now called Trinity Church. The splendid specimen at S. Albans was [p 85] separated from the presbytery by a public thoroughfare, which was made through the antechapel, and a charter of Edward VI. transferred the sacred building to the authorities of the ancient Grammar School, and it was used as a schoolroom until the restoration in 1870. At S. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, the Lady Chapel has also been used for scholastic purposes, and at Waltham Abbey it has accommodated not only parochial schools but public meetings and petty sessions.
Among existing Lady Chapels, King Henry the Seventh’s Chapel occupies the first place for magnificence. The first Tudor monarch, in his anxiety to make his peace with God before his death, and to commemorate the union of the houses of York and Lancaster, determined to found a chapel in honour of the blessed Virgin, “in whom,” he declares in his will, “hath ever been my most singulier trust and confidence, ... and by whom I have hitherto in al myne adversities ever had my special comforte and relief.” He also made due provision for the celebration of masses and the distribution of alms “perpetually, for ever, while the world shall endure” for the welfare of his soul. The laying [p 86] of the foundation stone is recorded by the ancient chronicler as follows: “On the 24th daie of January 150⅔ a quarter of an houre afore three of the clocke at after noone of the same daie, the first stone of our Ladie Chapell, within the monasterie of Westminster, was laid by the hands of John Islip, Abbot of the same monasterie ... and diverse others.” 8 After its completion it was so universally admired, that Leland the antiquary describes it as “orbis miraculum”—the wonder of the world. About fifty years after its dedication the services, for which it was specially designed by its royal founder, were brought to an end by the Act of Parliament which suppressed the chantries throughout the kingdom, and then followed three centuries of gross neglect which reduced it to “an almost shapeless mass of ruins,” as it was described in 1803. Four years later, in 1807, Dean Vincent obtained a parliamentary grant for the restoration of the building, and the necessary repairs were completed in 1822. The Chapel still retains much of its ancient splendour, and the elegant and elaborate ceiling is a marvel of architectural skill. It has been used since the [p 87] year 1725 for the installation of the Knights of the Bath, and their banners are suspended over the old carved misereres or misericordes of the monks.
“Ye Chappell of oure Ladye” at S. Alban’s is also a most elegant specimen of the buildings, dedicated to the blessed Virgin. The foundations appear to have been laid by John de Hertford, abbot from 1235 to 1260. But at the election of Hugh de Eversdone, in 1308, the walls had only reached the level of the underside of the window sills, a height of ten feet above the ground. During his rule he laboured so assiduously to complete the work, that in a short time he finished it. The building, at its dedication, was so rich in detail that it is described by ancient writers as “a magnificent sight.” The work of Abbot Hugh included the exquisite carvings in stone, which represent about seventy different specimens of forms in nature. During its use as a Grammar School, from 1553 to 1870, the interior suffered much injury from the hands of the schoolboys, and was allowed to fall into a state of ruin and decay. Shortly after the removal of the School in 1870, a restoration was undertaken by the ladies of Hertfordshire, but [p 88] their good intentions were not carried into effect, through lack of the necessary funds. Lord Grimthorp then generously came to the rescue, and through his munificence the Chapel has been thoroughly and judiciously restored. It now stands once more in all its glory, as a perfect gem of architecture and one of the most elegant Lady Chapels in Christendom.
“Ye Chappell of oure Ladye” at Waltham Abbey is said to be one of the richest specimens of mediæval architecture in Essex. The building has been greatly defaced since the suppression of chantries, but still bears traces of its original glory. “The Lady Chapel,” says the late Professor Freeman, “must have been a most beautiful specimen of its style, but few ancient structures have been more sedulously disfigured.” It was erected before A.D. 1292, as, during that year, Roger Levenoth, an inhabitant, endowed the chantry, with a house and 100 acres of land in Roydon. The Chapel was in a flourishing condition in the reign of Edward III., as we find from the return made in obedience to the royal order, which was issued to the master of the ceremonies of every guild and chantry in the King’s dominions. In the Court language of [p 89] that period, which was Norman French, Roger Harrof and John de Poley, the chantry priests, are described as “meisters de la petit compaignie ordeigne al honor de Dieu et ure Donne seyncte Marie en la Ville de Waltham seynte croice.” The architect selected, as the site of the building, the space formed by the easternmost bay of the south aisle of the nave and the western side of the south transept. This peculiar position indicates that it was not the work of the monks, but that of the parishioners, who were allowed the use of the nave as their parish church from the days of King Harold II., the founder. A well-known antiquarian writes: “It seems to have been built by the parishioners, and not by the abbot and convent, and its position is due to its occupying the only available spot, and where only two walls wanted building. A similar case occurs at Rochester. Where the Abbey built the Lady Chapel it was usually east of the transept—at the east end if there was room, at the north side if otherwise.” 9 The parishioners could not erect their Lady Chapel at the east end, because the choir or presbytery had been used as the monastic church from the days of [p 90] Henry II., who, to atone for the massacre of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, changed the secular foundation of Harold, and introduced an abbot and monks of the Augustinian order. Another Lady Chapel had probably been erected at the east end for the use of the monks, in accordance with the custom of the age, but this shared the destruction which befell the whole of the eastern portion of the church after the dissolution of the monastery in 1540. The preservation of the parish Lady Chapel is therefore due to its position at the west of the presbytery. In a transcript by Peter le Neve, Norroy King at Arms, 1698, it is stated that a chapel was dedicated at Waltham in the year 1188, by William de Vere, Bishop of Hereford, “in honore Dei [et gloriosæ Virginis Mariae] et B. Martyris atque pontificis Thomae nomine.” 10 This has led to the conjecture that reference is made to the existing building, 11 or to that which formerly stood at the east end. 12 But the original Waltham manuscript shows that it does not refer to a Lady Chapel at all, but to the Chapel of S. Thomas of Canterbury. 13
[p 91]
The masonry of the exterior of the two walls erected when the Chapel was founded, consists of alternating bands of stone, squared bricks, and flint, so that it produces a “poly-chromatic effect.” 14 There are three large buttresses of considerable projection, with pedimented sets-off and slopes, one being situated at the south-west angle, and the other two on the south of the building. Two smaller buttresses also occupy a place on the south. Niches, with pedestals for images, are still standing in the primary buttresses.
The interior of the Chapel measures 41 feet 7 inches in length, 23 feet in breadth, and 23 feet in height. It is approached by a steep ascent of nine long narrow stone steps, which are situated near the south-west buttress. The ancient doorway is beautifully decorated with ball flowers. The floor stands at an elevation of nearly five feet above the floor of the chancel, an arrangement which appears to be peculiar to Waltham. It was apparently built at this high level to add to the loftiness of the crypt below, which was a capacious chamber of much importance in olden times, and consists of two wide bays of quadripartite [p 92] vaulting. There is no way of access from the interior of the Church, but “the chapel is connected with the south aisle by a single arch of poor and ordinary architecture, a sad contrast to the glorious Romanesque work of the nave.” 15 At the west end there is a large and beautiful six-light, square-headed window, with a rich and peculiar arrangement of a double plane of tracery, the inner plane consisting of three arches. This window, and the four elegant windows of three lights on the south side, are supposed to have been filled with stained glass, like that of the Chapter House at York Minster, and other buildings of the same period. At the extreme south-east of the building the remains of the ancient sedilia and piscina may still be seen. The walls were adorned with distemper paintings, chocolate coloured vine-leaves on a yellow ground running round the spandrels and windows. This decoration probably included a series of paintings, representing scenes in the life of the Mother of our Lord, and concluding with her assumption and coronation as the Queen of Heaven. There was also a representation of the Last Judgment in which “Our Lady” occupied [p 93] the place of honour near her Divine Son and Lord, interceding for the faithful as they appeared before their Judge. On the removal of the plaster from the east wall during the restoration in 1875, the remains of a fresco of “the Doom” were discovered, and here are depicted the Judge of all mankind in the scarlet robes of majesty, the Virgin as intercessor, S. Michael the Archangel, presiding over the balances in which souls are weighed, the Apostles as assessors, bishops and abbots with the keys of S. Peter, admitting the faithful into the Holy Catholic Church, human forms emerging from the grave, the path of life, the chains of everlasting darkness, demons clothed in flames, and the jaws of hell. The space under this fresco was probably occupied by beautiful statuary, the image of the blessed Virgin standing in the centre, immediately above the altar of “Our Ladye.” At the dissolution of the monastery “a table of imagery of the xii. apostles,” belonging to this Chapel, was valued at ten shillings. A few fragments of statuary, supposed to have formed part of this decoration, were discovered during the restoration of the Abbey Church in 1860, and have been inserted in the south-east wall of the [p 94] chancel. These relics of the splendid past include the mutilated stone figures of four saints, probably the evangelists, beautifully carved, and a representation of the crucifixion in black marble, but the ornament of precious metal, with which it was adorned, has long since disappeared.
The altars, desks, and tables in the Lady Chapel were covered with plates of silver, as in the crypt beneath, which was also, in those days, a splendid chantry, served by its own priest, who was called “the Charnel Priest.” The sacramental vessels and plate, which were of great value, were sold after the suppression. Dr. Thomas Fuller, Incumbent of Waltham Abbey in 1648, gives the following extracts from the churchwarden’s accounts: “1549. Imprimis.—Sold the silver plate which was on the desk in the charnel, weighing five ounces, for twenty-five shillings. Guess,” adds the historian, “the gallantry of our church by this (presuming all the rest in proportionable equipage) when the desk whereon the priest read was inlaid with plate of silver.” “1551. Item.—Received for two hundred seventy-one ounces of plate, sold at several times for the best advantage, sixty-seven [p 95] pound fourteen shillings and ninepence.” 16 The inventory of goods made by order of Henry VIII. also mentions “iiii. tables [of oure Ladye] plated with sylver and gylte, every one of them with ii. folding leves.” The Chapel was furnished besides with “a lytell payre of organes,” valued at xxs., at the dissolution of the monastery, when Thomas Tallis, the father of English church music, was organist of the Abbey Church, and presided at the “greate large payre of organes” in the Choir. He was assisted by John Boston, of Waltham, who probably performed on the smaller instrument in the Lady Chapel. Both names are mentioned in the pension list, Tallis receiving xxs. for wages and xxs. reward, and Boston iiis. for wages and iiis. reward.
A large number of wax tapers and candles was consumed annually at the various services held in the Lady Chapel and Crypt. In the return made by Sir Roger Harrop and Sir John de Poley, masters of the two chantries in the reign of Edward III., it is stated that every man and woman in this guild paid a yearly subscription of sixpence towards the expenses, and at the feasts of “oure Ladye” all [p 96] “Christiens” of the company gave five burning tapers (tapres ardant); in honour of our Lord four large torches; and on other special occasions fifteen tapers. Lights were also kept burning during the solemn requiem and funeral services, when prayers were offered that perpetual light might shine upon the souls of the departed. It is most likely that this impressive ceremonial had been observed in both chantries, when the body of Queen Eleanor rested for the night in the Abbey Church on its way to Westminster, and again when the remains of her royal consort, Edward I., were deposited for three months before the tomb of Harold. The wax in stock for these memorial services at the suppression was sold by the churchwardens as follows: “Item.—Sold so much wax as amounts to twenty six shillings.” Dr. Fuller remarks on this transaction, “So thrifty the wardens that they bought not candles and tapers ready made, but bought the wax at the best hand and paid poor people for the making of them. Now they sold their magazine of wax as useless. Under the Reformation more light and fewer candles.” 17
In the days of the chantry, lands, tenements, [p 97] and other gifts were presented and bequeathed that “obits” or prayers for the dead might be offered before the altar and image of “oure Ladye.” Dr. Fuller gives the following account of “obits” at Waltham: “The charge of an obit was two shillings and two pence; and, if any be curious to have the particulars thereof, it was thus expended: to the parish priest, three pence; to our Lady’s priest, three pence; to the charnel priest, threepence; to the two clerks, four pence; to the children (these I conceive choristers) three pence; to the sexton, two pence; to the bellman, two pence; for two tapers, two pence; for oblation, two pence. O, the reasonable rates at Waltham! Two shillings and two pence for an obit, the price whereof in S. Paul’s, in London, was forty shillings! For, forsooth, the higher the church, the holier the service, the dearer the price, though he had given too much that had given but thanks for such vanities. To defray the expenses of these obits, the parties prayed for, or their executors, left lands, houses, or stock to the churchwardens.” 18 These obits were abolished when the chantries were suppressed in the first year of the reign of King Edward VI. [p 98] “Now,” says Dr. Fuller, “was the brotherhood in the church dissolved, consisting as formerly of three priests, three choristers, and two sextons; and the rich plate belonging to them was sold for the good of the parish. Superstition by degrees being banished out of the church, we hear no more of prayers and masses for the dead. Every obit now had its own obit, and fully expired; the lands formerly given thereunto being employed to more charitable uses.” 19
Since the suppression both chantries have been stripped of almost all their glory. The beautiful statuary in the Lady Chapel has disappeared, the decorated walls were covered with plaster, the west window blocked up, three of the elegant south windows were partly bricked up, and the fourth was converted into a door-way. The building was entirely separated from the Church by a wall of lath and plaster, and the west front obscured by the erection of an unsightly porch, which also concealed from view the grand south Norman entrance to the Abbey Church. The exterior walls were covered with cement, in imitation of classic rustic work. The Chapel has been used during the last three centuries [p 99] for various purposes, some of which were degrading in the extreme to its sacred character. It has been used as a vestry, parochial schoolroom and lending library, also for public meetings and petty sessions, and, in its darkest days, as a store-room. The crypt has also passed through many changes, and has been stripped of its original splendour. It retained much of its beauty for a century after the suppression, as Dr. Fuller writes during his incumbency:—“To the south side of the Church is joined a chapel, formerly our Lady’s, now a school-house, and under it an arched charnel-house, the fairest that I ever saw.” 20 This beautiful chantry, which is partly underground, has been used since as a sepulchre for the dead, a prison cell for the living, 21 a receptacle for human bones, a coal cellar and heating chamber.
The Lady Chapel resumed its sacred character in 1876, after it had been carefully restored by Sir T. Fowell Buxton, Bart., K.C.M.G. 22 whose seat, Warlies Park, is situated in the parish. The modern porch was removed from the west end, the large arch in the south wall of the [p 100] Church re-opened, and the five elegant windows were made good. A splendidly carved memorial screen has since been erected under the arch by the parishioners, and some beautifully carved altar rails set up at the east end. The arms of the Abbey and Parish of Waltham Holy Cross are represented on the screen, namely, two angels exalting the Cross. The appearance of the interior is, however, still mean and bare, when compared with its former magnificence, although so much has been done to rescue from a state of degradation and neglect, this interesting relic of mediæval times, “ye Chappell of oure Ladye.”
6 . Durandus Symbol. lxxxviii.
20 . History of Waltham Abbey, cap. I., 9.
21 . The Quakers were incarcerated here during the reign of Charles II.
22 . Now Governor General of South Australia.
[p 101]
Some Famous Spires.
By John T. Page.
It is practically impossible to point to the exact date when spires first assumed a place in the category of ecclesiastical architecture. They belong to the Gothic style, and like the pointed arch were evolved rather than created. The low pointed roof of the tower gradually gave place to a more tapering finish, but the transition was by no means progressive, and cannot be clearly traced. Some of the earliest attempts at spire-building were uncouth and ungraceful, and even in these days the addition of a spire to a modern church does not necessarily add to its beauty. This is nearly always the case where an undue regard is paid to ornamentation, either at the base, or on the surface of the spire itself. Undoubtedly the most beautiful spires are those which at once spring clear from the summit of the tower and gradually rise needle-like towards the blue vault of heaven.
By far the greater number of our principal [p 102] spires date from the fourteenth century—a time when spire-building appears to have reached the zenith of its glory. Splendour and loftiness combine to render the examples of this period distinguished above those of any other.
Northamptonshire has been well termed the county of “Squires and Spires,” and it is probably within its borders that the largest number of really beautiful spires may be found. A journey from Northampton to Peterborough along the Nene Valley is never to be forgotten for the continually recurring spires which greet the eye of the traveller at almost every point. Rushden, Higham Ferrers, Irchester, Raunds, Stanwick, Oundle, Finedon, Aldwinckle S. Peter’s, Barnwell S. Andrew, and many others all combine to render the term “Valley of Spires” peculiarly appropriate to this district.
These spires of course cover a wide area. The two finest groups of spires are those of Coventry and Lichfield. When the cathedral at Coventry, with its three spires, was in existence in immediate proximity to the churches of S. Michael’s and Holy Trinity, the group formed “a picture not to be surpassed in England,” and even now, with Christ Church added, the [p 103] “Ladies of the Vale,” of Lichfield, suffer somewhat in comparison.
In point of height the cathedral spires of Salisbury and Norwich hold their own, while for beauty of outline Louth must be mentioned, and for elaborateness of detail the spire of Grantham.
It now remains to give a cursory glance at some of our most famous spires, and to endeavour to enumerate some of their chief characteristics.
The spire of Salisbury Cathedral rises from the centre of the main transept to a height of 410 feet. This is, without doubt, the tallest of our English spires. 23 It is octagonal in shape, and springs from four pinnacles. The surface is enriched with three bands of quatre-foiled work, and the angles are decorated throughout with ball-flower ornament. From a storm in 1703 it received some damage, and was, under the direction of Sir Christopher Wren, braced with ironwork. It does not appear to have moved since then, but from experiments made in 1740 it was found to be out of the perpendicular 24½ inches to the south, and 16¼ inches to the west. [p 104] On the 21st of June, 1741, it was struck by lightning and set on fire, but did not receive any great damage, and in 1827, by means of an ingenious wicker-work contrivance suspended from the top, extensive repairs were carried out. The name of the architect who conceived this lofty tower is unknown, but the date of its erection was probably at the beginning of the fourteenth century.
The spire of Norwich Cathedral rises to a height of 315 feet, and on a clear day can be seen for a distance of twenty miles. It was probably built by Bishop Percy in the latter half of the fourteenth century. About one hundred years after, it was struck by lightning, but the damage was speedily repaired. In 1629 the upper part was blown down, and was re-built in 1633.
[p 104a]
LOUTH CHURCH SPIRE.
The three spires of Coventry are those of S. Michael’s, Holy Trinity, and Christ Church. Of these, S. Michael’s is the chief, being 303 feet high. Amongst parish churches, it is therefore the tallest. The base consists of a lantern flanked by four pinnacles, to which it is connected by flying buttresses. Its erection was commenced in the year 1373, and completed in 1394. At [p 105] the restoration of the church, which took place in 1885, the tower was found to have been erected on the edge of an old quarry, and it cost no less a sum than £17,000 to add a new foundation. During the most critical period of the work the structure visibly moved, and the apex of the spire now leans 3ft. 5in. out of the perpendicular towards the north-west.
Holy Trinity spire is 237 feet high, and much less ornate than S. Michael’s. During a violent tempest of “wind, thunder, and earthquake,” which occurred on the 24th of January, 1665, it was overthrown, and much injury was done to the church in consequence. The re-building was finished in 1668. It has been completely restored in recent years.
The spire of Christ Church is some little distance away from the other two. It is octagonal in shape, and rises from an embattled tower to a height of 230 feet. It was restored in 1888.
Lichfield Cathedral contains three spires within its precincts. The grouping is, therefore, more uniform than that of Coventry, although the general effect is not thereby accentuated. The central spire rises to a height of 258 feet, [p 106] and the two which grace the west front are each 183 feet high. In the time of the great civil war, when Lichfield was besieged, the central spire was demolished. After the Restoration, it was re-built by good old Dr. Hackett.
The spire of Chichester Cathedral, built in the fourteenth century over a rotten sub-structure, was destroyed by its own weight in 1861. It was 271 feet high, and has now been re-built in its original style on a slightly higher tower. The story of its fall has often been told. On the night of Wednesday, the 20th of February, 1861, a heavy gale occurred. The next day, about twenty minutes past one o’clock, the spire was observed to suddenly lean towards the south-west, and then to right itself again. Soon after, it disappeared into the body of the cathedral, sliding down like the folding of a telescope. Only the coping-stone and the weather-vane fell outside, the rest of the masonry formed a huge cairn in the centre of the edifice, which was practically cut into four portions by the wreck. The present spire was completed in 1867.
In Lincolnshire there are two remarkable spires at Louth and Grantham. The one at Louth rises to a height of 294 feet. At the [p 107] corners of the tower are four tall turret pinnacles to which the spire is connected by flying buttresses. In 1843 it was struck by lightning; steps were at once taken for its restoration, which was completed three years later.
Grantham spire is octagonal in shape, and 285 feet in height. It is very light and graceful in appearance, and is richly ornamented with sculpture. It suffered from lightning in 1797, and again in 1882. Since the latter date sixteen feet of the masonry has been removed from the summit and re-built.
The church of S. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, has been aptly termed by the poet Chatterton, “the pride of Bristowe and the Western land.” The spire rises to a height of 300 feet, and has lately been restored at a cost of upwards of £50,000. In 1445, during a storm, the greater part of the original spire fell through the roof of the church, and for about four centuries it remained in a truncated state, although the damage done to the interior was speedily repaired.
The spire of S. Mary’s, Shrewsbury, is 220 feet high, and rises from an embattled tower, the four corners of which contain crocketed [p 108] pinnacles. During a gale on the night of Sunday, the 11th of February, 1894, about 50 feet of the masonry of the spire crashed through the church roof and did enormous damage. This has, however, since been repaired. A memorial stone on the west wall of the tower tells how one Thomas Cadman, was killed on the 2nd of February, 1739, when attempting to descend from the spire by a rope.
For elaborateness of detail, the spire of S. Mary the Virgin, Oxford, surpasses all others in this country. Its apex is some 90 feet from the ground, and around the base of the spire clusters a mass of richly decorated pinnacles, small spirelets, and canopies containing statues. The effect is picturesque in the extreme, and lends to the town of Oxford a unique charm. Its conception dates from the fourteenth century, but it has been much restored and added to since.
Of the Northamptonshire spires, Oundle is the loftiest, being 210 feet high. It bears date 1634, but this evidently refers to a re-building. It was partly taken down again and rebuilt in 1874. It is hexagonal in shape, and the angles are crocketed. Raunds church is surmounted by an [p 109] octagonal broach spire 186 feet high. It was struck by lightning on the 31st of July, 1826, and about 30 feet of the masonry was shattered. This was at once rebuilt at a cost of £1,737 15s. 3d. The octagonal spire of Higham Ferrers is 170 feet high, and was rebuilt after destruction by a storm of wind in 1632. Rushden spire is an octagon 192 feet high, and richly crocketed. At its base flying buttresses connect it with pinnacles at the corners of the tower. The spire at Finedon rises from an embattled tower to a height of 133 feet; that of Stanwick is 156 feet high, and that of Irchester 152 feet.
Space forbids more than a passing allusion to the fine spires of Newcastle Cathedral, S. Mary de Castro, Leicester, Ross, Herefordshire, and Olney, Bucks. The latter rises to a height of 185 feet. At its summit is a weathercock which, when taken down for regilding in 1884, was found to contain the following triplet—
I never crow,
But stand to show
Where winds do blow.
Several of the spires which have been mentioned are perceptibly out of the perpendicular, but in this respect the “tall twisted spire [p 110] of Chesterfield has no rival either in shape or pose.” It is no less than 230 feet high, and the wonder to many is that it has for so long maintained its equilibrium. Various conjectures have been made to account for the grotesque twist which the spire assumes; but none of these seems so likely as that which accounts for it by the combined action of age, wind, and sun. There are those who aver that it never was straight, and never will be, and one such person even goes so far as to attempt this statement in rhyme as follows:—
“Whichever way you turn your eye
It always seems to be awry,
Pray can you tell the reason why?
The only reason known of weight
Is that the thing was never straight,
Nor know the people where to go
To find the man to make it so.”
However this may be, it is satisfactory to note that a movement has recently been set on foot to collect subscriptions towards its much needed repair.
When speaking of Salisbury Cathedral spire, allusion was made to the repairs being carried out from a wicker-work contrivance suspended from the top. This was not the first time that [p 111] wicker-work had been used for such a purpose, for in 1787 the spire at S. Mary’s, Islington, was entirely encased in a cage composed of willow, hazel, and other sticks, while undergoing repair. An ingenious basket-maker of S. Albans, named Birch, carried out the work, and constructed a spiral staircase inside the cage. His contract was to do the work for £20 paid down, and to be allowed to charge sixpence a head to any sightseers who liked to mount to the top. It is said that in this way he gained some two or three pounds a day above his contract.
People and steeple rhymes are by no means uncommon; perhaps the most spiteful is that relating to an Essex village:—
“Ugley church, Ugley steeple,
The Yorkshire village of Raskelfe is usually called Rascall, and an old rhyme says:—
“A wooden church, a wooden steeple,
Rascally church, rascally people.”
Mr. William Andrews, in his “Antiquities and Curiosities of the Church” (London, 1897), gives many examples of “People and Steeple Rhymes.”
There is a never-ending romance connected [p 112] with the subject of spires. Every one possesses some story or legend. Spirits are supposed to inhabit their gloomy recesses, and are even credited with their construction. There is certainly an uncanny feeling connected with the interior of a spire, even on a sunny summer’s day, and given sufficient stress of howling winds and gloomy darkness, one can almost imagine a situation conducive to the acutest kind of devilry. So much for the interior of spires. What sensations may be produced by climbing the exterior is given to few to experience. The vast majority of mankind must perforce content themselves with a position on terra firma, whence they may with pleasure and safety combined behold
“——the spires that glow so bright
In front of yonder setting sun.”
23 . The spire of Old Saint Paul’s, which dated from the thirteenth century, rose to a height of 520 feet. It was destroyed by lightning on the 4th of June, 1561. The spire of Lincoln Cathedral measured 524 feet, and was destroyed in 1548. These are the two highest spires which have ever been erected in England.
[p 113]
The Five of Spades and the Church of Ashton-under-Lyne.
By John Eglington Bailey, F.S.A.
On the old tower of the church of Ashton-under-Lyne there was formerly an old inscription, which incidently testifies to the popularity of cards in England at a period when the notices of that fascinating means of diversion are both few and of doubtful import. Cards were given to Europe by the Saracens at the end of the fourteenth century, and the knowledge of their use extended itself from France to Greece. The French clergy were so engrossed by the pastime that the Synod of Langres, 1404, forbad it as unclerical. At Bologna, in 1420, S. Bernardin of Sienna preached with such effect against the gambling which was indulged in, that his hearers made on the spot a large bonfire with packs of cards taken out of their pockets. Under the word Χαρτια Du Cange quotes extracts from two Greek writers, which show that cards were popular in Greece before 1498. Chaucer, who died in 1400, and who indirectly depicted much [p 114] of the every-day life of his countrymen, does not once mention cards. But they begin to be noticed about the time of Edward IV. and Henry VI. The former king prohibited the importation of “cards for playing,” in order to protect the English manufacture of them. An old ale-wife or brewer, in one of the Chester plays or mysteries, is introduced in a scene in Hell, when one of the devils thus addresses her:—
Welcome, deare darlinge, to endless bale,
Usinge cardes, dice, and cuppes smale
With many false other, to sell thy ale
Now thou shalte have a feaste.
A more interesting notice of cards occurs in the
Paston Letters
, where Margery Paston, writing on “Crestemes Evyn” of the year 1484, tells her husband that she had sent their eldest son to Lady Morley (the widow of William Lovel, Lord Morley), “to hav knolage wat sports wer husyd [used] in her hows in Kyrstemesse next folloyng aftyr the decysse of my lord, her husbond [who died 26th July, 1476]; and sche sayd that ther wer non dysgysyngs [guisings], ner harpyng, ner lutyng, ner syngyn, ner non lowde dysports; but pleyng at the tabyllys, and [p 115] schesse, and cards: sweche dysports sche gaue her folkys leve to play and non odyr.” The lady adds that the youth did his errand right well, and that she sent the like message by a younger son to Lady Stapleton, whose lord had died in 1466. “Sche seyd according to my Lady Morlees seyng in that, and as sche hadde seyn husyd in places of worschip [i.e., of distinction: good families] ther as [= where] sche hath beyn.” This letter opens up an interesting view of the amusements which at the time were introduced into the houses of the nobility and gentry during Christmas-tide. At that festival cards from the first formed one of the chief amusements. Henry VII., who was a great card player, forbad cards to be used except during the Christmas holidays. Their ancient association with Christmas is seen in the kindness of Sir Roger de Coverley, who was in the habit of sending round to each of his cottagers “a string of hogs’-puddings and a pack of cards,” that good old squire being doubtless of the opinion of Dr. Johnson, who, with a deeper human insight than S. Bernardin and Henry VII., could see the usefulness of such a pastime: “It generates kindness and consolidates society.”
[p 116]
The inscription I have alluded to takes us back to the reign of an earlier English king than those named—Henry V., who reigned 1413–1422. In his time, it seems, viz., in 1413, the steeple of Ashton Church was a-building; when a certain butcher, Alexander Hyll, playing at noddy with a companion, doubtless in the neighbourhood of the church, swore that if the dealer turned up the five of spades he would build a foot of the steeple. The very card was turned up! Hyll, like a good Catholic, performed his promise, and had his name carved, a butcher’s cleaver being put before
Alexander
, and the five of spades before
Hyll
. A new tower was erected in 1516, when the church was enlarged; but the stone containing the curious inscription was somewhere retained, for it was visible in the time of Robert Dodsworth, the industrious Yorkshire antiquary, and the projector and co-worker with Dugdale of the
Monasticon
. Dodsworth, being at Ashton on the 2nd of April, 1639, copied the inscription, stating that it was on the church steeple. He wrote down the tradition, adding that its truth was attested by Henry Fairfax, then rector there, second son of Thomas Fairfax, Baron de Cameron (Dodsworth’s MSS. in Bibl. Bodl., [p 117] vol. 155, fol. 116). The eldest son of Lord Fairfax was Ferdinando, the celebrated general of the Commonwealth, and the generous patron of Dodsworth. Henry, the younger son, at whose rectory-house Dodsworth was entertained on the occasion of his Lancashire visit, is described by Oley (in his preface to George Herbert’s
Country Parson
) as “a regular and sober fellow of Trinity College in Cambridge, and afterwards rector of Bolton Percy in Yorkshire.” He held, besides, the rectory of Ashton from, at least, 1623 till 1645, when he was forcibly ejected; and that of Newton Kyme. He was a correspondent of Daniel King, author of
The Vale Royal
, for he had antiquarian tastes like his brother. He died at Bolton Percy 6th April, 1665. The tower of Ashton Church, as Rector Fairfax knew it, was taken down and re-built in 1818, by which time all recollection of that ancient piece of cartomancy in connection with the steeple had passed out of mind. Let it be hoped that while the tradition was lively, pleasanter things were said of Hyll, when the five of spades was thrown upon the card tables of Ashton, than assailed the name of Dalrymple when the nine of diamonds—the curse of [p 118] Scotland—came under the view of Tory Scotchmen. We may bestow on Hyll the card-player’s epitaph:—
His card is cut—long days he shuffled through
The game of life—he dealt as others do:
Though he by honours tells not its amount,
When the last trump is played his tricks will count.
“Noddy” is, of course, the very attractive game of “cribbage.” A great aunt of mine still living at Ashbourne, with whom I used to play when a boy, always called it by that name. It is one of the Court games, temp. James I., noticed by Sir John Harrington:—
Now noddy followed next, as well it might,
Although it should have gone before of right;
At which I say, I name not anybody,
One never had the knave yet laid for noddy.
The same is also alluded to in a satirical poem, 1594, entitled,
Batt upon Batt
Shew me a man can turn up Noddy still,
And deal himself three fives, too, when he will;
Conclude with one and thirty, and a pair,
Never fail ten in Hock, and yet play fair;
If Batt be not that night, I lose my aim.
[p 119]
Bells and their Messages.
By Edward Bradbury.
Do not imagine that this is an essay on campanology, on change-ringing, grandsires, and triple bob-majors. Do not fancy that it will deal with carillons, the couvre-feu, or curfew bell, with the solemn Passing bell, the bell of the public crier, the jingling sleigh bell, the distant sheep bell, the noisy railway bell, the electric call bell, the frantic fire bell, the mellow, merry marriage peal, the sobbing muffled peal, the devout Angelus, or the silvery convent chimes that ring for prime and tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and compline. Do not conclude that it will describe bell-founding; and deal with the process of casting, with technical references to cope, and crook, and moulding, drawing the crucible, or tuning.
It is of bells and their associations and inscriptions that we would write, the bells that are linked with our lives, and record the history of towns, communities, and nations; announcing feasts and fasts and funerals, interpreting with [p 120] metal tongue rejoicings and sorrowings, jubilees and reverses; pæans for victories by sea and land; knells for the death of kings and the leaders of men. As we write, the bells of our collegiate church are announcing with joyous clang the arrival of Her Majesty’s Judge of Assize. Before many days have passed another bell in the same town will tell with solemn toll of the short shrift given by him to a pinioned culprit, the only mourner in his own funeral procession.
Bells are sentient things. They are alike full of humour and pathos, of laughter and tears, of mirth and sadness, of gaiety and grief. One may pardon Toby Veck, in Charles Dickens’ goblin story, for investing the bells in the church near his station with a strange and solemn character, and peopling the tower with dwarf phantoms, spirits, elfin creatures of the bells, of all aspects, shapes, characters, and occupations. “They were so mysterious, often heard and never seen, so high up, so far off, so full of such a deep, strong melody, that he regarded them with a species of awe; and sometimes, when he looked up at the dark, arched windows in the tower, he half expected to be beckoned to by [p 121] something which was not a bell, and yet was what he had heard so often sounding in the chimes.” The bells! The word carries sound and suggestion with it. It fills the air with waves of cadence. “Those Evening Bells” of Thomas Moore’s song swing out undying echoes from Ashbourne Church steeple; Alfred Tennyson’s bells “ring out the false, ring in the true” across the old year’s snow, and his Christmas bells answer each other from hill to hill. There are the tragic bells that Sir Henry Irving hears as the haunted Mathias; “Les Cloches de Corneville” that agitate the morbid mind of the miser Gaspard; and the wild bells that Edgar Allen Poe has set ringing in Runic rhyme.
“Bell,” says the old German song, “thou soundest merrily when the bridal party to the church doth hie; thou soundest solemnly when, on Sabbath morn, the fields deserted lie; thou soundest merrily at evening, when bed-time draweth nigh; thou soundest mournfully, telling of the bitter parting that hath gone by! Say, how canst thou mourn or rejoice, that art but metal dull? And yet all our sorrowings and all our rejoicings thou art made to express!” In [p 122] the words of the motto affixed to many old bells, they “rejoice with the joyful, and grieve with the sorrowful”; or, in the original Latin,
Gaudemus gaudentibus,
An old monkish couplet makes the bell thus describe its uses—
Laudo Deum verum, plebem voco, congrego clerum:
Defuncto ploro, pestum fugo, festa decoro.
“I praise the true God, call the people, convene the clergy; I mourn for the dead, drive away pestilence, and grace festivals.” Who that possesses—to quote from Cowper—a soul “in sympathy with sweet sounds,” can listen unmoved to
——the music of the village bells
Falling at intervals upon the ear,
In cadence sweet—now dying all away,
Now pealing loud again, and louder still,
Clear and sonorous, as the gale comes on.
The same poet makes Alexander Selkirk lament on his solitary isle—
The sound of the church going bell
These valleys and rocks never heard,
Ne’er sigh’d at the sound of a knell,
Or smiled when a Sabbath appeared.
Longfellow has several tender references to [p 123] church bells. He sets the Bells of Lynn to ring a requiem of the dying day. He mounts the lofty tower of “the belfry old and brown” in the market place of Bruges—
Not a sound rose from the city at that early morning hour,
But I heard a heart of iron beating in the ancient tower.
From their nests beneath the rafters sang the swallows wild and high;
And the world, beneath me sleeping, seemed more distant than the sky.
Then most musical and solemn, bringing back the olden times,
With their strange unearthly changes rang the melancholy chimes.
Like the psalms from some old cloister, when the nuns sing in the choir;
And the great bell tolled among them, like the chanting of a friar.
Visions of the days departed, shadowy phantoms filled my brain;
They who live in history only seemed to walk the earth again.
Who does not remember Father Prout’s lyric on “The Bells of Shandon”? We venture to quote the four delicious verses in extenso—
With deep affection and recollection
I often think of the Shandon bells,
Whose sounds so wild would, in days of childhood,
Fling round my cradle their magic spells—
[p 124] On this I ponder where’er I wander,
And thus grow fonder, sweet Cork, of thee;
With thy bells of Shandon,
That sound so grand on
The pleasant waters of the River Lee.
I have heard bells chiming, full many a chime in
Tolling sublime in cathedral shrine;
While at a glib rate brass tongues would vibrate,
But all their music spoke naught to thine;
For memory dwelling on each proud swelling
Of thy belfry knelling its bold notes free,
Made the bells of Shandon
Sound far more grand on
The pleasant waters of the River Lee.
I have heard bells tolling “old Adrian’s mole” in
Their thunder rolling from the Vatican,
With cymbals glorious, swinging uproarious
In the gorgeous turrets of Notre Dame;
But thy sounds were sweeter than the dome of Peter
Flings o’er the Tiber, pealing solemnly.
Oh! the bells of Shandon
Sound far more grand on
The pleasant waters of the River Lee.
There’s a bell in Moscow, while on tower and kiosko,
In St. Sophia the Turkman gets,
And loud in air, calls men to prayer,
From the tapering summits of tall minarets,
Such empty phantom I freely grant them,
But there’s an anthem more dear to me—
It’s the bells of Shandon
That sound so grand on
The pleasant waters of the River Lee.
[p 125]
“The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,” in Gray’s “Elegy,” the best known, and, in its own line, the best poem in the English language. More dramatic is Southey’s story of the warning bell that the Abbot of Aberbrothock placed on the Inchcape Rock. James Russell Lowell has a beautiful thought in his little poem “Masaccio”—
Out clanged the Ave Mary bells,
And to my heart this message came;
Each clamorous throat among them tells
What strong-souled martyrs died in flame,
To make it possible that thou
Should’st here with brother sinners bow.
· · · · ·
Henceforth, when rings the health to those
Who live in story and in song,
O, nameless dead, who now repose
Safe in Oblivion’s chambers strong,
One cup of recognition true
Shall silently be drained to you!
In the belfry of Tideswell and of Hathersage, in the Peak of Derbyshire, are a set of rhymed bell-ringing laws. Those at Hathersage we give below; the Tideswell ones are almost word for word similar.
You gentlemen that here wish to ring,
See that these laws you keep in everything;
[p 126] Or else be sure you must without delay
The penalty thereof to the ringers pay.
First, when you do into the bellhouse come,
Look if the ringers have convenient room,
For if you do be an hindrance unto them,
Fourpence you forfeit unto these gentlemen.
Next, if here you do intend to ring,
With hat or spur do not touch a string;
For if you do, your forfeit is for that
Just fourpence down to pay, or lose your hat.
If you a bell turn over, without delay
Fourpence unto the ringers you must pay;
Or, if you strike, miscall, or do abuse,
You must pay fourpence for the ringers’ use.
For every oath here sworn, ere you go hence,
Unto the poor then you must pay twelve pence;
And if that you desire to be enrolled
A ringer here these orders keep and hold.
But whoso doth these orders disobey,
Unto the stocks we will take him straight way,
There to remain until he be willing
To pay his forfeit, and the clerk a shilling.
Churchwardens’ accounts abound with bell charges. We have before us the accounts of the churchwardens of Youlgreave, in the Peak of Derbyshire, for a period of a century and a half. Under the year 1604 we have “Item to the ringers on the Coronation Day (James I.), 2s. 6d.; for mending the Bels agaynst that day, 1s.; and for fatchinge the great bell yoke at Stanton hall, [p 127] 6d.” In 1605 there is “Item for a rope for a little bell, 5d.” In the following year is “Item to the Ringers the 5th day of August, when thanks was given to God for the delyvering of King James from the conspiracye of the Lord Gowyre, 5s.” In 1613 we find the sum of 6d. expended in purchasing “a stirropp for the fyrst bell wheele, 8d.” The year 1614 is prolific in charges connected with the belfry, as the following enumeration will show: “Item for the bellefonder, his dinner, and his sonnes, with other chargs at the same time, 10d.; at the second coming of the sayd bellfonder, 9d.; at the taking downe of the bell, 6d.; for castyng the fyrst bell, £4; for the surplus mettall which wee bought of the bellfounder because the new bell waeghed more than ye old, £3 15s. 10d.; to the bellfounder’s men, 4d.; for the carryage of our old bell to Chesterfield, 3s.; for carrying the great bell clapper to Chesterfield, 4d.; for carrying the new bell from Chesterfield, 2s. 8d.; to Nicholos Hibbert, for hanging the said bell, 1s. 1d.; to Nicholas Hibbert the younger, for amending the great bell yoke and wheele, 6d.; spent at Gybs house at the bellfounder’s last coming, 3d.; for amending the great bell clapper, 10d.”
[p 128]
The inscriptions on church bells would make an interesting chapter. On the second bell at Aston-on-Trent appears in Lombardic capitals, the words, “Jhesus be our spede, 1590,” and on the fourth bell is inscribed, “All men that heare my mournful sound, repent before you lye in ground, 1661.” The fourth bell of S. Werburgh’s at Derby is inscribed—
My roaring sounde doth warning geve
That men cannot heare always lyve.—1605.
The third bell at Allestree bears the words—
I to the church the living call,
And to the grave do summons all.—1781.
The second bell on the old peal at Ashbourne was inscribed—
Sweetly to sing men do call
To feed on meats that feed the soul.
The fifth bell at Dovebridge has the words: “Som rosa polsata monde Maria vocata, 1633.” This is—according to the Rev. Dr. John Charles Cox—a corrupt reading of “Sum Rosa pulsata mundi Maria vocata,” a legend occasionally found on pre-Reformation bells, and which may be thus Englished—
Rose of the world, I sound
Mary, my name, around.
[p 129]
A similar inscription—similarly mis-spelt—occurs on the third bell at Ibstock, Leicestershire, the date of which is 1632. Mr. Sankey, of Marlborough College, gives it a graceful French rendering—
Ici je sonne et je m’appelle,
Marie, du monde la rose plus belle.
The fourth bell at Coton-in-the-Elms has the inscription—
The bride and groom we greet
In holy wedlock joined,
Our sounds are emblems sweet
Of hearts in love combined.
The sixth bell is inscribed—
The fleeting hours I tell,
I summon all to pray,
I toll the funeral knell,
I hail the festal day.
The seventh bell at Castleton has the following legend—
When of departed hours we toll the knell,
Instruction take, and spend the future well.
James Harrison, Founder, 1803.
The second bell at Monyash is inscribed: “Sca Maria o. p. n.” (Sancta Maria ora pro nobis.)
The old curfew custom is still kept up in the [p 130] Peak district of Derbyshire, notably at Winster, where the bell is rung throughout November, December, January, and February at eight o’clock every work day evening, except on Saturdays, when the hour is seven. There are Sanctus bells at Tideswell, Hathersage, Beeley, Ashover, and other Derbyshire churches. All Saints’ Church, at Derby (“All Saints,” i.e., “the unknown good”), has a melodious set of chimes. They play the following tunes: Sunday, “Old One Hundred and Fourth” (Hanover); Monday, “The Lass of Patie’s Mill”; Tuesday, “The Highland Lassie”; Wednesday, “The Shady Bowers”; Thursday, “The National Anthem”; Friday, Handel’s “March in Scipio”; Saturday, “The Silken Garter.” They all date from the last century.
Church bells have the subtle charm of sentiment. When they swing in the hoary village tower, and send their mellifluous message across the country side and down the deep and devious valley, or when they make musical with mellow carillon the dreamy atmosphere of moss grown cathedral closes, they have a poetical influence. How pleasant it is to listen to the chimes which ring out from time to time from the towers of [p 131] Notre Dame, in the city of Rubens, and from the Campanile at Venice!
Through the balmy air of night
How they ring out their delight!
From the molten golden notes,
And all in tune,
What a liquid ditty floats
To the turtle dove that listens, while she gloats
On the moon!
Church bells in large towns, where one section of the community are night workers and seek their rest in the day-time, are by no means invested with sentiment. We have in our mind a church which is set in a dense population of railwaymen, engine drivers, stokers, guards, porters, &c. It possesses a particularly noisy peal of bells. They begin their brazen tintinnabulations at breakfast time, and ring on, at intervals, until past the supper hour. Sometimes the sound is a dismal monotone, as if the bellman had no heart for his work. At other times a number of stark mad Quasimodos seem to be pulling at the ropes to frighten the gilded cock on the vane into flapping flight. Sunday only brings an increase of the din, distracting all thought, destroying all conversation, defying all study, turning the blessed sense of hearing into a [p 132] curse, and making you envy the deaf. It is well known that upon many persons in health the clangour of bells has a very depressing effect; but at night, when narcotics are given and the sick are wearied out, it is very easy to imagine how irritating these bells must be both to the invalids and their attendants. One is inclined to exclaim with the Frenchman—
Disturbers of the human race,
Whose charms are always ringing,
I wish the ropes were round your necks,
And you about them swinging.
How very wise those Spanish innkeepers were who, in the olden time, used to make “ruido” an item in their bills, charging their guests with the noise they made!
[p 133]
Stories about Bells.
By J. Potter Briscoe, F.R.H.S.
On the eve of the feast of Corpus Christi the choristers of Durham Cathedral ascend the tower, and, clad in their fluttering robes of white, sing the
Te Deum
. This custom is performed to commemorate the miraculous extinguishing of a conflagration on that night in the year 1429. The legend goes that, whilst the monks were engaged in prayer at midnight, the belfry was struck by the electric current and set on fire. Though the flames continued to rage until the middle of the next day, the tower escaped serious damage, and the bells were uninjured—an escape which was imputed to the special interference of the incorruptible S. Cuthbert, who was enshrined in that cathedral. These are not the bells which now reverberate among the housetops on the steep banks of the Wear, they having been cast by Thomas Bartlett during the summer of 1631.
The fine peal of bells in Limerick Cathedral were originally brought from Italy, having been [p 134] manufactured by a young native, who devoted himself enthusiastically to the work, and who, after the toil of many years, succeeded in finishing a splendid peal, which answered all the critical requirements of his own musical ear. Upon these bells the artist greatly prided himself, and they were at length bought by the prior of a neighbouring convent at a very liberal price. With the proceeds of that sale the young Italian purchased a little villa, where, in the stillness of the evening, he could enjoy the sound of his own melodious bells from the convent cliff. Here he grew old in the bosom of his family and of domestic happiness. At length, in one of those feuds common to the period, the Italian became a sufferer amongst many others. He lost his all. After the passing of the storm, he found himself preserved alone amid the wreck of fortune, friends, family, and home. The bells too—his favourite bells—were carried off from the convent, and finally removed to Ireland. For a time their artificer became a wanderer over Europe; and at last, in the hope of soothing his troubled spirit, he formed the resolution of seeking the land to which those treasures of his memory had been conveyed. He sailed for Ireland. Proceeding [p 135] up the Shannon one beautiful evening, which reminded him of his native Italy, his own bells suddenly struck upon his ear! Home, and all its loving ties, happiness, early recollections, all—all were in the sound, and went to his heart. His face was turned towards the cathedral in the attitude of intently listening. When the vessel reached its destination the Italian bellfounder was found to be a corpse!
Odoceus, Bishop of Llandaff, removed the bells from his cathedral during a time of excommunication. Earlier still they are assumed to have been in use in Ireland as early as the time of S. Patrick, who died in 493. In those days much superstitious feeling, as in later ages, hung around the bells, and many sweetly pretty and very curious legends are known respecting them. Thus it is said S. Odoceus, of Llandaff, being thirsty after undergoing labour, and more accustomed to drink water than anything else, came to a fountain in the vale of Llandaff, not far from the church, that he might drink. Here he found women washing butter after the manner of the country. Sending to them his messengers and disciples they requested that they would accommodate them with a vessel that their [p 136] pastor might drink therefrom. These mischievous girls replied, “We have no other cup besides that which we hold in our hands,” namely, the butter. The man of blessed memory taking it, formed one piece into the shape of a small bell, and drank from it. The story goes that it permanently remained in that form, so that it appeared to those who beheld it to consist altogether of the purest gold. It is preserved in the church at Llandaff, and it is said that, by touching it, health is given to the diseased.
The bell of S. Mura was formerly regarded with superstitious reverence in Ireland, and any liquid drunk from it was believed to have peculiar properties in alleviating human suffering; hence the peasant women of the district in which it was long preserved particularly used it in cases of child-birth, and a serious disturbance was excited on a former attempt to sell it by its owner. Its legendary history relates that it descended from the sky ringing loudly, but as it approached the concourse of people who had assembled at the miraculous warning, the tongue detached itself and returned towards the skies; hence it was concluded that the bell was never to be profaned by sounding on earth, but was to be kept for [p 137] purposes more holy and beneficent. This is said to have happened on the spot where once stood the famous Abbey of Fahan, near Innishowen, in county Donegal, founded in the seventh century by S. Mura, or Muranus.
Mr. Robert Hunt, F.R.S., tells us that, in days long ago, the inhabitants of the parish of Forrabury—which does not cover a square mile, but which now includes the chief part of the town of Bocastle and its harbour—resolved to have a peal of bells which should rival those of the neighbouring church of Tintagel, which are said to have rung merrily at the marriage, and tolled solemnly at the death of Arthur. The bells were cast. The bells were blessed. The bells were shipped for Forrabury. Few voyages were more favourable. The ship glided, with a fair wind, along the northern shores of Cornwall, waiting for the tide to carry her safely into the harbour of Bottreaux. The vesper bells rang out at Tintagel. When he heard the blessed bell, the pilot devoutly crossed himself, and bending his knee, thanked God for the safe and quick voyage which they had made. The captain laughed at the superstition, as he called it, of the pilot, and swore that they had only to thank themselves for [p 138] the speedy voyage, and that, with his own arm at the helm, and his judgment to guide them, they would soon have a happy landing. The pilot checked this profane speech. The wicked captain—and he swore more impiously than ever, that all was due to himself and his men—laughed to scorn the pilot’s prayer. “May God forgive you,” was the pilot’s reply. Those who are familiar with the northern shores of Cornwall will know that sometimes a huge wave, generated by some mysterious power in the wide Atlantic, will roll on, overpowering everything by its weight and force. While yet the captain’s oaths were heard, and while the inhabitants on the shore were looking out from the cliffs, expecting within an hour to see the vessel charged with their bells safe in their harbour, one of those vast swellings of the ocean was seen. Onward came the grand billow in all the terror of its might! The ship rose not upon the waters as it came onward! She was overwhelmed, and sank in an instant close to the land. As the vessel sank, the bells were heard tolling with a muffled sound, as if ringing the death knell of the ship and sailors, of whom the good pilot alone escaped with life. When storms are coming, and only [p 139] then, the bells of Forrabury, with their dull muffled sound, are heard from beneath the heaving sea, a warning to the wicked. The tower has remained silent to this day.
Passing through Massingham, in Lincolnshire, a long time ago, a traveller noticed three men sitting on a stile in the churchyard, and saying, “Come to church, Thompson!” “Come to church, Brown!” and so on. Surprised at this, the traveller asked what it meant. He was told that, having no bells, this was how they called folk to church. The traveller, remarking that it was a pity so fine a church should have no bells, asked the men if they could make three for the church, promising to pay for them himself. This they undertook to do. They were a tinker, a carpenter, and a shoemaker respectively. When the visitor came round that way again, he found the three men ringing three bells, which said “Ting, Tong, Pluff,” being made respectively of tin, wood, and leather.
There is a tradition that John Barton, the donor of the third bell at Brigstock, Northamptonshire, was one of several plaintiffs against Sir John Gouch to recover their rights of common upon certain lands in the neighbouring parish of [p 140] Benefield, and that Sir John threatened to ruin him if he persisted in claiming his right. John Barton replied that he would leave a cow which, being pulled by the tail, would low three times a day, and would be heard all over the common when he (Sir John) and his heirs would have nothing to do there. Hence the gift of the bell, which was formerly rung at four in the morning, and at eleven at morning and at night. He is also said to have left means for paying for this daily ringing.
One Christmas Eve the ringers of Witham-on-the-Hill left the bells standing for the purpose of partaking of refreshments at a tavern that stood opposite the church. One of their number, a little more thirsty than the rest, insisted that before going back to ring they should have another pitcher of ale. This being at length agreed to by his brother bell-ringers, the party remained to duly drain the last draught. Whilst they were drinking, the steeple fell. Whether this is merely a tapster’s tale, or the sober statement of a remarkable fact, we are not in a position to state.
From a curious and rare pamphlet on “Catholic Miracles,” published in 1825, we [p 141] learn that a band of sacrilegious robbers, having broken into a monastery, proceeded out of bravado to ring a peal of bells, when, through prayers offered up by the “holy fathers,” a miracle was wrought, and the robbers were unable to leave their hold on the ropes. This state of affairs was depicted by the inimitable George Cruikshank in a woodcut, impressions of which are given in our “Curiosities of the Belfry,” (Hamilton).
In the village of Tunstall, a few miles distant from Yarmouth, there is a clump of alder trees, familiarly known as “Hell Carr.” Not far from these trees there is a pool of water having a boggy bottom, that goes by the name of “Hell Hole.” A succession of bubbles are frequently seen floating on the surface of the water in summer time, a circumstance (as Mr. Glyde, the Norfolk antiquarian author, truly states) that can be accounted for very naturally; but the natives of the district maintain that these bubbles are the result of supernatural action, the cause of which is thus described. The tower of the church is in ruins. Tradition says that it was destroyed by fire, but that the bells were not injured by the calamity. The parson and the [p 142] churchwarden each claimed the bells. While they were quarrelling, his Satanic Majesty carried out the disputed booty. The clergyman, however, not desiring to lose the booty, pursued and overtook the devil, who, in order to evade his clerical opponent, dived through the earth to his appointed dwelling-place, taking the bells with him. Tradition points to “Hell Hole” as the spot where this hurried departure took place. The villagers believe that the bubbles on the surface of the pool are caused by the continuous descent of the waters to the bottomless pit.
THE BELL OF ST. FILLAN.
In 1778 there was a bell belonging to the chapel of S. Fillan, which was in high reputation among the votaries of that saint in olden times. It was of an oblong shape, about a foot high, and was usually laid on a gravestone in the churchyard. Mad people were brought to it to effect a cure. They were first dipped into the “Saint’s Pool,” where certain ceremonies were performed, which partook of the character of Druidism and Roman Catholicism. The bell was placed in the chapel, where it remained, bound with ropes, all night. Next day it was placed upon the heads of the lunatics with great solemnity, but with what results “deponent sayeth not.” It was the [p 143] popular opinion that, if stolen, this bell would extricate itself from the hands of the thief and return home ringing all the way! The bell had ultimately to be kept under lock and key to prevent its being used for superstitious purposes. This old time relic is now in the National Museum, Edinburgh, of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and it is described as follows in the catalogue: “The ‘Bell of S. Fillan,’ of cast bronze, square shaped, and with double-headed, dragonesque handle. It lay on a gravestone in the old churchyard at Strathfillan, Perthshire, where it was superstitiously used for the cure of insanity and other diseases till 1798, when it was removed by a traveller to England. It was returned to Scotland in 1869, and deposited in the Museum by Lord Crawford and the Bishop of Brechin, with the consent of the [p 144] Heritors and Kirk-Session of S. Fillans.” Near Raleigh there is a valley which is said to have been caused by an earthquake several hundred years ago, which convulsion of nature swallowed up a whole village, together with the church. Formerly it was the custom of the people to assemble in this valley every Christmas Day morning to listen to the ringing of the bells of the church beneath them. This, it was positively asserted, might be heard by placing the ear to the ground and listening attentively. As late as 1827 it was usual on this morning for old men and women to tell their children and young friends to go to the valley, stoop down, and hear the bells ring merrily. The villagers really heard the ringing of the bells of a neighbouring church, the sound of which was communicated by the surface of the ground, the cause being misconstrued through the ignorance and credulity of the listeners.
[p 145]
Concerning Font-Lore.
By the Rev. P. Oakley Hill.
When those sermons in stone—the beautiful fonts of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, which preached to a bygone age—come to be translated into modern English on an extensive and systematic scale, they will be found to be not only sermons theological, but treatises on hagiology, music, contemporary history, symbolism, and art of the highest order. One of the richest fields in font-lore is to be found in East Anglia, and Norfolk alone contains examples of sufficient importance and of vivid interest, to fill a whole volume on this particular subject. Only to mention a few, that will rapidly occur to a Norfolk antiquary, is to conjure up a varied and rich archæological vision, which can be extended indefinitely at will.
Of canopied fonts perhaps that of S. Peter (Mancroft), Norwich, takes the palm. The carved oak canopy is supported by four massive posts, giving great dignity to the stone font [p 146] which it overshadows. The canopy at Sall is of a more graceful type, being in the form of a crocketed spire, suspended by a pulley from an ancient beam projecting from the belfry platform. Elsing, Merton, and Worstead also possess font covers of great interest.
Seven Sacrament fonts are numerous, that of New Walsingham being one of the finest of its kind in England. It belongs to the Perpendicular period, and is richly carved. On seven of its eight panels are sculptured figures representing the Seven Sacraments, the eighth exhibiting the Crucifixion. The stem carries figures of the four Evangelists and other saints, and rests on an elaborately-carved plinth, the upper part of which is in the form of a Maltese cross. A copy of this magnificent structure has been erected in the Mediæval Court of the Crystal Palace. A counterpart of the Walsingham font (more or less exact, though perhaps not so rich in carving) is to be seen at Loddon, with similar Maltese cross base, but the Vandal’s hand has nearly obliterated the figuring of the Sacramental panels. Other instances of Seven Sacrament fonts are to be seen in Norwich Cathedral, at Blofield, Martham, and elsewhere.
[p 147]
Fonts bearing the date of their erection are found at Acle and Sall, the former having the following inscription upon the top step: “Orate pro diabus qui hūc fontem in honore dei fecerunt fecit anno dni millo cccc decimo.” An instance of a Posy font with date (sixteenth century) occurs in one of the Marshland churches, the Posy being:—
Thynk and Thank.
The leaden font at Brundall is believed to be one of three only of its kind remaining in England; a fourth, somewhat damaged, existed at Great Plumstead until a few years ago, when alas! it perished in a disastrous fire which practically destroyed the church. Lion fonts are numerous, those of Acle and Strumpshaw being excellent examples.
Remarkable examples of carved fonts are those at Toftrees, Blofield, Wymondham, Bergh Apton, Aylsham, Ketteringham, Sculthorpe, Walpole (S. Peter), etc. At Hemblington, dedicated to All Saints, there is a perfect little hagiology around the font-pedestal and upon seven of the panels of the basin, the eighth panel shewing the mediæval presentment of the Holy Trinity, the Almighty Father being somewhat [p 148] blasphemously represented as an old man, while the Crucifix rests upon an orb, and (what is perhaps somewhat unusual) the Holy Dove appears about to alight on the Cross.
FONT AT UPTON CHURCH, NORFOLK.
Of Decorated Fonts in the county of Norfolk, that of Upton must be accounted facile princeps. In beauty of design, in fulness of symbolism, in richness of detail, it is a faithful type of the elaborate art of the Decorated Period. It was originally coloured, fragments of red and blue [p 149] paint being still visible. A massive base is formed by three octagonal steps rising tier upon tier, the upper step divided from the second by eight sets of quatrefoils, flanked at the corners by sitting dogs with open mouths. Upon the stem of the font there are eight figures in bas relief, standing upon pediments beneath overhanging canopies exquisitely carved. These canopies are adorned with crocketed pinnacles, and the interior of each has a groined roof, with rose boss in the centre. Some of the pediments are garnished with foliage, others exhibit quaint animals, e.g., a double dragon with but one head connecting the two bodies, two lions linked by their tails, and two dogs in the act of biting each other; all, of course, highly symbolical of various types of sin. The canopied figures around the pedestal represent the two Sacraments, an indication that even in the fourteenth century the two Sacraments of the Gospel were esteemed as of the first importance. Holy Communion is symbolised by five figures. A bishop in eucharistic vestments, his right hand raised in blessing, his left holding the pastoral staff, while the double dragon is beneath his feet. It is not unlikely that this ecclesiastic was de Spenser, the [p 150] contemporary Bishop of Norwich, of military fame. The bishop is supported to right and left by angels robed and girded, circlets and crosses on their heads, each holding a candle in a somewhat massive candlestick. The graceful lines of the wings suggest the probability of the artist having belonged to a continental guild of stone carvers. The next two figures are priests, each vested in dalmatic, maniple, stole, and alb, acting as deacon and sub-deacon, the first holding an open service book, the second the chalice and pyx.
The three remaining figures portray Holy Baptism. Of the two godmothers and the godfather in the lay dress of the fourteenth century, the first holds a babe in her arms in swaddling clothes, the swathing band being crossed again and again. The other sponsors carry each a rosary.
To digress for a moment; here is an interesting deduction. The infant is a girl—witness the two godmothers. The font cannot have been made later than about 1380, at which time the Decorated merged into the Perpendicular. Now the lord of the manor of Upton from 1358 onwards, for many years, was one [p 151] John Buttetourt, or Botetourt, who, with his wife Matilda, had an only daughter and heiress, to whom was given the baptismal name Jocosa. It appears highly probable that the lord of Upton, rejoicing at the birth of his little heiress, caused the font to be designed and built as a memorial of her baptism. But it would seem that he did not live to see her settled in life, for in 1399 she had grown to early womanhood, had won the affection of Sir Hugh Burnell, who made her his wife, and by the following year, if not before, she had inherited the manor in her own right.
To return to the description of the font. Resting on the canopies above described, and supported by eight half-angels with musical instruments, etc., is the large and handsome laver. The principal panels are occupied by reliefs of the four living creatures of the Revelation—the historic emblems of the four Evangelists—the flying lion, the flying bull, the man, and the eagle, the last named with scroll facing east. The four alternative panels represent angels, two holding instruments of music, two with heraldic shields. The panels are separated from each other by crocketed buttresses. The musical [p 152] instruments shewn upon the font are of great interest. A kind of rebeck or lute twice occurs, and once a curious pair of cymbals. One half-angel is playing on a crowth, an early form of the fiddle, consisting of an oblong box, a couple of strings, a short straight and round handle, and a bow. Another of the half-angels holds an open music book, containing the ancient four-line score.
The font has suffered some amount of mutilation in the five centuries of its existence; three or four heads have disappeared, also the right hand of the bishop, and the top of the pastoral staff; the chalice has been broken off, and the flying lion is fractured. And as a reminder of the iconoclastic century which was most likely responsible for the damage, these dates are roughly cut into the leaden lining of the bowl: 1641, 1662, 1696.
[p 153]
Watching Chambers in Churches.
By the Rev. Geo. S. Tyack, B.A.
The smallest acquaintance with the inventories, or the ceremonial, of our mediæval churches is sufficient to show anyone a glimpse of the extraordinary wealth of which the larger churches especially were possessed in those days. Vestments of velvet and silk and cloth of gold, adorned with jewels and the precious metals; crosses and candlesticks of gold, studded with gems; reliquaries that were ablaze with gorgeousness and beauty; and sometimes shrines and altars that were a complete mass of invaluable treasure; such were the contents of the choirs and sacristies of our cathedrals and abbey churches. This being the case, it is obvious that the greatest care had to be taken of such places. Then, even as now, there were desperadoes from whom the sanctity of the shrine could not protect it, if they could get a chance of fingering its jewels; men who would exclaim, with Falconbridge in the play of “King John” (Act III., Sc. 3)—
[p 154]
“Bell, book, and candle shall not drive me back,
When gold and silver beck me to come on.”
To protect the wealthier churches from desecration and loss, therefore, bands of watchers were organized, who throughout the night should be ever on the alert against the attacks of thieves; who would also, moreover, be able to raise, if need were, the alarm of fire. At Lincoln these guardians patrolled the Minster at nightfall, to assure themselves that all was safe. To facilitate the inspection of the whole building occasionally squints were made; as at the Cathedral of S. David’s, where the cross pierced in the east wall behind, and just above, the high altar, is supposed by some to have been for this purpose, a view being thus obtained of the choir from the Chapel of the Holy Trinity, or vice versâ.
[p 155]
ABBOT’S PEW, MALMESBURY ABBEY.
In several instances, however, it was found both more convenient and more effective to erect a special chamber, so placed and so elevated as to command a good view of the church, or of the portion of the church to be watched; and here a constant succession of watchers kept guard. One of our most interesting examples of this is at S. Albans. Near the [p 157] site of the shrine of the patron saint (on which the fragments of the shattered shrine have been skilfully built up once more) is a structure, in two storeys, of carved timber. The lower stage is fitted with cupboards, in which were probably preserved relics, or such jewels and ornaments as were not kept permanently upon the shrine. A doorway in this storey admits to a staircase leading to the gallery above. This is the watchers’ chamber; the side fronting the shrine being filled with perpendicular tracery, whence the monks in charge could easily keep the treasures around them under observation. A somewhat similar structure is still seen at Christ Church, Oxford, and is sometimes spoken of as the shrine of S. Frideswide. It is really the watching-chamber for that shrine; and was erected in the fourteenth century upon an ancient tomb, supposed to be that of the founder of the feretrum of the saint, though popular report describes it as the resting-place of the bodies of her parents.
In not a few cases, both in England and abroad, these chambers were built in a yet more durable fashion. At Bourges may be seen a stone loft on the left side of the altar; at [p 158] Nuremberg also is one. In addition to the wooden chamber, already described, S. Alban’s Abbey (now the cathedral) has a small one of stone in the transept. Lichfield has a gallery over the sacristy door, which served the same purpose; and at Worcester an oriel was probably used by the watchers. Westminster Abbey has such a chamber over the chantry of King Henry VI., and Worcester Cathedral has one in the north aisle; and there are several other instances. Many churches had rooms over the north porch, as the cathedrals of Exeter and Hereford, the churches of Christchurch (Hampshire), Alford (Lincolnshire), and many others; and these in some cases, as at Boston, had openings commanding a view of the interior.
Another explanation of the existence of a few watching lofts is sometimes given, besides the need of guarding the Church’s treasures. It is held by some that in the face of the deterioration of monastic simplicity and devotion in the later times before the Dissolution in England, the abbots felt the need of keeping a stricter eye upon their community; and these rooms were consequently constructed to enable them to [p 159] look, unobserved themselves, into their abbey church, and to see that all whose duty called for their presence were there, and properly occupied. This theory is perhaps supported by the traditional name of “the abbot’s pew,” by which a very simple and substantial watching-chamber in the triforium of Malmesbury Abbey is called. With this may be compared another example in the priory church of S. Bartholomew, Smithfield. In these, and most of the other instances, the watching-chamber is an addition to the original structure, dating often considerably later than the rest. This is quoted by the believers in the rapid spread of monastic depravity in later ages in support of the theory just noticed; as is also the fact, that the “pew” is often near what formerly constituted the abbot’s private apartments within the adjoining monastery. It is probable that both explanations are true; some of these lofts forming “abbot’s pews,” as others certainly were for the guardian watchers of the shrines. In a large community it would certainly be wise for the head to be able at times to survey quietly and unobserved the actions of the rest; but this admission no more implies that the lives of all [p 160] monks were scandalous, than does the presence of watchers by the shrines prove that all worshippers were thieves.
We have noticed in this paper the chief watching-chambers in this country, but no doubt other examples occur which may have special points of interest.
[p 161]
Church Chests.
By the Rev. Geo. S. Tyack, B.A.
An interesting article of Church furniture which has scarcely received the amount of notice which it deserves, is the Church Chest, the receptacle for the registers and records of the parish, and sometimes also for the office books, vestments, and other valuables belonging to the Church. In recent years attention has frequently been directed to the interesting character of our ancient parochial documents, but the useful cases which for so many years have shielded them, more or less securely, from damage or loss, have been largely overlooked.
The present authority for the provision in every English church of a proper repository for its records is the seventieth canon, the latter part of which runs in the following words, from which it will be seen that some of its details have been suffered to become obsolete: “For the safe keeping of the said book (the register of baptisms, weddings, and burials), the churchwardens, at the charge of the parish, shall [p 162] provide one sure coffer, and three locks and keys; whereof one to remain with the minister, and the other two with the churchwardens severally; so that neither the minister without the two churchwardens, nor the churchwardens without the minister, shall at any time take that book out of the said coffer. And henceforth upon every Sabbath day immediately after morning or evening prayer, the minister and the churchwardens shall take the said parchment book out of the said coffer, and the minister in the presence of the churchwardens shall write and record in the said book the names of all persons christened, together with the names and surnames of their parents, and also the names of all persons married and buried in that parish in the week before, and the day and year of every such christening, marriage, and burial; and that done, they shall lay up the book in the coffer as before.” This Canon, made with others in 1603, was a natural sequence to the Act passed in 1538, which enjoined the due keeping of parish registers of the kind above described. It is, in fact, obvious that the canon only gave additional sanction to a practice enforced some years earlier; for Grindal, in his “Metropolitical [p 163] Visitation of the Province of York in 1571,” uses almost identical terms, requiring, amongst many other things, “That the churchwardens in every parish shall, at the costs and charges of the parish, provide ... a sure coffer with two locks and keys for keeping the register book, and a strong chest or box for the almose of the poor, with three locks and keys to the same:” the same demand was made, also by Grindal, on the province of Canterbury in 1576.
Church chests did not, however, come into use in consequence of the introduction of the regular keeping of registers. The Synod of Exeter, held in 1287, ordered that every parish should provide “a chest for the books and the vestments,” and the convenience and even necessity of some such article of furniture, doubtless led to its use in many places from yet earlier times.
We have in England several excellent examples of “hutches,” or chests, which date from the thirteenth, or even from the close of the twelfth century. Some there are for which a much earlier date has been claimed. These latter are rough coffers formed usually of a single log of wood, hollowed out, and fitted with a massive [p 164] lid, the whole being bound with iron bands. Chests of this kind may be seen at Newdigate, Surrey, at Hales Owen, Shropshire, and elsewhere; and on the strength of the rudeness of the carpentry displayed, it has been asserted that they are of Norman, or even of Saxon, workmanship. Roughness of design and work are scarcely, however, in themselves sufficient evidence of great antiquity; many local causes, especially in small country places, may have led the priests and people to be content with a very rude article of home manufacture, at a time when far more elaborate ones were procurable in return for a little more enterprise or considerably more money. The date of these rough coffers must therefore be considered doubtful.
Of Early English chests, we have examples at Clymping, Sussex, at Saltwood and Graveney, Kent, at Earl Stonham, Suffolk, at Stoke D’Abernon, Surrey, and at Newport, Essex. The Decorated Period is represented by chests at Brancepeth, Durham, at Huttoft and Haconby, Lincolnshire, at Faversham and Withersham, Kent, and at S. Mary Magdalene’s, Oxford. The workmanship of the Perpendicular Period has numerous illustrations among our church [p 165] chests, such as those at S. Michael’s, Coventry, S. Mary’s, Cambridge, the Chapter House of Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford, and others at Frettenham, Norfolk, at Guestling, Sussex, at Harty Chapel, Kent, at Southwold, Suffolk, and at Stonham Aspel, Suffolk.
CHEST AT SALTWOOD, KENT.
In the making of all these coffers, strength was naturally the great characteristic which was most obviously aimed at; strength of structure, so as to secure durability, and strength of locks and bolts, so as to ensure the contents from theft. But in addition to this, artistic beauty was not lost sight of, and many chests are excellent illustrations of the wood-carvers’ taste and skill, and several were originally enriched with colour.
[p 167]
CHEST AT OVER, CHESHIRE.
[p 166]
A good example of those in which security has been almost exclusively sought, is provided by a chest at S. Peter’s, Upton, Northamptonshire. The dimensions of this hutch are six feet three inches in length, two feet six inches in height, and two feet in width. Its only adornment is provided by the wrought iron bands which are attached to it. Four of these are laid laterally across each end, and four more, running perpendicularly, divide the front into five unequal panels; the bands on the front correspond with an equal number laid across the lid, where, however, two more are placed at the extreme ends. Each of the panels in front and top is filled with a device in beaten iron roughly resembling an eight-pointed star, the lowest point of which runs to the bottom of the chest. Yet simpler is the chest at S. Mary’s, West Horsley, which is a long, narrow, oaken box, strengthened by flat iron bands crossing the ends and doubled well round the front and back, while six others are fastened perpendicularly to the front; there are two large locks, and three hinges terminating in long strips of iron running almost the complete breadth of the lid. The church of S. Botolph, Church Brampton, has [p 169] a chest equally plain in itself, but the iron bands are in this case of a richer character. Elegant scroll-work originally covered the front and ends, much still remaining to this day. S. Lawrence’s, in the Isle of Thanet, possesses an exceedingly rough example, with a curved top; seven broad iron bands strengthen the lid, and several perpendicular ones, crossed by a lateral one, are affixed to the front, the whole being studded with large square-headed nails; a huge lock is placed in the middle, with hasps for padlocks to the right and left of it. It is raised slightly from the ground by wooden “feet.”
CHEST AT S. LAWRENCE, ISLE OF THANET.
[p 170]
For security and strength, however, the palm must be awarded to a coffer at Stonham Aspel. The following description of this remarkable chest was given in the “Journal of the British Archæological Society” in September, 1872: “This curious example is of chestnut wood, 8 feet in length, 2 feet 3 inches in height, and 2 feet 7 inches from front to back; and is entirely covered on the outer surface with sheets of iron 4½ inches in width, the joinings being hid by straps. The two lids are secured by fourteen hasps; the second from the left locks the first, and the hasp simply covers the keyhole; the fourth locks the third, etc. After this process is finished, a bar from each angle passes over them, and is secured by a curious lock in the centre, which fastens them both. The interior of this gigantic chest is divided into two equal compartments by a central partition of wood, the one to the left being painted red; the other is plain. Each division can be opened separately; the rector holding four of the keys, and the churchwardens the others, all being of different patterns.” The writer of this description (Mr. H. Syer Cuming, F.S.A., Scot., V.P.) assigns the chest to the fifteenth century.
[p 171]
CHURCH CHEST, S. MICHAEL’S, COVENTRY.
[p 173]
Turning now to those chests, whose makers, while not forgetting the needful solidity and strength, aimed also at greater decoration, the handsome hutch at S. Michael’s, Coventry, claims our notice. The front of this is carved with a double row of panels having traceried heads, the upper row being half the width of the lower one. In the centre are two crowned figures, popularly (and not improbably) described as Leofric and his wife, the Lady Godiva. At each end of the front is a long panel decorated with lozenges enclosing Tudor roses, foliage, and conventional animals; while two dragons adorn the bottom, which is cut away so as to leave a triangular space beneath the chest. At S. John’s, Glastonbury, is another fine example, measuring six feet two inches in length, and at present lidless. Within six vesica-shaped panels are placed quatrefoil ornaments, each divided by a horizontal bar. Above these are five shields, three charged with S. George’s Cross, and the others, one with three lozenges in fess, and the other with three roundles, two and one, and a label. The ends, or legs, are elaborately carved with dog-tooth figures in squares and circles. Saltwood, Kent, has an ornately carved chest, [p 174] divided (like that of Stonham Aspel) into two parts, the lid being correspondingly formed, and opening in sections. One half is secured by three locks, and the other by one. The front is carved with five geometrical “windows” of four lights each; and the ends of the front have three carved square panels, divided by bands of dancette ornament. The base has a long narrow panel, with a simple wavy design. There is some bold carving on a chest at S. George’s, South Acre, in Norfolk; a row of cusped arches fills rather more than half the height of the front, the rest being taken up with four panels containing roses and stars, similar designs on a smaller scale being repeated at the ends. The front is cut away at the bottom in a series of curves.
[p 175]
CHURCH CHEST S. JOHN’S GLASTONBURY
At Alnwick is a massive coffer, over seven feet long, bearing on its front a number of figures of dragons, and heads of birds and beasts, amid foliage; above which are two hunting scenes, in which appear men with horns, dogs, and deer, amid trees. These two scenes are separated by the lock, and are precisely alike, save that the quarry in one is a stag, and a hind in the other. Empingham, near Stamford, has a fine chest of cedar wood, adorned with incised figures. At [p 177] S. Mary’s, Mortlake, is one of walnut, inlaid with boxwood and ebony, and ornamented with designs in metal work; the under side of the lid has some delicate iron-wrought tracery, which was originally set off with red velvet. The Huttoft chest is enriched with traceried arches, which were apparently at one time picked out in colour; that of Stoke D’Abernon is raised on four substantial legs, and is decorated with three circles on the front filled with a kind of tracery; there are other interesting specimens at Winchester and at Ewerby. In the old castle at Newcastle-on-Tyne is preserved an old church coffer, which was probably removed there for safety during the troublous days of the Civil War. At Harty Chapel, Kent, we find the figures of two knights in full armour, tilting at each other, carved on the front of a chest; the legend of S. George and the dragon is illustrated in a similar way at Southwold Church, Suffolk, and yet more fully on a chest in the treasury of York Minster.
Probably, however, the handsomest example of a carved church chest now preserved in England is at Brancepeth, in the county of Durham. This beautiful piece of work, which [p 178] rests in the south chapel of the church, has its front completely covered with elaborate carving. At either end are three oblong panels, one above another, on each of which is a conventional bird or beast; at the base is a series of diamonds filled, as are the intervals between them, with tracery; and above this is an arcade of six pointed arches, each enclosing three lights surmounted by a circle, the six being divided by tall lancets, the crockets of the arches and a wealth of foliage filling up the intervening spaces. This fine chest dates from the fourteenth century.
The Rev. Francis E. Powell, M.A., in his pleasantly-written work entitled “The Story of a Cheshire Parish,” gives particulars of the parish chest of Over. “The chest,” says Mr. Powell, was “the gift of Bishop Samuel Peploe to Joseph Maddock, Clerk, April 30th, 1750.” It probably was an old chest even then. The donor was Bishop of Chester from 1726 to 1752. He was a Whig in politics, and a latitudinarian in religion, as so many bishops of that time were. That he was a man of determined courage may be seen by his loyalty to the House of Hanover, even under adverse [p 179] circumstances. One day, in the year 1715, he was reading Morning Prayer at the parish church at Preston. The town was occupied by Jacobite troops, some of whom burst into the church during the service. Approaching the prayer-desk, with drawn sword, a trooper demanded that Peploe should substitute James for George in the prayer for the King’s Majesty. Peploe merely paused to say, “Soldier, I am doing my duty; do you do yours;” and went on with the prayers, whereupon the soldiers at once proceeded to eject him from the church. The illustration of the chest is kindly lent to us by the Rev. Francis E. Powell, vicar of Over.
In the vestry of Lambeth Palace is a curiously painted chest; several of an early date are preserved in the triforium of Westminster Abbey; there is one at Salisbury Cathedral, and another in the Record Office, having been removed from the Pix Chapel.
One of the original uses of these coffers, as we have seen, was to preserve the vestments of the church. The copes, however, being larger than the other vestments, and in the cathedrals and other important churches, being very numerous, frequently had a special receptacle provided. [p 180] At York, Salisbury, Westminster, and Gloucester, ancient cope-chests are still preserved. These are triangular in shape, the cope being most easily folded into that form.
In not a few instances these large coffers, or sections of them, were used as alms boxes, for which a very ancient precedent can be found. At the restoration of the Jewish Temple under King Joash, we are told (2 Kings xii., 9, 10) that “Jehoiada the priest took a chest, and bored a hole in the lid of it, and set it beside the altar, on the right side as one cometh into the house of the Lord: and the priests that kept the door put therein all the money that was brought into the house of the Lord: and it was so, when they saw that there was much money in the chest, that the King’s scribe and the high priest came up, and they put up in bags, and told the money that was found in the house of the Lord.”
At Llanaber, near Barmouth in North Wales, is a chest hewn from a single block of wood, and pierced to receive coins. At Hatfield, Yorkshire, is an ancient example of a similar kind; and others may be seen at S. Peter’s-in-the-East, Oxford, at Drayton in Berkshire, at Meare [p 181] Church, Somersetshire, at Irchester and Mears Ashby, in Northamptonshire, at Hartland, in Devonshire, and in the Isle of Wight at Carisbrooke. An interesting chest, with provision for the reception of alms, is preserved at Combs Church, Suffolk, where there is also another plain hutch, iron-bound and treble-locked. The chest in question is strongly, but simply, made, the front being divided into four plain panels, with some very slight attempt at decoration in the form of small disks and diamonds along the top; and the lid being quite flat and plain, and secured by two locks. At one end, however, a long slit has been cut in this lid, and beneath it is a till, or trough, to receive the money, very similar to the little locker often inserted at one end of an old oak chest intended for domestic use, save that in this case the compartment has, of course, no second lid of its own. This chest has the date 1599 carved upon it, but is supposed to be some half a century older, the date perhaps marking the time of some repairs or alterations made in it.
Hutches of the kind that we have been considering are not peculiar to England, some fine and well-preserved examples being found in [p 182] several of the ancient churches in France. Among ourselves it is obvious that great numbers must have disappeared; many doubtless were rough and scarcely worthy of long preservation; others by the very beauty of their workmanship probably roused the cupidity, or the iconoclastic prejudice, of the spoiler. Near Brinkburn Priory a handsome fourteenth century chest was found, used for domestic purposes, in a neighbouring farm-house; a Tudor chest, belonging to S. Mary’s, Newington, lay for years in the old rectory house, and subsequently disappeared; and these are doubtless typical of many another case. When the strictness at first enforced as to the care of the parish registers became culpably relaxed, and parish clerks and sextons were left in practically sole charge of them, it is but too probable that these men, often illiterate and otherwise unsuited to such a trust, were in many instances as careless, or as criminal, in regard to the coffers, as we unfortunately know they frequently were with respect to their contents.
Few church chests of any interest date from the Jacobean, or any subsequent period. Plain deal boxes were then held good enough for the purpose of a “church hutch.”
[p 183]
An Antiquarian Problem: The Leper Window.
By William White, F.S.A.
These windows were called by Parker and other writers of the Gothic Revival, “Lychnoscopes;” and then by the ecclesiologists, “Low-side Windows.” But the name given by the late G. E. Street has now become so generally accepted that it seems necessary to look a little further into the evidence of the fitness or unfitness of this designation for them.
Behind some stalls in the Royal Chapel were discovered some remains of a mural painting, apparently to represent the communicating of a leper through some such window, and he at once concluded that it was for this very purpose so many of them were introduced into the chancels of our mediæval churches. There seemed, however, nothing to indicate that it was at one of these special windows at all that this function was performed. And the very fact of the representation itself would seem to indicate rather an exceptional instance, or special circumstance, such as the communicating of some knight or [p 184] person of note who might, for instance, have brought leprosy in his own person from the Holy Land, from whence probably in the first instance it came; and who would not be admitted within the church. But the records of the existence of lepers would seem to show their numbers to have been very limited, and confined to few localities. And in any case this would be no sufficient cause for the introduction of these windows as of universal occurrence throughout the land, for these windows are found almost everywhere, and in very many instances on both sides of the chancel. Moreover, in many cases the act of administration through these windows would be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, on account of the position, or the arrangement, of the window itself.
To my mind a very much more practical and reasonable supposition would be that they were introduced, and used, for burial purposes. At a period when the body would not be brought into the church, except in the case of some ecclesiastic or other notable person, the priest would here be able, from his stall, to see the funeral cortége come into the churchyard, and then say the first part of the office through this window; which was always shuttered and without [p 185] glass. In some cases there is a book-ledge corbelled out on the east jamb of the window inside, which has puzzled antiquaries, but which has not otherwise received a satisfactory explanation. In immediate proximity to the window, at the end of the stalls (and sometimes in the earlier churches through them), was the priest’s door, out of which he would then proceed to the grave to commit the body to the earth. The grave itself needs not necessarily be within sight of the window. But in a number of instances the churchyard cross was so; and this may have served as the recognised place for the mourners, with the body, to assemble.
In the case of Foxton, Leicestershire, the “Lych Window,” as I would call it, is on the north side. Here the burials are chiefly on the north side; a steep slope down towards the church on the south side rendering it very difficult and unsuitable for them. At Addisham, Kent, the priest’s door is, contrary to the usual custom, on the north side, where is also a principal portion of the churchyard, and, so far as my own observations go, the position of the window would greatly depend upon the arrangement of the churchyard, whether north or south.
[p 186]
Mazes.
By the Rev. Geo. S. Tyack, B.A.
Something concerning the construction of labyrinths, or mazes, is known even to the most general reader; it needs but a slight acquaintance with classical literature to learn of the famous example formed at Crete by Dædalus; the legend of the concealment of “fair Rosamond,” within a maze at Woodstock, is familiar enough; and the existing labyrinth at Hampton Court, the work of William III. is well known. But probably few who have not looked somewhat into the matter, have any idea of the number of such mazes which still exist, or of the yet greater number of which we have authentic records. A learned French antiquary, Mons. Bonnin, of Evreux, collected two hundred examples, gathered from many lands, and stretching in history from classical to modern times.
Of the most ancient labyrinths it will be enough to indicate the localities. One is said to have been constructed in Egypt by King Minos, [p 187] and to have served as a model for the one raised by Dædalus at Cnossus, in Crete, as a prison for the Minataur. Another Egyptian example, which has been noticed by several authors, was near Lake Mœris. Lemnos contained a famous labyrinth; and Lar Porsena built one at Clusium, in Etruria. These mazes consisted either of a series of connected caverns, as it has been supposed was the case in Crete; or, as in the [p 188] other instances, were formed of courts enclosed by walls and colonnades.
LABYRINTH INSCRIBED ON ONE OF THE PORCH PIERS OF LUCCA CATHEDRAL.
The use of the labyrinth in mediæval times, has, however, greater interest for us in this paper, especially from the fact that such was distinctly ecclesiastical. Several continental churches have labyrinths, either cut in stone or inlaid in coloured marbles, figured upon their walls or elsewhere. At Lucca Cathedral is an example incised upon one of the piers of the porch; and others may be seen at Pavia, Aix in Provence, and at Poitiers. These are all small, the diameter of the Lucca labyrinth being 1 foot 7½ inches, which is the dimension also of one in an ancient pavement in the church of S. Maria in Aquiro, in Rome. That the suggestion for the construction of these arose from the mythological legends concerning those of pagan days is proved by the fact that in several of them the figures of Theseus and the Minataur were placed in the centre. Probably from the first, the Church, in her use of the figure, spiritualized the meaning of the heathen story, as we know was her wont in other cases; and a labyrinth formed in mosaic on the floor of an ancient basilica at Orleansville, Algeria, shows [p 189] that presently the mythological symbols gave place entirely to obviously Christian ones. In this last-named instance, the centre is occupied by the words
Sancta Ecclesia
.
About the twelfth century these curious figures became very popular, and a considerable number dating from that period still exist. They have for the most part been constructed in parti-coloured marbles on some portion of the floor of the church. One was laid down in 1189 at S. Maria in Trastevere, in Rome; S. Vitale, Ravenna, contains another; and the parish church of S. Quentin has a third. Others formerly existed at Amiens Cathedral (made in 1288 and destroyed in 1825), at Rheims (made about 1240 and destroyed in 1779), and at Arras (destroyed at the Revolution). These are much larger than the examples before noticed; the two Italian examples are each about 11 feet across, but the French ones greatly exceed this. Those of S. Quentin and Arras were each over 34 feet in diameter, and the others were somewhat larger; Amiens possessed the largest, measuring 42 feet. France had another example of a similar kind at Chartres.
The Christian meaning which was read into [p 190] these complicated designs was more emphatically expressed in these twelfth-century instances. The centre is usually occupied by a cross, round which, in some cases, were arranged figures of bishops, angels, and others.
The introduction of these large labyrinths, together with the name which came at this time to be applied to them in France, namely, Chemins de Jerusalem, suggests the new use to which such arrangements now began to be put. It is well known that in some cases substitutes for the great pilgrimage to Jerusalem were allowed to be counted as of almost equal merit. Thus the Spaniards, so long as they had not expelled the infidel from their own territory, were forbidden to join the Crusades to the Holy Land; and were permitted to substitute a journey to the shrine of S. Jago, at Compostella, for one to the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. By an extension of the same principle, especially when the zeal of Christendom for pilgrimages began to cool, easy substitutes for the more exacting devotion were found in many ways. The introduction of the Stations of the Cross is ascribed to this cause, the devout following in imagination of the footsteps of the Saviour in His last sufferings, [p 191] being accounted equivalent to visiting the holy places; and somewhat similarly, the maze, or labyrinth, is said to have been pressed into the service of religion, the following out (probably upon the knees) of its long and tortuous path- way, being reckoned as a simple substitute for a longer pilgrimage.
From such a use as this, it was no great step to the employment of the maze as a means of penance in other cases. The whole of the intricate pathway was intended to remind the penitent of the difficulties which beset the Christian course; and the centre, which could only be reached by surmounting them, was often called heaven (Ciel). Nor could such a penance be deemed a light one. Though occupying so small a space of ground, the mazy path was so involved as to reach a considerable length, whence it was sometimes named the League (La lièue). The pathway at Chartres measures 668 feet; at Sens was a maze which required some 2,000 steps to gain the centre. An hour is said to have been often needed to accomplish the journey, due allowance being made for the prayers which had to be recited at certain fixed stations of it, or throughout its whole course.
[p 192]
At S. Omer are one or two examples of the labyrinth. One at the Church of Notre Dame has figures of towns, mountains, rivers, and wild beasts depicted along the pathway, to give, no doubt, greater realism to the pilgrimage. The existing drawing of another, which has been destroyed, is inscribed, “The way of the road to Jerusalem at one time marked on the floor of the Church of S. Bertin.” Many of these designs are not only ingenious, but beautiful. In the Chapterhouse at Bayeux is one enriched with heraldic figures; that at Chartres has its central circle relieved with six cusps, while an engrailed border encloses the whole work. A circular shape was apparently the most popular; the maze at S. Quentin, with some others, however, is octagonal. The pathway is usually marked by coloured marbles, sometimes the darker, sometimes the lighter shades in the design being used for the purpose; at Sens, lead has been employed to indicate it.
The Revolution, as we have seen, led to the destruction of several ecclesiastical labyrinths; some, however, became a source of annoyance to the worshippers, from children attempting to trace the true pathway during the time of [p 193] service, and they were removed in consequence. Labyrinths of this kind do not appear to have been introduced into England, the only instance known to the present writer being quite a modern one. This is in the church porch at Alkborough, in Lincolnshire, where, at the recent restoration, the design of a local maze (to be noticed further hereafter) was reproduced.
If England, however, has not imitated the continent in this respect, she has struck out a line no less interesting, which has remained almost exclusively her own; namely, in the mazes cut in the green turf of her meadows. Shakespeare has an allusion to these in the “Midsummer Night’s Dream,” (Act iii., 3) where Titania says,
“The nine men’s morris is fill’d up with mud,
And the quaint mazes in the wanton green
For lack of tread are indistinguishable.”
Some twenty of these rustic labyrinths have been noted as still existing, or as recorded by a sound tradition, in England; and no doubt there have been others which have disappeared, leaving no trace behind.
MAZE AT ALKBOROUGH, LINCOLNSHIRE.
Among those which have been preserved, the following may be noticed. At Alkborough, in [p 194] Lincolnshire, near the confluence of the Trent and the Ouse, is a maze, the diameter of which is 44 feet; by a happy suggestion, the design of this has been repeated, as was above remarked, in the porch of the Parish Church, so that should the original unfortunately be destroyed, a permanent record has been provided. Hilton, in Huntingdonshire has a maze of exactly the [p 195] same plan, in the centre of which is a stone pillar, bearing an inscription in Latin and English, to the effect that the work was constructed in 1660, by William Sparrow. Comberton, in Cambridgeshire, possesses a maze, locally known as the “Mazles,” which is fifty feet in diameter. The pathway is two feet wide, and is defined by small trenches, the whole surface being gradually hollowed towards [p 196] the centre. Northamptonshire is represented by Boughton Green, which has a labyrinth 37 feet in diameter; and Rutland has one at Wing, which measures 40 feet.
THE MIZE-MAZE ON ST. KATHERINE’S HILL, WINCHESTER.
At Asenby, in the parish of Topcliffe, Yorkshire, is a maze measuring 51 feet across, which has been carefully preserved by the local authorities. At Chilcombe, near Winchester, a maze is cut in the turf of S. Catherine’s Hill; it is square in outline, each side being 86 feet. It is locally known as the “Mize-maze.” One much larger than any yet noticed is found near Saffron Waldon, in Essex, its diameter being 110 feet. There are local records which prove the great antiquity of a maze at this place. The design is peculiar, being properly a circle, save that at four equal distances along the circumference the pathway sweeps out into a horseshoe projection.
[p 197]
THE MAZE NEAR ST. ANNE’S CHAPEL, NOTTINGHAM.
A similar plan was followed in cutting a maze, once of some celebrity, near S. Anne’s Well, at Sneinton, Nottingham. The projections in this case are bolder, and within the spaces enclosed by the triple pathway which swept around them were cut cross-crosslets. The popular names for this maze in the district were the “Shepherd’s [p 199] Maze,” and “Robin Hood’s Race.” This was, unfortunately, ploughed up in 1797, at the enclosure of the lordship of Sneinton. Nottinghamshire has, however, another example in the small square one at Clifton.
MAZE FORMERLY EXISTING NEAR ST. ANNE’S WELL, SNEINTON, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.
Many of these turf-cut labyrinths were destroyed during the Commonwealth, before which [p 200] period, according to Aubrey in his history of Surrey, there were many in England. Not a few, however, which survived that time of wanton destruction, have been obliterated since.
In 1827 one which was on Ripon Common was ploughed up. Its diameter was 60 feet. Another existed till comparatively recent times at Hillbury, between Farnham and Guildford. At Pimpern, in Dorset, there was formerly a maze of a unique design. The outline was roughly a triangle, which enclosed nearly an acre of ground; the pathway was marked out by ridges of earth about a foot in height, and followed a singularly intricate course. The plough destroyed this also in 1730.
The names locally applied to these structures often imply very erroneous ideas as to their origin and purpose. In some instances they are ascribed to the shepherds, as if cut by them as pastime in their idle moments; a suggestion, which a glance at the mazes themselves, with their intricate designs and correctly formed curves, will prove to be hardly tenable. Two other names of frequent occurrence in England are “Troy Town,” and “Julian’s Bower”; the latter being connected with the former, Julius, [p 201] son of Æneas being the person alluded to. Some have from these titles sought to trace a connection with a very ancient sport known as the
Troy Game
, which arose in classic times, and survived down to the Middle Ages. It consisted probably in the rhythmic performance of certain evolutions, much after the fashion of the “Musical Rides” executed by our cavalry. The origin of the idea is to be sought in a passage in Virgil’s Æneid (Bk. V., v. 583 et seq.), which has been thus translated by Kennett:—
“Files facing files their bold companions dare,
And wheel, and charge, and urge the sportive war.
Now flight they feign, and naked backs expose,
Now with turned spears drive headlong on the foes,
And now, confederate grown, in peaceful ranks they close.
As Crete’s fam’d labyrinth, to a thousand ways
And endless darken’d walls the guest conveys;
Endless, inextricable rounds amuse,
And no kind track the doubtful passage shows;
So the glad Trojan youth, the winding course
Sporting pursue, and charge the rival force.”
Tresco, Scilly, has a maze known as Troy-town; and it would seem that such were once common in Cornwall, since any intricate arrangement is often locally called by that name.
It has, however, been pointed out that [p 202] most of these mazes date from a time when classical knowledge was not widely spread in England; that, in fact, the name has probably been given in most instances long after the date of the construction of the work.
It would seem rather that the original use of these quaint figures was, as with those continental examples before noted, ecclesiastical. No one who has had the opportunity of comparing the designs of the English and the foreign mazes can fail to be struck with the great similarity between them; suggesting, at least, a common origin and purpose. And this suggestion is greatly strengthened when we notice that, although the English mazes are never (with one modern instance only excepted) within churches, as are the continental instances, yet they are almost invariably close to a church, or the ancient site of a church. The Alkborough and Wing mazes, for instance, are hard by the parish churches; and those at Sneinton, Winchester, and Boughton Green are beside spots once consecrated by chapels dedicated in honour of St. Anne, St. Catherine, and St. John. The most probable conjecture is that these were originally formed, and for long years were used, [p 203] for purposes of devotion and penance. Doubtless in later times the children often trod those mazy ways in sport and emulation, which had been slowly measured countless times before in silent meditation or in penitential tears.
A word or two may be added in conclusion on mazes of the more modern sort, formed for amusement rather than for use, as a curious feature in a scheme of landscape gardening. These topiary mazes, as they are called, usually have their paths defined by walls of well-cut box, yew, or other suitable shrubs; and they differ from the turf mazes in that they are often made purposely puzzling and misleading. In the ecclesiastical maze, it is always the patience, not the ingenuity, which is tested; there is but one road to follow, and though that one wanders in and out with tantalizing curves and coils, yet it leads him who follows it unerringly to the centre.
From Tudor times this form of decoration for a large garden has been more or less popular. Burleigh formed one at the old palace at Theobald’s, Hertfordshire, about 1560; and the Maze in Southwark, near a spot once occupied by the residence of Queen Mary before coming [p 204] to the throne, and Maze Hill at Greenwich, no doubt mark the sites of labyrinths now otherwise forgotten. Lord Fauconbergh had a maze at Sutton Court in 1691; and William III. so highly approved of them that, having left one behind him at the Palace of the Loo, he had another constructed at Hampton Court.
Literature and art have not disdained to interest themselves in this somewhat formal method of gardening; for in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries more than one treatise on their construction was published; while Holbein and Tintoretto have left behind them designs for topiary labyrinths.
The oldest and most famous maze in our history is “Fair Rosamond’s Bower,” already mentioned. Of what kind this was, if indeed it was at all, it is difficult to say; authorities disagreeing as to whether it was a matter of architectural arrangement, of connected caves, or of some other kind. The trend of modern historical criticism in this, as in so many other romantic stories from our annals, is to deny its genuineness altogether.
Fortunately although so many of our ancient mazes have disappeared, the designs of their [p 205] construction has, in not a few cases, been preserved to us by means of contemporary drawings; so that a fairly accurate idea of the type most commonly followed may still be obtained.
We have to thank Mr. J. Potter Briscoe, F.R.H.S., editor of “Old Nottinghamshire,” for kindly placing at our disposal the two illustrations relating to the St. Anne’s Well Maze.
[p 206]
Churchyard Superstitions.
By the Rev. Theodore Johnson.
Among all classes of English people there are mixed feelings relating to our churchyards. They are either places of reverence on the one hand, or superstition on the other. The sacred plot surrounding the old Parish Church carries with it such a host of memories and associations, that to the learned and thoughtful it has always been God’s Acre, hallowed with a tender hush of silent contemplation of the many sad rifts and partings among us. We almost vie with each other in proclaiming that deep reverence for this one sacred spot, so dear to our family life, and affections, by those mementos of love which we raise over the resting-places of our lost ones gone before. This is strangely apparent in the stately monument, where the carver’s art declares the virtues of the dead, either by sculptured figure, or verse engraven, as well as in the ofttimes more pathetic, and perhaps more beautiful, tribute of the floral cross or wreath culled by loving hands, and borne in silence, by our poorer brethren, as [p 207] the only offering, or tribute, their slender means allows them to make. Be sure of this one fact, that our English Churchyards are better kept—more worthy of the name of God’s Acre than in the times past, for what is a more beautiful sight, than to see the kneeling children around the garden grave of a parent, or a child companion, adorning the little mound with flowers for the Eastertide festival. Here we have a living illustration of the truth of the concluding words of our Great Creed: “I look for the Resurrection of the Dead and the Life of the World to come.”
On the other hand, to the ignorant, and unlearned in these things, the Churchyard often becomes a place of dread, and it may be, some of the strange behaviour sometimes seen there arises from this inner feeling of awe, which in their ignorant superstition they are wont to carry off in the spirit of daring bravado.
From a close study of the subject, I am led to conclude that the common unchristian idea, that the churchyard is ‘haunted,’ whatever that may mean to a weak or ignorant person, has much to do with it. The evil report, once circulated, will be handed on to generations yet [p 208] unborn, until the simple origin, which at first might have been easily explained, becomes clouded in mystery as time goes on, and the deep rooted feeling of horror spreads around us, until even the more strong-minded among us, feel at times, somewhat doubtful as to whether there may not be some truth where the popular testimony is so strong.
In country districts, more than in towns, superstition is rife with regard to our Churchyards. The variety and form of this superstition is well nigh ‘Legion,’ and though many of my readers may enjoy an Ingoldsby experience when read in a well-lighted room, surrounded by smiling companions, few of them, after such an experience would care to pay a visit alone to some neighbouring churchyard, renowned for its tale of ghostly appearances. This will, I think enable me to show that by far the larger number of churchyard superstitions are purely chimerous fancies of the brain, and do not owe their origin, or existence, to any other source, be that source a wilful fraud, or imposition, designed to produce fear, or merely the imaginative delusion of some overstrained, or weak brain, which called first it into existence.
[p 209]
Yet there are prevalent ideas or notions, about the churchyard and its sleepers, as deep-rooted as any wild superstition, and perhaps as difficult to solve, or to trace to any rational source. I would here mention one of the most strange, and probably one of the most prejudiced notions to be met with relating to burial in the churchyard. I refer to the East Anglian prejudice of being buried on the north side of the church. That this prejudice is a strong one, among the country people in certain parts of England, is proved by the scarcity of graves, nay, in many instances the total absence of graves, on the north side of our churches.
Some seventeen years ago, shortly after taking charge of a parish in Norfolk, I was called upon to select a suitable spot for the burial of a poor man, who had been killed by an accident. After several places had been suggested by me to the sexton, who claimed for them either a family right, or some similar objection; I noticed for the first time, that there were no graves upon the north side of the church, and I, in my innocence, suggested that there would be plenty of space there; whereupon my companion’s face at once assumed the most serious expression, and I [p 210] immediately saw that fear had taken hold of his mind, as he answered with a somewhat shaky voice, “No, Sir! No, that cannot be!” My curiosity was immediately aroused, and I sought for an explanation, which I found not from my good and loyal friend, who would not trust himself to answer further than “No, Sir! No, that cannot be!” The sexton’s manner puzzled me greatly, for the man was an upright, straightforward, open-hearted, servant of the Church—but I at once saw that it would be fruitless to push the matter further with him, so after marking out a suitable resting place for the poor unfortunate man, who not being a parishoner of long standing, had no family burial place awaiting him, I made my way home to think over the whole occurrence.
The cause for non-burial on the north side of the Church was indeed a mystery, yet that my parishoners had some valid reason for not being laid to rest there, was apparent; so I set about the task of unravelling the superstition, if so it may be called.
My library shelves seemed to be the most natural place of research, but here after consultation with several volumes of Archæology, Ecclesiology, [p 211] and Folk Lore, I could find nothing bearing upon the subject, beyond that in certain instances relating to Churchyard Parishes on the sea-coast, the north side by reason of its exposure to wind and storm, and being the sunless quarter of the burying ground, was less used than other parts; but here the reason given was in consideration of the living mourners at the time of the interment, and not the body sleeping in its last resting place of earth.
After some considerable correspondence with friends likely to be interested in such a matter, I was rewarded with information that, in some instances, the northern portion of the churchyard was left unconsecrated, and only thus occasionally used for the burial of suicides, vagrants, highwaymen (after the four cross road graves had been discontinued), or for nondescripts and unbaptised persons, for whom no religious service was considered necessary. Even this I did not accept as a solution of my problem. That there was something more than local feeling underlying this superstition, I was certain, but how to get to the root of the subject perplexed me.
The Editor of “Notes and Queries” could not satisfy me. His general suggestions and [p 212] kind desire to aid me were well-nigh fruitless, so that there remained for me the course of watching and waiting, as none of my neighbours could, or would, go beyond the conclusive statement of the sexton, “It must not be!” or what was even more indefinite, “I have never heard of such a thing.”
The subject was a fruitful source of thought for some months, and in vain I tried to connect some religious custom of other days, or to find some Text of Scripture, which might have given rise to the idea, if mistranslated, or twisted by human ingenuity, to serve such a purpose, but none occurred to me that in the least would bear of such a contortion.
In my intercourse with my older parishoners I sought in vain to test the unbaptized or suicidal burying place theory as suggested above, but this was entirely foreign to them. At length, the truth of the old saying, “
All things come to those who wait
” brought its due reward. I was called in to visit an aged parishoner, who was nearing the end of life’s journey, and among other subjects naturally came the thoughts, and wishes, of this old saintly man’s last hours on earth. He had been a shepherd for well nigh sixty [p 213] years, and a widower for the past fifteen years, and in consequence he had lived and worked much alone. This had produced a thoughtful spirit, and a certain slowness of speech, so that he was quite the last man I should have consulted for a solution of my mystery. Yet, here the secret was unfolded, or to my mind more satisfactorily explained, than by any previous consultation with either men or books. The grand old labourer, or faithful shepherd, as he was laid helpless on his bed, with his life work symbol—the shepherd’s crook, standing idle in the corner, and his trusty dog, restless and perplexed, roaming from room to room, was a wonderful picture of a Christian death-bed.
There I learned many a solemn life-lesson never to be forgotten. The calm voice, the monosyllabic answers given in response to my questions are still fresh to me; and there I learned the source of my Churchyard Superstition in the following manner:—
With a strange, weird, unnatural light in the aged man’s eyes, which portrayed much anxiety of mind, he spoke about his burial-place, and particularly emphasising the words “On the south side, sir, near by the wife.” When I ventured to [p 214] inquire if he knew why such a strong objection was held to burial on the north side of the church. He started suddenly, and I shall never forget his reproachful, sad look as he more readily than usual gave the answer:—“The left side of Christ, sir: we don’t like to be counted among the goats.”
As a flash of lightning illuminates the whole darkness of the country side, and reveals for the moment every object in clear outline, so this quaint saying of my dying friend dispelled in a moment the mists of the past which clouded the truth of my strange superstition.
Here was the best answer to the mystery, pointing with no uncertain words to the glorious Resurrection Day, this aged, earthly shepherd at the end of his years of toil recognised his Great Master, Jesus, as the True Shepherd of mankind, meeting His flock as they arose from their long sleep of death, with their faces turned eastward, awaiting His appearing.
Then when all had been called and recognised He turned to lead them onward, still their True Shepherd and Guide, with the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left hand, so wonderfully foretold in the Gospel story: [p 215] “When the Son of Man shall come in His glory, and all the holy angels with Him, then shall He sit upon the throne of His glory; And before Him shall be gathered all nations: and He shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and He shall set the sheep on His right hand, but the goats on the left.”—S. Matt, xxv., 31, 32, 33.
Surely, the above simple illustration explains much that is difficult and mysterious to us in the way of religious superstition. Undoubtedly, we have here a good example of how superstitions have arisen, probably from a good source, it may be the words of some teacher long since passed away. The circumstance has long been forgotten, yet the lesson remains, and being handed down by oral tradition only, every vestige of its religious nature disappears and but the feeling remains, which, in the minds of the ignorant populace, increases in mystery and enfolds itself in superstitious awe, without any desire from them to discover the origin, or source, of such a strange custom, or event.
[p 216]
Curious Announcements in the Church.
By the Rev. R. Wilkins Rees.
Years ago announcements in churches were of a distinctly curious character, and the parish clerk in making the intimation seems to have been left completely to his own indiscretion. In country districts, where proper advertising would be quite impossible, the practical advantages of some classes of announcements would be great, but none of them accord with our modern sense of the fitness of things, and many can only be accounted for on the ground of extraordinary familiarity between clergyman, clerk, and congregation. A brief consideration of the subject furnishes a few side-lights into the general condition of the church, as well as into the laxity of church discipline, about fifty years and more ago, especially away from large centres of population.
In certain parts, the custom of crying lost goods in church was undoubtedly prevalent, and did not then appear peculiar. The rector, who had lost his favourite dog and told the parish [p 217] clerk to do his best to ascertain its whereabouts, may have been astonished to hear him announce the loss in church, coupled with a statement that a reward of three pounds would be given to the person who should restore the animal to its owner. But such surprise was hardly natural when an announcement like the following was possible:—“Mislaid on Sunday last! The gold-rimmed vicar’s spectacles of best glass, taken from his eyes in going into the poor box, or put down somewhere when going into the font to fetch the water after the christening.” What a shock this rare jumble produced by a country clerk must have been to the precise and classical vicar can only be imagined. The thought, however, of a gold-rimmed vicar diminutive enough to enter font or poor box is somewhat staggering! Quite as muddled, but much more ingenious, was the clerk who announced, in recent years, an accomplished D.Sc. and LL.D. as a Doctor of Schools and a Lord Lieutenant of Divinity!
“Lost, stolen, or strayed,” shouted the clerk in church one Sunday, with the strident voice of a town crier, and the manner of one not unaccustomed to the task, “lost, stolen, or strayed. [p 218] Four fat sheep and one lean cow. Whoever will return the same to Mr. ——’s farm will be suitably rewarded.” It is well that the name of the parish in which it was given, is missing from another specimen of this sort of announcement, for it seems to indicate that honesty there could be but the outcome of an inducement afforded by the promise of substantial reward. “Lost,” said the clerk, “on Sunday last, when the wearer was walking home from this church, and before she reached the Town Hall, a lady’s gold brooch, set with pearls and other precious stones. The one who has found it will consider it worth while to restore it, for the reward of a guinea is offered.”
It is not a little surprising that the clergyman in charge did not supervise more carefully the various announcements, especially when so many a contretemps occurred. Once a parish clerk announced in his rector’s hearing:—“There’ll be no service next Sunday as the rector’s going out grouse shooting.” The rector had injudiciously acquainted his clerk with the reason of his approaching absence, and this was the result. It happened, of course, a half century since, but it illustrates an interesting state of things as [p 219] existing at that period. With it two similar incidents may well be mentioned, the first of which occurred in Scotland, the second in the Principality. “Next Sawbath,” said a worthy Scotch beadle, “we shall have no Sawbath, for the meenister’s house is having spring cleaning, and as the weather is very bad the meenister’s wife wants the kirk to dry the things in.” “Next Sunday,” declared the unconsciously amusing Welshman, “there’ll be no Sunday, as we’re going to whitewash the church with yellow-ochre.” Sometimes the omission of a stop caused sore trouble to the clerk, while it hugely delighted the congregation. “A man having gone to see his wife desires the prayers of this church,” was the startling announcement. But had not the clerk been near-sighted and mistaken sea for see, and had a comma been supplied after sea, the notice would have been all right, for it was simply the request of a sailor’s wife on behalf of her husband.
Once the clerk made the announcement that a parish meeting would be held on a given date. “No, no,” interrupted the vicar. “D’ye think I’d attend to business on the audit day!” The audit days were recognised as times of hearty [p 220] feasting and convivial mirth, in which the vicar played no unimportant part. This freedom of speech between clergyman and clerk was not seldom fruitful of ill-restrained amusement when the announcements were made. A vicar informed his congregation one Sunday morning that he would hold the customary service for baptisms in the afternoon, and requested the parents to bring their children punctually, so that there might be no delay in commencing. Immediately he had said this, the old clerk, sleepy and deaf, thinking the parson’s announcement had to do with a new hymn-book which at that time was being introduced, arose, and graciously informed the people that for those who were still without them he had a stock in the vestry from which they could be supplied at the low charge of eighteenpence each. This is slightly similar:—“I publish the banns of marriage between ... between ...” announced a clergyman from the pulpit. But here for a moment he stopped, as the book in which were the notices was not to be seen. The clerk, seeing his vicar’s predicament, and catching sight of the whereabouts of the missing book, ejaculated:—“Between the cushion and the desk, sir.” The unique character of another [p 221] notice will fully justify its inclusion. “I am unwell, my friends, very unwell,” announced a preacher one Sunday evening, “and therefore I shall dispense with my usual gesticulation.” This happened not very long ago.
So disregarded, indeed, were the proprieties of worship a generation since, that the clergyman would sometimes pause during the delivery of his sermon and make an announcement which, to say the least of it, had no connection with the theme he was pursuing. Thus the Rev. Samuel Sherwen, a well-known cleric in Cumberland, announced one morning that he had just caught sight, through a window near the pulpit, of some cows in a cornfield, and requested that some one would go and drive them out. At another time he said there were some pigs in the churchyard which were not his, and his servant Peter would do well to expel the intruders. Very probably such announcements, though made from a pulpit, would be excused because they resulted in a certain benefit. The same plea could undoubtedly be put forward for the following trio, each of which hails from beyond the Severn. “Take notice!” exclaimed the clerk. “A thief is going through the Vale of Glamorgan selling tin ware, [p 222] false gold, trinkets, and rings, and other domestic implements and instruments, and robbing houses of hens, chickens, eggs, butter, and other portable animals, making all sorts of pretences to get money!” Again, “Beware! beware! of a man with one eye, talking like a preacher, and a wooden leg, given to begging and stealing!” And once more, “Take notice! take notice! there’s a mad dog going the round of the parish with two crop ears and a very long tail!” Surely the intention of such announcements was good, even though the literary form was bad. The last, as might be inferred, was made at a time when rabies were prevalent.
The Rev. Samuel Sherwen, already alluded to, was surpassed in this direction by another Cumbrian clergyman, the Rev. William Sewell, of Troutbeck. One Sunday morning the latter entered the pulpit of the little church at Wythburn to preach. The pulpit sadly needed repair, and, in leaning out from the wall, left an undesirable opening behind it. Into this chink the parson’s sermon fell, and the pulpit was so ricketty in its broken-down condition that the preacher feared the consequences of turning in it. Moreover, the manuscript had fallen so far [p 223] that it could not be reached. Mr. Sewell, bereft of his sermon, announced to his congregation in broad dialect: “T’ sarmont’s slipt down i’ t’ neuk, and I can’t git it out; but I’ll tell ye what—I’se read ye a chapter i’ t’ Bible ’at’s worth three on’t.” A similar story is told in connection with the Rev. Mr. Alcock, who in the middle of the last century was rector of Burnsal, near Skipton, in Yorkshire. Of this clergyman another story is given which well illustrates the excessive familiarity indulged in by occupants of the pulpit in bygone days. One of his friends, at whose house he was wont to call previous to entering the church on Sundays, seized a chance to unfasten and then misplace the leaves of his sermon. In the service the parson had not read far before he discovered the trick. “Will,” cried he, “thou rascal! what’s thou been doing with my sermon?” Then turning to his people, he continued: “Brethren, Will Thornton’s been misplacing the leaves of my sermon; I have not time to put them right; I shall read on as I find it, and you must make the best of it that you can.” He accordingly read to the close of the confused mass to the utter astonishment of his congregation.
[p 224]
Of such familiarity Scottish churches furnish well-nigh innumerable instances. One or two will, however, be sufficient for my purpose. The clergyman who was expected to conduct the morning service had not made his appearance at the appointed time. After a dreadful suspense of some fifteen minutes the beadle, that much-privileged individual, entered the church, marched slowly along the accustomed passage, and mounted the pulpit-stair. When half-way up he stopped, turned to the congregation, and thus addressed them: “There was one Alexander to hae preached here the day, but he’s neither come hissel; nor has he sent the scrape o’ a pen to say what’s come owre him. Ye’d better keep your seats for anither ten meenits to see whether the body turns up or no. If he disna come, there’s naething for ’t but for ye a’ to gang hame again an’ say naething mair aboot it. The like o’ this hasna happened here syne I hae been conneckit wi’ the place, an’ that’s mair than four-and-thirty year now.” As an announcement to the point, and for the purpose, that could not easily be beaten. A clergyman of Crossmichael, in Galloway, would even intersperse his lessons or sermon with any announcement that might [p 225] at the moment occur to him, or with allusions to the behaviour of his hearers. Once, because of this method, a verse from Exodus was hardly recognisable. The version given was as follows: “And the Lord said unto Moses—shut that door; I’m thinkin’ if ye had to sit beside that door yersel’, ye wadna be sae ready leavin’ it open; it was just beside that door that Yedam Tamson, the bellman, gat his death o’ cauld, an’ I’m sure, honest man, he didna lat it stey muckle open.—And the Lord said unto Moses—put oot that dog; wha is’t that brings dogs to the kirk, yaff-yaffin’? Lat me never see ye bring yer dogs here ony mair, for, if ye do, tak notice, I’ll put you an’ them baith oot.—And the Lord said unto Moses—I see a man aneeth that wast laft wi’ his hat on; I’m sure ye’re cleen oot o’ the souch o’ the door; keep aff yer bonnet, Tammas, an’ if yer bare pow be cauld, ye maun jist get a grey worset wig like mysel’; they’re no sae dear; plenty o’ them at Bob Gillespie’s for tenpence.” At last, however, the preacher informed his hearers what was said to Moses in a manner at once more accurate and becoming.
It was, indeed, a usual custom for the clergyman publicly to rebuke offenders, as when it [p 226] happened that a young man, sitting in a prominent position in the church, pulled out his handkerchief and brought with it a bundle of playing cards, which flew in every direction. He had, so it turned out, been up late the previous night, and had stuffed the cards with which he had been gambling into his pocket, where they had remained forgotten. The people were amazed and horrified, but the clergyman simply looked at the offender and remarked with quiet, yet most withering sarcasm, “Sir, that prayer book of yours has been badly bound!” But some times the rebuke was deftly thrust back upon the preacher. “You’re sleepy, John,” said the clergyman, pausing in the middle of a drowsy discourse, and looking hard at the man he thus addressed. “Take some snuff, John.” “Put the snuff in the sermon,” ejaculated John; and the faces of the audience showed that the retort was fully appreciated.
In fact, such was the freedom tolerated, that this incident in Eskdale might be taken as an example. Someone walked noisily up the aisle during divine service. “Whaa’s tat?” asked the clergyman in a tone quite loud enough to rebuke the offender. “It’s aad Sharp o’ Laa [p 227] Birker,” responded the clerk. “Afooat or o’ horseback?” was the significant query. “Nay,” was the answer, “nobbet afooat, wi’ cokert shun” (calkered shoes). Frequently the clerk would interrupt the clergyman, and the interruption would not enhance the devotional character of the service. In a rural parish church a new pitch-pipe was provided, but the clerk had not tested it before entering his desk on the Sunday, and when he should have given the key-note the instrument could not be adjusted. The clerk tugged at it, thrust it in, gave it several thumps, made sundry grimaces, but the pipe was obdurate. “My friends,” announced the impatient parson, “the pitch-pipe will not work, so let us pray.” “Pray!” snorted the aggrieved official, “pray! no, no, we’ll pray none till I put this thing aright.” And members of the congregation would even stand up in their pews to contradict the parson or clerk when making the announcement. “There will be a service here as usual on Thursday evening next,” announced the clerk one Sunday morning. “No, there won’t,” declared the churchwarden as he rose from his seat. “We be going to carry hay all day Thursday.” “But the service will be held [p 228] as usual,” asserted the clerk. But the churchwarden was not to be thwarted. “Then there’ll be nobody here,” said he. “D’ye think we’re coming to church and leave the hay in the fields? No, no, p’r’aps it’ll rain Friday.”
But of all amusing instances of curious announcements in church those given by the Rev. Cuthbert Bede in
All the Year Round
, November 1880, may take the palm and fittingly conclude this chapter. “An old rector of a small country parish,” so runs the story, “had sent his set of false teeth to be repaired, on the understanding that they should be returned “by Saturday” as there was no Sunday post, and the village was nine miles from the post town. The old rector tried to brave out the difficulty, but after he had incoherently mumbled through the prayers, he decided not to address his congregation on that day. While the hymn was being sung, he summoned the clerk to the vestry, and then said to him: “It is quite useless for me to attempt to go on. The fact is, that my dentist has not sent me back my artificial teeth, and it is impossible for me to make myself understood. You must tell the congregation that the service is ended for this morning, [p 229] and that there will be no service this afternoon.” The old clerk went back to his desk; the singing of the hymn was brought to an end; and the rector, from the vestry, heard the clerk address the congregation thus: “This is to give notice! as there won’t be no sarmon nor no more sarvice this mornin’, so you’ better all go whum (home); and there won’t be no sarvice this aternoon, as the rector ain’t got his artful teeth back from the dentist!”
[p 230]
Big Bones Preserved in Churches.
By the Rev. R. Wilkins Rees.
In a lovely and secluded valley in Montgomeryshire is situated the interesting old church of Pennant Melangell, of whose foundation a charming legend is told. The romantic glen was in the first instance the retreat of a beautiful Irish maiden, Monacella (in Welsh, Melangell), who had fled from her father’s court rather than wed a noble to whom he had promised her hand, that here she might alone “serve God and the spotless virgin.” Brochwell Yscythrog, Prince of Powys, being one day hare-hunting in the locality, pursued his game till he came to a thicket, where to his amazement he found a lady of surpassing beauty, with the hare he was chasing safely sheltered beneath her robe. Notwithstanding all the efforts of the sportsman to make them seize their prey, the dogs had retired to a distance, howling as though in fear, and even when the huntsman essayed to blow his horn, it stuck to his lips. The Prince, learning the lady’s story, right royally assigned to her the [p 231] spot as a sanctuary for ever to all who fled there. It afterwards became a safe asylum for the oppressed, and an institution for the training of female devotees. But how long it so continued cannot be said. Monacella’s hard bed used to be shown in the cleft of a neighbouring rock, while her tomb was in a little oratory adjoining the church.
In the church is to be found carved woodwork, which doubtless once formed part of the rood-loft, representing the legend of Saint Melangell. The protection afforded by the saint to the hare gave such animals the name of Wyn Melangell—St. Monacella’s lambs—and the superstition was so fully credited that no person would kill a hare in the parish, while it was also believed that if anyone cried “God and St. Monacella be with thee” after a hunted hare, it would surely escape.
The church contains another interesting item in the shape of a large bone, more than four feet long, which has been described as the bone of the patron saint. Southey visited the church, and in an amusing rhyming letter addressed to his daughter, thus refers to it: “’Tis a church in a vale, whereby hangs a tale, how a hare being pressed by the dogs was much distressed, the [p 232] hunters coming nigh and the dogs in full cry, looked about for someone to defend her, and saw just in time, as it now comes pat in rhyme, a saint of the feminine gender. The saint was buried there, and a figure carved with care, in the churchyard is shown, as being her own; but ’tis used for a whetstone (like a stone at our back door), till the pity is the more (I should say the more’s the pity, if it suited with my ditty), it is whetted half away—lack-a-day, lack-a-day! They show a mammoth rib (was there ever such a fib?) as belonging to the saint Melangell. It was no use to wrangle, and tell the simple people that if this had been her bone, she must certainly have grown to be three times as tall as the steeple!”
In Lewis’s “Topographical Dictionary of Wales” (1843), we are told that on the mountain between Bala and Pennant Melangell was found a large bone named the Giant’s Rib, perhaps the bone of some fish, now kept in the church. But where the bone came from it is quite impossible to say. Old superstitions have clung to it, and beyond what tradition furnishes there is practically nothing for our guidance.
It is somewhat strange that in the same [p 233] county, in connection with the church at Mallwyd, other bones are exhibited. Of this church, surrounded by romantic scenery, the Dr. Davies, who rendered into Welsh the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, and assisted Bishop Perry in the translation of the Bible, was for many years incumbent. The sacred edifice was far-famed for its magnificent yew trees, and for the position of the communion table in the centre. Archbishop Laud issued orders that it should be placed at the east end, but Dr. Davies defied the prelate, and restored it to its old position, where, according to Hemmingway’s “Panorama of North Wales,” in which the church was described as a “humble Gothic structure, the floor covered with rushes,” it remained till 1848. It is not, however, so placed now. Over the porch of this church some bones are suspended, but no palæontologist has yet decided as to their origin. It has been said that they are the rib and part of the spine of a whale caught in the Dovey in bygone days! Whatever may be the truth, however, it is not now to be ascertained, but must remain shrouded in mystery with that concerning the bones at Pennant Melangell. The bones were in their present [p 234] position in 1816, for they are then mentioned by Pugh in his
Cambria Depicta
.
England has several instances of big bones preserved in churches, and one story seems to be told regarding almost all. A most interesting example is to be found over one of the altar tombs in the Foljambe Chapel, Chesterfield Church. This bone, supposed to be the jawbone of a small whale, is seven feet four inches in length, and about thirteen inches, on an average, in circumference. Near one end is engraved, in old English characters, the name “Thomas Fletcher.” The Foljambes disposed of their manor in 1633 to the Ingrams, who in turn sold it to the Fletchers, and thus the name on the bone is accounted for. A generally-accepted explanation about this bone—not even disbelieved entirely at the present day—was that it formed a rib of the celebrated Dun Cow of Dunsmore Heath, killed by the doughty Guy of Warwick, with whom local tradition identified the warrior whose marble effigy lies beneath the bone, sent to Chesterfield to celebrate the much-appreciated victory.
[p 235]
THE DUN COW, DURHAM CATHEDRAL.
It is interesting to remember here the legendary story of the foundation of Durham Cathedral, [p 237] which explains certain carving on the north front of that majestic pile. While the final resting-place of St. Cuthbert was still undetermined, “it was revealed to Eadmer, a virtuous man, that he should be carried to Dunholme, where he should find a place of rest. His followers were in distress, not knowing where Dunholme lay; but as they proceeded, a woman, wanting her cow, called aloud to her companion to know if she had seen her, when the other answered that she was in Dunholme. This was happy news to the distressed monks, who thereby knew that their journey’s end was at hand, and the saint’s body near its resting-place.” It has been said that the after riches of the See of Durham gave rise to the proverb, “The dun cow’s milk makes the prebend’s wives go in silk.”
But to return to the dun cow slain by Guy. That the champion was credited of old with having overcome some such animal is evident from the matter-of-fact fashion in which it is recorded by ancient chroniclers. In Percy’s “Reliques of Antient Poetry,” occur the following verses in a black-letter ballad which sings the exploits of Guy:—
[p 238]
“On Dunsmore heath I alsoe slewe
A monstrous wyld and cruell beast,
Called the Dun-Cow of Dunsmore heath,
Which manye people had opprest.
Some of her bons in Warwicke yett
Still for a monument doe lye;
Which unto every lookers viewe
As wondrous strange, they may espye.”
A circumstantial account is given in the “Noble and Renowned History of Guy, Earl of Warwick,” as translated from the curious old French black-letter volume in Warwick Castle, and of this a somewhat modernised version may be submitted. “Fame made known in every corner of the land that a dun cow of enormous size, ‘at least four yards in height, and six in length, and a head proportionable,’ was making dreadful devastations, and destroying man and beast. The king was at York when he heard of the havoc and slaughter which this monstrous animal had made. He offered knighthood to anyone who would destroy her, and many lamented the absence in Normandy of Guy, who, hearing of the beast, went privately to give it battle. With bow and sword and axe he came, and found every village desolate, every cottage empty. His heart filled with compassion, and [p 239] he waited for the encounter. The furious beast glared at him with her eyes of fire. His arrows flew from her sides as from adamant itself. Like the wind from the mountain side the beast came on. Her horns pierced his armour of proof, though his mighty battle-axe struck her in the forehead. He wheeled his gallant steed about and struck her again. He wounded her behind the ear. The monster roared and snorted as she felt the anguish of the wound. At last she fell, and Guy, alighting, hewed at her until she expired, deluged with her blood. He then rode to the next town, and made known the monster’s death, and then went to his ship, hoping to sail before the king could know of the deed. Fame was swifter than Guy. The king sent for him, gave him the honour of knighthood, and caused one of the ribs of the cow to be hung up in Warwick Castle, where it remains until this day.” Old Dr. Caius, of Cambridge, writes of having seen an enormous head at Warwick Castle in 1552, and also “a vertebra of the neck of the same animal, of such great size that its circumference is not less than three Roman feet seven inches and a half.” He thinks also that “the blade-bone, which is to be seen hung [p 240] up by chains form the north gate of Coventry, belongs to the same animal. The circumference of the whole bone is not less than eleven feet four inches and a half.” The same authority further states that “in the chapel of the great Guy, Earl of Warwick, which is situated rather more than a mile from the town of Warwick (Guy’s Cliff), there is hung up a rib of the same animal, as I suppose, the girth of which in the smallest part is nine inches, the length six feet and a half,” and he inclines to a half-belief, at any rate, in the Dun-Cow story.
In connection with the legend it should be mentioned that in the north-west of Shropshire is the Staple Hill, which has a ring of upright stones, about ninety feet in diameter, of the rude pre-historic type. “Here the voice of fiction declares there formerly dwelt a giant who guarded his cow within this inclosure, like another Apis among the ancient Egyptians, a cow who yielded her milk as miraculously as the bear Œdumla, whom we read of in Icelandic mythology, filling every vessel that could be brought to her, until at length an old crone attempted to catch her milk in a sieve, when, furious at the insult, she broke out of the magical inclosure and wandered [p 241] into Warwickshire, where her subsequent history and fate are well known under that of the Dun Cow, whose death added another wreath of laurel to the immortal Guy, Earl of Warwick.” The presence of bones at Chesterfield and elsewhere is, of course, accounted for by the fact (?) that they were distributed over the country so that in various places Guy’s marvellous feat might be commemorated.
In Queen Elizabeth’s “fairest and most famous parish church in England,” St. Mary Redcliff, Bristol, is preserved a bone said to have belonged to a monster cow which once supplied the whole city with milk. Bristolians, proud of their connection with the great discoverer, Cabot, assert that it is a whalebone brought to the city by the illustrious voyager on his return from Newfoundland. But here the story of Guy of Warwick and the cow has also been introduced. The bone, which is now fixed not far from the stair leading to the chamber containing the muniment chest where Chatterton pretended to have found the Rowley poems, was formerly hung within the church, while near to it was suspended a grimy old picture now banished to a position on a staircase just where the room in [p 242] which the vestry meetings are held is entered. The picture, so far as it can be made out, contains a big figure of a man on the right hand side, while in the foreground lies a prostrate man, behind whom stands a cow. To the left of the picture are certain human figures in attitudes expressive of surprise. This ancient painting was said to refer to Guy’s exploit, and the rib was pointed out as a positive proof that the daring deed was done.
It may be presumed that all, or nearly all, these bones preserved in churches are those of whales, though in some instances they have been supposed to be those of the wild BONASUS or URUS and most are associated in some way or other with the legend of Guy and the Dun-Cow. Indeed, it seems almost strange that the story has not been connected even with the bone at Pennant Melangell, especially as on the mountain between Llanwddyn and the parish is a circular inclosure surrounded by a wall called Hên Eglwys, and supposed to be a Druidical relic, which would have been just the spot to have lent itself to the statement that there the animal was confined.
The late Frank Buckland, in his entertaining chapter on “A Hunt on the Sea-Shore,” in his [p 243] second volume of “Curiosities of Natural History,” says: “Whale-bones get to odd places,” and writes of having seen them used for a grotto in Abingdon, and a garden chair in Clapham. Not far from Chesterfield there were, until recently, some whale-jaw gate posts which formed an arch, and in North Lincolnshire such bones, tall and curved, are still to be seen serving similar purposes. But the presence of such bones, carefully preserved in churches, though it may occasion considerable conjecture, cannot, it seems, be properly explained. As yet, at any rate, the riddle remains unsolved.
[p 244]
Samuel Pepys at Church.
The Diary of Samuel Pepys, from 1659 to 1669, presents us with a picture of London in the days of Charles II. that has perhaps not been equalled in any other work dealing with the manners, customs, and the social life of the period. We get a good idea from it how Sunday was spent in an age largely given to pleasure. Samuel Pepys had strong leanings towards the Presbyterians, but was a churchman, and seldom missed going to a place of worship on Sunday, and did not neglect to have family prayers in his own home. He generally attended his own church in the morning, and after dinner in the afternoon would roam about the city, and visit more than one place of worship. Take for an example an account of one Sunday. After being present at his own church in the forenoon, and dining, he says: “I went and ranged and ranged about to many churches, among the rest to the Temple, where I heard Dr. Wilkins a little.”
It is to be feared pretty faces and not powerful preachers often induced him to go to the house [p 245] of prayer. Writing on August 11th, 1661, he says: “To our own church in the forenoon, and in the afternoon to Clerkenwell Church, only to see the two fair Botelers.” He managed to obtain a seat where he could have a good view of them, but they did not charm him, for he says: “I am now out of conceit with them.” Another Sunday he writes: “By coach to Greenwich Church, where a good sermon, a fine church, and a good company of handsome women.” At another church he visited he says that his pretty black girl was present.
Pepys has much to say about the sermons he heard, and when they were dull he went to sleep. Judging from his frequent records of slumbering in church, prosy preachers were by no means rare in his day.
Writing on the 4th August, 1662, he gives us a glimpse of the manners of a rustic church. His cousin Roger himself attended the service, and says Pepys: “At our coming in, the country people all rose with so much reverence; and when the parson begins, he begins, ‘Right worshipful and dearly beloved’ to us.”
Conversation appears to have been freely carried on in city churches. “In my pew,” says [p 246] Pepys, “both Sir Williams and I had much talk about the death of Sir Robert.” Laughter was by no means unusual. “Before sermon,” writes Pepys, “I laughed at the reader, who, in his prayer, desired God that he would imprint his Word on the thumbs of our right hands and on the right toes of our right feet.”
When Pepys remained at home on Sunday he frequently cast up his accounts, and there are in his Diary several allusions to this subject.
[p 247]
“Mr. Andrews’ books are always interesting.”—
Church Bells.
“No student of Mr. Andrews’ books can be a dull after-dinner speaker, for his writings are full of curious out-of-the-way information and good stories.”—
Birmingham Daily Gazette.
England in the Days of Old
By WILLIAM ANDREWS, F.H.R.S.
Demy 8vo., 7s. 6d. Numerous Illustrations
This volume is one of unusual interest and value to the lover of olden days and ways, and can hardly fail to interest and instruct the reader. It recalls many forgotten episodes, scenes, characters, manners, customs, etc., in the social and domestic life of England.
Contents:—When Wigs were Worn—Powdering the Hair—Men Wearing Muffs—Concerning Corporation Customs—Bribes for the Palate—Rebel Heads on City Gates—Burial at Cross Roads—Detaining the Dead for Debt—A Nobleman’s Household in Tudor Times—Bread and Baking in Bygone Days—Arise, Mistress, Arise!—The Turnspit—A Gossip about the Goose—Bells as Time-Tellers—The Age of Snuffing—State Lotteries—Bear-Baiting—Morris Dancers—The Folk-Lore of Midsummer Eve—Harvest Home—Curious Charities—An Old-Time Chronicler.
List of Illustrations:—The House of Commons in the time of Sir Robert Walpole—Egyptian Wig—The Earl of Albemarle—Campaign Wig—Periwig with Tail—Ramillie-Wig—Pig-tail Wig—Bag-Wig—Archbishop Tilotson—Heart-Breakers—A Barber’s Shop in the time of Queen Elizabeth—With and Without a Wig—Stealing a Wig—Man with Muff, 1693—Burying the Mace at Nottingham—The Lord Mayor of York escorting Princess Margaret—The Mayor of Wycombe going to the Guildhall—Woman wearing a Scold’s Bridle—The Brank—Andrew Marvell—Old London Bridge, shewing heads of rebels on the gate—Axe, Block, and Executioner’s Mask—Margaret Roper taking leave of her father, Sir Thomas More—Rebel Heads, from a print published in 1746—Temple Bar in Dr. Johnson’s time—Micklegate Bar, York—Clock, Hampton Court Palace—Drawing a Lottery in the Guildhall, 1751—Advertising the Last State Lottery—Partaking of the Pungent Pinch—Morris Dance, from a painted window at Betley—Morris Dance, temp. James I.—A Whitsun Morris Dance—Bear Garden, or Hope Theatre, 1647—The Globe Theatre, temp. Elizabeth—Plan of Bankside early in the Seventeenth Century—John Stow’s Monument.
A carefully prepared Index enables the reader to refer to the varied and interesting contents of the book.
“A very attractive and informing book.”—
Birmingham Daily Gazette.
“Mr Andrews has the true art of narration, and contrives to give us the results of his learning with considerable freshness of style, whilst his subjects are always interesting and picturesque.”—
Manchester Courier.
“The book is of unusual interest.”—
Eastern Morning News.
“Of the many clever books which Mr. Andrews has written none does him greater credit than “England in the Days of Old,” and none will be read with greater profit.”—
Northern Gazette.
“Readable as well as instructive.”—
The Globe.
“A valuable addition to any library.”—
Derbyshire Times.
The Bygone Series.
In this series the following volumes ate included, and issued at 7s. 6d. each. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt.
These books have been favourably reviewed in the leading critical journals of England and America.
Carefully written articles by recognised authorities are included on history, castles, abbeys, biography, romantic episodes, legendary lore, traditional stories, curious customs, folk-lore, etc., etc.
The works are illustrated by eminent artists, and by the reproduction of quaint pictures of the olden time.
BYGONE BERKSHIRE, edited by Rev. P. H. Ditchfield, M.A., F.S.A.
BYGONE CHESHIRE, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE DEVONSHIRE, by the Rev. Hilderic Friend.
BYGONE DURHAM, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE GLOUCESTERSHIRE, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE HERTFORDSHIRE, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE LEICESTERSHIRE, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE LINCOLNSHIRE (2 vols), edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE MIDDLESEX, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE NORFOLK, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE NORTHUMBERLAND, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE NOTTINGHAMSHIRE, by William Stevenson.
BYGONE SCOTLAND, by David Maxwell, C.E.
BYGONE SOMERSETSHIRE, edited by Cuming Walters.
BYGONE SOUTHWARK, by Mrs. E. Boger.
BYGONE SUFFOLK, edited by Cuming Walters.
BYGONE SURREY, edited by George Clinch and S. W. Kershaw, F.S.A.
BYGONE SUSSEX, by W. E. A. Axon.
BYGONE WARWICKSHIRE, edited by William Andrews.
BYGONE YORKSHIRE, edited by William Andrews.
[p III]
By William Andrews.
Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 7s. 6d. Numerous Illustrations.
Contents:—Hanging—Hanging in Chains—Hanging, Drawing, and Quartering—Pressing to Death—Drowning—Burning to Death—Boiling to Death—Beheading—The Halifax Gibbet—The Scottish Maiden—Mutilation—Branding—The Pillory—Punishing Authors and Burning Books—Finger Pillory—The Jougs—The Stocks—The Drunkard’s Cloak—Whipping and Whipping-Posts—Public Penance—The Repentance Stool—The Ducking Stool—The Brank, or Scold’s Bridle—Riding the Stang—Index.
“A book of great interest.“—
Manchester Courier.
“Crowded with extraordinary facts.”—
Birmingham Daily Gazette.
“Contains much that is curious and interesting both to the student of history and social reformer.”—
Lancashire Daily Express.
“Full of curious lore, sought out and arranged with much industry.”—
The Scotsman.
“Mr. Andrews’ volume is admirably produced, and contains a collection of curious illustrations, representative of many of the punishments he describes, which contribute towards making it one of the most curious and entertaining books that we have perused for a long time.”—
Norfolk Chronicle.
“Those who wish to obtain a good general idea on the subject of criminal punishment in days long past, will obtain it in this well-printed and stoutly-bound volume.”—
Daily Mail.
“Mr. William Andrews, of Hull, is an indefatigable searcher amongst the byways of ancient English history, and it would be difficult to name an antiquary who, along his chosen lines, has made so thoroughly interesting and instructive the mass of facts a painstaking industry has brought to light. For twenty-five years he has been delving into the subject of Bygone Punishments, and is now one of the best authorities upon obsolete systems of jurisdiction and torture, for torture was, in various forms, the main characteristic of punishment in the good old times. The reformation of the person punished was a far more remote object of retribution than it is with us, and even with us reform is very much a matter of sentiment. Punishment was intended to be punishment to the individual in the first place, and in the second a warning to the rest. It is a gruesome study, but Mr Andrews nowhere writes for mere effect. As an antiquary ought to do, he has made the collection of facts and their preservation for modern students of history in a clear, straightforward narrative his main object, and in this volume he keeps to it consistently. Every page is therefore full of curious, out-of-the-way facts, with authorities and references amply quoted.”—
Yorkshire Post.
The Church Treasury of History, Custom, Folk-Lore, etc.
Edited by WILLIAM ANDREWS.
Demy 8vo., 7s. 6d. Numerous Illustrations.
Contents:—Stave-Kirks—Curious Churches of Cornwall—Holy Wells—Hermits and Hermit Cells—Church Wakes—Fortified Church Towers—The Knight Templars: their Churches and their Privileges—English Medieval Pilgrimages—Pilgrims’ Signs—Human Skin on Church Doors—Animals of the Church in Wood, Stone, and Bronze—Queries in Stones—Pictures in Churches—Flowers and the Rites of the Church—Ghost Layers and Ghost Laying—Church Walks—Westminster Waxworks—Index. Numerous Illustrations.
“It is a work that will prove interesting to the clergy and churchmen generally, and to all others who have an antiquarian turn of mind, or like to be regaled occasionally by reading old-world customs and anecdotes.”—
Church Family Newspaper.
“Mr. Andrews has given us some excellent volumes of Church lore, but none quite so good as this. The subjects are well chosen. They are treated brightly and with considerable detail, and they are well illustrated. ... Mr. Andrews is himself responsible for some of the most interesting papers, but all his helpers have caught his own spirit, and the result is a volume full of information well and pleasantly put.”—
London Quarterly Review.
“Those who seek information regarding curious and quaint relics or customs will find much to interest them in this book. The illustrations are good.”—
Publishers’ Circular.
“An excellent and entertaining book.”—
Newcastle Daily Leader.
“The book will be welcome to every lover of archæological lore.”—
Liverpool Daily Post.
“The volume is of a most informing and suggestive character, abounding in facts not easy of access to the ordinary reader, and enhanced with illustrations of a high order of merit, and extremely numerous.”—
Birmingham Daily Gazette.
“The contents of the volume are very good.”—
Leeds Mercury.
“The volume is sure to meet with a cordial reception.”—
Manchester Courier.
“Mr. Andrews has brought together much curious matter.”—
Manchester Guardian.
“The book is a very readable one, and will receive a hearty welcome.”—
Herts. Advertiser.
“Mr. William Andrews has been able to give us a very acceptable and useful addition to the books which deal with the curiosities of Church lore, and for this deserves our hearty thanks. The manner in which the book is printed and illustrated also commands our admiration.”—
Norfolk Chronicle.
Historic Dress of the Clergy.
By the Rev. GEO. S. TYACK, B.A.,
Author of “The Cross in Ritual, Architecture, and Art.”
Crown, cloth extra, 3s. 6d.
The work contains thirty-three illustrations from ancient monuments, rare manuscripts, and other sources.
“A very painstaking and very valuable volume on a subject which is just now attracting much attention. Mr. Tyack has collected a large amount of information from sources not available to the unlearned, and has put together his materials in an attractive way. The book deserves and is sure to meet with a wide circulation.”—
Daily Chronicle.
“This book is written with great care, and with an evident knowledge of history. It is well worth the study of all who wish to be better informed upon a subject which the author states in his preface gives evident signs of a lively and growing interest.”—
Manchester Courier.
“Those who are interested in the Dress of the Clergy will find full information gathered together here, and set forth in a lucid and scholarly way.”—
Glasgow Herald.
“We are glad to welcome yet another volume from the author of ‘The Cross in Ritual, Architecture, and Art.’ His subject, chosen widely and carried out comprehensively, makes this a valuable book of reference for all classes. It is only the antiquary and the ecclesiologist who can devote time and talents to research of this kind, and Mr. Tyack has done a real and lasting service to the Church of England by collecting so much useful and reliable information upon the dress of the clergy in all ages, and offering it to the public in such a popular form. We do not hesitate to recommend this volume as the most reliable and the most comprehensive illustrated guide to the history and origin of the canonical vestments and other dress worn by the clergy, whether ecclesiastical, academical, or general, while the excellent work in typography and binding make it a beautiful gift-book.”—
Church Bells.
“A very lucid history of ecclesiastical vestments from Levitical times to the present day.”—
Pall Mall Gazette.
“The book can be recommended to the undoubtedly large class of persons who are seeking information on this and kindred subjects.”—
The Times.
“The work may be read either as pastime or for instruction, and is worthy of a place in the permanent section of any library. The numerous illustrations, extensive contents table and index, and beautiful workmanship, both in typography and binding, are all features of attraction and utility.”—
Dundee Advertiser.
| i don't know |
Which bird has nostrils at the tip of its beak? | An unusual beak :: Kiwis for kiwi
An unusual beak
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An unusual beak
The kiwi is the only bird in the world with external nostrils at the tip of its long beak.
Sense of smell
While the kiwi’s eyesight isn’t great , the parts of it brain devoted to smell and touch are large.
A kiwi’s olfactory bulb is the second largest among all birds relative to the size of its forebrain, giving it an exceptional sense of smell, just second to the condor. This helps kiwi locate food beneath the soil and in leaf litter.
Good vibrations
More recently, research has discovered that the kiwi’s beak does much more than smell very well. Massey University PhD student, Susan Cunningham, found that kiwi have sensory pits at the tip of their beaks, which allow them to sense prey moving underground. In fact, the research suggests that feeling the prey’s vibrations may be more important to a hungry kiwi than smelling it. Instead, smell may be mainly used to explore their environment.
The finding surprised researchers. Other probe-feeding birds, such as godwits and sandpipers, also have remarkably sensitive bill-tip organs to pick up prey vibrations, but these shorebirds are only very distant relatives of kiwi. It may be an evolutionary example of two distantly related animals independently coming up with the same solution to the same problem.
A probe and a lever
As it walks, the kiwi taps the ground with its beak, probing the soil and sniffing loudly. It can locate an earthworm up to three centimetres underground. Once a snack has been located, the kiwi pushes its beak deep into the earth. To protect the opening, the tip of the upper beak overlaps the lower one.
The kiwi can use its beak as a lever, moving it back and forth to widen the hole. Sometimes it uses its entire weight to drive the beak deeper, kicking its legs up in a kind of headstand.
Once it has hold of the delicate worm, the kiwi moves very carefully – worms break easily. Sometimes a steady pull will do the job.
Sometimes the kiwi remains motionless until the worm relaxes its grip on its tunnel, and then it gives another tug.
The drawbacks
Having nostrils at the end of its beak helps the kiwi make the best use of its ground-based habitat and gives it an advantage over other birds. But this hunting strategy has drawbacks. Kiwi can often be heard snuffling and snorting loudly to clear dirt from their nostrils.
You can help
| .kiwi |
Who drowned during a storm in 1822 while sailing the 'Don Juan'? | All About Bird Nares | Petcha
All About Bird Nares
Keep your parrot healthy by knowing the 8 conditions that affect your bird's nares.
Keep your parrot healthy by knowing the 8 conditions that affect your bird's nares.
The external openings of the avian respiratory tract are called nares. The nares are the holes found usually at the base of the upper beak (also called the rhinotheca). The kiwi is the only bird with the nares at the tip of the beak.
Covered with feathers in some species of parrots, nares are sometimes difficult to see. The opening may be round in some species or form a slit and be surrounded by dense feathers. Some species of parrots have no cere, so the nostrils are at the margin of the beak and the edge of the facial skin.
Conditions Affecting The Nares
Mites: Budgies, in particular, are prone to a type of mite infestation, Knemidokoptes, that causes the skin of the nares and cere to appear crusty, with a white, fluffy overgrowth of abnormal tissue. Often, this mite also affects the skin around the eyes, legs and vent. Diagnosis is made by taking a bit of the tissue for microscopic examination. Treatment often resolves the condition, but sometimes a bird may have problems for life and may develop a deformed beak.
All birds in a cage with an infested bird must receive treatment, even if they show no clinical signs. This type of mite may indicate that the infested bird has an underlying medical condition affecting its immune system.
Chronic disease: Birds with chronic disease affecting the nares and/or cere may eventually develop an abnormal groove in the beak, and the beak may also have a slightly different color to it along the groove. If you notice a groove in the beak that is running the length of the beak, bring this to the attention of your avian veterinarian.
Vitamin-A deficiency: A bird with hypovitaminosis A (vitamin-A deficiency) may end up with swollen nares and/or a swollen cere. This can also result in a bird with a yeast (Candida sp.) infection, which often occurs secondarily to hypovitaminosis A. If the oral cavity is examined, a bird suffering from vitamin A deficiency often also has blunted choanal papillae.
Low humidity: If a bird is kept in an environment that is too low in humidity, its nares are likely to be affected. One of my professors in veterinary school always told us, “Moist tissues are happy tissues? this holds true for our pet parrots?environments!
Infection: If the humidity is too low, the respiratory tissues tend to become somewhat sticky, which allows any bacteria or yeast in the environment to adhere to the tissues and grow. This can result in sinusitis. If you see any of these signs in your pet bird, contact your avian veterinarian.
Diseases and conditions: Many diseases and conditions can inflame the nares. Bacterial infections, including Chlamydophila; fungal infections, including nasal aspergillosis; nutritional deficiencies; tumors; aerosol irritants; trauma; foreign bodies; and environmental factors can all result in swollen nares.
When determining the cause of problems involving the nares, your avian veterinarian will examine both nares to determine if one or both are involved.
Rhinitis is a condition when there is a discharge from one or both nares. In severe cases, the areas around the nares may be wet from discharge, or the top of the head may also become wet or discolored.
Bloody nose: If you notice blood coming from one or both of your bird? nares, take it to your avian vet immediately. Sometimes the bleeding comes from the deeper tissues of the sinuses, or the cere or tissue of the nare might be injured, causing the bleeding. If you see any of these signs in your pet bird, contact your avian veterinarian.
Obstruction: Occasionally a piece of a seed hull can lodge in a nare. Again, an avian vet may use sterile saline to gently dislodge the foreign body. If there is an infection inside the nare, involving the operculum, the tissue may become eroded, requiring surgery to remove the granulomatous mass. This may leave a permanent divot inside the nare.
Want to learn more about a bird’s nares?
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"""A few miles south of Soledad, the Salinas river drops close to the hillside bank and runs deep and green"" is the first line of which American novel?" | PPT – Mice and Men by John Steinbeck A few miles south of Soledad PowerPoint presentation | free to download - id: 3b22cc-YjJmN
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Mice and Men by John Steinbeck A few miles south of Soledad
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Mice and Men by John Steinbeck A few miles south of Soledad, the Salinas River drops in close to the hillside bank and runs deep and green. – PowerPoint PPT presentation
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Title: Mice and Men by John Steinbeck A few miles south of Soledad
1
1-8 at KS3 combination of reading, writing and
SL
student at age 11 will achieve
NC Level 4, and at age 14 level 5
4
English GCSE Taken on its own gaining one
GCSE
Taken together gaining two GCSEs
5
Poetry Clarke and Heaney and Pre 1914
Prose Of Mice and Men or To Kill a Mocking Bird
or The Short Stories
Paper 1 Media and non-fiction
Paper 2 Poetry from Different Cultures
(Both contain separate writing questions)
10
What do we read in GCSE English and Literature?
11
Section A Reading Media Non-fiction
1(a) What reasons does Jenny McKay give for the
popularity of magazines? (6 marks)
1(b) How does Jenny McKay use facts to support
her opinions? (6 marks)
2(a) Compare the front pages of Bella and Trout
Fisherman. You should write about
Pictures, layout and other design features.
2(b) The magazines Bella and Trout Fisherman are
aimed at different audiences. How does the
language used on each front page show this? (7
marks)
What activities do we do in English?
17
20 of final English mark
3 final assessments but several throughout the
two years
To do well in her controlled assessment your
daughter will require
Turning up to all preparatory lessons
Attend the assessment days
Stay focused and try her very best
19
Term 1 Spoken Language Study
How does interaction work online? What devices do
people use to maintain brevity and make writing
more like spoken language in the transcript?
The word limit is 800-1000 words.
Time allowed up to 3 hours.
20
What factors contribute to our idiolect or
linguistic fingerprint?
Or what factors affect our speech?
In Pairs
Write down the factors that you think effect your
idiolect (Keep these on the desk between you)
21
Are you as smart as a 14 year old?
2moro
In analysing the grammar of text messages, you
may like to consider the following questions
How varied are the clause and sentence
structures?
How does that variety (or lack of variety)
achieve particular effects?
How far does the grammar resemble that of speech
rather than writing?
wen no one even thinks of me
it makes me feel dpressd
my mates r probly having fun
while im fed up bored
waiting 4 an sms
th_at_ proves im not ignored
shud I charge the battery
in case its lost its power?s
no one txtd me 4 yonx
it must b ½ an hour1!
24
Of Mice and Men has been described as nearly
perfect as any book can be. How do you respond
to the novel as a whole?
Write about
how you respond to the novel
how Steinbeck makes you respond by the ways he
writes.
Mice and Men by John Steinbeck
A few miles south of Soledad, the Salinas River
drops in close to the hillside bank and runs deep
and green. The water is warm too, for it has
slipped twinkling over the yellow sands in the
sunlight before reaching the narrow pool. On one
side of the river the golden foothill slops curve
up to the strong and rocky Gabilan mountains, but
on the valley side the water is lined with
trees--willows fresh and green with every spring,
carrying in their lower leaf junctures the debris
of the winter's flooding and sycamores with
mottled, white, recumbent limbs and branches that
arch over the pool. On the sandy bank under the
trees the leaves lie deep and so crisp that a
lizard makes a great skittering if he runs among
them. Rabbits come out of the brush to sit on the
sand in the evening, and the damp flats are
covered with the night track of 'coons, and with
the spread pads of dogs from the ranches, and
with the split-wedge tracks of deer that come to
drink in the dark.
Mice and Men by John Steinbeck
A few miles south of Soledad, the Salinas River
drops in close to the hillside bank and runs deep
and green. The water is warm too, for it has
slipped twinkling over the yellow sands in the
sunlight before reaching the narrow pool. On one
side of the river the golden foothill slops curve
up to the strong and rocky Gabilan mountains, but
on the valley side the water is lined with
trees-willows fresh and green with every spring,
carrying in their lower leaf junctures the debris
of the winter's flooding and sycamores with
mottled, white, recumbent limbs and branches that
arch over the pool. On the sandy bank under the
trees the leaves lie deep and so crisp that a
lizard makes a great skittering if he runs among
them. Rabbits come out of the brush to sit on the
sand in the evening, and the damp flats are
covered with the night track of 'coons, and with
the spread pads of dogs from the ranches, and
with the split-wedge tracks of deer that come to
drink in the dark.
Higher tier of entry A-D
Foundation tier of entry B-G
Assessment Objectives (AOs) which each board
will allocate differently.
What can I do to support my daughter in Year
11?
completes all set work to the best of her ability
Reads the set texts thoroughly
Purchase revision guides and uses GCSE bitesize
Follow the tasks in the Hayesfield Revision
Booklet
Attends revision sessions if required
Reads widely from non-fiction and media
Practises exam questions
What can I do to support my daughter in Year
10?
completes all set work to the best of her ability
Attends every lesson
Reads the set texts thoroughly
Aims for her targets
Prepares fully for the controlled assessments
30
What you put in is what you get out
31
You should...get them talking about and
enjoying what they are readingThey should set
themselves high standards of achievement
32
Jason folded the piece of paper as small
as he could and stuffed it in the secret
compartment in the heel of his boot. He glanced
down at its previous owner, still and white.
Funny how they always look so peaceful
afterwards, he thought. Pausing for a moment, he
washed his hands, put on some of the mans
cologne and quietly closed the door.
1 What has Jason just done? What made you think
of this
2 Has he done this before? What made you think
of this?
3 Why do you think he did it? What made you
think of this?
What might be written on the folded piece of
paper?
"It's very hard to live in a studio apartment in
San Jose with a man who's learning to play the
violin." That's what she told the police when
she handed them the empty revolver.
1. What has the woman done?
2. What specific words help the reader infer
the meaning?
What effect does this change have?
"It's very hard to live in a studio apartment in
San Jose with a woman who's learning to play the
violin."
That's what he told the police when he handed
them the empty revolver.
"It's very hard to live in a studio apartment in
San Jose with a man who drinks."
That's what she told the police when she handed
them the empty revolver.
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presentations for free. Or use it to find and download high-quality how-to PowerPoint ppt presentations with illustrated or animated slides that will teach you how to do something new, also for free. Or use it to upload your own PowerPoint slides so you can share them with your teachers, class, students, bosses, employees, customers, potential investors or the world. Or use it to create really cool photo slideshows - with 2D and 3D transitions, animation, and your choice of music - that you can share with your Facebook friends or Google+ circles. That's all free as well!
For a small fee you can get the industry's best online privacy or publicly promote your presentations and slide shows with top rankings. But aside from that it's free. We'll even convert your presentations and slide shows into the universal Flash format with all their original multimedia glory, including animation, 2D and 3D transition effects, embedded music or other audio, or even video embedded in slides. All for free. Most of the presentations and slideshows on PowerShow.com are free to view, many are even free to download. (You can choose whether to allow people to download your original PowerPoint presentations and photo slideshows for a fee or free or not at all.) Check out PowerShow.com today - for FREE. There is truly something for everyone!
| Of Mice and Men |
Which fruit is reputed to be the most nutritious? | John Steinbeck ~ Of Mice and Men
A few miles south of Soledad, the Salinas River drops in close to
the hillside bank and runs deep and green. The water is warm too,
for it has slipped twinkling over the yellow sands in the sunlight
before reaching the narrow pool. On one side of the river the golden
foothill slopes curve up to the strong and rocky Gabilan Mountains,
but on the valley side the water is lined with trees- willows fresh
and green with every spring, carrying in their lower leaf junctures
the debris of the winter's flooding; and sycamores with mottled,
white, recumbent limbs and branches that arch over the pool. On the
sandy bank under the trees the leaves lie deep and so crisp that a
lizard makes a great skittering if he runs among them. Rabbits come
out of the brush to sit on the sand in the evening, and the damp flats
are covered with the night tracks of 'coons, and with the spread
pads of dogs from the ranches, and with the split-wedge tracks of deer
that come to drink in the dark.
There is a path through the willows and among the sycamores, a
path beaten hard by boys coming down from the ranches to swim in the
deep pool, and beaten hard by tramps who come wearily down from the
highway in the evening to jungle-up near water. In front of the low
horizontal limb of a giant sycamore there is an ash pile made by
many fires; the limb is worn smooth by men who have sat on it.
Evening of a hot day started the little wind to moving among the
leaves. The shade climbed up the hills toward the top. On the sand
banks the rabbits sat as quietly as little gray sculptured stones. And
then from the direction of the state highway came the sound of
footsteps on crisp sycamore leaves. The rabbits hurried noiselessly
for cover. A stilted heron labored up into the air and pounded down
river. For a moment the place was lifeless, and then two men emerged
from the path and came into the opening by the green pool.
They had walked in single file down the path, and even in the open
one stayed behind the other. Both were dressed in denim trousers and
in denim coats with brass buttons. Both wore black, shapeless hats and
both carried tight blanket rolls slung over their shoulders. The first
man was small and quick, dark of face, with restless eyes and sharp,
strong features. Every part of him was defined: small, strong hands,
slender arms, a thin and bony nose. Behind him walked his opposite,
a huge man, shapeless of face, with large, pale eyes, and wide,
sloping shoulders; and he walked heavily, dragging his feet a
little, the way a bear drags his paws. His arms did not swing at his
sides, but hung loosely.
The first man stopped short in the clearing, and the follower nearly
ran over him. He took off his hat and wiped the sweat-band with his
forefinger and snapped the moisture off. His huge companion dropped
his blankets and flung himself down and drank from the surface of
the green pool; drank with long gulps, snorting into the water like
a horse. The small man stepped nervously beside him.
"Lennie!" he said sharply. "Lennie, for God' sakes don't drink so
much." Lennie continued to snort into the pool. The small man leaned
over and shook him by the shoulder. "Lennie. You gonna be sick like
you was last night."
Lennie dipped his whole head under, hat and all, and then he sat
up on the bank and his hat dripped down on his blue coat and ran
down his back. "That's good," he said. "You drink some, George. You
take a good big drink." He smiled happily.
George unslung his bindle and dropped it gently on the bank. "I
ain't sure it's good water," he said. "Looks kinda scummy."
Lennie dabbled his big paw in the water and wiggled his fingers so
the water arose in little splashes; rings widened across the pool to
the other side and came back again. Lennie watched them go. "Look,
George. Look what I done."
George knelt beside the pool and drank from his hand with quick
scoops. "Tastes all right," he admitted. "Don't really seem to be
running, though. You never oughta drink water when it ain't running,
Lennie," he said hopelessly. "You'd drink out of a gutter if you was
thirsty." He threw a scoop of water into his face and rubbed it
about with his hand, under his chin and around the back of his neck.
Then he replaced his hat, pushed himself back from the river, drew
up his knees and embraced them. Lennie, who had been watching,
imitated George exactly. He pushed himself back, drew up his knees,
embraced them, looked over to George to see whether he had it just
right. He pulled his hat down a little more over his eyes, the way
George's hat was.
George stared morosely at the water. The rims of his eyes were red
with sun glare. He said angrily, "We could just as well of rode
clear to the ranch if that bastard bus driver knew what he was talkin'
about. 'Jes' a little stretch down the highway,' he says. 'Jes' a
little stretch.' God damn near four miles, that's what it was!
Didn't wanta stop at the ranch gate, that's what. Too God damn lazy to
pull up. Wonder he isn't too damn good to stop in Soledad at all.
Kicks us out and says 'Jes' a little stretch down the road.' I bet
it was �more� * than four miles. Damn hot day."
Lennie looked timidly over to him. "George?"
"Yeah, what ya want?"
The little man jerked down the brim of his hat and scowled over at
Lennie. "So you forgot that awready, did you? I gotta tell you
again, do I? Jesus Christ, you're a crazy bastard!"
"I forgot," Lennie said softly. "I tried not to forget. Honest to
God I did, George."
"O.K.- O.K. I'll tell ya again. I ain't got nothing to do. Might
jus' as well spen' all my time tellin' you things and then you
forget 'em, and I tell you again."
"Tried and tried," said Lennie, "but it didn't do no good. I
remember about the rabbits, George."
"The hell with the rabbits. That's all you ever can remember is them
rabbits. O.K.! Now you listen and this time you got to remember so
we don't get in no trouble. You remember settin' in that gutter on
Howard Street and watchin' that blackboard?"
Lennie's face broke into a delighted smile. "Why sure, George. I
remember that... but... what'd we do then? I remember some girls
come by and you says... you says..."
"The hell with what I says. You remember about us goin' in to Murray
and Ready's, and they give us work cards and bus tickets?"
"Oh, sure, George. I remember that now." His hands went quickly into
his side coat pockets. He said gently, "George... I ain't got mine.
I musta lost it." He looked down at the ground in despair.
"You never had none, you crazy bastard. I got both of 'em here.
Think I'd let you carry your own work card?"
Lennie grinned with relief. "I... I thought I put it in my side
pocket." His hand went into the pocket again.
George looked sharply at him. "What'd you take outa that pocket?"
"Ain't a thing in my pocket," Lennie said cleverly.
"I know there ain't. You got it in your hand. What you got in your
hand- hidin' it?"
"I ain't got nothin', George. Honest."
"Come on, give it here."
Lennie held his closed hand away from George's direction. "It's on'y
a mouse, George."
"A mouse? A live mouse?"
"Uh-uh. Jus' a dead mouse, George. I didn't kill it. Honest! I found
it. I found it dead."
"Give it here!" said George.
"Aw, leave me have it, George."
�"Give it here!"�
Lennie's closed hand slowly obeyed. George took the mouse and
threw it across the pool to the other side, among the brush. "What you
want of a dead mouse, anyways?"
"I could pet it with my thumb while we walked along," said Lennie.
"Well, you ain't petting no mice while you walk with me. You
remember where we're goin' now?"
Lennie looked startled and then in embarrassment hid his face
against his knees. "I forgot again."
"Jesus Christ," George said resignedly. "Well- look, we're gonna
work on a ranch like the one we come from up north."
"Up north?"
"Oh, sure. I remember. In Weed."
"That ranch we're goin' to is right down there about a quarter mile.
We're gonna go in an' see the boss. Now, look- I'll give him the
work tickets, but you ain't gonna say a word. You jus' stand there and
don't say nothing. If he finds out what a crazy bastard you are, we
won't get no job, but if he sees ya work before he hears ya talk,
we're set. Ya got that?"
"Sure, George. Sure I got it."
"O.K. Now when we go in to see the boss, what you gonna do?"
"I... I..." Lennie thought. His face grew tight with thought.
I... ain't gonna say nothin'. Jus' gonna stan' there.
"Good boy. That's swell. You say that over two, three times so you
sure won't forget it."
Lennie droned to himself softly, "I ain't gonna say nothin'... I
ain't gonna say nothin'... I ain't gonna say nothin'."
"O.K.," said George. "An' you ain't gonna do no bad things like
you done in Weed, neither."
Lennie looked puzzled. "Like I done in Weed?"
"Oh, so ya forgot that too, did ya? Well, I ain't gonna remind ya,
fear ya do it again."
A light of understanding broke on Lennie's face. "They run us outa
Weed," he exploded triumphantly.
"Run us out, hell," said George disgustedly. "We run. They was
lookin' for us, but they didn't catch us."
Lennie giggled happily. "I didn't forget that, you bet."
George lay back on the sand and crossed his hands under his head,
and Lennie imitated him, raising his head to see whether he was
doing it right. "God, you're a lot of trouble," said George. "I
could get along so easy and so nice if I didn't have you on my tail. I
could live so easy and maybe have a girl."
For a moment Lennie lay quiet, and then he said hopefully, "We gonna
work on a ranch, George."
"Awright. You got that. But we're gonna sleep here because I got a
reason."
The day was going fast now. Only the tops of the Gabilan Mountains
flamed with the light of the sun that had gone from the valley. A
water snake slipped along on the pool, its head held up like a
little periscope. The reeds jerked slightly in the current. Far off
toward the highway a man shouted something, and another man shouted
back. The sycamore limbs rustled under a little wind that died
immediately.
"George- why ain't we goin' on to the ranch and get some supper?
They got supper at the ranch."
George rolled on his side. "No reason at all for you. I like it
here. Tomorra we're gonna go to work. I seen thrashin' machines on the
way down. That means we'll be buckin' grain bags, bustin' a gut.
Tonight I'm gonna lay right here and look up. I like it."
Lennie got up on his knees and looked down at George. "Ain't we
gonna have no supper?"
"Sure we are, if you gather up some dead willow sticks. I got
three cans of beans in my bindle. You get a fire ready. I'll give
you a match when you get the sticks together. Then we'll heat the
beans and have supper."
Lennie said, "I like beans with ketchup."
"Well, we ain't got no ketchup. You go get wood. An' don't you
fool around. It'll be dark before long."
Lennie lumbered to his feet and disappeared in the brush. George lay
where he was and whistled softly to himself. There were sounds of
splashings down the river in the direction Lennie had taken. George
stopped whistling and listened. "Poor bastard," he said softly, and
then went on whistling again.
In a moment Lennie came crashing back through the brush. He
carried one small willow stick in his hand. George sat up.
Awright, he said brusquely. "Gi'me that mouse!"
But Lennie made an elaborate pantomime of innocence. "What mouse,
George? I ain't got no mouse."
George held out his hand. "Come on. Give it to me. You ain't puttin'
nothing over."
Lennie hesitated, backed away, looked wildly at the brush line as
though he contemplated running for his freedom. George said coldly,
You gonna give me that mouse or do I have to sock you?
"Give you what, George?"
"You know God damn well what. I want that mouse."
Lennie reluctantly reached into his pocket. His voice broke a
little. "I don't know why I can't keep it. It ain't nobody's mouse.
I didn't steal it. I found it lyin' right beside the road."
George's hand remained outstretched imperiously. Slowly, like a
terrier who doesn't want to bring a ball to its master, Lennie
approached, drew back, approached again. George snapped his fingers
sharply, and at the sound Lennie laid the mouse in his hand.
"I wasn't doin' nothing bad with it, George. Jus' strokin' it."
George stood up and threw the mouse as far as he could into the
darkening brush, and then he stepped to the pool and washed his hands.
"You crazy fool. Don't you think I could see your feet was wet where you went acrost the river to get it? He heard Lennie's whimpering cry "
and wheeled about. "Blubberin' like a baby! Jesus Christ! A big guy
like you." Lennie's lip quivered and tears started in his eyes. "Aw,
Lennie!" George put his hand on Lennie's shoulder. "I ain't takin'
it away jus' for meanness. That mouse ain't fresh, Lennie; and
besides, you've broke it pettin' it. You get another mouse that's
fresh and I'll let you keep it a little while."
Lennie sat down on the ground and hung his head dejectedly. "I don't
know where there is no other mouse. I remember a lady used to give 'em
to me- ever' one she got. But that lady ain't here."
George scoffed. "Lady, huh? Don't even remember who that lady was.
That was your own Aunt Clara. An' she stopped givin' 'em to ya. You
always killed 'em."
Lennie looked sadly up at him. "They was so little," he said,
apologetically. "I'd pet 'em, and pretty soon they bit my fingers
and I pinched their heads a little and then they was dead- because
they was so little.
"I wisht we'd get the rabbits pretty soon, George. They ain't so
little."
"The hell with the rabbits. An' you ain't to be trusted with no live
mice. Your Aunt Clara give you a rubber mouse and you wouldn't have
nothing to do with it."
"It wasn't no good to pet," said Lennie.
The flame of the sunset lifted from the mountaintops and dusk came
into the valley, and a half darkness came in among the willows and the
sycamores. A big carp rose to the surface of the pool, gulped air
and then sank mysteriously into the dark water again, leaving widening
rings on the water. Overhead the leaves whisked again and little puffs
of willow cotton blew down and landed on the pool's surface.
"You gonna get that wood?" George demanded. "There's plenty right up
against the back of that sycamore. Floodwater wood. Now you get it."
Lennie went behind the tree and brought out a litter of dried leaves
and twigs. He threw them in a heap on the old ash pile and went back
for more and more. It was almost night now. A dove's wings whistled
over the water. George walked to the fire pile and lighted the dry
leaves. The flame cracked up among the twigs and fell to work.
George undid his bindle and brought out three cans of beans. He
stood them about the fire, close in against the blaze, but not quite
touching the flame.
"There's enough beans for four men," George said.
Lennie watched him from over the fire. He said patiently, "I like
'em with ketchup."
"Well, we ain't got any," George exploded. "Whatever we ain't got,
that's what you want. God a'mighty, if I was alone I could live so
easy. I could go get a job an' work, an' no trouble. No mess at all,
and when the end of the month come I could take my fifty bucks and
go into town and get whatever I want. Why, I could stay in a cat house
all night. I could eat any place I want, hotel or any place, and order
any damn thing I could think of. An' I could do all that every damn
month. Get a gallon of whisky, or set in a pool room and play cards or
shoot pool." Lennie knelt and looked over the fire at the angry
George. And Lennie's face was drawn with terror. "An' whatta I got,"
George went on furiously. "I got you! You can't keep a job and you
lose me ever' job I get. Jus' keep me shovin' all over the country all
the time. An' that ain't the worst. You get in trouble. You do bad
things and I got to get you out." His voice rose nearly to a shout.
You crazy son-of-a-bitch. You keep me in hot water all the time.
He took on the elaborate manner of little girls when they are
mimicking one another. "Jus' wanted to feel that girl's dress- jus'
wanted to pet it like it was a mouse- Well, how the hell did she
know you jus' wanted to feel her dress? She jerks back and you hold on
like it was a mouse. She yells and we got to hide in a irrigation
ditch all day with guys lookin' for us, and we got to sneak out in the
dark and get outa the country. All the time somethin' like that- all
the time. I wisht I could put you in a cage with about a million
mice an' let you have fun." His anger left him suddenly. He looked
across the fire at Lennie's anguished face, and then he looked
ashamedly at the flames.
It was quite dark now, but the fire lighted the trunks of the
trees and the curving branches overhead. Lennie crawled slowly and
cautiously around the fire until he was close to George. He sat back
on his heels. George turned the bean cans so that another side faced
the fire. He pretended to be unaware of Lennie so close beside him.
"George," very softly. No answer. "George!"
"Whatta you want?"
"I was only foolin', George. I don't want no ketchup. I wouldn't eat
no ketchup if it was right here beside me."
"If it was here, you could have some."
"But I wouldn't eat none, George. I'd leave it all for you. You
could cover your beans with it and I wouldn't touch none of it."
George still stared morosely at the fire. "When I think of the swell
time I could have without you, I go nuts. I never get no peace."
Lennie still knelt. He looked off into the darkness across the
river. "George, you want I should go away and leave you alone?"
"Where the hell could you go?"
"Well, I could. I could go off in the hills there. Some place I'd
find a cave."
"Yeah? How'd you eat? You ain't got sense enough to find nothing
to eat."
"I'd find things, George. I don't need no nice food with ketchup.
I'd lay out in the sun and nobody'd hurt me. An' if I foun' a mouse, I
could keep it. Nobody'd take it away from me."
George looked quickly and searchingly at him. "I been mean, ain't
I?"
"If you don' want me I can go off in the hills an' find a cave. I
can go away any time."
"No- look! I was jus' foolin', Lennie. 'Cause I want you to stay
with me. Trouble with mice is you always kill 'em." He paused. "Tell
you what I'll do, Lennie. First chance I get I'll give you a pup.
Maybe you wouldn't kill �it.� That'd be better than mice. And you
could pet it harder."
Lennie avoided the bait. He had sensed his advantage. "If you
don't want me, you only jus' got to say so, and I'll go off in those
hills right there- right up in those hills and live by myself. An' I
won't get no mice stole from me."
George said, "I want you to stay with me, Lennie. Jesus Christ,
somebody'd shoot you for a coyote if you was by yourself. No, you stay
with me. Your Aunt Clara wouldn't like you running off by yourself,
even if she is dead."
Lennie spoke craftily, "Tell me- like you done before."
"Tell you what?"
George snapped, "You ain't gonna put nothing over on me."
Lennie pleaded, "Come on, George. Tell me. Please, George. Like
you done before."
"You get a kick outa that, don't you? Awright, I'll tell you, and
then we'll eat our supper...."
George's voice became deeper. He repeated his words rhythmically
as though he had said them many times before. "Guys like us, that work
on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no fambly.
They don't belong no place. They come to a ranch an' work up a stake
and then they go into town and blow their stake, and the first thing
you know they're poundin' their tail on some other ranch. They ain't
got nothing to look ahead to."
Lennie was delighted. "That's it- that's it. Now tell how it is with
us."
George went on. "With us it ain't like that. We got a future. We got
somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us. We don't have to sit
in no bar room blowin' in our jack jus' because we got no place else
to go. If them other guys gets in jail they can rot for all anybody
gives a damn. But not us."
Lennie broke in. �"But not us! An' why? Because... because I got you
to look after me, and you got me to look after you, and that's
why."� He laughed delightedly. "Go on now, George!"
"You got it by heart. You can do it yourself."
"No, you. I forget some a' the things. Tell about how it's gonna
be."
"O.K. Someday- we're gonna get the jack together and we're gonna
have a little house and a couple of acres an' a cow and some pigs
and-"
�"An' live off the fatta the lan',"� Lennie shouted. "An' have
rabbits.� Go on, George! Tell about what we're gonna have in the
garden and about the rabbits in the cages and about the rain in the
winter and the stove, and how thick the cream is on the milk like
you can hardly cut it. Tell about that, George."
"Why'n't you do it yourself? You know all of it."
"No... you tell it. It ain't the same if I tell it. Go on... George.
How I get to tend the rabbits."
"Well," said George, "we'll have a big vegetable patch and a
rabbit hutch and chickens. And when it rains in the winter, we'll just
say the hell with goin' to work, and we'll build up a fire in the
stove and set around it an' listen to the rain comin' down on the
roof- Nuts!" He took out his pocket knife. "I ain't got time for no
more." He drove his knife through the top of one of the bean cans,
sawed out the top and passed the can to Lennie. Then he opened a
second can. From his side pocket he brought out two spoons and
passed one of them to Lennie.
They sat by the fire and filled their mouths with beans and chewed
mightily. A few beans slipped out of the side of Lennie's mouth.
George gestured with his spoon. "What you gonna say tomorrow when
the boss asks you questions?"
Lennie stopped chewing and swallowed. His face was concentrated.
I... I ain't gonna... say a word.
"Good boy! That's fine, Lennie! Maybe you're gettin' better. When we
get the coupla acres I can let you tend the rabbits all right.
'Specially if you remember as good as that."
Lennie choked with pride. "I can remember," he said.
George motioned with his spoon again. "Look, Lennie. I want you to
look around here. You can remember this place, can't you? The ranch is
about a quarter mile up that way. Just follow the river?"
"Sure," said Lennie. "I can remember this. Di'n't I remember about
not gonna say a word?"
"'Course you did. Well, look. Lennie- if you jus' happen to get in
trouble like you always done before, I want you to come right here an'
hide in the brush."
"Hide in the brush," said Lennie slowly.
"Hide in the brush till I come for you. Can you remember that?"
"Sure I can, George. Hide in the brush till you come."
"But you ain't gonna get in no trouble, because if you do, I won't
let you tend the rabbits." He threw his empty bean can off into the
brush.
"I won't get in no trouble, George. I ain't gonna say a word."
"O.K. Bring your bindle over here by the fire. It's gonna be nice
sleepin' here. Lookin' up, and the leaves. Don't build up no more
fire. We'll let her die down."
They made their beds on the sand, and as the blaze dropped from
the fire the sphere of light grew smaller; the curling branches
disappeared and only a faint glimmer showed where the tree trunks
were. From the darkness Lennie called, "George- you asleep?"
"No. Whatta you want?"
"Let's have different color rabbits, George."
"Sure we will," George said sleepily. "Red and blue and green
rabbits, Lennie. Millions of 'em."
"Furry ones, George, like I seen in the fair in Sacramento."
"Sure, furry ones."
| i don't know |
Similarly, which fruit is reputed to be the least nutritious? | Fruit and vegetables - Better Health Channel
Fruit and vegetables
Summary
Fruits and vegetables contain important vitamins, minerals and plant chemicals. They also contain fibre.
There are many varieties of fruit and vegetables available and many ways to prepare, cook and serve them.
A diet high in fruit and vegetables can help protect you against cancer, diabetes and heart disease.
Eat five kinds of vegetable and two kinds of fruit every day for good health.
Most Australians do not eat enough fruit and vegetables.
When buying and serving fruit and vegetables, aim for variety to get the most nutrients and appeal.
Fruit and vegetables should be an important part of your daily diet. They are naturally good and contain vitamins and minerals that can help to keep you healthy. They can also help protect against some diseases.
Most Australians will benefit from eating more fruit and vegetables as part of a well-balanced, regular diet and a healthy, active lifestyle. There are many varieties of fruit and vegetables available and many ways to prepare, cook and serve them.
You should eat at least five serves of vegetables and two serves of fruit each day. Choose different colours and varieties.
A serve of vegetables is about one cup of raw salad vegetables or 1/2 cup of cooked.
A serve of fruit is about one medium piece, 2 small pieces of 1 cup canned (no added sugar).
Vitamins and minerals in fruit and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables contain many vitamins and minerals that are good for your health. These include vitamins A (beta-carotene), C and E, magnesium, zinc, phosphorous and folic acid. Folic acid may reduce blood levels of homocysteine, a substance that may be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.
Fruit and vegetables for good health
Fruits and vegetables are low in fat, salt and sugar. They are a good source of dietary fibre. As part of a well-balanced, regular diet and a healthy, active lifestyle, a high intake of fruit and vegetables can help you to:
Reduce obesity and maintain a healthy weight
Lower your cholesterol
Lower your blood pressure.
Fruit and vegetables and protection against diseases
Vegetables and fruit contain phytochemicals, or plant chemicals. These biologically active substances can help to protect you from some diseases. Scientific research shows that if you regularly eat lots of fruit and vegetables, you have a lower risk of:
Type 2 diabetes
Heart (cardiovascular) disease – when fruits and vegetables are eaten as food, not taken as supplements
Cancer – some forms of cancer, later in life
High blood pressure (hypertension).
Types of fruit
Fruit is the sweet, fleshy, edible part of a plant. It generally contains seeds. Fruits are usually eaten raw, although some varieties can be cooked. They come in a wide variety of colours, shapes and flavours. Common types of fruits that are readily available include:
Apples and pears
Vegetables are available in many varieties and can be classified into biological groups or ‘families’, including:
Leafy green – lettuce, spinach and silverbeet
Cruciferous – cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and broccoli
Marrow – pumpkin, cucumber and zucchini
Root – potato, sweet potato and yam
Edible plant stem – celery and asparagus
Allium – onion, garlic and shallot.
Legumes
Legumes or pulses contain nutrients that are especially valuable. Legumes need to be cooked before they are eaten – this improves their nutritional quality, aids digestion and eliminates any harmful toxins. Legumes come in many forms including:
Soy products – tofu (bean curd) and soybeans
Legume flours – chickpea flour (besan), lentil flour and soy flour
Dried beans and peas – haricot beans, red kidney beans, chickpeas and lentils
Fresh beans and peas – green peas, green beans, butter beans, broad beans and snow peas.
Colours of fruits and vegetables
You will get the most health benefits and protection against disease if you eat a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Australian dietary guidelines recommend that adults eat at least five kinds of vegetable and two kinds of fruit every day.
Foods of similar colours generally contain similar protective compounds. Try to eat a rainbow of colourful fruits and vegetables every day to get the full range of health benefits. For example:
Red foods – like tomatoes and watermelon. These contain lycopene, which is thought to be important for fighting prostate cancer and heart disease
Green vegetables – like spinach and kale. These contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which may help protect against age-related eye disease
Blue and purple foods – like blueberries and eggplant. These contain anthocyanins, which may help protect the body from cancer
White foods – like cauliflower. These contain sulforaphane and may also help protect against some cancers.
Selecting fruits and vegetables
To maximise nutrients and appeal, buy and serve different types of fruit and vegetables. Try to buy fruits and vegetables that are in season, and choose for freshness and quality. You should:
Eat with the seasons – this is nature’s way of making sure our bodies get a healthy mix of nutrients and plant chemicals
Try something new – try new recipes and buy new fruit or vegetables as part of your weekly shopping
Let colours guide you – get different combinations of nutrients by putting a ‘rainbow’ of colours (green, white, yellow–orange, blue–purple, red) on your plate.
Fruit and vegetable serving suggestions for your family’s health
Vegetables and fruit are a handy snack food and are easily carried to work or school. Include them in everyone’s meals and snacks for a healthy, well-balanced diet. Some suggestions include:
Keep snack-size fruit and vegetable portions easily accessible in your fridge.
Keep fresh fruit on the bench or table.
Add fruit and vegetables to your favourite family recipes or as additions to your usual menus.
Use the colour and texture of a variety of fruit and vegetables to add interest to your meals.
Think up new ways to serve fruits and vegetables.
Some simple ways to serve fruits and vegetables include:
fruit and vegetable salads
vegetable soups
snack pack, stewed or canned fruits or dried fruits.
Limit fruit juice, as it does not contain the same amount of nutrients as fresh fruit. It also contains a lot of sugars. These sugars are not necessarily good for your health, even though they are ‘natural’. Instead, have a drink of water and a serve of fruit.
Preparation and cooking of fruit and vegetables
Vegetables are often cooked, although some kinds are eaten raw. Cooking and processing can damage some nutrients and phytochemicals in plant foods.
Suggestions to get the best out of your fruit and vegetables include:
Eat raw vegetables and fruits if possible.
Try fruit or vegetables pureed into smoothies.
Use a sharp knife to cut fresh fruits to avoid bruising.
Cut off only the inedible parts of vegetables – sometimes the best nutrients are found in the skin, just below the skin or in the leaves.
Use stir-fry, grill, microwave, bake or steam methods with non-stick cookware and mono-unsaturated oils.
Do not overcook, to reduce nutrient loss.
Serve meals with vegetable pestos, salsas, chutneys and vinegars in place of sour cream, butter and creamy sauces.
Some nutrients such as carotenoids may actually be increased if food is cooked. For example, tomato has more carotenoids, especially lycopene, when it is cooked – a good reason to prepare fruits and vegetables in a variety of ways.
Once you’ve prepared and cooked your vegetables and fruit, spend some time on presentation. People are more likely to enjoy a meal if it’s full of variety and visually appealing, as well as tasty. Sit at the table to eat and enjoy your food without distractions like television.
Daily allowances of fruit and vegetables
Different fruits and vegetables contain different nutrients. The Australian dietary guidelines recommend that adults eat at least five kinds of vegetable and two kinds of fruit every day. A national nutrition survey conducted by the Australian Government showed that Australians of all ages do not eat enough vegetables and fruit.
Children have a smaller stomach capacity and higher energy needs than adults. They cannot eat the same serving sizes as adults. However, you should encourage your children to eat a variety of fruits and vegetables. By eating well, your children will have the energy they need to play, concentrate better, learn, sleep better and build stronger teeth and bones. Building good habits in their early years can also provide the protection of a healthy diet throughout their lives.
The Australian dietary guidelines have recommendations on how many vegetables and fruits adults, children and adolescents of different ages require.
Where to get help
| Cucumber |
Who drowned close to Catalina Island, California, in 1981? | Fruit and vegetables - Better Health Channel
Fruit and vegetables
Summary
Fruits and vegetables contain important vitamins, minerals and plant chemicals. They also contain fibre.
There are many varieties of fruit and vegetables available and many ways to prepare, cook and serve them.
A diet high in fruit and vegetables can help protect you against cancer, diabetes and heart disease.
Eat five kinds of vegetable and two kinds of fruit every day for good health.
Most Australians do not eat enough fruit and vegetables.
When buying and serving fruit and vegetables, aim for variety to get the most nutrients and appeal.
Fruit and vegetables should be an important part of your daily diet. They are naturally good and contain vitamins and minerals that can help to keep you healthy. They can also help protect against some diseases.
Most Australians will benefit from eating more fruit and vegetables as part of a well-balanced, regular diet and a healthy, active lifestyle. There are many varieties of fruit and vegetables available and many ways to prepare, cook and serve them.
You should eat at least five serves of vegetables and two serves of fruit each day. Choose different colours and varieties.
A serve of vegetables is about one cup of raw salad vegetables or 1/2 cup of cooked.
A serve of fruit is about one medium piece, 2 small pieces of 1 cup canned (no added sugar).
Vitamins and minerals in fruit and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables contain many vitamins and minerals that are good for your health. These include vitamins A (beta-carotene), C and E, magnesium, zinc, phosphorous and folic acid. Folic acid may reduce blood levels of homocysteine, a substance that may be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.
Fruit and vegetables for good health
Fruits and vegetables are low in fat, salt and sugar. They are a good source of dietary fibre. As part of a well-balanced, regular diet and a healthy, active lifestyle, a high intake of fruit and vegetables can help you to:
Reduce obesity and maintain a healthy weight
Lower your cholesterol
Lower your blood pressure.
Fruit and vegetables and protection against diseases
Vegetables and fruit contain phytochemicals, or plant chemicals. These biologically active substances can help to protect you from some diseases. Scientific research shows that if you regularly eat lots of fruit and vegetables, you have a lower risk of:
Type 2 diabetes
Heart (cardiovascular) disease – when fruits and vegetables are eaten as food, not taken as supplements
Cancer – some forms of cancer, later in life
High blood pressure (hypertension).
Types of fruit
Fruit is the sweet, fleshy, edible part of a plant. It generally contains seeds. Fruits are usually eaten raw, although some varieties can be cooked. They come in a wide variety of colours, shapes and flavours. Common types of fruits that are readily available include:
Apples and pears
Vegetables are available in many varieties and can be classified into biological groups or ‘families’, including:
Leafy green – lettuce, spinach and silverbeet
Cruciferous – cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and broccoli
Marrow – pumpkin, cucumber and zucchini
Root – potato, sweet potato and yam
Edible plant stem – celery and asparagus
Allium – onion, garlic and shallot.
Legumes
Legumes or pulses contain nutrients that are especially valuable. Legumes need to be cooked before they are eaten – this improves their nutritional quality, aids digestion and eliminates any harmful toxins. Legumes come in many forms including:
Soy products – tofu (bean curd) and soybeans
Legume flours – chickpea flour (besan), lentil flour and soy flour
Dried beans and peas – haricot beans, red kidney beans, chickpeas and lentils
Fresh beans and peas – green peas, green beans, butter beans, broad beans and snow peas.
Colours of fruits and vegetables
You will get the most health benefits and protection against disease if you eat a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Australian dietary guidelines recommend that adults eat at least five kinds of vegetable and two kinds of fruit every day.
Foods of similar colours generally contain similar protective compounds. Try to eat a rainbow of colourful fruits and vegetables every day to get the full range of health benefits. For example:
Red foods – like tomatoes and watermelon. These contain lycopene, which is thought to be important for fighting prostate cancer and heart disease
Green vegetables – like spinach and kale. These contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which may help protect against age-related eye disease
Blue and purple foods – like blueberries and eggplant. These contain anthocyanins, which may help protect the body from cancer
White foods – like cauliflower. These contain sulforaphane and may also help protect against some cancers.
Selecting fruits and vegetables
To maximise nutrients and appeal, buy and serve different types of fruit and vegetables. Try to buy fruits and vegetables that are in season, and choose for freshness and quality. You should:
Eat with the seasons – this is nature’s way of making sure our bodies get a healthy mix of nutrients and plant chemicals
Try something new – try new recipes and buy new fruit or vegetables as part of your weekly shopping
Let colours guide you – get different combinations of nutrients by putting a ‘rainbow’ of colours (green, white, yellow–orange, blue–purple, red) on your plate.
Fruit and vegetable serving suggestions for your family’s health
Vegetables and fruit are a handy snack food and are easily carried to work or school. Include them in everyone’s meals and snacks for a healthy, well-balanced diet. Some suggestions include:
Keep snack-size fruit and vegetable portions easily accessible in your fridge.
Keep fresh fruit on the bench or table.
Add fruit and vegetables to your favourite family recipes or as additions to your usual menus.
Use the colour and texture of a variety of fruit and vegetables to add interest to your meals.
Think up new ways to serve fruits and vegetables.
Some simple ways to serve fruits and vegetables include:
fruit and vegetable salads
vegetable soups
snack pack, stewed or canned fruits or dried fruits.
Limit fruit juice, as it does not contain the same amount of nutrients as fresh fruit. It also contains a lot of sugars. These sugars are not necessarily good for your health, even though they are ‘natural’. Instead, have a drink of water and a serve of fruit.
Preparation and cooking of fruit and vegetables
Vegetables are often cooked, although some kinds are eaten raw. Cooking and processing can damage some nutrients and phytochemicals in plant foods.
Suggestions to get the best out of your fruit and vegetables include:
Eat raw vegetables and fruits if possible.
Try fruit or vegetables pureed into smoothies.
Use a sharp knife to cut fresh fruits to avoid bruising.
Cut off only the inedible parts of vegetables – sometimes the best nutrients are found in the skin, just below the skin or in the leaves.
Use stir-fry, grill, microwave, bake or steam methods with non-stick cookware and mono-unsaturated oils.
Do not overcook, to reduce nutrient loss.
Serve meals with vegetable pestos, salsas, chutneys and vinegars in place of sour cream, butter and creamy sauces.
Some nutrients such as carotenoids may actually be increased if food is cooked. For example, tomato has more carotenoids, especially lycopene, when it is cooked – a good reason to prepare fruits and vegetables in a variety of ways.
Once you’ve prepared and cooked your vegetables and fruit, spend some time on presentation. People are more likely to enjoy a meal if it’s full of variety and visually appealing, as well as tasty. Sit at the table to eat and enjoy your food without distractions like television.
Daily allowances of fruit and vegetables
Different fruits and vegetables contain different nutrients. The Australian dietary guidelines recommend that adults eat at least five kinds of vegetable and two kinds of fruit every day. A national nutrition survey conducted by the Australian Government showed that Australians of all ages do not eat enough vegetables and fruit.
Children have a smaller stomach capacity and higher energy needs than adults. They cannot eat the same serving sizes as adults. However, you should encourage your children to eat a variety of fruits and vegetables. By eating well, your children will have the energy they need to play, concentrate better, learn, sleep better and build stronger teeth and bones. Building good habits in their early years can also provide the protection of a healthy diet throughout their lives.
The Australian dietary guidelines have recommendations on how many vegetables and fruits adults, children and adolescents of different ages require.
Where to get help
| i don't know |
In January 1985, the rock group 'Foreigner' had their only UK number one. What was the name of the song? | Foreigner | The Official Website
Foreigner, Cheap Trick and Jason Bonham Tour Set to Launch July 11th in Syracuse, New York
TICKETS GO ON SALE JANUARY 13 AT LIVENATION.COM ! FOREIGNER�S 40TH ANNIVERSARY ALBUM SET FOR RELEASE MAY 5th! FOREIGNER, the band behind these classic and iconic songs, is turning 40 this year and they�re bringing their friends along for the year-long celebration. First up is a mammoth worldwide tour, set to launch in Syracuse, NY on July 11th. For the US shows presented by Live Nation, Foreigner will be alongside Rock & Roll Hall of Famers Cheap Trick � who
Read This Article
12/06/2016
Foreigner Original Band Members Reunited For Platinum Plaque Ceremony To Commemorate Sales Of �No End In Sight: The Very Best Of
(December 6, 2016) A long-awaited FOREIGNER reunion took place December 5, 2016 to celebrate the RIAA Platinum certification of 2008�s NO END IN SIGHT: THE VERY BEST OF FOREIGNER (Atlantic Records/Rhino Entertainment), a double-disc collection featuring the band�s biggest hits, including �Feels Like The First Time,� �Cold As Ice,� �Hot Blooded,� and �I Want To Know What Love Is.� It also includes a brand new song, �Too Late,� as well as live performances by the current line-up that includes founding member
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11/23/2016
Foreigner Set To Release 'The Flame Still Burns' EP as Part of Record Store Day's Black Friday Event on Friday November 25
Digital Single Of New Foreigner Song �The Flame Still Burns� Available November 21! See An Exclusive Premiere Of �The Flame Still Burns� Here (November 23, 2016) On Record Store Day�s Black Friday event on November 25--the same month the band entered Atlantic Record�s studio to record their first album in 1976 �Foreigner will release a 10� vinyl EP, THE FLAME STILL BURNS (via Rhino Records). The highly collectible EP features a bran
Foreigner Celebrate 40 Years of Hits With Intimate iHeartRadio ICONS Performance
Foreigner and Mick Jones have carved their visage into the Mount Rushmore of rock with some of the biggest hits in music over the past 40 years, solidifying their title as the world�s best-selling band of all time. The luminaries celebrated their 40th anniversary and the release of their brand new Record Store Day exclusive EP �The Flame Still Burns� with an acoustic performance of selections from their legendary catalog for iHeartRadio�s ICONS series presented by Citi MasterPass on November 21st in New Yor
| I Want to Know What Love Is |
The production of which iconic passenger aircraft ceased in 1991, after being in production for 37 years? | Foreigner Tickets | Foreigner Concert Tickets & Tour Dates | Ticketmaster.com
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With ten multi-platinum albums and sixteen Top 30 hits, Foreigner is universally hailed as one of the most popular rock acts in the world with a formidable musical arsenal that continues to propel sold-out tours and album sales, now exceeding 75 million. Responsible for some of rock and roll’s most enduring anthems including “Juke Box Hero,” “Feels Like The First Time,” “Urgent,” “Head Games,” “Hot Blooded,” “Cold As Ice,” “Dirty White Boy,” “Waiting For A Girl Like You,” and the worldwide #1 hit, “I Want To Know What Love Is,” Foreigner continues to rock the charts more than thirty years into the game.
At Foreigner’s core is founder and lead guitarist Mick Jones, the visionary maestro whose stylistic songwriting, indelible guitar hooks and multi-layered talents continue to escalate Foreigner’s influence, along with lead vocalist Kelly Hansen, bass guitarist Jeff Pilson and multi-instrumentalist Tom Gimbel.
Founded in 1976, Foreigner’s debut album produced the hits “Feels Like The First Time,” “Cold As Ice” and “Long, Long Way From Home.” The album Double Vision followed, as did a string of hits like “Urgent,” “Juke Box Hero” and “Waiting For A Girl Like You.” Those songs helped give Foreigner’s next album, 4, its impressive run at #1 on the Billboard chart. At the zenith of 80’s sound, Foreigner’s fifth album, Agent Provocateur, gave the world the incredible #1 global hit,” I Want To Know What Love Is.” This musical milestone followed the record-breaking song “Waiting For A Girl Like You.”
An unprecedented new level of energy commenced in 2002 when Mick Jones decided to take Foreigner to the next level. He was joined by the astonishing Kelly Hansen on vocals, and continues as they lead the group in a re-emergence of astounding music that speaks to long time foreigner fans and younger generations. With renewed energy and direction, Foreigner hit the Billboard charts again with the 2005 release of their live greatest hits album, Extended Versions. Can’t Slow Down followed in 2009, and entered the Billboard chart in the Top 30, driven by two Top 20 radio singles, “In Pieces” and “When It Comes To Love.” To follow was the release of the band’s 3-disc set, Feels Like The First Time, which included an acoustic CD with an intimate and unique re-interpretation of many Foreigner classics, studio re-records by the new lineup and a live performance DVD showcasing the group’s exceptional live energy.
Foreigner experienced another surge in popularity when several of their hits were featured on the Rock Of Ages soundtrack, including “I Want To Know What Love Is,” “Juke Box Hero” and “Waiting For A Girl Like You” – more songs than any other one band on the soundtrack. Hollywood quickly took note, and several more tracks were featured in hit films “Anchorman 2,” “Magic Mike” and “Pitch Perfect,” sending Foreigner downloads up 400%. The video game industry was soon to follow. The blockbuster release, “Grand Theft Auto V,” features Foreigner’s “Dirty White Boy,” and “Hot Blooded” is included in the November 2013 release of “BandFuse”. The high visibility of Foreigner’s songs continues to introduce the band’s music to a whole future generation of fans.
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In 1998 David Trimble and which other Northern Ireland politician jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize for their work on the 'Good Friday Agreement'? | ��ࡱ� > �� w y ���� v �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9 �� =� bjbj���� .� �� �� =� �� �� �� l � � � � � � � � > > > > R 4 � � � � L � � � � � � � K M M M M M M $ x �" � q � � � � � � q ^ � � � � � ^ ^ ^ � j � � � � K ^ � K ^ � ^ � � h � � K � � -f�!��� z > H w K � 0 � � � <# H <# K ^ � � � � � � � HYPERLINK "http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1998/index.html" 1998 HYPERLINK "http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1998/index.html" John Hume, David Trimble John Hume � Nobel Lecture Nobel Lecture, Oslo, December 10, 1998 � Your Majesties, Members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen. I would like to begin by expressing my deep appreciation and gratitude to the Nobel committee for bestowing this honour on me today. I am sure that they share with me the knowledge that, most profoundly of all, we owe this peace to the ordinary people of Ireland, particularly those of the North who have lived and suffered the reality of our conflict. I think that David Trimble would agree with me that this Nobel prize for peace which names us both is in the deepest sense a powerful recognition from the wider world of the tremendous qualities of compassion and humanity of all the people we represent between us. In the past 30 years of our conflict there have been many moments of deep depression and outright horror. Many people wondered whether the words of W.B Yeats might come true "Too long a sacrifice Can make a stone of the heart." Endlessly our people gathered their strength to face another day and they never stopped encouraging their leaders to find the courage to resolve this situation so that our children could look to the future with a smile of hope. This is indeed their prize and I am convinced that they understand it in that sense and would take strong encouragement from today�s significance and it will powerfully strengthen our peace process. Today also we commemorate and the world commemorates the adoption 50 years ago of the Universal declaration of Human Rights and it is right and proper, that today is also a day that is associated internationally with the support of peace and work for peace because the basis of peace and stability, in any society, has to be the fullest respect for the human rights of all its people. It is right and proper that the European Convention of Human Rights is to be incorporated into the domestic law of our land as an element of the Good Friday Agreement. In my own work for peace, I was very strongly inspired by my European experience. I always tell this story, and I do so because it is so simple yet so profound and so applicable to conflict resolution anywhere in the world. On my first visit to Strasbourg in 1979 as a member of the European Parliament. I went for a walk across the bridge from Strasbourg to Kehl. Strasbourg is in France. Kehl is in Germany. They are very close. I stopped in the middle of the bridge and I meditated. There is Germany. There is France. If I had stood on this bridge 30 years ago after the end of the second world war when 25 million people lay dead across our continent for the second time in this century and if I had said: "Don�t worry. In 30 years� time we will all be together in a new Europe, our conflicts and wars will be ended and we will be working together in our common interests", I would have been sent to a psychiatrist. But it has happened and it is now clear that European Union is the best example in the history of the world of conflict resolution and it is the duty of everyone, particularly those who live in areas of conflict to study how it was done and to apply its principles to their own conflict resolution. All conflict is about difference, whether the difference is race, religion or nationality The European visionaries decided that difference is not a threat, difference is natural. Difference is of the essence of humanity. Difference is an accident of birth and it should therefore never be the source of hatred or conflict. The answer to difference is to respect it. Therein lies a most fundamental principle of peace - respect for diversity. The peoples of Europe then created institutions which respected their diversity - a Council of Ministers, the European Commission and the European Parliament - but allowed them to work together in their common and substantial economic interest. They spilt their sweat and not their blood and by doing so broke down the barriers of distrust of centuries and the new Europe has evolved and is still evolving, based on agreement and respect for difference. That is precisely what we are now committed to doing in Northern Ireland. Our Agreement, which was overwhelmingly endorsed by the people, creates institutions which respect diversity but ensure that we work together in our common interest. Our Assembly is proportionately elected so that all sections of our people are represented. Any new administration or government will be proportionately elected by the members of the Assembly so that all sections will be working together. There will be also be institutions between both parts of Ireland and between Britain and Ireland that will also respect diversity and work the common ground. Once these institutions are in place and we begin to work together in our very substantial common interests, the real healing process will begin and we will erode the distrust and prejudices of out past and our new society will evolve, based on agreement and respect for diversity. The identities of both sections of our people will be respected and there will be no victory for either side. We have also had enormous solidarity and support from right across the world which has strengthened our peace process. We in Ireland appreciate this solidarity and support - from the United States, from the European Union, from friends around the world - more than we can say. The achievement of peace could not have been won without this goodwill and generosity of spirit. We should recall too on this formal occasion that our Springtime of peace and hope in Ireland owes an overwhelming debt to several others who devoted their passionate intensity and all of their skills to this enterprise: to the Prime Ministers,Tony Blair and Bertie Ahern, to the President of the United States of America Bill Clinton and the European President Jacques Delors and Jacques Santer and to the three men who so clearly facilitated the negotiation, Senator George Mitchell former Leader of the Senate of the United States of America, Harri Holkerri of Finland and General John de Chastelain of Canada. And, of course, to our outstanding Secretary of State, Mo Mowlam. We in Ireland appreciate this solidarity and support - from the United States; from the European Union, from friends around the world - more than we can say. The achievement of peace could not have been won without this good will and generosity of spirit. Two major political traditions - share the Island of Ireland. We are destined by history to live side by side. Two representatives of these political traditions stand here today. We do so in shared fellowship and a shared determination to make Ireland, after the hardship and pain of many years, a true and enduring symbol of peace. Too many lives have already been lost in Ireland in the pursuit of political goals. Bloodshed for political change prevents the only change that truly matter: in the human heart. We must now shape a future of change that will be truly radical and that will offer a focus for real unity of purpose: harnessing new forces of idealism and commitment for the benefit of Ireland and all its people. Throughout my years in political life, I have seen extraordinary courage and fortitude by individual men and women, innocent victims of violence. Amid shattered lives, a quiet heroism has born silent rebuke to the evil that violence represents, to the carnage and waste of violence, to its ultimate futility. I have seen a determination for peace become a shared bond that has brought together people of all political persuasions in Northern Ireland and throughout the island of Ireland. I have seen the friendship of Irish and British people transcend, even in times of misunderstanding and tensions, all narrower political differences. We are two neighbouring islands whose destiny is to live in friendship and amity with each other. We are friends and the achievement of peace will further strengthen that friendship and, together, allow us to build on the countless ties that unite us in so many ways. The Good Friday Agreement now opens a new future for all the people of Ireland. A future built on respect for diversity and for political difference. A future where all can rejoice in cherished aspirations and beliefs and where this can be a badge of honour, not a source of fear or division. The Agreement represents an accommodation that diminishes the self-respect of no political tradition, no group, no individual. It allows all of us - in Northern Ireland and throughout the island of Ireland - to now come together and, jointly, to work together in shared endeavour for the good of all. No-one is asked to yield their cherished convictions or beliefs. All of us are asked to respect the views and rights of others as equal of our own and, together, to forge a covenant of shared ideals based on commitment to the rights of all allied to a new generosity of purpose. That is what a new, agreed Ireland will involve. That is what is demanded of each of us. The people of Ireland, in both parts of the island, have joined together to passionately support peace. They have endorsed, by overwhelming numbers in the ballot box, the Good Friday Agreement. They have shown an absolute and unyielding determination that the achievement of peace must be set in granite and its possibilities grasped with resolute purpose. It is now up to political leaders on all sides to move decisively to fulfil the mandate given by the Irish people: to safeguard and cherish peace by establishing agreed structures for peace that will forever remove the underlying causes of violence and division on our island. There is now, in Ireland, a passionate sense of moving to new beginnings. I salute all those who made this possible: the leaders and members of all the political parties who worked together to shape a new future and to reach agreement; the Republican and Loyalist movements who turned to a different path with foresight and courage; people in all parts of Ireland who have led the way for peace and who have made it possible. And so, the challenge now is to grasp and shape history: to show that past grievances and injustices can give way to a new generosity of spirit and action. I want to see Ireland - North and South - the wounds of violence healed, play its rightful role in a Europe that will, for all Irish people, be a shared bond of patriotism and new endeavour. I want to see Ireland as an example to men and women everywhere of what can be achieved by living for ideals, rather than fighting for them, and by viewing each and every person as worthy of respect and honour. I want to see an Ireland of partnership where we wage war on want and poverty, where we reach out to the marginalised and dispossessed, where we build together a future that can be as great as our dreams allow. The Irish poet, Louis MacNiece wrote words of affirmation and hope that seem to me to sum up the challenges now facing all of us - North and South, Unionist and Nationalist - in Ireland. "By a high star our course is set, Our end is life. Put out to sea." That is the journey on which we in Ireland are now embarked. Today, as I have said, the world also commemorates the adoption fifty years ago, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. To me there is a unique appropriateness, a sort of poetic fulfilment, in the coincidence that my fellow Laureate and I, representing a community long divided by the forces of a terrible history, should jointly be honoured on this day. I humbly accept this honour on behalf of a people who, after many years of strife, have finally made a commitment to a better future in harmony together. Our commitment is grounded in the very language and the very principles of the Universal Declaration itself. No greater honour could have been done me or the people I speak here for on no more fitting day. I will now end with a quotation of total hope, the words of a former Laureate, one of my great heroes of this century, Martin Luther King Jr. We shall overcome. Thank you. John Hume � Biography Place of birth: Derry Education: St Columb's College, Derry University: Trinity College, Dublin Previous Occupation: Teacher Career History: lecturer in international affairs; French and History teacher Marital Status: Married Children: Three daughters, two sons Northern Ireland politician, born in Londonderry, Co Londonderry. He studied at the National University of Ireland, and was a founder member of the Credit Union Party, which was a forerunner to the Social Democratic Labour Party (SDLP). He sat in the Northern Ireland parliament (1969--72) and the Northern Ireland Assembly (1972--3), and became widely respected as a moderate, non-violent member of the Catholic community. He became SDLP leader in 1979, and in the same year was elected to the European Parliament. He has represented Foyle in the House of Commons since 1983. In 1993 he and Sinn F�in leader Gerry Adams began a series of discussions, the Hume--Adams peace initiative, intended to bring about an end to violence in Northern Ireland. This helped create the climate for John Major and Albert Reynolds' Downing Street Declaration (1993), setting out general principles for peace talks in Northern Ireland. David Trimble � Nobel Lecture Nobel Lecture, Oslo, December 10, 1998 � Your Majesties, Members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen. The Nobel Prize for peace normally goes to named persons. This year the persons named are John Hume and myself, two politicians from Northern Ireland. And I am honoured, as John Hume is honoured, that my name should be so singled out. But in one sense the singling of one or two persons, for a peace prize, must always seem something of an injustice. In Northern Ireland I could name scores of people, Unionist and nationalist, who deserve this prize far more than I do. Add to that the thousands of people who I do not know, but who have born witness, in their own lives, by carrying out what Wordsworth called, "those little nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and love". And since I know there are thousands of such heroes and heroines in Northern Ireland, how many more millions of peacemakers must there be in the front line of the fight for peace across the globe. People who stand in the front line for peace in all the places where there is no peace - Bosnia, Kosovo, Gaza, Cyprus, Rwanda, Angola. Naturally it is not possible to name each and everyone of those heroes and heroines who make up the huge host of peacemakers who, even as we speak, are at work for peace around the world. But even if it is not possible to name them we can note their presence on the peacelines around the world. Having said that, I am at the same time, anxious to allay any fears on your part that I might fail to pick up the medal or the cheque. The people of Northern Ireland are not a people to look a gift horse in the mouth. It is imperative that I take the medal home to Northern Ireland - if only to prove that I have been to Oslo. And the way politics work in Northern Ireland - if John Hume has a medal, it is important that I have one too. It is a truth universally understood that there is no such thing as a free lunch. That being so, John and I are obliged to sing for our supper. In short some expect us to speak as experts and hand out advice on how to make peace. Some old hands say that there are two ways to sing for your supper. The first and the safest course, they say, is to make a series of vague and visionary statements. Indeed are not vague and visionary statements much the same thing? The tradition from which I come, but by which I am not confined, produced the first vernacular bible in the language of the common people, and contributed much to the scientific language of the enlightenment. It puts a great price on the precise use of words, and uses them with circumspection, so much so that our passion for precision is often confused with an indifference to idealism. Not so. But I am personally and perhaps culturally conditioned to be sceptical of speeches which are full of sound and fury, idealistic in intention, but impossible of implementation; and I resist the kind of rhetoric which substitutes vapour for vision. Instinctively, I identify with the person who said that when he heard a politician talk of his vision, he recommended him to consult an optician! BUT, if you want to hear of a possible Northern Ireland, not a Utopia, but a normal and decent society, flawed as human beings are flawed, but fair as human beings are fair, then I hope not to disappoint you. The second suggestion is that either John or I, or indeed both of us, might explicate at some little length, like peace scientists so to speak, on any lessons learnt in the little laboratory of Northern Ireland as if we were scientists and the people were so much mice. Speaking for myself, there are two good reasons to reject this course. First, I am not sure that I hold the status of scientist in the political laboratory of Northern Ireland. Indeed, there have been days, particularly recently, when I have felt much less like the scientist and very much more like the mouse! Secondly, I have, in fact, some fairly serious reservations about the merits of using any conflict, not least Northern Ireland as a model for the study, never mind the solution, of other conflicts. In fact if anything, the opposite is true. Let me spell this out. I believe that a sense of the unique, specific and concrete circumstances of any situation is the first indispensable step to solving the problems posed by that situation. Now, I wish I could say that that insight was my own. But that insight into the central role of concrete and specific circumstance is the bedrock of the political thought of a man who is universally recognised as one of the most eminent philosophers of practical politics. I refer, of course to the eminent eighteenth century Irish political philosopher, and brilliant British Parliamentarian, Edmund Burke. He was the most powerful and prophetic political intellect of that century. He anticipated and welcomed the American revolution. He anticipated the dark side of the French revolution. He delved deep into the roots of that political violence, based on the false notion of the perfectibility of man, which has plagued us since the French revolution. He is claimed by both conservatives and liberals. He can be claimed by Britain and Ireland, by catholic and protestant, and indeed by the world. For Burke's belief in the rule of law and in parliamentary democracy, is not our monopoly, but the birthright of men and women of all countries, all colours and all creeds. But of course he has special significance for us in Ireland. Burke, the son of a protestant father and a catholic mother, was a man who in word and in deed honoured both religious traditions, recognised and respected his Irish roots and the British Parliamentary system which nursed him to the full flowering of his genius. Today as we seek to decommission not only arms and ammunition, but also hearts and minds, Burke provides us not only with a powerful role model of the pluralist Irishman, but also with a powerful role model for politicians everywhere. Burke is the best model for what might be called politicians of the possible. Politicians who seek to make a working peace, not in some perfect world, that never was, but in this, the flawed world, which is our only workshop. Because he is the philosopher of practical politics, not of visionary vapours, because his beliefs correspond to empirical experience, he may be a good general guide to the practical politics of peacemaking. I shall also be calling on two other philosophers, Amos Oz, the distinguished Israeli writer who has reached out to the Arab tradition, and George Kennan, the former US Ambassador to the Soviet Union, who laid the cornerstone of post-war US foreign policy. All three, Burke, Oz and Kennan, are particularly acute about the problems of dealing with revolutionary violence - that political, religious and racial terrorism that comes from the pursuit of what Burke called abstract virtue, the urge to make men perfect against their will. Now these negative notes do not mean I have not good news at the end. I do. But, it would be a dereliction of duty if I only conjured up good and generous ghosts, and failed to specify the spectres at the feast. There are fascist forces in this world. The first step to their defeat is to define them. Let me now, with the help of Burke, Oz and Kennan, locate the dark fountain of fascism from which flows most of the political, religious and racial violence which pollutes the progressive achievements of humanity. Burke believed that the source of the pollution is the Platonic pursuit of abstract perfection, the passion to change other people's personal, political, religious or economic views by political violence. I say Platonic because that savage pursuit of abstract perfection starts in the Western world with Plato's Republic. It rises to a plateau with the French and Russian revolutions. It descended to new depths with the Nazis and is present in all the national, ethnic and religious conflicts current after the collapse of communism, itself the most determined and ruthless Platonic experiment in perfecting the economic system whatever the cost in human life. Burke challenged the Platonic perfectibility doctrine whose principal protagonist was Rousseau. Rousseau regarded man as perfect and society as corrupt. Burke believed man was flawed and that society was redemptive. The Revolution tested these theories and it was Burke's that proved the most progressive in terms of practical politics. He has a horror of abstract notions. In 1781 he said, "Abstract liberty, like other mere abstractions, is not to be found." Seven years later he opposed the revolution correctly predicting that the mob would be replaced by a cabal, and the cabal by a dictator. At the end of Rousseau's road, Burke predicted, we would find not the perfectibility of man but the gibbet and the guillotine. And so it proved. And so it proved when Stalin set out to perfect the new Soviet man. So it proved with Mao in China and Pol Pot in Cambodia. So it will prove in every conflict when perfection is sought at the point of a gun. Amos Oz has also arrived at the same conclusion. Recently in a radio programme he was asked to define a political fanatic. He did so as follows, "A political fanatic" he said, "is someone who is more interested in you than in himself." At first that might seem as an altruist, but look closer and you will see the terrorist. A political fanatic is not someone who wants to perfect himself. No, he wants to perfect you. He wants to perfect you personally, to perfect you politically, to perfect you religiously, or racially, or geographically. He wants you to change your mind, your government, your borders. He may not be able to change your race, so he will eliminate you from the perfect equation in his mind by eliminating you from the earth. "The Jacobins," said Burke, "had little time for the imperfect." We in Northern Ireland are not free from taint. We have a few fanatics who dream of forcing the Ulster British people into a Utopian Irish state, more ideologically Irish than its own inhabitants actually want. We also have fanatics who dream of permanently suppressing northern nationalists in a state more supposedly British than its inhabitants actually want. But a few fanatics are not a fundamental problem. No, the problem arises if political fanatics bury themselves within a morally legitimate political movement. Then there is a double danger. The first is that we might dismiss legitimate claims for reform because of the barbarism of terrorist groups bent on revolution. In that situation experience would suggest that the best way forward is for democrats to carry out what the Irish writer, Eoghan Harris calls acts of good authority. That is acts addressed to their own side. Thus each reformist group has a moral obligation to deal with its own fanatics. The Serbian democrats must take on the Serbian fascists. The PLO must take on Hammas. In Northern Ireland, constitutional nationalists must take on republican dissident terrorists and constitutional Unionists must confront protestant terrorists. There is a second danger. Sometimes in our search for a solution, we go into denial about the darker side of the fanatic, the darker side of human nature. Not all may agree, but we cannot ignore the existence of evil. Particularly that form of political evil that wants to perfect a person, a border at any cost. Is has many faces. Some look suspiciously like the leaders of the Serbian forces wanted for massacres such as that at Srebenice, some like those wielding absolute power in Baghdad, some like those wanted for the Omagh bombing. It worries me that there is an appeasing strand in Western politics. Sometimes it is a hope that things are not as bad as all that. Sometimes it is a hope that people can be weaned away from terror. What we need is George Kennan�s hard-headed advice to the State Department in the 1960s for dealing with the State terrorists of his time, based on his years in Moscow, "Don�t act chummy with them; don�t assume a community of aims with them which does not really exist; don�t make fatuous gestures of goodwill." Let me commend on those clear words to those who sometimes seem to think that dealing with fascists is merely a game where one won�t get hurt. My philosophers are also guides as to how best to battle against these dark forces. Here we come again to Burke�s belief that politics proceeds not by some abstract notions or by simple appeal to the past, but by close attention to the concrete detail and circumstance of the current specific situation. "Circumstances," says Burke, "Circumstances give in reality to every political principle, its distinguishing colour, and discriminating effect. The circumstances are what render every civil and political scheme beneficial or noxious to mankind." That is the nub of the matter. True I am sure of other conflicts. Previous precedents must not blind negotiators to the current circumstances. This first step away from abstraction and towards reality, should be followed by giving space for the possibilities for progress to develop. This is what I have tried to do: to tell unionists to give things a chance to develop. Given that the Ulster British people are coming out the experience of 25 years of "armed struggle" directed against them. They have given our appeals a generous hearing. Critics say that concessions are a sign of weakness. Burke, however says, "Magnanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom; and a great empire and little minds go ill together." Prophetic words when we think of the history of the British Empire. And we are the inheritors of that intellectual tradition that encourages us to identify with the cultural alliance of the English-speaking peoples and share their political interests. But the realisation of peace needs more than magnanimity. It requires a certain political prudence, and a willingness at times nor to be too precise or pedantic. Burke says, "It is the nature of greatness not to be exact." Amos Oz agrees, "Inconsistency is the basis of coexistence. The heroes of tragedy driven by consistency and by righteousness, destroy each other. He who seeks total supreme justice seeks death." Again the warning not to aim for abstract perfection. Heaven knows, in Ulster, what I have looked for is a peace within the realms of the possible. We could only have started from where we actually were, not from where we would have liked to be. And we have started. And we will go on. And we will go on all the better if we walk, rather than run. If we put aside fantasy and accept the flawed nature of human enterprises. Sometimes we will stumble, maybe even go back a bit. But this need not matter if in the spirit of an old Irish proverb we say to ourselves, "Tomorrow is another day". In not seeking perfection beyond the power of flawed man we are acting nor just within the Burkean tradition but within the broad religious consensus. Nor is this a pessimistic approach. It is one that obliges us to do our best. Because politics is not an exact science, but partakes of human nature within the contingent circumstances of the moment, I have not pressed the paramilitaries on the details of decommissioning. Although I am under pressure from my own political community I have not insisted on precise dates quantities and manner of decommissioning. All I have asked for is a credible beginning. All I have asked for is that they say that the "war" is over. And that is proved by such a beginning. That is not too much to ask for. Nor is it too much to ask that the reformist party of nationalism, the SDLP, support me in this. But common sense dictates that I cannot for ever convince society that real peace is at hand if there is not a beginning to the decommissioning of weapons as an earnest of the decommissioning of hearts that must follow. Any further delay will reinforce dark doubts about whether Sinn Fein are drinking from the clear stream of democracy, or is still drinking from the dark stream of fascism. It cannot for ever face both ways. Plenty of space has been given to the paramilitaries. Now, winter is here, and there is still no sign of spring. Like John Bunyan�s Pilgrim, we politicians have been through the Slough of Despond. We have seen Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair. I can certainly recall passing many times through the Valley of Humiliation. And all too often we have encountered, not only on the other side, but on our own side too, "the man who could look no way but downwards, with a muckrake in his hand." Nevertheless, like one of Beckett�s characters, "I will go on, because I must go on." What we democratic politicians want in Northern Ireland is not some utopian society but a normal society. The best way to secure that normalcy is the tried and trusted method of parliamentary democracy. So the Northern Ireland Assembly is the primary institutional instrument for the development of a normal society in Northern Ireland. Like any parliament it needs to be more than a cockpit for competing victimisations. Burke said it best, "Parliament is not a congress of ambassadors from different and hostile interests; which interests each must maintain, as an agent and an advocate, against other agents and advocates; but Parliament is a deliberative assembly of one nation, with one interest, that of the whole; where not local purposes, nor local prejudices ought to guide, but the general good resulting from the general reason of the whole." Some critics complain that I lack "the vision thing". But vision in its pure meaning is clear sight. That does not mean I have no dreams. I do. But I try to have them at night. By day I am satisfied if I can see the furthest limit of what is possible. Politics can be likened to driving at night over unfamiliar hills and mountains. Close attention must be paid to what the beam can reach and the next bend. Driving by day, as I believe we are now doing, we should drive steadily, not recklessly, studying the countryside ahead, with judicious glances in the mirror. We should be encouraged by having come so far, and face into the next hill, rather than the mountain beyond. It is not that the mountain is not in my mind, but the hill has to be climbed first. There are Hills in Northern Ireland and there are mountains. The hills are decommissioning and policing. But the mountain, if we could but see it clearly, is not in front of us but behind us, in history. The dark shadow we seem to see in the distance is not really a mountain ahead, but the shadow of the mountain behind - a shadow from the past thrown forward into our future. It is a dark sludge of historical sectarianism. We can leave it behind us if we wish. But both communities must leave it behind, because both created it. Each thought it had good reason to fear the other. As Namier says, the irrational is not necessarily unreasonable. Ulster Unionists, fearful of being isolated on the island, built a solid house, but it was a cold house for catholics. And northern nationalists, although they had a roof over their heads, seemed to us as if they meant to burn the house down. None of us are entirely innocent. But thanks to our strong sense of civil society, thanks to our religious recognition that none of us are perfect, thanks to the thousands of people from both sides who made countless acts of good authority, thanks to a tradition of parliamentary democracy which meant that paramilitarism never displaced politics, thanks to all these specific, concrete circumstances we, thank god, stopped short of that abyss that engulfed Bosnia, Kosovo, Somalia and Rwanda. Thank you for this prize for peace. We have a peace of sorts in Northern Ireland. But it is still something of an armed peace. It may seem strange that we receive the reward of a race run while the race is still not quite finished. But the paramilitaries are finished. But politics is not finished. It is the bedrock to which all societies return. Because we are the only agents of change who accept man as he is and not as someone else wants him to be. The work we do may be grubby and without glamour. But is has one saving grace. It is grounded on reality and reason. What is the nature of that reason? Let Burke answer, "Political reason is computing principle: adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing, morally - and not metaphysically or mathematically - true moral denominations." There are two traditions in Northern Ireland. There are two main religious denominations. But there is only one true moral denomination. And it wants peace. I am happy and honoured to accept this prize on my own behalf. I am happy and honoured to accept this prize on behalf of all the people of Northern Ireland. I am happy and honoured to accept the prize on behalf of all the peacemakers from throughout the British Isles and farther afield who made the Belfast Agreement that Good Friday at Stormont. That agreement showed that the people of Northern Ireland are no petty people. They did good work that day. And tomorrow is now another day. Thank you. David Trimble � Biography Sex: M Born: August 24, 1823 in Hempstead County, Arkansas Died: November 28, 1881 in Wise County, Texas Buried: Trimble Cemetery, near Decatur in Wise County, TX Notes: Father: HYPERLINK "http://www.churchman.org/4William_Trimble.HTM" William Trimble, b. April 13, 1797 in Frederick County, VA Mother: Lunetta Stuart, b. February 12, 1804 in Christian County, KY -- d. November 21, 1874 in Springhill, Hill County, TX Family 1: Cornelia A. Hopkins Married: Charles E. Trimble Family 2: Ellen Eleanor Sims, b. ca 1824 in Arkansas -- d. after November 14, 1853 in Clarksville, Red River County, TX Married: May 31, 1847 in Clarksville, Red River County, TX James Warren Trimble, b. March 12, 1847 in Red River County, TX -- d. March 7, 1930 in Halsell, Clay County, TX Julia Catherine Trimble, b. April 27, 1850 in Clarksville, Red River County, TX -- d. December 12, 1919 in Decatur, Wise County, TX William D. Trimble, b. 1852 -- d. December 14, 1927 in Sacramento, Sacramento County, CA HYPERLINK "http://www.churchman.org/6Monroe_Stuart_Trimble.HTM" Monroe Stuart Trimble, b. November 14, 1853 in Clarksville, Red River County, TX David Trimble, Ulster Unionist leader, resigned his post as first minister of the Northern Ireland Assembly in July after the Irish Republican Army once again stalled on disarmament. The move threatened to topple the 1998 Good Friday peace agreement, thus returning governing powers to the British government from the Northern Irish coalition Parliament. Trimble, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1998, sought to return to his post in October, after the IRA finally began to dismantle its weapons. 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Which school near Tunbridge Wells was attended by Princess Anne? | David Trimble | Politics | The Guardian
David Trimble
Sunday 25 March 2001 05.48 EST
First published on Sunday 25 March 2001 05.48 EST
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Northern Ireland's opera-loving Unionist first minister, David Trimble, has been likened to Houdini for his last minute escapes from seemingly inevitable political disasters.
In fact, he has more in common with a performer on the slack high wire, stunning his audience with an ability to sway back and forth between extreme Protestant sectarianism and the moderate centre, while never falling - so far, at least. He even finds time to grasp the hands of Catholic republican nationalists as he staggers towards his destination.
As leader of the Ulster Unionists following the retirement of the Sir James Molyneux, it was Mr Trimble's surprise compromise with republican nationalists that made the 1998 Good Friday agreement possible.
The result was devolution, a prize long sought after by Unionists, and elections that installed Mr Trimble as first minister at the head of a shaky, bipartisan administration. For this commitment to peace, he won the Nobel Peace Prize jointly with John Hume, the former leader of the SDLP.
This was a curious triumph for a man who entered politics at the age of 29 in the ultra rightwing Vanguard Unionist party. As such he opposed the Sunningdale agreement of a quarter century ago, which tried to bring peace along lines he campaigned for 20 years later.
He even stood as a Vanguard candidate against the moderate Northern Irish prime minister Brian Faulkner in 1973, promising "not to allow murderers and Quislings to destroy Ulster and hand it over to the republicans".
He went on to propose independence for Ulster and played an important strategic role in the Loyalist strike which brought down the power sharing executive in 1974.
Mr Trimble tempered his extremism soon after, joining the Ulster Unionists in 1978. His political profile sank below the horizon during the next dozen years which were spent as a law lecturer at Queen's University, Belfast.
He re-entered politics in 1990, still on the sectarian rightwing. With Ian Paisley and other Democatic Ulster Unionist candidates, he shouted abuse at Charles Haughey during the Irish prime minister's visit to Northern Ireland in April 1990.
The same month he was selected to contest the seat of Upper Bann following the death of its sitting MP, Harold McCusker. He was chosen partly to counter criticism that the UUP lacked articulate spokesmen.
In the byelection campaign he attacked Margaret Thatcher's bridge building Anglo-Irish agreement. Having won, he made a contentious maiden speech in which he claimed that the UUP were the "British national party in Ulster", formed "to combat Irish nationalism".
In the Commons he was an unremitting opponent of any talks with the Irish Republic, Sinn Fein or the IRA. With Mr Paisley, he greeted the IRA's ceasefire in August 1994 as a "sham" and a "tactical manoeuvre". He raised his profile in the runup to the UUP Leadership vote by backing the loyalist standoff at Garvaghy road, Drumcree, after the parades commission ruled the loyalist Orangemen could not march down the road, which runs through a republican housing estate.
But he did broker a limited march and joined Ian Paisley in celebrating their victory - a victory that placed him back at the forefront of politics in Ulster.
On Jim Molyneux's retirement of as leader of the UUP, Mr Trimble unexpectedly beat the perceived moderate and favourite, John Taylor. He offered to merge the UUP with Dr Paisley's DUP but was turned him down.
Having won the party leadership as a hardliner, he most unexpectedly emerged as a moderate. He urged Loyalist paramilitaries to disarm to outflank the IRA and asked the government to create a 90-seat Northern Ireland peace forum elected by the single transferable vote, the system used in the south of Ireland.
In British politics, he moved away from the Tory party, old Unionist allies, helping defeat the Conservatives on the Nolan report into sleaze and opposing John Major over the Scott report into arms sales. In October 1996 he became the first UUP leader to visit a Labour conference.
This belated flexibility was nowhere in his genes. His paternal grandfather, William Trimble, was in the Royal Irish Constabulary and was hunted down by Michael Collins' IRA.
Mr Trimble was born in Belfast in 1944, the son of two ministry of labour clerks. His biographer, Henry McDonald, says: "He grew up in a psychological atmosphere dominated by an ever-present state of siege and a sense of unbroken service to the British Crown."
His education in primary and grammar schools was in Bangor, but he returned to Queen's University in Belfast where he was awarded a first class honours in law. He was in the air cadets there but, at 17, he had already joined the Orange order and begun his career as a political battler.
Some 40 years later the battle is far from over. Two years after winning the Nobel Peace Prize his position as party leader was so weakened by rejectionists among Protestant unionists that in March 2000 he had to fight off a challenge for the leadership from the extreme Rev Martin Smyth MP.
In May 2000 he survived by just 56 votes after a "back me or sack me" speech. In September 2000 his party lost its safest seat, South Antrim, to Billy McCrea, an extreme hymn-singing Paisleyite, and a month later, he only survived as Ulster Unionist leader by promising to ban Sinn Fein from crossborder talks unless they increased the pace of arms decommissioning.
Through his political agility, Mr Trimble has often managed to make his opponents lean out to help him reach the centre. The British Government replaced Mo Mowlam as Northern Ireland secretary - first with Peter Mandelson and then John Reid - and eased up on the Patten reforms of the RUC. Even Sinn Fein has apparently pressed the IRA to speed up the beginning of its arms handover.
Flinty David Trimble shows no outward sign of the flexibility needed for this act. Uptight, irascible and tetchy, he is known for his bad temper. He is far from the stereotypical gladhanding, backslapping Irish professional politician. In fact, his aversion to the "touchy-feely" approach of Mrs Mowlam led him to ask Tony Blair to replace her.
What marks cerebral Mr Trimble out from his colleagues is that he is much brighter than those he dismisses as "wooden tops". He could see the advantages of being recognised as a "bridgebuilder" in such a divided society as Northern Ireland. But he dislikes being seen as the De Klerk of Northern Ireland: "I would much rather be the Mandela. De Klerk was the leader of a minority group that was frustrating the rights of the majority."
This openness to change has secured his place in history. Whether he stays to achieve a lasting peace in the province, or falls, with the honour of having tried, will determine if that place is in a footnote, or earns a chapter all of its own.
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Which New York park lies in the south-west of Manhattan Island, and faces the Hudson River? | KLM Travel Guide - The many faces of Broadway
The many faces of Broadway
Arts & Culture
The many faces of Broadway
The name Broadway immediately evokes images of theatres and musicals, but the theatre district is only a small part of this 24-kilometre-long street. Broadway runs at an angle through Manhattan from north to south, slicing through the chessboard-like street map of the city. Follow this iconic street and you will certainly learn more about this fascinating city.
Battery Park, a city park of approximately 8.5 hectares, lies on the southern tip of Manhattan on the banks of the Hudson River. During the Dutch colonization period, a battery of cannons stood here, hence the name. The 19th-century Castle Clinton is another landmark. But most people come to Battery Park to board the boat to visit the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island, or to ride the Staten Island Ferry. The latter is free and offers great views of the Manhattan skyline and Lady Liberty.
Broadway
New York’s financial heart
Wall Street: the city’s financial heart
Adjacent to Battery Park we find the world’s most famous financial district: Wall Street. In 1871, the New York Stock Exchange opened its offices here. Since then, the name Wall Street has become synonymous for financial district. From Wall Street it is only a short walk to Ground Zero and Trinity Church. This church dating from 1846 was once the tallest building in the city. During the attacks of September 11, it remained virtually undamaged and firemen were able to take a break here while searching through the rubble.
Classic skyscraper with a nickname
Located at the intersection of Broadway and Fifth Avenue, Madison Square Park is a green space with a great view of the famous Flatiron Building. Originally it was called the Fuller Building, but because of its iron-like form it soon became known as the Flatiron Building. This building dates back to 1903 and was one of the first skyscrapers in the world. It was so popular and unique that the entire surrounding district has been named after it. Although New York has seen many new skyscrapers since then, this classic structure is still a beloved subject for photographers.
Fuller Building
Times Square and the theatre district
Around Times Square lies the theatre district that has made Broadway famous. Theatres are on every side of the street, especially at 42nd Street. Discounted tickets for shows are sold under the red stairs on Times Square at the TKTS Discount Booth. Even back in the 18th century, the Square hosted large advertising signs that promoted the shows on Broadway. Today, the dozens of billboards and light panels on Times Square have become an attraction in their own right and nearby companies are obligated to put neon signs on their façades.
Times Square
| Battery Park |
Which public school had Russell Harty as a teacher, and Richard Whiteley as a pupil? | Harlem Meer in Central Park New York, New York - Panoramic Earth Virtual Tour
Harlem Meer in Central Park New York
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Harlem Meer in Central Park New York
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Harlem Meer in Central Park New York - PHOTOGRAPHER COMMENT
This picture shows the view over the Harlem Meer on the norther edge of Central Park. South from here about 2.5 miles of park stretches down Manhattan. Virtual tour taken in spring of 2008.
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Harlem Meer in Central Park New York - FURTHER INFORMATION
Harlem Meer in Central Park New York - New York visitor guide showing a virtual tour of 'Harlem Meer in Central Park New York' linked to an interactive map with local and travel information. 360° panoramas from New York.
Harlem Meer is a lake on the north-easterernmost edge of Central Park in New York . North of here is Harlem, and south lies the rest of the largest park in the US . The Harlem Meer is just north of the North Garden (part of the Conservatory Garden). The lake is fed from a stream that flows from The Pool along The Loch into the south west corner.
The Harlem Meer covers 11 acres in Central Park. A 'Meer' is the Dutch name for a lake, the name was used in recognition of the Dutch roots of Harlem. It is the newest lake within the park, the second largest, and was recently renovated in the 1990's. The lake now has natural edges and there are a number of family orientated attractions nearby. On the northern edge is the Charles A. Dana Discovery Center which provides talks, exhibits and activities relevant to the park. On the southern side the Laser Rink provides ice skating and swimming.
On the southern hills overlooking the lake are Clinton Fort and Nutters Battery Site, forts built during the 1812 War to defend against the British. The Blockhouse to the west, the Battery (now Battery Park ) on the southern tip of Manhattan and fortifications on Ellis Island were built around the same time.
TRAVEL DIRECTIONS AND GETTING THERE
Subway: 110st Street (West side - A, B, C, D lines ), 110th Street (East side - 4, 5, 6 lines), Central Park North (2, 3 lines)
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Who wrote 'Imajica', 'Coldheart Canyon' and 'Galilee'? | Coldheart Canyon : Clive Barker : 9780006510406
Coldheart Canyon
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A famous Hollywood actor loses his looks -- and is drawn into the dark and twisted world of Coldheart Canyon! Following extensive cosmetic surgery, Hollywood superstar Todd Pickett needs somewhere to hide away while his scars heal. His manager finds the ideal location, Coldheart Canyon -- a dream-palace hidden away in a corner of the city so secret it doesn't even appear on a map. In the 20s, 'A' list stars came to the Canyon to have the kind of parties nobody was supposed to know about. It wasn't just the wild sex and the drugs that made Katya's parties so memorable. There was a door in the bowels of the dream-palace, which reputedly opened onto another world -- the Devils' Country -- where nothing was forbidden. Nothing. With his refuge now a prison, Todd needs to get out of Coldheart Canyon. But to do that he must not only solve its mysteries but also face the powers that have protected it for seven decades, and that means stepping through the door! As a Hollywood insider with a keen eye for its idiocies and horrors Clive Barker is uniquely positioned to write this vitriolic Tinseltown ghost story. Coldheart Canyon is an irresistible and unmerciful picture of Hollywood and its demons, told with all the style and raw narrative power that have made Barker's books and films a worldwide phenomenon. show more
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A famous Hollywood actor loses his looks -- and is drawn into the dark and twisted world of Coldheart Canyon! Following extensive cosmetic surgery, Hollywood superstar Todd Pickett needs somewhere to hide away while his scars heal. His manager finds the ideal location, Coldheart Canyon -- a dream-palace hidden away in a corner of the city so secret it doesn't even appear on a map. In the 20s, 'A' list stars came to the Canyon to have the kind of parties nobody was supposed to know about. It wasn't just the wild sex and the drugs that made Katya's parties so memorable. There was a door in the bowels of the dream-palace, which reputedly opened onto another world -- the Devils' Country -- where nothing was forbidden. Nothing. With his refuge now a prison, Todd needs to get out of Coldheart Canyon. But to do that he must not only solve its mysteries but also face the powers that have protected it for seven decades, and that means stepping through the door! As a Hollywood insider with a keen eye for its idiocies and horrors Clive Barker is uniquely positioned to write this vitriolic Tinseltown ghost story. Coldheart Canyon is an irresistible and unmerciful picture of Hollywood and its demons, told with all the style and raw narrative power that have made Barker's books and films a worldwide phenomenon.
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In what year was Concorde's last commercial flight? | The Concorde makes its final flight - Oct 24, 2003 - HISTORY.com
The Concorde makes its final flight
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The supersonic Concorde jet makes its last commercial passenger flight, traveling at twice the speed of sound from New York City’s John F. Kennedy International Airport to London’s Heathrow Airport on this day in 2003. The British Airways jet carried 100 passengers, including actress Joan Collins, model Christie Brinkley, and an Ohio couple who reportedly paid $60,000 on eBay for two tickets (a roundtrip trans-Atlantic fare typically cost about $9,000). A large crowd of spectators greeted the plane’s arrival in London, which coincided with two other final Concorde flights from Edinburgh and the Bay of Biscay.
The Concorde, which was developed jointly by the British and French governments, began commercial service in January 1976. A significant achievement in aviation technology and design, the sleek, delta-winged planes could make the trip from New York to London in around three and a half hours, traveling at 1,350 miles per hour. The Concorde became a symbol of speed and luxury, although it was not without its problems. Some who lived under its flight path criticized the enormous noise it produced. And, tragically, on July 25, 2000, an Air France jet crashed after takeoff from Paris and 113 people died. All Concorde flights were grounded for over a year after the incident.
Citing rising operating costs and reduced ticket sales, British Airways retired its Concorde fleet in October 2003. Air France, the only other Concorde carrier, had permanently grounded its jets in May 2003. However, the allure of the Concorde was so powerful that when the airlines auctioned off spare parts from their fleets shortly after their retirement, many items sold for significantly more than their suggested price. For example, a blanket valued at $100 sold for $2,000, a door sold for $33,000, and a needle nose sold for $550,000.
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| 2003 |
Mary Queen of Scots was executed in Fotheringhay Castle, but which county is it in? | Could Concorde ever fly again? No, says British Airways - BBC News
BBC News
Could Concorde ever fly again? No, says British Airways
By Richard Westcott Transport correspondent, BBC News
24 October 2013
Media captionFormer Concorde pilot Martin Robson is reunited with the iconic plane
Ten years ago today, our ever-shrinking world got a little bit bigger again.
Three Concordes landed in a procession at Heathrow airport, while thousands of emotional fans looked on.
After 27 years, the world's most famous plane had been pensioned off - first by Air France and then by British Airways - marking the end of supersonic passenger flight.
So how is it that a noisy, polluting lump of aluminium, that was too pricey for most people to ride in, is still so popular?
The only real reason for Concorde's retirement was politics
Ben Lord, Save Concorde Group
"It was probably more advanced than Apollo 11, which put the first men on the Moon."
Jock Lowe is not only Concorde's longest-serving pilot, he's a former president of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
"No military plane came anywhere close. It was so manoeuvrable and there was so much spare power, even ex-fighter pilots weren't used to it."
Jock can't keep the joy out of his voice as he tells me what Concorde was like to fly.
"The time we took it to the Toronto International Airshow, 750,000 people turned out to watch. I'll never forget that sight."
Faster and higher
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Concorde's drooping nose meant the aircraft was streamlined in flight and gave the pilot a clear view during take-off and landings
He is modest about it, but Jock is part of an elite club. There are more US astronauts than there are Concorde pilots.
Jock then recalled the time he was chatting to some pilots of the super-secret American spy plane, the SR71 Blackbird.
Concorde timeline
Image copyright Getty Images
1962: France's Geoffroy de Courcel and the UK's Julian Amery (above) sign the Anglo-French supersonic airliner treaty
1969: Brian Trubshaw makes his first flight in the British-built prototype on 9 April
1969: Concorde completes its first supersonic flight on 1 October
1976: First commercial flights take place on 21 January (BA: London to Bahrain; Air France: Paris to Rio de Janeiro)
2000: Concorde crash near Paris on 25 July kills 113 people
2001: Concorde returns to commercial service in November after £17m safety improvement programme
2003: BA and Air France announce the plane will be retired
2003: Final commercial flight on 23 October
Now, the whole point of that amazing aircraft was that it flew way beyond the reach of other planes. Faster and higher, hidden away.
But one day, these guys said that their air traffic controller told them to get out of the way because there was a Concorde coming through. They couldn't believe it.
Peering out of one window, two American military pilots wearing spacesuits.
Peering out of the other, perhaps Joan Collins guzzling champagne - I'm guessing she was on the plane as she often was. I wonder if they waved?
Technically, Concorde was revolutionary.
It was the first aircraft to have computer-controlled engine air intakes. This may not sound much but it was one of the most significant leaps in aviation technology at the time.
In any technology, in fact.
It meant that they could slow the air down by 1,000mph in the space of about 15ft (4.5m). Without that, the engines would have blown apart.
Concorde had carbon-fibre brakes. Again, the norm now, but back in the 1960s a technological marvel - and it was fly-by-wire decades before Airbus made that a mainstream technology.
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Fans watch the last British Airways Concorde flights land at Heathrow on 24 Oct 2003
'Return to the skies'
A decade on, there is still a lot of anger at the way Concorde was retired, with British Airways and Airbus, which was responsible for spares and maintenance, both often accused of pulling the plug too soon.
"We firmly believe that the technical and safety challenges of returning a Concorde to the skies are absolutely prohibitive
British Airways
Almost as soon as the final flights touched down, a campaign was launched to get her airborne again. And it is still going strong.
The Save Concorde Group (SCG) wants British Airways to either help fund a heritage flight, or release an aircraft to someone else who will.
BA still owns eight Concordes, which remain scattered in museums across the globe, from Barbados to Manchester.
"The only real reason for Concorde's retirement was politics, and that remains the single obstacle in the way of her return to the skies," says Ben Lord from the SCG.
He told me that he is certain he can get a Concorde flying again for £20m ($32m) and he reckons Sir Richard Branson would still help him out with the money.
"I still have a wonderful desk model of the plane in full Virgin Atlantic livery," says Sir Richard in his latest blog .
"But despite offering £1m for each aircraft (they were originally sold to BA by the British government for £1) sadly our friends at British Airways were having none of it - and decommissioned the planes in a way that makes any chance of them flying again an unlikely prospect!"
Supersonic successors
Talking of money, let's scotch that myth that the great gas-guzzler did not make any cash for British Airways.
Where are BA's Concordes now?
Image copyright Getty Images
Since the last commercial flight, British Airways has sent its Concorde fleet to locations around the world:
Airbus UK, Filton, Bristol, UK
Manchester Airport, UK
Museum of Flight, near Edinburgh, UK
Heathrow Airport, UK
Museum of Flight, Seattle, US
Intrepid Sea, Air and Space Museum, New York, US
Grantley Adams Airport, Bridgetown, Barbados
Brooklands Museum, Weybridge, UK (never commercially flown)
Source: British Airways
Going back to Jock Lowe, he told me that up until that horrendous crash at Paris in 2000, she made a net average profit of about £30m a year.
That is £500m net profit over her lifetime. And Jock insists that in her final few months before retirement, she was still making money.
Still, he does not think Concorde will ever get airborne again. And when I spoke to British Airways the answer was the same as it has always been.
No chance.
"We firmly believe that the technical and safety challenges of returning a Concorde to the skies are absolutely prohibitive," says BA.
So will we ever see her like again?
Well, the world's two dominant planemakers, Airbus and Boeing, certainly do not plan to build something supersonic any time soon.
But there other options on the horizon.
Sir Richard Branson's space plane Virgin Galactic is due to take its first paying passengers next year and he is promising that within his lifetime, they will be able to fly people from London to Sydney in two and a half hours with minimal impact on the environment.
Looping the loop
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Sailing by - British Airways' last Concorde passes the Houses of Parliament on its way to a museum
One final thought. I asked Jock Lowe if they ever did aerobatics when they were testing Concorde.
He said they did execute barrel rolls, but never a loop-the-loop, although the aeroplane was more than capable of doing it.
Doubtless it would have spilled some champagne.
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Pierre is the capital of which US state? | Pierre, South Dakota: The Country's Second-Smallest Capital Is Big On Attractions | The Huffington Post
Pierre, South Dakota: The Country's Second-Smallest Capital Is Big On Attractions
12/22/2012 07:37 am ET
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Never mind that it’s the second smallest state capital in the union -- after Montpelier, Vermont -- this 14,000-person burg on the muddy banks of the upper Missouri has more to do than you might expect.
While you’d never confuse it with Austin, Columbus or Madison -- not to mention Boston or Atlanta -- Pierre’s unique small-town charms and an enviable position in the middle of the state offer plenty to explore on the way to the Badlands, Mt. Rushmore or, going the other way, Sioux Falls.
First things first in this seat of state government: a free walk through the 1910 capitol building that was refurbished to its original grandeur in 1989, ahead of the centennial of South Dakota statehood. On my visit, the Christmas at the Capitol display of nearly 100 decorated trees made for a particularly festive visit. At other times of the year, wandering freely through the senate and house observation galleries offers an up-close look at government.
Near the Capitol, the South Dakota Cultural Heritage Center has outstanding exhibits on the native and post-Columbian history of the state. Among the highlights are the Sioux Horse Effigy Dancing Stick, a beautiful Native American artifact that's been adopted as a sort of logo for the center and the Verendrye Plate, a quirky artifact laid in 1743 near Pierre by French trappers and not discovered until 1913 by local school children. The nominal $4 admission fee is probably the best deal in town.
The enormous Oahe Dam holds back the Missouri River just a few miles north of Pierre and is an epic engineering triumph on the scale of the Hoover Dam. Dedicated in August 1962 by President Kennedy, the gargantuan earthworks hold back a 231-mile long lake of the same name that stretches all the way north to Bismarck, North Dakota. Better visited in the summer months, the lake and dam provide all manner of waterborne recreation, but the scale of the project is impressive year-round.
One of the newest restaurants in town is RedRossa , a sprawling outpost of a four-kitchen mini-chain that spans Iowa, Minnesota and South Dakota. Attached to the slick new ClubHouse hotel , they have classic Italian dishes as well as more contemporary takes, all at very reasonable prices. There's a solid tap selection, too, with a few regional brews from time to time. You'll find a more meat and potatoes menu at the old-school Mad Mary’s Steakhouse a few blocks away, where local beef meets grill, with magical results.
Around the corner from Mad Mary's, Prairie Pages serves as Pierre's locally owned bookshop and literary hangout. You'll find the usual selections, as well as staff favorites, book signings and other events.
Cognoscenti of a different sort should head for the ChrisaMari Vineyard , three miles outside of town, where owners and vintners Randy and Nita Sarvis welcomes visitors to try wines made from locally and estate-grown grapes and other fruit. It's a boutique operation -- and it's best to call ahead for a tasting appointment -- but for those interested in truly local flavors and boots in the dirt agriculture, a tasting (and conversation) with Randy offers a unique window on the farming culture of central South Dakota.
Where to stay:
The newest hotel in town is also one of the nicest. The 100-room ClubHouse, which opened this spring, has comfortable, dark-wood-accented rooms and a beautiful lobby, complete with roaring fireplace. While it's a few blocks from the capitol complex, it's located right on West Sioux Avenue, the main drag through town.
The Charms of Pierre, South Dakota
The Charms of Pierre, South Dakota
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| South Dakota |
In which county is Kenilworth Castle? | Pierre | Define Pierre at Dictionary.com
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Pierre
[peer for 1; pee-air or, French, pyer for 2] /pɪər for 1; piˈɛər or, French, pyɛr for 2/
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noun
1.
a city in and the capital of South Dakota, in the central part, on the Missouri River.
2.
a male given name, form of Peter .
South Dakota
noun
1.
a state in the N central United States: a part of the Midwest. 77,047 sq. mi. (199,550 sq. km).
Capital: Pierre.
Abbreviation: SD (for use with zip code), S. Dak.
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Examples from the Web for Pierre
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Contemporary Examples
In 1964 Pierre Salinger was in the midst of a heated Senate campaign in California when the retiring incumbent died.
When Activism Is Worse Than Apathy Nancy Kaffer October 5, 2014
He passed the business to his son Alfred, whose two sons Pierre and Jacques modernized and expanded the company internationally.
Equatorial America Maturin M. Ballou
You must find a glass of wine for yourself and go with old Pierre and dust your clothes.
Lorraine Robert W. Chambers
British Dictionary definitions for Pierre
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noun
1.
a city in central South Dakota, capital of the state, on the Missouri River. Pop: 13 939 (2003 est)
South Dakota
noun
1.
a state of the western US: lies mostly in the Great Plains; the chief US producer of gold and beryl. Capital: Pierre. Pop: 764 309 (2003 est). Area: 196 723 sq km (75 955 sq miles) Abbreviation S. Dak, (with zip code) SD
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Word Origin and History for Pierre
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Modern French form of masc. proper name represented in Modern English by Peter (q.v.). The city in South Dakota, U.S., was named for Pierre Chouteau (1789-1865) who set up an Indian trading post here in 1837.
Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
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Although he used several aliases, what was the better known name of Henry McCarty? | MCCARTY, HENRY | The Handbook of Texas Online| Texas State Historical Association (TSHA)
Texas State Historical Association (TSHA)
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MCCARTY, HENRY
Henry McCarty (aka Billy the Kid). Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
MCCARTY, HENRY (1859–1881). Henry McCarty (Billy the Kid, William H. Bonney), occupies a prominent place in American frontier history and folklore is almost beyond explanation. The "Boy Bandit King's" dramatic escapades as a cattle rustler and gunslinger have continued to intrigue the public long after those of most of his contemporaries were forgotten. Some of his exploits occurred in the Texas Panhandle, which abounded in cattle and was always a good place to engage in the livestock trade, legal or otherwise. While legend has it that Billy the Kid's real name was William H. Bonney, scholars have determined that Bonney was simply one of a series of aliases used by the Kid.
Henry McCarty (aka Billy the Kid). Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Historians continue to debate McCarty's date and place of birth, but evidence uncovered by Jack DeMattos convinced noted historian Robert M. Utley that McCarty was born to Patrick McCarty and Catherine Devine on September 17, 1859, in New York City, New York. He was baptised on September 28, by Rev. J. Conron with Thomas Cooney and Mary Clark as sponsors. McCarty spent his youth in New York before venturing west with his mother and brother. Santa Fe County records show that his mother married William Antrim at the First Presbyterian Church in Santa Fe on March 1, 1873-with her two sons, Henry and Joseph, in attendance. Afterward the family moved to Silver City, where Antrim worked in the mines and Catherine died of tuberculosis on September 16, 1874. The following year Henry, who apparently had developed a rebellious streak and sticky fingers, had his first brush with the law when Harvey Whitehill, the local sheriff, arrested him for stealing clothes from a Chinese laundry. Actually an older prankster, George Shaffer, had prodded Henry and another boy into hiding the bundle. At any rate Henry, fearing his stepfather's reaction, escaped from the Silver City jail and headed for Arizona. For two years he worked in Graham County as a farmhand, teamster, and cowboy under the name of Kid Antrim. His age, appearance, and size soon won him the sobriquet "Kid."
Jesse Evans Gang. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
The Kid's first killing occurred in the settlement of Bonita, near Camp Grant, in August 1877. Frank P. Cahill, a local blacksmith, took delight in bullying the boy, and the two seem to have quarreled on a number of occasions. One day, however, the usual exchange of insults erupted into a fist fight which ended with the Kid fatally shooting his antagonist. Arrested once more, Kid Antrim again broke out of jail and fled to Mesilla, New Mexico, where he assumed the alias William H. Bonney and rode briefly with the Jesse Evans gang. His only fight with Indians occurred while he and a companion, Tom O'Keefe, were riding in the Guadalupe Mountains of eastern New Mexico. From there he drifted to Lincoln County, where he became acquainted with several area residents, including George and Frank Coe.
Henry McCarty and the Regulator gang. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Henry McCarty as a Regulator. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
For a time Billy enjoyed the hospitality of John S. Chisum , who was then challenging the monopoly of Lawrence G. Murphy and his associates over government beef contracts in New Mexico. The Kid's direct involvement in the struggle started when he went to work for John Tunstall and Alexander McSween, leaders of the Chisum crowd. Bad relations between rival factions culminated in the murder of Tunstall by Murphy partisans on February 28, 1878. Billy was arrested by Sheriff William Brady, a Murphy tool, and consequently cast his lot with McSween and Dick Brewer, Tunstall's foreman. In the resultant feud, known as the Lincoln County War, Billy rode with a vigilante group called the Regulators, which had a cloak of legality since Brewer was the appointed constable. In March the Regulators captured two of Tunstall's murderers, whom Brewer wanted to incarcerate in Lincoln. However, both men were killed, probably by Billy, before they ever reached town, thus giving the Murphy faction another grievance against the McSween group. Later Billy and five companions ambushed and killed Sheriff Brady and his deputy, George Hindman, on Lincoln's main street.
Map of Regulator gang in 1878. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
On April 4, 1878, the Kid was involved in the gunfight at Blazer's Mill, on the southwest slopes of the Sacramento Mountains, where A. L. (Buckshot) Roberts, a Murphy partisan, killed Dick Brewer before he himself expired from bullet wounds. After that, Billy emerged as a leader among the McSween men. In July 1878 he participated in the "five-day battle" in Lincoln, where the Murphy partisans besieged the Regulators in McSween's home. McSween was killed, but Billy and the others escaped from the burning house. Thereafter, Billy and his cohorts used no restraint in continuing the fight against the "House of Murphy," whom the power structure in New Mexico endorsed as the victor. In August the Kid was present when Morris J. Bernstein, clerk at the Mescalero Indian agency, was killed. Afterward he stayed for a time at the Chisum ranch while he and his friends stole horses and cattle from known Murphy partisans.
Henry McCarty (aka Billy the Kid) wanted poster. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Billy the Kid arrived in the Panhandle in the fall of 1878, after Chisum had sent some of his cattle to graze in the Canadian valley in the vicinity of Tascosa. Although not in Chisum's employ, Billy and four companions, Tom O'Folliard, Henry Brown, Fred Waite, and John Middleton, followed in the cattleman's wake, trailing approximately 125 stolen horses, which they planned to sell to Panhandle outfits. Billy intimidated Ellsworth Torrey, after the Boston rancher had run off the Kid's men for insulting his wife and daughters; otherwise the group was generally well-behaved during their stay in Tascosa and spent money freely. Although his reputation had preceded him, Billy soon made friends among Tascosa residents, notably a young transient doctor, Henry F. Hoyt , to whom the Kid sold Sheriff Brady's horse, Dandy Dick. By the winter of 1878–79, after selling the horses, Billy and Tom O'Folliard had returned to their home turf and soon added new members, including Charlie Bowdre and Dave Rudabaugh, to their rustling operation.
Map tracking Henry McCarty (aka Billy the Kid). Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
In the aftermath of the Lincoln County War, Lew Wallace, the new territorial governor of New Mexico, published a wanted list which included the Kid, who was implicated in the murder of Sheriff Brady. A momentary truce called in February 1879 ended when Murphy partisans killed a lawyer named Houston Chapman. Seeking to end the troubles once and for all, Governor Wallace arranged a meeting with the Kid and promised a full pardon for all charges against him in exchange for his testimony against Chapman's murderers. Assured that his own life was not endangered, Billy agreed to have himself placed in custody at Lincoln, but then Chapman's killers escaped. Nevertheless, Billy remained in custody until the spring of 1879, when many of the cases arising from the Lincoln County conflict came before the court. By arrangement with the governor he was allowed considerable freedom, but the pardon he hoped for was delayed. Growing impatient, Billy told his guards that he was tired of waiting, walked away from the store where he was being held, mounted a horse, and rode out of town as the guards watched. Billy remained on the loose for several months thereafter. Believing that he should be paid for his services to the Lincoln County Regulators, he tried to collect $500 from John Chisum. When the cattleman refused to pay, Billy vowed he would collect in some other way and from then on helped himself to Chisum's livestock. In January 1880 he killed a bounty hunter named Joe Grant in a saloon at Gallinas, after Grant's gun misfired. By then Billy the Kid and his gang were the bane of all cattlemen in the area and were part of the reason for the formation of the Panhandle Stock Association in Mobeetie.
Henry McCarty (aka Billy the Kid) captured at Stinking Springs on December 24, 1880. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Lincoln County Courthouse. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
With a price of $500 on his head, the Kid was almost captured at the town of White Oaks, northwest of Lincoln. He escaped, however, and seems to have resurfaced at the Greathouse Ranch, where a man named Jim Carlyle died. Billy received the blame for that, and the new Lincoln County sheriff, Patrick Floyd Garrett , made catching the Kid his first priority. Late in November 1880, with a posse of Panhandle men, Garrett ambushed the gang at Fort Sumner and killed Tom O'Folliard. Billy and the other rustlers escaped, but a few days later the posse caught up with them at Stinking Springs, twenty-five miles from Fort Sumner. After a brisk gunfight, in which Charlie Bowdre was killed, Billy and three remaining cohorts surrendered. They were taken to the jail in Las Vegas, then to Santa Fe, before being moved to Mesilla for trial the following spring. There the Kid was initially charged with the shooting of Buckshot Roberts, but after that charge was dropped he was tried, convicted for the murder of Sheriff Brady, and sentenced to hang. He was then transferred to the courthouse and jail in Lincoln, but on April 28, 1881, he killed deputies James Bell and Robert Olinger and escaped.
Pat Garrett, James Brent, and John W. Poe. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Maxwell House, circa 1882. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Pat Garrett went on the Kid's trail again, this time aided by John W. Poe , who was acting as a special detective for the Panhandle Stock Association, and Thomas McKinney. At White Oaks in July 1881 Poe received an anonymous tip that Billy was hiding out at the home of Duvelina, an Indian slave and former sweetheart, at Fort Sumner. He immediately notified Garrett and McKinney, and the trio set out for that town. Unable at first to find a clue to the outlaw's whereabouts, Garrett consented to call on Pete Maxwell, whose ranch headquarters occupied the former United States Army post. On the night of July 14, 1881, Billy the Kid, who had been hiding out at a nearby Mexican sheep camp, moved on to the Maxwell Ranch to visit Celsa Gutierrez, his sweetheart. After removing his boots and other riding paraphernalia, Billy left Celsa's room, which was located in the long adobe building just south of the Maxwell home, to procure some of the fresh quarter of beef that was hanging on Maxwell's north porch. Taking a butcher knife and a pistol, the Kid walked along the inside of the picket fence in front of the house. Suddenly, he came upon the shadowy figures of Poe and McKinney, who were waiting there. Drawing his six-shooter, the Kid demanded to know who they were. Poe, not knowing who the man was, tried to reassure him, but Billy backed through the open door into the darkened bedroom, where Garrett was talking with Maxwell, repeating his demands in Spanish. Recognizing the voice and perhaps seeing the drawn gun, Garrett fired twice and killed him. Billy the Kid died without knowing who shot him. Maxwell and other Fort Sumner residents later admitted that they had been living in terror of the Kid and were afraid to inform on him.
Grave of Henry McCarty (aka Billy the Kid). Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Fort Sumner Cemetery. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
Pat Garrett's The Authentic Life of Billy the Kid (1882). Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 .
McCarty was buried in the old military cemetery at Fort Sumner next to his "pals," Bowdre and O'Folliard, and near the grave of Lucien B. Maxwell. Even before his death, Billy's escapades had received nationwide attention through the National Police Gazette. Soon after his death, several "biographies" appeared in rapid succession, most notably Pat Garrett's Authentic Life of Billy the Kid (1882). Ghosted by Garrett's friend, Ash Upson, this book contained several errors and half-truths regarding Billy's early life and exploits. Over the years the Kid's image as a ruthless bandit who claimed twenty-one men, one for each year of his life, mellowed into that of an American Robin Hood, forced into crime by evil men. Even then, the accounts of Charles Siringo , Walter Noble Burns, and Miguel Antonio Otero relied heavily on Garrett and Upson's erroneous data. Several Hollywood westerns have portrayed Billy either as a cold-blooded killer or a good boy gone bad. The myth was enhanced even more during the 1950s when Ollie L. (Brushy Bill) Roberts, an elderly farmer from Hamilton County, Texas, claimed that he was Billy the Kid and petitioned the governor of New Mexico for a pardon for crimes committed under that name. Although a hearing was granted through the efforts of Roberts's attorney, William V. Morrison, no conclusive proof was ever brought forth. John W. Poe's eyewitness account of the Kid's last moments also generated interest among scholars like Maurice Garland Fulton, William A. Keleher, and Ramon F. Adams, who have attempted to separate the facts from the gunsmoke of legend. Billy's grave remains Fort Sumner's chief attraction, and the citizens of Lincoln reenact the Kid's dramatic last jailbreak each summer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Donald Cline, Alias Billy the Kid: The Man Behind the Legend (Santa Fe: Sunstone Press, 1986). ). Jack DeMattos, “The Search for Billy the Kid’s Roots is Over,” Real West (January 1980), 26. Leon C. Metz, Pat Garrett (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974). Frederick W. Nolan, The Lincoln County War: A Documentary History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992). Jon Tuska, Billy the Kid: A Bio-Bibliography (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 1983). Robert Marshall Utley, Billy the Kid (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989). Robert M. Utley, Four Fighters of Lincoln County (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
H. Allen Anderson
| Billy the Kid |
'Simon Legree' is a character in which book? | The Hunting of Billy the Kid
By Frederick Nolan
In the fall of 1879, after his attempts to negotiate a pardon through New Mexico Territorial Governor Lew Wallace had come to nothing, William H. Bonney, a k a “the Kid” (and best known today as Billy the Kid), decided to put some psychological distance between himself and Lincoln County and made old Fort Sumner his base of operations. By the following year, he had become a full-time rustler. His methods, like the men who rode with him, were rough and ready. The Kid and his gang would steal horses up and down the Pecos Valley and drive them to a ready market in Tascosa, the newest, rowdiest cow town in the Texas Panhandle. When their money ran out, they would steal stock on the open Panhandle range and drive it across into New Mexico Territory for sale, with no questions asked, to the self-styled “King of Tularosa,” rancher Pat Coghlan, who had a contract to supply beef to the Mescalero Apache reservation adjacent to Fort Stanton beginning July 1, 1880. When there were no horses to steal, they rode over to the Panhandle anyway and stole the big ranches there — such as the LX and LIT — blind. It’s more than possible that Pat Garrett, who would be elected sheriff of Lincoln County on November 2, 1880, and his close associate Barney Mason accompanied the Kid and his men on some of these raids.
Within a year the Kid’s depredations had reached such a level that in the fall of 1880 the newly formed Panhandle Stockmen’s Association hired a range detective, a former LX cowboy who called himself Frank Stewart (although what his qualifications were and how he got them are a matter for conjecture), to take some men with him to New Mexico Territory and identify the rustlers and whoever was purchasing their stolen cows. The party consisted of Garrett H. “Kid” Dobbs, Lon Chambers and Lee Hall from the LX, plus Charlie Reasor, who was half Cherokee, from LIT.
At Coghlin’s Tularosa ranch they found LIT hides in the coral, but when they questioned the butcher, former Lincoln County Sheriff George Peppin, he told them he had a clean bill of sale and it was going to take a lot more than a verbal notice to get him to quit. When on top of that someone told the Texans that Billy the Kid was in the area, and that if he ran into them he would wipe them out, Stewart decided discretion was the better part of valor and led his men back to the Panhandle. Cowboy Charlie Siringo takes up the story in his 1885 book A Texas Cowboy:
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This made [LX foreman Bill] Moore mad, so he concluded to rig up an outfit of his own and send them over after the cattle, hence he sending out after me. My outfit, after getting it rigged up, consisted of a chuck wagon with four good mules to pull it, a cook and five picked men, named as follows: James East, Lee Hall, Lon Chambers, Cal Pope (Polk) and last but not by any means least “Bigfoot” Wallace [Frank Clifford]…. On starting, Moore gave me these orders. “Stay over there until you get those cattle or bust the LX company. I will keep you supplied in money just as long as they have got a nickel left, that I can get hold of. And when you get the cattle, if you think you can succeed in capturing “Billy the Kid,” do so. You can hire all the men you need; but don’t undertake his capture until you have first secured the cattle.”
At Tascosa we met Stuart [Stewart], who had succeeded in raising a little crowd to join us. Mr. [W.S.] McCarty, boss of the LIT ranch, had furnished five men, a cook and chuck wagon; and Torry [Ellsworth Torrey] shoe [TS] ranch was further up the [Canadian] river, a wagon and two men, while a man named Johnson furnished a man and a wagon. The LIT outfit was in charge of a fellow by the name of Bob Robertson, whose orders were to get the stolen cattle before trying to capture the Kid, but in the meantime to be governed by Stuart’s orders.
“We left the LX ranch, went by Tascosa and got enough grub to last us to the Pecos,” Jim East later recalled. “We went right up the [Canadian] River past Sperling’s [ranch] where we camped one night, to San Hilario above Fort Bascom and cut across to the Pecos. Charley [Siringo] said, ‘Now, I’ll go on to Las Vegas, buy grub, and you fellows can go straight across to Anton Chico and wait there until I get back. That would save about seventy-five miles driving for us.’” In Cal Polk’s freewheeling account of the trip. Siringo “started on ahead to Las Vegas with the male [mail] carrier to get corn [for the horses]. He told us to go to Antion Cheeko on the Pacos River and there wait until he came with the corn. We went ahead and got there on Sunday [November 27, 1880] at 12 oclock. Just as we all rode up into town the cathlick church broke and the Mexacans coming out of it. They all stoped and gazed at us, and wondered what was the matter. We all had 2 belts full of cartridges a peace around us and was armed to the teeth with six shooters Bowie knives and Winchesters on our saddles.” Polk went on to tell of a close encounter with the Kid:
While we was there Billy the Kid come in town one night and stole 3 good horses from Mexacans. He then rote a letter to Frank Stuart telling us to not come no further, that he did not want to fite us. But if we came to come a shootin. This was strate goods but we had it to face. As you will see later we had all went deeply in debt while we was there and expected Charley to come with a picket full of monnie from Las Vagas. But when he come we was broke. He got to gambling up there and lost all the monnie the LX firm started him with and he had to give a check on them for the corn, so we had to give checks here they same way.
Cal Polk’s hairy tales of what the posse was up to in Anton Chico have been published elsewhere. Whether they are true or not, we will probably never know, although an unpublished memoir, Deep Trails in the West, dictated to a friend in 1942 by Frank Clifford, the man known to his fellow possemen as “Big Foot Wallace,” suggests that even if Polk was stretching the truth, he wasn’t stretching it very far:
The morning we left Anton Chico, it was snowing. There was already about five inches of snow on the ground. By the time we stopped at noon, snow was from eight to ten inches deep. We made a dry camp, and melted snow to water our horses. Before we could get started again, Pat Garrett, sheriff of Lincoln County, New Mexico, and Frank Stewart, cattle detective for the Canadian Cattle Association, and another man [Barney Mason] rode into camp. Pat told us that the “Kid” was down by Fort Sumner, and had a large bunch of Canadian River cattle that he was aiming to start for Old Mexico with in the morning. This couldn’t be true, as nobody could go any distance through a snowstorm like that with a big bunch of cattle. There would be nothing for them to eat. Bob Boberson and Charley Siringo immediately told Pat so. They demeaned him, and didn’t mince words either.
Pat insisted he was telling it straight, and after a long argument, Bob and Charley agreed to leave it to their men personally to decide who would go with Pat. We split up exactly even, seven went, and seven wouldn’t go. I was one who didn’t. We took the wagons and went on to White Oaks, reaching there on the day before Christmas. I remember the date, because just at midnight Christmas Eve, a lot of us slipped out of the saloon and turned loose our artillery, firing two or three salvos in to the air by way of saluting the new Christmas morning. When we went back into the saloon the first thing we saw there was Pinto Tom (Longworth), the lanky, red-headed Marshall of White Oaks, crawling out from under a billiard table, which cost Pinto Tom several rounds of drinks before morning. He thought the “Kid” and his gang had come in and were shooting up the town, as he dived under the table for safety. I never heard of the “Kid’s” shooting up a town just for fun, but folks always seemed to be afraid he was going to!
The hunt for Billy the Kid would get results in December 1880, culminating in his capture by a Sheriff Garrett-led posse on the 23rd at a rock house (once used as a forage station) at Stinking Springs (Ojo Hediendo) east of Fort Sumner near Taliban. Among those who set down their versions of the pursuit and capture of the Kid were Siringo, Polk and another Kid chaser, Louis “The Animal” Bousman. All stick pretty close to Garrett’s account. Jim East, however, adds telling detail that appears in none of the others. Although one or two writers have cited it, this is the first time his account of the hunting of the Kid has been published in its entirety.
We crossed to the Piedrenal Springs where we struck the breaks of the Pecos. We left our camp at daylight, rode all day without anything to eat, rode that night and next day about five o’clock we got to Puerta [Puerto] de Luna on the Pecos…. I remember how good chuck tasted there…after we had been without for so long. We spent the night there, and as our horses were played out we stayed there the next day…. We slept in a house that night, as it was very cold. Our party was made up of James East, Lee Hall and Lon Chambers from the LX; and Emory, Bausman and Williams from the LIT.
Garrett got word by a Mexican runner who came up that the Kid and his gang were at Fort Sumner and if we would hurry we might get them. It was forty two miles from Puerta de Luna to Sumner. About dusk we pulled out. It snowed all the way down, and there were about four inches on the ground when we got there just before day. When we left the wagons we had to cut ourselves out of all our bedding except one blanket apiece, as we could not carry more. We had one six-shooter, a Winchester and a blanket apiece. We packed no horses, and we had only the ones we rode. I slept on the one blanket and rode the one horse all that winter.
We got to Sumner a little before daylight and went to Beaver Smith’s store….Garrett asked him when he had seen the boys last. He said that they were there about sundown and that after they had drunk some whiskey and shot up the store they had gone to a vacant house just across the street and he thought they were still there. We slipped across to the house. It was still snowing. There was a little fire flickering in the fireplace and when it flared up a little we could see the form of a man before the fireplace. We thought that the whole bunch was there. Garrett told us to take no chances and to begin shooting when we went in. Garrett kicked the door open and we all jumped in with our Winchesters ready, and it was only [Mike Cosgrove] the mail carrier from Las Vegas. We came mighty near shooting him, not knowng who he was as there was not much light. He said: “My God, don’t shoot, boys.” And he was scared to death. He said that he did not know anything about the Kid and his gang and he did not want to….
We found that the Kid was out of town then and we did not know where. We went over to a long adobe building, the old hospital building of the Fort, and built a fire in the fireplace, rustled a little chuck, and stayed there all day. It snowed all the time. The next night Garrett told everybody to stay in Fort Sumner and for no one to leave on pain of death. He was afraid someone would slip out and tell the Kid. During the morning a Mexican came to Garrett and said that his wife and baby were at home and they had no milk for the baby. He said that his cow had got out and…asked permission to go after her and said he would be right back. Instead of going after his cow he slipped over near to Taiban to Wilcox’s ranch where the Kid and his bunch were and told him where we were…and that our horses were in Pete Maxwell’s stable. Nearly all the Mexicans were friendly to the Kid.
That night [December 19] about eleven o’clock they came in. Lon Chambers and Lee Hall had been placed on guard over our horses. I was rolled up in my blanket trying to get a little sleep before going on second guard, and Garrett, Barney Mason, Tom Emory and Bob Williams were playing poker. The Kid’s idea was, as he told us after we captured him, to slip in and steal our horses, put us afoot, and then take his time in killing us. A man on foot in that country was almost helpless.
Chambers, who was on guard, heard them coming, slipped up to the door and said: “Get your guns, they are coming.” The boys threw down their chips and cards, got their guns, and we all went out. Just then they turned around the end of the hospital building. The only light was from the snow. Garrett hollered at the bunch to throw up their hands, but they jerked their six-shooters and the fight commenced. All of them wheeled and left with the exception of one. Garrett said: “Throw up your hands; we’ll shoot you down!” He [the rider] said “Don’t shoot any more, Pat; I am dying.” His horse jogged right on up to us and it was Tom O’Phalliard, shot through near the heart. We took him inside and laid him down on my blanket. The boys went back to playing poker and I sat down by the fire. O’Phalliard commenced to cuss Garrett.
He said: “God damn you, Garrett; I hope to meet you in Hell.”
Pat said: “I would not talk that way, Tom. You are going to die in a few minutes.”
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He said: “Ah, go to hell, you long-legged sonofabitch.” (Pat w as six feet, five inches tall).
The game went on and the blood began running inside Tom. He began groaning and asked me to get him a drink of water. I did. He drank a little, lay back, shuddered and was dead. The poker game went on. It was a thing to get the minds of the men off the fight and keep them from growing morbid.
The next morning at daylight, Bausman and another man were sent out as scouts to see where they had gone. They went up towards the Taiban and found a dead horse, one that Dave Rudabaugh was riding. They had gone about a mile before his horse, which had been shot, died on him, and he had to dismount and get up behind another of the boys. It kept snowing. The winter of 1880 was an exceptionally cold one, and there was a heavy loss of cattle along the Canadian.
We lay over that day, got a Mexican to bury Tom O’Phalliard. We got a Mexican to make a box for him. The next day about twelve o’clock a man by the name of Wilcox who owned a ranch about three miles from the Taiban and about fifteen miles east of Fort Sumner, on what they called the Texas Road but which was not traveled much, came in and said: “Boys, the Kid and his bunch had supper at my house and have gone over to that rock house on the Taiban.” This was a one room house with one door and a little window next to the arroyo near which it stood. It had probably been a sheep ranch. The snow was pretty deep and we had to travel slowly.
We started up there and got to this house just before daylight. Garrett took Tom Emory, Lon Chambers, Jim East and Lee Hall and crawled up the arroyo until he was within about thirty feet of the house. Their horses were tied to the vega poles and we could see them. We crawled up by the low bank of this dry arroyo which was covered with snow to keep under cover.
It was some time before news of the Kid’s capture reached the possemen who had stayed in White Oaks. One of them, the man who called himself Frank Clifford, tells the story:
The boys came in from Fort Sumner, telling us that the “Kid” had been captured, and from there I must tell the story as they told it to us. The only hearsay about this story is from the lips of the men who were actually present at the occurrences, and told to me and the other boys by these men immediately after the event took place.
Garrett and his deputy, Kip McKinney [he means Barney Mason], and five men, together with Frank Stewart and six of our men, formed a posse and went to Fort Sumner. Pat hired a Mexican for one hundred dollars to go to the “Kid’s” hideout on the edge of the Staked Plains and tell the “Kid” that “the Texans,” that was us, had turned back home, and that it was now safe for him to come on in to Fort Sumner, which the “Kid” told the Mexican he would do that evening. When Pat Garrett got that word, he placed his posse out of sight, where they could cover the road which the “Kid’s” gang would ride in on. There were in the gang, the “Kid” (whose name was “William Bonney”), Dave Rudabaugh, Charley Bowdre, Tom O’Phalliard (they have spelled his name O’Folliard on the tombstone which has been put up for these three, as I notice in a photograph which I saw, but we always called him O’Phalliard), and one other whose name I cannot be sure of. I think it was “Wilson”.
When they got opposite to where Pat’s men were hiding, Pat opened fire on them without calling to them to surrender, according to the definite words of these men who told us about it, men who were in the posse, Lon Chambers, Tom Emory, Jim East, “the Animal,” Cal Polk, and Lee Hall, all men who were from our expedition. Well, O’Phalliard was killed, and the rest of the “Kid’s” gang turned back and headed away from there, but with eight or ten inches of snow on the ground they were easily tracked. They went out to their hideout, which was a crude rock shanty at the edge of the Staked Plains. Pat’s men placed themselves just under the edge of a draw where they had full view of the shanty, but were out of sight themselves, and waited for daylight.
From this point on, Clifford’s account becomes much like all the others, so it was exciting to discover a version of these events that has never been published. In 1942, Amarillo newspaperman John L. McCarty interviewed Garrett H. “Kid” Dobbs at Farmington, N.M., and elicited the following information:
Garrett and his men had some letters from Wallace, Chisholm [Chisum] and Capt. Leech [Lea] offering Kid amnesty if he would surrender. Pat sent a Mexican to Billy and Charley [Bowdre] telling them of these letters and asking them to meet him one at a time at a cross fork near by [Punta de la Glorieta above Fort Sumner]. Bowder sent word back he would meet Pat at 10 o’clock the next morning. He did and he and Garrett shook hands and Garrett showed him the letters. Bowder said he would go back and tell Billy and whatever Billy decided to do he would do.
Bowder told Billy about the letters and Billy offered $100 to [Thomas] Wilcox for a bottle of strychnine. He said he could get the Mexican woman cook at Fort Sumner to poison [the meals she cooked for] Garrett and all his deputies. Wilcox wouldn’t sell him any poison. That night Billy and his men slept in a stack lot and [Billy] made his last resolution for the next day which was to meet Garrett and feint a surrender and kill Pat. Leech, Wilcox’s partner [Manuel Brazil] slipped out that night to Sumner and told Garrett of Billy’s plans. Garrett got ready. But Billy didn’t meet Garrett that morning. That evening a bad blizzard and snow storm came up and Billy thought Pat wouldn’t follow them, but he did. Billy was in a deserted rock house 15 miles East; Garrett’s men surrounded the shack during the night.
Billy and his men had tied their horses to a vegas [viga] on the south side of the shack….Charley Bowder got up first the next morning before good daylight. He picked up the Kid’s Mexican hat by mistake. This was a $200 hat and had more silver on it than any hat I ever saw. Bowder put on this hat and stepped outside. Pat was 50 feet away. One of his men recognized the hat and said “That’s Billy.” Pat shot Bowder under the heart. Bowder knew it was Pat and said, “Don’t shoot any more, Pat, you’ve got me.” Garrett said “Is that you Charley” and he said “yes.”
Pat told him to crawl on down where they were and Bowder did. He told Pat he didn’t blame him for shooting and said he had a will in his pocket he wanted Pat to carry out. Pat told him he would. Bowder lived 40 minutes. He left his horse, saddle and blankets and $118 in cash to the Mexican woman cook in Fort Sumner. She got every bit of it that day, too.
Knowing the element of surprise was gone, Garrett decided to wait the Kid out. After a while they saw the tie ropes of the horses tethered outside the cabin move and figured the Kid and his men were trying to get the horses inside so they could mount up and come out running. Without compunction he shot one of the horses dead; it fell across the doorway, blocking it. After a while Garrett called to the Kid that he had them surrounded and there was no chance of escape. The Kid told him to go to hell. About sundown, according to Jim East, this is what happened:
A white handkerchief was stuck up through the chimney tied to a Winchester barrel. Garrett asked them what they wanted and Billy said they wanted to surrender, but they wanted the condition that we would give them safe conduct to Santa Fe….So Garrett promised them safe conduct through Las Vegas. The Kid and his men came out with their hands up. Barney Mason said: “Kill the S — B — he is slippery and may get away.” Mason had been one of the Kid’s gang at one time, had deserted him and now was afraid of him. He leveled his gun at the Kid and Lee Hall and I threw our guns down on him and said “If you fire a shot we will kill you.” Mason lowered his gun.
The posse and their prisoners spent the night at the Wilcox ranch, bout four miles west of Stinking Springs. Next day, December 24, they headed for Fort Sumner, where the prisoners were put in shackles, and from there to Puerto de Luna, arriving in time to eat Christmas dinner at Alexander Grzelachowski’s store. They reached Las Vegas the following day, December 26, and a day later the Kid was taken by train to the jail in Santa Fe.
The Panhandle posse had done its job: They had captured Billy the Kid and put him in jail, where most cattlemen firmly believed the belonged. In March 1881, the Kid was taken to La Mesilla, New Mexico Territory, where he was tried for and found guilty of the murder of Sheriff William Brady almost exactly three years earlier during the Lincoln County War. The date for his execution was set as Friday, May 13, in Lincoln. But as the Kid was wont to observe, there’s many a slip ‘twixt the cup and the lip. He would write another bloody chapter in the history of the West before Pat Garrett wrote finis to his career. Ww
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'Rock Salmon' or 'Dogfish' is a member of which family of fish? | Dog Fish | Huss Fish | Rock Salmon | Buy Dog Fish Steak Online
Dogfish
A member of the shark family, also known as huss and once upon a time as 'rock salmon' with firm and tasty flesh. Dogfish is virtually free of small bones. We offer it in two forms: as a flat-ish fillet with the central cartilaginous bone (and the small ones too) removed, or in its "log" shape, as an on-the-bone steak.
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The Pacific island of Bora Bora is a dependency of which country? | Total Angler — Sea Fish
British Sea Fish Species
Here's a full listing of some of the most commonly caught sea fish in Britain.
Click on the sea fish species to find information about when, where and how to catch them, their identification and what tackle and bait to use.
Bass.
This is perhaps the most prized fish sought by sea anglers.
The average bass caught off the British Isles will be around the 2-3lb mark, but it is possible – with Lady Luck on your side – to smash the 10lb barrier.
Black Bream.
The Black Sea Bream can be found throughout the coastline of Britain and Ireland. The Scottish coast is about as far as the black sea bream travels.
It is most common in the southern counties of England, Wales, Ireland and the Channel Islands.
The usual size of an adult Black Sea Bream is around 25 to 35cm, but specimens have been recorded at 50cm long.
Bull Huss.
The Bull Huss is a member of the Shark family. Its other names are Nursehound, Huss, Rock Salmon, Greater Spotted Dogfish and Larger Spotted Dogfish.
They are mainly nocturnal species – during the day they tend to lay ‘asleep’ on the sea bed if the water clarity is good. However, they can be caught in the Bristol channel during daylight particularly where the water is coloured.
Cod.
The Cod is one of Britain’s most sought-after sea fish, especially throughout the autumn and winter months. As we all know, it makes for great eating, whether filleted and battered, or baked into a pie, it’s really delicious.
Cod caught from the British shores varies by location and season. The average size of Cod is difficult to predict, this said, a Cod in excess of 10lb from the shore is a good fish.
Conger Eel.
There is no mistaking the Conger Eel, which is famous for living within the wrecks of old ships, boats and also taking up residence within the nooks and crannies of the rocky shorelines of the UK during warmer months.
They can be found all around the British Isles and Ireland and can turn up almost anywhere.
Conger Eels are one of the very few fish that can swim backwards.
Dab.
The Dab is one of Britain and Ireland’s commonest flatfish. It is particularly commonplace in the North Sea. It thrives over sandy bottoms or fine shingle sea beds.
Most Dabs measure around 20cm on average, but some individuals to 40cm-plus have been found. A Dab of over 1lb in weight is a very good Dab from the shore in the UK.
Dogfish.
Dogfish can be encountered in very shallow water, deep water, rocky sea beds, sandy sea beds, in fact, Dogfish can turn up almost anywhere. They are bottom feeders and eat a lot of molluscs, crustaceans and small fish such as Sand Eels.
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Mackerel.
Late March see’s the arrival of mackerel to our shorelines, although not plentiful early in the season, the arrival sends anglers into frenzy.
Fish numbers build as the summer goes by and large quantities of Mackerel can be seen smashing baitfish during the barmy summer evenings. Pound for pound Mackerel are one of the UK's hardest fighting fish.
Plaice.
Plaice are welcomed by anglers across the UK in February and March, this red spotted flatfish signals the arrival of the first summer species and the long, dark winter.
Pouting.
Pouting are found in numbers along the south and southwest coast of England and Wales. Plentiful in numbers they can be caught all year round.
Usually grows to 30 cm (12 inches) or less.
Smooth Hound.
The Smooth Hound is a member of the Shark family. It has all the distinguishing features of a Shark.
You will find Smooth Hounds all around the coast of Britain and Ireland, but they are quite rare in the upper regions of Scotland.
Unlike other species of the Shark family found in the UK like the Bull Huss and Dogfish, Smooth Hounds have a great turn of speed when hooked and provide great fun for the angler.
Sole.
Sole is a group of flatfish belonging to several families. Generally speaking, they are members of the family Soleidae, but, outside Europe, the name sole is also applied to various other similar flatfish, especially other members of the sole suborder Soleoidei as well as members of the Flounder family.
Distinctive in shape, it looks similar to a sole of a shoe, hence the name.
Thornback Ray.
This fantastic-looking fish has a typical diamond shaped body with long tail. They have been caught measuring 1m, but the general maximum size is around the 75cm mark.
They are common all around the British Isles and Ireland, living over muddy, sandy and gravelly bottoms. Luckily for us anglers, Thornback Rays tend to prefer quite shallow water making them accessible to catch.
Tope.
The Tope is a member of the Shark family. It can be found all around the coastline of the British Isles and Ireland.
They live close to the bottom, preferring sand or gravel, but they will move into mid-water to feed.
Much sought after by anglers across the country, they are within the top three fisghting fish to be caught from the shores of the UK.
Whiting.
A member of the Cod family the Whiting could be described as the poorer relative, only growing to a portion of the sized reached by Cod and general food for predator species of the sea.
Whiting rarely grow above 2lb (0.9kg) caught from the shore.
Wrasse (Ballan).
Of the five Wrasse species, the Ballan Wrasse is the largest – a specimen adult Wrasse will reach around 50-60cm in length, but they are generally around the 40cm mark.
It is quite a common sea fish that prefers rocky or kelp-covered coastlines.
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By what name is the drug MDMA more commonly known? | Nicknames, Street Names and Slang for Ecstasy (MDMA)
Nicknames, Street Names and Slang for MDMA/Ecstasy
Posted on Monday, May 3rd, 2010 at 4:09 pm.
Written by Casa Palmera Staff
MDMA, commonly known as ecstasy or molly, is a powerful psychoactive drug that produces feelings of heightened energy euphoria, and sensitivity to touch. This makes MSMA very popular among teens and young adults especially at nightclubs and “raves”. Studies have shown that half of teens have tried some sort of illicit drug by the time they finish high school and over six percent have tried Ecstasy.
The more you know about what your child/ren is and does, as well as who they hang out with, the more likely you’ll be able to see the signs when they’re suffering from a drug addiction , or experiementing with types of club drugs. There are many nicknames and slang terms for Ecstasy. This allows users to speak about their drug usage in open conversations without drawing attention to themselves when using the wrong stuff. To help you gain insight into your kid’s potential relationship with Ecstasy, we’ve put together a list of common street names and nicknames for ecstasy, molly, and partying.
Nicknames and Street Names for Ecstasy
Ecstasy usually appears as a small pill or tablet in various colors, sometimes with a logo stamped on it. Another variety of ecstasy comes in powder or crystallized form in the name of molly. Here are the common nicknames and street names for Ecstasy:
* X, E, or XTC
* Raver, Raving
How to Talk to Your Teen about Drugs and Partying
According to Drugfree.org, only 10 percent of the estimated 1.4 million teens with substance abuse and drug problems receive recovery treatment . Don’t let your child be another statistic. If you think your teen is using drugs or drinking, take action. The sooner you address the problem with potential substance abuse, the less likely that their experimentation will lead to abuse and addiction. Immediately begin to more closely monitor your teen’s activities and set up reasonable rules and consequences that are enforceable. The most important thing you can do as a parent is not deny that a drug or alcohol problem exists. If the problem is beyond your ability to handle, ask for help. There are many drug and alcohol treatment programs that are tailored to teens.
Teen Ecstasy Treatment at Casa Palmera
At Casa Palmera substance abuse treatment center , we understand the unique issues teens face, and we know that Ecstasy and other substance use is usually a symptom of something deeper. Our highly skilled staff is trained at uncovering the underlying issues that lead teens to use drugs or alcohol and will help them work through their problems in a more productive way.
Don’t let your child ruin his or her life with Ecstasy, alcohol or other drugs. Call Casa Palmera drug treatment center today and put your teen in the hands of trained, highly skilled professionals who will bring your child back to a healthy, happy life.
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| Ecstasy |
'The Popish Plot' was an alleged conspiracy to murder which English monarch? | DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly) | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons /CC0
How do people use MDMA?
People who use MDMA usually take it as a capsule or tablet, though some swallow it in liquid form or snort the powder. The popular nickname Molly (slang for "molecular") often refers to the supposedly "pure" crystalline powder form of MDMA, usually sold in capsules. However, people who purchase powder or capsules sold as Molly often actually get other drugs such as synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") instead (see " Added Risk of MDMA ").
Some people take MDMA in combination with other drugs such as alcohol or marijuana.
How does MDMA affect the brain?
MDMA increases the activity of three brain chemicals:
Dopamine—causes a surge in euphoria and increased energy/activity
Norepinephrine—increases heart rate and blood pressure, which are particularly risky for people with heart and blood vessel problems
Serotonin—affects mood, appetite, sleep, and other functions. It also triggers hormones that affect sexual arousal and trust. The release of large amounts of serotonin likely causes the emotional closeness, elevated mood, and empathy felt by those who use MDMA.
Other health effects include:
decreased appetite
decreased interest in and pleasure from sex
It's possible that some of these effects may be due to the combined use of MDMA with other drugs, especially marijuana.
What are other health effects of MDMA?
High doses of MDMA can affect the body’s ability to regulate temperature. This can lead to a spike in body temperature that can occasionally result in liver, kidney, or heart failure or even death.
In addition, because MDMA can promote trust and closeness, its use—especially combined with sildenafil (Viagra®)—may encourage unsafe sexual behavior. This increases people's risk of contracting or transmitting HIV/AIDS or hepatitis.
Read more about drug use and HIV/AIDS in DrugFacts: HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse: Intertwined Epidemics at drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hivaids-drug-abuse-intertwined-epidemics .
Read more about drug use and hepatitis at drugabuse.gov/related-topics/viral-hepatitis-very-real-consequence-substance-use .
Added Risk of MDMA
Adding to MDMA's risks is that pills, capsules, or powders sold as Ecstasy and supposedly "pure" Molly may contain other drugs instead of or in addition to MDMA. Much of the Molly seized by the police contains additives such as cocaine, ketamine, methamphetamine, over-the-counter cough medicine, or synthetic cathinones ("bath salts"). These substances may be extremely dangerous if the person does not know what he or she is taking. They may also be dangerous when combined with MDMA. People who purposely or unknowingly combine such a mixture with other substances, such as marijuana and alcohol, may be putting themselves at even higher risk for harmful health effects.
Is MDMA addictive?
Research results vary on whether MDMA is addictive. Experiments have shown that animals will self-administer MDMA—an important indicator of a drug’s abuse potential—although to a lesser degree than some other drugs such as cocaine.
Some people report signs of addiction, including the following withdrawal symptoms:
fatigue
trouble concentrating
Does MDMA Have Value in Therapy?
MDMA was first used in the 1970s as an aid in psychotherapy (mental disorder treatment using "talk therapy"). The drug didn't have the support of clinical trials (studies using humans) or approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In 1985, The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration labeled MDMA as an illegal drug with no recognized medicinal use. Some researchers remain interested in its value in psychotherapy when given to patients under carefully controlled conditions. MDMA is currently in clinical trials as a possible treatment aid for post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety in terminally ill patients, and for social anxiety in autistic adults.
How can people get treatment for addiction to MDMA?
There are no specific medical treatments for MDMA addiction. Some people seeking treatment for MDMA addiction have found behavioral therapy to be helpful. Scientists need more research to determine how effective this treatment option is for addiction to MDMA.
Points to Remember
3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) is a synthetic drug that alters mood and perception. It is chemically similar to stimulants and hallucinogens.
MDMA is commonly called Ecstasy or Molly.
People who use MDMA typically take it as a capsule or tablet. Many people take it in combination with other drugs.
MDMA acts by increasing the activity of three brain chemicals: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
Effects include euphoria, increased energy, distorted perception, involuntary teeth clenching, dangerously high body temperature, and depression.
Many people are unaware that Ecstasy and supposedly "pure" Molly also often contain not only pure MDMA but other drugs that may be particularly dangerous when mixed with MDMA.
Research results vary on whether MDMA is addictive. Some people report signs of addiction.
Some people seeking treatment for MDMA addiction have found behavioral therapy to be helpful. There are no specific medical treatments for MDMA addiction.
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Which inventor of the 'Spinning-Frame' set up a large water-powered factory at Cromford in Derbyshire? | The Water Frame
The Water Frame
The Water Frame
The Water Frame
In 1762, Richard Arkwright , a wig-maker from Preston, heard about the attempts being made to produce new machines for the textile industry. Arkwright met John Kay , a clockmaker from Warrington, who had been busy for some time trying to produce a new spinning-machine with another man, Thomas Highs. Kay and Highs had run out of money and had been forced to abandon the project.
Richard Arkwright was impressed by John Kay and offered to employ him to make this new machine. Arkwright also recruited other local craftsman to help, and it was not long before the team produced the Spinning-Frame . Arkwright's machine involved three sets of paired rollers that turned at different speeds. While these rollers produced yarn of the correct thickness, a set of spindles twisted the fibres firmly together. The machine was able to produce a thread that was far stronger than that made by the Spinning-Jenny produced by James Hargreaves .
The Spinning-Frame was too large to be operated by hand and so Richard Arkwright had to find another method of working his machine. After experimenting with horses, Arkwright decided to employ the power of the water-wheel. In 1771 he set up a large factory next to the River Derwent in Cromford, Derbyshire. Arkwright's machine now became known as the Water-Frame.
| Richard Arkwright |
The best selling video game, TV and trading card series 'Pokemon' is hugely popular in Japan and the rest of the world. What does 'Pokemon' mean? | Famous Inventors | Primary Facts
Here are some facts about Richard Arkwright.
Richard Arkwright was born in Preston, England on 23 December 1732.
He was one of the key inventors and businessmen during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution.
Many people believe that he is the architect of the modern factory system.
Richard was the youngest of seven children. Thomas Arkwright, his father, was a tailor.
When he had completed his education -Thomas was taught at home by his cousin, Ellen- Richard became an apprentice barber and wig-maker.
When his apprenticeship was over, he set up on his own as a wig-maker. He invented a waterproof dye for wigs and this made him a good income.
In 1755, Richard married Patience Holt. They had a son, Richard Arkwright Junior.
Unfortunately, Patience died in 1756. In 1761, Richard married Margaret Biggins.
In 1769 Richard Arkwright patented the spinning frame (later called the water-frame), a machine to produce inexpensive spun cotton.
In 1771, Arkwright and his business partners built the first water-powered cotton mill at Cromford in Derbyshire.
In 1776, Arkwright constructed a larger mill at Cromford. He then built other mills at Wirksworth and Bakewell.
The Cromford Mill employed more than 1000 people, many of whom had been relocated by Arkwright from outside of the Cromford area. Many of the employees were children, some as young as ten.
In 1786, Arkwright was knighted.
In 1787, Sir Richard Arkwright became High Sheriff of Derbyshire
Arkwright died in Cromford on 3 August 1792. He was 59 years old.
In 1788, Sir Richard Arkwright purchsed a plot of land from Florence Nightingale ‘s father. He started to build Willersley Castle, but due to a fire which resulted in much rebuilding, Richard Arkwright never got to stay. The castle was only completed after his death.
What next? Learn more about some other famous inventors .
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'Radames' and 'Princess Amneris' are characters that appear in which Verdi opera? | Synopsis of Verdi's Opera, Aida
The Synopsis of Aida
Aida, ACT 1
Outside of the royal palace near Memphis, Ramfis (Egypt's high priest) informs Radames (a young warrior) that armies from Ethiopia are making their way towards the Nile valley. Radames expresses his hope of being appointed the commander of Egypt's army where he can lead his troops to victory, as well as rescue Aida, his Ethiopian lover captured by Egyptian troops. Unbeknownst to him, as well as the rest of Egypt, Aida is the daughter of Ethiopia's king, Amonasro. Since her capture, Aida has served as slave to the Egyptian princess, Amneris.
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Amneris is in love Radames, but senses he is in love with another woman. It isn't long before Amneris figures out who the mystery woman is when she sees the longing glances shared between him and Aida. Amneris maintains her composure, masking her deep-rooted jealousy, and continues to keep Aida as her slave. The king of Egypt arrives and announces that Ramfis' information was correct and that Ethiopian troops, lead by the King of Ethiopia himself, have already made their way into Thebes. The king appoints Radames as the leader of the army while simultaneously declaring war on Ethiopia. An overjoyed Radames makes his way to the temple to complete his coronation ritual. Left alone in the hall, Aida becomes distraught as she is forced to choose between her Egyptian lover and her father and country.
Aida, ACT 2
After their victorious battle, Radames and his troops return from Thebes. Inside Amneris' chambers, she has her slaves entertain her in light of the battle. Doubting her suspicions of Aida and Radames, she decides to test Aida. She dismisses all of her slaves except for Aida, and tells her that Radames has died in battle. Aida breaks down into tears and confesses her love for Radames, which instantly infuriates Amneris, who vows revenge.
Radames makes his triumphant return to Memphis, marching through the city with his troops, while the captured Ethiopians trail behind. Aida sees her captured father and rushes to his side. He makes her promise not to reveal their true identities. The King of Egypt, so delighted with Radames' performance, honors him by granting him anything he asks for. Before Radames can make his request, Amonasro declares that the King of Ethiopia was killed in battle and asks the Egyptian king to set them free. The people of Egypt, however, join in chant asking for their death and the King grants their desires. In order to save his lover's life, Radames cashes in on the King's generosity and asks him to spare the lives of the Ethiopians. The King happily grants him his request and declares Radames his successor and future husband of Princess Amneris. Aida and her father are taken into custody to prevent any Ethiopian revolt.
Aida, ACT 3
As preparations are made for the upcoming wedding between Radames and Amneris, Aida waits for Radames outside of the temple in an previously agreed upon spot. Aida's father, Amonasro, finds her and pressures her to find out where the Egyptian army is being kept. Feeling homesick, she agrees to her fathers wishes. When Radames comes out of the temple to meet Aida, Amonrasro hides and eavesdrops on their conversation. At first the lovers talk about their future lives together, but after Aida asks, he tells her where the army is located. Amonasro comes out of hiding and reveals his identity to Radames just as Amneris and the High Priest come out of the temple. Before Aida and Amonasro escape, Aida pleads for Radames to follow them. Instead, Radames submits himself to Amneris and the High Priest as a traitor.
Aida, ACT 4
Frustrated with Radames, Amneris pleads with him to deny his accusations. Full of pride and love for his country, he does not. He accepts his punishment, but is happy to know that Aida and her father have escaped. This hurts Amneris even more. She tells him that she will save him if he renounces his love for Aida, but again, he refuses. The High Priest and his court condemn Radames to death by being buried alive. Amneris begs for their mercy, but they do not budge.
Radames is taken to the lowest level in the temple and is sealed away into a dark tomb. Moments after being locked away, he hears someone breathing in a dark corner; it is Aida. She confesses her love for him and has chosen to die with him. The two embrace as Amneris weeps several floors above them.
| Aida (disambiguation) |
By what first name is West Indian cricketer Chanderpaul known? | Aida (Musical) Plot & Characters | StageAgent
Overview
Synopsis
At the Nile’s edge, the enslaved Nubian princess, Aida becomes romantically entangled with the Egyptian captain, Radames, who is betrothed to the Pharaoh’s daughter, Amneris. As their forbidden love grows deeper, Aida is forced to find balance between her heart’s yearning for Radames, and her responsibility to lead her people.
Based on the opera by Giuseppe Verdi, Elton John and Time Rice's Aida is a timeless love story, featuring an award-winning pop/rock score from the seasoned pop duo who brought musical life to Disney’s The Lion King. Rousing rock numbers and heart-wrenching ballads bring the ill-fated lovers into a new era.
Characters
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In 'Dad's Army' what was the first name of 'Private Walker'? | James Beck: the Dad’s Army star cut off in his prime - Telegraph
James Beck: the Dad’s Army star cut off in his prime
James Beck, aka Dad's Army's Private Walker, died 40 years ago today. Neil Clark pays tribute.
James Beck in Dad's Army Photo: Rex
By Neil Clark
7:00AM BST 06 Aug 2013
On 6 August 1973, James Beck, who played the Cockney spiv Private Walker in Dad’s Army, died at the age of 44. Ironically, he was the first member of the predominantly elderly ensemble to die. A highly accomplished actor, it seemed that he was set for a successful career as a character player. However, an addiction to alcohol cost him his life.
James “Jimmy” Beck was born in Islington in 1929, the son of a tram driver. He left home at 17 and, after National Service, he pursued a career in the theatre, eventually winning a contract with the York Theatre Company. His breakthrough came in 1968, when he was cast as Private Joe Walker in a new BBC sitcom about the Home Guard. Jimmy Perry, who created Dad’s Army with co-writer David Croft, originally planned the role for himself, but was persuaded against performing in his own show.
“Michael Mills, the head of BBC Comedy said to me: ‘Dear boy, you’ve got to decide which end of the camera you want to be on’,” Perry recalls. “David Croft wisely said that if you’re going to write and perform in it too it might create a difficult atmosphere with the rest of the cast. David had worked with Jimmy before and thought he’d be right for the part. I didn’t know him from a bar of soap.”
The casting of Beck, like the other casting choices in Dad’s Army, proved to be inspired. “He was very good,” says Perry. “He had the right mix of cheekiness and charm. He gave the role a bit of oomph.”
Everyone loved Jimmy Beck. “He was a nice person to get along with – one enjoyed his company,” recalls Frank Williams who played the Vicar.
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“He was the person closest to my own age so I had a particular affinity with him,” says Ian Lavender who played Private Pike and who, together with Williams, is the only surviving regular cast member. “He was a very good actor and a popular one – which doesn’t always go together.”
Beck’s career was at its height at the start of 1973. Dad’s Army was becoming increasingly popular and he had won the lead role in an ITV sitcom called Romany Jones. He had also recently co-starred with Arthur Lowe (Dad’s Army’s Captain Mainwaring) in the pilot of a new BBC sitcom, Bunclarke With an E, based on adapted scripts from Hancock’s Half Hour. In August, he was due to appear in a TV play called The Village Concert.
The last time his Dad’s Army co-stars saw him alive was on Friday 13th July at the Playhouse Theatre in London where he recorded two radio episodes of Dad’s Army (which ran alongside the TV series). The following afternoon Beck was opening a school fête when
he suddenly became ill and had to be taken home by his wife Kay. He was then rushed to hospital where he lost consciousness. He died three weeks later, due to a combination of heart failure, renal failure and pancreatitis.
“It was a terrible shock” says Jimmy Perry. “We all knew he was a heavy drinker, but we didn’t bother much about it. There were a lot of heavy drinkers about in the business in those days. The only time I thought there might be something seriously wrong was when we were shooting the outdoor scenes for an episode in which the platoon were being chased by a pack of bloodhounds and Captain Mainwaring got them to take off their boots and socks and roll up their trousers. I saw Jimmy’s legs and they were purple. It was the last episode he appeared in before he died.”
At the suggestion of Kay, Lavender took over Beck’s part in The Village Concert. “The recording took place on the day of Jimmy’s funeral. It was all very sad,” says Lavender.
What might Beck have achieved had he lived? He had received a congratulatory letter from Laurence Olivier for his portrayal of Archie Rice in The Entertainer and Beck was keen to stretch himself professionally. Williams remembers seeing him in Staircase, about a pair of gay lovers, at the Palace Theatre in Watford. “It couldn’t have been more different from the role of Private Walker but he was tremendous. I have no doubt that, had he lived, he would have become one of Britain’s leading character actors.”
| Joe |
What structure has forms called 'Dogleg', 'Straight', 'Well' and 'Circular'? | Dad's Army actor Arnold Ridley's son on how the show belittled his father's awesome heroism | Daily Mail Online
comments
Forgotten hero: Arnold Ridley as Private Godfrey
When my father was awarded an OBE 'for services to the theatre', I refused to go to Buckingham Palace to see him receive it. I was too angry on his behalf.
The OBE seemed to me a poor, overdue reward for his service to his country - though he appeared pleased enough to receive his decoration.
Like me, he was fully aware that the honour had nothing to do with his frontline service in both World Wars; nor even his later success as a playright.
It was in recognition of his late-flowering fame as the dim-witted Private Charles Godfrey in the TV series Dad's Army.
And dear old Godfrey, if you recall, was famously the only conscientious objector in the Home Guard platoon of Walmington-on-Sea.
The irony of my father being given an OBE for playing a conscientious objector was hard to bear.
For my father, Arnold Ridley, had been one of the brave young men who went 'over the top' at the Battle of the Somme. He ended up being wounded three times and suffered from shellshock, blackouts and haunting nightmares.
And he never received any recognition at all for his courage and sacrifice.
My father talked about his experiences of World War I only reluctantly, but I knew that the 'war to end wars', with its sucking mud, rats the size of cats and appalling death toll, had caused him untold anguish.
All those horrors had come flooding back when, in September 1939, he went to war once more, returning to France with the British Expeditionary Force - this time with the rank of major.
In an unpublished memoir written towards the end of his life, he recalled: 'Within hours of setting foot on the quay at Cherbourg, I was suffering from acute shell-shock again. It took the form of a mental suffering that can best be described as an "inverted" nightmare.
'I (had) suffered badly from nightmares between the wars. They always took the same form. Somehow or other, my discharge had gone wrong and I was back in the Army again. Not amid shot, shell, bayonet and other horrors, but merely back in France awaiting orders to go up to the front line once more. These dreams were so real that sometimes it would take me an hour or more to persuade myself that what I had dreamed was impossible.
'Now it was no longer impossible. My dream had caught up with me. My real and conscious life was now my nightmare - a nightmare from which I had no awakening.'
He never wrote anything more about World War II.
'To recount the events of this time, I would have to relive them. I have no intention of reliving them. I am too afraid,' he explained simply.
My father was already over 50 by the time I was born in 1946, so to me he was always elderly.
Indeed, he had been born at the end of the previous century and could remember hearing the bells toll for the death of Queen Victoria.
Each night, I used to say a private prayer, asking God to let him live another 20 years.
Arnold Ridley with his son, Nicolas. The actor suffered nightmares over what he had experienced in two World Wars
Once, when he took me as a small boy to Lord's to watch the cricket, an acquaintance stopped and asked: 'And is this your grandson?'
It was a kindly meant question, expecting a proud response.
'No! No!' I said quickly, so furious that I was close to tears. But my father smiled indulgently.
Growing up, I'd often see him reading books by generals, historians, politicians - always about World War I.
Before long, he'd be asleep, with the open books scattered about his armchair, like bodies laid out in a field.
Once, I woke him suddenly, tapping him urgently on the shoulder, as young children do. He sprang to his feet and had his hands round my throat before he saw me.
The instincts of trench warfare never left him - but it was an incident we never discussed.
Later, I learned from my mother that if we needed to wake him, it was best to knock gently on the door and wait until he remembered he was safe.
By the time I came along, all my father's greatest theatrical triumphs were in the past.
Long before Dad's Army, he'd been rich and famous - with his name in lights in St Martin's Lane as the author of a sell-out play called The Ghost Train.
Hit: Dad's Army ran from 1968 until 1977. Little did many fans know that Arnold Ridley had fought in two World Wars
Through most of my childhood, though, he endured the hand-to-mouth existence of the ageing actor who struggles for small parts - Doughy Hood, the baker in The Archers; Guy Atkins, the vicar in Crossroads; Alderman Pratt in Carry On Girls; a gardener in Z Cars; an 'elderly gent' in The Avengers - and is harried by bank managers, bullied by bailiffs, pursued by implacable tax inspectors.
To my mother and me, he was always just Old Bear - or OB for short - a name that stuck because he'd once played a bear and apparently looked more convincing out of his costume than in.
As he grew older, and the acting parts dried up, his agonising fear was that he might never work again.
Then, to his great surprise, Dad's Army came along - and from 1968 to 1977, he played Godfrey, the oldest Home Guardsman in the platoon, in 80 TV episodes.
As guileless Godfrey in his tin hat, he became a kind of national treasure. Not to me, though: even now, I tend to be brusque and sullen when people introduce me as 'Godfrey's son'.
Recently, I sat down to watch several episodes of Dad's Army, but I still didn't warm to Godfrey.
His deference irritated me, as did his requests to be excused. And why did he have to look so gaga?
The trouble is that a well-drawn TV character can seem so complete that it's sometimes difficult to distinguish the actor from the man.
Even some of OB's Dad's Army colleagues made a point of telling me that he was perfectly cast 'because he was so sweet and gentle'.
Well, it's true there wasn't a malicious bone in OB's make-up - but he certainly wasn't sweet.
Once, as a young man, doing teaching practice as part of an education degree, he actually threw a headmaster out of a window.
He recalled: 'He so aroused my hot temper by doubting my word of honour and wagging a finger under my nose that I seized him by the scruff of his neck and the seat of his trousers - and pitched him out into his own playground, which fortunately was heavily grassed.'
For OB, World War I intervened at just the right moment. Instead of having to face disciplinary action for his impetuosity to his headmaster, he was drafted to his regiment's reserve battalion, stationed at Crownhill on the outskirts of Plymouth.
Then aged 20, he vividly remembered marching three miles in a rainstorm and waiting half an hour, soaked to the skin, until the regimental sergeant-major emerged to call the recruits to attention.
'Don't none of you think you're going to see your homes and mothers and dads no more 'cause you ain't,' he barked. 'We sent out a draft to our First Battalion at Wipers three weeks ago and where are they now? I'll tell yer - they're all bleeding well dead! And that's where you buggers will be in a couple o' months time - all bleeding well dead!'
It was Lance Corporal Ridley's introduction to hell. For more than a year on the frontline, he fought on while comrades died all around him.
Enlarge
Characters: Arnold Ridley (top centre) with the cast of Dad's Army
Once, he told me, he passed out on the battlefield and was woken by the sound of appalling screams. He realised he was in a shell-hole. On the other side of it, the man who'd presumably carried him there had just been mortally wounded by shrapnel, and was screaming with pain as he clung to life.
Did his unknown companion ask my father to spare him further agony - or did the screaming simply become insupportable?
The question was too terrible for me to ask him. But the screaming had to be stopped - and it was L/Cpl Ridley who did the deed.
After leaving the shell-hole, he led a group of stragglers back through no-man's-land to the British frontline.
All the soldiers were recommended for the Military Medal - but an officer, spotting that my father was nominally in command, recommended him for the DCM - the Distinguished Conduct Medal.
The other members of the party duly received their MMs but my father was turned down for the DCM and received nothing. He told the story ruefully, with little bitterness. This was simply how things were, he said.
But I knew how hurt he'd been; the MM was the only recognition he'd hoped for, and he didn't even get that.
Of his time on the front, OB later recalled: 'The mental suffering was far in excess of the physical. To anyone of sense and imagination, it was quite clear that the vital question wasn't "if" I get killed, but when I get killed. Battalions were wiped out, not once but time after time.
'One's only hope was that one might receive a "Blighty one"- an injury severe enough to get you repatriated, but not so bad that it would kill you. That is why the war correspondents could rightly describe the wounded as being so cheerful.'
In September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, where 58,000 British troops lost their lives, my father finally received his 'Blighty one'.
'I was badly wounded - particularly in my left arm and hand,' he wrote in his unpublished memoirs. '(But) I was left for some days behind the uncaptured German frontline - and it was some time before I received medical first aid at Le Tréport, where I was admitted by mistake into a Canadian hospital.'
What OB didn't put in his account was that he woke up with a start that night because a terrible weight was pressing down on his chest. Someone was kneeling on him, sewing him into a sheet. He'd been sleeping so deeply that they assumed he was dead.
Afterwards, he had several operations. 'I was quite certain that my hand would be amputated, and I felt a strong measure of disappointment when I found that it hadn't been. The loss of a hand would, at the worst, reduce me to Home Service and save my life. I was 20. Rather young to welcome a prospect of being maimed for life!'
It was only after his return to Britain that he was deemed unfit for service, even though his hand had been saved.
As a final irony, in Torquay in 1917, my father was handed a white feather - the symbol of cowardice given to young men who weren't in uniform - by a tall young woman wearing a foxfur. Little did she realise that he had served with such courage, and been stood down from duty.
He accepted the feather and said nothing. He felt, I believe, the aching guilt of those who survive; the wretched knowledge that they, too, should have died.
Always a keen amateur actor, after the war he took it up professionally playing numerous parts in repertory. But the roles petered out and he ended up working for four years in a shoe shop in Bath, scribbling plays in his spare time.
It was one of these, The Ghost Train, set in a railway waiting room, that made it to the West End, where it became an unexpected hit.
Within months, there were four tours of it on the road, productions in the U.S. and Australia and a German silent film.
Fame: Arnold Ridley (second right) was only paid £63 per episode for Dad's Army
My father was suddenly rich. For the first time in his life, he travelled first-class, ate in expensive restaurants and holidayed in fashionable French resorts (though he had no great liking for 'abroad' - his favourite places were British railway stations.)
Then he invested in a film. Big mistake: the distributor went bust, and OB was urged to file for bankruptcy. He opted instead to repay every creditor over the course of many years.
Subsequent plays never repeated the success of the first, and he made the final mistake of selling the amateur rights of The Ghost Train for £200. Today, the play is still performed by amateur theatre companies all over world - it's said to be staged somewhere every night of the year - and the royalties would have transformed my parents' lives.
But OB refused to indulge in regret. By the time he married my mother Althea, a glamorous actress he'd met during a casting for The Ghost Train, he was broke.
It turned out to be an exceptionally happy marriage. Yet, apart from their deep affection for each other and a common bond of fortitude, they couldn't have been more different in temperament. While Althea was gregarious, OB liked to engage with the rest of the world on his own terms.
Even at his own dinner parties, he'd rise from the table at 10pm and announce he was going to bed. If my mother went out during the day, he'd stand, stiff with anxiety, at the window to look out for her return.
But Althea was always late. The tension would mount as OB checked his watch and occasionally paced around the room. On her arrival, no mention would be made of either her lateness or his vigil.
'An anxiety complex is a disease like any other,' OB explained. 'There's no logic to it. No reasoning with it.'
His anxieties abated somewhat when Dad's Army came along in 1968, giving him a degree of security (it would run for 80 episodes) that he hadn't known for decades; it also restored his faith in himself.
He'd almost missed landing his role, though. The producer David Croft had been worried that, at 72, OB might not live long enough to complete the first series.
'That cuts the ground from under you a bit,' OB's agent Bill McLean told me. 'Can't negotiate too hard!'
Which may explain why, for the first series, John Le Mesurier was paid £261.10s.0d per episode, Arthur Lowe and Clive Dunn £210, John Laurie £105, James Beck £78 and my father £63.
Once, while filming in a graveyard, James Beck, who played Private Joe Walker, turned to my father and said, 'Hardly worth your leaving, is it, Arnold?'
But it was James Beck who died suddenly - at 44. And by the time the final series was filmed in 1977 - when OB was 81 - John Le Mesurier was suffering from cirrhosis, Arthur Lowe from narcolepsy and John Laurie from emphysema.
After a final engagement as the 'King' in Jack and the Beanstalk in Lincoln, OB at last grew too frail even to continue living at home. He ended his days in Denville Hall, the home for retired theatricals in Northwood, Middlesex - a great improvement on his past theatrical digs. But he longed to be with Althea.
However much he missed her, though, she missed him more. Each morning, she drove 15 miles to be with him. And each evening, before it grew too dark, she drove home, exhausted.
After watching her go, OB would make his way to the bar for a gin, which he drank in his room while waiting for her call to say she'd arrived home safely. Then he went to bed, secure in the knowledge that she'd be back the next day. He died in March 1984 at the age of 88, after a fall.
Althea was never quite happy again. And when she died in 2001, seven years after my father, my son commented: 'Granny has joined OB.'
My father had been alone long enough. I could picture the scene: OB waiting, pacing the platform, checking his wristwatch against the station clock. He was early, of course, and inevitably my mother was late.
Adapted from Godfrey's Ghost by Nicolas Ridley, published by Mogzilla Life, £15.99 hardback, £9.99 paperback. Copyright © 2009 Nicolas Ridley. To order a copy (p&p free) call 0845 155 0720.
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Whose autobiography is entitled 'Rum, Bum and Concertina'? | OrnaVerum - James Connection
OrnaVerum
Family - James Connection
The James Connection
I'm very grateful to my wife Sonia for supplying a galley proof (please click here to see a copy) for p 941 of the 1995 edition of Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage which has helped to fill-in some vital details in this table.
Also, when Googling for additional details, I've noticed that www.thepeerage.com keeps popping up, and it has provided a bonanza of useful information, though in an almost totally unpredictable sort of way.
A great deal of information (most of it to be taken cum grano salis) can be found in Edward James' memoirs (dictated to tape, then edited by George Melly – whose own autobiography was memorably entitled Rum, Bum and Concertina)
Swans Reflecting Elephants: My Early Years, Edward James, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1982
(It got excoriating reviews in The Times and The Daily Telegraph, but it's still a fascinating social document, well worth browsing.)
The Edward James Foundation, ed Peter Sarginson, The Edward James Foundation, 1992
Please note in this table that familiar names are used rather than given forenames, where appropriate. These may be diminutives, alternative names (ekenames or nicknames) or simply subsidiary forenames, and I've tried to indicate these various possibilities in italicised parentheses.
For example
William Dodge James is listed as William James.
His eldest daughter Helen Millicent is listed as Millicent(2) James, and his third daughter Alexandra Maud Venetia is listed as Xandra.
Offspring are listed in chronological order of birth irrespective of sex.
#
(10 Apr 1782 – 17 Feb 1849)
(m 22 Oct 1799)
(17 Apr 1801 – 27 Nov 1876)
Mason James
(2 Dec 1812 – 3 Jun 1813)
Henry James
(21 Jul 1821 – 27 Jul 1897)
Caroline James
(20 May 1816 – 13 Jan 1866)
Harriet James
(29 Jul 1818 – 11 Jun 1880)
Jane Trowbridge James
(18 Apr 1823 – 9 Aug 1852)
Martha James
(13 Oct 1826 – 29 Mar 1846)
‑4
(17 Apr 1801 – 27 Nov 1876)
Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps
(2 Aug 1807 – 21 Jun 1847)
(m 24 Mar 1829)
(15 Apr 1832 – 13 Sep 1907)
Elizabeth Eggleston James
(21 Nov 1818 – 10 Feb 1870)
(m 19 Feb 1849)
Frank Linsly James 1 , 2
(21 Apr 1851 – 21 Apr 1890)
John Arthur James 1 , 2
(24 Feb 1853 – 30 Apr 1917)
William (Willie) Dodge James
(7 Dec 1854 – 22 Mar 1912)
Ruth Lancaster Dickinson
(1 Jun 1867 – 4 Jun 1941)
‑3
Mary Venetia Cavendish-Bentinck 1 , 2
(4 Jun 1861 – 2 May 1948)
(m 7 Dec 1885)
Evelyn Forbes ('Mrs Willie James')
(1868 – 13 May 1929)
daughter of Sir Charles John Forbes
4th Baronet
Lt Col John Chaytor Brinton 1 , 2 CVO DSO
(5 Apr 1867 – 6 Apr 1951)
(m 30 Aug 1913)
Maj. Henry Ralph Mowbray Howard 1 , 2 (Howard-Sneyd)
(m 8 Jun 1911)
Lt Col Arthur Edward Flynn Fawcus DSO MC
(1886 – 10 Aug 1936)
Sir John Menzies Wilson 3rd Baronet
(12 Feb 1885 – 22 Oct 1968)
(m 5 Jan 1921)
(15 Sep 1897 – 7 Aug 1927)
(m 25 Mar 1922)
son of Sir Stuart Auchinloss Coats
2nd Baronet
(28 Sep 1893 – 8 Nov 1956)
(m 18 Aug 1930)
1 :
Please click here for some most interesting and authoritative information sent by Ted Robbens (and gratefully utilised in this table) about the resolute and entrepreneurial patriarch Daniel James. It also corrects certain widespread misconceptions as to the sources of the James family wealth.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_James_(businessman)
Please skip the following notes if you are totally uninterested in prurient scandal-mongering. No, I thought not...
Edward James firmly believed that his maternal grandmother Helen Forbes (née Moncrieffe, the wife of Sir Charles Forbes) had stooped to folly with the future Edward VII and that his mother Evelyn Forbes (Mrs Willie James) was the daughter of Edward VII rather than of Sir Charles.
Other contemporary social observers thought that the stooping to folly was on the part of Mrs Willie James herself some decades later, and that Edward James' father was Edward VII rather than William James himself.
Indeed Hilaire Belloc went so far as to put some verse into the public domain about what the rich and privileged got up to after hours during house-parties at places such as West Dean. Such corridor creeping was a stock feature of smart set house parties.
There will be bridge and booze 'till after three
And, after that, a lot of them will grope
Along the corridors in robes de nuit
Pyjamas, or some other kind of dope.
A sturdy matron will be sent to cope
With Lord —, who isn't quite the thing,
And give his wife the leisure to elope ...
And Mrs James will entertain the King.
For a fascinating and authorative account of the lifestyles of the rich and titled (the Marlborough House set) in those days, see the link
www.oxforddnb.com/templates/theme.jsp?articleid=53154&back=&backToResults
(or click here for a local copy)
Edward James also firmly believed that his mother Mrs Willie had stooped to folly with Sir Edward Grey (the English Foreign secretary who would later remark that the lamps were going out all over Europe), and that his sister Audrey was the result. He based his belief on the shape of her nose!
The Rude Forefather(s)
Obviously there is a limit to how far backwards or sideways one can extend a family tree, and the zone of our personal interest is anyway probably demarcated by great grandparents and second cousins – sometimes rather less!
But even at greater removes there can be isolated individuals who command our interest and/or admiration. And the remove may also lie in an almost unimaginable difference in wealth and privilege. I came from an impecunious background in which one would spend half an hour searching for a lost sixpence, whereas Edward James inherited a million pounds (50 million in today's terms) on reaching 21 and his father William James had left 20 million pounds (almost 2 billion in today's terms) back in 1912.
William James was a thoroughly good and decent man, revered by all who knew him. Even Edward doesn't have a bad word to say about him in the memoirs referenced above. He and his brothers were repatriates from America, where their grandfather and father (Daniel) had made a simply mind-boggling amount of money, firstly in copper-mining and thereafter in timber, railroads etc etc etc.
Click here for an account of his family background and marriage in 1889. The propinquity of his father-in-law's estate to Balmoral does provide circumstantial support to later allegations by his son Edward! In 1891 William purchased West Dean House in Sussex and had it substantially remodelled a year or two later, and the irresistible combination of his family wealth and his wife's beauty soon made it a focal point of the social season.
Click here for a survey of the West Dean interior in those early days. Many years later, in 1964, Edward endowed it to the Edward James Foundation, a charitable trust, and it became a college in 1971, since when it has become renowned for the quality and variety of its residential courses in the creative arts.
There is little to suggest that William took much part in the social whirl, and much preferred to make better use of his time. As Edward recalled, loc cit:
My father was a remarkable man. His philanthropy wasn't just for the look of the thing, he did it because he wanted to help the human race. He gave himself to all the people on his estate. They were deeply devoted to him and he is still remembered throughout Sussex as being a most wonderful landlord and a father to the people of the estate.
He was a very busy man. He was still the chairman of many companies, and he was building the hospital wing in Chichester and was involved in the Edward VII Sanatorium ... and he always found time to read to me for an hour in the morning and an hour before I went to bed.
Touching tributes are still on record for William's generosity in providing a social clubhouse in 1885 for the people of Woolton, a village near Liverpool, where his father had settled on coming to England in about 1830, and where William had been born in 1854. A copy of his farewell note to the people of Woolton makes a fitting adieu to William himself. He died prematurely, of cancer.
Memorial to Millicent James and her sisters
A service of dedication of this plaque to Willie and Evelyn James' daughters was held some years ago at St Andrew's Church, West Dean , attended (inter alia) by my wife Sonia and numerous cousins.
© ornaverum.org All rights reserved
| George Melly |
Yersinia pestis is the bacterium that causes which disease? | Obituary: George Melly | Music | The Guardian
Music
George Melly
Jazz singer, art lover, writer and fisherman, he held firm to his open-hearted, tolerant values into old age
Julian Mitchell
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George Melly, who has died aged 80, was one of the most genial and genuinely popular figures in the world of British entertainment. Dressed like a 1930s gangster or a 1940s Harlem hipster, with a huge hat on his large head, his ample figure and rubbery face, with its mischievous hint of Mr Toad, were warmly welcomed wherever he went. He was a "personality" who actually had personality, a jazz singer who was also a cultural commentator, a devotee of the surrealists who wrote the story lines of a cartoon strip. Presenter-performer, autobiographer, libertarian and in his own word "tart", he was "Good-Time George".
Melly was born in Liverpool. His father, an easy-going man, came from a large and well-known local business family, and made a comfortable living in the wool trade, which he hated. Tom didn't mind what anyone did, so long as it made them happy. Maud, George's Jewish mother, had once dreamed of a stage career, and remained a leading figure in Liverpool amateur dramatics. (George's sister Andrée was to become a well-known actor.) Maud was the friend of many theatrical queens, and visiting stars such as Robert Helpmann, Frederick Ashton and Douglas Byng were often at the house near Aigburth Road, as was David Webster, then running a department store in Liverpool before taking over the Royal Opera House.
George wrote his autobiography backwards, starting with his early years in the jazz world, and working back to his childhood. Scouse Mouse (1984) is an affectionate account of 1930s middle-class Liverpool and its numerous Melly eccentrics. The snake in the Eden of Sefton Park was George's headmaster at Parkfield prep school, the alcoholic WW Twyne. A manic wielder of the house slipper, given to purple rages, Twyne deplored almost everything about the modern world except games. His denunciations of ballet and leftwing politics were so extreme that George knew, at once, that he would like both. Thus his interest in both anarchism and surrealism, developed at Stowe public school, can be traced to his comfortable Liverpudlian beginnings - just as his passion for fishing went back to family holidays in north Wales.
George clearly lacked officer-like qualities, and was unable to qualify even as a naval clerk when he was called up in 1944. He remained a skiving ordinary seaman for most of his three and a half years' service, leaving anarchist tracts on the messdeck to annoy his superior officers. He spent most of his leaves in London getting to know the surrealist circle that gathered round the Belgian poet and gallery-owner ELT Mesens, and relishing an exuberant homosexual life made much easier by his uniform. Rum, Bum and Concertina (1977), his account of this period, is extremely funny. As a convinced surrealist, George felt an obligation to be shocking and subversive, but his sense of reality and his sense of humour kept him out of serious trouble. After the navy he went to work for Mesens in his West End gallery, but was dismayed to find him a painfully bourgeois businessman, as he wrote in Don't Tell Sybil (1997), his memoir of their relationship.
Until then George had known jazz only from records, but he now started going to live performances of what was then called "revivalist" jazz. These were the years of early Humphrey Lyttelton, Graeme Bell and Cy Laurie. Quite soon, George was singing with Mick Mulligan (obituary, January 4).
Owning Up (1965) is George's first-hand account of the professional jazz world of the 1950s, when the drinking was hard, the travel incessant and the sex easy. Under Mulligan's influence, he developed a voluminous appetite for girls, and eventually got married in 1955, to Victoria Vaughan. Never wishing to be an original singer - the whole aim of his performance was to imitate, as far as possible, the great heroes and, particularly, heroines of the blues - George could not avoid bringing his own character to the music. White, middle-class and English, he was as unlike Bessie Smith as it was possible to be, but his homage to the black musicians was as successful as it was unlikely.
He also began to develop an independent reputation as a writer and critic. In 1956, Lyttelton resigned from writing the storylines for the Flook cartoon strip in the Daily Mail, which was created and drawn by his clarinetist Wally Fawkes, under the name of Trog. So Fawkes turned to George. Flook, an apparently cuddly creature from prehistoric times, was really a freethinking social critic who could be extremely sharp and subversive, and the strip proved a perfect medium for a surreal imagination. Later, George was to provide the same sort of service for Mark Boxer when he was drawing cartoons for the Times and other newspapers, including the Guardian.
With the arrival of the Beatles, the trad jazz scene went quiet, and Mulligan felt the call to open an off-licence. George took the change in his stride, becoming the Observer's first pop critic. Revolt Into Style (1970) was the first serious attempt to analyse pop culture by someone who was part of it. He went on to review television, then movies, from 1965 to 1973. He also wrote the scripts for two films - Smashing Time (1967), and Take a Girl Like You (1970), adapted from the Kingsley Amis novel.
His divorce in 1962 was followed the next year by marriage to the beautiful Diana Dawson, and he became a leading figure in the "permissive society", someone whose name was constantly attached to letters to the press, and who could be guaranteed to take the libertarian view on sex, drugs and rock'n'roll.
George was still singing when asked, and sometimes when not. In 1974, ever the tart in search of applause, he went back on the road with John Chilton and the Feetwarmers, and continued to tour the country with them for almost 30 years, growing increasingly deaf from standing in front of trumpets and trombones, but still pulling in the crowds. A series of articles he wrote for Punch about the pains and pleasures of the itinerant musical life were collected in Mellymobile (1982).
He was successful outside Britain, too, performing at Michael's pub in New York, and touring Australia. The Christmas stints at Ronnie Scott's club in London became a major feast in the calendar of British jazz, and he often appeared at the Brecon jazz festival, near his home in Wales.
When Chilton decided to retire in 2002, George began a new lease of jazz life with the trumpeter Digby Fairweather. Though he now wore a piratical black eyepatch after an operation, and sometimes had to sit down to sing - in 2005 he was diagnosed with lung cancer, then vascular dementia - and though his style never markedly changed, new people, particularly students, were always discovering him. Thus, his popularity remained firm through the shifting fashions of the music world, and his CDs continued to sell.
In 2005 he published Slowing Down, an account of what to other people might be thought the indignities of growing old. Never one to hide his own deficiencies, he and Diana later made a film about vascular dementia and the problems caused to both sufferers and carers. Only last month he made an appearance, announced as his last-ever performance, at the 100 Club in London at a fundraising event to benefit the charity supporting his carers.
His writings about art included an edition of Edward James's Swans Reflecting Elephants (1982), a book about Scottie Wilson (It's All Writ Out For You, 1985) and a touching account of his personal attachment to surrealism in Paris and the surrealists (with photographs by Michael Woods, 1991). He was delighted to open the Victoria and Albert Museum's surrealist exhibition last spring, and made a film about the subject with Alan Yentob.
Always an avid collector of paintings, George liked the primitive and the naif. There were African paintings on his walls and many by completely unknown artists, as well as by Edward Burra and Jim Dine. He paid for his beautiful stretch of fishing on the river Usk by selling a Picasso drawing, a Klee watercolour and a Magritte oil.
Here, for many years, he spent his holidays with his family in a converted medieval tower in the middle of the valley. When George wasn't there, Diana, as independent-minded as her husband and a friend to many writers, ran it as a b&b. It was under her roof that Bruce Chatwin wrote Under the Black Hill. Diana, their son Tom, Diana's daughter Candy, and Candy's daughter Kezzie, were his affectionate but critical holiday audience, and one or the other often accompanied George abroad when he was writing travel articles. He also had a daughter, Pandora, from his first marriage.
When the Usk became too much, he and Diana sold the tower and bought a cottage near Newbury, Berkshire, so he could fish in the Kennet. He wrote about his life as a fisherman in Hooked (2000). By this time, the once rebellious George had been taken so much to the heart of the establishment that he had been awarded no fewer than four honorary degrees - although he refused an honour under New Labour.
Like many people attracted to anarchism, George was neurotically fastidious in his habits, and there was much that was self-contradictory in his personality. A compulsive storyteller, he even talked loudly on the river bank as he cast for trout, a well-known way of frightening the fish. But he recognised the self-contradictions, indeed revelled in them, and made them his subject.
First and foremost a performer, he loved both to entertain and shock his audience, and though shocking naturally became more difficult as he grew older, he was never shocked himself. His favourite quote in old age was Groucho Marx's, "Hello, I must be going." Open-minded, open-hearted, he will be missed all over Britain by people of every class and kind.
· Alan George Heywood Melly, jazz singer, writer, critic and broadcaster, born August 17 1926; died July 5 2007
| i don't know |
What is the name of the only Italian who has won the world motor racing drivers championship? | F1 News - Grandprix.com > GP Encyclopedia > Circuits > Italian road racing
CIRCUITS: ITALIAN ROAD RACING
Name: Italian road racing
There is strong tradition of road racing in Italy with the Targa Florio and Mille Miglia races being the most famous events. The Targa Florio grew out of the country's earliest motor race, the Coppa Florio, established by Sicilian aristocrat Count Vincenzo Florio in Brescia in 1900. After the murderous Paris-Madrid race of 1903 there was an international movement to take racing away from the population centers. Florio decided to transfer his race to a new circuit in the deserted mountains inland from the sea in northern Sicily.
The result was the astonishing Madonie circuit which was first used in 1906 for the Targa Florio. Beginning on the coast road it ran uphill in a crazy dash from hairpin to hairpin. There were a handful of tiny villages but otherwise nothing but a desolate rock-strewn landscape. At the top - 3600ft above the sea - the magnificent hills were inhabited only by the bandits for which Sicily is most famous. There were 1500 corners per lap and they raced on this track in the F1 cars of the day. The first event attracted just a handful of cars but word spread quickly and by the mid-1920s the Targa had become one of Europe's most important races. The event continued right up until 1973 when safety considerations made it impossible to continue.
The other classic road race in Italy was the Mille Miglia - The Thousand Miles - which dates from 1927 and was held on a route from Brescia to Rome and back again. The event was about endurance as much as speed and the master was Clemente Biondetti who won the Mille Miglia in 1938, 1947, 1948 and 1949. In 1953 it became a round of the World Sportscar Championship and achieved much wider international attention after the victory of Stirling Moss and Denis Jenkinson in a Mercedes-Benz in 1955. Two years later Alfonso de Portago , his co-driver Edmund Nelson and 10 spectators - five of them children - were killed in the village of Guidizzolo when de Portago's Ferrari went out of control after a tire failure. Ferrari and the Englebert tire company were charged with manslaughter. In the 1980s the Mille Miglia was revived but the competitors drove sedately from town to town. It was not a race as once it was.
The rapid growth of Italian motor racing in the years immediately after World War I resulted in a number of road tracks being used. Notable among these were the Montenero circuit at Livorno, which became home of the Coppa Ciano until 1939, the Brescia circuit which hosted the first Italian Grand Prix that year and the Circuito del Garda, a track which ran along the edge of Lake Garda near the town of Salo. The latter was still being used for Formula 3 cars in the 1960s.
The Pescara circuit was established in 1924 and in 1957 hosted a round of the Formula 1 World Championship. The 15-mile circuit remains the longest track used for a World Championship race and featured a four mile straight beside the Adriatic and then a wild ride inland through the Abruzzo hills. It included a level crossing and several hill villages. It was at Pescara in 1934 that Ferrari 's rising star Guy Moll was killed. The home of the Coppa Acerbo in the 1930s, Pescara hosted a 12 Hour sportscar race in the 1950s. The track faded away in the 1960s as it was impossible for the organizers to guarantee safety.
Another famous road circuit was at Syracuse which came to prominence in the early 1950s. On the south-eastern corner of Sicily, Syracuse was one of the largest and most powerful cities in the ancient world. It dates back to 734 BC and for a time it rivaled Athens as the most important city of the Greek world. The racing was held on a 3.3-mile road circuit and the non-championship F1 event became an important one with victories going to the likes of Gigi Villoresi , Alberto Ascari and Toulo de Graffenried . The race gained international attention in 1955 when a young dental student called Tony Brooks won for the Connaught team in 1955, the first foreign Grand Prix victory for a British car since Henry Segrave's victory for Sunbeam in the 1923 French Grand Prix. Syracuse briefly switched to Formula 2 regulations in the early 1960s but then returned to F1 and held a major non-championship race each year until 1967 - the year in which Ludovico Scarfiotti and Mike Parkes scored a remarkable dead-heat in their Ferraris .
There were also major road races on another Sicilian track around Messina.
The area around Naples boasted several road tracks, notably Caserta, which was first used in 1928. This continued to be used until 1967 when there was a dreadful accident in the international Formula 3 race which claimed the lives of Geki and Switzerland's Beat Fehr.
Nearby Salerno and Avellino both hosted races while Posillipo hosted the Naples Grand Prix in the late 1930s and was revived after World War II, hosting non-championship F1 races into the 1950s until it too faded away in the early 1960s.
In the north Alessandria held a major race every year between 1924 and 1934 while in the post-war era the Lungomare circuit at Bari enjoyed a brief spell in the limelight until it disappeared in the wake of a safety campaign after the Le Mans disaster in 1955.
Rome also had a history of different races which dated back to 1925 when the first Grand Prix of Rome was held at Monte Mario. This was followed by a series of other venues at Valle Giulia, Parioli, Tre Fontane, Littorio, Caracalla and Castel Fusano. It was not until 1963 that the event found a permanent home at Vallelunga.
Florence had the famous Circuito di Mugello which ran through the hills to the north of the city in the 1920s. The 40-mile circuit went north towards Bologna and included the Futa Pass, which was a famous section of the Mille Miglia.
Street racing has a strong tradition in Italy and almost every major town has held races at one time or another. Notable among these events was the Valentino Grand Prix in Turin in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
One notable exception was Modena, where races were original held on the streets but, after World War II, took place on a military airfield, which became known as the Aeroautodromo Modena . It was at Modena, during a test in 1957 that Eugenio Castellotti was killed. In 1961 another Italian racer Giulio Cabianca was killed at Modena when his Scuderia Eugenio Castellotti Cooper - Ferrari went out of control and passed through the gates of the circuit and onto the road outside where it collided with a taxi, killing another three people.
| Alberto Ascari |
Gary Lightbody is the lead singer with which pop band? | F1 News - Grandprix.com > GP Encyclopedia > Circuits > Italian road racing
CIRCUITS: ITALIAN ROAD RACING
Name: Italian road racing
There is strong tradition of road racing in Italy with the Targa Florio and Mille Miglia races being the most famous events. The Targa Florio grew out of the country's earliest motor race, the Coppa Florio, established by Sicilian aristocrat Count Vincenzo Florio in Brescia in 1900. After the murderous Paris-Madrid race of 1903 there was an international movement to take racing away from the population centers. Florio decided to transfer his race to a new circuit in the deserted mountains inland from the sea in northern Sicily.
The result was the astonishing Madonie circuit which was first used in 1906 for the Targa Florio. Beginning on the coast road it ran uphill in a crazy dash from hairpin to hairpin. There were a handful of tiny villages but otherwise nothing but a desolate rock-strewn landscape. At the top - 3600ft above the sea - the magnificent hills were inhabited only by the bandits for which Sicily is most famous. There were 1500 corners per lap and they raced on this track in the F1 cars of the day. The first event attracted just a handful of cars but word spread quickly and by the mid-1920s the Targa had become one of Europe's most important races. The event continued right up until 1973 when safety considerations made it impossible to continue.
The other classic road race in Italy was the Mille Miglia - The Thousand Miles - which dates from 1927 and was held on a route from Brescia to Rome and back again. The event was about endurance as much as speed and the master was Clemente Biondetti who won the Mille Miglia in 1938, 1947, 1948 and 1949. In 1953 it became a round of the World Sportscar Championship and achieved much wider international attention after the victory of Stirling Moss and Denis Jenkinson in a Mercedes-Benz in 1955. Two years later Alfonso de Portago , his co-driver Edmund Nelson and 10 spectators - five of them children - were killed in the village of Guidizzolo when de Portago's Ferrari went out of control after a tire failure. Ferrari and the Englebert tire company were charged with manslaughter. In the 1980s the Mille Miglia was revived but the competitors drove sedately from town to town. It was not a race as once it was.
The rapid growth of Italian motor racing in the years immediately after World War I resulted in a number of road tracks being used. Notable among these were the Montenero circuit at Livorno, which became home of the Coppa Ciano until 1939, the Brescia circuit which hosted the first Italian Grand Prix that year and the Circuito del Garda, a track which ran along the edge of Lake Garda near the town of Salo. The latter was still being used for Formula 3 cars in the 1960s.
The Pescara circuit was established in 1924 and in 1957 hosted a round of the Formula 1 World Championship. The 15-mile circuit remains the longest track used for a World Championship race and featured a four mile straight beside the Adriatic and then a wild ride inland through the Abruzzo hills. It included a level crossing and several hill villages. It was at Pescara in 1934 that Ferrari 's rising star Guy Moll was killed. The home of the Coppa Acerbo in the 1930s, Pescara hosted a 12 Hour sportscar race in the 1950s. The track faded away in the 1960s as it was impossible for the organizers to guarantee safety.
Another famous road circuit was at Syracuse which came to prominence in the early 1950s. On the south-eastern corner of Sicily, Syracuse was one of the largest and most powerful cities in the ancient world. It dates back to 734 BC and for a time it rivaled Athens as the most important city of the Greek world. The racing was held on a 3.3-mile road circuit and the non-championship F1 event became an important one with victories going to the likes of Gigi Villoresi , Alberto Ascari and Toulo de Graffenried . The race gained international attention in 1955 when a young dental student called Tony Brooks won for the Connaught team in 1955, the first foreign Grand Prix victory for a British car since Henry Segrave's victory for Sunbeam in the 1923 French Grand Prix. Syracuse briefly switched to Formula 2 regulations in the early 1960s but then returned to F1 and held a major non-championship race each year until 1967 - the year in which Ludovico Scarfiotti and Mike Parkes scored a remarkable dead-heat in their Ferraris .
There were also major road races on another Sicilian track around Messina.
The area around Naples boasted several road tracks, notably Caserta, which was first used in 1928. This continued to be used until 1967 when there was a dreadful accident in the international Formula 3 race which claimed the lives of Geki and Switzerland's Beat Fehr.
Nearby Salerno and Avellino both hosted races while Posillipo hosted the Naples Grand Prix in the late 1930s and was revived after World War II, hosting non-championship F1 races into the 1950s until it too faded away in the early 1960s.
In the north Alessandria held a major race every year between 1924 and 1934 while in the post-war era the Lungomare circuit at Bari enjoyed a brief spell in the limelight until it disappeared in the wake of a safety campaign after the Le Mans disaster in 1955.
Rome also had a history of different races which dated back to 1925 when the first Grand Prix of Rome was held at Monte Mario. This was followed by a series of other venues at Valle Giulia, Parioli, Tre Fontane, Littorio, Caracalla and Castel Fusano. It was not until 1963 that the event found a permanent home at Vallelunga.
Florence had the famous Circuito di Mugello which ran through the hills to the north of the city in the 1920s. The 40-mile circuit went north towards Bologna and included the Futa Pass, which was a famous section of the Mille Miglia.
Street racing has a strong tradition in Italy and almost every major town has held races at one time or another. Notable among these events was the Valentino Grand Prix in Turin in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
One notable exception was Modena, where races were original held on the streets but, after World War II, took place on a military airfield, which became known as the Aeroautodromo Modena . It was at Modena, during a test in 1957 that Eugenio Castellotti was killed. In 1961 another Italian racer Giulio Cabianca was killed at Modena when his Scuderia Eugenio Castellotti Cooper - Ferrari went out of control and passed through the gates of the circuit and onto the road outside where it collided with a taxi, killing another three people.
| i don't know |
In 'Dad's Army' what was the first name of 'Private Godfrey'? | MainCharacters
RETURN
Lance Corporal Jack Jones (played by Clive Dunn)
An experienced soldier, with many years service (and medals) to his name, Jack Jones clearly defines an old campaigner. He served with General Gordon, Lord Kitchener and General Macully becoming very fond of the cold steel. He may have mentioned that "they don't like it up 'em". Loaded with stories of adventure and heroism, Pte Pike made the perfect audience for him. Jones runs the local butchers shop, which had been handed down to him from his father, and the platoon were fortunate enough to have the use of his butchers van as troop transport, once Walker and he had converted it. Mainwaring regarded Jones as a bit of a hazard, but as he said when he first made him Lance Corporal, "his experience will stand us in good steak er... stead". Apart from killing Nazis he has only one ambition in life - to marry Mrs Fox.
RETURN
Private James Frazer (played by John Laurie)
Every town has a purveyor of doom and gloom. Everything, according to him, will turn into a disaster. James Frazer could almost be right in thinking this way when he joined the Home Guard. As the local undertaker, it is inevitable that he would see the war through different eyes. A war would bring about an increase in business after all! It is a little known fact that he also ran the local philatelist shop on the sea front, which he opened during the summer months. During the quieter months he indulged in his other hobby of hand making coffins. It was not always this way. He spent his youth on the wild and lonely Isle of Barra off the west coast of Scotland. It was a hard life. Being so close to the sea, he would eventually serve in the Royal Navy, reaching the position of Chief Petty Officer. Like Jack Jones, James Frazer also has a wealth of stories to tell, albeit of a different nature. His were of adventure in exotic lands, strange and supernatural happenings. The whole platoon listened in awe when Frazer spun his yarn...
RETURN
Private Joe Walker (played by James Beck)
If you need anything from whiskey to knicker elastic, watches or even weapons, Joe Walker will get them for you. "Mind you, as its war-time it will cost you, 'cos you can't get 'em". Joe is a typical cockney spiv, making his way through life ducking and diving, trying to avoid the law. Moving down to the south coast from his native Plaistow in east London to avoid call up, he was registered as having a reserved occupation (a banana salesman, as he once said) until the authorities eventually caught up with him. Luckily for him, he was allergic to corned beef, which invalided him out of the army, only to return to serve the needs of the local community. Walker very rarely dealt with money, relying on the bartering system to do business, and occasionally using his skills to do a little work for charity. One of the cleverest in the platoon, others turned to him for inspiration in a tricky situations.
RETURN
Private Charles Godfrey (played by Arnold Ridley)
With experience in the Army and Navy, you'd think that Charles Godfrey was the ideal man to have about you during war time. When you discover that his experience was in the gentleman's outfitting department of the Army and Navy Stores you would be right in thinking the opposite. However, Godfrey is full of surprises. Probably the oldest member of the platoon, Godfrey is a quiet and unassuming gentleman. Living in the quiet environment of Cherry Tree Cottage with his two sisters Cissy and Dolly, he spends most of his time tending the garden or visiting the clinic for his many complaints, the most noticeable being that of his weak bladder. He once revealed that he was a conscientious objector during the First War, and asked to leave the platoon which outraged Captain Mainwaring who could not believe it. It was shortly after this admission that Godfrey rescued Mainwaring from a smoke filled hut without regard for his own life. It was at this time that it was revealed that he had won the Military Medal for bravery during the Battle of the Somme, rescuing several wounded soldiers as a member of the Medical Corps. As Wilson remarked at the time, you can't go by appearances.
RETURN
Private Frank Pike (played by Ian Lavender)
By far the youngest member of the newly formed platoon at 17, Frank was too young to enlist in the services, but jumped at the change of belonging to the Home Guard, much to his mother's displeasure. For some reason this displeasure spread to Arthur Wilson, or Uncle Arthur, as Frank would usually address him. Frank regarded the Home Guard as an extension of the scouting movement, of which he was a keen member, and at times acted as if war was a bit of a game. This outlook changed when he eventually received his call up papers, but after it was discovered that he had a rare blood group, he was unable to fulfil his ambition to be a Spitfire pilot and become one of the 'second of the few'. Frank Pike usually ended up wet, or covered in mud during the platoons escapades, he was usually volunteered because he was the youngest, despite his protests about suffering from vertigo, croup or hay fever.
| A. Charles |
Which band had a 1968 hit entitled 'Sabre Dance'? | Dad's Army (TV Series 1968–1977) - IMDb
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During WW2, in a fictional British seaside town, a ragtag group of Home Guard local defense volunteers prepare for an imminent German invasion.
Creator:
After a surreal lecture on telling allied parachutists from German ones, the platoon is ordered to pick up a stranded U-boot's crew. Wilson feels live hand-grenades are too dangerous for his hot-head...
8.9
At long last Corporal Jones is marrying Marcia Fox. He asks Mainwaring's permission as his commanding officer, which involves the captain being caught over the phone by his wife having coffee with ...
8.8
It is revealed that Private Godfrey was a Conscientious Objector in the First World war, leading Mainwaring and some of the platoon to brand him as a coward. However, during an exercise in which ...
8.6
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Title: Dad's Army (1968–1977)
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1 win & 9 nominations. See more awards »
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The misadventures of a ragtag group of elderly Home Guard local defense volunteers at the onset of WW2.
Director: Norman Cohen
The prison life of Fletcher, a criminal serving a five-year sentence, as he strives to bide his time, keep his record clean, and refuses to be ground down by the prison system.
Stars: Ronnie Barker, Brian Wilde, Fulton Mackay
The Walmington-on-Sea Home Guard platoon deal with a visiting female journalist and a German spy as World War II draws to its conclusion.
Director: Oliver Parker
Arkwright is a tight-fisted shop owner in Doncaster, who will stop at nothing to keep his profits high and his overheads low, even if this means harassing his nephew Granville. Arkwright's ... See full summary »
Stars: Ronnie Barker, David Jason, Lynda Baron
Long running BBC comedy show consisting of sketches and humourous musical routines involving the large Ronnie Barker and the small Ronnie Corbett. Most sketches involved both men, but ... See full summary »
Stars: Ronnie Barker, Ronnie Corbett, The Fred Tomlinson Singers
Classic 1960s British comedy series about a middle aged man and his elderly father who run an unsuccessful 'rag and bone' business (collecting and selling junk). Harold (the son) wants to ... See full summary »
Stars: Wilfrid Brambell, Harry H. Corbett, Frank Thornton
Accident-prone Frank Spencer fails to navigate the simplest tasks of daily life, while also trying to look after his wife and baby.
Stars: Michael Crawford, Michele Dotrice, Jessica Forte
Victor Meldrew is a retiree who attracts bad luck. If he's not driving his long suffering wife Margeret crazy with his constant moaning, he's fighting with neighbors.
Stars: Richard Wilson, Annette Crosbie, Doreen Mantle
This prison comedy is based on the popular British television series of the same name. Long time Slade prison inmate Fletcher is ordered by Grouty to arrange a football match between the ... See full summary »
Director: Dick Clement
Popular sitcom set in a seedy bedsit lorded over by the mean, vain, boastful, cowardly landlord Rigsby. In each episode, his conceits are debunked by his long suffering tenants.
Stars: Leonard Rossiter, Don Warrington, Frances de la Tour
The comic adventures of a group of misfits who form an extremely bad concert party touring the hot and steamy jungles of Burma entertaining the troops during World War II.
Stars: Windsor Davies, Melvyn Hayes, Donald Hewlett
In 1967 actor Jimmy Perry shows his friend David Croft the script of a sitcom he has written based on his time in the Home Guard, entitled 'Fighting Tigers'. Head of BBC TV comedy Michael ... See full summary »
Director: Steve Bendelack
Edit
Storyline
Popular BBC comedy series set in the fictional south coast seaside town of Walmington-On-Sea during World War 2. Alternating moments of gentle character comedy with broad slapstick, it recounts the misadventures of the local voluntary defence force (or 'Home Guard') consisting of men too old or 'unfit' for military service. They are led by the pompous Mainwaring, manager of the local bank, and consist of the suave, mild-mannered Sergeant Wilson , Lance-Corporal Jones, the town's butcher and an old soldier prone to hysteria, cockney spiv Walker, dour Scots undertaker Frazer, gentle, elderly and incontinent Godfrey and dim-witted mummy's boy, Pike, whose mother is 'friendly' with Wilson. They are based in the Church hall where there is much friction between Mainwaring, the effeminate Vicar, his creeping Verger and ARP Warden Hodges (the grocer) who calls Mainwaring 'Napoleon' and strongly dislikes him. The 80 episodes (the last 68 made in colour) have been frequently repeated, many are ... Written by Allen Dace <[email protected]>
31 July 1968 (UK) See more »
Also Known As:
Daar komen de schutters See more »
Filming Locations:
Did You Know?
Trivia
An episode is kept on standby by the BBC for use as an emergency backup program, to be broadcast if a major technical problem prevents normal programs being shown. This came to light on June 20, 2000 when the BBC Six O'Clock News (1984) was interrupted by a power failure at the BBC, and an episode of Dad's Army was transmitted in its place. See more »
Goofs
Throughout the series LCPL Jones is the only member of the platoon to wear medal ribbons on his uniform. Frazer, Wilson, and Godfrey (and possibly others) all saw service in WWI and would have medals and ribbons, and would most likely have worn them proudly as well. See more »
Quotes
[They are telling off a cheeky young boy]
Jones : Ere. I know him. He's a cheeky little monkey. He comes into my shop when it's full of persons and shouts out, "Sainsbury's."
Pike : Yeah. And he runs into our bank and shouts out, "National Provincial."
My favourite comedy series of all time
6 November 2002 | by BritishFilms1
WARNING: This review contains spoliers
"Dad's Army" has got to be my favourite comedy series of all time.
It is about the adventures of a Home Guard platoon on the South Coast of England during World War II. Pompous bank manager Mr Mainwaring [Arthur Lowe] is Captain of the platoon. He is assited by his chief clerk Arthur Wilson [John Le Mesurier] who is the Home Guard sergeant.
The other main characters who formed the platoon were 70 year old devoted solidier Lance-Corporal Jack Jones [Clive Dunn] who fought in the Sudan under the command of General Kitchener during the 1880s, James Frazer [John Laurie], a doom-and-gloomy old Scotsman who runs an undertakers in Walmington-on-Sea [the town where the series is situated], who was formerly a Chief Petty Officer in the Navy [my favourite character], retired Menswear salesman Charles Godfrey [Arnold Ridley], the platoon's medical orderly who lived in a country cottage with his sisters [Dolly and Cissy], Cockney "spiv" Joe Walker [James Beck] who was usually seen with various lady friends and was well-known for being able to obtain rationed goods for people [if they paid him for them] and finally, Frank Pike [Ian Lavender], the youngest member of the platoon who was very much a "mummy's boy" and usually made a mess of things, Mainwaring was often heard to describe him as a "stupid boy".
Another regular character was the Chief Air Raid Warden, Mr Hodges [Bill Pertwee], who expressed a severe dislike for Mainwaring and his men, due to the fact that they often curtailed his plans. He referred to Mainwaring as "Napoleon" and the two soon developed an instant dislike for each other, doing more fighting among themselves rather than with the Germans [!]. There was also other regulars including Mrs Pike [Janet Davies], Pike's mother and Wilson's girlfriend, Wilson being Pike's Uncle Arthur. Mrs Fox [Pamela Cundell], a resident of the town who had a long-running relationship with Jones, before the two eventually married in the final episode and OAP Mr Blewitt [Harold Bennett] was also seen many times.
Many guest stars were also seen in the programme including Barbara Windsor ["EastEnders" as a theatre star], Nigel Hawthorne ["Yes Minister" as a man on a bike], Wendy Richard ["EastEnders" as Walker's girlfriend], Carmen Silvera ["Allo Allo" as Mainwaring's lady friend], Geoffrey Hughes ["Coronation Street" as a bridge controller], Phillip Madoc [a German Captain], Peter Butterworth ["Carry On" films as a printer] and Fulton MacKay ["Porridge" as a doctor].
This has to be the best British comedy series of all time and if it doesn't make you laugh, I don't know what will.
10 out of 10!
| i don't know |
Which famous English physicist and chemist invented the dynamo in 1831? | HistoryMole Timeline: Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
More :
27 Oct 1813 CEHumphrey Davy arrived in Paris with his wife and his assitant Michael Faraday. He received special dispensation from Napoleon to travel across France from 1813 to 1815 and with Faraday he travelled abroad investigating his theory of volcanic action.
Note 1:
Events described with text like this have been entered from one source but have not yet been verified against a subsequent source ( Explain ).
Note 2:
The events are sorted in semi-chronological order according to what is factually known about the date of the event ( Explain ).
Note 3:
| Michael Faraday |
Who was King of England when the 'Stone of Scone' was removed to England in 1296? | 100 Famous Bible-Believing Scientists
Engineer, mathematician, architect, inventor, 'founder' of modern science.
Nicholas Copernicus
Astronomer, proposed the scientific theory of a sun-centred solar system.
Tycho Brahe
1546-1601
Astronomer, produced the Rudolphine Tables (star chart), debunked the theory of heavenly spheres, proposed the Tychonic System of cosmology, introduced apparatus accuracy, record accuracy and multiple observations to astronomy, made the first complete study of a comet, proposed the extreme distance of stars, showed the non-fixity of the universe.
Lord Francis Bacon
Scientist, formulated the scientific method, Lord Chancellor of England.
Galileo Galilei
1564-1642
Astronomer, physicist, popularised the sun-centred solar system, proved Kepler's Laws, advanced the design of telescopes, discovered sun-spots, the 4 moons of Jupiter & the phases of Venus, discovered that bodies fall with equal speed, the 'gal' geophysical unit named after him.
Johann Kepler
1571-1630
Astronomer, 'founder' of physical astronomy, discovered the laws of planetary motion, established the science of celestial mechanics, published the first ephemeris tables for tracking stars, contributed to the development of calculus.
William Harvey
Physician, discovered the circulation of the blood.
Athanasius Kircher
Inventor, studies anticipated the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics & the germ theory of disease.
John Wilkins
Leading organizer of the scientific movement, his proteges formed the Royal Society.
Walter Charleton
Physician, member of the Royal Society, president of the Royal College of Physicians.
Blaise Pascal
1623-1662
Mathematician, hydrostatics engineer, 'founder' of sciences of hydrostatics & hydrodynamics, laid the foundations for conic sections, differential calculus & probability theory, invented the barometer.
Sir William Petty
Physician, member of the Royal Society, helped found the science of statistics & also economics.
Robert Boyle
1627-1691
Chemist, 'father' of modern chemistry, one of the founders of the Royal Society, discovered the gas laws, co-discovered phosphorous, invented the match, measured the density of air, first to distinguish acids/bases/neutral substances, introduced the litmus test, actively opposed alchemy.
John Ray
1627-1705
Biologist, 'father' of the sciences of biology and natural history, one of the founders of the Royal Society, greatest authority of his day on botany & zoology.
Christian Huygens
1629-1695
Astronomer, mathematician, physicist, introduced the pendulum clock, developed the formula for pendulum periods, invented the telescope micrometer eye-piece, discovered the nature of Saturn's rings, proposed the wave theory of light, developed Huygen's Principle.
Isaac Barrow
Mathematician, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, taught maths to Isaac Newton.
Nicholas Steno
Geologist, developed the principles of stratigraphical interpretation.
Robert Hooke
1635-1703
Physicist, geologist, surveyor, propounded Hooke's Law of elasticity, popularized the microscope, coined the term 'cell', invented the universal-joint & the rolling drum recorder, one of the founders of the Royal Society.
Thomas Burnet
Geologists, one of the first geologists.
Increase Mather
Astronomer, comet expert, founder of the Philosophical Society, president of Harvard.
Nehemiah Grew
Physician, botanist, plant anatomy researcher, member of the Royal Society.
Sir Isaac Newton
1642-1727
Physicist, discovered the laws of motion, discovered the law of gravity, invented the reflecting telescope, co-developed calculus, discovered the composition of white light, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, president of the Royal Society.
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz
1646-1716
Mathematician, co-developer of calculus with Newton, invented the calculating machine, introduced the binary number system, anticipated the law of Conservation of Energy and Boolean logic.
John Flamsteed
1646-1719
Astronomer, produced the modern star map, founded the Greenwich Observatory, the first Astronomer Royal of England.
William Derham
Naturalist, Boyle lecturer, some consider him the 'father' of ecology.
Cotton Mather
1662-1727
Physician, president of Harvard, investigated the germ cause of smallpox, helped rid the USA of smallpox.
John Woodward
1665-1728
Physician, palaeontologist, a founding 'father' of geology, established the Cambridge Palaeontological Museum, Professor of Medicine at Gresham College (London).
John Harris
Mathematician, vice president of the Royal Society.
William Whiston
Mathematician, succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge.
John Hutchinson
Palaeontologist, developed a strong system of natural philosophy.
Carl Linnaeus
1707-1778
Physician, biologist, Professor of Medicine and also Botany at Uppsala (Sweden), established the Royal Swedish Academy of Science and was its president, developed the Linnaean classification system, 'father' of biological taxonomy, developed a cure for venereal disease, introduced the symbols for male/female.
Leonhard Euler
1707-1783
Mathematician, Professor of Physics at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences, mathematical notation, developed calculus of partial differences, developed fluid flow equations, introduced conic sections, developed fluid network theory, developed ephemeris tables for celestial bodies, introduced p , i, S and many other mathematical symbols, improved sun/moon/earth/tide calculations.
Gustavus Brander
1720-1787
Naturalist, palaeontologist, his fossil collection is in the British Museum, Fellow of the Royal Society, Trustee of the British Museum.
Jean Deluc
Naturalist, physicist, geologist, coined the word 'geology', invented the mercury thermometer & the hygrometer.
Richard Kirwan
Chemist, mineralogist, president of the Royal Irish Academy, produced the first systematic study of minerals.
Sir William Herschel
Astronomer, unravelled nebulae, discovered Uranus, produced the Global Star Catalogue, built giant telescopes.
James Parkinson
Physician, geologist, described Parkinson's disease, first to show the plant origin of coal.
William Kirby
Entomologist, famous for "On the History, Habits and Instincts of Animals" (subtitle).
Jedidiah Morse
Geographer, the leading USA geographer of his time, wrote the first USA geography textbook.
Benjamin Barton
Physician, botanist, zoologist, professor at Pennsylvania university, wrote the first USA botany textbook.
John Dalton
1766-1844
Chemist, meteorologist, 'father' of modern atomic theory, formulated the Law of Simple Multiple Proportions for compounds, formulated the gas Law of Partial Pressures, first to recognise and describe colour-blindness, founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Georges Cuvier
1769-1832
Anatomist, vertebrate palaeontologist, 'founder' of the sciences of comparative anatomy and palaeontology, introduced phyla to systematic classification, councillor to the Imperial University (Paris), member of the Royal Society.
Charles Bell
1774-1842
Surgeon, anatomist, discovered the fundamentals of nerves, 'father' of neurophysiology, Professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons.
John Kidd
1775-1851
Physician, chemist, Professor of Chemistry at Oxford, pioneered the extraction of coal chemicals, his work led to the development of synthetics.
Humphrey Davy
1778-1829
Physicist, mentor of Faraday, discovered sodium & potassium, developed the motion theory of heat (Thermokinetics), invented the mining safety lamp, developed the medical uses of laughing gas, lecturer at the Royal Institution.
Benjamin Silliman
1779-1864
Geologist, chemist, 'founded' the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, 'founder' & editor of the American Journal of Science, president of the Association of American Geologists, member of the National Academy of Sciences.
Peter Mark Roget
Physician, Roget's thesaurus, Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution, secretary of the Royal Society.
Sir David Brewster
1781-1868
Mineralogist, astronomer, 'founder' of optical mineralogy, invented the kaleidoscope, helped found the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
William Buckland
Geologist, mineralogist, Oxford professor of geology & mineralogy.
William Prout
1785-1850
Chemist, physiologist, professor, early leader in the sciences of nutrition & digestion, first to identify the major food groups, recognised that atomic weights could be a series of relative whole numbers.
Adam Sedgwick
Geologist, Professor of Geology at Cambridge, identified and named major rock systems.
Michael Faraday
1791-1867
Chemist, physicist, proposed electric field theory, discovered the laws of electrolysis, discovered the law of electromagnetic induction (Faraday's Law), invented the transformer, dynamo, electric motor & electric generator, discovered benzene, successor to Humphrey Davy at the Royal Institution.
Charles Babbage
1791-1871
Mathematician, physicist, computer pioneer, operations researcher, developed actuarial tables, invented the first computer (calculating machine), invented skeleton keys, the speedometer, the ophthalmoscope, & cow catcher, founded the Cambridge Analytical Society, member of the Royal Society, founding member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, helped found the Royal Astronomical Society & the Statistical Society, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge.
Samuel F. B. Morse
1791-1872
Inventor, artist, invented the telegraph & morse code, founder & president of the National Academy of Design, built the first camera in USA, made the first photographic portrait, arts professor at New York University.
Sir John Herschel
1792-1871
Astronomer, physicist, meteorologist, geophysicist, expanded the global star catalogue, planned Ross' geomagnetic survey of the Antarctic, invented the cyanotype process & 'hypo' fixing in photography, made the first glass plate photograph, coined the terms 'snapshot' & 'negative'.
Edward Hitchcock
1793-1864
Geologist, contributed to glacial geology, Professor of Geology at Amherst College, 'founded' the science of ichnology, state geologist for both Vermont & Massachusetts.
William Whewell
1794-1866
General scientist, coined the terms 'anode', 'cathode', 'ion', 'scientist', 'physicist', & 'geological catastrophism', invented the anemometer, contributed to the study of tides.
Joseph Henry
1797-1878
Physicist, discovered the principle of self-induction, invented the galvanometer & the electromagnetic motor, professor at Princeton University, director of the Smithsonian Institute, charter member of the national Academy of Sciences, 'founder' and president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Henry unit named after him.
Sir Richard Owen
1804-1892
Zoologist, palaeontologist, comparative anatomist, coined the word 'dinosaur', discovered the parathyroid gland, first to described the giant Moas, discovered the trichinosis parasite.
Matthew Maury
1806-1873
Hydrologist, oceanographer, 'founder' of the sciences of oceanography & hydrography, Professor of Meteorology at Virginia Military Institute, known as "the pathfinder of the seas".
Louis Agassiz
1807-1873
Palaeontologist, ichthyologist, 'father' of glacial geology & glaciology, developed the concept of an Ice Age, coined the term 'Ice Age', established the museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, biology lecturer at Harvard.
Henry Rogers
1808-1866
Geologist, Professor of Natural History at Glasgow University, conducted a detailed study of the Appalachians & the coal fields of UK & USA.
James Glaisher
1809-1903
Meteorologist, Superintendent at the Greenwich Observatory, developed the dew-point tables, established the British Meteorological Society, & the Aeronautical Society.
Phillip H. Gosse
Ornithologist, zoologist, Fellow of the Royal Society.
Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson
1810-1895
Archaeologist, Assyriologist, exposed & deciphered the Behistun inscriptions of King Darius, British minister in Persia, member of the Council of India.
Sir James Simpson
1811-1870
Physician, gynaecologist, 'founder' of gynaecology & anaesthesiology, discovered the medicinal use for chloroform, Professor of Obstetric Medicine at Edinburgh.
James Dana
1813-1895
Geologist, mineralogist, succeeded Benjamin Silliman at Yale, editor of the American Journal of Science, president of the Geological Society of America, president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert
1817-1901
Agricultural chemist, Fellow of the Royal Society, developed nitrogen & superphosphate fertilizers, helped found the first agricultural research station, Professor of Rural Economy at Oxford.
James Joule
1818-1889
Physicist, established the mechanical theory of heat, discovered reversible thermodynamics, discovered the law of conservation of energy, first to estimate the speed of molecules of gas, co-discoverer of the Joule-Thompson Effect, chief 'founder' of thermodynamics, member of the Royal Society, president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the joule unit named after him.
Thomas Anderson
1819-1874
Chemist, Regius Professor of Chemistry at Glasgow, Fellow of the Royal Society, discovered pyridine & other organic bases.
Charles Piazzi Smyth
Sir George Stokes
1819-1903
Physicist, mathematician, developed Stoke's Law for viscosity, developed Stoke's Law for fluorescence, laid the foundation of fluid mechanics, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge.
Sir John William Dawson
1820-1899
Geologist, investigated & documented the geology of Canada, first president of the Royal Society of Canada, president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Gregor Mendel
Botanist, discovered the genetic laws of inheritance, 'father' of genetics.
Louis Pasteur
1822-1895
Physicist, chemist, bacteriologist, invented vaccination, pasteurization, sterilization & immunization, discovered the biological origin & control of fermentation, formulated the Law of Biogenesis, established the germ theory of disease, developed a vaccine for rabies, anthrax & diphtheria, 'father' of microbiology, Professor of Chemistry at Strasbourg, Director of Scientific Studies at École Normale (Paris), awarded the Legion of Honour, opposed spontaneous generation.
Henri Fabre
Entomologist, 'father' of modern entomology, opposed spontaneous generation.
Lord Kelvin
(William Thomson)
1824-1907
Physicist, discovered Laws of Thermodynamics, invented the absolute temperature scale, supervised the design & laying of the trans-Atlantic cable, invented a tide predictor, ship's compass, & a depth-sounding gauge, Professor of Physics at Glasgow, Fellow of the Royal Society.
Sir William Huggins
Astronomer, discovered that stars are composed mostly of Hydrogen, identified the Doppler effect in astronomy.
Bernhard Riemann
1826-1866
Mathematician, developed the concept of Non-Euclidean geometry, originated Riemannian geometry which was used by Einstein to develop his theory of General Relativity.
Sir Joseph Lister
(Lord Lister)
1827-1912
Physician, developed antiseptic surgery, invented dissolving stitches, fracture wiring, & surgical rubber drainage tubes, founded the Lister Institute of Preventative Medicine (London), Fellow of the Royal Society, Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Professor of Surgery at Glasgow.
Balfour Stewart
1828-1887
Physicist, his study of Earth's magnetic field & upper atmospheric electric currents led to the discovery of the ionosphere.
James Clerk Maxwell
1831-1879
Physicist, mathematician, developed the Electromagnetic Field Theory and the electromagnetic field equations, 'father' of statistical thermodynamics, calculated the speed of electromagnetic waves, member of the Royal Society, Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge.
Peter Guthrie (P. G.)Tait
1831-1901
Physicist, mathematician, laid the foundation for vector analysis, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh, Professor of Mathematics at Belfast, colleague of Lord Kelvin.
John Bell Pettigrew
Anatomist, physiologist, president of the Royal Medical Society.
Lord Rayleigh
(John Strutt)
1842-1919
Physicist, developed model analysis/dimensional analysis, discovered the Rayleigh scattering of light, developed the Raleigh-Jeans formula for black-body radiation, co-discovered argon and the inert gases, succeeded Maxwell at Cambridge, won the Nobel Prize for Physics.
Sir William Abney
1843-1930
Astronomer, studied interstellar molecules, president of the Royal Astronomical Society, president of the Royal Physical Society.
Alexander MacAlister
Zoologist, physiologist, Professor of Anatomy at Cambridge.
Archibald. H. Sayce
Archaeologist, Professor of Assyriology at Oxford, expert on Hittites and Assyrians.
Sir John Ambrose Fleming
1849-1945
Physicist, electrical engineer, 'father' of electronics, invented the thermionic valve (the electron tube), devised the Fleming Rules for electric currents, Professor of Electronic Engineering at London, president of the Television Society, Fellow of the Royal Society.
Edward H. Maunder
Astronomer, solar astronomer, president of the British Astronomical Association.
Sir William Mitchell Ramsay
1852-1916
Isotopic chemist, co-discovered argon, discovered krypton, xenon, radon & neon, discovered terrestrial helium, first to demonstrate the transmutation of elements through radioactive decay, won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
Howard A. Kelly
Physician, surgeon, Professor of Gynaecology & Obstetrics at John Hopkins University.
George Washington Carver
Agricultural chemist, developed uses for crops.
Wilbur Wright
Sir Cecil P. G. Wakeley
1892-1979
Physician, Professor of Surgery at London, president of the Royal College of Surgeons.
Dr Wernher von Braun
Rocket engineer, planned space exploration & lunar landings, director of NASA
References
A. Lamont (1995), "21 Great Scientists Who Believed the Bible", Creation Science Foundation Ltd: Brisbane (Aust)
H. Morris (1997), "Men of Science, Men of God" (13th printing), Master Books: Colorado Springs (USA)
H. Morris (1984), "The Biblical Basis for Modern Science", Baker House Books: Grand Rapids (USA)
H. Morris & G.E. Parker (1982), "What is Creation Science?", Master Books: Green Forest (USA)
D.T. Gish (1993), "Creation Scientists Answer their Critics", Institute for Creation research: El Cajon (USA)
F. De Angelis (1995), "The Origin of Life by Evolution: An Obstacle to the Development of Science", (Translated by L. Pennington), Fernando De Angelis: Camucia (Italy)
S.M. Huse (1983), "The Collapse of Evolution", Baker Book House Co: Grand Rapids (USA)
Webster Publishing (1998), "World Encyclopedia 1998" (CD-ROM), Webster Publishing: Frenchs Forest (Aust)
| i don't know |
By what name is Diamorphine Hydrochloride more commonly known? | Morphine & Heroin
Opium, Morphine and Heroin
Opium - the first Painkiller
Opium is obtained from the opium poppy (papaver somniferum) by scraping the unripe seed capsule, and then collecting and drying the rubbery exudate. The name opium comes from the Greek opion, or poppy juice. It is important as a painkilling drug in its own right, but it is also the source of other analgesic drugs such as morphine and heroin .
The opium poppy, papaver somniferum
The seed pod, showing the exudate
Mankind had discovered the use of opium by the time of the earliest written records. In fact, the first recorded use of opium as a painkiller was around 6000 years ago by the Sumerians, and Babylonian and Egyptian writings contain many references to the value of opium preparations for the relief of pain. Later on, in Eurasia there emerged a legend that Buddha cut off his eyelids in order to prevent sleep overtaking him, and where they fell there grew a herb which bore a nodding violet flower which was to give sleep and tortured dreams to all mankind. Thomas Sydenham, the 17th-century pioneer of English medicine wrote: "Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve his sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium". Nowadays, although opium is no longer regarded as a universal analgesic, it is still very important as the source of morphine, the drug that is still the most commonly prescribed by physicians for the relief of severe pain.
Morphine - the first alkaloid
Raw opium contains some 20 alkaloid substances, one of which is morphine , in a typical yield of 10%. Morphine was first isolated in 1805 by Friedrich Sertürner, an apothecary's assistant in Paderborn, Germany, however its basic structure was not correctly determined until 120 years later. In the 1800s morphine (known then as laudanum) was a popular panacea and was available from grocers and markets. Later on its addictive qualities led to its use and availability being severely restricted.
Morphine is isolated from opium in large quantities (over 1000 tons per year), although most commercial opium is converted into codeine by methylation. Morphine acts as an anesthetic without decreasing consciousness, and it is one of the most powerful analgesics known. However it also suppresses the respiratory system, and high doses can cause death by respiratory failure. Its analgesic properties are related to the ability of the molecule to fit into and block a specific receptor site on a nerve cell. This eliminates the action of the pain receptor, preventing the pain signals reaching the brain. This is similar to the way in which the body's natural painkillers (endorphins and enkaphalins) work. The shape of the morphine molecule is crucial to its ability to exactly fit into the active site on the receptor - the 'lock-and-key' mechanism. The benzene group of the morphine molecule fits snugly against a flat section of the receptor protein, whilst the bent neighbouring group of carbon atoms fits into a nearby groove. This allows the positively charged nitrogen atom to attach to a negatively-charged group on the receptor, so locking the two molecules together.
Morphine blocks deep aching pain, but has no effect on the fast pain that results from injury. One side effect of the analgesic action is that the patient often gets a feeling of detachment from the world, along with euphoria and sometimes pleasure. It is this which makes morphine, and the other drugs related to it (such as heroin), attractive to those who want to use drugs for 'recreational' reasons. However all of these drugs are highly addictive, and the body rapidly gets acclimatised to their use, such that increasingly large dosages are required for the same effect.
Morphine - replacing the -OH group shown in red with -OCH3 produces codeine . Replacing the both the red and blue -OH groups with OCOCH3 produces heroin.
Codeine - the methoxy addition is shown in red.
Pethidine - the parts of the molecule resembling the morphine structure are shown in red.
The isolation of morphine was the beginning of alkaloid chemistry, which has yielded many important medicinal substances. Although a satisfactory theory of analgesic structure or action still eludes us, experimenters have developed a number of synthetic analgesics related to morphine. The oldest is pethidine (also known as meperidine, Demerol and about 40 other names). It was synthesised in 1939 by the German chemist Otto Eisleb. It is less potent than morphine, but is still widely used for the relief of post-operative pain. By replacing one of the -OH groups with a methoxy group, morphine is converted into codeine , another powerful painkiller. When mixed with paracetamol it goes by the trade name Tylenol. When ingested, the -OCH3 group is converted back to -OH, regenerating morphine.
Heroin
The most notorious derivative of morphine is heroin . It is synthesised by acetylation of the two hydroxyl groups of morphine with acetyl chloride, hence its other names, diacetylmorphine or diamorphine. Heroin was first isolated from morphine in 1874 and was originally used as a 'safe' (i.e. non addictive) cure from morphine addiction. This was later found to be incorrect and in the 1900s heroin abuse and addiction became common. Heroin was first restricted in the UK in 1868 due to 'unprofitable diversion of workers' and an international ban followed after the first world war. It is now classified as a Class A drug and possession or trading in it results in heavy penalties in most countries.
Heroin The -OCOCH3 groups that replaced the -OH groups in morphine are shown in red.
Replacing the hydrogen-bonding -OH groups with -OCOCH3 makes heroin much less soluble in water than morphine, but more soluble in non-polar solvents, like oils and fats. Therefore heroin has to be injected directly into the bloodstream, but once there it can pass rapidly through the blood-brain barrier which normally prevents the passage of water-soluble and large molecules. As a result it is much more potent than morphine, but its effect does not last as long. Again, once the heroin molecule is absorbed into the body, the acetyl groups are removed, reforming morphine.
Methadone
Methadone hydrochloride is an opioid (a completely synthetic molecule), as opposed to an opiate, which is the name given to drugs which derive directly or indirectly from the opium poppy, such as morphine and heroin. It was originally synthesised by the German pharmaceutical company Axis during the second world war. It was first marketed as 'Dolophine' (to honour Adolph Hitler) and was used as an analgesic for the treatment of severe pain. It is still occasionally used for pain relief, although it is more widely used now as a substitute drug for people addicted to opiates (primarily heroin).
Methadone - the parts of the molecule resembling the morphine structure are shown in red.
Levorphan and Dextrorphan
The fact that painkilling activity depends greatly upon the exact geometry of the molecule is strikingly illustrated by the drugs levorphan and dextrorphan. They are very similar in structure to morphine, except that they are both mirror images of one another. The left-handed molecule, levorphan, is several times more potent than morphine and is strongly addicting. But the right-handed molecule, dextrorphan, has no analgesic ability and is non-addicting. This is also true for morphine, which is naturally left-handed. There is no naturally occurring right-handed form of morphine, but the Japanese chemist Kakuji Goto has synthesised it and found that it possesses none of morphine's biological properties.
| Heroin |
'Marcello' and 'Mimi' are characters that appear in which Puccini opera? | Dangerous Drugs
Dangerous Drugs
Infestus Venenum
Ecstasy
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), commonly known as "ecstasy", or by its any other name, refers to the drug having such chemical composition, including any of its isomers or derivatives in any form.
Three neurobiological mechanisms for the therapeutic effects of MDMA have been suggested: "1) MDMA increases oxytocin levels, which may strengthen the therapeutic alliance; 2) MDMA increases ventromedial prefrontal activity and decreases amygdala activity, which may improve emotional regulation and decrease avoidance, and 3) MDMA increases norepinephrine (NE) release and circulating cortisol levels, which may facilitate emotional engagement and enhance extinction of learned fear associations."
Opium
Poppy tears, lachryma papaveris) is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy ( Papaver somniferum ). Opium contains up to 12% morphine , an alkaloid , which is frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade . The latex also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids such as papaverine , thebaine and noscapine .
Is a pharmaceutic necessity for powdered opium. It acts chiefly on the central nervous system; its action first stimulates and then depresses nerve response. It serves as an analgesic, a hypnotic, and a narcotic and checks excessive peristalsis and contracts the pupil of the eye. A dose of 60 mg was formerly listed for opium and powdered opium.
Prescription Products: Diabismul®, KBP/O®
Nonprescription Products: Parepectolin®, Parelixir®, Donnagel-PG®
Heroin
Diacetylmorphine is derived from the morphine alkaloid found in opium and is roughly 2-3 times more potent. A highly addictive drug, heroin exhibits euphoric ("rush"), anxiolytic and analgesic central nervous system properties. Heroin is classified as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 and as such has no acceptable medical use in the United States. Pure heroin is a white powder with a bitter taste. Most illicit heroin is sold as a white or brownish powder and is usually "cut" with other drugs or with substances such as sugar, starch, powdered milk, or quinine. It can also be cut with strychnine or other poisons. Because heroin abusers do not know the actual strength of the drug or its true contents, they are at risk of overdose or death. Another form of heroin known as "black tar" may be sticky, like roofing tar, or hard, like coal. Its color may vary from dark brown to black.
Under the chemical name diamorphine, diacetylmorphine is prescribed as a strong analgesic in the United Kingdom, where it is given via subcutaneous, intramascular, intrathecal or intravenous route. Its use includes treatment for acute pain, such as in severe physical trauma, myocardial infarction , post-surgical pain, and chronic pain, including end-stage cancer and other terminal illness. In other countries it is more common to use morphine or other strong opioid in these situations. In 2004, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence produced guidance on the management of caesarian section, which recommended the use of intrathecal or epidural diacetylmorphine for post-operative pain relief.
Shabu
Methamphetamine Hydrochloride, commonly known as "Shabu", "Ice", "Meth", or by its any other name, refers to the drug having such chemical composition, including any of its isomers or derivatives in any form.Methamphetamine has a high potential for abuse. It should thus be tried only in weight reduction programs for patients in whom alternative therapy has been ineffective. Administration of Methamphetamine for prolonged periods of time in obesity may lead to drug dependence and must be avoided. Particular attention should be paid to the possibility of subjects obtaining Methamphetamine for non-therapeutic use or distribution to others, and the drug should be prescribe or dispensed sparingly. Misuse of Methamphetamine may cause sudden death and serious Cardiovascular Adverse events.
Example drug for this is DESOXYN® (methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets, USP), chemically known as (S)-N,α-dimethylbenzeneethanamine hydrochloride, is a member of the amphetamine group of sympathomimetic amines. It has the following structural formula:
DESOXYN tablets contain 5 mg of methamphetamine hydrochloride for oral administration.
Ipinaskil ni
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Name the only county in Southern Ireland that begins with the letter 'T'? | Ireland's counties and provinces | Ireland.com
Home Discover Ireland
Ireland's counties and provinces
The island of Ireland is made up of four provinces and 32 counties, and they all have their own unique charms and traditions
Glenveagh National Park, County Donegal
Connacht
Connacht is largely made up of counties on Ireland's western coast. Roscommon is the only county landlocked county in the province. Connacht is home to stunning scenery, including Connemara , Achill Island, and Sligo’s world-renowned surfing coast. Many parts of the province retain their very strong Gaelic traditions, in particular the Aran Islands. The Irish language is spoken throughout Connacht's Gaeltacht (Irish speaking) areas.
The five counties of Connacht are Galway , Leitrim , Mayo , Roscommon and Sligo .
Clogher Bay, Dingle Peninsula, County Kerry
Leinster
This eastern province is home to the Republic of Ireland’s capital city Dublin , originally founded by the Vikings. Today, rarely a week goes by without some form of festival happening in the city.
Leinster is now the most populated province on the island, with over half the population of the Republic of Ireland living there. The area was heavily colonised over the centuries and, as a result, it's home to many fine examples of medieval, Norman, Georgian and Neolithic architecture.
Carlow , Dublin , Kildare , Kilkenny , Laois , Longford , Louth , Meath , Offaly , Westmeath , Wexford and Wicklow are the counties that make up the Leinster region.
Munster
Two of Ireland’s largest counties are on the southwest coast of Munster. They are Cork and Kerry , and both have their own names they like to go by.
In Cork they consider themselves the “People’s Republic of Cork”, because if there is one thing people from Cork love, it’s Cork. It's also affectionately known as the gourmet county, because of its excellent culinary expertise.
“The Kingdom of Kerry” next door has won the GAA All-Ireland Senior Football Championship more times than any other team. It's lush green scenery and stunning coastline is coveted by visitors while the town of Dingle boasts its own resident dolphin called Fungi (so popular he even has his own Twitter account .)
The lunar Burren and Cliffs of Moher are in County Clare and several ancient castles populate the counties of Limerick , Tipperary and Waterford . Waterford is renowned for its exquisite hand-cut crystal glass.
Munster’s counties are Clare , Cork , Kerry , Limerick , Tipperary and Waterford .
Ulster
The combined influences of several different cultures – the Ulster Scots, the Gaels, the Normans and the Anglo-Normans – have sculpted and coloured the Ulster landscape in a particularly unique manner.
Natural beauties such as Donegal’s Glenveagh National Park, the Mourne Mountains in County Down , Fermanagh’s Lakelands and the Giant’s Causeway in Antrim (seen in all its glory here in Ben Joyner’s competition winning video ) make this part of the island a spectacular place to visit.
Meanwhile, the capital of Northern Ireland, Belfast city , played its part in making maritime history as the birthplace of the world's most famous ship: the Titanic .
| The Tipperary |
How many square inches are there in one square foot? | Alphabetical List of Irish Counties
You are here: Home › Alphabetical List of Irish Counties
Alphabetical List of Irish Counties
By Michele Neylon on August 7, 2007 in Web Design
I needed an alphabetical list of the 32 counties of Ireland, so I did one up
Not terribly exciting, but it saves typing 🙂
UPDATE: Here's an alternate version with them all one line separated by commas
And via Katherine here's a version which is suitable for forms ie. "options" in HTML: ireland-32-counties-as-form-options
UPDATE (again) - a couple of the links above were not working due to my moving of this site, but they're fixed now. Sorry about that!
Related Posts:
36 Responses to Alphabetical List of Irish Counties
wxFran August 7, 2007 at 1:03 am #
A former Belgian housemate of mine used to attempt to remember all the counties and recite the list in that order. Terribly exciting nation, the Belgians…
Chris Byrne August 7, 2007 at 1:18 am #
Some of those are in the UK?
michele August 7, 2007 at 1:29 am #
Chris
It’s a list of the 32 counties not the 26
Michele
Eden Web Design August 7, 2007 at 9:07 am #
I’m pretty sure that Fingal became a county about 10 years ago. Anytime I’m heading out to Swords there are ‘welcome to County Fingal’ signs as you approach.
Stewart Curry August 7, 2007 at 10:43 am #
@eden: so is dun laoghaire/rathdown – I think they were trying to make Ireland a 32 county nation by stealth…
michele August 7, 2007 at 10:46 am #
According to the Fingal website:
“It came into being on the 1st. January, 1994 following the abolition of the former Dublin County Council and the establishment of 3 new authorities to replace it.”
wxFran August 7, 2007 at 10:51 am #
We’ll have to wait and see… if the Dubs manage to win the All-Ireland there will be a great outcry to have the 3 separate “counties” of Dublin fielding their own team.
“Fingal” and “Dun Laoighaire/Rathdown” seem imaginative enough, but what creative genius decided to call the other area “South County Dublin”?
Ken Guest August 7, 2007 at 11:33 am #
Similarly then, the list should include “North Tipperary” and “South Tipperary” rather than just “Tipperary” – at least according to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland#Republic_of_Ireland
Peter Armstrong August 7, 2007 at 12:20 pm #
Those “sub-counties” are used for government adminstrative purposes, local authorities, electoral boundaries and defining council areas. However there are traditionally 32 counties. You don’t post mail out to ‘North Tipperary’ – its just ‘Tipperary’ – and before someone says you do post mail to Dun Laoighaire it’s because it’s a townland (of county Dublin)!
michele August 7, 2007 at 2:28 pm #
Peter – exactly
Ken Guest August 7, 2007 at 2:52 pm #
So, I am imagining it Peter, when I notice friends of my family have post addressed to them as “Ballingarry, North Tipperary”; sometimes addressed as “Ballingarry, Tipperary NR [North Riding]” – which is precisely what they do considering there is also a Ballingarry in South Tipperary close to the Kilkenny border.
You are correct though, Michele’s list is of the traditional 32 counties of Ireland.
Peter Armstrong August 7, 2007 at 4:01 pm #
Ken > Fair enough. There’s an exception to every rule!
However that’s just because An Post are likely to send it to the wrong place and not because we talk about ‘Tipperary North Riding’ in every day conversation.
michele August 7, 2007 at 7:43 pm #
I find it amusing that one of the most “throw away” posts I’ve made this year gets over a dozen comments 🙂
Will August 7, 2007 at 8:41 pm #
But you left out County Ring. Podge and Rodge are somewhere in there (and may they stay there)
Ken Guest August 8, 2007 at 8:47 am #
If it’s of any use; here’s a zip of the counties of Ireland for Zen Cart – it contains two files: one listing the 26 counties of the Republic. The other file contains a list of all 32 counties.
It may ‘just work’ with OS Commerce too.
michele August 8, 2007 at 9:18 am #
Ken
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In geometry, what is the name for a triangle with three | Triangles - Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene
Triangles
A triangle has three sides and three angles
The three angles always add to 180°
Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene
There are three special names given to triangles that tell how many sides (or angles) are equal.
There can be 3, 2 or no equal sides/angles:
Equilateral Triangle
Three equal angles, always 60°
Isosceles Triangle
Triangles can also have names that tell you what type of angle is inside:
Acute Triangle
All angles are less than 90°
Right Triangle
Has a right angle (90°)
Obtuse Triangle
Has an angle more than 90°
Combining the Names
Sometimes a triangle will have two names, for example:
Right Isosceles Triangle
Has a right angle (90°), and also two equal angles
Can you guess what the equal angles are?
Play With It ...
Try dragging the points around and make different triangles:
You might also like to play with the Interactive Triangle .
Perimeter
The perimeter is the distance around the edge of the triangle: just add up the three sides:
Area
The area is half of the base times height.
"b" is the distance along the base
"h" is the height (measured at right angles to the base)
Area = ½ × b × h
The formula works for all triangles.
Note: a simpler way of writing the formula is bh/2
Example: What is the area of this triangle?
(Note: 12 is the height, not the length of the left-hand side)
Base = b = 20
Area = ½ × b × h = ½ × 20 × 12 = 120
The base can be any side, Just be sure the "height" is measured at right angles to the "base":
(Note: You can also calculate the area from the lengths of all three sides using Heron's Formula .)
Why is the Area "Half of bh"?
Imagine you "doubled" the triangle (flip it around one of the upper edges) to make a square-like shape (a parallelogram ) which can be changed to a simple rectangle :
THEN the whole area is bh, which is for both triangles, so just one is ½ × bh.
| Scalene |
The Spanish called them 'Moors', but what name was used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for people of Arab origin? | Cool math .com - Types of Triangles
coolmath-games.com
Types of Triangles
Definitions and formulas for triangles including right triangles, equilateral triangles, isosceles triangles, scalene triangles, obtuse triangles and acute triangles
Just scroll down or click on what you want and I'll scroll down for you!
The right triangle has one 90 degree angle and two acute (< 90 degree) angles. Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees...
y + z = 90 degrees
The two sides of the triangle that are by the right angle are called the legs... and the side opposite of the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
The equilateral triangle :
In the equilateral triangle, all the sides are the same length (congruent) and all the angles are the same size (congruent). Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees, we can figure out the measure of the angles of an equilateral triangle:
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Which is Scotland's oldest football club? | Scottish Football Association
The Oldest National Football Trophy in the World
Although there is evidence of football trophies existing prior to 1873 it is factually correct to state that the Scottish Cup is the oldest trophy within Association football and the oldest national football trophy in the world. Surviving trophies such as the Youdan Cup (1867) are from a different football code (Sheffield Rules) and cannot be placed within the context of the Association game. As Association football is the modern world game it can be argued that the Scottish Cup is the oldest trophy in World Football. The FA Cup as a competition dates from 1871 making it two years older than the Scottish Cup competition but the present FA trophy dates from 1911 and the original was stolen in 1895, never to be recovered. The First Successful Tournament The FA Cup struggled in its early years to get off the ground. Most of the clubs in the formative years of the tournament were from the Metropolis of London with Glasgow’s Queen’s Park being one of the few clubs competing from out with the area. For many of England’s northern clubs, making the rail journey south was simply too expensive and time consuming and local competitions against rival teams were deemed to be more worthwhile.
With most of Scotland’s population located around the central belt of Scotland the Scottish Cup quickly became a successful event and improved transport links to Dundee and Aberdeen extended the coverage of the competition. The Scottish Cup along with the international matches promoted football in Scotland. During the early 1880s football reporters noted the enthusiasm of Scottish clubs in applying in large numbers to play in the Scottish Cup.
By 1895 so many Scottish clubs were taking part in the Scottish Cup competition that a Qualifying tournament had to be established to cope with the demand. The success of the tournament therefore spans across 135 years with the First and Second World Wars being the main cause of disruption to the competition.
The Early Years
The Scottish Cup 1874 to 1914
On 13th March 1873 eight clubs came together to form the Scottish Football Association. The new organisation collected £56 12s 11d in order to institute a Challenge Cup. Queen’s Park, Scotland’s leading club of the period, won the first final in 1874 with a 2-0 victory over Clydesdale.
The ‘Spiders’ would go on to win the first three tournaments and the first 15 years of the competition was largely dominated by Queen’s and the three Dunbartonshire clubs of Vale of Leven, Renton and Dumbarton. In 1884 the record victory in the Scottish Cup was established when Arbroath defeated Bon Accord 36-0.
With football moving towards professionalism during the early 1890s the big city clubs began to get their names engraved on the coveted trophy. The first ‘Old Firm’ final took place in 1894 while clubs like Hearts, Hibernian and Glasgow side Third Lanark also enjoyed success.
In 1909 the trophy was withheld after rioting broke out at the end of the replayed ‘Old Firm’ final ( fans from both clubs were incensed that the match did not go into extra time). Attendances at the finals grew impressively over the period; from 2,500 in 1874 to 70,000 by 1909. Celtic were the cup holders in 1914 when the First World War brought a close to the competition for five years.
Promoting a National Game
In Scotland a rudimentary set of Laws existed for Association football which provided a basic framework for clubs to play each other in friendly matches. The SFA Annuals of the 1870s show that the rules for the Scottish Cup competition were far more stringent which improved the organisation levels and attitudes of the clubs who were willing to participate. The tournament raised the standards within Scottish football and forged a “national” game.
The Cup and Hampden
The Scottish Cup and Hampden Park
Both the Scottish Cup competition and the name ‘Hampden Park’ date back to 1873. Although the present Hampden Park dates from 1903 (and as such is still 20 years older than Wembley) all three Hampden grounds have hosted the final. The first final took place in 1874 when Queen’s Park defeated Clydesdale 2-0 at First Hampden. On 30th May 2009 the Scottish Cup Final will take place only a quarter of a mile from the site of the 1874 final. The Hampden name and the trophy serve as a direct link back to that first historic final.
World Record Attendance for a National Cup Final
The 1937 Scottish Cup final at Hampden Park attracted an official crowdof 147,365 with reports of around 20,000 locked outside. With the completion of the north stand in 1937 Hampden had an official capacity of 183,724. This implies that there must have been more spectators inside the ground than the official statistics record, and the ‘real’ attendance may have been closer to the 180,000 mark.
In any case the official figure for attendance was, in its day, a world record and remains a European record for a national cup final. The semi final tie between Rangers and Hibernian in 1948 attracted a crowd of 143,570 which, at that time, created a world record for a club match out with a national cup final and remains the European record for this category.
>
| Queen's Park |
In geometry, what is the name given to an angle greater than 180 degrees and less than 360 degrees? | Scottish Football Association
The Oldest National Football Trophy in the World
Although there is evidence of football trophies existing prior to 1873 it is factually correct to state that the Scottish Cup is the oldest trophy within Association football and the oldest national football trophy in the world. Surviving trophies such as the Youdan Cup (1867) are from a different football code (Sheffield Rules) and cannot be placed within the context of the Association game. As Association football is the modern world game it can be argued that the Scottish Cup is the oldest trophy in World Football. The FA Cup as a competition dates from 1871 making it two years older than the Scottish Cup competition but the present FA trophy dates from 1911 and the original was stolen in 1895, never to be recovered. The First Successful Tournament The FA Cup struggled in its early years to get off the ground. Most of the clubs in the formative years of the tournament were from the Metropolis of London with Glasgow’s Queen’s Park being one of the few clubs competing from out with the area. For many of England’s northern clubs, making the rail journey south was simply too expensive and time consuming and local competitions against rival teams were deemed to be more worthwhile.
With most of Scotland’s population located around the central belt of Scotland the Scottish Cup quickly became a successful event and improved transport links to Dundee and Aberdeen extended the coverage of the competition. The Scottish Cup along with the international matches promoted football in Scotland. During the early 1880s football reporters noted the enthusiasm of Scottish clubs in applying in large numbers to play in the Scottish Cup.
By 1895 so many Scottish clubs were taking part in the Scottish Cup competition that a Qualifying tournament had to be established to cope with the demand. The success of the tournament therefore spans across 135 years with the First and Second World Wars being the main cause of disruption to the competition.
The Early Years
The Scottish Cup 1874 to 1914
On 13th March 1873 eight clubs came together to form the Scottish Football Association. The new organisation collected £56 12s 11d in order to institute a Challenge Cup. Queen’s Park, Scotland’s leading club of the period, won the first final in 1874 with a 2-0 victory over Clydesdale.
The ‘Spiders’ would go on to win the first three tournaments and the first 15 years of the competition was largely dominated by Queen’s and the three Dunbartonshire clubs of Vale of Leven, Renton and Dumbarton. In 1884 the record victory in the Scottish Cup was established when Arbroath defeated Bon Accord 36-0.
With football moving towards professionalism during the early 1890s the big city clubs began to get their names engraved on the coveted trophy. The first ‘Old Firm’ final took place in 1894 while clubs like Hearts, Hibernian and Glasgow side Third Lanark also enjoyed success.
In 1909 the trophy was withheld after rioting broke out at the end of the replayed ‘Old Firm’ final ( fans from both clubs were incensed that the match did not go into extra time). Attendances at the finals grew impressively over the period; from 2,500 in 1874 to 70,000 by 1909. Celtic were the cup holders in 1914 when the First World War brought a close to the competition for five years.
Promoting a National Game
In Scotland a rudimentary set of Laws existed for Association football which provided a basic framework for clubs to play each other in friendly matches. The SFA Annuals of the 1870s show that the rules for the Scottish Cup competition were far more stringent which improved the organisation levels and attitudes of the clubs who were willing to participate. The tournament raised the standards within Scottish football and forged a “national” game.
The Cup and Hampden
The Scottish Cup and Hampden Park
Both the Scottish Cup competition and the name ‘Hampden Park’ date back to 1873. Although the present Hampden Park dates from 1903 (and as such is still 20 years older than Wembley) all three Hampden grounds have hosted the final. The first final took place in 1874 when Queen’s Park defeated Clydesdale 2-0 at First Hampden. On 30th May 2009 the Scottish Cup Final will take place only a quarter of a mile from the site of the 1874 final. The Hampden name and the trophy serve as a direct link back to that first historic final.
World Record Attendance for a National Cup Final
The 1937 Scottish Cup final at Hampden Park attracted an official crowdof 147,365 with reports of around 20,000 locked outside. With the completion of the north stand in 1937 Hampden had an official capacity of 183,724. This implies that there must have been more spectators inside the ground than the official statistics record, and the ‘real’ attendance may have been closer to the 180,000 mark.
In any case the official figure for attendance was, in its day, a world record and remains a European record for a national cup final. The semi final tie between Rangers and Hibernian in 1948 attracted a crowd of 143,570 which, at that time, created a world record for a club match out with a national cup final and remains the European record for this category.
>
| i don't know |
What name was given to the Spanish invaders of South America? | America, Spanish conquest | South African History Online
South African History Online
European expansion, conquest and the slave trade 15-18th century
Related articles
The content below has been modified to align with the 2011/2012 curriculum changes
Conquest, warfare and Spanish early colonialism in the Americas
The Caribbean Islands
On his first voyage, Columbus claimed San Salvador, Cuba and Hispaniola as Spanish possessions. He built a fort and left behind Spanish soldiers to hunt for gold on Hispaniola, while he returned to Spain. (These men were later murdered by the inhabitants of the island for mistreating them.) On his second voyage, Columbus took a thousand Spanish colonists to settle in Hispaniola. This was the first European colony in the ‘New World’. These colonists fought among themselves and with the inhabitants of the island. They were greedy and complained that there was not enough gold to make them all rich. They were given land and allowed to force the indigenous people to work for them, but they were still not satisfied. The colonists were also responsible forintroducing foreign epidemic diseases such as influenza, smallpox, measles and typhus, which drastically reduced the indigenous population in the Caribbean within 50 years.
Columus’ First Voyage to San Salvador, Cuba and Hispaniola. Source: wikipedia
Spain Conquest
After Christopher Colombus 'discovered' the Americas in 1492, he was made governor of the new territories. These conquests were soon followed by the colonisation of most of South and Central America, parts of the Caribbean, Mexico and much of the United States of America (USA).
In 1494 Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordisillas, which was meant to divide the globe in two spheres of influence, so that the two empires would not interfere with each other's explorations and conquests. West of the line would be Spain's sphere of influence and east would be Portugal's. The line ran through what is today South America and particularly Brazil. The result was that most of South and Central America fell into the hands of Spain. Portugal colonised Brazil, which they discovered in 1500 and lies east of the line of Tordisillas.
In the early 16th century, the Spanish began their conquest of the Americas. As far as they went, they subjugated local populations and imposed Christianity upon them. The Spanish soldiers, explorers and other adventurers who conquered these lands were called 'conquistadors', which means conquerors. Many came hoping to make a fortune.
The Caribbean islands Hispaniola (which means 'Little Spain' and is today divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico and Cuba were among the first American lands to be conquered. In 1512, the first Spaniards to settle on the American mainland did so in Panama. But not all the American land was brought under Spanish control. In many cases, the conquistadors had to fight against stronger local adversaries before land could be claimed for the Spanish crown. In Mexico, it took Hernán Cortés and his men over 2 years to subdue the Aztec empire. In 1521 he succeeded with the help of Native American allies and called Mexico "New Spain". The fall of the mighty Inca empire followed and was complete the by 1533.
The conquistadors were notorious for their cruelty and ferocity. Local populations were enslaved, abused and killed. In 1542, colonial laws were introduced to protect the Amerindians. In 1552 a book about the conquistadors' abuse was published by Bartolomé de las Casas. It was called a Short Account of the Destruction of the West Indies.
The American mainland
In the early 1500s the Spanish began to conquer the mainland of Central and South America. Vasco NÁºÁ±ez de Balboa, a Spanish merchant, was considered the first of the conquistadors. Balboa is best known as the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. However, his expedition did not end well as one of his rivals, the newly appointed governor of Darien (Panama) had him executed. Today, Panama honours Balboa by naming its monetary unit, the balboa, after him.
America’s timeline
300 - 900 The Mayan civilisation.
900 - 1200 The Toltecs and Chichimec peoples establish the city of Tula.
1100 - 1530 The Inca civilisation.
1345 -1530 The Aztec civilisation.
1492 Christopher Columbus arrives in Latin America.
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas.
1497 Voyage to North America by John Cabot.
1500 Discovery of Brazil by Pedro Cabral.
1519 Magellan sails around the world.
1519 -1521Conquest of New Spain (Mexico) by Hernán Cortés.
1524 Council of the Indies established in Spain.
1531 - 1538 Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro.
1549 Permanent settlement of Brazil begins.
1550 - 1690s Jesuits explore the South American interior.
Activity:
Write these events on the board or projector, but in the WRONG order. The students should try to recall the correct order in their notebooks
Conquering the Aztec and Inca Empires: The processes of conquest and colonialism
In the mid-fifteenth century, the powerful empires of the Aztecs and Incas dominated large areas of the Americas. There was no trade across the Atlantic Ocean at this stage.
Before European exploration and colonisation, Arab merchants traded with the countries in the East. The Arabs had a monopoly or complete control over the overland trade routes across the land to the East. The Arabs charged high taxes on all the trade that passed through the overland routes they controlled. These high taxes made the price of products like gold, silk and spices that Europeans wanted, more expensive for them to buy. Europeans wanted to find their own sea route to the East that did not cross Arab lands. The Europeans knew very little about Africa and the East, and in order to find another trade route, they went on voyages or journeys of exploration across the sea.
European countries fought with each other on sea and land to control the trade routes and the countries they discovered. There were two ancient civilisations in central and South America which the Spanish were particularly interested in. Both the Inca Empire of Peru and the Aztec Empire of Mexico held many riches. The Aztecs were the first great Native American civilisation with which the Spaniards came into contact.
Conquering the Aztec Empire
Before we can examine the conquest of the Aztecs, we need to understand who the Aztecs were.
The Aztecs
In 1345 the Aztecs travelled south to central Mexico, where they founded a large lakeside city called Tenochtitlán. The Aztecs were a warlike, bloodthirsty poeple and through their violent conquests of other groups they grew wealthy and powerful. They demanded that those they conquered pay tribute to them. By the early 16th century, the Aztecs dominated Mexico, especially the southern part. It is believed that the Aztec empire of over 10 million people had a strong military tradition and a well established trading network. Merchants travelled through the whole empire, trading as well as serving as ambassadors, spies and sometimes soldiers. The Aztec monetary system was based on cocoa seeds, and the markets were very well organised. More than 60 000 people came to the market in the capital daily. When the Spanish came to Mexico and saw these markets, they declared that they had never seen anything like it in Europe.
A mural by Mexican artist Diego Rivera (1886-1957), showing his impression of the building of the Aztec city Tenochtitlán. Source: www.downtheroad.org
The Aztecs were influenced by an earlier civilisation, the Toltecs, who ruled the area between 900 and 1200 AD. Toltec workers and merchants taught the Aztecs how to make objects from feathers and gold, how to interpret the stars and how to use a calendar. The Aztecs knew how to restore land from the lake – in other words, to dry up sections of the lake in order to expand the islands. This was done by piling mud onto beds of straw inside wooden fences. In this way, they also built new land areas. They followed a hieroglyphic writing system, and wrote documents on paper made from tree bark. Documents included tax lists, legal documents, religious texts and historical writings. These documents reveal much about the Aztecs.
The modern Mexican flag bears an eagle with a snake in its beak. The symbol comes from an Aztec legend. According to this legend, the gods had promised the Aztecs land they would be able to recognise through the presence of an eagle sitting on a cactus, holding a snake in its beak. They found the eagle on an island in Lake Texcoco, where they settled.
According to another Aztec legend, the god Quetzalcoatl had been defeated by an evil god and disappeared into the eastern (Atlantic) sea. He had foretold that he would return from the same sea, leading a group of white-skinned, bearded men, to defeat his enemies. When the Spaniards came from the east, white-skinned and bearded, the Aztecs did not fear them. Instead, they welcomed them as their deity and his group of warriors, which made it so much easier for the Europeans to conquer the Aztecs.
Who were the Mayans, and how do they relate to the Aztecs?
Between 300 and 900 AD, the Mayas were a very strong and developed civilisation in Central America. They are often compared to the Romans. They had a complicated hieroglyphic writing and a mathematics system, and their calendar was more exact than the European's calendar. Civil wars and invasions weakened the mighty empire. In around 1200 the Mayas were conquered by the Toltecs, who absorbed Mayan architecture, art and religion. Even later, the Aztecs took over and at the same time took over aspects of Toltec and so Mayan culture.
By the time the Europeans came, the grand Maya civilisation had collapsed. All that was left were small groups. These were unable to unite against the European invaders, and the Spaniards conquered the groups one by one.
Conquest Case Study 1
Modern-day Mexico City is situated on the site of the great Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. The Emperor headed a very complex society that was ruled partly by religion and fear.
The Aztecs believed they were the chosen people of the gods. Their chief god was Huitzilpochtli who represented the sun. The victorious sun rose each morning, drove off the moon and stars and captured the daytime sky. But the sun's victory was short-lived. Each afternoon and evening, the sun sank in tired defeat. For the sun to successfully rise each day, it had to be nourished with human blood. This blood was supplied by victims were captured during war. The Aztecs therefore went to war continuously. Those who were defeated and incorporated into the Empire were never happy with Aztec rule.
The Aztec calendar had 365 days. It was used more than 100 years before the Gregorian calendar (used in our world today) and shows the level of sophistication of Aztec science. The Aztec calendar is recorded as a carving on the Aztec sun stone currently on exhibit in Mexico City. The sun stone is filled with symbols that refer to human sacrifice. At the centre is a sacrificial knife sticking out from the mouth of the central deity and talons on either side of the deity's face which grasp human hearts.
The Spanish king sent a general called Hernando Cortes to find the Aztecs. The Aztecs lived in a fertile valley 2000 metres above sea level, the water from the surrounding mountains watered their crops, which included maize, cotton, beans and chili peppers. The capital was at Tenochtitlin (today called Mexico City), a vast city with causeways and bridges and huge stone buildings and temples. Their leader at the time that Cortes and the Spanish soldiers arrived, was Montezuma. Montezuma at first welcomed the Spanish as the Aztecs thoughts they might be holy men, but they were soon to realise this was not so. The Spanish conquistadors were only interested in the gold.
Cortes came with 16 horses (which the Aztecs had never seen before), 14 cannons, steel swords and crossbows. This made them stronger in battle against the Aztecs. The Spanish were also made stronger by being able to get help from the oppressed enemies of the Aztec Empire who were willing to assist them.
They were also helped by an interpreter called Dona Marina. Her birth name was Malinalli. After a battle with Cortes, the defeated native Americans gave her to Cortes as a peace offering. The Spanish baptised her into the Catholic faith and she was renamed. She learnt Spanish, lived with Cortes and later gave birth to his son. She could speak the Aztec language and told Cortes everything she knew about the Aztecs. In 1521, after two years of resistance, the Aztec Empire fell to the Spanish. Montezuma was killed, and many Spaniards and Aztecs lost their lives.
The following information will still be developed for this ‘Aztec’ topic:
– Slavery and its impact on the Aztecs
– Consequences on the Aztecs
Please contribute activities and content for this section by clicking on the ‘contribute’ button.
Conquering the Inca Empires
Before we can examine the conquest of the Incas, we need to understand who the Incas were.
The Incas
Around 1100 AD, the Incas came to the Andean region from the south and founded the city Cuzco. They began the expansion of their empire by conquering small groups in what is today southern Peru, and eventually subjugated the entire Andean coast and highlands. At its height, the Incan empire stretched from modern northern Ecuador to central Chile and included territory in modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina.
An Inca artifact: a knife handle made from solid gold. Source: www.theincas.com
The emperor was called 'Inca', and it was believed that he was the son of the sun, the most important Inca god. Society was organised in clans. The Incas had a vast network of roads that crossed the whole empire, altogether about 40 000 km long. This made it easier for the Inca's officials to travel through the empire to keep an eye on all the clans. However, since they had no horses or wheeled vehicles, all travelling was done on foot. Messages and news were sent across the land in a relay system: there were small buildings called 'tambos' all along the roads. A messenger would run with his news to the next tambo, where another messenger would take over. The Incas had a system of writing called 'quipo'. It was not an alphabet, but a system of strings and knots. A number of strings hung from a main string, and each one was knotted. Each knot or series of knots represented an event or a number. In Inca society, every person had to work without pay, because labour was seen as a form of tax.
Shortly before the Spaniards came to Peru, the Inca emperor died. This was followed by a civil war between his two sons. The Spaniards, led by Francisco Pizarro, arrived in 1532 and were able to exploit the situation and capture the already weakened state.
Conquest Case Study 2
Francisco Pizarro was the Spanish conqueror of Peru. He left Spain for the West Indies in 1502 and lived on the island of Hispaniola. He was also part of Balboa’s expedition to the Pacific Ocean. Pizarro heard tales of a southern land rich in gold. During the 1520s Pizarro led two expeditions down the west coast of South America and saw the golden ornaments worn by Native Americans of the Inca Empire of Peru. He got permission from the emperor of the King of Spain, Charles V to conquer this land and become its governor. Pizarro raised an army of 180 men to take with him to Peru. Atahualpa, the Inca, or emperor, was captured by the Spaniards, who held him hostage. His followers were tricked into paying a large ransom of silver and gold. Instead of sparing his life as promised, Pizarro executed Atahualpa on 29 August 1533 and took control of the town of Cajarmaca.
Pizarro then marched south and captured the Inca capital at Cuzco. After looting Cuzco, the Spaniards went on to establish control over the rest of the land of the Incas. Without an emperor to lead them, the Incas found it hard to resist the Spanish invasion. They were divided among themselves and their weapons were no match for the guns of the Spaniards. Only one Inca community, which was high up in the mountains and difficult to reach, held out against the conquistadors. It survived as the last Inca stronghold until the Spanish conquered it in 1572 and executed its ruler, Tupac AmarÁº.
In 1535, Pizarro set up a new capital at Lima and, as governor, was responsible for bringing many settlers to Peru. Most settlers were involved in mining the vast amounts of silver and gold that existed in Peru. The Spanish were allowed to force the Incas to work for them for low wages. They used forced labour in the army, to build new cities and to mine silver and gold.
You have already heard that conquistadors often fought among themselves. Diego de Almagro, Pizarro’s former partner, fought with Pizarro over Cuzco. The power struggle between Pizarro and Almagro led to the War of Las Salinas in 1538. Almagro was executed, but his son, known as Almagro the Lad, continued the war. Pizarro was murdered in his palace in Lima by followers of Almagro in 1541.
This is a portrait of Atahualpa, drawn from life, by a member of Pizarro's detachment, 1533. Source: wikipedia
The following information will still be developed for this ‘Incas’ topic:
– Slavery and its impact on the Incas
– Consequences on the Incas
Please contribute activities and content for this section by clicking on the ‘contribute’ button.
Resistance to Spanish colonialism
The Aztec and Inca Empires covered very large areas and consisted of millions of people. It was only after long and bloodied battles that they gave up their capitals to the invaders. The European diseases that reduced the population of the indigenous people of the Caribbean islands also affected the Aztecs, and to a lesser degree the Incas.
The Spanish were less successful against the people who occupied other areas of Central and South America. These people attacked unexpectedly and took advantage of the fact that they outnumbered the Spanish. In 1542 the Spanish founded the city of Mérida in the north-western corner of Mexico, but they controlled only some of the areas around this city. The biggest part of the peninsula was still ruled by Mayan communities.
Resistance Case Study 3
The Spanish encountered particularly fierce resistance from the Auracanian tribes. After the conquest of the Inca Empire, a Spanish force moved southward to found the city of Santiago in 1541. They gained control over the fertile central region of present-day Chile. The Araucanians lived in the southern part of Chile, and resisted Spanish control until well into the nineteenth century. The Spanish built a line of forts to defend their settlements against continuous Araucanian attacks and raids. The Araucanians adapted to the European style of warfare by making spears to fight the Spanish while they were on their horses. The Araucanians were finally defeated at the end of the 1870s and forced to live in reservations.
Resistance Case Study 4
A slave revolt in Haiti: A distinct type of resistance in exploitation colonies was the slave revolt. The most dramatically successful was the Haitian Slave Revolt, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, led by Francois Dominique Toussaint Louverture. The revolt, lasted from the early 1790s until 1804, when Haiti received its independence. There were many other slave revolts throughout the Caribbean and Brazil. Some of these revolts failed and many slaves who had participated in revolts were brutally tortured and executed.
Activity
Decide as a class whether you will do this activity on your own or in groups of 5-6 people.
Find as much information as you can on ONE of the following civilisations: the Mayas, Aztecs or Incas. Use books in the school or community library as well as the internet. (There are some links in this section that you can use.)
The consequences of Colonisation of European expansion on the American indigenous population and the World
The arrival of the Europeans and their conquest and colonisation of the Americas transformed this land forever. Its people were subjugated and with them, hundreds, thousands of years' culture and civilisation were suppressed. Many died of the new diseases the Europeans brought with them. Indigenous religions did not die out, but often had to make way for the European's new religion of Christianity. Shortly after the colonisation, a phenomenal trade in humans began across the Atlantic Ocean, as slaves were needed to work the land and plantations in the Americas. The trans-Atlantic slave trade become one of the most significant and for many, traumatic, periods in world history. But colonial rule was not destined to last in the Americas. By the end of the 18th century, the European settlers of American colonies began to rebel and press for independence. The American War of Independence, or American Revolution, freed the 13 eastern coast colonies from British rule, and paved the way for the establishment of one of the biggest 20th century powers, the United States of America (USA). This revolution was soon followed by liberation struggles all over Latin America in the beginning of the 19th century. By about 1826, most of the Latin American countries were free from colonial rule.
The effects of conquest and colonisation on Native Americans
Tthe arrival of the Europeans in America meant that the numbers of the native populations diminished rapidly. For example, the first Native American group that Columbus came into contact with was the Arawaks of Haiti. At that time, about 1502, there were 250 000 Arawaks. But barely 50 years later, had their numbers drastically been reduced to 500. Another 100 years later, they completely died out. The reasons for the decline of the Native American population include warfare with Europeans, enslavement by the conquerors, and the diseases brought from Europe. These diseases might not have been life-threatening in Europe, where over centuries people had built up natural immunity to diseases like chicken pox and measles. But these diseases were unknown in America, and so the Native Americans had not had chance to build up any resistance to them. Those that were fatal to even Europeans, like smallpox, proved to be especially dangerous to the Native Americans. In some cases whole villages were wiped out by European diseases and it is believed that far more than half the Native American population died in this way. Other diseases that were brought by the Europeans include dysentery, malaria and hookworm.
Not only did millions of Native Americans die. The European conquests meant the end of civilisations that were more advanced than those in Europe. Gold, silver and other treasures were taken and a most of these minerals was sent to Europe. Filled with religious zeal, the conquistadors often destroyed temples and other buildings and burned documents, so that a great deal of cultural and historical materials was lost.
Enslavement was also common. When the Europeans began to settle in America, they needed slaves to work on their cotton, tobacco and sugar plantations. In many cases whole communities were violently enslaved, like the Arawaks encountered by Columbus. Weakened by disease, the Native Americans were unable to cope with hard manual labour. The Europeans needed alternative labour and Africans slaves proved to be the answer. African workers were strong, worked hard, were immune to many diseases and were easily obtained.
How colonization led to the practice of slavery and its impact on these societies
The trans-Atlantic slave trade brought millions of African slaves to the Americas. The trade began in the early 16th century. By the end of the 17th century, about 30 000 slaves were being shipped to the Americas each year. By the end of the 18th century, the number had increased to nearly 80 000 per year. In total, about 11 or 12 million African slaves were taken to the Americas. The Europeans bought the slaves from African traders, mostly in West Africa. The slaves were often prisoners-of-war taken in battles between indigenous African groups. The slaves were kept in forts on the African coast before being transported to America. The conditions in the forts and on the ships were horrendous. There was little space to move or even to go to the bathroom. About 13-30% of the slaves died on the ships. In America, they were auctioned off to their future owners. These slaves often had to work for 10-11 hours per day, six days per week. The conditions and treatment of the slaves were not the same everywhere in the Americas. In some areas, like Brazil, they were often treated worse than in the American South, because there were many more slaves and so they could be easily replaced if they died. There were a number of revolts against slave masters, but they were usually crushed violently.
Detail from a mural by Mexican artist Diego Rivera, which shows an African slave brought to the New World. The mural is called 'Colonial Domination'. Source: www.jlhs.nhusd.k12.ca.us
Early in the 19th century, the slave trade was banned. This led to some improvement in the treatment of slaves to ensure that they would survive longer. Later that century slavery was banned completely. The legacy of the slave trade and slavery lasted much longer. For many African Americans, who do not know where their African ancestors came from, the slave trade means that a huge part of their background remains a mystery.
Slavery in the New World played an enormous role in the economies of America and Europe. People became very wealthy through their plantations, worked by slaves, and through trade with Africa and Europe.
For more on History of Slavery and early colonisation
Religion
Another important aspect of conquest and colonisation is the religion brought by the Europeans, namely Christianity. There were several reasons why the Europeans were eager to conquer the Americas. One was South America's legendary treasures in gold and silver. The other was religious zeal. Many Spaniards claimed to have gone to the Americas to spread the gospel and convert the Native Americans. It is debatable whether religion or greed played the most important role. For example, in Mexico, the conquistador Hernán Cortés was welcomed by the Aztec emperor, probably because the Aztecs believed that it was their god Quetzalcoatl returning from the eastern sea, as he had promised. The emperor sent Cortés presents of gold and silver. In return, Cortés made alliances with the Aztecs' enemies, destroyed Aztec temples and cities, and erected crosses, a symbol of Christianity, on the ruins. Furthermore, when the Aztecs saw the crosses they became even more convinced that this was the return of their god, since he was the god of crossroads. When the Aztecs realised their mistake, it was too late. The Spaniards defeated them in battle, and finally had not only their land, but their gold and silver as well.
But not all Christians who came to the Americas were out to conquer and suppress. Not too long after the Europeans set foot in the Americas, the first Christian missionaries arrived. The Jesuits were especially active in South America. When Portuguese descendants in Brazil wanted to enslave the indigenous people to work on their sugar plantations, Jesuit priests defended them against the slave masters. The missionaries also did not always impose their own European languages on the people they wanted to convert, and in some cases preached and worked in certain indigenous languages. This helped to expand the local languages and put them into writing.
Many of the indigenous people did convert. Today, Christianity is the main religion of Latin America and the Roman Catholic Church the main church, although traditional religious practices still exist.
The famous statue of Jesus in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is 30 metres high and was built in the 1920s. Today, Christianity is the main religion in Latin America. Source: library.thinkquest.org
Activity
Write an essay of 1-2 pages on the following topic:
‘Despite the negative aspects of conquest, the colonisation of America was positive in the long run because it transformed America from a primitive and undeveloped land to one that is civilised and developed’.
Do you agree?
Remember to structure your essay well. There has to be an introduction, stating the question which you will answer in the essay; a body in which you give your argument; and a conclusion that brings your argument together and give your opinions on what was asked whether you agree with the statement or not. Your answer does not necessarily have to be right or wrong because you are presenting your opinion with evidence and historical views to support it!
Summary of Consequences on the indigenous society and the world
Consequences on the indigenous society
Disease and forced labour drastically reduced the population of Central America. It is estimated that the population of Mexico was reduced by ninety per cent in the first fifty years after the arrival of the Spanish.
In Central and South America, the Spanish settlers eventually intermarried with the Incas and Aztecs as most of the settlers were men. The people of mixed racial descent are known as mestizo and now form the majority of the population.
The official language of the former Spanish colonies in the Americas is Spanish but there are many people who still speak their indigenous languages.
The indigenous people were also converted to Catholicism which remains the dominant religion in Central and South America.
For further reading on ‘Spaniards in a new world: 16th century AD’ visit : www.historyworld.net
Consequences on the World
The expansion of European trade resulted in the colonisation of five continents over a period of five centuries. Using military force, each of the European colonial powers dominated world trade at different times. When one colonial power became weak, another challenged it and replaced it as the dominant power.
What was the effect of colonialism on the World
Colonial empires became rich and powerful as their empires grew in size. However, colonies were expensive to run, especially if wars were involved. Wars were fought between rival empires who wanted the same land or to defeat rebellious indigenous inhabitants.
Europe, in particular Britain, was able to industrialise because of raw materials obtained from colonies and because colonies provided markets for manufactured goods. Slavery did not start because of colonialism; slavery has always existed. However, European powers were able to exploit their colonies and increase their wealth by using slave labour or very cheap indigenous labour.
Colonialism did not cause racism, but it helped to reinforce the belief that Europeans were the dominant race and therefore superior and that other races were subordinate and therefore inferior.
On the other hand, colonialism provided opportunities for people of different races, religions and cultures to meet, live and work together. The result of this has been an exchange of ideas, technology and traditions.
The spread of Christianity throughout the world was made possible by missionary activities. This was assisted by the expansion of European colonial empires.
Church and state worked together to change the indigenous belief systems of the people they ruled. Colonial expansion also brought Christianity into conflict with Islam as European powers challenged Muslim rulers and traders.
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In which town are the HQ of the Sussex police? | European Empires in North America
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European Empires in North America
From the 15th century onward, European nations invaded the New World and began establishing empires throughout the continent.
Learning Objective
Evaluate the goals of Spanish, British, and French exploration in the Americas
Key Points
The Spanish Empire between 1492 and 1892, expanded across most of Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, and much of North America. In its conquest of the New World , the Spanish subdued and defeated the Inca civilization of Peru, the Aztecs of Central America, and the Maya civilization of the Yucatan.
England's forays into the New World began in 1497 with John Cabot's journey to North America. British exploration of the New World centered on searching for a Northwest Passage through the continent.
Sir Walter Raleigh and Henry Hudson were notable British explorers who established early settlements in Virginia and New York .
The search for a northwest passage to Asia and the burgeoning fur trade in Europe drove the French to explore and settle North America.
Samuel de Champlain began the first permanent settlement of New France and Quebec City in present-day Canada and created a prosperous trade with the American Indians for beaver pelts and other animal hides.
Terms
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Full Text
While the Americas remained firmly under the control of indigenous peoples in the first decades of European invasion, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the indigenous populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). The Spanish, English, and French were the most powerful nations to establish empires in the new lands.
Conquest of Latin America by the Spanish Empire
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus , the Spanish Empire expanded for four centuries (1492–1892) across most of present-day Central America, the Caribbean islands, Mexico, and much of the rest of North America. The empire also claimed territory in present-day British Columbia; the states of Alaska , Washington, and Oregon; and the western half of South America. Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadors and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions.
Columbus' initial landing and first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquests in the Caribbean and South America, where the first European settlements occurred in the New World. After the forming of Nueva Cádiz in Venezuela and Santa Cruz on the present-day Guajira peninsula, explorers led by Vasco Núez de Balboa conquered areas on the coast of present-day Colombia in 1502. This area was inhabited by the Chibchan speaking nations, including the indigenous Muisca and Tairona people. The Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de Leon traveled to the New World on Columbus' second voyage. He explored areas to the north, looking for a Fountain of Youth, and landed on a peninsula on the coast of North America, which he named Florida.
Attack on the Aztecs and Mayas
The conquistadors, believing they held considerable military and technological superiority over the native cultures, attacked and destroyed the Aztecs in 1521. This campaign was led by Hernán Cortés and featured the Tlaxcala and other indigenous peoples allied against the Mexica/Aztec Empire. The Spanish conquest of the Maya civilization—based in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America—was a much longer campaign, lasting from 1551 to 1697. The day Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present-day Veracruz, April 22, 1519, marked the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region.
This map illustrates the route taken by Hernán Cortés during the conquest of Mexico, from the Gulf of Mexico to Tenochtitlan.
By the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors had penetrated deep into Central and South America. European explorers arrived at Río de la Plata in 1516. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony , was established in 1536, and in 1537, Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541, the site was abandoned. A second and permanent settlement was established in 1580, by Juan de Garay.
Attack on the Incas
In 1532, at the Battle of Cajamarca, a group of Spanish soldiers under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian allies, ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign—which took advantage of a recent civil war and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated—that required decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years, the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended their control over the greater Andes region, leading to the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542.
The brutal practices of the conquistadors (known as the Black Legend), as recorded by the Spanish themselves, were applied through the encomienda, a system ostensibly set up to protect people from warring tribes as well as to teach them the Spanish language and the Catholic religion. In practice, though, it was tantamount to slavery .
The British Empire
John Cabot
England's forays into the New World began in 1497 (just a few years after Columbus' initial voyage) with John Cabot's journey to North America. British exploration of the New World centered on searching for a northwest passage through the continent. Cabot explored the North American coast and correctly deduced that the spherical shape of the earth made the north—where the longitudes are much shorter—a quicker route to the New World than a trip to the islands in the south, where Columbus was exploring. Encouraged, he asked the English monarchy for a more substantial expedition to further explore and settle the lands that he found. Cabot's ships departed, never to be seen again.
England remained preoccupied with internal affairs for much of the 16th century. Cabot's adventures failed to spark much interest, and England's break with the Catholic church in 1533 led to decades of religious turmoil. However, by the beginning of the 17th century, under the rule of Elizabeth I, the empire had consolidated much of the British Isles and was becoming a much more formidable force on the world stage. With the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, England replaced Spain as the dominant world power. This led to the gradual decline of Spanish influence in the New World and the widening of English imperial interests.
Sir Walter Raleigh
Sir Walter Raleigh sought to establish an empire in the New World after having gained considerable favor from Queen Elizabeth I by suppressing rebellions in Ireland. On March 25, 1584, the Queen granted Raleigh a charter for the colonization of the area of North America known as Virginia. Raleigh and Elizabeth I intended that the venture should provide riches from the New World and a base from which to send privateers on raids against the treasure fleets of Spain. Raleigh himself never visited North America, although he led expeditions in 1595 and 1617 to South America's Orinoco River basin in search of the legendary golden city of El Dorado. Supplying the colonists became troublesome due to continuing war with Spain. The end of the colony in 1587 is unrecorded; as a result, the Roanoke settlement is referred to as the "Lost Colony." There are multiple hypotheses as to the fate of the colonists, including integration into local indigenous tribes.
Henry Hudson
Henry Hudson was an English sea explorer and navigator in the early 17th century. Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a prospective northwest passage via a route above the Arctic Circle. He explored the region around the modern-day New York metropolitan area and is known for exploring the river which eventually was named for him, thereby laying the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region. In 1611, Hudson discovered a strait and immense bay on his final expedition while searching for the Northwest Passage. After wintering on the shore of James Bay, Hudson wanted to press on to the west, but most of his crew mutinied. The mutineers cast Hudson, his son, and seven others adrift, and they were never seen again.
French Exploration
Giovanni da Verrazzano
The search for a northwest passage to Asia and the burgeoning fur trade in Europe drove the French to explore and settle North America. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.
Jacques Cartier
Later, in 1534, Francis sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River , to investigate whether Asian lands could be reached from the north. His journey in 1534 retraced many of the voyages of the Vikings and established contacts with American Indians in modern-day Canada. He explored some of northern Canada, established friendly relations with the American Indians, and discovered that the St. Lawrence River region had neither abundant gold nor a northwest passage to Asia. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers, but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and native attacks.
Champlain and New France
During the 16th century, the taming of the Siberian wilderness by the Russians had brought about a thriving fur trade, which created a great demand for fur throughout Europe. France was quick to realize that North America held great potential as a provider of fur. Samuel de Champlain began the first permanent settlement of New France and Quebec City in present-day Canada and created a prosperous trade with the American Indians for beaver pelts and other animal hides. Meanwhile, further to the south, French Protestants, called Huguenots , had the opportunity to leave hostile European lands while advancing French claims to the New World. Settlements in present-day Florida and Georgia created tension with Spanish conquistadors, who after conquering Caribbean lands, would begin to expand northwards in search of new territory. From the middle of the 15th century forward, France tried to establish several other colonies throughout North America that failed due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers.
| i don't know |
Rastafarianism is based on the ideas of which former Jamaican? | Rastafarianism
Rastafarianism
Keywords: Rastafarianism, Rasta, Rastafari, Ethiopianism, Africanists, Jamaica, Selassie, dreadlocks
I. Abstract
In the early 1930�s religious and social movement called Rastafarianism evolved in Jamaica.� Rastas sought to provide a voice for the poor Blacks in Jamaica by encouraging resistance to oppressive societal structures.� At the core of their belief is the re-interpretation of the Hebrew Bible with a focus on Blacks as God�s chosen race, and the belief that the true Messiah comes to us as Emperor Haile Selassie I� (Ras Tafari) of Ethiopia.�� Through extensive spoken discourse, the Rastafarians aim to clarify the Western misinterpretation of the Bible, so as to spread the true word and fight against the unjust hierarchy of Western culture (collectively called Babylon).� In the meantime, Rastafarians await a time of repatriation of Blacks and a return to Ethiopia, qua Africa, of its rightful ruling status.
II. Scope and Purpose of the System
Rastafarianism is an afro-centric religious and social movement based in the Caribbean island of Jamaica.� Stemming from the roots of Rastafari in rising against the post-colonial oppression of poor blacks, Rastas typically come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Especially difficult economic hardships in Jamaica saw a distinctive rise in the movement�s following. At the time of Jamaica�s independence in the 1960�s, virtually all Rastafarians were members of the 79 percent of the population classified as lower class (Waters, 50).� In the past few decades, however, especially through the influence of Reggae music, the movement has gained a more international and cosmopolitan following.���
Although a largely unorganized group, the Rastafarians unite on a few central beliefs: a strong belief in the beauty of black people�s African heritage; the belief that Ras Tafari Haile Selassie I, emperor of Ethiopia, is the Biblical Messiah; belief in repatriation to Ethiopia, the true home and redemption of black people; and belief in the eventual fall of �Babylon�, the corrupt world of the white man, and a reversal in the slavery-based societal hierarchy (Murrell, 5).� The Rastas believe that the Bible is the history of the African race, taken by Europeans at the time of enslavement and deliberately mistranslated in an effort to deceive the slaves (Waters, 47).� The system encourages black people to free their minds from the shackles of the existing social hierarchy, and take their place as the true leaders that God (Jah) intended them to be.�
Many symbols of the Rastafarian arise from their interpretation of the Bible and the ideal of Ethiopia as �Zion�, the Promised Land.� The most noticeable are the long, uncombed locks by which they are readily identified (Waters, 48).� This tradition stems from: the laws of the Nazarites that forbid cutting hair [1] ; the style of Ethiopian tribal warriors and priests; and as a symbol of the lion�s mane. These locks also serve as a mystical link or �psychic antenna�, connecting Rastas with God and his mystical power, or �earthforce�, which is immanent in the universe (Murrell, 32).�� Other symbols are those of Ethiopia, including the national colors (red, green and gold) as well as the lion that appears on the country�s flag.� The ritual smoking of marijuana (ganja) also plays an important role in Rastafarian life.� This �holy herb� is highly valued for its physical, psychological and therapeutic powers (Murrell, 354).� Language also forms an important Rasta symbol.� Although Rastas often speak Jamaican dialect, called �patois�, they have developed a subdialect to take a further step away from Standard English (Chevannes,167).� Many of these patterns of speech carry moral or social implications related to the Rasta world-view.� For example, the Rasta uses �outernationtional� instead of �international� to emphasize their feelings that the rest of the world lies outside their realm.�
a. Sources and Criteria of Valid Knowledge
The Bible serves as the official source of knowledge in the Rastafarian movement.� Rastas take Biblical study very seriously and spend much time citing and discussing scriptural passages (Murrell, 326).� They believe these scriptures tell the true story of the black man�s history, present and future, and feel that Christian ministers have misled people by providing incorrect interpretations of the Bible, especially in the use of the Bible to justify slavery (Chevannes, 116).� Rastas have moved beyond the identification of Blacks in biblical text, and go on transform themselves into the very Israelites in the Bible (Murrell, 353).
Further proof of this interpretation of the Bible came with the crowning of Haile Selassie as Emperor Haile Selassie (Power of the Trinity) I, the Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God, King of Kings, of Ethiopia.� To the Rastafarians, this was the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy (Murrell, 159).� The true Messiah was not Jesus of Nazareth, but Emperor Selassie, the descendant of King Solomon, and thus a living man of the house of David � exactly as the Old Testament foretold (Waters, 2).� On the other hand, many see Selassie as the second coming of the Messiah. Some have even claimed to see indentations in his hands as a sign of his crucifixion.�
Aside from the Bible, Rastafarians have published other �official documents�. These include works such as The Promised Key, The Living Testament of Rasta-for-I and The Holy Piby (Murrell, 391).� One must still realize that even though forms of their theological thought have surfaced in the literature, the Rastas� theological ideas have not been formalized.� Scholars tend to agree that no central doctrine, formal or informal, exists.� This comes to us as no surprise, as the Rastafarian advocates liberation from the oppression of organized systems.� Instead, persons should engage in �appropriate reflection and interpretation of their experience, and arrive at personal conviction and conclusions of their belief� (Murrell, 391).�
b. Methods of Inquiry
The Rasta views the Bible in search of materials that favor the hermeneutics of Blackness.� Most have no formal training in theology or knowledge of the original languages of the Bible.� In reality, some Rastas are barely literate. Yet, their creativity sheds new light upon the stories and personalities represented in the Bible.�
Key to understanding Rastafarian theology is their interpretation of �Babylon� and �Zion�.� In the Bible, the ancient city of Babylon represents the main oppressor of the people of God, whereas Zion is the Promised Land they will inhabit after their release from oppression.��� Rastafarians have extended the idea of Babylon from a literal place to an entire system of oppression and domination.� They believe that the spirit of Babylon survives as an oppressive force in modern-day political and economic systems and institutions in the West generally, particularly in Jamaica (Murrell, 25).� Zion, on the other hand, represents freedom from the Babylonian System.� To the Rasta, Ethiopia is the Promised Land to which they will return someday.� When Babylon crumbles, the existing system will be reversed, and Ethiopia will take her rightful place as the ruling state.
�The primary methods of inquiry in Rastafarian thought are called �grounding� and �reasoning�.� Grounding refers to an event (a �grounation�) where Rastas come together to smoke marijuana and �reason�, that is, reflect on their faith, or on any current or historic event that impinges on their lives (Murrell, 355).� These sessions may be informal gatherings, or planned meetings at specific locations.� Somewhat more formal all-night gatherings sometimes take place, where in addition to ritual smoking and reasoning, drumming, chanting and feastings also mark the event (Murrell, 355). Grounding also takes place at the �Nyahbinghi�, a periodically held movement-wide assembly.� The activities of Nyahbinghi serve to unleash the �earthforce� against those who have historically oppressed African people (Murrell, 356)��
The modes of language evolved by the Rastafarians play an especially important part in the reasoning process.� The most important is the use of �I�, the personal pronoun, in Rasta language, which often defies logic and confuses the outsider.�� �I� is the same to the Rasta as the Roman numeral I (signifying the first), which appears in the name of His Imperial Majesty (H.I.M) Haile Selassie I.� They believe that each Rasta is a part of God (called �I�), and hence substitute �I� for �me� and �mine�, signifying that the Rasta is a part of God and hence another �I� (Chevannes, 167).� Everyone is an �I�, so they substitute �I and I� for �we�.� �I� also transforms other words such as �Iternal� (eternal), �Ireator� (creator) and �Issembly� (assembly).��� The Rastas have also made many other colorful transformations which express their views of society. �Oppression� becomes �downpression� to signify the direction of the struggle.� On the other hand, one �overstands� instead of �understands� since one gains knowledge.� Language can also be used to express dislike for certain persons or institutions.� �Politics�, one of the main components of Babylon, is called �polytricks�, while political leader Edward Seaga, who they view as having lack of foresight, has earned the name �Blind�aga� instead.� Formal discourses of Rastafarian reasoning are rare, but can be found in a form of spoken word expression called �dub poetry� as well as in reggae music.�
c. Institutions and Professional Structure
One of the key ideals of the Rastafarian system of though is the lack of a formalized structure or hierarchy.� As previously outlined, organized systems belong to Babylon, and therefore should be shunned.�� No formal leadership hierarchy or orthodoxy structures exist in this non-homogenous movement.� Many researchers see this as a positive characteristic of the movement, allowing the individual Rasta groups to enjoy a kind of freedom not often encouraged in many organized religious and secular movements (Murrell, 349).�
Even though formal organization fails to exist among Rastas as a whole, there are still distinct social structures within the movement.� Firstly, we have the �own-built� Rastas who share the foundational beliefs and attitudes of the movement, but do not belong to any particular group or organization.� They focus on the individual �I� level of consciousness and seek unity with Jah�s �earthforce�.� This individual spirituality is the main emphasis of Rastafarian thought, as a personal relationship with God provides an understanding of the source of truth and life (Murrell, 352).�
�Houses� and �yards� represent a more communal level of social organization among the Rastas.� These are small, informal groups of Rastas whose members sustain an ongoing relationship (Murrell, 350).� Houses often emerge where Rastas attach themselves to a� �leading brethren� and gather to engage in �grounding� and �reasoning�.� These leading brethren are often seen as elders, not in a formal sense, but more as an inspirational leader.� Rather than being attained through election, the position is conferred upon one who has an uncompromising commitment to and defense of the principles of Rastafari (willing to suffer persecution).� This individual often possesses an extraordinary ability to expound the philosophy of Rastafarianism, called �speechifying�.�
More formal groups, called �mansions� usually appear as communes led by charismatic leaders or voluntary organizations dedicated to the accomplishment of particular goals (Murrell, 351).� Whereas ten to fifteen Rastas may comprise a house, mansions often have hundreds of members.� These more formal groups fall into two categories �churchical� and �statical�.� Churchical groups focus on the development of Rastafarian culture and behavior, as well as the cultivation of African consciousness and lifestyle (Murrell, 351).� Statical groups focus their interests on a commitment to social and political goals.� Through these groups, the Rasta paved the way of social and political progress by giving a strong voice to the poor blacks in Jamaica.
IV. History
The Rastafarian movement is indigenous to the Caribbean island of Jamaica. Rastafarianism spawned from a combination of various forms of Africanist thought which prevailed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.� Its roots are to be found in the cultural, economic and political struggles of the Jamaican people in the post-emancipation years after 1838 (Murrell, 148).�� The inspiration leading to the genesis of the movement in the 1930�s can be described as Messianic or millenarian in nature (Bisnauth, 185).� This turning point was the crowning of Ras Tafari, the great-grandson of King Sahela Selassie of Shoa and son of Ras Makonnen, as Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethopia (then known as Abyssnia) on November 2, 1930 (Campbell, 70).� Selassie would be the first black African leader to join the international community of Kings and Princes.� This event would provide the catalyst for the formation of the Rastafarian movement, which had been brewing since the beginnings of African idealism in Jamaica.
The beginnings of the Rastafarian movement can be traced back to the teachings of Leonard P. Howell.� Howell had just returned to Jamaica after being deported from Panama for grand larceny in 1932. He came to prominence when he formed the Ethiopian Salvation Society, proclaiming the message that �black people could not have two kings and that the only true king was Emperor Haile Selassie� (Campbell, 71). His word quickly spread, as people embraced the strong anti-colonial message.� These developments worried colonial authorities, leading to the eventual imprisonment of Howell and his Deputy, Robert Hinds in 1939.� Other exponents of early Rastafarianism include Joseph Hibbert and Archibald Dunkley, both returning migrants.� These three have the common bond of exposure to the system of Afro-American thought which focused on a eventual rise Africa (through Ethiopia) as world leader.�
Essential in the discussion of Africanist movements is the powerful influence of Marcus Garvey and his �Back to Africa� movement during the early 1900�s.� Garvey, a committed Afrocentrist, underscored the need for Blacks to interpret their own history and control their destiny in Africa.� He embraced the idea that Ethiopia was the �cradle of the black race and that its contributions to the development of civilization were paramount to the realization of racial equality for the black diaspora� (Murrell, 42).� Garvey�s thoughts played a significant role in the evolution of the Rastafarian movement.� Rastafarians allege that Garvey predicted that �whenever a Black king in Africa, our redemption is near� (Murrell, 44).�
With the belief in Garvey�s �prophesies�, the teachings of those such as Howell, Hibbert and Dunkley, as well as social and political movements against colonialism, many were convinced that Selassie was truly the Messiah.� Additionally, evidence from the interpretation of Biblical passages, especially with reference to Ethiopia, provided the Rastafarians with a solid foundation to support their faith. Eventually, Rastafarians were not only linking themselves to Ethiopia, but also called themselves Nya men � linking themselves to the anti-colonial Ugandan movement, Nyabingi, which called for �Death to Black and White Oppressors� (Campbell, 72).������
V. Representative Examples of Argumentation
As previous stated, there are few recorded examples of the Rastafarian insight into the nature of the world.� Musical lyrics and spoken-word (dub poetry) provide us with the most common recordings of Rastafarian �reasoning�.� In an attempt to illustrate the way a Rasta views society, I will use a sample of the work of the greatest dub-poet of all time, Mutabaruka.� His work is written in a combination of Jamaican English dialect with the use of Rasta sub-dialect commonly found in �speakifying� (extended reasoning).� The following excerpt from piece entitled �Nursery Rhyme Lament� also shows the creativity associated Rastafarian thought (web, Mutabaruka Online).� I have provided a translation following each verse for clarity.
Would run up the hill everyday
Now they have running water
But the water bill has gone up]
everday dem woulda reincarnate humpty dumpty
fi fall of de wall
likkle bway blue
who love to blow im horn to de sheep in the meddow
likkle bway blue grow up now
an de sheep dem get curried
ina likkle cold suppa shap dang de street
[everyday they would reincarnate humpty dumpty
to fall off the wall
Little Boy Blue
Loved to play his horn for the sheep in the meadow
Little Boy Blue had grow up
And they made a curry (stew) with the sheep
In the diner down the street]
Here, Mutabaruka plays with social conventions using nursery rhymes. His tone is sarcastic and harsh (best brought out as one would hear him speak). He wants to show that the nursery rhymes we teach our children have nothing to do with the realities of the system (Babylon), and that we need to face the truth. His writing style also leaves an open end for the listener�s personal introspection, possibly suggesting a starting point for �grounding� and �reasoning� session.�
VI. Suggested Position in Comparative Scales
a. Tradition (1) ---. experience (10): 8
Whereas tradition plays a major role in passing down of the central teaching of Rastafarianism, the focus on the personal experience of the individual is more important. Once the follower has the basic tools (ideas) to work with, the person must have establish personalized link with Jah as a means to see the truth in the world
�����������
b. Centralized authority (1) ---� decentralized authority (10): 9
The lack of emphasis on a centralized authority is one of the distinguishing marks of the Rastafarian movement.� Centralized authority is viewed a part of the Babylon system, and therefore should be avoided.
c. Emphasis on the invisible realm (1) ---. visible realities (10): 7
The system does talk about the invisible �earth-force� associated with God and the importance of connecting with this invisible force.� However, unlike the Christian tradition, the focus lies not in reaching a heavenly home, but returning to Zion (Ethiopia) the Promised Land.
�
d. Spiritual/moral goal (1) --- pragmatic objectives (10): 5
Rastafarianism has its spiritual and moral goals intimately tied up in pragmatic objectives.� While aiming to reveal the eternal truths regarding how one should achieve healthy spiritual life, they also aim to bring about the advancement of black people through an appreciation of their African heritage.� While being seemingly separate goals, the Rastafarian lifestyle (called �livity�) intends to bring about both.
e. Primarily divine power (1) --- individual power (10): 5
The Rastafarian believes in the ultimate power of Jah (�I�) in the universe.� Everything comes about through the hand of God.� However, one must still bear in mind that the concept of �I� ties each individual back to God.� God is �I�, and everyone is a part of God � therefore, everyone is �I� also.��
Secondary Sources
Bisnauth, Dale.� History of Religions in the Caribbean. �Trenton: Africa World Press, 1996.
This text is useful for finding a concise explanation of the history of the Rastafarian movement.� It is also helpful for comparing the origins of Rasta to other religious movements in the Caribbean.
Campbell, Horace. Rasta and resistance : from Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney. Trenton: Africa World Press, 1987
Here, one can find details on the more social aspects of Rasta culture.� This text focuses on the social reform aspect of the Rastafarian movement.
Chevannes Barry. Rastafari: roots and ideology. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
This text contains a basic overview of Rastafarian ideas and thought.� It is well written and easily understood.
Murrell, Samuel Nathaniel, William David Spencer, Adrian Anthony McFarlane and Clinton Chisholm, eds.� Chanting down Babylon: the Rastafari reader.� Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.
This text provides the most comprehensive coverage of the Rastafarian movement.� It is a compilation of articles written by several different people concerning the major issues in the Rasta movement.� This text proved the most helpful to me.
Waters, Anita M. Race, class, and political symbols: Rastafari and reggae in Jamaican politics.� New Brunswick: Transaction Books, c1985.
This text covers the mostly the political impact of the Rasta movement in Jamaica.� It is especially useful for uncovering the afro-centric ideals of the Rastafari.
[1] �All the days of the vow of his separation there shall not come razor upon his head� Numbers 6:5 KJV
| Marcus Garvey |
What is the official language of Mozambique? | Dread History: The African Diaspora, Ethiopianism, and Rastafari
Ethiopianism, and Rastafari
Diasporas invariably leave a trail of collective memory about other times and places. But while most displaced peoples frame these attachments with the aid of living memory and the continuity of cultural traditions, the memories of those in the African diaspora have been refracted through the prism of history to create new maps of desire and attachment. Historically, black peoples in the New World have traced memories of an African homeland through the trauma of slavery and through ideologies of struggle and resistance.
Ethiopianism and the Ideology of Nationhood
Arguably the most poignant of these discursive topographies is that of the Rastafari faith and culture. Like the Garvey Movement and other forms of pan-Africanism before it, the Rastafari fashion their vision of an ancestral homeland through a complex of ideas and symbols known as Ethiopianism, an ideology which has informed African-American concepts of nationhood, independence, and political uplift since the late 16th century. Derived from references in the Holy Bible to black people as 'Ethiopians', this discourse has been used to express the political, cultural, and spiritual aspirations of blacks in the Caribbean and North America for over three centuries. From the last quarter of the 18th century to the present, Ethiopianism has, at various times, provided the basis for a common sense of destiny and identification between African peoples in the North American colonies, the Caribbean, Europe, and the African continent.
While the present-day Rastafari Movement is undoubtedly the most conspicuous source of contemporary Ethiopianist identifications, the culture of Jah People obscures the wider historical range and scope of Ethiopianist ideas and identifications among African peoples in the Diaspora and on the continent. Names like Phyllis Wheatley, Bishop Richard Allen, Prince Hall, Denmark Vesey, Martin Delany, Casley Hayford, Frederick Douglass, Bishop Henry McNeil Turner, Albert Thorne, and Marcus Garvey all drew upon the powerful identification of this discourse to spread a message of secular and spiritual liberation of black peoples on the African continent and abroad. More so than any of his predecessors or contemporaries, however, it was Marcus Garvey--a Jamaican of proud Maroon heritage--who championed the cry of "Africa for the Africans, at home and abroad" and encouraged his followers in the biblical view that "every nation must come to rest beneath their own vine and fig tree."
From the period prior to the American Revolutionary War, slaves in North America equated Ethiopia with the ancient empires that flourished in the upper parts of the Nile Valley and--largely through biblical references and sermons--perceived this territory as central to the salvation of the black race. black converts to Christianity in colonial America cherished references to Ethiopia in the Bible for a number of reasons. These references depicted Blacks in a dignified and human light and held forth the promise of freedom. Such passages also suggested that African peoples had a proud and deep cultural heritage that pre-dated European civilization. The summation of these sentiments was most frequently identified with Psalm 68:31 where it is prophesied that "Princes shall come out of Egypt and Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God." During the late 18th century, black churchmen in the North American colonies made extensive use of Ethiopianist discourse in their sermons. Bishop Richard Allen, founder of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, was among those who identified the cause of African freedom with this prophecy in Psalms. During the Revolutionary War, it is reputed that one black regiment proudly wore the appellation of "Allen's Ethiopians." Phyllis Wheatley, the black poet-laureate of colonial America, also made frequent use of this discourse as did Prince Hall, a black Revolutionary War veteran and founder of the African Masonic Lodge. Commenting upon the successful slave insurrection in Haiti (1792-1800), Hall observed: "Thus doth Ethiopia begin to stretch forth her hand, from the sink of slavery, to freedom and equality." There was, in nearly all expressions of Ethiopianism, a belief in the redemption of the race linked to the coming of a black messiah. Perhaps the first expressed articulation of this idea is seen in The Ethiopian Manifesto published by Robert Alexander Young, a slave preacher in North America in 1829.
In large part because of the movement of peoples spurred in its aftermath, the American Revolutionary War provided a major impetus for the spread of Ethiopianism from Britain's North American to its Caribbean colonies. As British loyalists departed from North America for places like Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados, the churched slaves and former slaves who traveled with them transplanted Ethiopianism to these plantation societies and inaugurated an independent black religious tradition. In Jamaica, George Liele, a former slave and churchman from Savannah, Georgia, founded the first Ethiopian Baptist church in 1783. Liele called his followers "Ethiopian Baptists." Thus began a deep rooted tradition of Ethiopian identification in Jamaica, the birthplace of both Marcus Garvey's United Negro Improvement Association (founded in 1914) and the Rastafari movement (born in 1930).
Ethiopianism and its associated ideology of racial uplift also spread to the African continent. By the 1880 and 1890s, "Ethiopianist" churches, an independent black church movement, spread throughout Southern and Central Africa. During the same period, African-American churchmen missionized actively on the continent and, through the efforts of figures like Bishop Henry McNeil Turner, Ethiopianism served as an ideology which linked African-American brethren with their African brothers and sisters. During this same period, largely due to the sovereignty of Ethiopia amidst European colonialism on the continent, African Americans fixed greater attention on the ancient Empire of Ethiopia itself, thinking of Ethiopia as a black Zion . In 1896, the defeat of invading Italian forces by Menelik II in the Battle of Adwa served to bolster the mythic status and redemptive symbolism of Ethiopia in the eyes of Africans at home and abroad.
Ethiopia and Modern Pan-Africanism
By focusing attention on events on the continent, the Battle of Adwa served as a catalyst for a modern pan-African movement led by men like Casley Hayford of the Gold Coast, Albert Thorne of Barbados, and Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey. Garvey founded the largest mass black movement in history, starting in Jamaica and spreading his message to the rest of the Caribbean, Central and North America. Inspiring blacks through the African world with a vision of racial uplift, Garvey made conspicuous use of 18th century biblical Ethiopianism in his speeches and writings. For Garvey, it was "Every nation to their own vine and fig tree," a theme which continues to resonate in the contemporary Rastafari Movement. Garvey, like other pan-Africanists of his generation, saw the liberation of the African continent from colonialism as inseparable from the uplift of black peoples everywhere. In the 1920s, his movement reached from Harlem to New Orleans, from London to Cape Town, Lagos to Havana, and from Kingston to Panama. During this same decade, Garveyism and its associated rituals of black nationhood became a vibrant and essential element of the Harlem Renaissance.
Many scholars argue that Ethiopianism peaked during the early 1930s prior to and during the second Italian invasion of Ethiopia. Certainly the single event in this century which resonated with the multiple cultural, political, and religious dimensions of Ethiopianism was the coronation of Ras Tafari Makonnen , the then Prince Regent of Ethiopia. In November of 1930, the biblical enthronement of Ras Tafari as His Imperial Majesty, Emperor Haile Selassie I, King of Kings, Lord of Lords, and Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, became an internationally publicized event which was unique in the African world. The news of a black regent claiming descent through the biblical lineage of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, stirred the imaginations of an entire generation of African Americans and refocused attention upon ancient Ethiopia. The second Italian invasion of Ethiopia in October of 1935 produced an enormous wave of pro-Ethiopianist sentiments among blacks across the African continent as well as in the Caribbean, Europe, and the United States. Particularly to blacks in the diaspora the invasion was seen as an attack on the dominant symbol of African pride and cultural sovereignty. In Harlem, thousands of African Americans marched and signed petitions asking the U.S. government to allow them to fight on behalf of the Ethiopian cause. In Trinidad, this crisis in the black world coincided with the emergence of calypso and a fledgling Caribbean music industry. Calypsos which described the crisis from a black perspective were carried by West Indian seamen from port to port throughout the black world. Music--always an integral part of African and African American culture--served to crystallize shared sentiments of racial pride in support of the Ethiopian cause.
The Rastafari Vision and Culture
It is in the Rastafari movement, with its origins in Jamaica, that Ethiopianism has been most consistently elaborated for nearly seven decades. The biblical enthronement of Ras Tafari Makonnen in 1930 as His Imperial Majesty, Emperor Haile Selassie I, King of King, Lord of Lords, and Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah was an event widely reported throughout the European and colonial world. It was the ensuing interpretation of the Solomonic symbols by which Ras Tafari took possession of a kingdom with an ancient biblical lineage which transformed Ethiopia into an African Zion for the nascent Rasta movement. The independence of Ethiopia as one of only two sovereign nations on the African continent ensured Selassie's placement at the symbolic center of the African world throughout the colonial and much of the post-colonial period. Indicative of this is the fact that the Organization of African Unity (founded in 1963), is headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. To this day, it is the biblical imagery associated with the theocratic kingdom of Ethiopia which fuels a Rastafari vision of nationhood and underlies their deification of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Today, it is probably fair to say that when most people hear the word "Rastafari" they think of Bob Marley, the "king of reggae." Through his inspirational music, Marley did more to popularize and spread the Rasta message worldwide than any other single individual. But neither Marley or reggae represents the roots of the Rastafari experience. Reggae, as a music of populist black protest and experience which has had a formative experience upon Jamaican nationalism, emerged in Jamaica only during the early 1970s. For at least three decades previous to this, Rastafari in Jamaica were evolving an African-oriented culture based on their spiritual vision of repatriation to the African homeland.
The "Roots" or Elders of the movement have built upon earlier sources of African cultural pride, identification, and resistance such as those embodied by Jamaica's Maroons --runaway slaves who formed independent communities within the island's interior during the 17th century. Rastafari, in fact, must be seen as a religion and movement shaped by the African Diaspora and an explicit consciousness that black people are African 'exiles" outside their ancestral homeland. As one Rasta Elder stated, "Rastafari is a conception that was born at the moment that Europeans took the first black man out of Africa. They didn't know it then, but they were taking the first Rasta from his homeland."
From the early 1930s, Rastafari in Jamaica have developed a culture based on an Afrocentric reading of the Bible, on communal values, a strict vegetarian dietary code known as Ital, a distinctive dialect, and a ritual calendar devoted to, among other dates, the celebration of various Ethiopian holy days. Perhaps the most familiar feature of Rastafari culture is the growing and wearing of dreadlocks , uncombed and uncut hair which is allowed to knot and mat into distinctive locks. Rastafari regard the locks as both a sign of their African identity and a religious vow of their separation from the wider society they regard as Babylon . In the island of its birth, Rasta culture has also drawn upon distinctive African-Jamaican folk traditions which includes the development of a drumming style known as Nyabinghi . This term is similarly applied to the island-wide gatherings in which Rastafari brethren and sistren celebrate the important dates on an annual calendar.
With the advent of reggae, this deeper "roots culture" has spread throughout the Caribbean, to North American and European metropolis such as London, New York, Amsterdam, Toronto, and Washington, D.C., as well as to the African continent itself. This more recent growth and spread of the movement has resulted from a variety of factors. These include the migration of West Indians (e.g., Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Antiguans) to North America and Europe in search of employment, the travel of reggae musicians, and the more recent travel of traditional Rastafari Elders outside Jamaica. At the same time, many African American and West Indian individuals who have become Rastafari outside Jamaica now make "pilgrimages" to Jamaica to attend the island-wide religious ceremonies known as Nyabinghi and to seek out the deeper "roots culture" of the movement. Despite the fact that Rastafari continue to be widely misunderstood and stigmatized outside Jamaica, the movement embraces a non-violent ethic of "peace and love" and pursues a disciplined code of religious principles.
Since 1992 and the 100th anniversary of Haile Selassie's birth, the Rastafari settlement in Shashamane, Ethiopia (part of a land grant given to the black peoples of the West by Emperor Haile Selassie in 1955) has come to serve as a growing focal point for the movement's identification with Africa.
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In which city are the HQ of the West Mercia Constabulary? | West Mercia Police - West Mercia Police
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'Terrible Tudors' and 'Awesome Egyptians' were the first two titles in which series of illustrated books? | West Mercia Police - Hindlip Hall Police Headquarters
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Hindlip Hall Police Headquarters
West Mercia Police Headquarters is located at Hindlip Park on the outskirts of Worcester. The postal address is:
West Mercia Police Headquarters
Worcester
WR3 8SP
If you are a visitor to police headquarters, please report to the Hindlip Lodge gatehouse on arrival. You will be directed to the visitors car park and main reception areas from here.
Please note that access to the site from other entrances is controlled by security barriers and therefore all non-West Mercia headquarters personnel should use the main entrance as directed below.
Directions To Police Headquarters HindlipDirections To Police Headquarters
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From the M5
Leave the M5 at Junction 6 (Worcester North). From the motorway junction roundabout follow the directions for the A4538 towards Droitwich. At the Worcester Rugby Club roundabout, take the second exit, again signposted for Droitwich (Pershore Lane). Follow the road for approximately one mile and the main entrance to police headquarters is signposted on the left hand side. Please report to the gatehouse on entry.
From Droitwich
Take the A38 south towards Worcester. At the Martin Hussingtree traffic lights, turn left onto the A4538 (Pershore Lane), towards the M5 motorway and Worcester Rugby Club. The main entrance to police headquarters is signposted after half a mile on the right hand side. Please report to the gatehouse on entry.
From Worcester
Head north along the A38 towards Droitwich and through Fernhill Heath. At the Martin Hussingtree traffic lights, turn right onto the A4538 (Pershore Lane) towards the M5 motorway and Worcester Rugby Club. The main entrance to police headquarters is signposted after half a mile on the right hand side. Please report to the gatehouse on entry.
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The nearest railway stations are:
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Droitwich Spa (approx. 3.08 miles)
Worcester Foregate Street (approx. 2.88 miles)
A taxi from the railway station to police headquarters is recommended.
There are no direct bus services to Hindlip Park, although services to Droitwich do pass through Fernhill Heath and Martin Hussingtree, from where it is a short walk to police headquarters. Please visit Worcestershire County Council's website for further information about bus services in the area.
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In which country is the village of Ytterby, after which four chemical elements are named? | Each one has a story.
July 16 2010 9:56 AM
Blogging the Periodic Table
By Sam Kean
When it comes to the discovery of elements on the periodic table, you can divide the world into two parts—Ytterby, and everywhere else. Ytterby ("itt-ter-bee") is a village on a speck of an island outside of Stockholm. But no place on earth has been more important to the periodic table. A few places—if you count Latin names—can brag that two elements have been named for them. Ytterby has four. And it could have had more, since three other elements can trace their discovery to a modest mine that once supported the community there.
There are a few reasons why so much scientific energy was concentrated in such a small space as Ytterby. First is the type of elements discovered there. All seven of Ytterby's elements were rare-earth elements, and (for reasons explained in a previous post ) rare earths mix together in the ground almost indistinguishably. Where you discover one, you're going to find many others, and Sweden just happens to have rich deposits of rare earths. What's more, glaciers during the last Ice Age shaved away the top layers of soil over much of Sweden, exposing those deposits for easy mining.
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Another important reason is economic. The Ytterby mine opened not to find new elements (no money in that) but to find a mineral called feldspar. Feldspar is crucial for making Chinese porcelain, which Europeans had coveted since the days of Marco Polo in the 1300s. Two European chemists finally figured out how to make porcelain on their own circa 1700. (One of the duo, a teenager, had been condemned to death as a swindler and failed royal alchemist; he promised to discover the secrets of porcelain in exchange for his life, and succeeded.) Swedes liked porcelain because it made better stoves to warm their homes than iron did, and the mine ( Ytterby gruva in Swedish) opened in the late 1700s to cash in on the demand.
That still doesn't quite explain, though, why people discovered new elements there. Locals could have just mined the feldspar and dumped everything else in a refuse heap. But something else was happening, socially, in Sweden around that time—a scientific enlightenment. Geologists and chemists heard stories about the unusual minerals turning up in Ytterby and began shipping them to the world expert on such rocks, a Swede named Johan Gadolin.
Gadolin—an acquaintance of the legendary English porcelain maker Josiah Wedgwood—didn't quite have the technology to separate out all the elements in the rocks he examined. (Again, even 200 years later, rare earths are a real pain to get apart.) But Gadolin did discover at least one pure element and proved that others were concealed in the rocks. In fact, when later chemists with better tools set to work on the Ytterby lode, six more elements fell out.
Four of the names of these elements come straight from Ytterby—ytterbium, yttrium, terbium, and erbium. The names couldn't get much shorter—rbium doesn't look right—so for the rest, chemists picked holmium, after Stockholm; thulium, after a mythic name for Scandinavia; and gadolinium, after Gadolin himself.
Today, a visitor to Ytterby might never realize this island was the Galápagos of the periodic table, a place whose dazzling variety gave chemists crucial insights into their field. The mine shut down long ago, and trees and weeds have since grown over it. But at least the island itself hasn't forgotten its legacy. A small plaque on a rock near the mine commemorates the discoveries made there. And some local streets are named for elements—making it perhaps the only place in the world where knowledge of the periodic table is useful for getting around town.
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In which city did General Wolfe die in 1759? | ��ࡱ� > �� _ a ���� ^ �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� '` �� S bjbj$�$� 8H F� F� � g �� �� �� � Z Z Z Z Z Z Z $ ~ � � � P $ : $ ~ �L $ j j j j j � � � uL wL wL wL wL wL wL $ N h �P � �L Z � � " � � � �L Z Z j j 3 �L � � � � � Z j Z j uL � � uL � � � UJ D Z Z L j ^ J�7��� � f d �K & uL �L 0 �L �K J (Q � � (Q L L (Q Z L l � � { � � l m � � � �L �L � R � � � �L � � � � ~ ~ ~ � B � ~ ~ ~ B ~ ~ ~ Z Z Z Z Z Z �L Worksheet: What Are The Symbols For The Elements? Symbols are signs that stand for something else. Here are some symbols that you may know: $ % @ & #. What does each one stand for? There is a symbol for each of the 106 chemical elements. There are 106 symbols because there are 106 elements. The symbols for the elements are the same all over the world. It makes no difference what country you are in or what language you speak; the chemical symbols are the same. HOW DO THE ELEMENTS GET THEIR SYMBOLS? Often the first letter of the element�s name is the symbol for that element. The name of the element may begin with a letter that is already the symbol for another element. In that case, it may be the first and second letters that are used or the first letter and another letter in the name may be used to make the symbol. The first letter of the symbol is always capitalized. The second letter (if used) is always a lowercase letter. A few elements are named after places or famous scientists. HOW ELEMENTS ARE NAMED Study the Periodic Table of Elements that you were given. Do any of the names of the elements sound familiar? They should. Some elements have ancient names of Latin and Greek origins; but many other were named for famous scientists, countries, planets, etc. With a copy of the Periodic Table before you, answer the following questions. There are several elements named for famous scientists. Can you find three? __________________ , __________________ , and _____________________ There are four elements named for the planets. Can you find all four of them? __________________ , ___________________ , ___________________ , and ____________________ There is one element named for a city in the United States and another for the state of that city. Can you find the element named for the city and the element named for the state? (Hint: They are next to each other on the table.) ___________________ and ___________________ There are two elements named for large regions which include several countries. Do you know what these elements are called? ________________ and ________________ Element numbers 39, 65, 68, and 70 were all named for the same city, Ytterby, Sweden. What are the names of these elements? __________________ , ___________________ , ___________________ , and ____________________ The ancient name for France was Gaul, and the ancient name for Russia was Ruthernia. Can you find the elements named for these ancient lands? _____________________ and _______________________ Find the elements named in honor of France, America, Poland, and Germany. __________________ , ___________________ , ___________________ , and ____________________ ANCIENT NAMES FOR THE ELEMENTS Plumbum Natrium Aurum Stibium Argentum Hydrargyrum (Greek) Kalium Ferrum This exercise will help you to remember the symbols of some of the elements which are not similar to their modern names. The elements listed above were named in ancient times by the early Romans and Greeks. Although we do not use these names, we have kept the symbols. How many of these ancient names can you match to their modern names and symbols given below? Modern Name Symbol Ancient Name Antimony Sb ___________________________ Gold Au ___________________________ Iron Fe ___________________________ Silver Ag ___________________________ Sodium Na ___________________________ Potassium K ___________________________ Lead Pb ___________________________ Mercury Hg ___________________________ COMPLETE SENTENCES Complete the sentences with the words below. capital two elements symbol small The short way of writing an element name is called its _________________________. The first letter of a chemical symbol is always a ___________________ letter. If a chemical symbol has two letters, the second letter is always a ______________ letter. A chemical symbol never has more than __________ letters. Chemists use symbols for the names of ______________________. 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Which island is the burial place of many Scottish kings and Labour leader John Smith? | Anger grows as visitors flock to Smith grave | The Independent
Anger grows as visitors flock to Smith grave
Iona/cemetery overwhelmed
Saturday 3 June 1995 23:02 BST
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The Independent Online
ONE year after the former Labour leader John Smith was buried on Iona, the ancient Hebridean resting place of Scottish kings and clan chiefs, emotions over his grave site are running high.
Crofters and fishermen are distressed that Mr Smith's tomb, which was completed last week when a headstone was laid, is attracting thousands of visitors who are "desecrating" the historic cemetery at Iona Abbey. Graves surrounding Mr Smith's have caved in and 13th-Century pathways have been destroyed as tourists flock to pay their respects to the much- loved politician.
For many islanders, who opposed the decision to grant Mr Smith - a mainlander - a plot in a cemetery normally reserved for locals and their descendants, the grave has now become a symbol of upset. The visitors, they say, have damaged the revered site of Scotland's earliest Christian settlement.
The trouble began last month as the first summer tourists walked ashore off the ferry from Mull and made straight for Mr Smith's grave. Locals had hoped that one year after his death the number of political pilgrims would drop sharply. So many arrived last summer that Abbey managers were forced to fence off the grave and the adjoining plots to prevent damage.
But their hopes proved forlorn. Last Monday, with up to 1,000 visitors arriving at the gates of the Reilig Odhrain cemetery each day, the barriers went up again. And this time the damage was even worse. Five graves next to Mr Smith's were collapsing and headstones had been trampled on. Pathways leading to the grave were cracked and bare.
Although Argyll and Bute District Council has raised and returfed the sunken plots and begun to repair the paths, many of Iona's 100-strong community, who grudgingly accepted the council's decision to approve a request from Mr Smith's family for a burial site on the island, are now publicly voicing concern.
Iain Dougall, a fisherman whose parents are buried five feet from John Smith, watches in horror as tourists tramp over their grave. "It is very frustrating and upsetting," he said. "Every day it is the same. They get off their coaches and rush to the cemetery, ask where John Smith is buried and march across all the other graves to get there and take their photographs.
"My parents were buried at the Abbey because they were island folk. But John Smith was an outsider. These visitors are destroying locals' graves as they try to pay their respects to a man who, by rights, should not be here. His grave has changed the atmosphere of this simple cemetery. Now that it has become an unofficial tourist attraction my parents can no longer rest in peace, and I and other relatives are suffering."
Mary Hay, whose mother also lies alongside Mr Smith, said: "Most people on the island were against the burial plan at first but when it was approved they bit their tongues and accepted it. Now, with all the damage, they are asking: 'Why John Smith? Why should he be granted such an honour?' There are plenty of other people who have done more for Iona and come here more often but they have no chance of being buried here."
Managers at the Abbey concede the large number of visitors poses a serious problem. Crichton Lang, who runs the site for the Iona Abbey Trustees, said: "A lot of people who come are not interested in where Macbeth is buried, they only want to see John Smith. Visitors have been behaving quite appallingly - clambering all over the graveyard and standing on the headstones to get a better view. The damage is severe."
Faced with ever-rising visitor numbers - more than 100,000 tourists travelled to Iona last year and there is no sign of a reduction - the trustees and Argyll and Bute councillors are considering plans to build paved pathways and permanent barriers around Mr Smith's grave and the adjoining plots, closing part of the ancient burial ground for the first time.
Tom McKay, the council's director of environmental services, said: "Mr Smith would have hated to see the damage at an abbey he loved."
But Evelyn MacPhail, 71,chairwoman of Iona Community Council, says that fences, paths and signs will further desecrate the graveyard, which is a protected national monument. "Islanders don't want any sort of barriers here," she said.
However, Mrs MacPhail cannot see an alternative. "With hindsight the decision to approve the burial was very unwise, a bad mistake. Now, it appears, we have to live with these awful consequences."
John Smith's widow, Elizabeth, acknowledged islanders' concerns. Baroness Smith said: "I know people are upset and I am sorry about that. It was a wonderful thing when John was given the right to be buried on Iona. At that time no one could have foreseen the number of people who would visit. The damage to graves is a very sensitive subject, and I would urge all tourists to treat this sacred place with more respect."
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Which national newspaper has been edited by William Rees-Mogg, Charles Douglas-Home and Peter Stoddard? | St. Oran's Cemetery (Iona, Scotland): Address, Attraction Reviews - TripAdvisor
St. Oran's Cemetery
Does this attraction provide visitors with a taste of the local culture?
Yes
Is this attraction exciting, unusual, or risky to visit?
Yes
Is this attraction pet friendly?
Yes
Would this be a good cold day activity?
Yes
Is this an outdoor attraction or activity?
Yes
Is this attraction popular with locals?
Yes
Is this attraction wheelchair accessible?
Yes
Do you find this attraction suitable for young children?
Yes
Do you find this attraction suitable for families?
Yes
Is this attraction accessible using public transportation?
Yes
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Some of the biggest names in Scottish royalty have been buried here since...
Some of the biggest names in Scottish royalty have been buried here since Scotland's earliest days.
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Terrible
“Graveyards are cool”
Walk in the shadow of great men and women of faith. It is a must see as you visit Iona and the monastery. I loved the solemnity and solitude.
Reviewed 24 November 2016
51 Reviews from our TripAdvisor Community
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“Graveyards are cool”
Reviewed 24 November 2016
Walk in the shadow of great men and women of faith. It is a must see as you visit Iona and the monastery. I loved the solemnity and solitude.
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“Cemetery of Kings”
Reviewed 14 October 2016
The cemetery is known as Relig Odhrain. Named after one of St Columba's followers, Odhrain or Oran, who according to the legend volunteered to be buried alive as a sacrifice to prevent the walls of the first church built here from falling down. What concerned me was that around 30 of the most important grave markers and carved stones have... More
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“Worth a Visit”
Reviewed 14 September 2016
This cemetery is reputed to be the burial location for many of the kings of Norway and Scotland, including Macbeth. Whether or not this is true or not, it is certainly interesting and historical. St. Oran's chapel is also located here and both are free.
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Reviewed 7 September 2016 via mobile
Always interesting to wander through and admire the history of what is buried here. So refreshing to see that cemeteries are respected. There was a plaque describing some of the notable people buried here that also explained just how violent some of the clans were in times gone by. Takes about 5-10minutes to wander through.
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“Great History”
Reviewed 30 August 2016
After visiting you fully appreciate the location and desire for people to be buried here. The gravestones indicate in detail the history of Iona.
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“Said to be the burial place of Macbeth- no signs of”
Reviewed 24 August 2016
This cemetery is the final resting place of the Labour leader John Smith. It offers a historical perspective of Iona Abbey and is said to be the burial place of many nobles. It is still in use. Some of the head stones are of interest from a human story point of view. The chapel has some fine old grave stone... More
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“Fascinating burial place”
Reviewed 30 July 2016
The last resting place of kings, many of the older gravestones from here have been placed in the Iona Abbey museum, but lots of interesting ones still remain. John Smith, former leader of the Labour Party, is buried here, and people have marked his grave with pebbles.
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“Incredibly historical place”
Reviewed 29 July 2016
The cemetery is situated right beside the reconstructed Abbey of St. Colm Cille, but is free to the public. It has been a burial ground since at least 600ad, and it is said that many kings, warriors and various important people are interred there. A fascinating place, and nice, if unusual, place for a picnic.
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“Many of the impressive memorial stones are now displayed at the Abbey museum”
Reviewed 21 July 2016
The burial ground, Reilig Odhrain, was consecrated at the time St Columba founded the influential Iona Abbey around AD 563 and whilst legend has it that early Scottish Kings are buried here, up to and including MacBeth of Shakespeare fame, this cannot be confirmed. What is certain is the reference to the Kings of The Isles (or the Lords of... More
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The film 'Murder, She Said' is based on which Agatha Christie book in which 'Miss Marple' witnesses a passenger on a train being strangled? | Murder She Said Reviews & Ratings - IMDb
IMDb
36 out of 37 people found the following review useful:
"They don't make them like that anymore!"
from Poole, Dorset
14 October 2003
An elderly spinster called Miss Marple witnesses a man strangling a woman on a passing train. When nobody believes her she investigates the crime herself.
Murder She Said marked the first big-screen appearance of Agatha Christie's Miss Marple. The script by David Pursall and Jack Seddon is based on the 1957 novel "4:50 From Paddington". It's success lead to three more equally entertaining films starring Margaret Rutherford. Agatha Christie liked Rutherford as an actress but thought that she was all wrong for the part. Indeed Rutherford is nothing like the Jane Marple that Joan Hickson would portray in the highly successful BBC series of the 1980's-90's, but she is a delight to watch as she makes the part entirely her own and earned herself a legion of fans. Incedentally, Hickson appears in this film in a minor role as the miserable housekeeper Mrs Kidder. A great supporting cast includes Muriel Pavlow, Arthur Kennedy and James Robertson Justice. Charles Tingwell plays the hapless Inspector Craddock who cannot bear Miss Marple interfering and solving his cases for him, a role which in which he is featured in all the entries in this series. Another regular in the series is Stringer Davis (Rutherford's real life husband) who plays the local librarian and her closest friend Mr Stringer.
Director George Pollock worked steadily as an assistant director during the forties and fifties and during that time he learned at the feet of some of Britain's most acclaimed directors such as Thorold Dickinson on Gaslight (1940) and David Lean on Brief Encounter, Great Expectations (both 1945) and Oliver Twist (1948). After directing a few trivial comedies such as Village Of Daughters (1961), Pollock had an opportunity with the Marple films to show that he was a very good director investing the films with great British humour as well as intriguing mystery making them timeless entertainment. The films resembled the quota quickies of the 1950's, but they were done with a slightly higher budget, more professionalism and better production values. In addition, Ron Goodwin's music is splendid and the harpsichord laden theme tune would become familiar as it was used in all the other entries in this series. I don't think I would be going over the top to use a well worn phrase "they don't make them like that anymore". "4:50 From Paddington" has been filmed twice subsequently. In 1987 the BBC gave us a faithful but rather stodgy version starring Joan Hickson and ITV filmed it in 2004 as part of their new series of Miss Marple whodunits starring Geraldine McEwan. But the less said about these the better.
Sequels: MURDER AT THE GALLOP (1963), MURDER MOST FOUL (1964) and MURDER AHOY (produced in 1964 but released in late 1965 to space out the series).
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33 out of 34 people found the following review useful:
Delightful depiction of Miss Jane Marple
from Toronto, Canada
22 November 2004
So yes, Miss Agatha Christie herself did not quite care for Miss Margaret Rutherford in the role but Miss Rutherford made of the part her own in her own inimitable fashion even going to the extent of having her very own obedient side-kick, her real-life husband Stringer Davis, known as Jim Stringer in the series, inserted into it. She called the shots and kept the studio afloat. And what a series!
This is the first in it and it evokes the era extraordinarily well, the quick murder and disposal of the body, the old country house, the many suspicious relatives and one of my favourites, James Robertson Justice heading up the entire clan. He even gets to propose to the lady herself, so impressed is he with her detecting.
Add the requisite cute kid, Ronnie Raymond, an excellent bit part by Joan Hickson (the future Miss Marple in the excellent BBC series) and what faults are there to be found in this unique first film of four in the series.
8 out of 10.
Incredibly entertaining, wonderful use of black and white film medium and a really good score.
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25 out of 26 people found the following review useful:
Grand-Dame Good Film
from NC
1 January 2000
Grand Dame Margaret Rutherford gives a fine performance as super sleuth Jane Marple in this, the first of four films based on Christie's detective. Agatha Christie was upset with the casting of Rutherford in the role of her dowdy, inquisitive, rather passive detective who solves crimes more on what she hears from other people more than anything else. And who cannot understand her concerns, initially? Rutherford is the antithesis of the fictional Marple. She is a battleship on screen with her plump, statuesque build, her one-of-a-kind visage, her English aristocratic bearing and wit, and her anything but passive behaviour. To put it bluntly, Christie's character was only that character in name.....but....this does not detract from the film in the least for me. And I should expect that only die-hard fans of Miss Marple will not enjoy this film for it is a good mystery, has excellent character acting, a zippy score, and some wonderful witty dialogue. Most of all, it has Dame Margaret Rutherford give a larger-than-life performance that promises to bring you many smiles and some good laughs.
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29 out of 35 people found the following review useful:
Only the First of Four!
from United Kingdom
26 May 2005
I do like "good films" and I rate this as one of the best! Margaret Rutherford is not an ideal Miss Marple according to the books, but Agatha Christie did visit the set of this film and was a good friend of Margaret Rutherford. Apparently she also said to Joan Hickson that she would one day make a good Miss Marple... which she did indeed do in the BBC series! However, Margaret Rutheford brought Miss Marple to the public's attention, and despite rumours, she only played the role 4 times! Stringer Davies always played the role of Mr Stringer, in fact he was her real life husband! The theme music by Ron Goodwin is outstanding, and he should have been knighted for his contribution to cinema music, not just for this film, but for films like "Where Eagles Dare".(Tony Blair take note!) The themes to each of the 4 films were a slight variation: hence for "Murder Ahoy" it included tradition sea melodies.
I have the four disc DVD set released last year. It is a pity the makers MGM did not include "making of" material, or even locational information. MGM seem to have forgotten that they made many of their greatest films in Borehamwood in Hertfordshire, UK, and not in the USA!
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20 out of 21 people found the following review useful:
How the Manor of a murder was kept off track...
from Hartlepool. England
22 November 2001
As other critics have previously pointed out, Margaret Rutherford's portrayal of Jane Marple has little in common with the visions of the character's creator, Agatha Christie. However, just as Basil Rathbone's depiction of Sherlock Holmes (both in his character portrayal and in the film company's telling of most of the tales) had little to do with the original writer's intentions, so too did both he and Miss Rutherford seem to create pseudo-characters, from worthwhile plots, of equal value and entertainment levels.
As the first of a wonderful quartet of easy-to-view movies made in black and white in early 60's England (and the second best of them, overall, in my opinion), this appropriately atmospheric film takes us through a clever little screenplay centred around the family of a large estate 'in the sticks' (on the outskirts of London). The storyline is littered with a mixture of eccentric and fundamental cameo parts that serve up the right amount of suspense and partial comedy as Miss Marple (and her buddy, Mr.Stringer) take it upon themselves to solve a railway murder that Inspector Craddock, the local 'head plod', had put down to being the by-product of her rambling 'hallucinations'.
Not surprisingly, we are kept on our toes as to whom was the culprit as the intrepid Jane goes undercover as a geriatric maid who proves to be so competent in her matriarchal manoeuvres that the 'Lord of the Manor' (superbly played, as ever, by the magnificent James Robertson Justice) seeks her hand in marriage as a sort of reward for her spirited detective work. However, Dame Rutherford had Stringer to consider - not least because he was her partner in real life - and there were of course other stories to film in the future...
What a pity they didn't follow Rathbone and Bruce by making around a dozen of these marvellous movies!
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19 out of 21 people found the following review useful:
Classic Film!
from USA
12 August 1999
Many people criticise this movie because Margaret Rutherford doesn't have the "look" to play Miss Marple. However, that doesn't change the fact that this is an excellent film that, while it doesn't stick to the book much, does a great job of entertaining the viewer. It's getting harder and harder to find all 4 videos from the series (this was the first). It took me around a year to get all of them , with Murder Ahoy being the easiest (easily found at Suncoast Video) and Murder Most Foul being the hardest to find. (I had to special order from Canada for around $20) These movies are well worth the price though, and provide not only great mysteries, but also wonderful entertainment!!
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18 out of 20 people found the following review useful:
A delightful cozy Christie adaptation
from Carmel New York
12 November 2002
'Murder She Said' is not a great or classic film, yet it is one that I return to all the time. The setting is England, late fall, in the latter 1950's. It stars the delightful Margaret Rutherford as Miss Marple...Mrs. Christie (Mallowan) never felt she resembled Jane Marple in the least...but she did dedicate one of her later books to her. Also appearing in the film is Stringer Davis, Ms. Rutherford's real life husband, who is totally endearing and appeared in three subsequent Marple films with his wife.
Coincidentally Joan Hickson appears in this film and she later went on to much acclaim portraying Jane Marple in the BBC series of Marple mysteries.
Although the film differs in many ways from the original book (you'll have to view the BBC video '4:50 from Paddington' with Joan Hickson for some integrity to the original Christie story ) it is a very entertaining light experience with a bevy of fascinating British characters.
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13 out of 13 people found the following review useful:
Pure treasure
from United States
12 April 2007
The first in a series of four Miss Marple films featuring the incomparable Margaret Rutherford as the elderly spinster with excellent detective abilities from the popular Agatha Christie novels.
The story sticks relatively close to the events in the novel 4:50 from Paddington, with one major exception that may surprise fans of this series who have not read the novels. Christie's Marple was really a sedate, seemingly dithery woman who basically spends most of the books sitting on her backside knitting - in fact, in some of the novels Marple actually gets very little time and is merely on-hand to piece together the clues provided by others and provide the name of the culprit. In this case, screenwriters wisely combined a young character with Miss Marple so she remains front and center in the action. I much prefer these films as opposed to the more traditional renderings from BBC/PBS as Miss Marple is depicted here as such a vital and uniquely active free spirit. Rutherford is simply wonderful with her unforgettable expressions. She plays well off a diversity of people, including the gloriously crusty hypochondriac patriarch James Robertson Justice, the mischievous grandson Ronnie Raymond, the mildly exasperated police inspector Charles Tingwell or the gentle compatriot Stringer Davis.
A delightful series and a testament to a great talent who should never be forgotten.
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16 out of 21 people found the following review useful:
light-hearted mystery with that British edge !
Author: bjobrei
5 July 2005
My recent discovery of the old Rutherford-Marple films has been sort of a revelation to me. Joan Hickson (who interestingly appears in this film) does a more accurate Marple if you read the novels, but I feel Rutherfords interpretation gives the part the edge needed for the screen. Light hearted and managing to combine some dry British humor with suspense. Sort of a forgotten art nowadays. So far I have seen three Rutherford Marple-films, this one, murder a the gallop and murder ahoy. I do rate Murder she said as the best, it seems slightly more inspired than the others, though they are all enjoyable. There are of course a few complaints. Mrs. Rutherfords husband is obviously included in the film for no other reason than being her husband. The character of young Alexander is simply annoying, and the ending is a bit of a disappointment. Still, do see this movie if you enjoy the typical British dry wit, and watch out for the stunning appearance of James Robertson Justice !
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8 out of 10 people found the following review useful:
Funny and Entertaining
from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
11 June 2013
While traveling back home by train, the spinster Miss Jane Marple (Margaret Rutherford) witnesses a woman being strangled by a man in another train. She reports the murder to the police. However Inspector Craddock (Charles Tingwell) does not find any corpse or evidence of the reported murder and discredits the old lady believing that she is senile and has imagined the crime since she is fan of detective stories.
Miss Marple decides to investigate the crime and she concludes that the corpse was dumped at the Ackenthorpe Hall and she gets a job of housemaid, cleaning and cooking for the Ackenthorpe family. Soon she learns that they are a dysfunctional family and the heirs are like vulture around of the selfish patriarch Luther Ackenthorpe (James Robertson Justice, waiting for their inheritance. Therefore all of them may be the culprit for the murder
or not?
"Murder She Said" is a funny and entertaining comedy and mystery movie based on a novel by Agatha Christie. The simple storyline works due to the performance of Margaret Rutherford, who is delightful in the role of the old spinster and amateurish detective Miss Marple. My vote is six.
Title (Brazil): "Quem Viu, Quem Matou
" ("Who Saw, Who Killed
")
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| 4.50 from Paddington |
Which act represented Ireland in the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest? | Miss Marple by Readers Gazette
The Murder at the Vicarage
With seven suspects and two confessions and a despised victim, Miss Marple has her work cut out to discover the real killer.
Colonel Protheroe is found shot in the head at the Vicar’s study and with the Vicar also commenting he would of happily killed the man he is one of the suspects as well as being the narrator of this story.
In this book, Miss Marple is a gossip and not an especially nice woman. The other villagers while liking her are often tired by her nosy nature and how she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books she becomes a much kinder person.
The Body in the Library
An unknown corpse found in Colonel Arthur Bantry's library, Dolly Bantry's reaction on seeing the body of a beautiful, but very dead, blonde in her library is to immediately call for her friend Jane Marple. The police identify the girl as Ruby Keene, a dance hostess. She was reported missing by elderly invalid Conway Jefferson who, fond of Ruby, planned to adopt her - much against his family's wishes. When the body of another dead girl turns up, Miss Marple, with her incredible eye for spotting the clues that others overlook.
The investigation leads to the Majestic Hotel in nearby Danemouth, where an odd assortment of guests seem to have something to hide. But shrewd Miss Marple needs all her experience to unravel the mystery – before the killer strikes again!
The Moving Finger
Lymstock is a town with more than its share of shameful secrets – a town where even a sudden outbreak of anonymous hate-mail causes only a minor stir.
But all that changes when one of the recipients, Mrs Symmington, commits suicide. Her final note said ‘I can’t go on’. Scotland Yard sends an investigator, who comes to the conclusion that the letter-writer/murderer is a middle-aged woman who must be one of the prominent citizens of Lymstock. Progress is slow until the vicar's wife calls up an expert of her own, Miss Marple.
Only Miss Marple questions the coroner’s verdict of suicide. Was this the work of a poison-pen? Or of a poisoner?
A Murder is Announced
The villagers of Chipping Cleghorn, including Miss Marple, are agog with curiosity over an advertisement in the local gazette which reads: ‘A murder is announced and will take place on Friday October 29th, at Little Paddocks at 6.30 p.m..’
A childish practical joke? Or a hoax intended to scare poor Letitia Blacklock? Unable to resist the mysterious invitation, a crowd begins to gather at Little Paddocks at the appointed time when, without warning, the lights go out...
They Do It With Mirrors
Miss Marple senses danger when she visits a friend living in a Victorian mansion which doubles as a rehabilitation centre for delinquents. Her fears are confirmed when a youth fires a revolver at the administrator, Lewis Serrocold. Neither is injured. But a mysterious visitor, Mr Gulbrandsen, is less fortunate – shot dead simultaneously in another part of the building.
Pure coincidence? Miss Marple thinks not, and vows to discover the real reason for Mr Gulbrandsen's visit.
A Pocket Full of Rye
A handful of grain is found in the pocket of a murdered businessman…
Rex Fortescue, king of a financial empire, was sipping tea in his ‘counting house’ when he suffered an agonising and sudden death. On later inspection, the pockets of the deceased were found to contain traces of cereals.
Yet, it was the incident in the parlour which confirmed Jane Marple’s suspicion that here she was looking at a case of crime by rhyme…
The next to be murdered is a maid named Gladys with whom Miss Marple was acquainted. She knew Gladys to be romantic and gullible. The other maid, Ellen, was hanging out the washing when she found Glady's body all mangled up in the clothes line with a peg on her nose.
It seems someone is murdering to the theme of Sing A Song Of Sixpence...
4.50 from Paddington or What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!
Elspeth McGillicuddy is not a woman usually given to hallucinations. But when she witnesses what appears to be a woman being strangled on a train and no one else sees it, no one reports it and no corpse is found she turns to her old friend Jane Marple to help solve the puzzle.
Miss Marple asks her highly efficient and intelligent young acquaintance Lucy Eyelesbarrow, to infiltrate the Crackenthorpe family, who seem to be at the heart of the mystery, and help unmask a murderer.
The story is centered around the Crackenthorpe family who live at Rutherford Hall.
The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side
There is great interest in the quiet little village of St Mary Mead when the residents learn that Marina Gregg, the famous actress, has bought Gossington Hall. And when she throws the Hall open for a fête no-one is more excited than homely Heather Badcock who met the actress years before. But Heather’s visit to Gossington Hall ends in her sudden death. Why would anyone want to kill this unassuming woman? It falls to Inspector Craddock to enlist the help of his aunt, the astute Jane Marple, to solve this perplexing case.
One minute, silly Heather Badcock had been gabbling on at her movie idol, the glamorous Marina Gregg. The next, Heather suffered a massive seizure. But for whom was the deadly poison really intended?
Marina's frozen expression suggested she had witnessed something horrific. But, while others searched for material evidence, Miss Marple conducted a very different investigation – into human nature.
A Caribbean Mystery
As Miss Marple sat basking in the Caribbean sunshine she felt mildly discontented with life. True, the warmth eased her rheumatism, but here in paradise nothing ever 'happened'.
Eventually, her interest was aroused by an old soldier’s yarn told by Major Palgrave who asked her if she would like to see a photograph of a murderer. There once was a man who had a wife who tried to hang herself, but failed. Then she tried again later, and succeeded in killing herself, he then had a wife that tried to gas herself...
Infuriatingly, just as he was about to show her the astonishing photograph, the Major’s attention wandered. He never did finished the story as the next day he was found dead in his room of a possible heart attack.
At Bertram's Hotel
An old-fashioned London Hotel is not quite as reputable as it makes out… When Miss Marple comes up from the country for a holiday in London, she finds what she’s looking for at Bertram’s Hotel: traditional decor, impeccable service and an unmistakable atmosphere of danger behind the highly polished veneer.
Yet, not even Miss Marple can foresee the violent chain of events set in motion when an eccentric guest makes his way to the airport on the wrong day.
One of the guests is the oft-married Lady Bess Sedgwick, who seems to be very friendly with racing driver Ladislaus Malinowski. Bess’s estranged daughter Elvira is also staying at Bertram’s and it seems that she too knows Ladislaus rather well. Where does the rather vague Canon Pennyfather fit in with these glamorous people and why was he abducted? With her customary wisdom; Jane Marple pulls together the strands of this strange puzzle.
Nemesis
Summoned by the soliciters of financier Rafiel after the old man's death, Miss Marple is asked to investigate a bizarre and unidentified crime of which Rafiel has warned them of from the grave.
In utter disbelief Miss Marple read the letter addressed to her from the recently deceased Mr Rafiel -- an acquaintance she had met briefly on her travels. Recognising in Miss Marple a natural flair for justice, Mr Rafiel had left instructions for her to investigate a crime after his death. The only problem was, he had failed to tell her who was involved or where and when the crime had been committed.
Miss Marple's first clue is a tour of famous houses and gardens of Great Britain, arranged for her by Mr. Rafiel prior to his death. She is accompanied on the trip by fourteen other people, were they invited by the dead Mr. Rafiel too...
| i don't know |
The FINA World Championships contain five sports - diving, swimming, open water swimming, synchronised swimming and which other? | fina.org - Official FINA website |
VIDEOS
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The games are starting and we have a bunch of athletes we are crossing our fingers for! Watch some oft he best moments from Michael Phelps, Chad Leclos , Cameron van der Burgh, Florent Manaudou,...
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The Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro will be the last Olympics for Michael Phelps (USA). Phelps can look back to an incredible and unique career. He won 22 Olympic Medals (18 Gold Medals) and set...
| Water polo |
Who is the new judge on 'Dragon's Den'? | Overview | fina.org - Official FINA website
Careers
Overview
The “Fédération Internationale de Natation” (FINA) was founded in London July 19, 1908 during the Olympic Games in London (GBR). Eight national federations were responsible for the formation of FINA: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary and Sweden.
The states aims of the Federation were:
1. to establish unified rules for swimming, diving and water polo, applicable at Olympic Games and other international competitions;
2. to verify world records and establish an official updated world records list;
3. to manage swimming competitions at the Olympic Games.
In September 2015, under the presidency of Dr. Julio C. Maglione, FINA comprises 207 National Member Federations in the five continents. The principal objectives are the following:
- to promote and encourage the development of Aquatics in all possible regards throughout the world;
- to provide fair and drug free sport;
- to promote and encourage the development of international relations;
- to encourage participation in Aquatics disciplines at all levels throughout the world regardless of age, gender or race;
- to adopt necessary uniform rules and regulations and to hold competitions in Swimming, Open Water Swimming, Diving, Water Polo, Synchronised Swimming, High Diving and Masters;
- to promote and organise World Championships and other FINA competitions;
- to encourage the increase of facilities for Aquatics’ disciplines throughout the world with the support of other interested parties, and
- to carry out such other activities as may be desirable to promote the sport.
Today, FINA controls the development of the following aquatic events:
- Swimming: freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, medley, relays, mixed relays
- Diving: springboard (1m, 3m), platform (10m), synchronised diving (3m and 10m), mixed and team events
- High Diving: men (27m) and women (20m)
- Water polo: men and women
- Synchronised swimming: solo, duet, mixed duet, team and free combination
- Open water swimming: 5km, 10km, 25km, team event
Since 1973, FINA organises World Championships with on the programme swimming, diving, high diving, water polo, synchronised swimming and open water swimming. The first 16 editions took place in Belgrade (YUG, 1973), Cali (COL, 1975), Berlin (GER, 1978), Guayaquil (ECU, 1982), Madrid (ESP, 1986), Perth (AUS, 1991), Rome (ITA, 1994), Perth (AUS, 1998), Fukuoka (JPN, 2001), Barcelona (ESP, 2003), Montreal (CAN, 2005), Melbourne (AUS, 2007), Rome (ITA, 2009), Shanghai (CHN, 2011), Barcelona (ESP, 2013) and Kazan (RUS, 2015). The next editions will take place in Budapest (HUN, 2017) and Gwangju (KOR, 2019).
Milestones in the FINA history include the introduction of: World Cups in swimming, diving, water polo and synchronised swimming (1979), World Masters Championships (1986), World Swimming Championships in 25m-pool (every two years since 1993), Marathon Swimming World Cup (1994), Diving Grand Prix (1995) and the Super Final of the Diving Grand Prix (1998), World Open Water Swimming Championships (2000), Water Polo World Leagues for men (2002) and for women (2004), World Junior Swimming Championships (2006), Synchronised Swimming World Trophy (2006), Diving World Series (2007), World Water Polo Development Trophy (2007), 10km Marathon Swimming World Cup (2007), Open Water Swimming Grand Prix (2007), World Junior Open Water Swimming Championships (2012) and High Diving World Cup (2014).
FINA and its aquatic disciplines are also a pillar of the Olympic Movement and give a decisive contribution to the success of the Games. Swimming is part of the Olympic programme since 1896, Water Polo became the first team sport in the Games in 1900, and Diving made its appearance in 1904. Eighty years later, in 1984, Synchronised Swimming joined the Olympic “club”, while Marathon Swimming (10km race for men and women) is included in the Olympic programme since 2008.
FINA’s daily activities can be summarised as follows:
- Drive global awareness on the importance of physical activity through attractiveness of Aquatic disciplines;
- Define rules for the harmonious worldwide development of Swimming, Water Polo, Diving, High Diving, Synchronised Swimming, Open Water Swimming and Masters;
- Ensure application of principles for fair play and drug-free sport;
- Reinforce the co-operation and mutual support with FINA’s National Member Federations in the five continents;
- Encourage national authorities to make Swimming part of their educational strategy, through a worldwide "Swimming for All, Swimming for Life" programme;
- Organise World Championships and other FINA competitions to promote further the image of aquatic disciplines;
- Assure a long-term calendar for its main competitions and strengthen the impact of FINA’s annual events;
- Provide an increased visibility to the FINA World Masters Championships, by organising them in conjunction with the FINA World Championships;
- Use present and new media opportunities and platforms to encourage people in sport;
- Raise awareness on environmental sustainability: ‘Water is Our World’.
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Who designed Park Guell in Barcelona, in the early years of the last century? | Antoni Gaudí's Park Güell was built in the early 20th Century
Antoni Gaudí's Park Güell
Park Güell was built and designed by Gaudí between 1900 and 1914
Park Güell was never finished. The buildings you see in the park today are just a fraction of those who where intended to be built if the original plan had been followed. But Barcelona was suffering after the so called Tragic Week (Setmana Tràgica, 1909) characterized by a deep crisis, and the wealthy people of the city, that the Park was built for withdrew from the project. Eusebi Güell, who stood behind the project, died in 1918 and a few years after that his son sold to the Town Hall. Thus Park Güell became a public park, one of the largest in Barcelona.
Park Güell is one of the most popular places in Barcelona at all. Indeed, it is Barcelona's most visited turist attraction. Park Güell is known for its excellent views, its street performers, musicians and entertainers and, off course, for the designs by Antoni Gaudí.
Park Güell - the history behind the Park
Park Güell is a nearly 20 acres big and is located on the Caramel hill in the Gracia Quarter. The park is among other things known for its stunning mosaic bench on the terrace overlooking the most of Barcelona. The bench was designed by Antoni Gaudí, in collaboration with Josep Maria Jujols. In the Park you will also find the house where Gaudí lived from 1901 to 1925, not designed by Gaudí himself but by one of his students, Francesc Berenguer. The house currently operates as a museum where it is possible to see some of Antoni Gaudí's furniture.
Antoni Gaudí began construction in 1900. However, In the middle of the building project, the crisis La Setmana Tragica (The Tragic Week), startet. This conflict would mean problems for the Park, a conflict that startet when the government in Madrid demanded that the 40,000 Catalans were enrolled in the army for a war against Morocco.
See more
| Antoni Gaudí |
In which city is the largest football stadium in Germany, home to the 2010-2011 Bundesliga champions? | Web | Park Güell Barcelona
Visit Park Güell, one of the major works of Gaudí in Barcelona. In order to ensure yuor visit and avoid queues we recommend to book your ticket online.
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Which lady wrote the book 'Chequers: The Prime Minister's Country House And Its History'? | Chequers, Buckinghamshire, England
Chequers, Buckinghamshire, England
history
Chequers or Chequers Court, Buckinghamshire, England
Chequers, or Chequers Court, is the country house retreat of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The residence is located near Ellesborough, to the south of Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, England, at the foot of the Chiltern Hills. Coombe Hill, once part of the estate, can be seen just behind. It has been the private retreat of the Prime Minister since 1921.
Origin of the name Chequers
The original house probably gained its name in the 12th century because it may have been built or inhabited by an individual named Elias Ostiarius (or de Scaccario), who was acquiring land in the Ellesborough area at the time. The name "Ostiarius" meant an usher of the Court of the Exchequer. Elias Ostiarius' coat of arms included the chequer board of the Exchequer, so it is likely he named his estate after his arms and position at court. The house passed through generations of the De Scaccario family (spelt in many different forms) until it seems to have passed into the D'Awtrey family, whose name was eventually anglicised to Hawtrey.
Another explanation sometimes offered is that the house is named after the chequer trees (Sorbus torminalis) that grow in its grounds. There is a reference to this in the book Elizabeth: Apprenticeship by David Starkey, which describes the early life of Elizabeth I.
History
There has been a house on the site since the 12th century; however, little is known of the early history of the 16th-century mansion known today as Chequers.
What is known is that William Hawtrey restored and enlarged the house in 1565. A reception room in the house bears his name today. It was this same William Hawtrey who, immediately after completing the house, guarded a royal prisoner at Chequers—Lady Mary Grey,[1] younger sister of Lady Jane Grey and great granddaughter of King Henry VII. She had married without her family's consent and was banished from court by Queen Elizabeth I and kept confined to ensure that she had no descendants.[2] Lady Mary remained at Chequers for a period of two years. The "cell" where she slept from 1565 to 1567 is still kept in its original condition.
Through descent in the female line and marriages, the house passed through several families: the Wooleys, the Crokes and the Thurbanes. In 1715, the then owner of the house married John Russell, a grandson of Oliver Cromwell. The house is well known for this connection to the Cromwells, and it still contains a large collection of Cromwell memorabilia.
In the 19th century, the Russells (by now the Greenhill-Russell family) employed William Atkinson to make modern alterations to the house in the Gothic style. The Tudor panelling and windows were ripped out and battlements with pinnacles installed. Towards the end of the 19th century, the house passed through marriage to the Astley family. Instead of taking up residence, they let the house to the Clutterbuck family, who loved the house so much that when they left in 1909 they had a near replica built in Hertfordshire at Putteridge Bury.
Following the Clutterbucks' departure, the house was taken on a long lease by Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Lee. Lee and his wife Ruth (an American heiress) wanted a country home, and Chequers suited their requirements. They commenced restoration; the Gothic "improvements" were removed and the Tudor style house seen today re-emerged from the scaffolding. In 1912 following the death of the last of the house's ancestral owners (Henry Delavel Astley), Ruth Lee and her sister purchased the property and later gave it to Arthur Lee.
During World War I the house became a hospital and then a convalescent home for officers. Following the end of hostilities and the reinstatement of Chequers as a home (now furnished with many 16th-century antiques and tapestries and the Cromwellian antiquities), the childless Lees formed a plan. While previous Prime Ministers had always belonged to the landed classes, the post-World War I era was bringing in a new breed of politician. These men did not have the country palaces of previous prime ministers to entertain foreign dignitaries, or a tranquil place to relax from the affairs of state. Hence, after lengthy discussions with then Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Chequers was given to the nation as a country retreat for the serving Prime Minister by the Chequers Estate Act 1917.
Arthur and Ruth Lee, by this time Lord and Lady Lee of Fareham, left Chequers on 8 January 1921 after a final dinner at the house. A political disagreement between the Lees and Lloyd George soured the hand-over, which went ahead nevertheless.
A stained glass window in the long gallery of the house commissioned by Lord and Lady Lee of Fareham bears the inscription:
This house of peace and ancient memories was given to England as a thank-offering for her deliverance in the great war of 1914–1918 as a place of rest and recreation for her Prime Ministers for ever. The property houses one of the largest collections of art and memorabilia pertaining to Oliver Cromwell in the country. It also houses many other national antiques and books held in the famous 'long room', including a diary of Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson. However, the collection is not open to the public.
Nearby Coombe Hill was part of the estate until the 1920s when it was given to the National Trust. Coombe Hill and the Chequers Estate are part of the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, designated in 1965.
During the early part of World War II, it was considered that security at Chequers was inadequate to protect the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. He therefore used Ditchley in Oxfordshire until late 1942, by which time the approach road, clearly visible from the sky, had been camouflaged and other security measures had been put in place.[3][4]
Downing Street and Chequers are about 41 miles (66 km) apart.
Footnotes
Jump up ^ ), Georgina Bertie (Lady; Bertie, Richard (1845). "Five generations of a loyal house. Pt. 1, containing the lives of R. Bertie and his son Peregrine, lord Willoughby". Jump up ^ Hawtrey 1903, pp. 30–1. Jump up ^ Winston Churchill Jump up ^ History Lives at Ditchley and Bletchley – The Churchill Centre
References
Chequers: The House and its History: The Prime Minister's Country House and its History by Norma Major with photos by Mark Fiennes (1996) Harper Collins, reprinted hardcover ISBN 978-0-00-470875-1 and paperback ISBN 978-0-316-85844-1.
Hawtrey, Florence Molesworth (1903). The History of the Hawtrey Family I. London: George Allen. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
External links
| Norma Major |
Which Briton won the 2010 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine? | Map of Chequers - The Full Wiki
The Full Wiki
Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:
Chequers, or Chequers Court, is a country house near Ellesborough
, to the south east of Aylesbury
. It is the country residence of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
Origin of the name Chequers
The original house probably gained its name in the 1100s because it may have been built or inhabited by an individual named Elias Ostiarius (or de Scaccario), who was acquiring land in the Ellesborough
area at the time. The name "Ostiarius" meant an usher of the Court of the Exchequer . Elias Ostiarius' coat of arms included the chequer board of the Exchequer, so it is likely he named his estate after his arms and position at court. The house passed through generations of the De Scaccario family (spelt in many different forms) until it seems to have passed into the D'Awtrey family, whose name was eventually anglicised to Hawtrey.
Another explanation sometimes offered is that the house is named after the Chequers Trees that grow in its grounds. Also known as Wild Service Tree (Sorbus torminalis), it produces small berries which are called Chequers. There is a reference to this in the book Elizabeth: Apprenticeship by David Starkey , which describes the early life of Elizabeth I .
History
There has been a house on the site since the 12th century, however little is known for sure of the early history of the mansion known today as Chequers, although Norma Major (wife of the former Prime Minister John Major ) wrote a book on the history of Chequers entitled Chequers: The Prime Minister's Country House and its History.
The present 16th-century house was not well documented in its early years; what is known is that one William Hawtrey restored and enlarged the house in 1565. A reception room in the house bears his name today. It was this same William Hawtrey who, immediately after completing the house, guarded a royal prisoner at Chequers— Lady Mary Grey , younger sister of Lady Jane Grey and great granddaughter of King Henry VII . She had married without her family's consent and was banished from court by Queen Elizabeth I and kept confined to ensure that, she had no descendants. Lady Mary remained at Chequers for a period of two years. The "cell" where she slept from 1565 to 1567 is still kept as it was, and appears, even by today's standards, quite a comfortable bedroom. The real reason for her imprisonment was probably to curb her independence, and prevent a challenge to the throne, such as that caused by her elder sister.
Through descent in the female line and marriages, the house passed through several families: the Wooleys; the Croke family; the Thurbane Family. In 1715, the then owner of the house married a John Russell, a grandson of Oliver Cromwell . The house is well known for this connection to the Cromwells, and it still contains a large collection of Cromwell memorabilia.
In the 19th century, the Russells (by now the Greenhill-Russell family) employed William Atkinson to make modern alterations to the house in the gothic style. The Tudor panelling and windows were ripped out and battlements with pinnacles installed. Towards the end of the 19th century, the house passed through marriage to the Astley family. Instead of taking up residence, they let the house to the Clutterbuck family, who loved the house so much that when they left in 1909 they had a near replica built in Bedfordshire at Putteridge Bury
.
Following the Clutterbucks' departure, the house was taken on a long lease by a Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Lee . Arthur Lee (a politician born in 1868) and his American
heiress wife Ruth were in need of a country home and Chequers suited their needs. Immediately they commenced the huge process of restoration; the gothic "improvements" were swept away and the Tudor style house seen today re-emerged from the scaffolding. In 1912 following the death of the last of the house's ancestral owners ( Henry Delavel Astley ), Ruth Lee and her sister purchased the property and later gave it to Arthur Lee.
During World War I the house became a hospital and then a convalescent home for officers. Following the end of hostilities and the reinstatement of Chequers as a home (now furnished with many 16th-century antiques and tapestries and the Cromwellian antiquities), the childless Lees formed a plan. While previous Prime Ministers had always belonged to the landed classes, the post-World War I era was bringing in a new breed of politician. These men did not have the country palaces of previous prime ministers to entertain foreign dignitaries, or a tranquil place to relax from the affairs of state. Hence, after lengthy discussions with then Prime Minister David Lloyd George , Chequers was given to the nation as a country retreat for the serving Prime Minister by the Chequers Estate Act 1917 .
Arthur and Ruth Lee, by this time Lord and Lady Lee of Fareham, left Chequers on 8 January 1921 after a final dinner at the house. A political disagreement between the Lees and Lloyd George soured the hand-over, which went ahead nevertheless.
A stained glass window in the long gallery of the house commissioned by Lord and Lady Lee of Farnham bears the inscription:
This house of peace and ancient memories was given to England as a thank-offering for her deliverance in the great war of 1914–1918 as a place of rest and recreation for her Prime Ministers for ever.
The property houses one of the largest collections of art and memorabilia pertaining to Oliver Cromwell in the country. It also houses many other national antiques and books held in the infamous 'long room', including a diary of Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson . However, this exquisite collection is not open to the public.
Nearby Coombe Hill
was part of the estate until the 1920s when it was given to the National Trust . Coombe Hill and the Chequers Estate are part of the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, designated in 1965.
During the early part of World War II , it was considered that security at Chequers was inadequate to protect Prime Minister Winston Churchill . He therefore used Ditchley
in Oxfordshire until late 1942, by when the road which could be clearly seen from the sky had been camouflaged and other security measures had been put in place, and the Nazis were focusing the Luftwaffe on the Soviet Union
.
Before becoming Prime Minister in 2007, Gordon Brown claimed that he would be the first Prime Minister since Andrew Bonar Law in 1923, to dispense with Chequers as a regular weekend retreat . It would instead be used for international summits and brainstorming sessions with civil servants. Despite these predictions, after coming into office, the Browns now spend most weekends at Chequers, where they have hosted friends, editors, sportsmen, actors and politicians, including David and Victoria Beckham and local dignitaries like Sir Leonard Figg .
See also
— another country house used by high British officials
Analogous facilities
, the official Sydney residence of the Australian Prime Minister
References
| i don't know |
In which opera does 'Turiddu', a young villager return to Sicily to find his fiancee, 'Lola', has married 'Alfio', the prosperous village teamster? | Cavalleria Rusticana - $125.00 : Bravo, New perspectives
Cavalleria Rusticana
Full Score for Purchase
In 1889, music publisher Edoardo Sonzogno sponsored a competition for young Italian composers who had not yet brought an opera to stage. Cavalleria Rusticana was submitted, winning First Prize. It had ideology, principle, and the emotional extremes embraced by the Italian Verismo movement of the late 19th century, and Mascagni was credited with initiating the opera verismo style. The title means Rustic Chivalry, and its beautiful Intermezzo is internationally revered.
In the story, Turiddu, a young villager in Sicily, returns from military service to find his fiancée Lola married to Alfio, the prosperous village teamster. In revenge, Turiddu seduces Santuzza, a young woman in the village. As the opera begins, Lola, overcome by her jealousy of Santuzza, has begun an adulterous affair with Turiddu.
The arrangement includes three excerpts from the original opera. It starts with a prelude describing a calm Easter morning, followed by a trumpet solo used for Turiddu's Aria Siciliana, sung offstage in the opera. Next is Brindisi, Viva il vino spumeggiante - cheerful festival music. Introduced by sacred bells, a beautiful vocal prayer scene restates the original Intermezzo theme at the start of Scena e Preghiera which dynamically moves from the saxophones to the full ensemble. Ultimately the memorable Intermezzo motif returns as a coda for the grand finale. The remarkable recording sample below is of Saitama Sakae HS Wind Orchestra at national band contest.
Picc.(Fl.)
| Cavalleria rusticana |
At which circuit in 1955 did Stirling Moss win his first British Grand Prix, the race's debut at that circuit? | Cavalleria Rusticana/Pagliacci
Cavalleria Rusticana
Mascagni�s Cavalleria Rusticana is the story of Turiddu, a young villager, who has returned from military service to find that while he was gone, his fianc�e, Lola, has married Alfio, the prosperous village teamster. In revenge, Turiddu has seduced Santuzza, a young woman in the village. As the opera begins, Lola, overcome by her jealousy of Santuzza, has begun an adulterous affair with Turiddu.
Offstage, Turiddu is heard singing. The curtain rises on the main square of the village. To one side is the church; to the other is Lucia's wine shop and the house where she lives with her son, Turiddu. The villagers move about the square, singing of the beautiful spring day and a hymn to the Blessed Virgin.
Some villagers enter the church, others wander off still singing. Santuzza, having slept with Turiddu and suspecting that he has betrayed her with Lola, is distraught and approaches Lucia as she comes out of her house. Santuzza asks for Turiddu, and Lucia replies that he has gone to another town to fetch some wine. Santuzza tells her that he was seen during the night in the village. Lucia asks her inside to talk, but just at that moment, Alfio arrives on his wagon accompanied by the villagers. He praises the joys of a teamster's life and the beauty of his bride. Alfio asks Lucia for some of her fine old wine. She tells him it has run out and Turiddu has gone away to buy more. Alfio replies that he had seen Turiddu early that morning near his cottage. Lucia starts to express surprise, but Santuzza stops her.
Alfio leaves. The choir inside the church is heard singing. Outside, the villagers sing an Easter Hymn, joined by Santuzza. The villagers enter the church, while Santuzza and Lucia remain outside. Lucia asks Santuzza why she signalled her to remain silent when Alfio said that he had seen Turiddu that morning. Santuzza exclaims, "Now you shall know", and tells Lucia the story of her seduction by Turiddu and his affair with Lola. Lucia pities Santuzza, who is considered by the villagers to be excommunicated because of her seduction. Santuzza cannot enter the church, but begs Lucia to go inside and pray for her.
Turiddu arrives. Santuzza upbraids him for pretending to have gone away, when he was actually seeing Lola. Lola enters the square singing. She mocks Santuzza and goes inside the church. Turiddu turns to follow Lola, but Santuzza begs him to stay. Turiddu pushes her away. She clings to him. He loosens her hands, throws her to the ground, and enters the church. Alfio arrives looking for Lola. Santuzza tells him that his wife has betrayed him with Turiddu.
The villagers come out of the church. Turiddu is in high spirits because he is with Lola and Santuzza appears to have gone. He invites his friends to his mother�s wine shop where he sings a drinking song. Alfio joins them. Turiddu offers him wine, but he refuses it. The women leave, taking Lola with them. In a brief exchange of words, Alfio challenges Turiddu to a duel. Following Sicilian custom, the two men embrace, and Turiddu, in a token of acceptance, bites Alfio�s ear, drawing blood which signifies a fight to the death. Alfio leaves and Turiddu calls Lucia back. He tells her that he is going outside to get some air and asks that she be a kindly mother to Santuzza if he should not return.
Turiddu rushes out. Lucia, weeping, wanders aimlessly around outside her house. Santuzza approaches and embraces her. The villagers start to crowd around. Voices are heard in the distance and a woman cries, "They have murdered Turiddu!" Santuzza faints and Lucia collapses in the arms of the women villagers.
I Pagliacci
Prologue
Tonio, dressed as his commedia character Taddeo, addresses the audience. He reminds the audience that actors have feelings too, and that the show is about real humans.
Act 1
At three o'clock in the afternoon, the comedy troup of performers enters the village, while the villagers cheer. Canio describes the night's performance: the troubles of Pagliaccio. He says the play will begin an hour before sunset. As Nedda steps down from the cart, Tonio offers his hand, but Canio pushes him aside and helps her down himself. The villagers suggest drinking at the tavern. Canio and Beppe accept, but Tonio stays behind. The villagers tease Canio that Tonio is planning an affair with Nedda. Canio warns everyone that while he may act the foolish husband in the play, in real life he will not tolerate other men making advances to Nedda. Shocked, a villager asks if Canio really suspects her. He says no, and sweetly kisses her on the forehead. As the church bells ring vespers, he and Beppe leave for the tavern, and Nedda is left alone.
Nedda, who is cheating on Canio, is frightened by Canio's vehemence, but the birdsong comforts her. Tonio returns and confesses his love for her, but she laughs. Enraged, Tonio grabs Nedda, but she takes a whip, strikes him and drives him off. Silvio, who is Nedda's lover, comes from the tavern, where he has left Canio and Beppe drinking. He asks Nedda to elope with him after the performance and, though she is afraid, she agrees. Tonio, who has been eavesdropping, leaves to inform Canio so that he might catch Silvio and Nedda together. Canio and Tonio return and, as Silvio escapes, Nedda calls after him, "I will always be yours!�
Canio chases Silvio but does not catch him and does not see his face. He demands that Nedda tell him the name of her lover, but she refuses. He threatens her with a knife, but Beppe disarms him. Beppe insists that they prepare for the performance. Tonio tells Canio that her lover will surely give himself away at the play. Canio is left alone to put on his costume and prepare to laugh.
Act 2
As the crowd arrives, Nedda, costumed as Colombina, collects their money. She whispers a warning to Silvio, and the crowd cheers as the play begins. Colombina's husband Pagliaccio has gone away until morning, and Taddeo is at the market. She anxiously awaits her lover Arlecchino, who soon serenades her from beneath her window. Taddeo returns and confesses his love, but she mocks him and lets in Arlecchino through the window. He boxes Taddeo's ears and kicks him out of the room, and the audience laughs. Arlecchino and Colombina dine, and he delivers a sleeping potion. When Pagliaccio returns, Colombina will drug him and elope with Arlecchino. Taddeo bursts in, warning that Pagliaccio is suspicious of his wife and is about to return. As Arlecchino escapes through the window, Colombina tells him, "I will always be yours!"
As Canio enters, he hears Nedda and exclaims "Name of God! Those same words!" He tries to continue the play, but loses control and demands to know her lover's name. Nedda, hoping to continue the play, calls Canio by his stage name "Pagliaccio" to remind him of the audience's presence. He answers and states that if his face is pale, it is not from the stage makeup but from the shame she has brought to him. The crowd, impressed by his emotional and very real performance, cheers him.
Nedda, trying again to continue the play, admits that she has been visited by the very innocent Arlecchino. Canio, furious and forgetting the play, demands the name of her lover. Nedda swears she will never tell him, and the crowd finally realizes they are not acting. Silvio begins to fight his way toward the stage. Canio, grabbing a knife from the table, stabs Nedda. As she dies she calls: "Help! Silvio!". Canio then stabs Silvio and declares: La Commedia � finita! � "The play is over!".
| i don't know |
Which actor has replaced Bill Paterson in the role of Head of the CPS in 'Law and Order: UK'? | Cops And Robbers: Interview With Law & Order: UK's Jamie Bamber | TMR
Cops And Robbers: Interview With Law & Order: UK's Jamie Bamber
August 22, 2011
Kudos/Wolf Films/NBC Universal
Jamie Bamber as DS Matt Devlin in Law & Order: UK
For five years Jamie Bamber risked his life as Lee “Apollo” Adama in an ongoing battle against a race of robots determined to wipe out what was left of humanity in the futuristic sci-fi drama Battlestar Galactica. Not long after that series wrapped production, the actor took to the streets of London to help keep its citizens safe from the criminal element as (Junior) Detective Sergeant Matt Devlin in Law & Order: UK. From a professional as well as personal standpoint, the chance to work on a British version of the long-running U.S. franchise was something he could not pass up.
“I was intrigued with the concept of taking an iconic American TV show and remaking it for a British audience,” says Bamber. “This was also an opportunity for me to return home [to the UK] with a big splash and work there for the first time in five years. Personally it allowed me and my family to reacquaint ourselves with London life as well as family over there and gave our kids the chance to get to know their roots.
“So I sent the producers a couple of [audition] tapes and was then flown to New York to meet with them. We had a friendly and very positive chat and it sort of all fell into place. By the time I had finished work on Battlestar the deal was done and I had a month to get myself back to London with my family.
“Character-wise I liked that Matt was from the opposite side of London from where I’m from. He’s a bit more working class and from an immigrant Irish family. Matt was also outspoken and slightly impetuous. I’d just been playing a very sort of buttoned down character on Battlestar who was the opposite of impetuous, mulled everything over and saw complications in almost every situation. It was nice to play someone who didn’t see life as so complicated. Matt just believed he was doing right and good in his chosen profession as a cop on the streets of London. He was pretty quick to assign blame to things and didn’t lose any sleep over it.
“So those were the initial attractions for me, and then gradually as we shot, the biggest attraction was working with Bradley Walsh [Senior Detective Sergeant Ronnie Brooks,], who has become a great friend and is a tremendous energy to bounce off of all day long.”
Like their fictional American counterparts, Matt Devlin and Ronnie Brooks investigate crimes that are ripped from the headlines. In the case of Law & Order: UK, its stories come from original Law & Order U.S. scripts that are adapted to the UK justice system. The storytelling also follows the format of the original Law & Order, with the first half of each episode focusing on the actual crime and subsequent police investigation as well as arrest, while the second half follows the legal and court proceedings in an effort to convict the suspect. With all this work, the characters have little time for play or much else.
“The biggest acting challenge on Law & Order is to imbue life into these characters where you’re not fed character details or dilemmas,” notes Bamber. “We’re really kind of the narrators of a moral dilemma and moral breech in every episode and we try to sort out who’s responsible. As you’re sitting there talking about case files, though, the trick is to also bring as much life as possible to the work as well as relationships amongst all the officers.”
How has Bamber seen his character grow as the series has gone on? “You develop a body of previous cases and throughout all of them, the characters inevitably learn something,” says the actor. “I think you see Matt go from a very eager youngish detective who’s keen to get out there and just get stuck in [to the job], to someone who comes to realize that situations are actually more complicated than they look, and sometimes you have to stand back, rethink and reconsider.
“My character’s relationship with Ronnie Brooks gets deeper and deeper, too, as the show goes on. As actors you inevitably try to come to the screen with an already matured and established relationship so that the audience buys that these two characters have been together for a while. However, in the course of three years of working on Law & Order, Bradley and I really have generated that type of history together. So I think the performances always get deeper in TV and that’s part of the joy of doing it, is the fact that you actually do end up developing a history. It’s not an imagined or created back story - it is, in fact, real.
“The show’s original writer, [executive producer] Chris Chibnall, did a great job of creating the groundwork for our characters and made them a pleasure to step into. Matt is sort of quick and shrill and Ronnie is sort of slow and measured and they just fit well together. That’s a very fun relationship. I always enjoy catching glimpses of episodes and little exchanges between the characters that I’d forgotten about.”
Back at the police station, Detective Inspector Natalie Chandler oversees all the cases being investigated by Devlin and Brooks as well as the rest of her team. Intelligent, a strong judge of character and sensitive to a victims’ situation, DI Chandler is played by Harriet Walter, of whom Bamber is extremely complimentary.
“I really didn’t know Bradley prior to doing Law & Order,” he says. “His reputation in the UK was more as a comedian and all-around entertainer as opposed to a dramatic actor, whereas Harriet is a legend in the British theater. She’s a dame now and we still called her dame before she received her official ‘dame hood.’ So that was a terrific moment for us to finally have that confirmed.
“Harriet has a huge reputation as far as the stage, and I’m still in awe of the theatre, primarily when I see great theater. There’s something so immediate about that ability to present a character and captivate an audience of 1,500 people who are actually there in front of you and you can gauge whether or not it works. I find something mesmerizing about a theater actor who is really up on his or her game, and it’s always fascinating to see someone who you admire on so many levels in the flesh day in and day out. Harriet is a lovely lady, great fun, smart, has a good sense of humor and a pleasure to work with. She’s a fantastic actress and it’s a real privilege for us to have her on Law & Order.”
In the first four years of Law & Order: UK, the judicial process was overseen by George Castle (Bill Paterson), Director of Crown Prosecution Services (CPS) London while the actual court cases were researched and argued by Senior Crown Prosecutor James Steel (Ben Daniels) and Junior Crown Prosecutor Alesha Phillips (Freema Agyeman). At the end of season four, James Steel resigned and George Castle was later appointed Director of Public Prosecutions. In the fifth season opener, “The Wrong Man,” the new senior crown prosecutor, Jacob Thorne (Dominic Rowan), was already hard at work, while Henry Sharpe (Peter Davison) took over as CPS director.
“I actually haven’t had a scene with Peter Davison,” says Bamber. “I’ve always been an admirer of his and we’ve met a couple of times on other shows. I was thrilled when he joined Law & Order but, again, I haven’t as yet worked with Peter.
“As for Dominic Rowan’s character of Jacob Thorne, I thought it was a pretty cool new direction to go in. I’m also a huge admirer of Ben Daniels and I thought he had an incredible focus and singular sort of stoic, resolute approach to his character’s task in Law & Order. However, one of the things I think Dominic brings to the show, which I enjoy, is a bit more of a problematic and slightly grumpier relationship with Freema’s character.
“Ben and Freema are great friends and they get along really well, so their characters were rarely at odds. However, I think when you have a male/female relationship on TV, friction is much better in a way than harmony for the drama and for the characters to be really intriguing. So although Ben Daniels and Bill Paterson, whose work I’m a big fan of as well, are both missed, we were fortunate enough to get two wonderful replacements.”
When asked as both an actor and a viewer if he has a favorite Law & Order episode, there are two that immediately come to Bamber’s mind. “Acting-wise, there’s an episode from the third season called ‘Confession’ with an abusive priest from Matt’s past,” he recalls. “It had a little more to do with my character and involved a personal relationship from his past. There was a journey of sorts in it for Matt and a realization that maybe he hadn’t done what he needed to do and his behavior wasn’t strength but weakness. There was more to get my teeth into as an actor in that one and I enjoyed that hugely. So from a personal fulfillment standpoint that’s the episode for me. I really like my character and I like getting to show off a little more of who he is.
“In terms of a viewer, there’s a great one coming up this [fifth] season which I think is really good called ‘Tick Tock’ and it has a couple going on a rampage in a nightclub. There's an incredible energy to it as well as a real Law & Order pace. The episodes I tend to like the best are most traditional to the original Law & Order New York format where it’s very quick with quick cuts, quick scenes, information flying in, characters being appraised, etc.”
Along with Law & Order: UK, Bamber guest-starred not too long ago in the opening episode of the short-lived British sci-fi series Outcasts, which was produced by the same people who worked on Law & Order. His character of Mitchell Hoban was head of the Expeditionaries and among a group of human colonists that left a dying Earth in order to establish a new civilization on a planet called Carpathia.
“I was actually offered one of the lead regular roles on the series,” says the actor. “However, having just done Battlestar I felt that this show was going to retread some of that same territory. I didn’t think it was the wisest thing for me to go straight back into something like that, having done it on Battlestar to sort of the max as it were.
“So I applauded them on their script and told them how good it was. What I then went on to say, quite cheekily, is that once I started reading the script, I thought the character they originally had in mind for me was another one called Mitchell Hoban. I told them I would be thrilled if they’d consider me for that. I liked that he died at the end of the first episode and I also told them that that might bring a bit of Battlestar-type intrigue to the story.
“It took them about four months to come around to my way of thinking and I’m so glad they did. I fully expected them to go elsewhere because the character wasn’t necessarily a natural for me. Mitchell was kind of a simmering threat and I don’t necessarily see myself in that sort of role, although I had a blast doing it.”
The actor speaks with great enthusiasm about the upcoming feature film John Doe, in which he plays the title role of a serial killer. “I was sent the script over a year ago and was just blown away by it,” says Bamber. “It’s so controversial and I found myself reluctantly drawn into moral as well as intellectual positions that I don’t hold. I thought it was a slightly incandescent and inflammatory piece about the inadequacies of the judicial system, the way we deal with criminals and how we try to take the law into our own hands. The script ticked a lot of boxes for me and gave me the opportunity to play yet another different type of character. It was a challenge and one I thoroughly enjoyed.”
A French movie that Bamber filmed last summer, Un jour mon pere viendra (One Day My Dad Will Come), has its Paris premiere this December. At the moment he is back in the States and busy working. “I’m doing a few guest-spots on TV shows including CSI: Miami, which was fascinating after having recently shot Law & Order,” says the actor. “So I’m just enjoying walking onto other peoples’ sets and looking for the next exciting role.”
Law & Order: UK airs Wednesday nights @ 9:00 p.m. EST/PST on BBC America.
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| Peter Davison |
What is the length in metres, of the course in Olympic Rowing events? | 'Law & Order: UK' Dominic Rowan interview
'Law & Order: UK' Dominic Rowan interview
New Law & Order: UK star Dominic Rowan chats about his role as Jacob Thorne.
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8 July 2011 2:00 PM
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ITV1's top crime drama Law & Order: UK returns to our screens on Sunday night, but there's been a bit of a shift on the 'Order' side of things! Moralistic prosecutor James Steel (Ben Daniels) is gone, replaced by working class hero Jacob 'Jake' Thorne (Dominic Rowan). George Castle (Bill Paterson) has also taken a promotion, with former Doctor Who star Peter Davison stepping into his shoes as new CPS director Henry Sharpe. We caught up with Dominic Rowan recently and got the inside scoop on his Law & Order role, how it felt to replace Ben Daniels and the perils of working with Bradley Walsh!
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What can you reveal about your character Jacob Thorne?
"Jacob Thorne grew up somewhere south of Yorkshire, on a farm. His father died when he was eight and he didn't bond with his mother very well, so he got sent away to a boarding school. He had to make his own way and look after himself, and that sort of background gave him a particular sense of right and wrong, and also [taught him] that you can't always use your background as an excuse. He got through to Cambridge, read Philosophy, did a Law conversion course and then went to a Defence chambers. He then decided that wasn't for him and changed to Prosecution, joining a thing called the Treasury Council, which is [composed of] elite prosecutors. But then he decided to join the CPS, to do the right thing, really."
Did you watch the show before you were cast?
"Not really. I started watching it when I was going through the audition process, just to see what the style is and how it was pitched. I compared it to the American version as well. I was then watching it while we were [filming series five] which was odd, because I was there learning a speech for a cross examination - one of these four page, epic back-and-forth scenes - and Ben Daniels was doing the same on TV! It suddenly makes it go from, 'This is just something we're filming' to 'This is actually going to be on'! So my learning wasn't so great that night, it was a bit freaky!"
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Were you nervous about taking over from Ben Daniels?
"Well, I know Ben, I've worked with him twice at the National Theatre. I played his brother, bizarrely enough, in a Euripides play. So I've known Ben, and I know how good an actor he is, and I know it was obviously an important and solid character for the show. But I guess for the show to hang around, if you have [new] people coming in, you can't [dwell on] where that [old] person's gone. The personnel change, but the job remains the same. Obviously just by virtue of who I am, I'm not like Ben. But yeah, he was an important and popular character, so there is a little nervousness that viewers might go, 'We want the old guy back!'."
What is Jacob's relationship like with Alesha (Freema Agyeman)?
"Well, initially, there's conflict between what he sees as wishy-washy, liberal, on the side of the criminal rather than the victim, so they tend to butt heads over that. Jacob believes that there's always a choice in your actions and you're not just reduced down to your background and mitigating circumstances. I think he says at one point, 'Change morality for psychology and our jobs become obsolete. Deny that they have a choice and you deny responsibility' - that's him in a nutshell. Also, Jacob does like to win the case [on a personal level] which takes him over and above just seeking some kind of justice."
Peter Davison also joins the cast this series. Was it nice not being the only new boy on set?
"Well by the time he came to filming, I wasn't the new boy. I should have gone, 'Right, I'll show you the score'! We hit the ground running, because there's so much to do and it's quite a quick turnover, so you couldn't just ease yourself into it. You just throw yourself into it, because there's a big case every week and a lot of lines to learn. We'd done a couple of episodes [already] because Peter didn't film his scenes for earlier episodes until later. He had a hell of a first day! We do these guerilla days, where we're out and about in London, and they don't block people off, they just have a cameraman walking backwards! There's a long train of people holding the camera cable and we're just having to walk and talk. Peter did six of those on the trot on his first day, and it was freezing! Then people just stopped, because it was a bit like a Doctor Who convention - there's Peter Davison and there's Freema. People were stopping and asking for autographs!"
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Law & Order: UK episodes tend to focus mainly on the case, but are there any episodes that explore your character?
"Yeah, there's a couple [that reveal] a bit more about my background. We learn more about my mother, which means that I have to be absent for a little bit and hand over a case to Alesha, so she's cross-examining as well. But Jacob's quite guarded about his past and he doesn't really want to talk about it. He's worked for Henry before, so Alesha gets information from him about why Jacob's suddenly taken off. But he likes to keep his cards very close to his chest, and not to mix it up. You do occasionally see him in the pub, and there's a little bit of history between him and a defence barrister, which crops up this series. So yeah, a little window is opened, and then slammed!"
The show can deal with some quite controversial topics. What are your thoughts on that 'ripped from the headlines' approach?
"Well, if things are happening and those things engage people, if you go a little bit behind the headlines, you'll find it's often a lot more complicated [than it appears]. You can get caricatures of people, or demonise people. What I don't agree with is the pre-judgement mentality, before a case has even gone to trial, and people have already sentenced and convicted [the accused] before they know any of the facts. It's sensationalised. So what this show does is present the apparent situation, but then often [the case is] not that apparent and it takes an actual investigation and proper procedure to unearth the truth. You see everything unpacked and it's often more complicated than it appears. So I think it's a way of allowing us to deconstruct those swift judgements that are made sometimes by people in newspapers and in other media. That's good, because it helps us to realise that the procedure is there for a reason, and we need to step back and be thorough, and challenge our preconceptions."
You've already filmed a fifth and sixth series of Law & Order: UK. Are you keen to stick with the show for a seventh series and beyond?
"Yeah, I've had a ball, it's great fun. It's a fantastic crew - we get along great and get a lot of a work done. You also get fantastic people coming in, There's about 250 other actors coming though the doors, so it's like British Equity coming through! And it's great because the turnover is swift, and I love working with the regular members of the cast. Bradley Walsh is tough! If the camera's on you and not him, try and get your line out! But yeah, I've had a great time on it."
Law & Order: UK returns to ITV1 on Sunday at 9pm.
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Which 1996 film had characters 'Renton', 'Sick Boy', 'Spud' and 'Begbie'? | Super Reviewer
½
Spend some quality time with some Edinburgh chaps who realise that life in the modern day is realistically all mapped out for them and find that it is better to while away the time and the mind in a drug induced coma, it's more honest rather than to pretend to be "making a difference" for the benefit of some wankers who could give a shitte. Are they wrong? Often overblown, but fun telling of life in less touristy parts of Edinburgh.
Kevin M. Williams
Super Reviewer
½
This feels less of a masterful piece of filmmaking and more of a reminder of the affects of drug use, which in that case the film is a complete triumph. The editing techniques and the way everything is shot is amazing on every level, but the story is simple when it's broken down and it's not very complex in it's characters, but they are developed to the 9's as far as a 90 minute picture can go. I really enjoyed watching what was going to happen to these characters, who would stay bad and if anyone would fix their problems. There are some very terrifying hallucination sequences that will leave you quivering for hours if you really break the scenes down in your head, and for that, it's brilliant. I don't think it's on the level everyone thinks it is, but "Trainspotting" is a solid film about the affects of drug use and the trust of others.
KJ Proulx
| Trainspotting |
Who wrote the book, now a successful play, 'War Horse'? | Trainspotting 2 Cast Confirmed! ComingSoon.net
December 4, 2015
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Trainspotting 2 is moving forward with Ewan McGregor, Jonny Lee Miller, Ewen Bremner and Robert Carlyle
TriStar Pictures announced today that is has acquired worldwide rights to Danny Boyle’s much-anticipated sequel to Trainspotting. Still without an official title, Trainspotting 2 is based on characters created by Irvine Welsh. It will reunite director Danny Boyle with screenwriter John Hodge and all of the principal cast of the 1996 film—Ewan McGregor, Jonny Lee Miller, Ewen Bremner and Robert Carlyle will reprise the iconic roles of Renton, Sick Boy, Spud and Begbie.
Producers on Trainspotting 2 are Andrew Macdonald, Danny Boyle, Christian Colson, and Bernie Bellew through Figment Films, Decibel Films, and Cloud Eight Films. Film4 is also a production entity. Shooting will begin in late spring 2016 with plans for the film to be released in 2017 to mark the 21st birthday of the original film.
“It’s been 20 years since we met these characters and John Hodge’s screenplay brilliantly explores what’s happened to them—and to us—in the intervening years,” says Boyle. “We are grateful to Tom and Hannah for their support and we can’t wait to get going.”
“‘Trainspotting’ was a seminal movie for me,” says Tristar’s Hannah Minghella. “Like almost everyone my age, I had the ‘Choose Life’ poster on my university dorm room wall. I have wanted to work with Danny ever since, so the opportunity to collaborate on the sequel is truly a dream come true. It perfectly represents the filmmaker-driven movies I am committed to making at TriStar.”
ComingSoon.net recently sat down with Danny Boyle to discuss his latest big screen release, Steve Jobs. You can check out that full interview (which includes talk about Trainspotting 2) by clicking here .
Are you excited for Trainspotting 2 or do you think it’s better to leave well enough alone? Let us know in the comments below!
| i don't know |
In chemistry organic compounds contain which element? | Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds
Online Quizzes for CliffsNotes Biology Quick Review, 2nd Edition
Organic Compounds
The chemical compounds of living things are known as organic compounds because of their association with organisms and because they are carbon-containing compounds. Organic compounds, which are the compounds associated with life processes, are the subject matter of organic chemistry. Among the numerous types of organic compounds, four major categories are found in all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as sources of energy. In addition, some carbohydrates serve as structural materials. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen and carbon atoms is 2:1.
Simple carbohydrates, commonly referred to as sugars, can be monosaccharides if they are composed of single molecules, or disaccharides if they are composed of two molecules. The most important monosaccharide is glucose, a carbohydrate with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the basic form of fuel in living things. In multicellular organisms, it is soluble and is transported by body fluids to all cells, where it is metabolized to release its energy. Glucose is the starting material for cellular respiration, and it is the main product of photosynthesis (see Chapters 5 and 6).
Three important disaccharides are also found in living things: maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Maltose is a combination of two glucose units covalently linked. The table sugar sucrose is formed by linking glucose to another monosaccharide called fructose. (Figure 2-2 shows that in the synthesis of sucrose, a water molecule is produced. The process is therefore called a dehydration reaction. The reversal of the process is hydrolysis, a process in which the molecule is split and water is added.) Lactose is composed of glucose and galactose units.
Figure 2-2 Glucose and fructose molecules combine to form the disaccharide sucrose.
Complex carbohydrates are known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are formed by linking innumerable monosaccharides. Among the most important polysaccharides is starch, which is composed of hundreds or thousands of glucose units linked to one another. Starch serves as a storage form for carbohydrates. Much of the world’s human population satisfies its energy needs with starch in the form of rice, wheat, corn, and potatoes.
Two other important polysaccharides are glycogen and cellulose. Glycogen is also composed of thousands of glucose units, but the units are bonded in a different pattern than in starch. Glycogen is the form in which glucose is stored in the human liver. Cellulose is used primarily as a structural carbohydrate. It is also composed of glucose units, but the units cannot be released from one another except by a few species of organisms. Wood is composed chiefly of cellulose, as are plant cell walls. Cotton fabric and paper are commercial cellulose products.
Lipids
Lipids are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is much higher in lipids than in carbohydrates. Lipids include steroids (the material of which many hormones are composed), waxes, and fats.
Fat molecules are composed of a glycerol molecule and one, two, or three molecules of fatty acids (see Figure 2-3). A glycerol molecule contains three hydroxyl (–OH) groups. A fatty acid is a long chain of carbon atoms (from 4 to 24) with a carboxyl (–COOH) group at one end. The fatty acids in a fat may all be alike or they may all be different. They are bound to the glycerol molecule by a process that involves the removal of water.
Certain fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their molecules. Fats that include these molecules are unsaturated fats. Other fatty acids have no double bonds. Fats that include these fatty acids are saturated fats. In most human health situations, the consumption of unsaturated fats is preferred to the consumption of saturated fats.
Fats stored in cells usually form clear oil droplets called globules because fats do not dissolve in water. Plants often store fats in their seeds, and animals store fats in large, clear globules in the cells of adipose tissue. The fats in adipose tissue contain much concentrated energy. Hence, they serve as a reserve energy supply to the organism. The enzyme lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol in the human digestive system.
Figure 2-3 A fat molecule is constructed by combining a glycerol molecule with three fatty acid molecules. (Two saturated fatty acids and one unsaturated fatty acid are shown for comparison.) The constructed molecule is at the bottom.
Proteins
Proteins, among the most complex of all organic compounds, are composed of amino acids (see Figure 2-4), which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. Certain amino acids also have sulfur atoms, phosphorus, or other trace elements such as iron or copper.
Figure 2-4 The structure and chemistry of amino acids. When two amino acids are joined in a dipeptide, the –OH of one amino acid is removed, and the –H of the second is removed. So, water is removed. A dipeptide bond (right) forms to join the amino acids together.
Many proteins are immense and extremely complex. However, all proteins are composed of long chains of relatively simple amino acids. There are 20 kinds of amino acids. Each amino acid (see the left illustration in Figure 2-4) has an amino (–NH2) group, a carboxyl (–COOH) group, and a group of atoms called an –R group (where R stands for radical). The amino acids differ depending on the nature of the –R group, as shown in the middle illustration of Figure 2-4. Examples of amino acids are alanine, valine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, and histidine.
The removal of water molecules links amino acids to form a protein. The process is called dehydration synthesis, and a by-product of the synthesis is water. The links forged between the amino acids are peptide bonds, and small proteins are often called peptides.
All living things depend on proteins for their existence. Proteins are the major molecules from which living things are constructed. Certain proteins are dissolved or suspended in the watery substance of the cells, while others are incorporated into various structures of the cells. Proteins are also found as supporting and strengthening materials in tissues outside of cells. Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are all composed of proteins.
One essential function of proteins is as an enzyme. Enzymes catalyze the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are not used up in a reaction; rather, they remain available to catalyze succeeding reactions.
Every species manufactures proteins unique to that species. The information for synthesizing the unique proteins is located in the nucleus of the cell. The so-called genetic code specifies the amino acid sequence in proteins. Hence, the genetic code regulates the chemistry taking place within a cell. Proteins also can serve as a reserve source of energy for the cell. When the amino group is removed from an amino acid, the resulting compound is energy-rich.
Nucleic acids
Like proteins, nucleic acids are very large molecules. The nucleic acids are composed of smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a carbohydrate molecule (sugar), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing molecule that, because of its properties, is a nitrogenous base.
Living organisms have two important nucleic acids. One type is deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The other is ribonucleic acid, or RNA. DNA is found primarily in the nucleus of the cell, while RNA is found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm, a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of the cell (see Chapter 3).
DNA and RNA differ from one another in their components. DNA contains the carbohydrate deoxyribose, while RNA has ribose. In addition, DNA contains the base thymine, while RNA has uracil. The structure of DNA and its importance in cell life is explored in Chapter 10.
| Carbon |
Who lost his seat as MP for Enfield Southgate at the 1997 General Election? | What do all organic compounds contain? | Reference.com
What do all organic compounds contain?
A:
Quick Answer
All organic compounds contain long chains of carbon atoms. Generally, organic chemistry involves carbon-based molecules, while inorganic chemistry is the study of non-carbon containing molecules. However, not all compounds containing carbon are organic.
Full Answer
When early chemists started studying living organisms, they found that nearly all of the structures and substances present were based on carbon atoms. They called such molecules organic because they thought that only living things could create them. These chemists suspected that living things injected something called a life force into such molecules. This line of thought was soon discarded. Modern chemists understand that there's little fundamental difference between organic and inorganic molecules.
Some examples of organic chemicals are methane, ethane, butane and pyruvic acid. Carbon is involved in so many molecules because it's a flexible atom that can bond with up to four other atoms. This makes it possible to build long, complex molecules from carbon atoms.
Living organisms must use inorganic molecules to live. One important inorganic compound all life requires is water. Water is made of two hydrogen atoms, one oxygen atom, and no carbon atom chain, so it's inorganic. Carbon dioxide, which contains one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms, is not organic because it doesn't have a long carbon chain.
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Which Italian region has the largest population? | Regions of Italy, Map of Italy Regions, Regions in Italy
7
581
In the time of Ancient Rome, this capital city of Italy was the center of the entire Roman Empire. Today Italy, a founding member of the eurozone and the European Union, is also one of the largest economies in the world, and a major regional power in Europe. Rich Catholic culture has shaped the country's religious base, even though Judaism has been the longest established religious faith in the country. Home to a number of UNESCO's heritage sites, Italy is also a great center of culture, literature, and art. Italy is also known for giving the world the theatrical extravaganza called opera, and its traditional cuisine - pastas and pizzas.
Italy's Political Timeline
Constitution was approved
Location of Italy
Located in southern Europe, Italy is comprised of the Italian Peninsula and a number of islands. Italy shares borders with four countries: Switzerland, France, Austria, and Slovenia. It also surrounds two landlocked countries, San Marino and Vatican City. Italy spans a total area of 116,347 square miles and has a coastline of 4,722 miles.
Economy and Agriculture
Economically, Italy can be divided into two parts - the developed industrial north, which is dominated by private companies, and the less developed agricultural south. Prior to World War II, Italy had an agriculture-based economy, and after the Second World War, Italy rapidly transformed to an industrialized nation. Today, Italy is one of the most developed nations of the world, with a high standard of living. The country has high GDP, but also has a high unemployment rate. Italy's economy is supported by many small and medium-sized enterprises, which mainly produce high quality consumer goods.
Italy's GDP is about $2.05 trillion (2010 United Nations), which is the eighth largest in the world. Italy's main agricultural products are wheat, rice, citrus fruits, beef, potatoes, and soybeans. Its main industries are textile industry, tourism industry, and consumer goods manufacturing enterprises. The eurozone crisis has left an indelible mark on the country, though, and unemployment is a major concern.
Political History and Divisions
Prior to June 1946, monarchy was prevalent in Italy, but the monarchy was abolished in June 1946, and Italy became a parliamentary democratic nation. Italy's parliament is divided in two houses: the Senate of the Republic (315 seats) and the Chamber of Deputies (630 seats). Italy's prime minister shares authority with the president of Italy. Fifteen regions of Italy have centralized governments, with the head of the regions reporting to the central government. The twenty regions of Italy have about 110 provinces, each with its its own locally elected representatives. One unique feature of Italy's parliament is that representation is given to permanently non-residing citizens.
Major Cities of Italy
Venice: Located northeastern Italy, Venice is the capital of the Veneto region. Venice is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, famous for its beautiful views, works of art, and unique landscapes and architecture. This city attracts many tourists every year.
Milan: Milan is the commercial, industrial, and business center of Italy. This second largest city of Italy also is the capital of the Lombardy region and can be called the capital of Italian fashion.
Florence: This famous historical city is the capital of the Tuscany region of Italy. Florence has many monuments and museums that attract visitors to this city on regular basis.
Rome: The capital of Italy as well as the the Lazio region, Rome became part of unified Italy in 1870. In ancient times, Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire, which was a powerful empire that spanned the Mediterranean. Rome is also listed as a UNESCO's World Heritage Site.
Italy - from the Etruscans to the present day
Italy is a peninsular country bounded by the Mediterranean, with the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west and the Adriatic Sea to the east. Italy is a beautiful country with lofty mountains like the Apennine and green valleys like in Lombardy. The Po is the longest river in Italy. Italy is home to two great civilizations, namely the Roman and the Etruscan civilizations.
Italy has a population of about 60 million people (2011 estimate) and is known for its culture and tradition. Italy is a predominantly Roman Catholic country. The official language of Italy is Italian, but German and French are also spoken by a minority of the population in certain regions. Various dialects are spoken within regions of Italy.
Last Updated on:August 20, 2016
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Complete the name of the folk band 'Noah and the.....'? | Population of Italy, Italy Population
Population of Italy
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Population of Italy
Italy has the fourth-largest population in the European Countries and the 23rd-largest population worldwide estimated as 60.6 million. The population density, at over 200 persons per square kilometer, is the fifth highest in the European Countries.
Italy Population has surpassed 60 million as per the 2009 estimates. It is the forth largest populated country of Europe and ranks twenty third in the world chart. And in terms of population density, the country stands fifth all over Europe. There are 200 persons approx residing in every square kilometer of land area.
Italy, including the islands of Sardinia and Sicily covers an area of 301,338 square km. It is made up 20 administrative regions including Abruzzi, Calabria, Campania, Emilia-Remagna, Liguria, Lombardia, Marche, Molise, Piemonte, Puglia, Sardegna, Toscana, Trentino-Alto Adige, Umbria, Giulia, Lazio,Valle d'Aosta, Veneto, Sicilia, Friuli-Venezia and Basilicata.
Italian Population has been mainly affected by the high birth rate of 9.78 births per 1,000 people and relatively high life expectancy and low death rate of 9.82 deaths/1,000 people.
Some of the largest populated cities of Italy are Rome, Milan, Naples, Turin, Palermo and Genoa. Among other major Italian cities the most populated having more than 250,000 inhabitants are Bologna, Florence, Bari, Catania, Venice and Verona.
According to latest reports as per the Italian Statistics Office, the literacy rate among Italy Population is 98% with schooling been made mandatory for children aged between 6 and 18.
The demographic details of Italy are listed as follows:
Population: 58,133,509 approximately
Age structure can be defined as:
0-14 years: 14.03%
65 years and over: 20.04%
Growth Rate of Population: 0.68%
Net Migration Rate: 7.5%
Population divided into different genders / Sex Ratio in the following Age Groups at birth:
1.07 males per a female
Under 15 years: 1.06 males per a female
15-64 years: 1.02 males per a female
65 years and over: 0.72 male per a female
Ethnic groups: Italian. But exists some clusters of German, French, and Slovene. There are also few Albanian-Italians and Greek-Italians in the south
Religions
10% are Protestant or Jewish
There are also very few Muslim immigrant
Languages Spoken: Officially Italian (official); others include: German, French, Slovene
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