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4051518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%201997 | MLS Cup 1997 | MLS Cup 1997 was the second edition of the MLS Cup, the post-season championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS) in the United States. It was played on October 26, 1997, between D.C. United and the Colorado Rapids to determine the champion of the 1997 season. The soccer match was played in front of 57,431 spectators at RFK Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C.
D.C. United were defending champions and finished atop the Eastern Conference and the overall league standings despite being strained by runs in multiple competitions. Colorado had overhauled their roster after finishing last overall in the 1996 season and qualified for the playoffs with a losing record, finishing fourth in the Western Conference, but earned two upset victories in the playoffs. As finalists, D.C. United and the Colorado Rapids both earned berths to play in the 1998 CONCACAF Champions' Cup.
During a rainstorm that mirrored the previous final, D.C. repeated as MLS Cup champions by winning 2–1. The hosts took a lead through Jaime Moreno in the 37th minute and extended it with a header by Tony Sanneh in the 68th minute. Substitute Adrián Paz scored a consolation goal for Colorado in the 75th minute, but the team were unable to draw level despite several chances. The announced crowd of 57,431 was the second-largest attendance for a sporting event at RFK Memorial Stadium.
Venue
RFK Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C., the home of defending champions D.C. United, was selected as the host of the second MLS Cup on December 17, 1996. The stadium was opened in 1961 and was primarily used for American football and baseball, but previously hosted the 1980 Soccer Bowl and the 1996 U.S. Open Cup Final. It also hosted several matches during the 1994 FIFA World Cup and 1996 Olympics men's soccer tournament.
The league sold 32,000 tickets for the final in mid-October after D.C. United advanced to the conference finals. After the team clinched an appearance in the final, the remainder of the stadium's 56,000 seats were sold out and 1,000 bleacher seats were added.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league based in the United States that began play in 1996. The league's second season was contested by ten teams organized into two conferences, each playing 32 matches during the regular season from April to September. Teams faced opponents from the same conference four times during the regular season and from outside their conference three or four times. MLS continued to use the modified version of the sport's rules that it adopted for the 1996 season, including a penalty shootout from to decide tied matches (for which the winners earned one point) and a countdown clock that stopped during dead plays.
The top four teams from each conference qualified for the playoffs, which were organized into three rounds and played in October. The first two rounds, named the conference semifinals and conference finals, were home-and-away series organized into a best-of-three format with a hosting advantage for the higher seed. The winners of the conference finals advanced to the single-match MLS Cup final, which would be held at a predetermined neutral venue.
MLS Cup 1997 was contested by defending champions and hosts D.C. United, who finished first in the regular season standings, and the Colorado Rapids, who finished fourth in the Western Conference. The two finalists swept through the playoffs by winning the conference semifinals and conference finals in two legs. During three regular season meetings between the two teams, D.C. won 5–2 in April and 5–0 in June, while Colorado won in a shootout following a 2–2 draw in August. The Rapids reached the final through a "Cinderella run" in the playoffs and were considered underdogs to defending champions D.C. United.
D.C. United
Inaugural season champions D.C. United retained most of their players and made few changes during the offseason, trading midfielder Shawn Medved to the San Jose Clash and acquiring defender Carlos Llamosa in the supplemental draft. Nine of their starting players were called up at various times to their national teams for World Cup qualifying, giving reserve players an opportunity to earn a starting spot. D.C. went on a preseason tour that included matches in Japan and Hong Kong, earning a 6–2 win–loss record, and returned to open the season against MLS Cup opponents Los Angeles Galaxy with a shootout win.
D.C. earned one shootout win and three wins in regulation time to put them atop the Eastern Conference standings early in the season, highlighted by the performance of rookie goalkeeper Scott Garlick, who replaced starter Mark Simpson during his stint with an indoor team. The team then drew four times and lost three of the shootouts, briefly losing first place in the East in May before retaking it by the end of the month. Despite losing Bolivian players Marco Etcheverry and Jaime Moreno to the national team for six weeks, D.C. won their next five matches but lost 6–1 to the Kansas City Wizards on June 21, ending a 22-match unbeaten streak in regulation time. D.C. United also had six players in the starting lineup for the All-Star Game, which was won 5–4 by the East.
After the All-Star Game in early July, D.C. United went through a series of underwhelming performances, including three regulation losses and one shootout loss in six matches, blamed in part on injuries to Etcheverry and captain John Harkes. The team then entered a stretch of 13 matches in 36 days, forced by their participation in the CONCACAF Champions' Cup (finishing third) and U.S. Open Cup (advancing to the semifinals). D.C. United went 8–4–1 in all competitions through the end of August, including three wins out of four matches in regular season play during a stretch of five matches in twelve days. The team made further changes to their goalkeepers, as Simpson had undergone two knee surgeries and backup Jeff Causey was signed by the New England Revolution; in their place, Scott Garlick and rookie Tom Presthus were rotated between matches as starters. On August 17, Mario Gori and Raúl Díaz Arce were arrested for an alleged rape at a Columbus hotel, but released the following day on bail and allowed to continue playing for the team; the case was later dropped without charges in January 1998 after the alleged victim declined to continue.
D.C. earned their playoff berth with their first win against the Kansas City Wizards in franchise history after five earlier losses, and subsequently clinched first place in the Eastern Conference with a 3–2 shootout win against New England. The team continued to heavily rotate lineups and rested eight starting players in the second of a home-and-away series against the Tampa Bay Mutiny, winning 5–1 despite losing the first match with most of their regular starters. D.C. finished the regular season atop the league-wide standings with 55 points and a 21–11 record, but fell short of matching the Mutiny's record 58 points from the 1996 season after losing to the MetroStars in their last match. The team showed its roster depth by using a different lineup for all 39 league and cup matches, including 24 different starting players. Bruce Arena was named MLS Coach of the Year, Eddie Pope was named Defender of the Year, and four United players were included in the MLS Best XI.
D.C. faced New England in the conference semifinals and earned a 4–1 victory in the first leg of the series at home. Roy Wegerle, a midseason signing from Colorado, scored to give United a half-time lead and added a second before Jaime Moreno scored two more; New England defender Mike Burns scored a consolation goal with a minute left in the match. In the away leg at Foxboro Stadium, D.C. were held to a 1–1 draw in regulation time, with a goal for Richie Williams canceled out by Joe-Max Moore's penalty kick in the 72nd minute. The two teams played in a seven-round shootout that ended 4–3 in United's favor after a series of saves from goalkeepers Walter Zenga and Tom Presthus that was broken up by defender Carlos Llamosa's conversion.
In the conference finals, D.C. played the third-seeded Columbus Crew after they had eliminated the Tampa Bay Mutiny. In the first leg, played without Etcheverry who was on national team duty, United took a three-goal half-time lead that was reduced by two for a 3–2 victory after a second half surge in pressure and chances from the Crew. D.C. clinched their second MLS Cup appearance with a 1–0 win at Ohio Stadium in Columbus, with Díaz Arce scoring the lone goal in the 47th minute from within the box.
Colorado Rapids
The Colorado Rapids finished last overall in MLS during the league's inaugural season, with a 11–21 record under head coach Bob Houghton, who was replaced in the offseason by Glenn Myernick. Myernick and new general manager Dan Counce implemented a possession-oriented style and overhauled the Rapids roster by signing eleven new players, including trades to acquire defender Peter Vermes and midfielders Paul Bravo and Adrián Paz. The team also signed goalkeeper Marcus Hahnemann and forward Wolde Harris from the second-division A-League and were allocated Mexican midfielder David Patiño by the league.
After a short preseason tour in Mexico and Florida, the Rapids opened the season without forward Jean Harbor and several defenders who were either injured or called up to national team duty, winning only twice in their first seven matches. The team were able to consistently earn wins through the summer, with a 9–10 record by mid-July that allowed them to reach second in the Western Conference. Their record improved to 14–12 in mid-August while remaining in second place, trailing the conference-leading Kansas City Wizards by eight points.
The final seven matches of the Rapids season would be played against fellow teams in the Western Conference with higher stakes in playoffs positioning. The team entered a six-match losing streak, which included three losses to the Wizards, but qualified for the playoffs despite dropping to fourth place. Colorado won their final regular season match against San Jose and finished with a losing record of 14 wins and 18 losses. Leading goalscorers Bravo and Chris Henderson, along with defender Marcelo Balboa, were credited with the team's improved regular season performance.
In the conference semifinals, Colorado faced the Wizards, who had defeated the Rapids in all of their regular season meetings. The first leg at Kansas City's Arrowhead Stadium finished in a 3–0 upset victory for the Rapids, despite missing Paz and Balboa. The victory was credited to a disciplined performance by the Rapids defense, several saves from goalkeeper Marcus Hahnemann, and attackers who took advantage of mistakes from the Wizards. The Rapids began the second leg at home by conceding a goal to Wizards forward Vitalis Takawira, but equalized within minutes and took a lead after half-time with goals from Paul Bravo. The match ended in a 3–2 win for Colorado, who swept the playoffs series.
The Rapids advanced to play in the conference final against the Dallas Burn, who had defeated the Los Angeles Galaxy in another upset from the semifinals. Colorado won 1–0 in the first leg, played in Dallas, with a header in the 42nd minute from defender Sean Henderson; the Burn had several chances to equalize, including a free kick in the final five seconds that hit the post, but were unable to capitalize. In the second leg, played at Mile High Stadium in Denver, Dallas took an early lead in the fifth minute but were set back by an equalizer from David Patiño in the 23rd minute. The match remained tied until a scissored volley from Chris Henderson in the 87th minute clinched a 2–1 victory to win the conference championship for Colorado. The team became the first to take a pair of brothers, Chris and Sean Henderson, to the MLS Cup.
Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away). Playoffs were in best-of-three format with penalty shootout if scores were tied.
Broadcasting
The match was broadcast on ABC in the United States, where it was watched by an estimated television audience of 2.2 million viewers, setting a record that would stand until the 2016 final. Phil Schoen and Ty Keough reprised their roles from the previous final as play-by-play and color commentator, respectively. The match was also televised in more than 100 foreign markets by ESPN International; it was the first MLS Cup to be broadcast in the United Kingdom, where it aired on Eurosport.
Match
Summary
The MLS Cup final kicked off at 3:30 p.m. with an announced sellout crowd of 57,431 spectators at RFK Memorial Stadium, setting a new attendance record for a single playoff match. The match was played during a rainstorm in cold conditions, which mirrored the weather during the inaugural final and deterred some ticket-holding fans from attending. D.C. controlled the opening minutes, taking their first shot within 25 seconds, but Colorado used counterattacks to find chances and force goalkeeper Scott Garlick to make three saves and a foul that earned him a yellow card. The hosts responded with their own counterattacking plays that were channeled by Tony Sanneh towards Jaime Moreno, who could not finish his first few chances.
D.C. took a 1–0 lead in the 37th minute after a cross from Sanneh to Raúl Díaz Arce, who dummied the ball at the top of the penalty area. The cross fell to Moreno, who took a shot from that rolled past Marcus Hahnemann and two Colorado defenders. The Rapids were outshot 8–5 in the first half, with only one shot in the final 24 minutes. They attempted to find an equalizer early in the second half and had two chances through David Patiño that were not finished after missing a through ball and later hitting teammate Steve Rammel.
Sanneh extended the lead for D.C. in the 68th minute, scoring with a header at the far post on a high cross from John Harkes after cleaning up a cleared corner kick. The team continued its attacking pressure, but shifted to a defensive style to prepare for counterattacks from the Rapids. Marcelo Balboa moved up into the midfield and attempted a bicycle kick in the 70th minute that was saved by Garlick. Colorado scored a consolation goal in the 75th minute from substitute Adrián Paz, who struck the ball from a tight angle in the penalty area on an assist from Patiño. A chance to equalize came less than a minute later as Rapids forward Wolde Harris took an unimpeded shot from that flew over the crossbar. D.C. responded with their own attacks that were shut down by the Rapids, including two fouls that were described as potential penalty kicks that went uncalled by referee Brian Hall. The hosts won 2–1 to claim their second MLS Cup title; Moreno was named the MLS Cup most valuable player for his performance, which included setting up plays throughout the match.
Details
Post-match
MLS Cup 1997 was the first sports championship for the Washington, D.C., area to be won at a stadium in the city. The announced attendance of 57,431 came within 600 spectators of breaking the overall record for largest sporting event at RFK Memorial Stadium, held by the United States–Portugal match during the 1996 Summer Olympics. It was the first day in which there were large sporting events at both of the major outdoor stadiums in the D.C. area, as Jack Kent Cooke Stadium also hosted a National Football League game. A railing in the upper stands at RFK Memorial Stadium collapsed during the celebrations after the match, causing minor injuries to 50 fans.
Three days after the MLS Cup final, D.C. United played the Dallas Burn in the U.S. Open Cup Final with a chance to earn the league's first "treble". The Burn and United played to a scoreless draw and D.C. lost 5–3 in the ensuing penalty shootout. The team, with the exception of Etcheverry and Moreno on national team duty, was honored with a reception at the White House by President Bill Clinton. D.C. returned to the MLS Cup in 1998, where they lost to the Chicago Fire, and in 1999, where they defeated the Los Angeles Galaxy.
D.C. and Colorado qualified as the U.S. representatives for the 1998 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, which was hosted at RFK Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C. The Rapids were eliminated in the qualifying playoff round, played in a home-and-away series against Club León of Mexico, by a 4–3 aggregate score. D.C. entered the competition in the quarterfinals and eliminated Trinidadian club Joe Public, León, and Mexican champion Toluca on their way to winning the Champions' Cup, becoming the first American team to be crowned as continental champions. United then advanced to the 1998 Copa Interamericana, where they defeated South American champions Vasco da Gama of Brazil over two legs played in the United States.
References
MLS Cup
Cup
MLS Cup 97
MLS Cup 97
Soccer in Washington, D.C.
Sports competitions in Washington, D.C.
October 1997 sports events in the United States
1997 in sports in Washington, D.C. |
4051607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Bowl%20XLVII | Super Bowl XLVII | Super Bowl XLVII was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Baltimore Ravens and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion San Francisco 49ers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2012 season. The Ravens defeated the 49ers by the score of 34–31, handing the 49ers their first Super Bowl loss in their franchise history. The game was played on Sunday, February 3, 2013, at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. This was the tenth Super Bowl to be played in New Orleans, equaling Miami's record of ten in an individual city. This was the first Super Bowl to be held in New Orleans since Super Bowl XXXVI and it was the first to be played there since Hurricane Katrina struck the city in 2005.
For the first time in Super Bowl history, the game featured two brothers coaching against each other — Jim and John Harbaugh, head coaches of the San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Ravens, respectively — earning it the nickname Har-bowl. Jim's son and John's nephew, Jay Harbaugh, was also on the Ravens' coaching staff. Super Bowl XLVII was the first to feature two teams that had undefeated records in previous Super Bowl games (Baltimore, 1–0; San Francisco, 5–0). The 49ers, who posted a regular-season record of 11–4–1, entered the game seeking their sixth Super Bowl win in team history (and first since Super Bowl XXIX at the end of the 1994 season), which would have tied the Pittsburgh Steelers for the most by a franchise. The Ravens, who posted a 10–6 regular-season record, made their second Super Bowl appearance in franchise history, having previously won Super Bowl XXXV. Linebacker Ray Lewis, the Most Valuable Player (MVP) from that game, as well as the last remaining member of the inaugural Ravens roster from 1996, also played in this game, his and 49ers wide receiver Randy Moss' last before both retired from professional football.
Baltimore dominated the first half of the game, aided by quarterback Joe Flacco's three touchdown passes that gave the Ravens a 21–3 lead before their lead was cut to 21–6 just before halftime; the Ravens immediately resumed scoring after Jacoby Jones returned the second half kickoff a record 108 yards, increasing their lead to 28–6. However, a partial power outage in the Superdome following the return suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl). After play resumed, San Francisco began to rally, scoring 17 unanswered third-quarter points to cut the Ravens' lead to 28–23. With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34–29, the 49ers drove down to the Baltimore 7-yard line just before the two-minute warning but turned the ball over on downs.
The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory. Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, became the fourth consecutive quarterback to be named Super Bowl MVP, after Drew Brees at Super Bowl XLIV, Aaron Rodgers at Super Bowl XLV, and Eli Manning at Super Bowl XLVI.
CBS broadcast the game in the United States, and charged an average of $4 million for a 30-second commercial during the game, the highest rate for any Super Bowl. According to Nielsen, Super Bowl XLVII was viewed by an estimated average of 108.69 million people in the United States, with a record 164.1 million tuning into at least six minutes of the game. Beyoncé performed in the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show, which featured a reunion with fellow Destiny's Child alumni Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams.
Background
The game marked the first Super Bowl in which both of the teams had appeared, but had not yet lost a previous Super Bowl; the 49ers came into the game having won all five of their previous Super Bowl appearances, while the Ravens had won in their lone previous Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants. Currently, this phenomenon can only be repeated if either the Ravens or the New York Jets play against either the Tampa Bay Buccaneers or the New Orleans Saints in a subsequent Super Bowl. Baltimore's victory made them the only current NFL franchise to have appeared in at least two Super Bowls without ever losing any of their appearances; this feat was later equaled by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.
Host-selection process
Three cities presented bids for the game:
New Orleans, on behalf of Mercedes-Benz Superdome
Glendale, Arizona, on behalf of University of Phoenix Stadium
Miami Gardens, Florida, on behalf of Sun Life Stadium
The league then selected the New Orleans bid during the NFL's Spring Ownership Meetings in Fort Lauderdale, Florida on May 19, 2009. This was the tenth time that the city has hosted the Super Bowl, by far the most by an individual city and once again tying with the Miami area for the most Super Bowls hosted by a metropolitan area. It was the first Super Bowl to be held in New Orleans since the Superdome sustained damage from Hurricane Katrina in 2005, as well as since the naming rights of the Superdome were sold to Mercedes-Benz while it was undergoing a major renovation in 2011, including the addition of Champions Square. New Orleans artist Ally Burguieres was selected to design the official medallion for Super Bowl XLVII, which was included on beads to commemorate the Mardi Gras tradition.
Because of the February 3 date of Super Bowl XLVII, the 2013 Mardi Gras calendar in Orleans Parish was changed. Parades scheduled for February 3 and before were moved ahead one week. The same situation occurred in 2002 when the 9/11 attacks caused a one-week delay in the 2001 NFL season, resulting in the Super Bowl XXXVI falling within the Mardi Gras parade calendar.
This was the 49ers' second Super Bowl played at the Superdome—the first being Super Bowl XXIV when they beat the Denver Broncos 55–10. The 49ers, Broncos and New England Patriots are the only teams so far to play two or more Super Bowls at the Superdome. The 49ers also joined the Broncos and the Colts in playing two Super Bowls at two stadiums. The 49ers won Super Bowls XXIII and XXIX in Miami at what is now known as Hard Rock Stadium.
Nicknames
Super Bowl XLVII earned many nicknames, including the "Bro Bowl", "Har-Bowl", "HarBowl", "Super Baugh", "Brother Bowl", and "Superbro", as this was the first Super Bowl featuring brothers as opposing head coaches: Baltimore's John Harbaugh and San Francisco's Jim Harbaugh, whose clubs previously met in a 2011 Thanksgiving Day game, which John Harbaugh's Ravens won 16–6, which was also the first time that two brothers had met as rival head coaches in the NFL. Due to a power outage affecting half the stadium during the third quarter, the game has also become known as the "Blackout Bowl".
Teams
Baltimore Ravens
After going 12–4 and reaching the AFC Championship Game in 2011, only to lose to the New England Patriots when wide receiver Lee Evans dropped a game-winning catch in the end zone and Billy Cundiff missed a potential game-tying 32-yard field goal, the Ravens advanced further in 2012 to the Super Bowl after recording a 10–6 regular season record. Under head coach John Harbaugh, who was in his fifth season with the team, Baltimore upgraded their roster with players such as defensive backs Sean Considine and Corey Graham, and wide receiver Jacoby Jones. In December 2012, the Ravens fired offensive coordinator Cam Cameron and promoted quarterbacks coach Jim Caldwell, who was previously the head coach of the Indianapolis Colts from 2009 to 2011, as the successor. With personnel on both sides of the ball, they finished the season ranked 10th in points per game (24.9), and 12th in fewest points allowed (21.5)
In command of the offense was five-year veteran Joe Flacco, who finished the season with a career-high 3,817 passing yards and 22 touchdowns, with only 10 interceptions. (Super Bowl XLVII would be one of only two years the AFC team's quarterback would not be either Tom Brady, Ben Roethlisberger or Peyton Manning between Super Bowls XXXVI and LIII; the other was Super Bowl XXXVII ten years prior, when the 2002 Oakland Raiders were helmed by Rich Gannon.) His top targets were receivers Anquan Boldin (65 receptions, 921 yards, 4 touchdowns) and Torrey Smith (49 receptions, 855 yards, 8 touchdowns), along with tight end Dennis Pitta (61 receptions, 669 yards, 7 touchdowns). Their backfield featured two Pro Bowl selections: halfback Ray Rice and fullback Vonta Leach. Rice rushed for 1,143 yards and 9 touchdowns, while also hauling in 61 receptions for 478 yards and another score. Leach served effectively as his lead blocker and a receiver out of the backfield, catching 21 passes. The Ravens' offensive line was led by Pro Bowl guard Marshal Yanda, and 14-year veteran center Matt Birk.
On special teams, Jones returned 38 kickoffs for 1,116 yards and two touchdowns, giving him a whopping 30.7 yards per return average. He also gained 341 yards and another touchdown returning punts, and caught 30 passes for 406 yards and a score. Rookie kicker Justin Tucker ranked 7th in the NFL in field goal percentage (90.9), kicking 30/33 field goals and making all 42 of his extra point attempts.
Baltimore's defensive line was anchored by Pro Bowl defensive end Haloti Ngata, who compiled 51 tackles and 5 sacks, along with defensive tackle Arthur Jones (47 tackles, 4.5 sacks). The Ravens also had an excellent set of linebackers, such as Paul Kruger, Dannell Ellerbe, Jameel McClain, Terrell Suggs, and Ray Lewis. Kruger led the team in sacks with 9, while Ellerbe added 92 tackles and 4.5 sacks. McClain had 79 tackles. Suggs, a ten-year veteran and five-time Pro Bowl selection, who had missed the first half of the regular season with a partially torn Achilles tendon, made a speedy recovery and was key in the Ravens' win over the Broncos in the divisional round of the playoffs with 2 sacks on Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning. Lewis, a 17-year veteran and 13-time Pro Bowl selection, had missed most of the season with an arm injury, but still managed to rack up 57 tackles in just 6 games. Then shortly before returning for the playoffs, he announced his plans to retire after the postseason, and promptly went on to amass 44 tackles in Baltimore's four playoff games.
The Ravens secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Ed Reed, the NFL's all-time leader in interception return yardage. Reed had another statistically successful season in 2012, recording 58 tackles and 4 interceptions. Cornerback Cary Williams was also a big contributor with 4 interceptions and 75 tackles.
The team dedicated their 2012 season to former owner and founder Art Modell, who died on September 6, 2012, four days before the first regular season game.
San Francisco 49ers
The 49ers had recently emerged as a dominant team after nearly a decade of ineptitude. During the 1980s and 1990s, they had been one of the NFL top contenders, playing in ten conference championship games and winning five Super Bowls. But after a strong 2002 season, San Francisco went into a dismal slump in which they failed to make the playoffs for eight consecutive seasons. Following the end of the 2010 season, the 49ers hired Jim Harbaugh as their head coach. Harbaugh, who played 14 years in the NFL, joined the team after an impressive 12–1 season as the coach of Stanford, and in his first season with San Francisco he managed to turn their fortunes around, aided by breakout seasons from quarterback Alex Smith and receiver Michael Crabtree.
Smith entered the 2012 season as the starting quarterback, but missed two starts mid-season after suffering a concussion, and second-year backup Colin Kaepernick successfully filled in. A quarterback controversy then began because Smith was ranked third in the NFL in passer rating (104.1), led the league in completion percentage (70%), and had been 19–5–1 as a starter under Harbaugh, while Kaepernick was considered more dynamic with his scrambling ability and arm strength. After Smith was fully recovered, Harbaugh chose Kaepernick as the starter for the 8–2–1 49ers, but also stated that the assignment was week-to-week and not necessarily permanent. Kaepernick ended up being the starter for the rest of the season and led the team to an 11–4–1 record, throwing for 1,814 yards and 10 touchdowns, with just 3 interceptions and a 98.4 passer rating, while also rushing for 415 yards and 5 touchdowns.
San Francisco's top receiver was Crabtree, who caught 85 passes for a career-high 1,105 yards and 9 touchdowns. Other key contributors to the passing game included tight end Vernon Davis (41 receptions for 538 yards and 5 touchdowns) along with offseason acquired receivers Mario Manningham and Randy Moss. Manningham had been signed away from the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants, while Moss, the NFL's second all-time leader in receiving yards, had been signed out of retirement after missing the previous season. The 49ers' backfield featured Pro Bowl running back Frank Gore, who rushed for 1,214 yards and 8 touchdowns, while also catching 28 passes for 234 yards and another score. The team also had a strong offensive line with two Pro Bowl linemen, left tackle Joe Staley and left guard Mike Iupati.
On special teams, punter Andy Lee led the NFL in net yards per punt (43.2) and ranked 5th in gross yards per punt (48.1). He planted 36 punts inside the 20-yard line with just 5 touchbacks. Kicker David Akers had a relatively bad year overall, converting only 69 percent of his field goal attempts, but in the week 1 contest against the Green Bay Packers tied the NFL record for the longest field goal with a successful 63-yard attempt. Receiver Ted Ginn Jr. returned 32 punts for 326 yards and 11 kickoffs for 253.
The 49ers' strongest unit was their defense, which ranked 2nd in fewest points allowed per game (17.1) and sent 6 of their 11 starters to the Pro Bowl. Pro Bowl defensive end Justin Smith led the line with 66 tackles and 3 sacks. Behind him, all four of the team's starting linebackers—Aldon Smith, NaVorro Bowman, Patrick Willis and Ahmad Brooks—were named to the 2012 All-Pro Team, and all but Brooks made the Pro Bowl. Aldon Smith set a franchise record with 19.5 sacks, more than the rest of the team had combined. Willis ranked second on the team with 120 tackles and picked off two passes, while Bowman's 149 tackles were second most in the NFL. The 49ers secondary featured Pro Bowl safeties Dashon Goldson and Donte Whitner.
Playoffs
The Ravens finished the season as the AFC North champion and the number 4 seed in the AFC. The Ravens began their playoff run at home against the number 5 seed Indianapolis Colts in the Wild-Card round in what would turn out to be Ray Lewis's final career home game. The Ravens defeated the Colts 24–9, with Flacco throwing for 288 yards and two touchdowns, while their defense held the Colts to just 9 points, 13 below their regular season average.
In the divisional round, the Ravens would face the top-seeded Denver Broncos, who came into the game with an 11-game winning streak. The Ravens fell behind late in the game, but with less than a minute left on the clock, Flacco's 70-yard touchdown pass to Jacoby Jones sent the game into overtime, a play that is known as the Mile High Miracle. An interception by Corey Graham from Peyton Manning late in the first overtime period set up Tucker's 47-yard field goal to win the game 1:42 into double overtime.
Finally, the Ravens advanced to the Super Bowl by overcoming a 13-7 halftime deficit and then beating the second-seeded New England Patriots in the AFC Championship Game 28–13, avenging the Ravens' loss against the Patriots in the 2011 AFC Championship Game, forcing three turnovers total, intercepting two of Tom Brady's passes, and keeping the Patriots scoreless in the second half. By winning the game, the Ravens handed Brady his first (and only) AFC Championship Game loss at home.
As the NFC West champion and the number 2 seed in the NFC, the 49ers earned a first-round bye. The 49ers started their playoff run against the number 3 seed Green Bay Packers in the divisional round. Jim Harbaugh's decision to start Kaepernick for the playoffs came into immediate question when he threw an interception that was returned for a touchdown by Sam Shields on their opening drive, but this turned out to be the only miscue he would make for the rest of the game, as well as the only interception he would throw until the Super Bowl. By the end of the game, Kaepernick racked up 444 total yards (more than the entire Packers team), including 181 rushing yards, the NFL single game record for rushing yards by a quarterback, as the 49ers went on to win easily, 45–31.
The 49ers then faced the top-seeded Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship Game, where they quickly fell behind 17–0 in the first half. No team in NFC Championship Game history had ever overcome a deficit that large, but the 49ers proved up to the challenge, cutting the score to 24–21 going into the final quarter. Late in the game, the 49ers' comeback hopes suffered a setback when Crabtree lost a fumble on the 1-yard line as he was going in for the leading score. However, the 49ers defense forced a punt, and Ted Ginn Jr.'s 20-yard return set up a touchdown run by Gore. The 49ers defense then held firm, forcing a turnover on downs at their 10-yard line to secure the victory.
Pregame notes
This was the first Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVII ten years prior that did not feature the New England Patriots, Indianapolis Colts, or the Pittsburgh Steelers as the AFC representatives, and the only Super Bowl between 2003 and 2019 not to feature Tom Brady, Ben Roethlisberger or Peyton Manning. Baltimore defeated the Colts and Patriots during the playoffs while the Steelers failed to make the playoffs. By contrast, the NFC had a different member go to the Super Bowl almost every year during that same span, with the New York Giants (who won Super Bowls XLII and XLVI) being the only NFC team to make two appearances during that span. With the 49ers making their first Super Bowl appearance since Super Bowl XXIX, this left the Dallas Cowboys (last appeared in Super Bowl XXX), Detroit Lions (never appeared in a Super Bowl), Minnesota Vikings (last appeared in Super Bowl XI) and Washington Redskins (last appeared in Super Bowl XXVI) as the only NFC teams not to play in a Super Bowl since 1998, with only the Vikings (on three occasions) even advancing to the NFC Championship Game.
This was the sixth time in seven seasons in which one of the participants advanced to the Super Bowl after not having a first-round bye in the Wild Card playoffs, and was the last time to occur under the twelve team playoff structure.
The 49ers attempted to follow the 2012 World Series championship victory of Major League Baseball's San Francisco Giants. The last time a metropolitan area won the World Series and Super Bowl in the same season was when the Boston Red Sox won the 2004 World Series followed by the Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXIX (and the Patriots won Super Bowl XXXVIII earlier in 2004).
As the 49ers – who were attempting to join the New York Giants and Green Bay Packers as the only teams to win a Super Bowl in three decades – were the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, San Francisco elected to wear their red jerseys, which they wore in Super Bowls XIX, XXIII, and XXIX (wearing an alternate throwback red jersey with three-dimensional numerals in XXIX), and gold pants (worn in their first four Super Bowl appearances) for the first time since Super Bowl XXIV (having worn white pants in XXIX along with the aforementioned throwback jerseys). The Ravens wore white jerseys as they did in Super Bowl XXXV, but with black-colored pants this time instead of white. Due to the Ravens having their Art Modell memorial patch on the left side of their jerseys, the team wore their Super Bowl XLVII patch on the right side.
Much of the pregame media hype centered around the Harbaugh brothers, and how their father Jack, a former college football head coach, raised them. On January 24, Jack, along with his wife Jackie and daughter Joani, conducted a media conference call, answering questions about John and Jim. Jackie jokingly asked if the game could end in a tie, before stating that the family was staying neutral but remain excited that both John and Jim brought their respective teams to the Super Bowl. The Harbaugh brothers then conducted a joint press conference on the Friday before the game, which is unusual for opposing Super Bowl coaches, but it was done because of the historic nature of the game.
Broadcasting
Television
United States
The game was carried by CBS in the United States, with Jim Nantz calling play-by-play and Phil Simms as color analyst. Steve Tasker and Solomon Wilcots served as sideline reporters. The pregame show, The Super Bowl Today, was hosted by James Brown and featuring analysts Dan Marino, Boomer Esiason, Shannon Sharpe and Bill Cowher.
A special episode of Elementary would be the lead-out program of this Super Bowl.
The game was later featured as one of the NFL's Greatest Games under the title "Change of Momentum".
Advertising
According to CBS, the price of a 30-second advertisement hit a record high US $4,000,000. General Motors announced it would not advertise on the game, citing the advertising costs.
Adbowl had a special theme this year for the Super Bowl, called "Catbowl 2013", which pitted the best commercials by votes with cat videos to see which one is more popular.
The advertisers for Super Bowl XLVII included Mercedes-Benz, Gildan, Samsung, BlackBerry, Kraft Foods, Subway, Taco Bell, Procter & Gamble, Best Buy, Coca-Cola, Sodastream, PepsiCo (including entries in the Doritos Crash the Super Bowl contest), Axe, Audi, Kia Motors, Ford Motor Company, Wonderful Pistachios, GoDaddy, and perpetual Super Bowl advertiser Anheuser-Busch. Ram Trucks and the Future Farmers of America ran a two-minute commercial based on the Paul Harvey speech "So God Made a Farmer." Movie studios Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios and Walt Disney Studios paying for movie trailers to be aired during the Super Bowl. With Paramount paying for Star Trek Into Darkness and World War Z, Universal paying for the debut trailer for Fast & Furious 6 that followed Monsters vs. Aliens''' footsteps and Disney paying for Iron Man 3, The Lone Ranger and Oz the Great and Powerful''.
International
An international feed designed for areas less familiar with American football was produced by NFL Network, with Bob Papa (the regular-season voice of the New York Giants) calling play-by-play and Joe Theismann as color analyst. The NFL claimed that this feed would go to 180 countries.
: Network Ten / One, ESPN on Foxtel. All used CBS commentary and feed
: Puls 4.
: TV Esporte Interativo and ESPN.
: CTV simulcast CBS' coverage in Canada, with simultaneous substitution expected to be invoked. The CTV coverage was simulcast online within Canada by TSN.ca, and in French on RDS.
: Shanghai Media Group controls broadcast rights to the game.
: Sport 1.
: TV3+.
: Nelonen Pro 1 with Finnish commentary and Nelonen Pro 2 with English commentary.
: W9 and BeIN Sport.
: ESPN America, Sat.1 and Sport1
: Sport 1.
: STAR Sports and ESPN India. But in reality, at the time of the Super Bowl, STAR Sports televised "Australian Ironman" and ESPN India televised "Football Asia."
: BBC and Sky Sports.
: Sport 5
: Sportitalia 2
: NHK
: Azteca 7, Canal 5 and ESPN.
: Viasat 4, Viasat Sport.
: Fox Sports Asia and Solar Sports. Both used the NFL Network feed.
: Polsat Sport, ESPN America.
: Sport TV.
: Sport 1.
: NTV Plus.
: ESPN America.
: TV10.
: BBC and Sky Sports.
Streaming
For the second consecutive year, a webcast of the broadcast was provided, this time on CBSSports.com.
Radio
In the United States, the game was carried nationwide over the Dial Global radio network, with Kevin Harlan as play-by-play announcer, Boomer Esiason as color analyst, and James Lofton and Mark Malone as sideline reporters. Univision Radio broadcast the game in Spanish.
Each team's flagship station also carried the game: WIYY and WBAL broadcast the game in Baltimore, with Gerry Sandusky on play-by-play and Stan White and Qadry Ismail on color commentary. In San Francisco, the game was broadcast on KSAN-FM and KNBR, with Ted Robinson on play-by-play, Eric Davis on color commentary, and Rod Brooks reporting from the sidelines. Both WBAL and KNBR are clear-channel stations, which allowed the local commentaries to be heard throughout the Eastern and Western United States, respectively. Per contractual rules, the rest of the stations in the 49ers' and Ravens' radio networks carried the Dial Global feed.
Internationally, the game was carried on radio as follows:
: TSN Radio (Dial Global simulcast)
: BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra
Sirius XM Radio and NFL Audio Pass carried the local, Dial Global, and select international audio feeds.
Entertainment
Pregame
On January 18, 2013, the league announced that Alicia Keys would sing the national anthem. Keys stated that she would not perform the song traditionally and instead would perform it as if it were "a brand new song."
Singer Jennifer Hudson and a chorus of several students from Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, performed "America the Beautiful" as a tribute to the 26 students and staff who were murdered at the school the previous year.
There was also a pregame performance by the world renowned “Human Jukebox” from Southern University.
The coin toss ceremony featured the recent inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame: Larry Allen, Cris Carter, Curley Culp, Warren Sapp, Bill Parcells, Jonathan Ogden, and Dave Robinson.
Halftime
On October 16, 2012, Beyoncé was chosen as the headline performer for the Super Bowl halftime show, with a reunited Destiny's Child also appearing as part of the show.
Despite initial reports that mentioned that Beyoncé's husband, Jay Z, was a potential collaborator on the show, he did not make an appearance.
Beyoncé's performance had an estimated 104 million viewers.
Game summary
First quarter
San Francisco was hurt by penalties and turnovers early in the game as the Ravens built a 21–6 first-half lead. On their first play of the opening drive, tight end Vernon Davis's 20-yard reception was called back by an illegal formation penalty. The team ended up punting after three more plays, and Jacoby Jones returned the ball 17 yards to the Ravens' 49-yard line. Baltimore then drove 51 yards, scoring on Joe Flacco's 13-yard touchdown pass to receiver Anquan Boldin. Flacco had previously thrown a third-down incompletion, but an offsides penalty against linebacker Ahmad Brooks gave him a second chance.
San Francisco responded on their next possession, moving the ball 62 yards in a 12-play drive, with quarterback Colin Kaepernick completing a 19-yard pass to Michael Crabtree and a 24-yarder to Davis. David Akers finished the drive with a 36-yard field goal to cut the score to 7–3. Baltimore responded with a drive to the 49ers' 37-yard line, featuring a 30-yard catch by Boldin, but came up empty after Flacco was sacked on third down for a 5-yard loss by defensive tackle Ray McDonald, pushing the Ravens out of field goal range.
Second quarter
Five plays into the 49ers' next drive, linebacker Courtney Upshaw forced a fumble from running back LaMichael James, and Baltimore's Arthur Jones recovered it on the Ravens' 25-yard line. Baltimore drove 75 yards on 10 plays, 52 of those came from a 23-yard and a 14-yard pass to tight end Ed Dickson, the second followed by a 15-yard facemask penalty on Donte Whitner. Dennis Pitta caught a 1-yard touchdown catch on the final play of the drive and the extra point made the score 14–3.
On the first play of the next drive, Ed Reed intercepted a pass by Kaepernick and returned the ball 6 yards to the 49ers' 38-yard line. This was the first interception thrown by San Francisco in any of their six Super Bowl appearances. Unnecessary roughness charges were called after the play on players from both teams so the charges offset. Baltimore reached the red zone on their next drive, but was unable to score. Following a one-yard run by Bernard Pierce and two incomplete passes, rookie kicker Justin Tucker was tackled 1 yard short of a first down while running the ball on a fake field goal play.
San Francisco was forced to a three-and-out on the drive. Jones muffed the punt, but recovered the ball and returned it 11 yards to the Ravens' 44-yard line. Two plays later, Jones made a falling catch deep down the field, then got back up and eluded two 49ers defensive backs en route to a 56-yard touchdown reception, making the score 21–3 with less than two minutes to go in the first half. On the second play of San Francisco's next drive, tight end Delanie Walker caught a 14-yard pass from Kaepernick, which was extended by a 15-yard roughing the passer penalty against Haloti Ngata. After an incomplete first down attempt, Walker received another 28-yard pass, putting San Francisco on the Baltimore 17-yard line. San Francisco reached the 9-yard line, but were unable to convert on three plays. On the last play of the half, Akers kicked his second field goal to cut their deficit to 21–6.
Third quarter
On the second-half kickoff, Jacoby Jones fielded the kick and promptly returned it 108 yards for the longest play in Super Bowl history. It broke the previous 104-yard record for the longest kickoff return in the playoffs (set by Trindon Holliday of the Denver Broncos in the divisional playoff game earlier that year against Baltimore), and it tied an NFL record already held by Jones and shared with Ellis Hobbs and Randall Cobb for the longest kickoff return. With the extra point, Baltimore was now leading 28–6.
Shortly into the 49ers' next drive, a power outage caused the lights to go out in half of the stadium, stopping play for 34 minutes. The outage was caused by equipment failure at the stadium.
After play resumed, both teams punted once. Then San Francisco drove 80 yards, with Kaepernick rushing for 15 yards and completing an 18-yard pass to Davis before finishing the drive with a pass to Crabtree, who broke through two potential Ravens tacklers on the way to a 31-yard touchdown reception. Then Baltimore was forced to punt from their own 9-yard line following Brooks' 8-yard sack of Flacco on third down, and Ted Ginn Jr. returned the ball 32 yards to the 20 before being shoved out of bounds by punter Sam Koch. Kaepernick completed a 14-yard pass to Davis on the next play, and Gore followed it up with a 6-yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 28–20.
On the second play of the fourth quarter, Baltimore committed their first turnover when defensive back Tarell Brown forced and recovered a fumble from Ray Rice on the Ravens' 25-yard line. Three plays later, Akers missed (went wide left) on a 39-yard field goal attempt, but Baltimore's Chykie Brown was penalized for running into the kicker, and Akers' second attempt was good from 34 yards, trimming the lead to 28–23.
Fourth quarter
The Ravens responded on their ensuing possession, moving the ball 77 yards and advancing to the San Francisco 1-yard line, with Boldin catching two passes for 39 yards. But they were unable to reach the end zone and settled for Tucker's 19-yard field goal to put them back up by 8 points, 31–23. San Francisco stormed back, scoring in just five plays. Following a 32-yard reception by Randy Moss and a 21-yard burst by Gore, Kaepernick took the ball across the goal line on a 15-yard run, the longest touchdown run by a quarterback in Super Bowl history. However, the ensuing two-point conversion failed, so the 49ers were unable to break the deficit, still trailing at 31–29.
On the Ravens' ensuing drive, Boldin caught two passes for 22 yards and Rice rushed for 11 yards as the team moved the ball 55 yards and scored on Tucker's 38-yard field goal, making the score 34–29 with 4:19 left in regulation. San Francisco used up two timeouts on their next drive, but managed to move the ball to a first and goal on the Ravens' 7-yard line following a 24-yard catch by Crabtree and a 33-yard run by Gore.
With four chances to take the lead, San Francisco started out with a 2-yard run by James to the 5-yard line. Then Kaepernick threw two incompletions, bringing up fourth down. On their last chance, Kaepernick tried to throw the ball to Crabtree in the end zone, but it was too far ahead and the pass fell incomplete. Defensive back Jimmy Smith and Crabtree both made contact prior to the ball arriving, but no penalty was called and the 49ers turned the ball over on downs with 1:46 left in the game.
San Francisco managed to force a three-and-out on the Ravens' next drive, but as they had only one timeout remaining, the Ravens were able to run the clock down to twelve seconds. On fourth down, and after the Ravens then called a timeout of their own, punter Sam Koch fielded the snap in his own end zone. In an effort to kill as much of the twelve remaining seconds on the clock, Koch was instructed not to punt the ball but rather hang on to it and scramble around in the end zone. Koch was able to scramble for eight seconds before giving up an intentional safety by running out of the side of the end zone, leaving just four seconds remaining and giving the 49ers one more chance for a game-winning play. On the ensuing free kick, Ginn returned the ball 31 yards, but was tackled at midfield by linebacker Josh Bynes as time expired.
Power outage
Play was interrupted for 34 minutes because of a 22-minute partial power outage. The power failed with 13:22 remaining in the third quarter with the Ravens leading 28–6. Emergency generators provided backup lighting. The New Orleans Fire Department rescued people from elevator seven, but other elevators were brought to the ground uneventfully. Attendees used double the usual amount of data for their cell phones. AT&T reported 78 gigabytes (GB) downloaded from 8 to 9 PM, about double from the peak the year before. NFL chief security officer Jeffrey Miller attributed fans' calmness to their preoccupation with their electronics.
SMG, the Superdome's management company, recently upgraded electrical systems at the facility. In an October 15, 2012 memo, Louisiana officials expressed concern that the equipment bringing electricity into the stadium from utility company Entergy had a "chance of failure". Authorities subsequently spent nearly $1 million on upgrades to the stadium, more than half of that paid to Allstar Electric to upgrade electrical feeder cables.
Entergy and SMG both said the problem was in interconnection equipment, and SMG hired a third party to investigate. Investigations homed in on a newly installed switchgear. Entergy installed a pair of relays made by Rogers Park's S&C Electric Company of Rogers Park, Chicago to ensure continued power supply in case one supply line failed. One of those relays tripped. Subsequent tests showed one of the relays functioned properly and the other did not. S&C Electric Co. claims the relay's trip setting was too low, but Entergy claims that the two were set identically.
Electricity usage during the game was on par with a regular New Orleans Saints game. The halftime show was powered by a generator that did not impact the stadium's power.
CBS-TV viewers were shown the half-lit Superdome interior. The main broadcast booth was off line; sideline reporter Steve Tasker informed the audience that "a click of the lights" had occurred and play had been halted. Ray Lewis later stated in an interview that he believed the blackout was part of a conspiracy, saying "You're a zillion dollar company and your lights go out? No. No way." 49ers CEO Jed York responded to the claim on Twitter in jest, tweeting "There is no conspiracy. I pulled the plug."
Box score
Statistical overview
The teams combined for a Super Bowl-record 312 kickoff return yards. The Ravens scored the same number of points (34) in both of their Super Bowl appearances. Meanwhile, the 49ers became just the second team to lose the Super Bowl while scoring more than 30 points (joining the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XIII; the New England Patriots would join this list in Super Bowl LII).
For the Ravens, Anquan Boldin was the leading receiver with 6 receptions for 106 yards and a touchdown. Paul Kruger had three tackles and two sacks, while Ed Reed had five tackles and an interception. Reed's interception gave him 9 career postseason picks, tying the NFL record. Dannell Ellerbe had nine tackles, while Ray Lewis had seven tackles in the final game of his 17-season career.
Baltimore's Jacoby Jones returned 5 kickoffs for 208 yards and a touchdown, two punts for 28 yards, and caught a 56-yard touchdown pass. He tied an NFL league record and set a Super Bowl record for longest kickoff return in a Super Bowl with a 108-yard return to open up the second half. Jones also set or tied the following records: the record for most combined yards in a Super Bowl game with 290, tied the record for most touchdown plays of 50 yards or more, with 2 and became the first player to score a receiving touchdown and return touchdown in a Super Bowl.
For San Francisco, Colin Kaepernick completed 16 of 28 passes for 302 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for 62 yards and another score, but had 1 interception. His 62 rushing yards were the second highest total by a quarterback in the Super Bowl, behind Tennessee Titans quarterback Steve McNair's record of 64 in Super Bowl XXXIV. Kaepernick also set a Super Bowl record for the longest rushing touchdown from a quarterback for his 15-yard touchdown run in the fourth quarter. This beat the previous 6-yard record held by the 49ers' Joe Montana achieved in Super Bowl XIX.
Frank Gore rushed for 110 yards and a touchdown. Michael Crabtree caught 5 passes for 109 yards and a touchdown, while Davis caught 6 passes for 104 yards. His 104 receiving yards tied Dan Ross's record for the most ever by a tight end in a Super Bowl. Patrick Willis was the top tackler of the game with 10, while Brooks had five tackles and a sack.
Because of the power outage in the third quarter, the game set a Super Bowl record long running time of 4 hours and 14 minutes. During the presentation of the Vince Lombardi Trophy, Hall of Fame defensive end Richard Dent brought the trophy to the stage. Twitter announced that a record 24.1 million tweets were sent the night of the game.
Final statistics
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLVII, The Football Database Super Bowl XLVII
Statistical comparison
Individual leaders
1Completions/attempts
2Carries
3Long gain
4Receptions
5Times targeted
Starting lineups
Source:
Officials
Referee – Jerome Boger (#23), only Super Bowl
Umpire – Darrell Jenkins (#76), only Super Bowl
Head Linesman – Steve Stelljes (#22), only Super Bowl
Line Judge – Byron Boston (#18), second of three Super Bowls (XXXIV, LII)
Field Judge – Craig Wrolstad (#4), only Super Bowl
Side Judge – Joe Larrew (#73), only Super Bowl
Back Judge – Dino Paganelli (#105), first of two Super Bowls (LV)
Replay Official - Bill Spyksma
Replay Assistant - Terry Sullivan
Alternate Referee – Bill Vinovich (#52), referee of Super Bowls XLIX, LIV
Alternate Umpire – Bruce Stritesky (#102)
Alternate Flank – Tom Stephan (#68)
Alternate Deep – Scott Edwards (#3), side judge for Super Bowls 50, LII
Alternate Back Judge – Steve Freeman (#133), back judge for Super Bowl XLVIII
Officials wore the full-length black pants, introduced for cold weather in 2006, for the first time in a Super Bowl. The black pants were made mandatory during the 2012 season. The previous six Super Bowls were played either in Florida or a retractable-roof stadium with the roof closed, warm enough for officials to wear the traditional white knickers.
References
External links
Super Bowl XLVII play-by-play: Ravens 34, 49ers 31
Super Bowl 047
2012 National Football League season
2013 in American football
2013 in American television
2013 in sports in Louisiana
Football, American
Baltimore Ravens postseason
San Francisco 49ers postseason
21st century in New Orleans
February 2013 sports events in the United States
2013 in American sports
Power outages in the United States |
4052227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight%20controller | Flight controller | Flight controllers are personnel who aid space flight by working in such Mission Control Centers as NASA's Mission Control Center or ESA's European Space Operations Centre. Flight controllers work at computer consoles and use telemetry to monitor various technical aspects of a space mission in real-time. Each controller is an expert in a specific area and constantly communicates with additional experts in the "back room". The flight director, who leads the flight controllers, monitors the activities of a team of flight controllers, and has overall responsibility for success and safety.
This article primarily discusses NASA's flight controllers at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston. The various national and commercial flight control facilities have their own teams, which may be described on their own pages.
NASA's flight controllers
The room where the flight controllers work was called the mission operations control room (MOCR, pronounced "moh-ker"), and now is called the flight control room (FCR, pronounced "ficker"). The controllers are experts in individual systems, and make recommendations to the flight director involving their areas of responsibility. Any controller may call for an abort if the circumstances require it. Before significant events, the flight director will "go around the room", polling each controller for a go/no go decision, a procedure also known as a launch status check. If all factors are good, each controller calls for a go, but if there is a problem requiring a hold or an abort, the call is no go. Another form of this is stay/no stay, when the spacecraft has completed a maneuver and has now "parked" in relation to another body, including spacecraft, orbiting the Earth or the Moon, or the lunar landings.
Controllers in MOCR/FCR are supported by the "backrooms", teams of flight controllers located in other parts of the building or even at remote facilities. The backroom was formerly called the staff support room (SSR), and is now called the multi-purpose support room (MPSR, pronounced "mipser"). Backroom flight controllers are responsible for the details of their assigned system and for making recommendations for actions needed for that system. "Frontroom" flight controllers are responsible for integrating the needs of their system into the larger needs of the vehicle and working with the rest of the flight control team to develop a cohesive plan of action, even if that plan is not necessarily in the best interests of the system they are responsible for. Within the chain of command of the MCC, information and recommendations flow from the backroom to the frontroom to Flight, and then, potentially, to the on board crew. Generally, a MOCR/FCR flight control team is made up of the more seasoned flight controllers than the SSR/MPSR, though senior flight controllers cycle back to support in the backroom periodically. One example of the usefulness of this system occurred during the descent of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle, when "1202" and "1201" program alarms came from the LM. GUIDO Steve Bales, not sure whether to call for an abort, trusted the experts in the guidance backroom, especially Jack Garman, who told him that the problem was a computer overload, but could be ignored if it was intermittent. Bales called "Go!", Flight Director Gene Kranz accepted the call and the mission continued to success. Without the support of the backroom, a controller might make a bad call based on faulty memory or information not readily available to the person on the console. The nature of quiescent operations aboard the International Space Station (ISS) today is such that the full team is not required for 24/7/365 support. FCR flight controllers accept responsibility for operations without MPSR support most of the time, and the MPSR is only staffed for high-intensity periods of activity, such as joint Shuttle/ISS missions.
The flight controllers in the FCR and MPSR are further supported by hardware and software designers, analysts and engineering specialists in other parts of the building or remote facilities. These extended support teams have more detailed analysis tools and access to development and test data that is not readily accessible to the flight control team. These support teams were referred to by the name of their room in Mission Control, the mission operations integration room (MOIR), and are now collectively referred to by the name of their current location, the mission evaluation room (MER). While the flight controllers and their backrooms are responsible for real-time decision making, the MOIR/MER provides the detailed data and history needed to solve longer-term issues.
Uncrewed U.S. space missions also have flight controllers but are managed from separate organizations, either the Jet Propulsion Laboratory or the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for deep-space missions or Goddard Space Flight Center for near-Earth missions.
Each flight controller has a unique call sign, which describes the position's responsibilities. The call sign and responsibility refer to the particular console, not just the person, since missions are managed around the clock and with each shift change a different person takes over the console.
Flight controller responsibilities have changed over time, and continue to evolve. New controllers are added, and tasks are reassigned to other controllers to keep up with changing technical systems. For example, the EECOM handled command and service module communication systems through Apollo 10, which was afterward assigned to a new position called INCO.
Responsibility
Flight controllers are responsible for the success of the mission and for the lives of the astronauts under their watch. The Flight Controllers' Creed states that they must "always be aware that suddenly and unexpectedly we may find ourselves in a role where our performance has ultimate consequences." Well-known actions taken by flight controllers include:
The Apollo 11 Lunar Module computer was overloaded because the astronauts forgot to switch off their upper-stage radar before switching on the downward-pointing radar. Guidance officer Steve Bales had only a few seconds to determine whether it was safe to land anyway or to abort the mission mere feet above the Moon. Bales was later honored for his role in the mission, when he was selected to accept the NASA Group Achievement Award from President Richard Nixon on behalf of the Apollo 11 mission operations team.
During the launch of Apollo 12, the Saturn V was struck by lightning which knocked out all telemetry and multiple command module systems. Seconds before mission abort, EECOM controller John Aaron determined that switching to the backup electrical power distribution telemetry conditioning would reveal the true nature of the issue.
During Space Shuttle mission STS-51-F, a main engine failed during ascent to orbit. Subsequently, indications were received of a second engine beginning to fail, which would have caused a mission abort, possibly including loss of the shuttle. Booster officer Jenny Howard Stein determined that the anomalous readings on the second engine were a sensor error and not an engine problem. At her direction the crew inhibited the sensor, which saved the mission and possibly the crew.
Common flight control positions
There are some positions that have and will serve the same function in every vehicle's flight control team. The group of individuals serving in those positions may be different, but they will be called the same thing and serve the same function.
Flight director
Leads the flight control team. Flight has overall operational responsibility for missions and payload operations and for all decisions regarding safe, expedient flight. This person monitors the other flight controllers, remaining in constant verbal communication with them via intercom channels called "loops".
Flight operations directorate (FOD)
Is a representative of the senior management chain at JSC, and is there to help the flight director make those decisions that have no safety-of-flight consequences, but may have cost or public perception consequences. The FOD cannot overrule the flight director during a mission. The former mission operations directorate (MOD) position was renamed FOD when the flight crew operations directorate (FCOD) was merged back with MOD beginning in August 2014.
Spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM)
Generally, only the spacecraft communicator communicates directly with the crew of a crewed space flight. The acronym dates back to Project Mercury when the spacecraft was originally termed a "capsule." NASA felt it important for all communication with the astronauts in space to pass through a single individual in the Mission Control Center. That role was first designated the capsule communicator or CAPCOM and was filled by another astronaut, often one of the backup- or support-crew members. NASA believes that an astronaut is most able to understand the situation in the spacecraft and pass information in the clearest way.
For long-duration missions there is more than one CAPCOM, each assigned to a different shift team. After control of U.S. spaceflights moved to the Johnson Space Center in the early 1960s, each CAPCOM used the radio call-sign Houston. When non-astronauts are communicating directly with the spacecraft, CAPCOM acts as the communications controller.
, due to the shrinking size of the astronaut corps at the end of the Shuttle program, fewer astronauts are available to perform CAPCOM duties, so non-astronauts from the space flight training and flight controller branches also function as CAPCOM during ISS missions, while the role was filled solely by astronauts for the Apollo and Shuttle missions. Astronauts still take the CAPCOM position during critical events such as docking and EVA.
In the context of potential crewed missions to Mars, NASA Ames Research Center has conducted field trials of advanced computer-support for astronaut and remote science teams, to test the possibilities for automating CAPCOM.
Flight surgeon
The flight surgeon directs all medical activities during the mission – monitors crew health via telemetry, provides crew consultation, and advises the flight director. A private communication channel can be established between astronauts and the flight surgeon, to provide doctor–patient confidentiality.
Public affairs officer (PAO)
Provides mission commentary to supplement and explain air-to-ground transmissions and flight control operations to the news media and the public. The individual filling this role is often referred to colloquially as The Voice of Mission Control.
Apollo flight control positions
The flight control positions used during the Apollo era were predominantly identical to the positions used for the Mercury and Gemini vehicles. This was because of the similarity of the vehicle design of the capsules used for the three programs.
Booster systems engineer
The booster systems engineer monitored and evaluated performance of propulsion-related aspects of the launch vehicle during prelaunch and ascent. During the Apollo program there were three booster positions, who worked only until trans-lunar injection (TLI); after that, their consoles were vacated. Booster had the power to send an abort command to the spacecraft. All booster technicians were employed at the Marshall Space Flight Center and reported to JSC for the launches.
Control officer
The control officer was responsible for the Apollo Lunar Module guidance, navigation, and control systems – essentially the equivalent of the GNC for the Command and Service Module.
Electrical, environmental, and consumables manager (EECOM)
The EECOM monitored cryogenic levels for fuel cells, and cabin cooling systems; electrical distribution systems; cabin pressure control systems; and vehicle lighting systems. EECOM originally stood for electrical, environmental and communication systems. The Apollo EECOM was responsible for CSM communications through Apollo 10. Afterward the communication task was moved to a new console named INCO.
Perhaps the most famous NASA EECOMs are Seymour "Sy" Liebergot, the EECOM on duty at the time of the oxygen tank explosion on Apollo 13, and John Aaron, who designed the drastically reduced power budget for its return. Aaron also saved the Apollo 12 mission by realizing that using the backup power supply for telemetry of analog capsule sensors would allow diagnosis of all the seemingly-unrelated problems caused by a lightning strike.
Flight activities officer (FAO)
The FAO planned and supported crew activities, checklists, procedures and schedules.
Flight director
The flight directors held overall control of all of the individual positions in the MOCR. Some Apollo era directors were:
Gene Kranz, White Flight. Apollo missions 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16 and 17.
Glynn Lunney, Black Flight. Apollo missions 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14 and 15.
Gerry Griffin, Gold Flight. Apollo missions 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17.
Milt Windler, Maroon Flight. Apollo missions 8, 10, 12, 13, 14 and 15.
Clifford E. Charlesworth, Green Flight. Apollo missions 8, 11 and 12.
M. P. (Pete) Frank, Orange Flight. Apollo missions 9, 12, 16, 17, and Apollo–Soyuz.
Flight dynamics officer (FDO or FIDO)
Responsible for the flight path of the space vehicle, both atmospheric and orbital. During lunar missions the FDO was also responsible for the lunar trajectory. The FDO monitored vehicle performance during the powered flight phase and assessed abort modes, calculated orbital maneuvers and resulting trajectories, and monitored vehicle flight profile and energy levels during reentry.
Guidance officer (GUIDANCE or GUIDO)
The guidance officer monitored on board navigational systems and on board guidance computer software. Responsible for determining the position of the spacecraft in space. One well-known guidance officer was Steve Bales, who gave the go call when the Apollo 11 guidance computer came close to overloading during the first lunar descent.
Guidance, navigation, and controls systems engineer (GNC)
The GNC monitored all vehicle guidance, navigation, and control systems. Also responsible for propulsion systems such as the service propulsion system and reaction control system (RCS).
Integrated communications officer (INCO)
The INCO was responsible for all data, voice and video communications systems, including monitoring the configuration of in-flight communications and instrumentation systems. Duties also included monitoring the telemetry link between the vehicle and the ground, and overseeing the uplink command and control processes. The position was formed from the combination of LEM and CSM communicator positions.
Network
Supervised the network of ground stations that relayed telemetry and communications from the spacecraft.
Organization and procedures officer (O&P)
Supervised the application of mission rules and established techniques to the conduct of the flight.
Retrofire officer (RETRO)
Drew up abort plans and was responsible for determination of retrofire times. During lunar missions the RETRO planned and monitored Trans Earth Injection (TEI) maneuvers, where the Apollo Service Module fired its engine to return to Earth from the Moon.
Telemetry, electrical, EVA mobility unit officer (TELMU)
Monitored the lunar module electrical and environmental systems, plus lunar astronaut spacesuits. Essentially the equivalent of the EECOM for the lunar module.
Shuttle and Space Station flight controllers
NASA currently has a group of flight controllers at the Johnson Space Center in Houston for the International Space Station (ISS). The Space Shuttle flight control team (as well as those for the earlier Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab programs) were also based there. Console manning for short-duration and extended operations differed in operational philosophy.
The Space Shuttle (and prior program) flight controllers worked relatively brief periods: The several minutes of ascent, the few days the vehicle was in orbit, and reentry. The duration of operations for Space Shuttle flight controllers was short and time-critical. A failure on the Shuttle could leave flight controllers little time for talking, putting pressure on them to respond quickly to potential failures. The Space Shuttle flight controllers generally had limited capability to send commands to the shuttle for system reconfigurations.
In contrast, the ISS flight controllers work 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. This allows the ISS flight controllers time to discuss off-nominal telemetry. The ISS flight controllers have the opportunity to interface with many groups and engineering experts. The mentality of an ISS flight controller is to preempt a failure. Telemetry is closely monitored for any signatures that may begin to indicate future catastrophic failures. Generally, ISS flight controllers take a prophylactic approach to space vehicle operations. There are command capabilities that ISS flight controllers use to preclude a potential failure.
Shuttle flight control positions (1981-2011)
Many Apollo program mission control positions were carried forward to the Space Shuttle program. However, other positions were eliminated or redefined, and new positions were added.
Positions remaining generally the same:
Booster
FAO
FDO
Guidance (became guidance and procedures officer, or GPO)
GNC
INCO (became instrumentation and communications officer)
Positions eliminated or modified:
RETRO
EECOM (duties split up)
TELMU
CONTROL
After retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011, the operational concept of flight control of a launched crewed vehicle was used as the basis for the Boeing CST-100 Commercial Crew vehicle starting in 2019.
Assembly and checkout officer (ACO)/payloads
Responsible for all Space Shuttle-based activities related to construction and operation of the Space Station, including logistics and transfer items stored in a multi-purpose logistics module (MPLM) or Spacehab. Also responsible for all Shuttle payloads, from Spacehab to the Hubble Space Telescope to deployable satellites. On Shuttle missions that did not dock with the ISS, this position was known as payloads.
Booster systems engineer (BOOSTER)
Monitored and evaluated performance of propulsion-related aspects of the launch vehicle during prelaunch and ascent, including the main engines and solid rocket boosters.
Data processing system engineer (DPS)
Responsible for data processing systems in a space flight. This included monitoring the on board General Purpose Computers (GPCs), flight-critical, launch and payload data buses, the multi-function electronic display system (MEDS), solid-state mass memory (SSMM) units, flight critical and payload multiplexer/de-multiplexer (MDM) units, master timing unit (MTU), backup flight control (BFC) units and system-level software.
The Space Shuttle general purpose computers were a critical subsystem, and the vehicle cannot fly without them.
Emergency, environmental, and consumables management (EECOM)
EECOM's revamped Space Shuttle responsibilities included the atmospheric pressure control and revitalization systems, the cooling systems (air, water, and freon), and the supply/waste water system.
MPSR positions
Life support – monitored atmospheric pressure control systems, // maintenance and management, air cooling equipment, waste water systems,
Thermal – monitored water and refrigerant coolant loop systems, supply water maintenance
EECOM's critical function was to maintain the systems, such as atmosphere and thermal control, that keep the crew alive.
Electrical generation and integrated lighting systems engineer (EGIL)
Monitored cryogenic levels for the fuel cells, electrical generation and distribution systems on the spacecraft, and vehicle lighting. This was a portion of the job formerly done by EECOM.
MPSR positions
EPS – provided expert support monitoring of the fuel cells, cryo system, and electrical bus system
Extravehicular activity officer (EVA)
Responsible for all spacesuit and spacewalking-related tasks, equipment and plans when the EVA took place from the shuttle.
Flight activities officer (FAO)
Planned and supported crew activities, checklists, procedures, schedules, attitude maneuvers and timelines.
MPSR positions
Attitude and pointing officer (Pointing) – Generated and maintained the attitude timeline, monitored the executions of all attitude maneuvers, provided attitude maneuver inputs for the crew, generated star pairs and attitudes for IMU aligns.
Message and timeline support (MATS) – Created messages based on MCC inputs, created the execute package, monitored crew activities and assessed impacts to the timeline.
Orbital communications officer (OCA) – Transferred electronic messages to the crew, synced the crews e-mail, uplinked and downlinked files for the crew.
Timeline – Generated the pre-flight timelines for the flight plan, monitored in-flight crew activities, coordinated activities with other flight controllers.
Flight dynamics officer (FDO or FIDO)
Responsible for the flight path of the Space Shuttle, both atmospheric and orbital. FDO monitored vehicle performance during the powered flight phase and assessed abort modes, calculated orbital maneuvers and resulting trajectories, and monitored vehicle flight profile and energy levels during re-entry.
MPSR positions
Abort support (ascent only) – provided expert support during the powered flight portion of an RTLS or TAL
ARD support (ascent only) – maintained the abort region determinator processor which is used to predict trajectory capabilities during powered flight
Ascent support team (ascent only) – monitored the winds and weather at the launch site, help compute day-of-launch updates
Dynamics – maintained the inputs to the mission operation computer for all processors
Entry console – provided expert support for entry, approach, and landing
Entry support team (ascent and entry) – monitored the winds and weather at the various potential landing sites, prepare trajectory adjustments
Landing support officer (LSO) team – maintained the airspace at any landing site, dispatch Search and Rescue teams if needed, act as first liaison in case of a landing outside the US
Nav support team – responsible for maintaining the on-board navigation (telemetry) and the ground navigation (tracking)
Profile support (rendezvous only) – assisted the FDO with rendezvous profile evaluation and determination
Range safety team (ascent only) – tracked the falling external tank and solid rocket boosters
Targeting (ascent only) – provided expert support for abort to orbit (ATO) or abort once around (AOA) trajectories
Track – coordinated tracking site data flow and data requests
Weather – a member of the spaceflight meteorology group who provided worldwide weather data
Ground controller (GC)
Directed maintenance and operation activities affecting Mission Control hardware, software and support facilities; coordinated space flight tracking and data network, and Tracking and Data Relay Satellite system with Goddard Space Flight Center.
Guidance, navigation, and controls systems engineer (GNC)
Monitored all shuttle guidance, navigation and control systems.
MPSR positions
GNC Support: Provided support to the orbit GNC officer during the orbit phase of flight.
Control: Provided support to the ascent/entry GNC officer during those phases of flight.
Sensors: Provided support to the ascent/entry GNC officer during those phases of flight.
Instrumentation and communications officer (INCO)
Responsible for all data, voice and video communications systems, including monitoring the configuration of in-flight communications and instrumentation systems. Duties also included monitoring the telemetry link between the vehicle and the ground, and overseeing the uplink command and control processes. The INCO was the only position that uplinked commands to the orbiter. This position was a direct evolution of the integrated communications officer from the Apollo program.
MPSR positions
RF COMM: MPSR lead and responsible for the Ku-band and S-band communication systems.
INST: Responsible for uplinking commands and telemetry flows.
DATA COMM: Responsible for recording and downlinking telemetry that was not streamed live and the FM communication system.
Mechanical, maintenance, arm, and crew systems (MMACS)
Responsible for Space Shuttle structural and mechanical systems, monitoring auxiliary power units and hydraulic systems, managing payload bay door, external tank umbilical door, vent door, radiator deploy/stow, Ku-band antenna deploy/stow, and payload retention latch operations, landing gear/deceleration systems (landing gear deploy, tires, brakes/antiskid, and drag chute deploy), and monitoring the orbiter docking system. MMACS also followed use of on board crew hardware and in-flight equipment maintenance. This represented another portion of the job formerly done by EECOM, with additional responsibilities added by the specific requirements of Space Shuttle operations. The MMACS officer served as the point of contact for PDRS, Booster, and EVA during periods in a mission when these positions did not require constant staffing.
MPSR positions
MECH – provided expert support monitoring of mechanical, hydraulic, and landing gear systems
MECH 2 – provided extra support during the dynamic ascent and entry phases of flight
IFM – In-flight maintenance support
Crew systems/escape – responsible for operations of on board crew hardware and the crew's launch and entry suits
Photo/TV – responsible for the "loose" camera operation and maintenance, such as still cameras and camcorders, and the integration of video into and out of the orbiter's TV monitors
Payload deployment and retrieval system (PDRS)
Responsible for Space Shuttle remote manipulator system (RMS) or "robot arm".
Propulsion engineer (PROP)
Managed the reaction control thrusters and orbital maneuvering engines during all phases of flight, monitored fuel usage and propellant tank status, and calculated optimal sequences for thruster firings.
MPSR Positions
OMS & RCS Engine Officer (OREO): Monitored health of shuttle on-orbit engines
Consumables: Monitored fuel usage and mass properties through the mission
Rendezvous (RNDZ)
Responsible for activities such as trajectory operations related to the rendezvous and docking/capture with another spacecraft, including Mir, the ISS, and satellites such as the Hubble Space Telescope.
Trajectory officer (TRAJ)
Assisted the FDO during time-critical operations, responsible for maintaining the various processors that helped determine the shuttle's current and potential trajectories. A FDO was certified as a TRAJ first. Shares the FCR with FDO.
Transoceanic abort landing communicator (TALCOM)
One of the few members of Shuttle Mission Control not physically present in Houston. If an emergency had occurred, such as loss of one or more main engine during a Space Shuttle launch, requiring the shuttle to land at one of the contingency landing sites in Africa, Europe or the Middle East, TALCOM would have assumed the role of CAPCOM providing communications with astronauts aboard the crippled orbiter. Like CAPCOM, the TALCOM role was filled by an astronaut. Three astronauts were deployed to the alternate landing sites in Zaragoza Air Base and Moron Air Base in Spain, and Istres Air Base in France. These astronauts flew aboard weather reconnaissance aircraft to provide support at the selected landing site.
ISS flight control positions to 2010
The International Space Station flight control positions used by NASA in Houston are different from those used by previous NASA programs. These differences exist primarily to stem the potential confusion that might otherwise follow from conflicting use of the same name in two different rooms during the same operations, such as when the space shuttle was conducting mated operations with the space station. There are also differences in the control positions because of differences in the operation of the two. The following is a list of those flight controllers located in Mission Control Center – Houston. There are several other control centers which house dozens of other flight controllers that support the vastly complex vehicle.
Positions formerly used but eliminated or modified:
Assembly and checkout officer (ACO) – Retired position at end of shuttle. Was responsible for the integration of assembly and activation tasks for all ISS systems and elements. Coordinated with station and shuttle flight controllers on the execution of these operations. Was also the front room position to ACO Transfer who was responsible for the exchange of cargo between the shuttle and the ISS.
Cargo integration officer (CIO) – Former front room position that answered for ISO and PLUTO
Station duty officer (SDO) – During early phases of ISS, when the vehicle was free-flying (no shuttle present) and uncrewed, the SDO and GC were the only positions on duty, and would call in the appropriate personnel if any problems arose.
Starting in 2001, the ISS flight control room has consolidated six of the below positions into just two, to reduce staffing during low-activity periods. This concept is known as Gemini. After Assembly complete, the Gemini concept was eliminated in the realignment of the core ISS flight control positions.
TITAN (Telemetry, Information Transfer, and Attitude Navigation) is responsible for Communication & Tracking (CATO), Command & Data Handling (ODIN), and Motion Control Systems (ADCO).
ATLAS (Atmosphere, Thermal, Lighting and Articulation Specialist) is responsible for Thermal Control (THOR), Environmental Control & Life Support (ECLSS), and Electrical Power Systems (PHALCON). ATLAS is also responsible for monitoring Robotics (ROBO) and Mechanical Systems (OSO) heaters, as those consoles are not supported during the majority of Gemini shifts.
Attitude determination and control officer (ADCO)
Works in partnership with Russian controllers to determine and manage the station's orientation, controlled by the on board motion control systems. This position also plans and calculates future orientations and maneuvers for the station and is responsible for docking the ISS with other vehicles.
MPSR positions
HawkI – Pronounced (Hawk-eye) – provides expert support monitoring of all US GNC systems, leaving the ADCO to coordinate with other flight controllers and MCC-M. Hawki is actually a strung-together set of common engineering abbreviations for quantities that affect or reflect ISS attitude, primarily chosen because they fit well enough to make a name:
H – Momentum.
α – angular rate.
ω – angular velocity.
k – kinetic energy.
I – moment of inertia.
Biomedical engineer (BME)
The BME monitors health-related station systems and Crew Health Care Systems (CHeCS) equipment. The BME provides technical and operational support for CHeCS and all other medical operations activities. Along with the SURGEON, the BME serves as a Medical Operations Branch representative to the USOS Flight Control Team.
Communication and tracking officer (CATO)
Responsible for management and operations of the U.S. communication systems, including audio, video, telemetry and commanding systems.
Environmental control and life support system (ECLSS)
Responsible for the assembly and operation of systems related to atmosphere control and supply, atmosphere revitalization, cabin air temperature and humidity control, circulation, fire detection and suppression, water collection and processing and crew hygiene equipment, among other areas.
MPSR Position
ACE (Atmosphere and Consumables Engineer)
Extravehicular activity officer (EVA)
Responsible for all spacesuit and spacewalking-related tasks, equipment and plans when the EVA takes place from the ISS.
Inventory and stowage officer (ISO)
Responsible for the daily tracking and inventory of all US cargo on the ISS. ISO is the integrator for all cargo that is delivered to and from the ISS for ATV, HTV, Dragon, and Cygnus vehicles.
Integration systems engineer (ISE)
A specialist position, the ISE is the systems liaison between ISS and visiting vehicles that are berthed to the US side of ISS. The ISE flight control is responsible for the safety of the ISS such that the visiting vehicle can safely approach, berth, and integrate with the ISS. This includes HTV, Dragon, Cygnus, and even special missions like the deployment of Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM). ISE works closely with VVO.
Onboard data interfaces and networks (ODIN)
The ODIN is responsible for the Command and Data Handling (C&DH) system, the Portable Computer System (PCS) computers, the Caution & Warning (C&W) system, overall responsibility for commanding, and interfaces with International Partner avionics systems. The C&DH system consists of the Multiplexer/DeMultiplexers (MDMs) which are the ISS computers. Core software in each MDM (not User Application Software), the MIL-STD-1553 data busses, Automated Payload Switches (APSs), fiber optic network, Payload Ethernet Hub Gateway (PEHG), and the Ethernet network. This does not include the Ops LAN, Station Support Computers (SSC), or file server.
MPSR positions
Resource avionics engineer (RAVEN)
Operations planner (OPSPLAN)
Leads the coordination, development and maintenance of the station's short-term plan, including crew and ground activities. The plan includes the production and uplink of the on board station plan and the coordination and maintenance of the on board inventory and stowage listings.
MPSR positions
Real time planning engineer (RPE)
Real time planning engineer support (RPE-Support)
Orbital communications adapter officer (OCA)
on board data file and procedures officer (ODF)
Operations support officer (OSO)
Charged with those logistics support functions that address on-orbit maintenance, support data and documentation, logistics information systems, maintenance data collection and maintenance analysis. The OSO is also responsible for mechanical systems—such as those used to attach new modules or truss sections to the vehicle during assembly.
MPSR position
OSO Support
Plug-in port utilization officer (PLUTO)
The name PLUTO is inherited from the flight controller's original role, which was to maintain and coordinate changes to the U.S. segment of the electrical plug-in plan (PiP). The PiP is the tracking of portable electronic equipment, making sure equipment connected is compatible and does not violate constraints, and will not overdraw the power source. Along with this, PLUTO is responsible for maintaining the OPSLAN (Operations Local Area Network) and the JSL (Joint Station LAN). PLUTO has remote desktop administration and monitoring capability to the network from the ground. The PLUTO is also responsible for certain Station Developmental Test Objectives, or SDTOs during the mission. This includes programming the Wireless Instrumentation System (WIS) and also remote desktop commanding for ROBONAUT activities.
MPSR position
Hydra
Power, heating, articulation, lighting control officer (PHALCON)
Manages the power generation, storage, and power distribution capabilities.
Remote interface officer (RIO)
Formerly known as the Russian interface officer. Responsible for integrating operations between MCC-Houston (MCC-H) and the other International Partner (IP) Control Centers. RIO is a FCR-1 position in MCC-Houston and works closely in conjunction with the Houston Support Group (HSG) teams located at the IP Control Centers:
HSG-Moscow (HSG-M): Team of NASA Flight Controllers working with Russian Flight Controllers at MCC-Moscow (MCC-M). Responsible for integrating operations between MCC-H and MCC-M. HSG-M also has taken over operations of the US segment of ISS during Hurricanes Lili and Rita (2002 and 2005, respectively). MSFC in Huntsville took over ISS Backup Control Center operations from HSG-M in 2008.
HSG-Columbus (HSG-C): Small team of NASA Flight Controllers that were responsible for integrating MCC-H and Columbus Control Center (COL-CC) operations at Oberpfaffenhofen, near Munich, Germany. Following completion of Columbus commissioning in August 2008, this team discontinued operations.
HSG-ATV (HSG-A): Small team of NASA Flight Controllers responsible for integrating MCC-H and Autonomous Transfer Vehicle (ATV) operations at ATV-CC near Toulouse, France. Following completion of the ATV5 mission in February 2015, this team discontinued operations.
HSG-Japan (HSG-J): Small team of NASA Flight Controllers responsible for integrating MCC-H and Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) and H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) operations at the Space Station Integration and Promotions Center (SSIPC) at Tsukuba, Japan near Tokyo. This team discontinued permanent operations in October 2008, but afterwards did temporarily support the STS-127 and HTV-1 missions.
Robotics operations systems officer (ROBO)
Responsible for the operations of the Canadian Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which includes a mobile base system, station robotic arm, station robotic hand or special purpose dexterous manipulator. (Call sign: ROBO) represents a joint NASA-Canadian Space Agency team of specialists to plan and execute robotic operations.
MPSR Position: MSS Systems
MPSR Position: MSS Task
Thermal operations and resources (THOR)
Responsible for the assembly and operation of multiple station subsystems which collect, distribute, and reject waste heat from critical equipment and payloads.
Trajectory operations officer (TOPO)
Responsible for the station trajectory. The TOPO works in partnership with Russian controllers, ADCO, and the U.S. Space Command to maintain data regarding the station's orbital position. TOPO plans all station orbital maneuvers.
Visiting vehicle officer (VVO)
A specialist position, the VVO is the guidance and navigation liaison between the ISS and "visiting vehicles" such as Progress, Soyuz or Dragon.
ISS flight control positions 2010–present
After "Assembly Complete" in 2010 (which was the name given to the phase following the completion of the ISS assembly using the Space Shuttle), the core ISS flight control positions were realigned and the Gemini manning concept eliminated. While the other specialty positions – ADCO, BME, EVA, ISO, ISE, OPSPLAN, OSO, PLUTO, RIO, ROBO, TOPO, and VVO – remain the same, the new core positions are:
Communications RF on board networks utilization specialist (CRONUS)
This is a combination of the previous ODIN and CATO positions. Responsibilities for this group include the control and monitoring of on-board command and data systems (i.e. computers). Video cameras, both on board and external, are managed by CRONUS. The Caution And Warning System is also used to alert the crew and flight controllers to serious and dangerous safety situations. Communication radios, both for space-to-ground communication (S-Band and Ku-Band) and space-to-space communication (C2V2) are operated by CRONUS.
MPSR Position: RAPTOR
Environmental and Thermal operating systems (ETHOS)
This consists of the ECLSS system responsibilities as well as the internal thermal control systems from THOR.
MPSR position: TREC
Station power, articulation, thermal, and analysis (SPARTAN)
This consists of the electrical power (old PHALCON) and external thermal control systems from THOR.
MPSR position: SPOC
Exploration Flight Test-1 (2014)
The Orion program, later to become part of the Artemis program, had its own flight control team, mostly derived from Space Shuttle flight control positions. The Primary Team sat in the main flight control room (FCR), while the Support Team sat in the various multi-purpose support rooms (MPSRs) nearby. All positions named below had similar responsibilities to their Shuttle counterparts. The Orion flight control team operated out of the Blue FCR, which had previously been used in the early days of ISS. As this was an uncrewed mission, the CAPCOM and SURGEON were not needed on console.
Command and Data Handling (C&DH)
Responsible for the command and data handling system, including the flight control module, the on-board storage module, the Orion data network and portions of the power and data units.
Support Team position: C&DH Support
Emergency, Environmental, and Consumables manager (EECOM)
Responsible for spacecraft pressure control and active thermal control systems.
Support Team position: EECOM Support
Electrical Power System Officer (EPS)
Responsible for spacecraft electrical and mechanical systems.
Support Team position: EPS MPSR
Flight Dynamics Officer (FDO)
Responsible for the pre-launch heading alignment update and orbit and entry trajectory predictions.
Support Team position: DOD-H
Support Team position: Landing Support Officer (LSO) - responsible for relaying mission status and milestones to external interfaces, such as the State Department, the Department of Defense, the recovery team, NASA Headquarters and others as required
Support Team position: Trajectory Officer (TRAJ)
Support Team position: Weather - responsible for providing landing and contingency weather forecasts, as well as sea state information; located in a supporting room in the Mission Control Center
Flight Director (FLIGHT)
The responsible authority for the spacecraft between liftoff and the post-splashdown handover to the Orion recovery team. Provide a go or no-go decision for Orion's launch to the Mission Management Team and provide recommendations on operations outside the flight rules as needed.
Flight Operations Directorate (FOD)
Formerly known as MOD (Mission Operations Directorate), the console position representing the Directorate was renamed when the directorate itself was, taking the Apollo-era name of Flight Operations Directorate.
Ground Control Officer (GC)
Responsible for ground data systems and data flows that interface with the Mission Control Center.
Guidance Navigation and Control Officer (GNC)
Responsible for operations of the navigation hardware, including inertial measurement units, barometric altimeters and the GPS receiver and antennas.
Support Team position: GNC Support
Support Team position: Nav
Guidance Officer (GUIDANCE)
Responsible for the onboard navigation performance; launch vehicle and onboard navigation state vector quality assessments; guidance performance monitoring and associated flight test objectives evaluations; ground navigation processing and best state vector source determination; and the Mission Control Center contingency state vector update command.
Support Team position: Pointing
Instrumentation and Communications Officer (INCO)
Responsible for Orion's communication systems, development flight instrumentation systems, video systems and recovery beacon; INCO sends all nominal and contingency commands to Orion.
Support Team position: INCO Support
Public Affairs Officer (PAO)
Propulsion Officer (PROP)
Responsible for the propulsion system hardware and software.
Support Team position: PROP Support
Commercial Crew, 2019-present
While SpaceX manages its own Mission Control Center for Dragon 2 vehicles in Hawthorne, CA, the management of the Boeing CST-100 Starliner launch, orbit, and entry operations is controlled from various flight control rooms in MCC Houston (MCC-H) collectively known as MCC-CST. The concept of operations in MCC-CST is derived from the Space Shuttle flight control room, and the following positions are largely unchanged from Shuttle responsibilities: CAPCOM, EECOM, FAO, FDO, Flight, FOD, GC, GNC, INCO, PAO, PROP, RNDZ, Surgeon, and TRAJ.
Some positions were formerly Shuttle back-room positions: Crew Systems, Nav, Pointing, Profile, Timeline, and Weather
And the positions newly invented for CST-100: CDH, FDF, MPO (combining the Shuttle's EGIL and MMACS controllers), Recovery, SDO, and Tablet
Newly invented position for SpaceX Crew Dragon 2 is CORE (replaces CAPCOM among other roles)
Command and Data Handling (CDH)
CDH is responsible for monitoring the health and status of the CST-100 avionics systems including the on board computers, display units, keyboards, on board data bus, wireless networks, tablets, on board software, data services for payloads and more.
Crew Systems and Photo/TV
The roles and responsibilities for CREW SYSTEMS include developing operations products supporting crew and cargo integration and being hardware experts for flight crew equipment that deal with crew escape, human habitability, productivity, and well-being. The docking system centerline camera and digital imagery experts from Photo/ TV group will be relied upon for direct mission support and training.
Emergency, Environmental, and Consumables Management (EECOM)
EECOM is responsible for the environmental control and life support systems; monitoring and control of the active thermal control subsystems; atmosphere; suits; consumables management and reporting; cooling services for payloads and ingress/egress support. EECOM leads an integrated team response to emergencies (fire/cabin leak/toxic atmosphere/loss of cooling), and to internal and EECOM system leaks.
Flight Data File (FDF)
FDF manages the development and publication of FDF books for use by the crew and flight controllers. FDF provides real-time support for crew procedures and other FDF related activities. Duties include coordinating technical changes to procedures with flight directors, flight controllers, crew, and international partners. The FDF develops software requirements for procedures tools.
Flight Activities Officer (FAO)
FAO leads the coordination and integration of the crew activities, ground activities and attitude timeline into an integrated flight plan that meets the mission requirements defined by the program. For missions to the International Space Station (ISS), the FAO also works with the ISS Operations Planner to integrate CST-100 vehicle operations and preparations into the station timeline during both the joint-mission timeframe and during quiescent operations.
Flight Dynamics Officer (FDO)
FDO is responsible for pre-mission planning and real-time execution of all CST-100 trajectory operations, including launch, undocking re-entry and landing.
Ground Control (GC)
The GC team is responsible for the ground systems infrastructure and ground communications necessary to perform planning, training, testing, execution and evaluation of human spaceflight mission operations at the Johnson Space Center Mission Control Center for Boeing CST Mission Operations (MCC-CST).
Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC)
GNC manages guidance, navigation and control hardware, and associated software during all phases of flight, including GPS, attitude controllers, the Vision-based Electro-optical Sensor Tracking Assemblies (VESTAs) and more.
Integrated Communications Officer (INCO)
INCO is responsible for monitoring the health and status of the communications avionics including the Space-to-Ground (S/G) and Space-to-Space (S/S) systems, handheld radio communication, command encryption, audio systems and associated loose equipment functionality such as handheld microphones and headsets.
Mechanical and Power Officer (MPO)
MPO is responsible for the CST-100 spacecraft electrical, mechanical, structural, and landing and recovery systems. These systems include batteries, solar arrays, power converters, interior lighting, vehicle structure, thermal protection, parachutes, airbags, crew hardware and more.
Navigation (NAV)
NAV is responsible for ensuring both the on board and ground segments of the CST-100 navigation system is operating properly. NAV monitors performance of the on board navigation hardware and software, sensor status and performance, acceptability of sensor data, navigation convergence, VESTA performance and the VESTA Ground Station. NAV supports the GNC officer for issues related to relative and inertial navigation hardware, and for inertial navigation performance. NAV supports FDO for relative navigation performance monitoring and troubleshooting.
Public Affairs Officer (PAO)
PAO duties will be shared between NASA and Boeing. PAO coordinates news media events between the news media and the crew and/or Mission Control, and provides mission commentary to supplement and explain air-to-ground transmissions and flight control operations to the news media and the public.
Pointing
The Pointing console is responsible the integration of all CST-100 Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) communication requirements, communication predictions and unique target lines-of-sight analysis for payloads and on board systems. Pointing also provides attitude optimization to support unique pointing requirements, as needed.
Profile
The Profile console monitors the CST-100 relative trajectory and translational maneuvers to ensure performance within defined limits. Profile assists in monitoring the progress of crew and automated procedures related to rendezvous and proximity operations. Profile monitors vehicle compliance with applicable flight rules and provides to the Rendezvous position a go/no-go recommendation prior to Authority to Proceed (ATP) points. Profile maintains awareness of potential vehicle automated responses to failure conditions and the resulting abort trajectories.
Propulsion (PROP)
PROP is responsible for all aspects of the operation and management of the propulsion system hardware and software used during all phases of flight. This includes thruster performance and propellant usage, translation burns and attitude control maneuvers, and consumables budgeting, management and reporting.
Recovery
The Recovery position is responsible for planning CST-100 recovery and executing recovery operations once the vehicle has landed.
Rendezvous (RNDZ)
The Rendezvous position monitors the CST-100 during integrated operations with the space station and ensures that all space station trajectory safety requirements are satisfied. Rendezvous is the primary interface to the space station Visiting Vehicle Officer (VVO) and monitors relative navigation, guidance, and trajectory performance in the proximity operations, docking, separation and flyaround phases of flight.
Starliner Duty Officer (SDO)
For the OFT mission only, the SDO is responsible for monitoring the CST-100 while it is docked to the space station in a quiescent configuration while the remainder of the CST-100 Flight Control Team is on-call. The SDO is responsible for leading the ground and crew response to Starliner events that result in cautions or warnings on the space station.
Tablet
The Tablet position monitors crew usage of the tablet devices and provides assistance/advice to the crew as needed.
Timeline
The Timeline position assists the FAO in all aspects of preflight mission planning and coordination, and in real-time planning and replanning operations. TIMELINE generates the pre-flight timelines for the flight plan, monitors in-flight crew activities and coordinates activities with other flight controllers.
Trajectory (TRAJ)
TRAJ tracks the spacecraft's position in orbit to support acquisitions, plotting, external notifications, conjunction screening, and debris conjunction message evaluation and notification. TRAJ coordinates trajectory planning and events with the mission planning team, and is the primary member of the team responsible for running the CST-100 simulation to accomplish replanning and position update tasks.
Weather
The Weather officer provides weather forecasts and real-time weather observations for launch and landing operations to the mission management community, Flight Director, and flight control team. The Weather officer manages meteorological forecasting models and computer systems that access and assemble radar and satellite imagery, and provides mission-critical inputs to the flight director for go-for-launch and go-for-deorbit decisions.
Crew Operations and Resources Engineer (CORE)
CORE or Crew Operations and Resources Engineer is SpaceX Crew Dragon 2 specific position that replaces CAPCOM and is the point person between Mission Control and crew on board the Dragon 2 spacecraft.
See also
Space centers and mission control centers
Baikonur Cosmodrome (launch control center for the Russian Federal Space Agency, Tyuratam, Kazakhstan)
Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center (mission control center for the China National Space Administration, Beijing, People's Republic of China)
Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (mission control center for NASA, Houston, Texas)
John H. Chapman Space Centre, the Canadian Space Agency Robotics Misison Control centre, Longueuil, Quebec
European Space Operations Centre (mission control center for the European Space Agency, Darmstadt, Germany)
German Space Operations Center (mission control center for the German Aerospace Center, including Columbus Control Centre for the European Space Agency, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany)
Guiana Space Centre (launch control center for the European Space Agency, the French space agency CNES, and the commercial Arianespace, Kourou, French Guiana)
Kennedy Space Center (NASA launch center, Cape Canaveral, Florida)
Johnson Space Center (NASA field center, Houston, Texas)
Payload Operations and Integration Center (Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL)
RKA Mission Control Center (mission control center for the Russian Federal Space Agency, Korolyov, Russia)
SpaceX Headquarters and Mission Control Center (mission control center for SpaceX Dragon 2, Hawthorne, California)
Tanegashima Space Center (launch control center for JAXA, Tanegashima Island, Japan)
Tsukuba Space Center (mission control center for JAXA, Tsukuba, Japan)
Current and former NASA human space flight programs
Mercury program
Gemini program
Apollo program
Skylab
Space Shuttle program
International Space Station
Former NASA flight controllers
John Aaron, EECOM
Steve Bales, GUIDO
Jay Greene, FDO, Range Safety, Flight Director
John Hodge, Flight Director
Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., Flight Director
Eugene Kranz, Flight Director
Sy Liebergot, EECOM
Glynn Lunney, FDO, Flight Director
Roger Balettie, FDO
William (Bill) Gravett, PHALCON (Apollo), EGIL (STS)
References
Sources
External links
National Park Service mission control page
Space Station Live!
Flight Dynamics Officer (FDO)
Former FDO Roger Balettie
What is a FDO?
What is the FDO looking at?
Former FDO Chris Edelen
Former Targeting Michael Grabois, behind the scenes at a launch from the MPSR |
4052493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band%20of%20Gold%20%28TV%20series%29 | Band of Gold (TV series) | Band of Gold is a British television crime drama series, written and created by Kay Mellor, first broadcast on ITV on 12 March 1995. Produced by Granada Television, the series revolves around the lives of a group of prostitutes who live and work in Bradford's red-light district. Principal actresses in the series include Geraldine James, Cathy Tyson, Barbara Dickson, and Samantha Morton. Three series of Band of Gold were produced (the third under the moniker of Gold, with only a small number of characters from the first two series), with the final episode broadcast on 1 December 1997.
Each series was released on VHS after its broadcast, followed by DVD reissues under the Cinema Club brand in July 2004. The complete series was released on DVD by Network on 6 February 2006, and was reissued on 22 May 2009. Prolific tie-in specialist John Burke novelised the first series' teleplays in Band of Gold: Ring of Lies (15 February 1996); and the second series' teleplays in Band of Gold: Chain of Power (9 May 1996); the publisher was Headline Books. A behind-the-scenes book, Gold: The Making of Band of Gold, written by Anthony Hayward, was published on 2 September 1997, to tie in with the broadcast of the third and final series.
Synopsis
Series 1
Gina Dickson (Ruth Gemmell) is a young mother living in Bradford, West Yorkshire who has thrown out her abusive husband, Steve, but finds herself in debt to numerous bill collectors. Gina goes to a loan shark named Mr. Moore to pay off her debts. But Gina can't find work, and there's no one to look after her three young daughters, while Mr. Moore wants his money back, with interest. She meets Carol (Cathy Tyson) since their children go to the same school and are friends. Carol currently works as a prostitute to support herself and her young daughter Emma. The desperate Gina tells Carol that she wants to join her profession to pay off her debts. Carol teaches Gina how to "work the Lane" and introduces Gina to the world of ponces, punters, and police. Gina also meets Carol's friends: Rose (Geraldine James), an older hooker who rules the lane, and Tracy (Samantha Morton), a 15-year-old runaway who's hooked on drugs supplied by her pimp. Anita Braithwaite (Barbara Dickson), is another friend who allows the women to rent out rooms in her flat in exchange for a cut of their earnings.
In the first episode, Carol accompanies Gina to a client's house. Whilst Gina is in another room with the client, Carol steals money from the client. Gina, putting her safety on the line, decides to work "The Lane" alone hoping to make up the last few pounds from one job so she can pay off her debts and go straight. Gina is later found murdered. Carol spends the rest of the series trying to avoid the serial killer, who proceeds to murder other prostitutes in Bradford. During the first series, Carol meets and becomes both intrigued and wary of a middle-aged client, named Curly (Richard Moore), who has a stocking fetish. Anita struggles to get by and her benefactor George Ferguson controls her. Tracy is attacked and nearly killed by her pimp Dez (Ashan Bhatti), but she recovers and her parents take her home. She is unable to stand living under their rules. Tracy's father abused her, she is not sure that her mother believes her, and her sister is resentful towards her for leaving home because her parents argued a lot since Tracy left. As a result, Tracy runs away from home again.
Tracy and Rose travel to London where Tracy continues her street-walking profession and Rose tries to go straight by going to college and meets a man, Richard, for whom she starts to have feelings. Tracy puts one of her calling cards in Richard's pocket; Richard phones and asks for two girls. Thinking that Rose will come with Tracy, he arranges to meet her. When Rose does not turn up, he leaves Tracey standing and visits Rose who comes clean to Richard (after they sleep together) about her life up North in Bradford and working the Lane. Rose can't understand when Richard rejects her as she liked him. She quits college and leaves town without Tracy, who is unwilling to go back up North as business is good in London. Rose then returns to Bradford.
In another subplot, Gina's murder sends shock waves through the community as her husband, Steve, is forced to help Gina's mother, Joyce, raise their three children as well as try to find a way to pay off her debts to the loan shark Mr. Moore.
DCI Newall, the police detective in charge of the murder investigation, is revealed to be having a tryst with Carol, who allows herself to be taken advantage of by the corrupt police officer in order to avoid being arrested for prostitution. She ends up suffering an emotional breakdown after pouring a kettle of hot water on Curly. Carol spends some time in a mental hospital and her daughter Emma is taken away from her. Upon her release, Carol sets off to try to find Gina's killer, and encounters many red herrings, from Curly, to Newall, to George Ferguson and Gina's husband, Steve.
In the final episode of the first series, Rose returns to Bradford to try to find another legitimate way to go straight. Tracy soon follows her, but still wants to keep her old profession. Carol finally comes face-to-face with the killer in a deserted community centre: he is revealed to be Ian, a psychotic community board member whom Carol and Gina briefly met in the first episode. He was the same client from whom Carol stole money. Fortunately Tracy raises the alarm and the other women, led by Curly, break into the building and the killer is subdued and arrested before he can kill Carol by drowning her in a swimming pool.
The first series ends on a somewhat upbeat note when Carol and Rose, still distraught over Gina's death, decide to quit prostitution and set up a legitimate cleaning company, with Anita and Gina's mother, Joyce, as silent partners, to rival that of the businessman, George Ferguson, for whom the loan shark, Mr Moore, was revealed to be working and who was responsible for Gina's harassment that led to her death.
Series 2
In the past several months in between the first and second series, Rose and Carol have turned their backs on prostitution and are trying to make a living by running their own cleaning company, "Scrubbit", with the financial support of Anita. But the women's old enemy, George Ferguson, is released from jail wanting revenge and needing a way to clear the debts he owes the local gangster Alf Black. Meanwhile, Tracy is still on the game and is in a sexual dalliance with Alf Black a dirty Old Man and most powerful crime lord on the streets, he also supplies her drugs. But is just using as a pawn in a grander scheme to import lucrative drugs into the country. There's also a new prostitute on the streets, the emotionally damaged and dangerous S&M specialist Colette (Lena Headey).
In the beginning of the second series, Rose and Carol are still going straight and working for Scrubbit. Tracy is now living with Rose and using the house as a Brothel much to Rose's dismay. Tracy has befriended Colette, who Rose dislikes by saying to Tracy she is bad news as Colette is a drug user as is Tracy who is spiralling out of control. George Ferguson tries to seek revenge on the women since he owns part of Scrubbit as his estranged wife Kathleen backed the company for the woman so they could set it up, as Anita went and told Kathleen she had been having an affair with her husband George for years. Anita lies and tells George that the women are interested in having him involved they set up a meeting with him where they work and get George admitting on tape that he has still got financial wealth Anita tapes it and blackmails him and tells him to stay away or she will take the tape to the police.
The woman's celebrations are short lived when George runs Anita over with his car and snatches the tape from Anita's handbag. Earlier, Anita lets on about Colette's punter giving them advice about Scrubbit and George's intentions with the company. Rose knows that Tracy was letting Colette use the house as a Brothel and goes to confront Tracy the episode ends with Anita laid in the road as George drives off in his Jaguar. During this episode Tracy is introduced to Alf at a party, who smiles lecherously at her from afar, before engaging in sex with each other.
Series 2 contains the most graphic portrayal of prostitution and has Tracy perform in some explicit sex scenes. The main story arc of the sequel is based around Tracy as her drug addiction becomes worse and leads to psychosis.
Rose is the only member of the team who isn't fed up with running Scrubbit. Carol's old client, Curly (Richard Moore), has become more of a friend. Brenda (Margo Gunn) is a Klenzit employee who helps Ferguson in his attempt to sabotage Scrubbit. She is working for Scrubbit and going behind the women's backs to Ferguson telling him information about Scrubbit. However, Curly found dead in Carol's house with his throat cut. Rose suspects it was George Ferguson, but he too is later found murdered. Carol worries that the police will accuse her because she had a mental breakdown earlier on in series one and that Curly was one of her punters. She panics and disposes of his body with Rose's help, but police find the car the next day with Carol's fingerprints all over the car. Carol is arrested for Curly's murder.
Meanwhile, there's heartbreak for Rose when she thinks that cellist Sarah is her long-lost daughter. Rose tells Sarah that she thinks she is her daughter. Sarah gets upset and explains that she had a sister, named Hannah, a foster child who ran away when she was 12. Rose goes back to the house to speak to Sarah's mother only to find out Hannah went to a children's home in Sheffield after running away several times and tying Sarah to a chair and cutting all her hair off and stabbing her three times.
Later on, Rose finds out that Colette is her daughter. Sarah's family fostered Colette but she ran away after being violent towards Sarah who tells Rose what Colette did to her when they were children. Rose is shocked by the news.
Carol gets in the clear after the police discover Ferguson was killed in the same way as Curly. Vinnie is still pestering Carol and he kidnaps Emma after she comes back from swimming he rings Carol and tells her he's got Emma. Carol quickly goes to where Vinnie says he's holding Emma. DCI Newell saves Emma and Vinnie is arrested for this and questioned about the death of his uncle, Curly, which he denies killing him.
Meanwhile, Tracy is in deeper trouble with Alf Black. Rose is shocked when she discovers that her daughter is actually Colette. Carol re-evaluates her feelings for DCI Newall, who is now investigating these latest murders. Tracy's ex-pimp, Dez (who almost killed her in Series 1) is released from jail. Tracy enlists Colette's help in order to take her revenge against Dez, but Colette hadn't bargained for Tracy murdering him.
It was Tracy who murdered Curly in Carol's house when he comes round to visit her but Carol is not in as she had taken Emma to the park. Tracy also murders George Ferguson in cold blood while he is coming out of where he works in the car park. Tracy slits his throat and leaves him for dead. Anita hits him over the head with a crutch and knocks him out, she is later brought by the police as a suspect but is later released. Anita later realises that it was Tracy who murdered all three men and she is now a psychotic mass murderer.
Meanwhile, Joyce takes her grandchildren to Blackpool to see Steve who is now working there. They have a pleasant day at the seaside but things are soured when they both have too much to drink and sleep together, they both wake up the next day regretting what they have done as Steve was married to Joyce's dead daughter Gina who was murdered in series 1.
In the final episode, Colette asks for Rose's help to cover up Dez's murder when Tracy refuses to acknowledge what she has done in committing cold-blooded murder. Tracy's psychosis leads her in deeper with her demons when she goes back to Harrogate to her parents house and her father answers the door. Tracy murders her father when she is alone with him. Rose rings the house, Tracy answers, and after hearing Rose's voice, she unplugs the phone. Rose borrows a van and the girls go to Harrogate to rescue Tracy, but they get there too late as Tracy had already committed suicide upstairs in her mother and father's house. The scene ends with Tracy laid in her bed covered in blood after having stabbed herself.
At the end of series 2, sees the girls sitting at the pub where they were in the beginning of the first series but it's revealed that it's the day of Tracy's funeral and they are saying goodbye to her. Carol sees Curly's solicitor and discovers she has inherited his factory and all his wealth. The scene ends with Rose, Anita, Carol, Joyce, and Colette sadly toasting Tracy's life, and survival, and The Lane.
Series 3
Re-titled Gold, the third and final series is regarded as a spin-off or a sequel due to the series being heavily retooled. The series begins as Carol moves from the Ingram Estate to Curly's large house in an upmarket area. Carol is unwisely spending her inheritance money like water on everything now having newfound wealth and she doesn't know what to do with it. She goes to visit Colette in the house where she lived with Tracy, but she doesn't recognise Carol. Colette asks what Carol is doing there she explains that she has come to visit old friends.
Carol's inheritance is threatened when Curly's nephew, Vinnie, has hired a private detective to try to prove that Carol is still on the game as a prostitute. Meanwhile, Rose take on a cause to celebrate when a beautiful escort, named Paula, is implicated in two murders. After DCI Mace is killed, Paula disappears and Rose is asked to assist the police to find her. Rose finally locates Paula and takes her to Carol's house. The only person who can save Paula is murdered. Paula goes back home to her husband where he shoots her and them himself. Rose finds them both dead.
Also, a young transsexual prostitute named Sherrie is raped and Rose and Carol must ensure the victim gets justice by finding her assailant. In the final arc of the series, Rose takes on dangerous gangsters from Leeds and a confused but dangerous young prostitute (Alicya Eyo) as they control the lives of the girls on the lane.
Meanwhile, Carol accuses Vinnie of trying to take over Curly's factory and arranges for him to be dealt with. Rose continues to do good work in the community and on the tolerance zone all the girls are being targeted. Sherrie identifies the attacker as a magistrate that works with Rose. The worker, Ed Smithson, is stalking Sherrie when he breaks into her flat and threatens her with a razor. Sherrie is raped by Ed Smithson and afterwards she tells Rose about it. The police become involved and Sherrie then retracts her statement, when bribed by Ed. Rose accuses Smithson of blackmailing and bribing Sherrie. Rose loses her job and Inspector Henryson awards Rose by giving her job back and sacking Smithson as the sponsor and hiring someone else.
Carol's half sister, Lisa, turns up at her house because their mother is in hospital. Lisa ends up leaving after her and Carol had an argument and she called Carol a whore. Lisa leaves and is manipulated into working on the lane by Charlie, nicknamed Little Charlie for his false hope of running the lane.
The body of a murdered black woman is found and is identified as Marva. Raymond is questioned by the police. After he is released. he comes after Rose and attacks her with a gun.
In the final episode, Raymond kidnaps Rose, who tells her that Shaun killed Marva. Shaun is then killed and Carol and Rose realise that Charlie is the killer. Vinnie burns down the factory to get back at Carol and collect the insurance money, but he does not know that Carol, Rose, Emma, Lisa, and Charlie are still inside. They all manage to get out, except for Charlie, who perishes in the fire, as the series ends on this dramatic and tragic note.
Locations
"The lane" referred to in the production is a reference to "Lumb Lane" which is a real street in Manningham, Bradford, historically renowned for being an area in which many prostitutes work. In recent years, however, "The Lane" has fallen into disfavour among sex workers due to alleged intimidation by groups of local residents who have formed "clean-up" gangs. Part of the filming took place in the West End area of Ashton-under-Lyne.
Cast
Main
Geraldine James as Rosemary "Rose" Garrity (Series 1–3)
Cathy Tyson as Carol Johnson (Series 1–3)
Barbara Dickson as Anita Braithwaite (Series 1–2)
Samantha Morton as Naomi "Tracy" Richards (Series 1–2)
Tony Doyle as George Ferguson (Series 1–2)
David Schofield as DCI David Newhall (Series 1–2)
Rachel Davies as Joyce Webster (Series 1–2)
Richard Moore as Granville 'Curly' Dirken (Series 1–2)
Ray Stevenson as Steve Dickson (Series 1–2)
Fiona Allen as DI Erica Cooper (Series 3)
Supporting
Ruth Gemmell as Gina Dixon (Series 1)
Ace Bhatti as Dez (Series 1–2)
Lena Headey as Colette (Series 2 - 3)
Anthony Milner as Bob (Series 1)
Adam Kotz as Vinnie Marshall (Series 1 & 3)
Judy Browne as DS Kershaw (Series 1)
Laura Kilgallon as Emma Johnson (Series 1–3)
Stephen MacKenna as Ian (Series 1)
Darren Tighe as Smiley (Series 2)
Rebecca Callard as Tula (Series 2)
Darren Warner as Lloyd (Series 3)
Judy Brooke as Julie (Series 3)
Danny Edwards as Sherrie Goodman (Series 3)
Alicya Eyo as Jae (Series 3)
Kern Falconer as Insp. Henryson (Series 3)
Ifan Meredith as Little Charlie (Series 3)
Episodes
Series overview
Series 1 (1995)
Producer — Tony Dennis. Executive Producer — Sally Head. Broadcast — Sundays, 9:00pm.
Series 2 (1996)
Producer — Elizabeth Bradley. Broadcast — Sundays, 9:00pm.
Series 3: Gold (1997)
Producer — Gillian McNeill. Broadcast — Mondays, 9:00pm.
References
External links
1995 British television series debuts
1997 British television series endings
1990s British drama television series
English-language television shows
ITV television dramas
Prostitution in British television
Serial killers in television
Television shows produced by Granada Television
Television series by ITV Studios
Television shows shot in Bradford
Television shows set in Bradford
Television shows set in West Yorkshire |
4052669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US%20Standard%20Light%20Rail%20Vehicle | US Standard Light Rail Vehicle | The US Standard Light Rail Vehicle (SLRV) was a light rail vehicle (LRV) built by Boeing Vertol in the 1970s. The Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) of the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT) promoted it as a standardized vehicle for U.S. cities. Part of a series of defense conversion projects in the waning days of the Vietnam War, the SLRV was seen as both a replacement for older PCC streetcars in many cities and as a catalyst for cities to construct new light rail systems. The US SLRV was marketed as and is popularly known as the Boeing LRV or SLRV, and should not be confused with their prior lunar roving vehicles for NASA.
The SLRV was purchased by the public transportation operators of Boston and San Francisco; in service by 1976, the US SLRV proved to be unreliable and scrapping started as early as 1987, but the SLRV were not completely replaced in both systems until 2007. Although the SLRV itself was not successful due to poor reliability, it did set the general size and configuration for succeeding LRVs in the United States.
History
Origin
The original concept of the SLRV came to fruition in the late 1960s as the limited number of cities with PCCs in North America were looking for modern replacements for their aging rolling stock; the last PCC had been manufactured in 1952. In 1968, the MBTA in Boston, one operator of PCC streetcars, created a mockup for one end of a proposed "Type 6" streetcar out of wood; the Type 6 program was discontinued after MBTA decided the cost to produce it was too high. Meanwhile, Muni in San Francisco, released a request for proposals in 1971 to purchase 78 new cars, designed by the rail transit engineering firm Louis T. Klauder and Associates (LTK), to replace their aging PCC fleet. The new cars, which Muni called subway-streetcars, were touted as "specially designed for San Francisco, adaptable to both subway and surface conditions and seating more passengers than the present [PCC] streetcars." Muni received two bids in November 1971, with a low bid price of per car from Boeing. Both bids were rejected as being excessively costly because potential builders were forced to recoup development costs over a relatively small number of vehicles.
Düwag had built a prototype as a demonstrator for the Hanover Stadtbahn in 1970 (Hanover car 601 [DE]); in June 1971 MBTA ordered two more prototype "Hanover" cars, to be partially paid using a grant from UMTA. However, under the Nixon administration's "New Economic Policy" introduced that fall, UMTA was not allowed to fund the grant. That policy, codified as "Buy America" in Title IV of the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, stated that UMTA could not fund any grants exceeding $500,000 for transit vehicles that were produced outside the United States unless an exception was approved by the Secretary of Transportation. Instead, Boston (MBTA) was directed to join with San Francisco (Muni) and Philadelphia (SEPTA) to design a new streetcar that could meet the needs of all three cities.
In response to the failure to procure the Type 6, Duewag, and LTK/Muni streetcars, UMTA organized the BSF (Boston and San Francisco) Committee to design a standardized light rail car to reduce per-unit costs, using the same concept under which the earlier PCC streetcars were designed. The Standard Light Rail Vehicle (SLRV) specification was developed by UMTA based on the 1971 LTK design for Muni in conjunction with potential operators (who were all currently operating PCCs) in Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia (SEPTA), Cleveland (Shaker Heights), Pittsburgh (Port Authority), New Jersey, El Paso (City Lines), and Toronto (TTC) as well as industry consultants at Parsons Brinckerhoff and Louis T. Klauder and Associates. At the same time, a flood of defense conversion projects came to fruition as the result of government encouragement to help keep defense suppliers busy as the Vietnam War was coming to an end.
Contracts awarded
UMTA awarded a grant for to MBTA on October 20, 1972, towards the purchase of 150 SLRVs. On April 23, 1973, MBTA signed a contract with Boeing Vertol for the 150 SLRVs. On May 1, 1973, UMTA awarded Boeing-Vertol of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the contract to produce the SLRV at a cost of approximately $300,000 per car, each for the Muni configuration and each for the MBTA configuration. Muni initially ordered 80 cars and the MBTA ordered 150, and production commenced the same day the contract was awarded at a combined cost of . MBTA was scheduled to receive its first SLRV for testing in February 1975, and the majority of its cars in 1976. The MBTA portion of the contract cost for 150 cars; later, the orders were expanded to 100 and 175 respectively, and the extra 25 cars for MBTA added another , of which UMTA awarded MBTA on June 10, 1974. The SLRV was the first American-built trolley since 1952.
In late 1974, the first new SLRV was operated on a short test track at the Boeing plant. The first demonstrator model was produced in 1975 and was intended to be an early Muni car, and ran tests in Boston for 11 weeks. Three cars (two in the Muni configuration, and one in the MBTA configuration) were shipped to the Transportation Test Center in Pueblo, Colorado in fall 1975 under a contract awarded to Boeing Vertol for engineering testing. MBTA received its first car for testing in September 1976, two years behind schedule. This first car was delivered with trolley poles in addition to the pantograph, as the MBTA was still in the process of reconfiguring its overhead lines to accommodate the latter.
Operators
The first four SLRVs (3415, 3416, 3418, and 3421) entered revenue service on December 30, 1976, on the MBTA's Green Line D branch. However, revenue service with the SLRVs was suspended on April 16, 1977 due to numerous derailments, with 31 SLRVs delivered at that point. In San Francisco, the first two SLRVs were delivered in October 1977, and as with Boston's first car, these cars featured trolley poles as conversion to pantograph collection was not yet complete. Production models were delivered starting in December 1978, these cars having only pantographs, at which time the two pilot cars were returned to Boeing, and later re-delivered without the poles. The first regular runs on the Muni system came on April 23, 1979, on a temporary shuttle service, with more extensive use beginning with the opening of the Muni Metro on February 18, 1980.
Because the layout of Muni had several branch lines converging into the Twin Peaks Tunnel at West Portal and more lines merging near Church, Muni SLRVs were intended to couple in up to a 4-car consist as they entered the tunnel and underground portions of the route; as they exited, they would uncouple to continue on their assigned lines. However, due to slow door cycling and a 3-second delay between the operator signal and actual brake release, the Muni SLRVs proved to be slower than the PCCs in surface operation, and Muni was unable to meet the planned 4-minute headways on individual lines that would allow 2-minute headways with coupled trains underground. In addition, trains could not be turned around to meet 2-minute headways at the terminal Embarcadero Station. A new Muni Metro Rail Center (later renamed the Curtis E. Green Light Rail Center) was constructed for storage and maintenance near the Balboa Park station after Muni decided to purchase the cars the MBTA had rejected.
The Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority tested MBTA car #3401 on former interurban lines in mid-1976, but ultimately declined to purchase the US SLRV, instead buying custom LRVs of a different design from Breda Costruzioni Ferroviarie. When Cleveland released a request for quote in September 1977, Boeing Vertol bid per SLRV, exceeding Breda's winning bid of per car. Ironically, Breda would later construct light rail cars that would replace the SLRV's in both San Francisco and Boston (see Replacements and retirement section). SEPTA of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was initially interested (especially because the SLRV would be locally produced), but purchased custom LRVs from Kawasaki because the US SLRV would not clear the City Hall loop. SEPTA tailored the bid by specifying the vehicle width to be narrower than the SLRV specification to exclude it from consideration. The Kawasaki cars for SEPTA were assembled at the Boeing Vertol plant to meet "Buy America" requirements.
While Pittsburgh, New Orleans, and Newark collaborated with UMTA in designing the SLRV, and already had traditional streetcars, they ultimately did not buy the cars, nor would any newly built light rail systems such as San Diego. Pittsburgh converted their legacy low-entry streetcar system into dual-entry light rail, in a similar fashion to San Francisco's Muni Metro, and bought (at the time) custom Siemens SD-400 light rail cars, these being derived from the Siemens–Duewag U2 design originally built for the Frankfurt U-Bahn and later adapted for the newly built light rail systems in San Diego, Edmonton, and Calgary. Newark would continue to operate PCC's until 2001, when they were replaced with new low-floor LRV's built by Kinki Sharyo vehicles. New Orleans, which had never adopted the PCC design, continues to operate its 1920's vintage Perley Thomas-built streetcars, supplemented by modernized custom-built replicas of the cars. All subsequent newly built light rail systems have likewise bought customized equipment from Siemens, Kinki Sharyo, Breda, and other builders that have since entered the US light rail market.
The US SLRV design also influenced the early design of the Canadian Light Rail Vehicle.
Issues
Before they were delivered, Boeing claimed the US SLRV would be reliable and virtually maintenance-free. From their earliest days of service, however, the SLRVs proved to be a major financial and mechanical nightmare. After the initial three months of service, the MBTA was forced to halt all light rail service on April 16, 1977 for nine or ten days due to equipment unavailability. The MBTA was unable to retire their PCCs; instead, MBTA instituted a PCC rebuilding program to augment the SLRV fleet and maintain Green Line service. In San Francisco, the problems with the SLRVs led to the Muni Metro not reaching its full potential until 1982.
According to the original design specification, the goals for mean time between failures were set at 1400 hours or for the propulsion and auxiliary electric systems, which assumes average operating speeds of ; 1500 hours or for door and step systems; and 4000 hours or for the friction brakes. In comparison, for 1982, Muni SLRVs were breaking down an average of every (40 hours at operating speeds); reliability rose to (120–133 hours) between failures by 1988, but this was still a failure rate almost 15× the frequency of the (1890 hours) MTBF for the Siemens–Duewag U2 used in the San Diego Trolley system.
In Boston, the MBTA was accepting new cars from Boeing-Vertol, but the cars were falling out of service faster than the MBTA's maintenance staff could repair them. In addition, the MBTA could not acquire replacement parts fast enough to repair the disabled SLRVs. In a desperate effort to keep as many SLRVs operating as possible, MBTA set aside 35 disabled cars to be cannibalized for replacement parts.
To help prevent the riding public from seeing the number of brand-new, but heavily cannibalized SLRVs, several of the cars were hidden around the system where the public was not likely to find them. A major newspaper story emerged when a reporter and a photographer managed to get into a section of the Green Line's subway which was not in use at the time and found it was full of cannibalized cars which had been abandoned in the tunnel. The MBTA had been towing the cars into the subway during the middle of the night when the subway was closed to the public. The story and photographs brought the problems with the SLRV into the public eye for the first time. After the story broke, out-of-service SLRVs began to appear in several storage yards which were easily viewed by the public, though this may have simply been due to the ever-increasing number of disabled cars.
MBTA purchased $2.2 million in spare parts in May 1978 to ameliorate further issues, and Muni purchased $1.5 million in parts, forewarned by the MBTA experience. Muni also requested to add 200 employees in order to maintain and run the new SLRVs. Shipments of US SLRVs to MBTA were suspended in June 1978 after 135 cars had been delivered due to ongoing issues, and MBTA prepared the 35 cannibalized cars for return to Boeing later that year. On October 9, 1978, MBTA rejected the final 40 SLRVs and directed Boeing-Vertol to retrieve the 35 cannibalized cars, concluding that poor fleet reliability meant that Boeing was in breach of warranty. By 1978, the first five cars had been delivered to Muni; those had already underwent three rounds of modifications based on the MBTA experience.
Settlement
On December 15, 1978, MBTA and Boeing signed an agreement that revised specifications to enable the full delivery of 175 SLRVs, but reliability issues continued through 1979. An independent commission recommended that MBTA reorganize its LRV program and take quick action to resolve those issues. The SLRV fleet availability typically was less than 50% of the total number of cars on the property for the first few years of service; during the second and third quarters of 1979, Green Line trains missed 12,201 weekday trips, a 184% increase over the 6,598 missed weekday trips over the same period in 1978. In May 1979, MBTA and Boeing signed an agreement to modify and refurbish the 35 cannibalized SLRVs, but MBTA maintenance workers threatened to strike after MBTA ordered Boeing to retrieve the SLRVs, demanding the work be conducted in MBTA shops; Boeing stated in July that it would not accept any more SLRVs from Boston (3 had already been returned) until the labor dispute had been resolved. MBTA, Muni, and Boeing began to meet during the summer of 1979 to determine who would be responsible for resolving the identified problems. Boeing made an offer in September 1979 which identified specific design issues that would be corrected at its expense, including leaking gearboxes, air conditioning compressor issues, and traction motor failures, but MBTA rejected the offer; around this time, MBTA hired product liability attorney and law professor William Schwartz to negotiate on its behalf in August 1979.
Boeing took the position that issues had been caused by poor maintenance, poor track conditions, driver errors, and cannibalization. Schwartz argued that availability of the SLRV was less than 90% and had cost MBTA between $75–100 million to that point. On November 19, 1979, MBTA and Boeing reached a settlement; in order to make up for financial losses due to equipment unavailability, Boeing-Vertol would return $40 million to MBTA for the cost of repairs and modifications to several cars. In addition, the MBTA was allowed to reject delivery of the 40 cars remaining from the amended 175-car order. At the time of the settlement, 41 of MBTA's 135 SLRVs were inoperable due to design issues, accidents, and/or cannibalization for parts, which would require an estimated to restore to operating condition. Under the terms of the settlement, all warranties were terminated, and any further repairs would be the responsibility of MBTA, not Boeing, although Boeing would deliver modification kits to MBTA, whose maintenance personnel would install them at MBTA's expense to correct the previously identified issues. Boeing would only warranty the kits for defects in the parts; if they did not resolve the issues, MBTA would be responsible for the cost of redesign as well. The size of Schwartz's fee for negotiating the settlement, , prompted an investigation by the Massachusetts legislature.
Final deliveries
The 40 rejected MBTA cars sat in storage at Boeing-Vertol's plant for a short time, until San Francisco's Muni purchased some of these cars at a steep discount. The first of the "Boston" cars which Muni purchased was to replace two SLRVs which had been damaged during preservice Muni Metro subway testing in 1979 and were deemed beyond economic repair. After the successful conversion of that first car, Muni ordered an additional 30 SLRVs from the rejected Boston units to further bolster their fleet. The "Boston" cars in San Francisco were modified to meet the needs of the Muni Metro, but were easily distinguished by the wood grain interior finish at the operator's cab and articulation section, which did not match the yellowish orange color (from the Walter Landor-designed "sunset" livery) on the cars delivered under the original Muni order of 100.
By 1980, Boeing was no longer marketing the SLRV. In 1983 the last SLRVs at Boeing-Vertol's facility were delivered when the MBTA accepted nine remaining cars (#3535–3543) from the group of 40 that MBTA had previously rejected. MBTA also took delivery of five cannibalized "shells" in 1983; these had been delivered to MBTA in the 1970s, but were subsequently returned to Boeing in 1979. The title for these five cars reverted to Boeing because MBTA did not respond promptly under the terms of the 1979 settlement, and had been scrapped to supply parts in the meantime. The five "shells" were scrapped in 1988.
Design
The SLRV is a double-ended high-floor articulated light rail vehicle long overall (over the anticlimbers), in the same range as many heavy rail vehicles both at the time and now, but noticeably shorter than many other modern LRVs such as the at-minimum- Siemens S70 and S700 commonly found today, which rides on three two-axle trucks (six axles in total). The two end trucks are spaced from each end (couplers included) and from the center truck under the articulated section, allowing a minimum track radius of . The dimensions of the SLRV were determined by the existing track constraints of three proposed operators: MBTA (Boston), Muni (San Francisco), and SEPTA (Philadelphia). Each car has an "A" and "B" end separated by a central articulated section. Each side has three passenger doors wide: one near the operator's cab, and two straddling the articulated section; there is no door at the rear (trailing) cab (in the direction of travel). The tested empty weight of the vehicle (including of instrumentation) was ; for a normal load of 100 passengers, the vehicle was and for the crush load of 219 passengers, the vehicle was .
Each end truck carries a single DC motor which powers both axles and has a rated output of at 1135 RPM, operating on 285 VDC; the traction motor drives the wheels through a reduction gear set of 5.571:1. In the original 1971 LTK design for Muni, the center truck was also powered, giving a top speed of ; in the final SLRV specification, the center truck was not powered and the top speed was reduced to . Power to the traction motors is controlled through a solid state "chopper" circuit operating at a frequency ranging between 0 to 400 Hz for vehicle speeds up to , allowing a continuously variable control of power from the 600 V overhead lines rather than the traditional trolley control at the time, which used a varied number of discrete resistances to control motor current. Above , the power is not "chopped" and is instead applied directly to the traction motors.
Primary dynamic braking is accomplished by running the traction motors as generators and dissipating the electricity generated through two brake resistor grids; a friction brake consisting of a single inboard disc brake per axle is blended with the dynamic braking as needed. The friction brake alone is sufficient to hold a fully loaded SLRV (with 219 passengers) on a 9° slope. In addition, six electromagnetic track brakes are provided; on the Muni cars, the track brakes are controlled independently to hold the car in place when starting on a slope, and on the MBTA cars, the track brakes are blended into the main brakes. Dynamic braking was enabled by using a separate power source to energize the field coils on the traction motors; Boeing stated that regenerative braking was possible. Although regenerative braking was not implemented on the SLRV, it was enabled on the similar CLRV.
The articulated section allows up to 16° of rotation in the horizontal plane, 3° of vertical sag (center section lower than ends), and 4.3° of vertical crest (center section higher than ends), which permits the SLRV to traverse curves as sharp as inside radius, travel through valleys with a vertical curvature of , and crest hills with a vertical curvature of .
The SLRV rolls on lightweight Acousta Flex composite resilient wheels in diameter; these wheels use aluminum hubs separated from the steel rims/tires by a silicone rubber cushion. The cushion is thick and is injected in the threaded space between the rim and hub; the design was developed by Standard Steel and BART in the 1960s. The resilient wheels reduce squeal when negotiating tight curves. Interior noise was claimed to be 65 dB. The design of the trucks is adapted from the Japanese Shinkansen trains. The trucks are equipped with rubber chevron springs and pneumatic suspension, which automatically adjusts to maintain floor height with varying loads. Damping is accomplished by both hydraulic (lateral) and pneumatic (vertical) means.
The car body shells and truck frames were built by Tokyu Car Corporation in Yokohama and the motors provided by Garrett, with assembly at the Boeing plant in Ridley Park, Pennsylvania. After production was ended by Boeing, Tokyu Car Corporation built light rail cars for Buffalo Metro Rail which externally resemble the SLRV, but many differences, most noticeably the lack of articulation, use of external steps for low-platform boarding instead of internal steps, and the use of single-leaf pocket doors similar to the London Underground D Stock.
Differences
While Boston and San Francisco bought their cars at the same time and they appear identical externally, the cars have differences:
Doors: The doors themselves, at first, were essentially the same. However, Muni's cars had moveable steps at the four center doors (those nearest the articulated section), which could be lowered for street-level boarding or raised for boarding from high-level platforms, such as those in the subway. The Boston cars did not have this feature and so must be boarded from street-level. The doors were designed to accommodate both types of stairs. These doors proved troublesome and the MBTA eventually replaced them with bi-folding doors, further distinguishing them from Muni's.
Appliances: The MBTA SLRVs were fitted with air-conditioning units for Boston's humid climate. Due to San Francisco's relatively mild climate, the Muni SLRVs were provided with forced-air ventilation instead of air conditioning. The air conditioning units that the Boston cars were delivered with had problems such as sucking up dust and other debris from the subway tunnels and were later replaced with roof-mounted Sutrak air conditioners in the late-1980s to mid-1990s.
Interior styling: The "Boston" cars featured wood grain interior finishes at the operator's cab and articulation section, while Muni cars had a yellowish-orange color interior. However, certain Muni SLRVs (numbered 1252 and 13xx) actually had the same wood grain interior finish as Boston's because those cars were originally built for Boston, who rejected and returned them to Boeing. Muni then bought these cars, had their air-conditioners removed and fitted them with all the features exclusive to its fleet. The wood grain in these cars is thus the only feature that distinguishes these cars from those originally made for Muni.
Automation: Muni cars were equipped with cab signaling to enable automated operation through the Market Street subway with planned headways as low as 60 seconds.
Seating: The San Francisco cars originally had cushioned seats, but they were replaced with hard plastic seats in 1985, because of vandalism.
Capacity: San Francisco's cars seated 68, while the Boston cars seated 52 until the MBTA later had four seats removed to better accommodate wheelchairs.
Problems
One of the largest issues was simply that the Boeing SLRV was a "compromise" car. Both Boston and San Francisco had very different needs for the SLRV: Boston needing a more traditional streetcar, while San Francisco needed a more specialized car for its Muni Metro subway. Because the San Francisco cars would use station platforms at both street level (surface stations) and high level (underground), the vehicle steps needed to switch between the two modes. This became a passenger flow problem since the Muni cars could only use the two center doors on the SLRVs in the subway: the front end of the car curved away from the high-level platforms too much to allow passengers to safely board or alight the cars. The narrow front end, in turn, was required by Boston so the SLRV could navigate the tight curves in the MBTA's 1897-vintage subway.
Professor Seymour Melman partially blamed the use of a longtime defense contractor. Boeing Vertol's customary client (US Department of Defense) was relatively budget insensitive, more tolerant of cost overruns, and had sufficient funding and workforce to conduct complex maintenance, all contrary to the needs and abilities of a municipal transit agency. The design team primarily had experience in aerospace design, not rail vehicles, did not make a serious effort to gain that experience, and did not design for ease of maintenance. In some cases, portions of the SLRV had to be disassembled by acetylene torch to access components.
Boeing marketed the SLRV as a system and took the role of an integrator, subcontracting the design and fabrication of major components to external suppliers from places as far as Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom. This approach created uncertainty in component delivery dates and essentially precluded prototype testing in favor of meeting contracted schedule milestones, turning MBTA and Muni into, effectively, beta testers for the SLRV. Because no prototype testing was conducted prior to vehicle delivery, the appropriate identification and stock levels of spare parts could not be established before delivery, and MBTA was forced to cannibalize SLRVs for parts to maintain fleet availability during the early years of operation.
Other specific problems with the SLRV include but are not limited to:
Derailments on tight curves, which would seriously damage the car's articulation section, itself problematic as Boeing designed its own articulated section so as to avoid obtaining a license from overseas builders such as Duewag.
Another major problem was the shorting of electrical systems and premature failures in the car's motors and propulsion systems. Boeing used a relatively advanced chopper control system for the cars as insisted by the federal government. While such systems have been implemented successfully in many subway, light rail and trolley bus systems, the systems installed in Boeing's cars were found to be overly-complicated for the transit systems' use. It is however unclear how problematic this was as chopper control did prove to be commonplace in the United States into the early 1990s.
The SLRVs came equipped with overly complex plug doors, which were originally intended to accommodate high-platform operation for Muni in the Market Street subway. Boeing established a requirement to have the doors automatically reopen if an obstruction was encountered while closing in order to avoid crushing passengers; the firm initially charged with designing the doors successfully met this requirement, but made the doors too sensitive: the doors would recycle upon closing, as it detected a normal closure as an obstruction and would recycle the doors. Boeing hired another subcontractor to redesign the doors, stipulating that fewer components should be used. These doors would frequently short circuit and caused a significant nuisance for the MBTA. The transit agency later attempted to correct the issues with the plug doors by adding a wider rubber strip and eliminating the recycling circuit, but the issue was not fully resolved until the mid-1990s, when MBTA retrofitted all Boeings with much more reliable bi-fold doors.
The corrosion of car shells was another major issue. Cars are constructed primarily of low-alloy, high-tensile steel except for a stainless steel roof panel. As both Boston and San Francisco are on the ocean, the cars were particularly susceptible to damage from sea spray. Some cars barely saw a decade of service before being withdrawn due to corroded bodies, as their bodies were shipped from Japan as deck cargo through the Panama Canal and spent a further amount of time sitting outside the Boeing plant near Philadelphia before being assembled and delivered.
The blended braking system incorporating a single mechanical disk brake on each axle with the resistive brake on the powered trucks was labor-intensive to maintain and unreliable. For the succeeding Type 7 cars delivered by Kinki Sharyo, MBTA chose to use a mechanical-only pneumatic braking system.
The Boston cars' air-conditioning units were originally mounted under the car, and constantly sucked in dirt and debris from under the car. The MBTA later modified 76 SLRVs with roof-mounted air-conditioning units to address this.
The Acousta Flex composite resilient wheels that were originally fitted to the SLRV tended to fail in service and during testing; the bond failed between the elastomer and the wheel rim, which led to the wheel coming apart and also eliminated the electrical path to ground, as conductors were used between the wheel hub and rim. The Acousta Flex wheels were out of production by 1981.
Replacements and retirement
The problems of the SLRV quickly led their purchasers to look for replacements and supplements to their fleet. Despite improvements, the SLRVs were still proving to be problematic throughout the 1980s, and both cities decided that Boeing cars would not be part of the long-term future of either transit system. The Federal Transportation Administration took an unprecedented step and reduced the economic life of the Boeing SLRV to 15 years (from "at least 25 years" for trolleys procured using federal assistance), allowing MBTA and Muni to retire the SLRVs early and pursue procurement of replacements by the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Although the SLRV itself was beset by reliability issues and was not successful, Gregory Thompson credits it with making cities aware of light rail transit and defining a modern light rail vehicle. The successor vehicles in Boston (Kinki Sharyo Type 7) and San Francisco (Breda LRV2/3) closely follow the specifications and performance of the SLRV.
Notes
MBTA
After the MBTA terminated their contract with Boeing-Vertol, they were free to make their own modifications to the cars. Several systems were upgraded or improved. Slowly but surely, cannibalized cars were brought into the MBTA shops to be prepped for service.
The MBTA also started "splicing together" damaged cars. Cars 3454 and 3478 had been involved in a high-speed, rear-end collision. The two ends of the cars that made contact were severely damaged. The MBTA's maintenance crews brought the two cars into the shops, and later car 3478 (consisting of 3478A and 3454B) returned to active duty. Car 3454 (consisting of the damaged 3454A and 3478B) was pushed out into the dead storage yard for future disposition. The experience gained in this type of repair laid the ground for several other such cars being returned to revenue service. Eventually, the MBTA's maintenance staff got the active fleet to around 114 cars in the early 1980s.
Between 1986 and 1988 MBTA took delivery of new Type 7 light rail cars built by Kinki Sharyo, a Japanese railcar builder well established within its home country, producing its first railcars for the North American market. These cars have proven to be far more reliable and quickly assumed most of the base service on the Green Line. With the introduction of Type 7s, the MBTA was finally able to retire most of its aging PCC cars, which had to remain in service much longer than originally planned due to the unreliability of the Boeings. In order to make room for the new Kinki Sharyo Type 7 cars, Boston's MBTA instituted its first SLRV scrapping program beginning in 1987. By the end of 1988, nineteen cars had been removed from the property, most of which had been in dead storage since the late 1970s and the remainder were victims of major collisions or derailment damage. Kinki Sharyo would subsequently go on to produce LRVs for Dallas, San Jose, Phoenix, Seattle, and Los Angeles.
Boston also turned to Breda for a long-term replacement for the Boeings. While both the Boeings and Type 7 Kinki Sharyo cars have wide door openings and reserved wheelchair spaces that make them compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act, Boston's proposed Type 8 car would have a portion of its floor lower to the ground, allowing riders using wheelchairs to board without the need for a lift or mini-high platform. To help maintain Green Line service until the Type 8s were expected to be in service and to replace Type 7s destroyed in accidents, the MBTA took delivery of an additional 20 Type 7s from Kinki Sharyo in 1997. Additionally, the MBTA contracted with Amerail (formerly Morrison Knudsen) of Hornell, NY to completely rehabilitate 55 SLRVs in 1996–97 for extended service. The SLRV rehab was intended to add an additional three to five years of service to the cars, and included the elimination of the trouble-plagued plug doors in favor of traditional folding doors, and new roof-mounted air-conditioning units. All of the unrehabilitated MBTA SLRVs were taken out of service after June 27, 1997.
The MBTA was originally expected to have fully retired their SLRVs around 2001. However, the new Type 8s had been prone to derailing and other technical defects, which had significantly delayed their entry into service, and the MBTA nearly suspended the contract; at that point, the 55 rehabilitated SLRVs were still on the active roster, nearly a third of all Green Line rolling stock. By August 2005, MBTA was down to 32 active SLRVs, and more were retired by February 2006. The issues with Type 8 cars were finally resolved in 2006, allowing production and delivery to resume. By early 2007, a sufficient number of Type 8 cars had entered service to allow total retirement of the remaining Boeings. The final revenue service run of the MBTA Boeing cars was made on March 16, 2007, on the Riverside Line by cars 3485 and 3499. By late 2007, all Type 8s had been assembled and delivered for service.
Muni
Muni began developing plans to procure replacements for the Boeing SLRVs in 1989. A contract was signed with Italian manufacturer Breda Costruzioni Ferroviarie on December 4, 1991, with an initial order of 35 cars and options for 20 more. San Francisco began retiring their Boeing SLRVs in 1995 after the first of their replacements (designated LRV2) arrived from Breda. The newer Breda cars are more like what Muni wanted for its Muni Metro back in the early 1970s, before the design of the Boeing SLRV.
At the end of 2001, Muni retired the last of their Boeing SLRVs after the LRV2s had proven to have improved reliability on the Muni Metro system.
In contrast, Breda would not enjoy the same success in North American light rail, producing only the P2550 for Los Angeles and the aforementioned vehicles, and slightly more success with heavy rail, producing vehicles for Los Angeles, 3 generations of vehicles for Washington, and Atlanta.
Disposition
Preserved in museums
Three US SLRVs have been saved in museums:
ex-Muni 1213 at the Oregon Electric Railway Museum (acquired 2000)
ex-Muni 1258 at the Western Railway Museum (acquired 2002)
ex-MBTA 3424 at the Seashore Trolley Museum (acquired 2009)
Two others remained stored on Muni property for several years after retirement of the last cars from service, car 1320 at Geneva Division and car 1264 at the streetcar yard at Market and Duboce near the U.S. Mint (but later also moved to Geneva). These two cars remained stored until being scrapped in April 2016. Another ex-Muni car (1271) is used as an office trailer at a Bay Area scrapyard.
The Seashore Trolley Museum had inquired about acquiring MBTA 3444, which was equipped with the plug door, for their collection, but did not take it because the car was not in operating condition and Seashore wanted an operating example. 3444 was missing several essential components, including one of the trucks, and was heavily rusted. 3444 was later scrapped in 2005 and Seashore instead acquired rehabilitated car 3424, which was moved to the museum from MBTA's Riverside Yard on July 9, 2009.
Manchester
In 2002, Manchester was the host city of the Commonwealth Games. Many of the venues used for the games were served by Metrolink, a regional light rail network which first opened in 1992. With capacity problems foreseen and thus requiring a short term solution, the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive approached Muni about the possibility of buying redundant Boeing SLRVs. Two were purchased for $250 each for initial evaluation and shipped to England.
Upon arrival in England in January 2002, 1226 was sent to Derby Litchurch Lane Works for assessment by Her Majesty's Railway Inspectorate to ensure it met UK safety standards, while 1326 was delivered directly to Metrolink's Queens Road Depot. Muni cars 1214, 1219, 1220, 1221, 1234, 1249, 1268, 1288, 1305, 1308, 1312 and 1327 were stored in the US pending the sale.
Investigations concluded it was not economic to modify them for service in Manchester. The vehicle in Manchester was scrapped once the project was cancelled, while the vehicle in Derby was stored until 2016, at which point it too was broken up.
Working cars
The MBTA owned 3 decommissioned SLRV work cars until 2020, at which time they were scrapped:
Rerailer car 3417
Track geometry car 3448
Maintenance of Way car 3453
Ex-MBTA car 3541 was donated to the United States Army for training in 2000. Ex-MBTA cars 3468, 3480, 3485, 3499, 3514, and 3520 were sold to the US Government and moved to the Transportation Technology Center in Pueblo, Colorado in 2010, for testing with real-life scenarios.
See also
State-of-the-Art Car
Canadian Light Rail Vehicle
PCC streetcar
References
External links
Boston's Green Line Crisis A summary of the problems faced by the MBTA with Boeing
1975 article on rollout of US SLRV
US DOT UT 50009: Light Rail Transit: State of the Art Review (1976)
MBTA US SLRV specs
SOAC1 & 2 at Seashore Trolley Museum
State of the Art Cars
Advertisements
1977 ad for the US SLRV
Department of Transportation testing
Light rail vehicles
Articulated passenger trains
Electric multiple units of the United States
Light rail in the United States
Streetcars of the United States
Green Line (MBTA)
Muni Metro
600 V DC multiple units |
4052914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulo%20Evaristo%20Arns | Paulo Evaristo Arns | Paulo Evaristo Arns OFM (; 14 September 1921 – 14 December 2016) was a Brazilian prelate of the Catholic Church, who was made a cardinal and the Archbishop of São Paulo by Pope Paul VI, and later became cardinal protopriest. His ministry began with a twenty-year academic career, but when charged with responsibility for the Sao Paulo Archdiocese he proved a relentless opponent of Brazil's military dictatorship and its use of torture as well as an advocate for the poor and a vocal defender of liberation theology. In his later years he openly criticized the way Pope John Paul II governed the Catholic Church through the Roman Curia and questioned his teaching on priestly celibacy and other issues.
Early life and education
Paulo Steiner Arns was born as the fifth of thirteen children of the German immigrants Gabriel and Helana (née Steiner) Arns. Three of his sisters would later become nuns and one of his brothers a Franciscan. One of his sisters, Zilda Arns Neumann, a pediatrician who founded the Brazilian bishops' children's commission, was killed in the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
On 10 December 1943, Arns joined the Franciscans; he was ordained a priest on 30 November 1945.
From 1941 to 1943 Arns studied philosophy in Curitiba and then theology from 1944 to 1947 in Petrópolis. Then he attended the Sorbonne in Paris studying literature, Latin, Greek, Syriac at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and ancient history. He graduated with a doctorate in classical languages in 1946. Arns later returned to the Sorbonne to study for a Doctor of Letters which he obtained in 1950, writing a dissertation titled "La technique du livre d'après Saint Jérome".
Arns then fulfilled a series of academic assignments in Brazil. He taught at the seminary of Agudos in São Paulo. He lectured as a member of the faculty of Philosophy, Science and Letters of Bauru, and had responsibilities at a number of other institutions of higher education, usually faculty positions, and became a professor at the Catholic University of Petrópolis.
Arns was elected vice-provincial of the province of the Immaculate Conception of the Friars Minor. He was the director of the monthly review for religious Sponsa Christi.
Bishop and Cardinal
Pope Paul VI named Arns titular bishop of Respecta and auxiliary bishop of São Paulo on 2 May 1966. He was consecrated on 3 July 1966 by Cardinal Agnelo Rossi. The same pope appointed him Archbishop of São Paulo on 22 October 1970 and he was installed on 1 November. In 1973 he sold the episcopal palace, a mansion standing in its own park. Two things horrified him: the massive electricity bills and the staff of 25 sisters and brothers assigned to look after his needs. He used the money from the sale to build a social station in the favelas.
He remained Archbishop of São Paulo for 28 years and managed an expansion of the church's presence and outreach by creating 43 parishes and more than 1,200 community centers. He also promoted the organization of more than 2000 basic ecclesial communities. He developed AIDS education programs and ministries for homeless children and prisoners. With his sister Dr. Zilda, he founded Pastoral da Criança (Pastoral Care for Children), an organ for social action of the National Conference of Bishops of Brazil.
After the first meeting between Church and Freemasonry which had been held on 11 April 1969 at the convent of the Divine Master in Ariccia, he was the protagonist of a series of public handshakes between high prelates of the Roman Catholic Church and the heads of Freemasonry.
In the consistory of 5 March 1973, Pope Paul VI made him Cardinal-Priest of Sant'Antonio da Padova in Via Tuscolana. He participated as a cardinal-elector in the two conclaves of 1978 that elected Popes John Paul I and John Paul II.
From 1983 to 1991 he served as secretary to the Synod of Bishops, but only in 2005 did he speak publicly of his experience: "I had responsibility for recording the conclusions of one synod and drafting the documents in preparation for the next. Nothing of what we prepared was ever taken into consideration. Very competent people carried out the whole process, but the texts were never used.... The conclusions were formulated in such a way that they no longer reflected what had been said in the discussions."
In the mid-1980s, Arns' programs for the development of priestly vocations came under fire from Vatican authorities that suspected its ties to liberation theology. The seminarians lived in eleven small communities of seven or eight and each group was tied to a base community. The seminaries also held secular jobs in order to provide support to their families during their priestly formation. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF), appointed Cardinal Joseph Höffner of Cologne, known for his conservative positions, to conduct an investigation. In Brazil he praised the São Paulo program, but submitted a largely negative report to the CDF.
In 1989, Arns sent a letter to Fidel Castro on the 30th anniversary of the Cuban Revolution. He praised Cuba's record on social justice and wrote that "Christian faith discovers in the achievements of the revolution signs of the kingdom of God.... You are present daily in my prayers, and I ask the Father that he always concede you the grace of guiding the destinies of your country." Political and theological conservatives, including Cardinal Eugenio Sales of Rio de Janeiro, protested what they interpreted as support for Castro's continued rule. Leonardo Boff, the foremost figure in the liberation theology movement, defended Arns, saying: "Cuba carried out a revolution against hunger by ending prostitution, illiteracy and misery. Dom Paulo [Arns] is not a socialist, but a man of the poor and the oppressed." Arns said the letter was part of an ongoing dialogue with Castro and that he opposed dictatorship.
Church governance
Before Paul VI died in 1978, Arns worked with him on a plan for the division of the Archdiocese of São Paulo. It would have established subordinate dioceses under independent bishops who would share financial and institutional resources and a common pastoral plan with each other and the archdiocese. It was never implemented. Instead, on 15 March 1989, the archdiocese was split into five dioceses in a way that, in Arns' view, divided the rich and the poor. His archdiocese lost half of its population, retaining the largely middle class core of the city and isolating it from the city's "impoverished periphery". None of the bishops chosen to head the new dioceses were drawn from the list of candidates Arns had submitted. He said: "everything I asked for was disregarded and the traditionalist line prevailed. It was our wish that a different way of dealing with pastoral activities in the metropolitan regions be adopted, but the Roman Curia, treating this just as any other matter, paid no heed for it. ...Because of the way it was done, the church in São Paulo is spending 10 times more in order to produce results which are 10 times smaller".
Just days before submitting his resignation as Archbishop of São Paulo, as he was required to when he turned 75, Arns told a Brazilian newspaper that he had told Pope John Paul II that he allowed the Roman Curia, the central administration of the Catholic Church, "too free a rein". He said the pope had replied "You are mistaken. The curia is the pope" and that he in turn had strongly disagreed. He explained to his interviewer: "My impression is that the curia is governing the church."
According to Boff, when Arns was celebrating Mass and recognized someone in the congregation as a priest who had married, he invited the man to concelebrate Mass with him. His stance on married priests was: "They are still priests and they will remain priests."
Liberation theology
In 1968, attending the Conference of Latin American Bishops in Medellín, Colombia, he endorsed the fundamental principle of liberation theology, the "preferential option for the poor". In 1984, he joined other Brazilian prelates in Rome when theologian Leonardo Boff, the foremost figure in the liberation theology movement and a former student of Arns, was examined by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Boff said that he thought he was not actually the target of the Vatican investigation as much as the entire church in Brazil and its activism on behalf of the poor. Arns predicted that Boff's examination would produce no "surrender" because "The liberation of the poor is an aspiration rooted in human dignity. The message of liberation is central to Christianity." One historian described it as "not an exercise in abstruse theological semantics but a debate over the future of the Church in Brazil." Arns and Cardinal Aloisio Lorscheider of Fortaleza joined Ratzinger and Boff for part of their four-hour meeting, after being denied their request to attend the entire meeting. Later meetings between Brazil's senior prelates, including Arns, and Pope John Paul II, cooled the conflict to a degree, and in 1986 Arns offered a conciliatory statement that he agreed with the Pope's admonition against priests taking part in politics directly, but he defended the church's advocacy on behalf of such powerless groups as peasants and native peoples, workers and inhabitants of urban slums.
Arns produced letters from the Roman Curia that he believed were evidence that Boff was treated unfairly.
Arns always encouraged the development of the base community movement that derived from commitment to a preferential option for the oppressed and the poor. He encouraged religious orders in São Paulo to transfer their energies from middle class schools and hospitals in central areas of the city to the millions of marginalised people living on the periphery. With respect to the requirement that Catholics practice abstinence on certain days, that is, refrain from eating meat, Arns told the poor that on such a day "if they can find meat to eat, which is rare, they should eat it, and do some good work to mark the day, because not eating meat is not the point." He defended his position by saying that "Canon law gives me full power to dispense people from abstinence; there is no problem."
Brazilian dictatorship
A military government ruled Brazil from 1964 to 1985. Arns' tireless campaigning against that government's human rights abuses made him a popular figure in Brazil. During the dictatorship he visited political prisoners and spoke out against the abuses of the military. Not long after Arns became Archbishop, police raided the home of a young priest and arrested him for organizing a campaign for increased wages for workers. When Arns was denied access to the imprisoned priest, he denounced the arrest on the Archdiocese's radio station and in its newspaper. He had a description of the priest's arrest and torture posted at the door of every church. The Latin American correspondent for the National Catholic Reporter described this as the beginning of "an open war between the archdiocese and the military." While his colleague Archbishop Helder Camara of Olinda and Recife had long played a direct role in politics, Arns opposed the regime while maintaining an apolitical posture, but with an uncompromising criticism that belied his short time as archbishop and his scholarly background.
Arns initiated a years-long campaign against torture and made it a priority pursued by the Brazilian Conference of Bishops. In 1975 the regime's censors at times restricted Arns's ability to protest by refusing permission to print his views in the archdiocesan weekly newspaper, O São Paulo. He had written: "Even last week, a number of cases of torture took place in São Paulo. A number of persons were arrested, hooded and are kept incommunicado for a long time.... Systematic torture has been instituted in Brazil with modern techniques to obtain confessions from ordinary as well as political prisoners." Authorities did not allow the archdiocesan radio station to broadcast for a year. When authorities called the death of journalist Vladimir Herzog in prison a suicide, Arns led an ecumenical memorial service and characterized Herzog's death differently, saying "Those who stain their hands with blood are damned. Thou shalt not kill." A message the next week read in all the churches of the archdiocese said: "It is not lawful during interrogation of suspects to use methods of physical, psychological or moral torture, above all when taken to the limits of mutilation and even to death, as has been happening."
Arns supported the underground effort to document torture in Barzil's prison that, when smuggled out of the country, was published years later as Brasil: Nunca Mais (Brazil: Never Again) in 1985. It used trial transcripts as evidence of the torture of political prisoners, including names and dates and detailed descriptions of methods and equipment. A voluminous investigative document that chronicled the military government’s torture of political opponents, it was compiled largely in secret and used military trial transcripts to build its case.
Retirement and death
Pope John Paul II accepted Cardinal Arns' resignation on 15 April 1998. Since he was past the age of 80, he did not participate in the conclave of 2005 that elected Pope Benedict XVI. In 2013 he did not travel to Rome to participate as a non-elector at the conclave that chose Pope Francis.
After retiring as archbishop, Arns held the UNESCO Chair for Peace Education, Human Rights, Democracy and Tolerance at the State University of São Paulo.
In 2002, Arns criticised U.S. President George W. Bush for his approach to international cooperation in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, noting that "the president did not go to the United Nations to seek the opinion of everyone. He went alone to the most important governments of the world. I felt this showed a lack of world sensitivity." He condemned the war in Afghanistan as well, describing it as "a war against a nation when one man or two or three or 10 are responsible."
Also in 2002, he became one of the highest-ranking members of the church to express public disagreement with the church position of clerical celibacy, claiming it was an unnecessary rule without Biblical basis. He criticised Pope John Paul II for prohibiting debate on the subject.
In April 2005, during the interregnum between the death of Pope John Paul II and the election of Pope Benedict XVI, Arns gave a wide-ranging interview assessing the former's papacy and his own years as Archbishop of Sao Paulo. Asked about Church opposition to the use of condoms to prevents the spread of AIDS, he said: "I cannot be against a decision of the pope's. If it were my decision I would be against death and for life. The use of the condoms should not be interpreted as a liberalisation of sex." He criticised the Curia for not promoting diversity of opinion within the Church and for lacking an ecumenical attitude.
Pope Benedict's meeting with Arns during his visit to Brazil in 2007 was viewed as a moment of reconciliation after their earlier dispute about liberation theology.
Upon the death of Cardinal William Wakefield Baum on 23 July 2015, Arns became the last surviving cardinal elevated by Pope Paul VI. (Though Joseph Ratzinger was then also still living, his membership in the College of Cardinals had ended upon his election in 2005 as Pope Benedict XVI.).
For several years before his death, Arns withdrew from public life and lived in a retreat house in Taboão da Serra on the outskirts of São Paulo. After a long illness he died in a São Paulo hospital on 14 December 2016. His coffin was carried into the crypt of São Paulo Cathedral on 16 December as the congregation applauded and took up the chants "viva Dom Paulo" and "courage".
Distinctions
Letelier-Moffitt Human Rights Award (1982)
Nansen Refugee Award (1985)
Niwano Peace Prize (1994)
Honorary degrees
As of March 2013, he had received 24 honorary degrees,
University of Brasília
Pontifical Catholic University of Goiás
University of Münster
Catholic University of Nijmegen, Netherlands
University of Notre Dame (1977)
Fordham University (1981)
Selected writings
Author
A quem iremos, Senhor? – To Whom Shall We Go, Lord?
A humanidade caminha para a fraternidade – Humanity on the Road toward Fraternity
Paulo VI: Você é contra ou a favor? – Paul VI: Are you for or against?
Cartas de Santo Inácio: Introdução, Tradução e Notas – Letters of Saint Ignatius: Introduction, Translation, and Notes
Cartas de São Clemente Romano: Introdução, Tradução e Notas – Letters of St. Clement of Rome: Introduction, Translation, and Notes
A guerra acabará se você quiser – Wars Will End If You Want
Comunidade: união e ação – Community: Union and Action
Da Esperança à Utopia – From Hope to Utopia (Autobiography)
Translator
Cardinal Leo Joseph Suenens, A Corresponsabilidade na Igreja de Hoje (The Coresponsibility of the Church Today)
Cardinal Jean Daniélou, Nova História da Igreja (A New History of the Church)
See also
Torture Never Again, an organization
Notes
References
Further reading
Evanize Sydow, Marilda Ferri, Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns: um homem amado e perseguido, Editora Vozes, 1999
External links
Brazilian cardinals
University of Paris alumni
20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Brazil
Arns, Paulo Evaristo
Arns, Paulo Evaristo
Brazilian people of German descent
Cardinals created by Pope Paul VI
People from Santa Catarina (state)
Liberation theologians
Brazilian Christian socialists
Catholicism and far-left politics
Roman Catholic bishops of São Paulo
Roman Catholic archbishops of São Paulo
Brazilian expatriates in France
Nansen Refugee Award laureates |
4052963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridges%20in%20Kyiv | Bridges in Kyiv | Kyiv, historically situated on the right bank of the Dnieper River, now covers both banks of the river whose width, as it flows through the city, reaches several hundred metres. Additionally, several tributaries join the Dnieper inside or just north or south of the historic city. Currently there are eight bridges spanning across the river and a few dozen bridges across the canals and Dnieper tributaries.
Due to the location and the width of the river, the bridges have always been a very attractive and hard to realize option throughout the long history of Kyiv.
Temporary floater bridges were known to have existed since the 12th century. Stationary bridges existed in Kyiv from the mid-19th century, but none of them survived the turbulent events that followed the 1917 Russian Revolution.
Early history
According to the chronicles, the earliest floating bridge across the Dnieper River in the area was built in the 1115. It was located near Vyshhorod or, according to different accounts, near the Vydubychi Monastery. Records exist about another floater in the 17th century with stationary approaches from the shores.
Such bridges could only be temporary, as the Dnieper freezes over in most winters at Kyiv's latitude, and ice drift each spring remain a concern even for modern bridges. Additionally, the river current was especially strong before the Dnieper was dammed in the 20th century. Therefore, the cross-river traffic was carried by boats and ferries for many centuries.
First stationary bridges: late 19th to early-20th century
From the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century, Kyiv was served by two stationary bridges. Both bridges had similar fates. Built at the times of the industrial revolution in the Russian Empire these engineering masterpieces of their time survived World War I and the Russian Civil War. Both were blown up in 1920 by the Polish troops retreating from Kyiv following the joint Polish-Ukrainian anti-Soviet Kyiv offensive.
Nicholas Chain Bridge
The first stationary bridge in Kyiv was built between 1848 and 1853. This -long Nicholas Bridge was a chain suspension bridge rested on five pillars. Being one of the largest and most beautiful bridges in Europe, it was the pride of the city until it was blown up in 1920 by the Polish troops. The heavily damaged bridge was not subject to the restoration and in 1925 a new bridge was constructed in its place under the name Yevheniya Bosch Bridge (see below).
Struve (Darnytskyi) Railroad Bridge
The Struve Railroad Bridge, Kyiv's second stationary bridge, was built in 1868–1870 with the construction supervision conducted personally by Amand Struve. This over 1 kilometre long railroad truss bridge was initially named to its constructor, engineer Struve. Standing on 13 piers, over long, the bridge was the longest in Europe at that time. During the construction Struve first in the Russian Empire used caisson method to lay the foundation . On February 17, 1870 the first train by the Kyiv-Kursk railroad company arrived through the bridge to the Kyiv railroad station. Similarly to the Nicholas Bridge, the Struve Bridge survived World War I and the Civil war, but was blown up in 1920 by the retreating Polish troops (see: Kyiv offensive).
Rusanivsky bridge
The bridge was built in 1906 and was blown up in 1943 by the retreating forces of Nazi Germany. Rusanivsky bridge connected the Darnytsia region with the city of Kyiv by the Brovary chaussée (highway). The bridge was designed by architect V.Apishkov. In 1965 in its place was erected the Metro Bridge and the Rusanivsky Metropolitan Bridge (extension of the first) which both are part of the Svyatoshyno-Brovary Subway Line (SBL).
Between World War I and World War II
New bridges were built in the early Soviet years but were destroyed in the first months of the 1941 Nazi German invasion. Restored by forced labor of war prisoners and civilians during German occupation they were blown up again by Germans when they retreated from Kyiv in November 1943.
Bosch bridges
Within months after the Polish troops blew up the original chain bridge, that very summer 1920 the Ukrainian engineer Evgeny Paton proposed the reconstruction project that would have reused the old chains to be lifted from under water. However, rusting made the metallic parts of the old bridge unusable and for the following two years Paton worked on several projects of the Nicholas bridge's restoration. He ended up proposing to construct a totally new bridge but this proposal was declined by the supporters of the reusing of the old elements from underwater. The year of 1923 passed in arguing between the two proposals. The construction overseen by Paton was finished by 1925. The was named after the former Soviet People's Secretary of Internal Affairs and a fierce Bolshevik, Yevgeniya Bosch.
Following the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union, the bridge was destroyed on September 18, 1941, by retreating Soviet forces. A pontoon bridge was built on its place by forced labour under German occupation, which was destroyed again by German troops retreating from Kyiv.
Darnytskyi Railroad Bridge
The replacement Darnytskyi railroad bridge was built in the early 1920s but shared the fate of the Bosch Bridge. Destroyed in the first months of the Great Patriotic War, it was restored during German occupation by forced labor, and was destroyed again by retreating German troops.
During the Battle of Kyiv, Red Army's attempt to catch the bridge by landing forces was unsuccessful. The Germans blew up the bridge under the eyes of the Soviet landing force unit. The landing unit was disbanded for the operation failure.
Immediately after the liberation a temporary wooden bridge was built at the location of the blown up Darnytskyi bridge by the Red Army engineers in the record thirteen-day time (some sources cite thirty days) in the urgency to facilitate the pursuit of the German army on its retreat from Ukraine. The record short construction time plan was met despite the frequent German bombing raids. 50,000 Kyivites took part in the bridge construction.
Underwater tunnels
A few years before World War II the Soviet government planned two underground railroad lines to be laid underneath the bedrock of Dnieper river. One tunnel line (Northern) would have stretched from the Obolon neighborhood (Obolon Raion) and to what is known as Vygurivshchyna (Desna Raion) near Voskresenska Slobidka on the left bank of Dnieper in the close proximity of Troieschyna. Another line (Southern) was planned to cross the Dnieper from the Zhukiv Island to Osokorky (Darnytsia Raion). The project came up in a fear that in case of a war the bridges over the Dnieper were a vulnerable part of the regional transport infrastructure, and tunnels might be a long-term strategic solution.
The construction started in 1936 was planned to be finished sometime in 1944. The NKVD oversaw the project, drafting hundreds of military, civilian and prison workers to work on it. The underdeveloped technology of the time required special makeshift caissons (vertical mines for ventilation and soil extraction) to be built in the middle of the river. Due to technical failures and the start of the war, the construction was never finished or even disclosed to the public. The builders were able only to connect the Right Bank with the close Zhukiv Island (where the present-day southern port is situated). The flooded entrance to the tunnel and abandoned caissons can now be seen in the forests and bays of Holosiivskyi Raion. Contemporary amateur researchers believe that a large secret base component of the project, including a train station, barracks and mass graves of workers, are also located in the depths of the tunnels.
After the start of World War II all tunnel construction (known as the Construction No.1) was suspended and afterwards recognized as unreasonable. Nonetheless, the entrances to the unfinished tunnels still exist around the mentioned neighbourhoods, which are mostly unguarded.
Modern bridges
Note: Bridges are listed southwards along the river flow.
Pivnichnyi Bridge
The road-only Pivnichnyi Bridge ()
(until February 2018 the bridge was named Moskovskyi Bridge), designed by the architect A.V.Dobrovolsky and engineered by G.B.Fux, was built in 1976. It is a cable-stayed bridge, with the beam of the main span being held by a cluster of steel ropes which are fixed to a 115 meters tall A-pylon. The bridge consists of two spans: a long and wide span across the Dnieper and a long, wide span across the Desyonka, a Dnieper tributary.
The northernmost of the city bridges, Moskovskyi Bridge is a key structure on the northern end of the Kyiv Smaller Ring Road, connecting Pochaina to the densely populated north-eastern residential neighborhoods, mainly Troieschyna. From the moment of its construction the bridge was built as a high-speed motorway, which it remains to this day.
Petrovskyi Railroad Bridge
The Petrovskyi Railroad Bridge () is made of steel trusses. It was originally built in 1929 and was known as Petrovskyi Bridge at that time. Like other bridges, it was blown up in the course of World War II, but was not heavily damaged and was reopened in 1944.
The Petrovskyi Railroad Bridge completes the railway circle around Kyiv. However, the bridge is limited to slow-speed rail traffic due to its age.
Harbour bridges
Rybalskyi (Fisherman's) Bridge
A steel bridge connects Podil neighborhood to the Rybalskyi Peninsula over the Kyiv Harbor. In the 1990s, the bridge was found unsafe for automobile traffic and since 2001 it was reserved for pedestrians only. The bridge is fenced off from February 2, 2009 and will be dismantled.
Havanskyi Bridge
The automobile-only Havanskyi ("Harbour") Bridge was opened on 17 December 2007 for automotive traffic from Podil towards Obolon across Havan' () — the harbour in the mouth of the former Pochayna River, with the construction being started in 2003, serving as a substitute for the closed Rybalskyi Bridge. On October 23, 2010 the bridge was opened for two-way traffic together with an adjacent flyover on the right bank.
Parkovyi Footbridge
The , also known as the Parkovyi Footbridge, designed by architect V. Suvorov and engineered by V. Kiriyenko, was built in 1957. The bridge is a light construction in length that connects Kyiv to the park-area Trukhaniv Island. This is the only bridge constructed specifically for the pedestrian traffic over the Dnieper fairway, and for this reason it's formally included in the number of Kyiv bridges across Dnieper.
Venetian Bridge
The automobile-only , designed by architect A. Ilyashenko and engineered by V. Koval, was built in 1966. The bridge spans the Venetian Canal dividing the Hydropark Island and the Dolobetskyi Island.
Rusanivka Bridges
The Rusanivka Bridges were built in the 1960s over the Rusanivka Canal, connecting the neighborhood with the rest of Left Bank city. There are 5 bridges, 2 of them are exclusively pedestrian. Prior to World War II Rusanivka has been connected to the rest of Kyiv by a bridge, but it was destroyed during the war. The Rusanivka bridges are a popular place for amateur fishermen.
Metro Bridge
The auto-and-rail Metro Bridge (), engineered by G. Fux and Y. Inosov and built in 1965. The bridge is used for both the Sviatoshynsko-Brovarska Line of Kyiv Metro and automobile traffic (being part of the Brovary Parkway). The Metro bridge consists of two spans as it links the central Hydropark island as well as the left and right banks. The larger span consists of an elevated central Metro span and side automobile spans on separate, lower estacades. Both the Metro and automobile paths have a distinct arched contour. This was because the Metro line continues into the hill of the right bank with the Dnipro station.
The smaller span called Rusanovsky Bridge which links the Hydropark with the left bank is a more conventional level estacade with two northern traffic lanes and a southern Metro path.
Paton Bridge
The 1,543 metres long automobile-only Paton Bridge (), built in 1953, is the longest of the Dnieper bridges in the city. It was the first fully welded steel construction of such length in the world to the date of completion and it was the longest bridge in Europe at that time. The bridge was named after Evgeny Paton, the famous welding engineer who developed the technology for the structure. He died a few weeks before the construction was completed, never seeing his masterpiece.
Initially carrying the automotive traffic and cross-Dnieper tram lines, the bridge have recently been renovated. The tram rails were removed and the electric trolley bus infrastructure was added to the bridge. Shutting down the tram line that historically served the bridge has met the mixed reception from the Kyivites, despite the municipal authorities claimed that the tram service over the bridge has become impractical.
The bridge currently has 3 traffic lanes in both directions and one reversible lane connecting Pechersk to the Left Bank.
Darnytskyi Railroad Bridge
The old Darnytskyi Railroad Bridge (), engineered by I. Barenboym and E. Radzevich, was built in 1949. It took the place of an older bridge, which was destroyed in 1941 in the first days of the German invasion of the Soviet Union (see the earlier history section.).
New Darnytskyi Bridge
The New Darnytskyi Bridge is an auto-and-rail bridge, constructed south of the existing Darnytskyi Railroad Bridge. The bridge carries 2 lanes of railroad, and 6 lanes of auto traffic. The bridge's expected capacity is 60,000 vehicles and 120 pairs of trains per day. Already operational as itself, the bridge complex now lacks road connection ramps from some directions which are still under construction. Additional railroad links to match new bridge' capacity are also being constructed. On September 27, 2010 the railroad part of the bridge was officially opened; on March 31, 2011, road traffic opened. As of the last government notice, the bridge was expected to be completed in 2012. Following the construction of the bridge, a new major passenger terminal will be completed in the Darnytsia Railway Station on the Left Bank of the city.
Pivdennyi Bridge
The auto-and-rail Pivdennyi ("Southern") Bridge (), designed by the architect A. Gavrilov and engineered by G. Fux, was built in 1990. It is the second metro bridge in Kyiv, serving both the Syretsko-Pecherska metro line and automobile traffic. The shrouds holding the spans on the bridge are supported by a two-column ferroconcrete construction in height.
The bridge currently has 3 traffic lanes in both directions. It connects the Vydubychi to the rapidly developing left-bank Darnytsia neighborhood, completing the southern end of the Kyiv Smaller Ring Road route.
Bridges in construction
Due to a large traffic increase since the late 1990s, more bridges are needed to avoid traffic jams on and around already existing bridges. Specifically, the central rail route from the central railway terminal via the Darnytskyi Bridge is overloaded, limiting the railroad traffic in Eastern Europe.
Two bridges are currently under construction (one, the New Darnytskyi Bridge, already operational) and one more is planned according to the Kyiv Development Plan. In addition, in 2006 a project was unveiled to provide decorative night illumination to most of the bridges.
Podilskyi Bridge
The construction of a new long metro/automobile bridge () is underway on Trukhaniv Ostriv, on the midway between existing Petrovskyi Rail Bridge and Parkovyi Bridge. The bridge is a part of the future Podilsko-Vyhurivska Line, and it will carry 3 lanes of auto traffic in both directions. The construction is contracted by the Kyiv municipality.
Alternatives to bridges
Tunnel projects
Despite the mid-20th century failure, the idea of underriver tunnels, which is relied on much advanced metro technologies, is still on Kyiv city planner's table. Tunnel projects are recently being included in some of proposed Kyiv development plans as a way to move the main traffic flows in the city center underground. However, most experts agree that such projects are both unaffordable and technically infeasible at this time.
Recently, Kyivavtodor road company and the institutes of Kyivdormostproekt and Kyivproekt were working out plans for a tunnel system which would connect the left and right banks of Kyiv. City authorities welcomed the plan, which would ease the traffic congestion of Kyiv's bridges.
Emergency bridges
In case of war/terrorism emergency, the makeshift pontoon bridges are to be established in the city. A special Pontoon-Bridge Brigade of the Armed Forces is based on the Left Bank, ready to use its truck-based automatic bridges and docking boats. Such equipment allows automobile and limited railroad connection over the river, and is frequently used in military maneuvers.
See also
Bridge over Institute Street
Kyiv Glass Bridge
References
External links
Kyiv bridges in Wiki-Encyclopedia Kyiv
stereo.org.ua — Listen to how the Paton Bridge "breathes", a section of the article features audio recordings made under this famous bridge
Mostobud — Files of the bridges
1000years.uazone.net — Kyiv bridges
“Dnieper section of the "Battle Glory's Belt": Zhukiv Island". Kyiv research-publishing agency "Book of Memory of Ukraine". Kyiv, 2006. ()
Tunnels under Dnieper
Tunnel beneath Dnieper
Construction of NKPS No.1 - Stalin's metro
Stalin's tunnels beneath Dnieper: Myths and reality
Photo
I Ponti di Kiev (in Italiano)
Transportation buildings and structures in Kyiv
Kyiv
Kyiv |
4053018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metopes%20of%20the%20Parthenon | Metopes of the Parthenon | The metopes of the Parthenon are the surviving set of what were originally 92 square carved plaques of Pentelic marble originally located above the columns of the Parthenon peristyle on the Acropolis of Athens. If they were made by several artists, the master builder was certainly Phidias. They were carved between 447 or 446 BC. or at the latest 438 BC, with 442 BC as the probable date of completion. Most of them are very damaged. Typically, they represent two characters per metope either in action or repose.
The interpretations of these metopes are only conjectures, starting from mere silhouettes of figures, sometimes barely discernible, and comparing them to other contemporary representations (mainly vases). There is one theme per side of the building, representing a fight each time: Amazonomachy in the west, fall of Troy in the north, Gigantomachy in the east and fight of Centaurs and Lapiths in the south. The metopes have a purely warlike theme, like the decoration of the chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos housed in the Parthenon. It seems to be an evocation of the opposition between order and chaos, between the human and the animal (sometimes animal tendencies in the human), between civilization and barbarism. This general theme is considered to be a metaphor for the Median wars and thus the triumph of the city of Athens.
The majority of metopes were systematically destroyed by Christians at the time of the transformation of the Parthenon into a church towards the sixth or the seventh century AD. A powder magazine installed in the building by the Ottomans exploded during the siege of Athens by the Venetians in September 1687, continuing the destruction. The southern metopes are the best preserved. Fifteen of them are in the British Museum in London and one is in the Louvre. Those of the other sides, badly damaged, are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens, or still in place on the building. Discussions between UK and Greek officials about the future of the metopes in London are ongoing.
The Parthenon
In 480 BC, the Persians ransacked the Acropolis of Athens including the "pre-Parthenon" then under construction. After their victories at Salamis and Plataea the Athenians had sworn not to restore the destroyed temples, but to leave them as they are, in memory of the Persian "barbarism".
The power of Athens then grew gradually, mainly within the League of Delos which it controlled more and more hegemonically. Eventually, in 454 BC., the treasure of the league was transferred from Delos to Athens. A vast program of construction was then launched, financed by this treasure; among these, the Parthenon. This new building was not intended to become a temple, but a treasury to accommodate the colossal chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos.
The Parthenon was erected between 447 and 438 BC. The "pre-Parthenon" (little known) was hexastyle. Its successor, which was much larger, was octastyle (eight columns in front and seventeen on the sides of the peristyle) and measured 30.88 meters wide and 69.50 meters long. The sekos (closed part surrounded by the peristyle) in itself had a width of 19 meters. Thus, two large rooms would be created: one, to the east, to accommodate the statue of a dozen meters high; the other, to the west, to shelter the treasure of the league of Delos. The construction site was entrusted to Ictinos, Callicrates and Phidias The decor project was both traditional in its form (pediments and metopes) albeit unprecedented in scale. The pediments were bigger and more complex than what had been done before. The number of metopes (92), all carved, was unprecedented and never repeated. Finally, while the temple was of the Doric order, the decoration around the sekos (normally composed of metopes and triglyphs ) was replaced by a frieze of the ionic order.
General description
Overall structure
On Doric marble buildings, the metopes decorated the entablature above the architrave alternating with the triglyphs. These were a reminiscence of the wooden beams that supported the roof. The part between the triglyphs, at first a simple unadorned stone space, was quickly used to receive a carved decoration.
The Parthenon numbered ninety-two polychrome metopes: fourteen on each of the east and west façades, and thirty-two on each of the north and south sides. To designate them, scholars usually number them from left to right with Roman numerals. They were carved on practically square Pentelic marble slabs: 1.20 meters high for a variable width, but averaging 1.25 meters. Originally, the block of marble measured 35 centimeters thick: the sculptures were made in high relief, even in very high relief at the edge of the round-bump, standing out about 25 centimeters. The metopes were a dozen meters high and had an average of two characters each.
No ancient Greek building has ever been adorned with so many metopes, neither before nor after the construction of the Parthenon. On the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, which pre-dates the Parthenon, only those of the interior porch were carved; on the Temple of Hephaestus, contemporary with it, only those of the east façade, and the last four (towards the east) on the north and south sides, have been carved.
Themes and interpretations
There is no ancient description of metopes that could give a definitive interpretation. The first literary evocation of the carved decoration of the Parthenon was written by Pausanias in the second century AD; however, he only describes the pediments. Nevertheless, a comparison with the themes of contemporary Attic ceramics can suggest possible interpretations.
The general theme of the ninety-two metopes is purely warlike, as with the chryselephantine statue of Athena but in contrast to the pediments and the frieze. It seems to be an opposition between order and chaos, between the human and the animal (sometimes between the different animal tendencies in the human), between civilization and barbarism, even between the West and the East. The whole is often considered as a metaphor for the Persian war. An underlying theme could be that of marriage and the fact that the breakup of its harmony leads to chaos. From then on, as elsewhere on the Parthenon, there would be the celebration of the civic values whose marriage between citizens and daughters of citizens were its foundation.
The metopes on the east, north, and west sides have suffered chiefly from a systematic destruction by Christians around the sixth or the seventh century: it is therefore difficult to know exactly what they represented. To the east, the most religiously important side, the theme of the metopes would be the gigantomachy. Zeus and Hera (or Athena) would be represented on the central metopes, the fights being organized symmetrically around them. To the west, they represented Greeks fighting opponents in oriental costume. The most common interpretation is that it is amazonomachy; however, the metopes have suffered such damage that it is difficult to now know if the opponents of the Greeks are male or female. If it were men, then they could be Persians; however, there are few representations of Persians on horseback. During the siege of Athens by the Venetians of Francesco Morosini in 1687, the metopes on the north side were badly damaged by the explosion of the powder reserve housed in the Parthenon. However, identifications have been proposed: one of the metopes would represent Menelaus and his neighbour Helen; another one Aeneas and Anchises. The general theme of this side could therefore be the fall of Troy. Finally, the southern metopes were not damaged by Christian iconoclasm, but suffered from the explosion of 1687. The last remaining, located at each end of the Parthenon, represent the fight of the Centaurs and Lapiths, but the Central metopes, known only by drawings attributed to Jacques Carrey give rise to controversies of interpretation. Some archaeologists consider that it could be a purely Athenian fight between humans and centaurs.
Sculpture and painting
The metopes of the Parthenon were carved in several stages. The artist began by drawing the contours of his characters; he then removed the marble outside the drawing, to the "bottom" of the metope; he went on detaching the figure from the bottom; he finished by refining the characters themselves. It is possible that several sculptors, each specialized in one of these stages, could have collaborated. The sculpture work had to be done on the ground, before the metopes were put in place, at the top of the walls. The sculptors, necessarily many, surely began to work from 447 or 446 BC to complete their work before 438 BC, when the work for the roof began; 442 BC or shortly thereafter is a likely completion date. Moreover, if the carved decoration had to be finished, it was not the same for painting or metal ornaments that could be added later. Some artists might have worked on several metopes. Thus, for the metope east VI, Poseidon is in the same position as the Lapith on the southern metope II, while the falling giant is very close to the Lapith on the southern metope VIII, which could mean that they are from the same hand; unless this is only inspiration and imitation.
No sculptor's name has been preserved. However, since there are great differences in quality and style between the metopes, it is very likely that they were made by several hands. Some of them appear "old", seeming due to older or more conservative artists; but they could also have been done first. Those whose quality is not at the level of others also suggest that in view of the size of the site, it was necessary to employ all the sculptors available. The last hypothesis synthesizes all the others: at the beginning of the construction, many artists were hired; but as the work progressed, the incompetents were gradually discarded, not without having already produced the first metopes, of lower quality. Several southern metopes are of such quality that it has been concluded that they must have been carved among the last; in some cases, names of sculptors like Myron, Alcamenes or Phidias himself have been mentioned. Robert Spenser Stanier proposed in 1953 an estimate of a total cost of 10 talents for the realization of metopes.
The metopes of the Parthenon were, like the rest of the scenery, polychrome. The background was certainly red, in contrast with triglyphs in medium or dark blue. The cornice above the metope also had to be coloured. The characters were painted, with eyes, hair, lips, jewels and draperies raised. The skins of the male figures were to be darker than those of the female characters. Some metopes included landscape features, perhaps painted as well. The decor was finished with the addition of elements (weapons, wheels or harness) in bronze or gilded bronze, as evidenced by the many fixing holes: there are more than 120 on the south metopes, the best-preserved ones. These decorative elements could also be used to identify the characters more quickly. There are very strong links between the subjects of the metopes and the chryselephantine statue of Athena preserved in the Parthenon. This could mean that Phidias was the site's prime contractor.
History and conservation
The Parthenon was ravaged by a fire on an ill-determined date during late antiquity, causing serious damage including the destruction of the roof. The intense heat cracked many marble elements, including entablatures and consequently metopes. An extensive restoration was carried out: the roof was redone but covered only the interior; the metopes were therefore more exposed (front and rear faces) to the weather. Until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, the Parthenon retained its "pagan" religious role. It seems to have known then a more or less long period of abandonment. Somewhere between the sixth century and the seventh century, the building was turned into a church.
Until then, the ninety-two metopes had remained almost intact. Those on the east, west and north sides were then systematically damaged by the Christians, who wanted to erase the ancient gods. Only one northern metope, with two female figures, has survived, perhaps because interpreted as an Annunciation (the seated figure on the right interpreted as the Virgin Mary and the figure standing on the left as the Archangel Gabriel). The southern metopes have escaped, perhaps because this side of the Parthenon was too close to the edge of the Acropolis; perhaps because Physiologus includes the centaurs in his symbolic bestiary. The building, however, suffered no damage during the conversion of the Parthenon-church to a mosque in the fifteenth century, nor during the two centuries that followed. In 1674, an artist in the service of the Marquis de Nointel (French ambassador to the Porte), perhaps Jacques Carrey, drew a large part of the metopes which remained, unfortunately only on the south side. Much of the metopes were destroyed during the siege of Athens by the Venetians commanded by Francesco Morosini on 26 September 1687 during the explosion of the Parthenon powder reserve. After the departure of the Venetians in 1688, and the return of the Ottomans, the building again housed a mosque. The pieces of marble scattered around the ruins, including fragments of metopes, were reduced to lime or reused as building material, in the wall of the Acropolis, for example. In the eighteenth century, Western travellers, more and more numerous, seized pieces of sculpture as souvenirs.
Conservation
See also Elgin Marbles
Fifteen of the South Metopes are in the British Museum as a result of the work of Lord Elgin's agents. The metope south VI arrived there by another way. It had fallen in a storm and had broken in three; members probably disappeared at the same time. In 1788, it was "stolen" by Louis-François-Sébastien Fauvel with the complicity of a Turk: it was dropped from the top of the walls of the Acropolis on to a pile of manure below. However, it was not shipped until 1803 when it was dispatched aboard the corvette L'Arabe. This ship was boarded by the British when the war resumed after the rupture of the peace of Amiens The marbles it was carrying ended up in London where they were acquired by Lord Elgin. This metope is now in the British Museum.
After their purchase by the British Museum in 1817, the marbles were displayed in a temporary room, until the wing designed by Robert Smirke called "Elgin Room" was completed in 1832. In the 1930s, Joseph Duveen offered a new wing named the "Duveen Gallery", designed by John Russell Pope Completed in 1938, the marbles could not be placed there until after the Second World War. During the conflict, the metopes were sheltered in the tunnels of the London Underground which proved relevant since the Duveen Gallery was completely destroyed by bombing. They left their underground shelter in 1948–1949 to be relocated to the "Elgin Room", along with the rest of the marbles. They found their present location in 1962, at the end of the reconstruction of the new wing.
The southern metope X was bought at the beginning of the year 1788 from the Ottoman authorities. The acquisition was made by Louis-François-Sébastien Fauvel on behalf of his employer, the French ambassador to Constantinople, the Comte de Choiseul-Gouffier. It was the French vice-consul in Athens, Gaspari, who took charge of the negotiations. The metope was despatched in March 1788 and arrived in France the following month. However, in the summer of 1793, Choiseul-Gouffier had emigrated to Russia. He was struck by the decree of 10 October 1792 confiscating the property of the emigrants. The metope is therefore in the Louvre Museum.
Those that remained in situ throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries suffered the onslaught of weather and especially pollution. The metopes were removed from the building in 1988–1989 and deposited at the Acropolis Museum of Athens, along with southern XII. They have been replaced by cement mouldings on the Parthenon. South I, XXIV, XXV and XXVII to north XXXII and the fourteen metopes of the west façade are still in place, sometimes in very bad condition (West VI and VII have lost all their decor), sometimes intact (South I and North XXXII). Many fragments are in various European museums: Rome, Munich, Copenhagen (National Museum of Denmark), Wurzburg (Martin von Wagner Museum), Paris, etc. Other pieces that had been used to strengthen the southern fortification of the Acropolis in the eighteenth century have been removed since the 1980s and 1990s. These could be just as well fragments of southern metopes as north ones.
Skulpturhalle Basel offers the castings of all known metopes.
Western metopes
The fourteen metopes of the west façade are still all in place on the building. However, they have suffered much damage, mainly destruction by Christians, such that it is difficult to determine what they represent. Thus, West VI and VII are so damaged that it is not even possible to discern anything. The painter William Pars appointed by the Society of Dilettanti to accompany Richard Chandler and Nicholas Revett during the second archaeological expedition financed by the Society, drew around 1765–1766 the western metopes I, III, IV, V, VIII to XI and XIV. His drawings show that they were in the second half of the century in a state of disrepair very close to the one we currently know.
These metopes were the ones that visitors to the Acropolis saw first: the choice of their theme was therefore essential. The most common interpretation is that it was the Amazonomachy, most probably the Athenian episode of these battles between the Greeks and the warrior women. It concerned Theseus and the Amazon Queen Antiope (sometimes called Hippolyte who, according to various accounts, would have been abducted or would have followed the Athenian hero voluntarily. The Amazons would have crossed the Bosphorus and invaded Attica to recover their sovereign. The Athenian army, led by Theseus, would have succeeded in repelling the eastern invader.
However, the subject remains controversial, largely because of the poor condition of the sculpture. Another hypothesis is that it could be a fight against the Persians. The argument has centered on the clothes of the opponents of the Greeks. Amazons are usually represented wearing a short chiton with open shoulders. But here, some wear a chlamys a hat, boots and a shield. On the other hand, these opponents of the Greeks do not wear either the trousers characteristic of the representations of the Persians. The Greeks, meanwhile, are naked (two have a chlamys, mostly fallen), with sword and shield 80,26. Whatever the hypothesis adopted, for the Athenian citizen or the foreign visitor, the obvious interpretation of this western setting was the failure of the invasion of Attica by the Persian army during the Persian war.
Two frescoes representing the Amazonomachy already existed in Athens at the time: one in the heroon of Theseus (not yet found) and the other in the Stoa Poikile attributed to Micon who included in his work Amazons on horseback. These frescoes served as an inspiration to artists for the metopes of the Parthenon, but also for the shield of the chryselephantine statue.
Each metope represents a duel between a Greek and an Amazon, around Theseus, the central figure. The Amazons were represented alternately on horseback (metopes west I, III, V, VII (?), IX, XI, XIII) victorious, and on foot (metopes west II, IV, VI (?), VIII, X, XII, XIV) vanquished. There are however three exceptions to this alternation. The western metope I only has an Amazon on horseback; on the western metope II, it seems that it is the walking Amazon who is victorious and not the Greek; on the western metope VIII, the Amazon is on horseback, but she seems to be defeated.
The Amazon in western metope I is on horseback, without an adversary. This could represent the arrival of reinforcements or the rearguard. She may have had a spear, in which case her potential victim has disappeared. Margarete Bieber speculates that it could be Hippolyte herself coming to fight with the Greeks. And symmetrically, according to the American archaeologist, Theseus would find himself in West XIV. From the west metope II remains only the very damaged hips and torso of the Greek warrior on the left. He is identifiable with his round shield on his left arm. His opponent had to be dressed in a short chiton. There is a left leg and upper body left. It is possible to consider that she must have had a sword over her head, preparing to strike the Greek. The composition of the western metopes III, V, IX and XIII is similar, West V being a little more damaged, West XIII being the best preserved. An Amazon turned to the right is on horseback. Her mount tramples the naked Greek lying on the ground. The gesture she makes could be that of thrusting her spear into the body of her victim. She wears a short chiton whose hem is still discernible on West III. The defeated Greek is leaning on the left arm in west III, V and IX, and on the right arm in the west XIII. West XIII metope recalls the back of a volute krater, attributed to the Painter of the Woolly Satyrs and preserved in New York. The fallen Athenian is also found on a statue base of the fourth century BC. In both these two cases, vase and base of statue, the Athenian holds a shield: it could thus have one also on the metope west XIII, in marble or in bronze.
The Greek on the left on the western metope IV would have grabbed the Amazon by the hair before giving her the fatal blow, in a gesture reminiscent of that of Harmodios in the group of the Tyrannicides. Only the right leg of the Greek remains, while the other leg and his left arm can be guessed at on the bottom of the metope. There remains the hips and the bust of the Amazon, bent to the right. West metopes VI and VII are completely destroyed. At most, a ponytail can be guessed on West VII. The western metope VIII is hardly more legible; what remains has been reconstructed by Praschniker, for instance an Amazon on the left of a prancing horse; she would wear a short chiton and a floating cloak behind her. She would try to pierce with a spear her opponent. On the right, the Greek advances towards her. In the left arm, he holds a round shield that allows him to protect himself from the attack of the Amazon. Above his head, in the right hand, he holds a weapon (spear?) with which he is about to strike his enemy. This metope is almost central and does not correspond to the alternation Amazon on horse / Amazon on foot, it has been proposed to read this as the duel between Theseus and the (new) queen of the Amazons.
The western metope X is badly damaged. A silhouette can be seen on the left; she has her right knee on the ground. She seems to lift her shield, held on her left arm, to protect herself. The shape of this shield seems to be that of a pelta. It would be an Amazon on foot, defeated by a Greek. This one has totally disappeared. The horse of the Amazon on the metope west XI goes in the opposite direction (from the right to the left) of that of the equivalent metopes (west III, V, IX and XIII). He leaps over the body of the dead Greek warrior (whereas on West III, V, IX and XIII, the Athenian is going to be completed). The coat of the rider flies behind her. On the western metope XII, the Greek is identified with the trace of his round shield, to the left of the metope. There remains only one silhouette. The Amazon on the right has totally disappeared; it is only possible to guess that she is on foot.
On the western metope XIV, the fight between an Athenian on the left and an Amazon on the right seems to have come to an end. From the Greek, of which remains the hips and torso, the trace of a round shield and behind his head a fragment of marble that suggests that he could have worn a Corinthian helmet (even if he is naked elsewhere). He is sometimes identified with Theseus. The Amazon fell to her knees, perhaps held on the shoulder by her opponent. She tries to escape a fatal blow. She has her right hand resting on the belly of her enemy (gesture of supplication?); his left-hand grasps the left elbow of the Greek. The front of his short chiton was perfectly preserved in the lower right corner of the metope. A fragment above her shoulder suggests that she could wear a Phrygian helmet or cap. This metope could mean the end of the whole fight and the Athenian victory.
North metopes
Thirteen of the thirty-two north metopes survived the explosion of 1687, but had already been severely damaged by the destruction of Christians. The nineteen others have disappeared, but the found fragments allow us to make assumptions about their scenery. Six are still in place on the building. Because of their state of preservation, it has long been difficult to determine their theme. Adolf Michaelis, in the second half of the nineteenth century suggested that the warrior on the right side of North XXIV could be Menelaus chasing Helen depicted on North XXV. On the latter, besides Helen on the right, he identified as Aphrodite the figure on the left, the two female figures being framed by a little Eros in flight on the left and a statue of Athena on the right. He based his interpretation on two texts of the seventh century BC. The Sack of Troy of Arctinos of Miletus and the Little Iliad of Lesches of Pyrrha. This hypothesis of Michaelis has suggested that the theme of metopes on the north side could be the capture of Troy, even if this theme is not taken up on the statue of Athena Parthenos. However, the fall of Troy could constitute a logical continuation to the Amazonomachy on the western metopes. The visitor to the Acropolis walks along the Parthenon on the north side, on the most obvious and easiest way (that of the Panathenae elsewhere). The two battles would then be symbolically linked, with the mythological reminder that the Amazons had chosen the Trojan camp. Moreover, the choice to situate this nocturnal episode on the north façade was to play on the light of day that touched these metopes that rarely depending on the seasons. There would then be symbolic obscurity.
The fall of Troy was the theme of two frescoes by Polygnotos which could have served as an inspiration to the sculptors of metopes: one was in Stoa Poikile and the other was in the Lesche of the Knidians at Delphi. In the latter, the number of characters mentioned by Pausanias, sixty-four, corresponds to what could be found on thirty-two metopes with two figures by metope.
Very few descriptions and identifications are certain. If all the experts seem to accept the identifications of Menelaus (north of XXIV), Helen (north of XXV) and Selene (north of XXIX), then opinions diverge for the other metopes and the whole remains the object of intense debate. The first point of contention is the ship on North II. Although everyone agrees that this is a ship, one question remains unresolved: Is it launching from the shore or mooring? In fact, everything depends on the "sense of reading" of these metopes. If they are read from left to right, from east to west (from north to north, XXXII), then they tell of the arrival of the Greeks and the taking of Troy. If they are read in the sense that visitors to the Acropolis read them along the Parthenon from the Propylaea from west to east (from North XXXII to North I), then they tell of the fall of Troy and the departure of the Greeks.
In the same way, the interpretations do not agree either on the episode narrated in the hypothesis where north II would represent the arrival of the Greeks at Troy. The metopes north I, II, III and A may represent the arrival of the Greeks at night, or the arrival of Philoctetes, or the arrival of the Myrmidons (according to the Iliad, 19, 349-424 ). The North metopes XXX to XXXII could tell of the last meeting of the gods about the fall of Troy on Mount Ida or to designate the gods as spectators of the capture of Troy, or the meeting between Zeus and Thetis on Olympus or even the birth of Pandora (in the account given by Hesiod, in his Theogony, 570-584 and The Works and Days, 54-82).
The Metope North I represents on the left a very damaged human figure: there remains a bottom of a peplos; the feet are missing and the torso is very damaged. A chariot can be seen at the knees. On the right, a horse's body without a head is clearly visible. His two left legs are still present at the bottom of the metope. It answers the metope east XIV on which is another chariot and at the end of the east pediment with the chariot of Selene. On the other hand, the deity aboard the chariot on north I is variously identified. Proponents of a story of the arrival of the Achaeans in Troy see it most often Nyx but also Eos, sometimes Selena or Athena. Proponents of a departure from the Greeks all see Helios, with the shade Hemera.
On the metope north II, do not see more than the traces of the feet of two characters and a fragment of marble suggesting their torsos. A bow and a rudder can be guessed diagonally between the two figures. Interpretations then vary: the arrival of the Greeks in Troy return of the Achaeans after their false start and their concealment behind Tenedos arrival of Myrmidons departure of the Greeks.
The North Metope III is about in the same state. We can guess at two figures: traces of the bust and an arm for the character in chiton in profile on the left; bust and round shield for the character of face to the right and nude. If all agree that these are soldiers, the identifications vary: Philoctetes and a hoplite; Philoctetes and Neoptolemus; Philoctetes without identification of the second figure; Achilles or Neoptolemus without identification of the second figure; taking up arms; Ulysses and Diomedes if we consider that the Metopes North III and IV are the story of the incursion of Dolon in the Achaean camp; disarming the Greeks before re-embarking.
Of the following metopes, only fragments of more or less importance remain, the largest ones being designated by letters denoting a "quasi" -metope. Thus, the metope designated by the letter "A" (potentially north V) represents a rearing horse in the background with a human figure whose only torso and upper thighs remain in the foreground. It has therefore sometimes been confused with a southern metope belonging to the cycle of the Centauromachy. Ernst Berger, in his synthesis of the metopes of the Parthenon 78 following the great symposium of 1984 summarizes for all these metopes the different hypotheses proposed from the multiple interpretations of the fragments. The episode of the Trojan horse certainly could not be represented, for lack of space on a metope. For Metopes North IV to North VIII: the Laocoön and the Palladium Flight or a scene of sacrifice and advice of the Greeks before their departure. For north IX to north XII: around the Achilles' tomb with North IX of the Troyes or Elsewhere; in North X Polyxene and Acamas or Talthybios north XI Briseis and Agamemnon or Phoenix in the north XII Philoctetes and a Trojan hero killed by him (named Admetus or Diopeithes according to the versions of the story). Metopes North XIII to North XVI would unfold around the statue of Athena with North XIII Corèbe and Diomede; in North XIV sacrilege of Ajax (Cassandra and Ajax); in North XV of Troyennes and North XVI Hecuba. Those of North XVII to North XX would unfold around the altar of Zeus with in North XVII the death of Priam in north XVIII Astyanax and Neoptolemus in north XIX Andromache and Polites; in north XX Agenor and Lycomede or Elephenor. The following metopes would have for general theme the goddess Aphrodite with in northern XXI DEiphobe and Teucros; in the north XXII Clymene (one of Helena's maids) and Menestheus or Acamas; in North XXIII (or metope designated by the letter "D") liberation of Ethra, with Éthra and Demophon and the "reunion" between Meneleas and Helen in North XXIV and XXV114.
The north metope XXIII is most often identified with the metope designated by the letter "D". Two figures face each other. On the left, the bust (damaged), the hips and the upper thighs of a man are visible. He is naked, with a carved cloak on the bottom of the metope. He may have held a spear in his right hand. His left arm is stretched out to the right arm of the female figure on the right, who wears a peplos and has often been identified with Ethra, the mother of Theseus slave of Helen and released by Demophon son of Theseus (or his brother Acamas son of Theseus). It is also the means to insist in the setting of the Parthenon on a purely Athenian episode of the Trojan War. Another identification proposes Polyxene and Acamas or Polyxene and anonymous Greek.
Metopes North XXIV and XXV form an ensemble. On Metope North XXIV, two male profile figures walk to the right. There remains only the trunk and the upper thigh of the left warrior, naked with a cloak. Of the one on the right, also naked, there remain only the trunk and the left forearm with a shield. Menelaus (the identification accepted by all since Michaelis) advances towards the next metope from which it is separated by the triglyph. The transition marked by this purely architectural element is also a sign of the passage from outside to inside. The female figure to the left of North XXV was identified with Aphrodite by the Eros over her left shoulder. She wears a chiton and a himation. The following female figure is in peplos. She is veiled. She seems to run to the statue on the right to take refuge under her protection. Indeed, Menelaus pursued his wife to kill her, considering her responsible for the war and the death of his friends. This incident represented is the moment when Aphrodite will use his power to save his protege. She is about to open her himation to reveal her charms and her divine power. In parallel, Eros flies to Menelaus with either a phiale or a crown. The combined power of love and beauty will change the mind of Menelaus who will put down his sword and forgive his wife. This theme is very present in ceramics. The identification of the divinity completely to the right beside the statue from which Helene comes to take refuge is more difficult. An oinochoe preserved in the Vatican Museum (Etruscan Gregorian Museum) and attributed to the Painter of Heimarmene proposes an equivalent scene. On this one, Helene seeks the protection of an Athena in arms. The choice of this tutelary deity of Athens could make sense on this civic building. In addition, Athens was one of the cities claiming to have inherited the Palladium after the fall of Troy.
Metope North XXVI is totally unknown. On the north XXVII, there are two profile figures: a female, without a head, probably in peplos on the left and a male, naked with a chlamys, of which there remains only the bust, on the right. The characters walk and look to the right. The man may have carried a petasus, perhaps a shield. He may also have held the woman by the hand. The theme of this metope may remain related to Aphrodite, like the previous ones. Some interpretations propose here the issue of Ethra by her grandchildren, or a scene with Polyxena or a Trojan captive. It could also be the priestess of Athena, Theano. The fresco of Polygnotus in the Lesche of the Knidians represented her holding two of her sons by the hand, accompanied by Antenor holding one of her daughters. It could be here this family, before the Anchises family on the next metope. If this north metope XXVIII (towards which the characters walk) was the flight of Aeneas, then the female figure of north XXVII could also be Creusa.
Metope North XXVIII is one of the most "charged", with no less than four characters. To the far left, in the foreground, is a motionless figure from the front, probably a woman: only her (missing) feet protruded from her long mantle. It is impossible to determine the gesture of his arms. At his immediate right and a little behind, another figure, considered an old man, is in profile turned to the male figure on his right. He wears a short-sleeved garment and a coat that leaves his right shoulder unobstructed. His two hands are resting on the shoulders of the next figure on the right. This is a naked man in a coat that goes down his back and between the legs. In the left arm, he carries a large round shield that protrudes above his head. The man walks to the right. In front of him, a last figure, probably male, smaller, in a coat. The most common interpretation for the three male figures is Anchises on the shoulders of his son Aeneas, himself preceded by his own son Ascagne. The female figure is therefore most often considered as Aphrodite (general theme of this series of metopes, but also mother of Aeneas). Sometimes she is identified as Cretace, the wife of Aeneas.
A rider can be discerned on the Metope North XXIX, also marked by a decoration of rocks. The horse, perhaps a mare, is turned to the right, head down. The rider, rather a rider, seems to ride "amazon"?, the left arm resting on the neck of the mare. The rider is facing to the right. She has to wear a chiton. His right hand was to hold his veil. In the upper right corner is a slightly curved relief fragment, interpreted as a crescent moon. The rider would then be Selene. However, as it is not represented on horseback, it could also be the Pleiade Electre.
There is almost nothing left of the metope north XXX, except on the bottom two traces of busts, perhaps two male figures. If we consider their location, between a celestial deity in North XXIX and Zeus and Hera in North XXXI and XXXII, then it could be gods, perhaps Apollo and Ares or Hermes; the three were, in effect, absent until then metopes north. Metope North XXXI is better preserved. The figure on the left is a man in a nude profile in a long coat?, sitting on a rock, an elbow resting on a thigh. The figure on the right is more in the foreground, from the front. It is thin with very visible wings down to the ground. The two figures are identified, in connection with the next metope, to Zeus and Iris, sometimes Eris or Nike.
The only well preserved, and still in situ, metope on this north side is North XXXII. In 1933, Gerhart Rodenwaldt suggested that it could have been read by Christians as an Annunciation and thus preserved while its position in the northwest made it very visible. Two female figures face each other. One on the right is seated and the other on the left is walking towards her. The female figure on the left wears an "Attic" peplos and makes the gesture of removing her cloak, with the left arm above the head and right along the thigh: the movement of the garment is very well made. It is found on a depiction of Apollo on a white-tailed skyphos preserved at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The seated figure is in chiton, covered with a long mantle, which allows a work of sculpture on the drapes bunk. The right elbow is supported on the right knee; the legs are shifted: the left lower than the right. The left hand (disappeared, like the whole arm) was leaning behind, on the rock, placing the figure of three-quarters. It is possible that the left arm was added after carving, as suggested by the fixation hole.
The most common interpretation for this Metope North XXXII is that to the left is Athena and to the right of Hera or sometimes Themis, Aphrodite, Cybele, or even another unidentified female deity. Kristian Jeppesen in 1963 suggests that it could be Pandora on the left and Aphrodite on the right. Katherine A. Schwab disputes in an article of 2005 the identification of Athena on the left. One of the main arguments in favour of Athena is that she is not or perhaps not identified elsewhere on this side unless, according to K. Schwab, she is on the metope North I, aboard the chariot. Indeed, this one seems to be braking, it can not be the chariot of one of the two stars. The second argument in favour of an identification of Athena is that she would carry the aegis on the chest. The counter-argument of K. A. Schwab is that what is interpreted as the aegis would in fact be a very damaged place of the metope. Finally, for K. Schwab, in her movement, her peplos open and revealing her bare leg, something impossible for a virgin goddess like Athena. It could then be Hebe, from the moment she is put in relation with the seated female figure?. This one is considered as Aphrodite or Hera. However, as Aphrodite is prominently on north XXV, she can not be as far north as XXXII. Moreover, on north XXXI, the male figure sitting would be Zeus. Therefore, in North XXXII, could be Hera, in a symbolic hierogamy. The winged figure next to Zeus in northern XXXI would be Iris, so the female figure walking north XXXII would be Hebe. The latter being linked to marriage and renewal, these two North Metopes XXXI and XXXII could mean the renewal of their vows by the divine couple Zeus-Hera, just as the marriage Menelaus-Helen is renewed in the North XXIV and XXV.
East metopes
Since these metopes have been almost completely destroyed by Christians, it is difficult to know what they represented. However, in the nineteenth century, Adolf Michaelis suggested that the character on east II could be a Dionysus (identified thanks to the panther and snake that accompany him) attacking a giant on the run. Michaelis then made the hypothesis that the metopes on this façade could represent Gigantomachy. Therefore, the identification of other figures was possible, even if some are still debated. The work was done by comparison with other representations of gigantomachy: Athenian vases of the fifth century BC., the Siphnian Treasury or the Pergamon Altar However, these metopes were a turning point in the representation of the giants. Until the middle of the fifth century BC, they were represented as hoplites. Here, and in later representations, as in Pergamum, they are naked or simply dressed in animal skins.
The figures of the metopes east V, VII, X and XIV are not opposed to a giant, but stand in a chariot. For this reason, they are sometimes identified not with a deity but with the charioteer of the chariot of divinity. The vehicle is turned towards the center of the façade. The east metopes are organized symmetrically around a central axis, the same as for the eastern frieze and the as with the east pediment; moreover, the identifications are sometimes made by comparison with the divinities present in parallel on these two other decorative elements of the Parthenon. The four central metopes (east VI, VII, VIII and IX) are framed by two metopes with a chariot (east V and X) then the two metopes with three characters (east IV and XI). This composition would evoke the end of the fight and the imminent victory of the Olympians; the place of the confrontation would no longer be the plain of Phlegra but already the slopes of Olympus.
Two male figures are on the metope east I. The one on the left carries a chlamys; with her right hand, she seems to hold the right figure with her knees on the ground. With her left hand, she is about to strike a fatal blow. His sword was, given the fixing hole, to be a bronze object. The figure on the right bears a skin of animal and has the right hand resting on the hip of his adversary, perhaps to ask for grace. Thus Hermes is represented on the amphora of the Gigantomachy by the Suessula Painter conserved in the Louvre. Moreover, on the frieze of the Parthenon, on the east side, it is Hermes which is also completely on the left. On the metope east II, the divine figure of Dionysus is quite easily identifiable. In the foreground, an animal leaps between the figure on the left that is attacking and the one on the right that is leaking. The hind legs of the animal are feline legs. Fixing holes could also mean the presence of a bronze snake. Moreover, on the Parthenon frieze, on the east side, Dionysus is immediately to the right of Hermes. Finally, it is also on the left side of the eastern pediment. On the metope east III, very damaged, is guessed a round shield, between two figures of which there are only a few traces. The shield deity is most often identified with Ares: it is the third male deity on the east side of the frieze and is present on the left side of the eastern pediment.
The general shape of the characters on east IV is still discernible. It has three figures. On the left, a fallen figure protects himself with his shield from the attack of a female figure. Behind it, to the far right is a smaller figure in flight. It seems that Athena is the central figure; she would walk to the left, her left arm protected from her shield with the aegis. In the right hand, she would hold a spear (added bronze object) which she would hit a giant, already on the ground and protecting himself with his own shield. At the top right, there is the little figure of Nike crowning the goddess. An equivalent composition is visible on the amphora attributed to the painter of Suessula preserved in the Louvre. The Athena crowned by Nike is the sign of the upcoming victory of the gods, but also a tribute and a glorification of the city of Athens and its citizens, as on the entire building.
On the metope east V can be seen a chariot, turned to the right and pulled by two horses. The two main interpretations are Demeter or Amphitrite. It is the latter that is most often suggested since it is considered that Poseidon appears on the next metope 144. The essential element of the metope east VI is a huge rock, both landscape element and weapon used by Poseidon against a giant: it would be the episode taking place between the god and Polybotes, in which the rock ripped off. on the island of Cos would have given birth to the new island of Nisyros?. The outlines of the characters are barely discernible. The giant would protect himself from his shield while Poseidon would crush his head with Nisyros. The composition is reminiscent of a crater fragment preserved in Ferrara. and attributed to the Pélée painter who was inspired by the metope, as well as an attic bas-relief from the fourth century BC now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The metope east VII again represents a chariot, pulled by two winged horses. The most common interpretation is Hera, since Zeus is identified on the next metope. Moreover, the divine couple is represented together in the centre of the frieze as well as the pediment. The metope is VIII is extremely damaged: a bust is guessed on the left and a shield is discerned in the upper right quarter. The bottom of a chiton is engraved on the bottom of the metope under the bust. The identification of Zeus is justified by the central place of the metope on the east façade. At the same time, the god is also in the centre of the frieze and pediment. On the metope east IX, the figure on the left is probably a giant, holding in his right hand a club or a bronze torch (added given the hole of fixation). His right arm is protected from an animal skin. His opponent enters his right knee in the thigh(?). The position of the god's right arm, which would hold a sword, is not unlike that of Harmodios in the group of Tyrannicides. The identification of Apollo is again related to the frieze and pediment where the god is on the right side. The metope east X again shows a chariot pulled by two horses. On the frieze, the neighbours of Apollo are Artemis and Aphrodite, the two main propositions for the charioteer of this chariot. If one is identified as X, then the other is suggested for east XII, and vice versa. On the metope east XII, a female figure on the left walks to the right. She wears a peplos and her coat hangs from her left arm. There is too little of the giant (bust and head fragment) to determine anything. Here again, Artemis and Aphrodite are proposed, without being able to decide, especially since Eros is identified on the metope east XI, between the two. Finally, these two goddesses are sitting next to Apollo on the frieze. If Artemis is immediately on the right of his brother, Eros is also on the right of his mother, thus depriving us of a decisive rubric.
The other metope with three characters is located in XI. On the right, a giant fell to his knees. The central figure was so high in relief that it disappeared. The identification of this central character is still debated. On the left is a smaller figure (a youth?). The fixing holes on his shoulder and hip are reminiscent of the presence of a quiver, which would identify him as Eros. His presence is linked to that of Aphrodite (on the previous metope or the next). Tiverios then makes the link Eros-Aphrodite to propose Ares as identification of the central figure. Another identification proposed is Apollo, in connection with IX: if Heracles is present in IX, then Apollo is on XI, and vice versa. Indeed, Heracles is also suggested: he is regularly associated with Eros which he was the "pedagogue". Another argument is the symmetry between this metope and the metope is IV. If Athena is present in is IV, then her protege Heracles is certainly in is XI. There remains almost nothing of the metope is XIII: on the left a shoulder, a bust and the hips of a figure visibly fallen to the ground; on the right one shoulder, the bust and the traces of one thigh and one leg of a figure dominating the other, probably preparing to crush it with a rock. It is most often Héphaïstos that is proposed.
Two horses leap diagonally from right to left on the metope east XIV. In the bottom right corner, next to a calf, a fish is very clearly visible, hence the suggestion that sometimes the god of the chariot would be Poseidon. However, Helios is a more common proposition. According to the account of Pseudo-Apollodorus, Zeus stopped the march of the Sun and the Moon to allow Athena to go to Heracles to Hades, the presence of the hero being necessary for the victory. This episode would be according to Katherine A. Schwab in east IV and east XI, the only metopes with three characters and not two. East XIV, with the chariot of Helios coming out of the ocean, would be the expression of the resumption of the march of time. Moreover, it responds to the metope north I, on which is represented a chariot, perhaps that of Athena, and at the end of the eastern pediment with the chariot of Selene.
South metopes
On this side of the Parthenon, the preserved metopes represent the fight of the Centaurs and Lapiths probably at the time of the marriage of the king of Thessaly Pirithoos with Hippodamia. Centaurs and Lapiths are cousins (Lapiths and Centaurs were half-brothers, sons of Apollo), hence the invitation of the Centaurs who descended from Pelion for the occasion. The effects of alcohol being felt, the Centaurs attacked the women and young men present. The Lapiths came to their aid, seizing all that was within their reach could serve as weapons, and the fight took such proportions that it continued outside. It is the fact that women are present in this centauromachy (as also on the west pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia) that identifies this specific episode, although it seems that some guests came with their shield, even throw them at the wedding. The presence of this theme on an Athenian building celebrating the city is however not surprising: Theseus was the best friend of Pirithoos and was present at the ceremony and during the fight. According to Pausanias, a fresco by Mikon, in the hero of Theseus (not yet found), dating back to around 470 BC., already evoked this episode. This fresco greatly influenced the painters on vases, and certainly the sculptors of the metopes of the Parthenon. Unlike the other sides, the Centaurs are not barbarians: they are from the Greek world. In addition, the sculptors of metopes have renewed the way of representing them. They made sure to remove the strangeness of the double nature, as it had been the case until then. The animal and human parts are not autonomous, but are well connected and functional. This is therefore a fight between Greeks; between humans and centaurs who are also closer to the human than the monster. The metopes could be a metaphor for the conflicts that then pitted the Greeks against each other. This theme of the centauromachy can be read at another level for Athenian citizens. The behavior of the centaurs who do not respect the sanctity of the wedding ceremony could echo the sacrilege of the Persians when they destroyed the shrines of the Acropolis.
These metopes are both the best preserved and the most fully destroyed. The best preserved are those ends that were taken to London by Lord Elgin, which preserved them completely, in comparison with those of the other sides remained on the building. However, the central metopes (South XIII to XXI) have also completely disappeared in the explosion of the powder magazine in 1687. Only the drawings attributed to Jacques Carrey, dating from 1674, remain. On these drawings there is no Centaur, which leads to a problem of interpretation of the general theme on this side. Fragments found during recent excavations on the Acropolis illuminated a little more.
The metope south I was one of the last to be still in place on the Parthenon, in the southwest corner, it was removed in 2013 and it is now in the Acropolis museum, it was replaced by a copy on site. A rearing Centaur, on the right, strangles with his left arm a Lapith in a mantle, on the left. He is about to deliver a fatal blow to his human adversary with an object held in his right hand, perhaps a tree trunk that would have been painted on the bottom of the metope. The right arm of Lapith has disappeared. However, a hole in Centaur's groin could give indications. The Lapithe would be piercing his opponent with a long metal object: lance or spit roasting. If it is a spear and we accept the hypothesis of the tree trunk, then this metope would be proof that the fight has moved outside. The next metope (south II) has a reverse setting. A Centaur, in the background, has the knees of the front legs on the ground while a Lapith, in the foreground, strangles her left arm while pushing her left knee in the back. On the southern metope III, a Lapith in a mantle, on the right, attacks a Centaur from behind. He jumps on his back and takes it to his throat. The belts and sheath of Lapithe were to be in bronze: the fixing holes are still visible.
On the southern metope IV, a Centaur, on the right, is about to trample on a Lapith fallen to the ground on the left. This one protects itself from a shield (the only armour element of the set of South metopes preserved). The Centaur takes the opportunity to try to knock him out with a hydria. This one is used to determine the chronology of the events told by the metopes south: one would still be in the room of the banquet. The South IV Metope is at the British Museum. The heads were removed in 1688 by a Dane in the service of Francesco Morosini and the Venetian army. They are kept at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen. The drawing of 1674 attributed to Jacques Carrey shows that the members
still existed then: the general composition is thus better known.
On the southern metope V remains only the Centaur, on the left, but the Lapith is known thanks to the drawing attributed to Carrey (the heads had already disappeared by then). The centaur is pitched up and has grabbed the Lapith by the upper body: he pulls his opponent violently backwards, trying to flee.
On the southern metope VI, an old man (apparent wrinkles, flaccid skin and drooping tail) Centaur, on the right is opposed to a young Lapith wearing a cloak. On the drawing attributed to Carrey, the Lapith gives a blow with the right fist to the Centaur. The composition is unimaginative. It seems that the sculptor has insisted more on the difference of age than on the action. The head of the Centaur, present on the drawing attributed to Carrey, has since disappeared. On the other hand, the head of Lapitha, in place in 1674, was found in 1913 near the Varvakeio therefore at the foot of the Acropolis. She is now at the Acropolis Museum of Athens, while the Metope is at the British Museum.
On the metope south VII, with the left hand, a Lapith, sometimes identified with Pirithoos, on the left, diagonally assault, a punch in the face of a Centaur who rears himself under the effect of the blow and is pushed on the right edge of the metope; his head even protruded from the upper edge. In the right hand, the Lapith had to hold a sword (metal object disappeared since). The Centaur does not wear a skin like the others, but a kind of fluid tissue that flies behind his back. The metope is at the British Museum. The heads are kept separately: that of Lapith is in the Louvre; that of the Centaur at the Acropolis Museum.
The metope south VIII was badly damaged during the Parthenon explosion in 1687. On the left, a curled Lapith seeks to protect himself from the attack of the Centaur; he might even beg for mercy. The right arm of Lapith has completely disappeared and his gesture is unknown. He remains the Lapith's cloak, descending from his left shoulder to his thigh and the bottom of the beast's skin (perhaps of panther) which the Centaur wore on his right arm. The drawing attributed to Carrey shows that the Centaur had both arms raised; he might be wielding a tree trunk. The abdominal muscles of Lapith are very well marked, but the style remains very fixed, not unlike the severe style of the early fifth century BC. As a result, the sculptor who made this metope might have been older or more conservative, or both, than his colleagues.
The southern metope IX is preserved in the British Museum, but the heads of Lapith and Centaurs, which Carrey's drawing still shows, are preserved in the Acropolis Museum, as well as fragments of the shoulder and arms. The Centaur, on the right, with his left hand caught Lapithe's thigh, which he thus unbalanced. He's about to knock him out with something he's holding over his head. The Lapithe falls on a hydria or a dinos. He tries to recover by grabbing his opponent's hair with his left hand and placing the right (as Carrey's drawing shows) on the ground.
The metope South X, considered as little successful, represents the cause of the fight: a woman carried away by a Centaur. This one is bald if one believes the drawing attributed to Carrey. He squeezes Lapithe between the thighs of his front legs; the right leg lifting the woman's peplos. He also uses the left arm to grip it. In his right hand, he also holds the Lapith's right wrist (this movement is gone). She tries to flee, without success. In her desperate gesture, she discovers her left thigh and shoulder as well as her chest. The woman is sometimes identified with Hippodamia or her "maid of honor". From the South XI metope remain only fragments and the drawing attributed to Carrey. On the latter, a Centaur to the left is pitched up and getting ready to hit a Lapith. This one, naked, wears only a cloak. In the right arm, he has a big round shield. He is sometimes identified with Theseus.
The southern metope XII is also one of five where a Centaur attacks a Lapith. The woman, on the left, tries to free herself from the grip of the Centaur, but her feet already touch the ground only toes. She is sometimes identified with Hippodamia, kidnapped by Eurytion. Indeed, the composition of the metope is inversely symmetrical with respect to the South X metope. The three southern metopes X, XI and XII are then sometimes read together: Centaur and Bridesmaid; Centaur and Theseus; Hippodamia and Eurytion.
The following metopes, from south XIII to south XXV, are known only from the drawings attributed to Carrey. Some fragments have been found allowing reconstitution. On March 24, 2023, a head of a bearded man from south XVI was repatriated from the Vatican Museums. As these metopes do not represent only Lapithe-Centaur duels, only present on south XXII to south XXV, various other interpretations have been proposed for metopes south XIII to XXI, sometimes without any connection with the episode of the marriage of Hippodamia and Pirithoos. Erich Pernice and Frantz Studniczka read the myth of Erichthonios and the erection of the cult statue of Athena Polias. Charles Picard shares the opinion that this is the same myth of Erichthonios but he rather suggests the creation of Panathenae. Erika Simon sees the story of another Lapith, Ixion, the father of Pirithoos. Martin Robertson prefers the myth of Daedalus, with traveling geographical locations (South XIII to XVI in Athens, South XVII and XVIII in Knossos, return to Athens for South XIX to XXI). Burkhard Fehr wants to read the opposition between the "good" wife Alceste (wife of Admetus) and the "bad" wife Phaedrus (wife of Theseus). According to Hilda Westervelt in her thesis defended at Harvard in 2004, this might not be a punctual event, but an account of the entire marriage of Hippodamia and Pirithoos. In the center is represented the moment when at the wedding the bride leaves the paternal house for that of her husband; the procession would then be disturbed by centaurs already drunk; the fight then extends to the outer metopes.
The metope south XXVI could have been sculpted by one of the least competent artists. Movements are unlikely; the face of the Centaur is frozen and the style of sculpture (severe) is old-fashioned for this second half of the fifth century BC.; the head of the Centaur is placed directly on the shoulders: he has no neck. Finally, a part of Lapith's garment drape did not hold and fell at a very old date. The Lapith on the left gives a shot of his left foot in the chest of the Centaur; in his left hand he also grabs his right elbow. The Centaur seems to carry over the head a heavy object (block of stone or altar) that he is about to launch on his opponent. It seems that a well was present under the legs of the two characters. This element of scenery could mean (like the hypothetical tree trunk on South I) that the fight has moved outside.
On the metope south XXVII, the Centaur, wounded, tries to flee at a gallop. He put his right hand on the wound he received in the back, unless he used both hands to try to extract the object that hurt him. The Lapithe, who could also be the hero Theseus, tries to prevent him from fleeing, gripping his neck, with his left hand. His right hand is backward, catching up with a new blow, probably fatal with either a spear or a roasting spit. His coat is sliding from his shoulders to the ground. The faces of the two characters were turned towards the centre of the metope. The heads have disappeared since the drawings attributed to Carrey. However, if the metope is in the British Museum, the Lapith's head is kept at the Acropolis Museum in Athens. This head is however also considered as being able to come from metope south IX. "Carrey" drew a beardless Centaur. Several hypotheses are then advanced: the designer would not have seen that the beard had been broken; the ancient sculptor created with this metope a new canon of representation of the Centaurs as much younger. This metope south XXVII is considered one of the most successful. The rendering of the anatomy is perfect. The tension of the movement is visible in the sculpture of the muscles of Lapith's leg and torso. The drape, perfect, of the mantle is in such high relief that it is detached almost completely from the bottom. The tail of the Centaur is part of the continuity of one of the folds of the coat: it had to be painted in different colours to bring out. This movement of the mantle recalls that of figure M of the pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, traditionally identified with Theseus, hence the identification here. The composition is subtle: the two tensions in two opposite directions recall those characteristic of the central group of a pediment, similar to the movement that animates Athena and Poseidon on the west pediment. Finally, it also recalls the western metope IV of the temple of Zeus in Olympia (Heracles and the bull of Crete). We also find this motif on the neck of a volute krater attributed to the painter of the Woolly Satyrs and preserved in New York. If the sculptor is not known, he must however be one of the most gifted to have worked on the Parthenon.
The southern metope XXVIII is by its style quite similar to its neighbour south XXVII. A Centaur rears over a Lapithe on the ground. On the left arm, he has a skin of animal, perhaps of panther, which he had to use to protect himself. In the right hand he holds a large vase. If the arm and the vase have disappeared, however, there remains a fragment above the Centaur's shoulder. Martin Robertson suggests that the man the Centaur is about to kill could be Daedalus. The metope south XXIX is one of the five preserved that does not represent the fight, but the cause of the fight: a bald Centaur takes a Lapith woman. He encloses her with his left arm. The drawing attributed to Carrey shows that he held his right wrist with his right hand. The quality of the sculpture is very heterogeneous. The face of the Centaur is frozen and inexpressive; Lapith's position is improbable. In contrast, the drapery of the chiton is of very high quality, the level of that of the Iris of the western pediment; it is the same for the border of the Centaur's mantle, the level of what is on the frieze.
On the metope south XXX, Lapith on the right is kneeling. The Centaur plunges the hooves of the front legs into the thighs. The movement is still visible to the right limbs; the left limbs were broken. The metope south XXXI is also carved in a style a little old (severe) for this second half of the fifth century BC. The Centaur, on the left, seized the Lapith by the throat. Between his front legs, he holds the right leg of his opponent who enters his knee in the chest. The Lapithe tries to pull the shaggy hair of the Centaur. The positions are frozen; the anatomy is little rendered. The face of the Centaur is more grotesque than expressive. The very quality of the work left something to be desired: the right arm of the Centaur broke in antiquity and was replaced by a new one attached by ankles.
On the metope south XXXII, the Lapith on the right advances in a determined manner towards the Centaur on the left. He is pitched as if to protect himself. On the drawing attributed to Carrey, the right arm of Centaurus and left Lapithe were still present. The head of Lapithe also existed in 1674. A detail on the front made it possible to hypothesize that the Lapithe could have worn a Corinthian helmet. The position of Lapith's body and arms is reminiscent of those of Harmodios in the Tyrannonos group. In addition, this metope is the last in the southeast corner (near the most sacred façade). Therefore, this man is sometimes identified as Theseus, founder of Athenian democracy.
See also
Pediments of the Parthenon
Parthenon Frieze
Notes
References
Bibliography
See also
Elgin Marbles
Ancient Greek art
External links
British Museum
Louvre
Acropolis Museum
5th-century BC Greek sculptures
Elgin Marbles
Architectural sculpture
Acropolis Museum |
4053365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386%20in%20English%20football | 1985–86 in English football | The 1985–86 season was the 106th season of competitive football in England.
Timeline
5 July 1985: Everton signed England striker Gary Lineker for £800,000.
10 July 1985: Everton sold striker Andy Gray to Aston Villa for £150,000, six years after he first left Villa Park to sign for the Wolverhampton Wanderers. Gray departed from Goodison Park despite calls for manager Howard Kendall to retain him, as he helped Everton win three major trophies in his two seasons at the club.
12 July 1985: West Bromwich Albion signed striker Imre Varadi from Sheffield Wednesday for £285,000.
2 August 1985: Crystal Palace signed striker Ian Wright from Greenwich Borough.
10 August 1985: Everton beat Manchester United 2–0 in the FA Charity Shield at Wembley.
12 August 1985: Sheffield Wednesday signed striker Garry Thompson from West Bromwich Albion for £450,000.
17 August 1985: The league season began. Defending champions Everton suffered a 3–1 defeat to Leicester City on Filbert Street. FA Cup holders Manchester United beat Aston Villa 4–0 at Old Trafford. Tottenham Hotspur beat Watford 4–0 at White Hart Lane. Wimbledon won 3–0 against Middlesbrough, while Huddersfield Town beat Millwall 4–3 at Leeds Road. The season began without any live coverage of matches on TV after talks between ITV and the Football League to show live matches failed. International matches were the only matches shown on live TV.
24 August 1985: Oxford United achieved their first win in the First Division with a 5–0 victory over Leicester City at the Manor Ground. Watford beat West Bromwich Albion 5–1 at Vicarage Road. Manchester United were the only team in the First Division with a 100% record after three games, having beaten Arsenal 2–1 at Highbury. Sheffield Wednesday won 3–1 against Manchester City at Maine Road.
26 August 1985: Liverpool beat Ipswich Town 5–0 at Anfield in the First Division. Newcastle United won 2–1 against Coventry City. Leeds United lost 6–2 to Stoke City.
31 August 1985: Manchester United led the league after five straight wins, with Sheffield Wednesday in second place, while Chelsea and Newcastle United fill the next two places. Everton climbed to fifth as Lineker scored a hat-trick in a 4–1 win over Birmingham City at Goodison Park. In the Second Division, Portsmouth headed the promotion race, joined in the top three by the Blackburn Rovers and Oldham Athletic.
4 September 1985: Manchester United won 3–0 against Newcastle United, Tottenham beat Chelsea 4–1 at White Hart Lane, Leicester and Watford tied 2–2 at Filbert Street, Aston Villa won 3–0 against West Bromwich Albion.
7 September 1985: Manchester United won 3–0 against Oxford United at Old Trafford. Liverpool won 3–1 against Watford. Everton lost 3–0 to the Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road. Tottenham beat Newcastle 5–1 at White Hart Lane. Down in the Second Division, Sunderland tied 3–3 with Grimsby Town at Roker Park.
8 September 1985: Nottingham Forest beat Leicester City 3-0 on Filbert Street.
10 September 1985: Scotland manager Jock Stein, 62, died at the end of a 1–1 draw between Scotland and Wales in the last game of the World Cup qualifying campaign at Ninian Park.
13 September 1985: Sheffield Wednesday signed midfielder Mark Chamberlain from Stoke City for £300,000.
14 September 1985: At the Manchester derby, Manchester United won 3–0 at Maine Road. Liverpool tied 2–2 with Oxford United at the Manor Ground. Arsenal won 1–0 home against Sheffield Wednesday.
18 September 1985: Norwich City won 4–3 against Crystal Palace at Carrow Road.
21 September 1985: Manchester United won 5–1 against West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns in the First Division. Tottenham's beat Sheffield Wednesday 5-1, and move up to fifth place. Liverpool won the Merseyside derby 3–2 at Goodison Park.
28 September 1985: Charlton Athletic left The Valley after an inspection report by safety officials, and began a groundshare with Crystal Palace. Manchester United won their tenth game against Southampton at Old Trafford. Liverpool beat Tottenham 4–1 at Anfield. Chelsea lost 3–1 at Watford.
29 September 1985: West Bromwich Albion fired Johnny Giles as manager and replaced him with Nobby Stiles.
1 October 1985: Ipswich Town, UEFA Cup winners in 1981 and league runners-up as recently as 1982, lost 1–0 defeat against Luton Town.
2 October 1985: Leicester and Oxford tied 4–4 in the First Division at Filbert Street.
5 October 1985: Manchester United tied 1–1 against Luton Town, one game short of the record 11-match winning start set by Tottenham in 1960. Liverpool lost 2–1 to the Queens Park Rangers. Chelsea won 1–0 against Manchester City at Maine Road. West Bromwich Albion tied 1–1 with Tottenham. In the Second Division Brighton beat Carlisle United 6–1 at the Goldstone Ground.
6 October 1985: Coventry City beat Leicester City 3–0 in the First Division at Highfield Road.
8 October 1985: Aston Villa beat Exeter City 8–1 at Villa Park. Liverpool won 5–2 against Oldham Athletic in their second leg visit to Boundary Park, making it 8–2 over the two legs.
11 October 1985: Leeds United fired manager Eddie Gray and replaced him with former club captain Billy Bremner, who was recruited from the Third Division side Doncaster Rovers.
12 October 1985: Reading set a football league record of winning their first 12 league games of the season, beating Newport County 2–0 at Somerton Park in the Third Division. Sheffield Wednesday tied 2–2 with Coventry City, and Everton lost 2–1 to Chelsea. West Bromwich Albion tied 2–2 with Leicester.
17 October 1985: Southampton signed midfielder Glenn Cockerill from Sheffield United for £225,000.
19 October 1985: Reading won 1–0 against Lincoln City at Sincil Bank. In the First Division, Manchester United and Liverpool tied 1–1 at Old Trafford. Chelsea lost 2–1 to Oxford. Sheffield Wednesday beat Leicester City 3–2 at Filbert Street. Luton Town won 7–0 against Southampton at Kenilworth Road. West Ham's won 4–1 home against Aston Villa. West Bromwich Albion won 2–1 against Birmingham City at The Hawthorns. Charlton beat Brighton 5–3.
20 October 1985: Tottenham was placed seventh in the First Division after winning 3–2 against Coventry City.
22 October 1985: In the Second Division, Sunderland beat Middlesbrough 1–0 at Roker Park.
23 October 1985: Reading tied 2–2 home with the Wolverhampton Wanderers.
26 October 1985: Manchester United won 2–1 against Chelsea, and Liverpool beat Luton Town 3–2 at Anfield. Sheffield Wednesday won 1–0 against West Bromwich Albion. Everton tied 1–1 draw with Manchester City at Maine Road. Tottenham lost 3–1 to Leicester City. Portsmouth won 4–0 win against Millwall. Sheffield United won 4–1 against Bradford City. Oldham Athletic climbed up three places to second after winning 4–0 home win against Brighton. Norwich won 2–0 against Sunderland.
2 November 1985: Manchester United beat Coventry City 2–0 at Old Trafford, and Liverpool beat Leicester City 1–0 at Anfield. Everton lost 2–1 to West Ham. Charlton Athletic won 4–1 against Shrewsbury Town. Grimsby Town beat Millwall 5–1 at Blundell Park. Sheffield United beat Hull City 3–1 at Bramall Lane.
3 November 1985: West Bromwich Albion lost 2–1 defeat to Nottingham Forest at the City Ground.
9 November 1985: Manchester United lost 1–0 to Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough. Liverpool won 3–0 against Coventry City. Lineker scores hid second league hat-trick of the season as Everton beat Arsenal 6–1 at Goodison Park. West Ham won 2–1 against Oxford. Chelsea won 4–2 against Nottingham Forest. Tottenham's lost 3–1 to Luton Town, and Sheffield United won 5–1 against Oldham Athletic at Boundary Park. Hull City won 5–0 against Fulham at Boothferry Park. Carlisle United won 3–0 against Stoke City.
13 November 1985: England completed their successful World Cup qualifying campaign by tying to Northern Ireland at Wembley.
16 November 1985: Liverpool won 4–1 against West Bromwich Albion, while Manchester United tied with Tottenham. Everton beat Ipswich Town 4-3 at Portman Road. Manchester City won 2–0 against Nottingham Forest at the City Ground. In the Second Division, Brighton won 4–3 against Huddersfield, Middlesbrough won 3–2 against Oldham at Ayresome Park, and Sheffield United and the Blackburn Rovers tied 3–3 at Bramall Lane.
23 November 1985: Manchester United lost 3–0 to Leicester City at Filbert Street. Liverpool won 2–0 against Birmingham City. Ipswich Town beat Oxford 4–3. Oldham lost 4–2 to Stoke.
26 November 1985: Ipswich Town beat Fourth Division pace-setters Swindon Town 6–1 at Portman Road, Chelsea tied 2–2 with Everton at Stamford Bridge and Liverpool beat Manchester United 2–1 at Anfield. Portsmouth has a rematch against Tottenham after a goalless draw at Fratton Park, Arsenal beat Southampton 3–1, and Aston Villa won 2–1 against West Bromwich Albion.
29 November 1985: Manchester United signed Aston Villa midfielder Colin Gibson for £275,000.
30 November 1985: West Ham beat West Bromwich Albion 4-0, Ipswich Town won 2–1 against Sheffield Wednesday, and Everton beat Southampton 3–2 at the Dell.
1 December 1985: Nottingham Forest tied with Oxford United at the City Ground in the First Division.
7 December 1985: Manchester United beat Ipswich Town at Old Trafford, while Kenny Dalglish's team beat Aston Villa 3–0 at Anfield. Everton won 3–0 against West Bromwich Albion.
14 December 1985: Manchester United won 3–1 against Aston Villa. Liverpool lost 2–0 against Arsenal, whose 19-year-old Irish striker Niall Quinn scored on his debut. West Ham United won 2–0 win over Birmingham City. Everton lost 2–1 to Leicester City at Goodison Park. West Bromwich Albion tied 2–2 with Oxford at the Manor Ground. In the Second Division, Norwich City won 3–1 against Oldham.
19 December 1985 – The Football League confirms that the First Division will decrease to 21 clubs for the 1987–88 season, while the Second Division will expand to 23 clubs, and that in 1988–89 the First Division will have 20 clubs and the Second Division will have 23 clubs in 1987-88 and 24 clubs in 1988-89.
20 December 1985: The league accepted a £1.3 million offer to show nine First Division and League Cup games this season. The first match shown was the FA Cup third-round match between Charlton Athletic and West Ham on 5 January.
21 December 1985: Arsenal defeated Manchester United 1–0 at Old Trafford in the First Division, while Liverpool and Newcastle United tie 1–1. West Ham ties 0–0 with Luton Town. Chelsea won 2–1 against Birmingham City. Norwich City won against Millwall 6–1 at Carrow Road. Wimbledon, who were only elected to the Football League in 1977 and were still in the Fourth Division three seasons ago, won 5–0 against Sheffield United. Middlesbrough beat Fulham 3–0 at Craven Cottage.
22 December 1985: West Bromwich Albion won 3–1 against Watford. In the Second Division, Portsmouth won 1–0 against Carlisle United, and Derby and Blackpool won their matches in the Third Division. In the Fourth Division, Halifax scored three goals within 37 minutes against Scunthorpe United, and Iron forward John Hawley accomplished a hat-trick and won his team a point.
26 December 1985: In the First Division, Everton beat Manchester United 3–1 at Goodison Park. Liverpool lost 1–0 to Manchester City at Maine Road, and West Ham lost 1–0 to Tottenham.
28 December 1985: Everton won 3–1 against Sheffield Wednesday. Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion tied 1–1 at Villa Park. Chelsea won 2–0 against Tottenham. Liverpool tied 1–1 with Nottingham Forest at the City Ground. Millwall won 5–0 against Hull City. Brighton won 3–2 against Leeds at Elland Road. Portsmouth won 4–0 against Shrewsbury Town.
1 January 1986: Manchester United beat Birmingham City 1–0 at Old Trafford. Everton tied 2–2 with Newcastle United in Tyneside. Liverpool tied 2–2 draw with Sheffield Wednesday. Nottingham Forest beat Coventry City 5–2 at the City Ground. Hull City won 4–1 against Barnsley at Oakwell. Norwich City and Portsmouth won their matches. Brighton won 2–0 against Crystal Palace.
2 January 1986: Middlesbrough were reported to be £1 million in debt. Peterborough United fan Barry Fox, 22, was jailed for three years for punching a policeman unconscious in the game against Northampton Town at London Road on 12 October.
4 January 1986: In the FA Cup's third round, Leicester City lost 3–1 to Third Division Bristol Rovers. Liverpool won 5–0 against Norwich City. Arsenal beat Grimsby Town 4–3 at Blundell Park. Ipswich Town and Bradford tied 4–4 at Portman Road.
5 January 1986: West Ham won 1–0 against Charlton Athletic at Selhurst Park. Everton won 1–0 against Exeter City. The FA Cup ties were the first televised domestic matches of the season.
9 January 1986: Manchester United won 2–0 against Rochdale.
11 January 1986: Manchester United beat Oxford United 3–1 at the Manor Ground. Everton won 4–3 against Queens Park Rangers. Chelsea won 1–0 over Luton Town. Ipswich Town won 1–0 against Birmingham City. West Bromwich Albion tied 1–1 to Newcastle United. Norwich City won 2–0 against Middlesbrough. Sunderland won 4–2 to Leeds United.
12 January 1986: Liverpool won 3–2 win against Watford at Vicarage Road.
14 January 1986: Birmingham City were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 2–1 to Altrincham.
16 January 1986: Ron Saunders resigned as manager of Birmingham City.
18 January 1986: Manchester United lost 3–2 to Nottingham Forest. Lineker scored twice for Everton in their 2–0 win over Birmingham City.
22 January 1986: Former Manchester City manager John Bond was appointed as the new manager of Birmingham City.
25 January 1986: In the FA Cup's fourth round, Arsenal won 5–1 home against Rotherham United, Sheffield Wednesday won 5–0 over Orient, and Manchester United tied 0–0 with Sunderland at Roker Park, in which captain Bryan Robson was substituted due to a shoulder injury.
26 January 1986: Liverpool won 2–1 win against Chelsea in the FA Cup's fourth round.
29 January 1986: Manchester United signed striker Terry Gibson from Coventry City for £600,000. In the FA Cup fourth round replays, Tottenham beat Notts County 5–0, Manchester United beat Sunderland 3–0, and Millwall beat Aston Villa 1–0.
1 February 1986: Everton won 1–0 home against Tottenham. Liverpool lost 2–1 defeat to Ipswich. Stiles resigned after four months as West Bromwich Albion's manager.
2 February 1986: Manchester United lost 2–1 to West Ham.
4 February 1986: Everton signed striker Warren Aspinall from Wigan Athletic for £150,000.
8 February 1986: Chelsea lost 4–1 to Oxford United.
9 February 1986: Everton remained at the top of the First Division on goal difference after Liverpool and Manchester United tied 1–1 at Anfield.
11 February 1986: Everton won 4–0 home against Manchester City.
12 February 1986: The League Cup semi-finals began to be played. Aston Villa tied 2–2 with Oxford United, and Liverpool lost 1–0 to the Queens Park Rangers.
14 February 1986: One month after leaving Birmingham City, Ron Saunders was named as the new manager of West Bromwich Albion.
15 February 1986: Liverpool tied 1–1 with York City at Bootham Crescent in the fifth round of the FA Cup.
16 February 1986: Coventry City and Birmingham City tied 4-4 at Highfield Road.
18 February 1986: York City lost the fifth round replay 3–1 to Anfield.
22 February 1986: Manchester United won 3–0 against West Bromwich Albion when Jesper Olsen accomplished a hat-trick.
1 March 1986: Everton beat Aston Villa 2–0 at home. Manchester United lost 1–0 to Southampton.
2 March 1986: Liverpool beat Tottenham 2–1 at White Hart Lane in the league.
4 March 1986: Everton won 2–1 against Tottenham in the fifth round of the FA Cup.
5 March 1986: In the FA Cup's fifth round, Watford tied 1–1 with Bury at Vicarage Road, while Manchester United tied 1–1 with West Ham at Upton Park. Southampton won 1–0 against Millwall in a replay, while Sheffield Wednesday beat Derby County at Hillsborough, and Luton Town beat Arsenal 3–0 in a second replay. Liverpool tied 2–2 with the Queens Park Rangers at Anfield.
8 March 1986: Watford beat Bury 3–0 at Gigg Lane. In the first two quarter-final ties, Everton tied 2–2 with Luton Town and forced a replay, while Southampton won 2–0 against Brighton. Aston Villa remained in the relegation zone after losing 4–1 to Arsenal, Chelsea won 1–0 against Manchester City, Ipswich Town won 1–0 home against Nottingham Forest, Liverpool beat the Queen Park Rangers 4–1 at Anfield, and West Bromwich Albion lost 5–0 defeat to Tottenham.
9 March 1986: Manchester United lost 2–0 to West Ham in the FA Cup's fifth round replays.
11 March 1986: Liverpool tied with Watford 0–0 in the FA Cup quarter-final. Arsenal won 2–1 against Ipswich Town. Southampton beat the Queens Park Rangers 2–0 at Loftus Road.
12 March 1986: Oxford United reached the League Cup final for the first time after beating Aston Villa 4–3 on aggregate. Manchester United signed striker Peter Davenport from Nottingham Forest for £750,000. The England U21 team defeated Denmark 1–0 in the European Championship quarter-final in Copenhagen, with the only goal of the game coming from Coventry City midfielder Nick Pickering. In the FA Cup, West Ham lost 2–1 to Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough. Everton beat Luton Town 1–0 in the quarter-final replay at Goodison Park. Birmingham City lost 4–2 to Leicester City at Filbert Street. Norwich City won 4–1 against Huddersfield Town.
14 March 1986: Portsmouth signed Oldham Athletic striker Micky Quinn, who scored 34 goals since he joined the Latics in January 1984, for £150,000.
15 March 1986: Liverpool won against Southampton 2–1 at the Dell. Norwich beat Carlisle United 2–1 at Carrow Road.
16 March 1986: Everton tied 1–1 with Chelsea.
17 March 1986: Liverpool won their FA Cup quarter-final replay against Watford 2–1 at Vicarage Road.
21 March 1986: Manchester United announced striker Mark Hughes was to join Barcelona, managed by former Queens Park Rangers and Crystal Palace boss Terry Venables, for a fee of £2 million at the end of the season.
22 March 1986: Don Howe resigns as Arsenal's manager after reports that Venables was offered his job. His final game in charge was Arsenal's 3–0 victory over Coventry. Coach Steve Burtenshaw remained in temporary charge at Highbury. Manchester United tied 2–2 in the Manchester derby. Liverpool beat Oxford United 6–0 at Anfield. Birmingham City won 3–0 against Aston Villa. Norwich City won 5–2 against Sheffield United.
23 March 1986: The first final of the Full Members Cup was played at Wembley Stadium, with Chelsea defeating Manchester City 5–4 with a hat-trick from David Speedie and two goals from Colin Lee.
25 March 1986: Steve Perryman, 34, left Tottenham after 17 years and signed on to Oxford United as a free transfer.
26 March 1986: In the return leg of the under-21 European Championship quarter-final, England tied 1–1 with Denmark at Maine Road. Everton goalkeeper Neville Southall was ruled out after an ankle injury suffered on international duty for Wales.
27 March 1986: On transfer deadline day, Wimbledon paid £125,000 for Millwall striker John Fashanu. After Southall's injury, Everton signed veteran goalkeeper Pat Jennings on a short-term contract.
29 March 1986: Everton maintained their lead of the First Division with a 1–0 win over Newcastle United. Liverpool tied 0–0 with Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough. Manchester United tied 1–1 with Birmingham, while West Ham won against Chelsea 4–0 at Stamford Bridge. West Bromwich Albion won 1–0 against Southampton at The Hawthorns.
31 March 1986: Liverpool won 2–0 against Manchester City, and Everton tied 0–0 with Manchester United at Old Trafford. Chelsea lost 6–0 to the Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road. West Ham beat Tottenham 2–1 at Upton Park.
1 April 1986: West Bromwich Albion lost 3–0 to Luton Town. Arsenal lost 3–0 to Watford.
5 April 1986: Liverpool beat Southampton 2–0 in the FA Cup semi-final at White Hart Lane. Everton won 2–1 against Sheffield Wednesday in the other semi-final at Villa Park. Manchester United won 3–1 against Coventry City. Arsenal won 1–0 against Manchester City, while Chelsea tied 1–1 with Ipswich Town. Fulham lost 4–2 away to Sunderland. Norwich won 3–0 home against Brighton.
6 April 1986: Birmingham City lost 2–0 to Luton Town.
8 April 1986: West Ham won 1–0 home against Southampton.
9 April 1986: England's under-21 team lost 2–0 to Italy in Pisa in the semi-final first leg. Manchester United lost 2–1 to Chelsea. Aston Villa tied 2–2 with Newcastle United in Tyneside after Oxford won against Watford. Birmingham City lost 4–1 to Newcastle. Liverpool won 5–0 against Coventry City, while Everton won 1–0 against Arsenal. West Ham beat Oxford United 3–1 at Upton Park, and Aston Villa won 4–1 against Watford. Chelsea tied 0–0 with Nottingham Forest. Norwich City won 2–0 against Bradford City. The South West Londoners won 3–0 against the Rokermen at Plough Lane.
12 April 1986: West Bromwich Albion were relegated from the First Division after losing 1–0 to the Queens Park Rangers.
13 April 1986: Manchester United lost 2–0 to Sheffield Wednesday.
14 April 1986: Tottenham agreed to a £50,000 fee with Millwall for 18-year-old defender Neil Ruddock. The Queens Park Rangers beat Leicester City 4–1 in the First Division at Filbert Street.
15 April 1986: Everton won 2–0 win against Watford. Chelsea won 2–1 against West Ham.
16 April 1986: Liverpool beat Luton Town 1–0 at Kenilworth Road, and Aston Villa beat Ipswich Town 1–0. Manchester United won 4–2 against Newcastle United. Birmingham City lost 2–0 to Tottenham.
19 April 1986: Birmingham City lost 2–0 at home to Southampton and were relegated from the First Division. Manchester United tied 0–0 with Tottenham at White Hart Lane. Everton beat Ipswich Town 1–0, and Liverpool won 2–1 against West Bromwich Albion at the Hawthorns. Norwich City tied 1–1 with Stoke City.
20 April 1986: Oxford United beat the Queens Park Rangers 3–0 in the League Cup final at Wembley.
21 April 1986: West Ham United beat Newcastle United 8–1 in the league at Upton Park, with defender Alvin Martin scoring a hat-trick.
23 April 1986: England's under-21 tied 1–1 with Italy at the County Ground in Swindon, with Arsenal midfielder Stewart Robson scoring their only goal.
26 April 1986: The Wolverhampton Wanderers became the third West Midlands club to be relegated, and the second English league club to be relegated three consecutive times, after their descent into the Fourth Division is confirmed. Liverpool defender Gary Gillespie scores a hat-trick in a 5–0 league win over Birmingham City at Anfield, while Everton tied 0–0 with Nottingham Forest. West Ham won 1–0 home against Coventry City, while Manchester United beat Leicester City 4–0 at Old Trafford. Chelsea lost 3–1 to Aston Villa. Ipswich Town climbed three places above being relegated with a 3–2 win over Oxford United. Fulham was relegated from the Second Division despite a 2–1 home win against Huddersfield Town, while Middlesbrough beat Millwall 3–0 to climb out of the bottom three, while Sunderland lost 3–1 to Brighton.
28 April 1986: Ray Stewart received a penalty, which gave West Ham the 1–0 win against Manchester City.
29 April 1986: Charlton Athletic won 2–0 against Fulham. Carlisle won 2–0 against Brighton at Brunton Park. Sunderland won 2–0 against Shrewsbury Town.
30 April 1986: Everton lost 1–0 to Oxford, Liverpool won 2–0 against Leicester, and West Ham won 2–1 against Ipswich Town.
1 May 1986: Chelsea agreed to a £400,000 fee for Hibernian striker Gordon Durie.
3 May 1986: Dalglish scored the only goal as Liverpool beat Chelsea at Stamford Bridge to win the First Division title. Everton won against Southampton 6–1. Ipswich Town lost their last match 1–0 to Sheffield Wednesday. Coventry City and Leicester City secured survival with home wins. Charlton Athletic sealed their promotion from the Second Division with a 3–2 win against relegation-threatened Carlisle United. Wimbledon reached the First Division by winning 1–0 against Huddersfield.
5 May 1986: The First Division ended with four matches and 21 goals. Oxford United beat Arsenal 3–0, Chelsea finished sixth after losing 5–1 to Watford, Everton placed second after winning 3–1 against West Ham at Goodison Park, and Tottenham won 5–3 against Southampton. The Second Division ended with Blackburn winning 3–1 against Grimsby Town at Ewood Park, while Carlisle lost 2–1 to Oldham at Boundary Park. Reading won the Third Division after a 2–0 win over the Doncaster Rovers, and were promoted to the Second Division. Lincoln City was relegated after they lost 3–2 to the Wolves. Fourth Division champions Swindon Town finished the season with a Football League record of 102 points.
6 May 1986: Everton manager Howard Kendall dismissed speculation that Lineker would sign for Barcelona.
7 May 1986: After the Fourth Division ended, Rochdale tied 1–1 with Peterborough United at London Road and finished 18th to avoid having to apply for re-election to the Football League.
9 May 1986: Derby County was promoted from the Third Division after a 2–1 win over Rotherham United at the Baseball Ground.
10 May 1986: Ian Rush scored twice for Liverpool, beating Everton 3–1 in the first-ever all-Merseyside FA Cup final. Liverpool became the fifth club in history to win the league championship and FA Cup double.
13 May 1986: Tottenham fired manager Peter Shreeves after two seasons in charge; he had turned Tottenham into title contenders and guided them to third place in his first season as manager, but during the second season they finished 10th in the First Division.
14 May 1986: Millwall manager George Graham returned to Highbury as the club's new manager. Aberdeen manager Alex Ferguson rejected the position.
16 May 1986: David Pleat stepped down as Luton Town's manager to become the new Tottenham manager.
22 May 1986: 20-year-old defender Denis Irwin joined Oldham Athletic on a free transfer from Leeds United.
3 June 1986: England lost 1–0 to Portugal in their opening World Cup game. Luton Town coach John Moore is named as the club's new manager.
5 June 1986: Coventry City signed winger David Phillips from Manchester City for £150,000.
6 June 1986: Morocco tied with England.
8 June 1986: Rush agreed to sign for Juventus for £3 million, but could be loaned back to Liverpool for the 1986–87 season.
11 June 1986: Lineker scored a hat-trick in England's 3–0 victory over Poland, which allowed them to advance to the second round of the World Cup.
13 June 1986: Southampton signed 19-year-old goalkeeper Tim Flowers from the Wolverhampton Wanderers for £70,000, while 23-year-old midfielder Ian Crook joined Norwich City from Tottenham for £80,000.
18 June 1986: England beat Paraguay 3–0 and reached the World Cup quarter-finals for the first time since 1970.
22 June 1986: England's World Cup lost 2–1 to Argentina.
FA Cup
Liverpool beat Everton 3–1 in the final – with Rush scoring twice – to complete the third league championship and FA Cup double of the 20th century.
League Cup
After being promoted to the First Division the season before, Oxford United won the League Cup, beating the Queens Park Rangers 3–0 in the final.
Football League
First Division
Liverpool narrowly reclaimed the league title from Everton. They completed their first and only league and cup double by defeating Everton in the FA Cup final.
As a result of the previous year's Heysel Stadium disaster, both Liverpool and Everton missed out on the European Cup and European Cup Winners' Cup respectively, while West Ham United, Manchester United and Sheffield Wednesday all missed out on the UEFA Cup, as did Oxford United.
West Bromwich Albion fell back into Division Two after ten seasons, following a campaign in which they only won four games. Birmingham City performed almost as poorly and made an immediate return to Division Two. Coventry City had spent most of the season in the relegation zone until a late revival after George Curtis and John Sillett took over as co-managers with three games remaining.
Second Division
Norwich City won the Second Division title, and was promoted back to the First Division. Charlton Athletic, despite having suffered a financial crisis over the previous years and leaving their home ground The Valley to ground share with Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park, returned to the First Division for the first time since 1957. Wimbledon, who had been in the Fourth Division only three years prior and were in only their second-ever season in the second tier, managed to claim the third and final promotion spot.
Fulham were relegated to bottom place after mounting financial pressures had forced them to sell off most of their squad during the summer. Middlesbrough suffered their second-ever relegation to the third tier, as their own financial situation worsened to the point where they were locked out of their Ayresome Park ground and nearly expelled from the Football League between the end of this season and the beginning of the following one.
Third Division
Reading won the Third Division title after beginning the season with 13 successive victories, meaning they would be playing in the Second Division for the first time since 1931. Plymouth Argyle took the runner-up spot, and Derby County was the third promoted side.
The bottom two positions were occupied by Swansea City and the Wolverhampton Wanderers. Cardiff City and Lincoln City filled the other relegation spots.
Fourth Division
Swindon Town won promotion by a record-breaking 18 points, and became the second team (after York City two years previously) to exceed 100 points in a season, and was also awarded the board's decision to reinstate manager Lou Macari days after his controversial dismissal at the end of the previous season. Chester City, who had finished bottom of the league just two years prior, were promoted as runners-up. Mansfield Town and Port Vale took the two remaining promotion spaces.
Torquay United, Preston North End, Cambridge United, and Exeter City were made to apply for re-election. Preston, the inaugural First Division champion back in 1888–89, saw its lowest finish ever at 23rd position almost a century from their two back-to-back titles.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Gary Lineker (Everton) – 30 goals
Second Division
Kevin Drinkell (Norwich City) – 22 goals
Third Division
Trevor Senior (Reading) – 27 goals
Fourth Division
Richard Cadette (Southend United) – 25 goals
Famous debutants
31 August 1985: Ian Wright, 21-year-old striker, made his debut for Crystal Palace in a 3–2 defeat by Huddersfield Town at Selhurst Park in the Second Division soon after joining the club from non-league Greenwich Borough.
28 September 1985: David Rocastle, 18-year-old midfielder, made his debut for Arsenal in a 1–1 draw with Newcastle United in the First Division at Highbury.
23 November 1985: Martin Keown, 19-year-old defender, made his debut for Arsenal in a goalless draw with West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns.
References |
4053513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous%20peoples%20in%20Colombia | Indigenous peoples in Colombia | Indigenous peoples of Colombia, are the ethnic groups who have inhabited Colombia since before the European colonization, in the early 16th century. According to the last census, they comprise 4.4% of the country's population, belonging to 115 different tribes. however, it is estimated to be higher at around 10% of the population by some.
Approximately two thirds of the Indigenous peoples of Colombia live in La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Cordoba and Sucre Departments. Amazon Basin, a sparsely populated region, is home to over 70 different Indigenous ethnic groups.
History
Some theories claim the earliest human habitation of South America to be as early as 43,000 BC, but the current scholarly consensus among archaeologists is that human habitation in South America only dates back to around 15,000 BC at the earliest. Anthropologist Tom Dillehay dates the earliest hunter-gatherer cultures on the continent at almost 10,000 BC, during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. According to his evidence based on rock shelters, Colombia's first human inhabitants were probably concentrated along the Caribbean coast and on the Andean highland slopes. By that time, these regions were forested and had a climate resembling today's. Dillehay has noted that Tibitó, located just north of Bogotá, is one of the oldest known and most widely accepted sites of early human occupation in Colombia, dating from about 9,790 BC. There is evidence that the highlands of Colombia were occupied by significant numbers of human foragers by 9,000 BC, with permanent village settlement in northern Colombia by 2,000 BC.
Beginning in the 1st millennium BC, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, Tairona, Calima, Zenú, Tierradentro, San Agustín, Tolima, and Urabá became skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft; and some developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.
Colombia's Indigenous culture evolved from three main groups—the Quimbaya, who inhabited the western slopes of the Cordillera Central; the Chibchas; and the Kalina (Caribs). When the Spanish arrived in 1509, they found a flourishing and heterogeneous Amerindian population that numbered between 1.5 million and 2 million, belonged to several hundred tribes, and largely spoke mutually unintelligible dialects. The two most advanced cultures of Amerindian peoples at the time were the Muisca and Taironas, who belonged to the Chibcha group and were skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft. The Muisca lived mainly in the present departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, where they had fled centuries earlier after raids by the warlike Caribs, some of whom eventually migrated to Caribbean islands near the end of the first millennium A.D. The Taironas, who were divided into two subgroups, lived in the Caribbean lowlands and the highlands of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Muisca civilization was well organized into distinct provinces governed by communal land laws and powerful caciques, who reported to one of the two supreme leaders.
Pre-Colombian history
The complexity of the Indigenous peoples' social organization and technology varied tremendously, from stratified agricultural chiefdoms to tropical farm villages and nomadic hunting and food-gathering groups. At the end of the colonial period, the native population still constituted about half of the total population. In the agricultural chiefdoms of the highlands, the Spaniards successfully imposed institutions designed to ensure their control of the Amerindians and thereby the use of their labor. The colonists had organized political and religious administration by the end of the sixteenth century, and they had begun attempts to religiously convert the Amerindians to Christianity, specifically Roman Catholicism.
The most important institution that regulated the lives and welfare of the highland Amerindians was the resguardo, a reservation system of communal landholdings. Under this system, Amerindians were allowed to use the land but could not sell it. Similar in some respects to the Native American reservation system of the United States, the resguardo has lasted with some changes even to the present and has been an enduring link between the government and the remaining highland tribes. As land pressures increased, however, encroachment of white or mestizo settlers onto resguardo lands accelerated, often without opposition from the government.
The government generally had not attempted to legislate in the past in matters affecting the forest Amerindians. During the colonial period, Roman Catholic missions were granted jurisdiction over the lowland tribes. With the financial support of the government, a series of agreements with the Holy See from 1887 to 1953 entrusted the evangelization and education of these Amerindians to the missions, which worked together with government agencies. Division of the resguardos stopped in 1958, and a new program of community development began to try to bring the Amerindians more fully into the national society.
The struggle of the Indigenous people on these lands to protect their holdings from neighboring landlords and to preserve their traditions continued into the late 20th century, when the 1991 constitution incorporated many of the Amerindian demands. New resguardos have been created, and others have been reconstituted, among forest tribes as well as highland communities. The 1991 constitution opened special political and social arenas for Indigenous and other minority groups. For example, it allowed for creation of a special commission to design a law recognizing the black communities occupying unsettled lands in the riverine areas of the Pacific Coast. Article 171 provides special Senate representation for Amerindians and other ethnic groups, while Article 176 provides special representation in the Chamber of Representatives: two seats "for the black communities, one for Indian communities, one for political minorities, and one for Colombians residing abroad". Article 356 guarantees Amerindian territorial and cultural rights, and several laws and decrees have been enacted protecting them. Article 356 refers somewhat vaguely to both "Indigenous territorial entities" and Indigenous resguardos.
By 1991 the country's 587 resguardos contained 800,271 people, including 60,503 families. The general regional distribution of these resguardos was as follows: Amazonia, 88; llanos, 106; Caribbean lowlands, 31; Andean highlands, 104; and Pacific lowlands, 258. They totaled , or about 24 percent of the national territory. Colombia today may have as many as 710 resguardos in 27 of the 32 departments.
Indigenous political organization
Individual Indigenous groups have a variety of governance structures. A number of Indigenous groups are represented through the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC - Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia). Increasing organization and agitation have sharply broadened the Indigenous land base over the past forty years. The government titled more than 200 new reserves from 1960 to 1990, with 334 total operating as autonomous municipalities by 1997.
Territories
Indigenous peoples hold title to substantial portions of Colombia, primarily in the form of Indigenous Reserves (), which encompass one-third of the country's land. The Indigenous Affairs division of the Ministry of Interior has 567 reserves on record, covering approximately 365,004 km² which are home to 800,272 persons in 67,503 families.
The 1991 National Constitution of Colombia defined Territorial Entities (Entidades Territoriales) as departments, districts, municipalities and Indigenous territories.
Within an Indigenous Territory Entity (ETI) the people have autonomy in managing their interests, and within the limits of the constitution have the right to manage resources and define taxes required to perform their duties. ETIs are to be defined by the government in conformance with the Organic Law on Land Management.
However, this law has yet to be sanctioned so in practice the territories are unregulated.
Major ethnic groups
According to the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC), there are 102 Indigenous groups in Colombia. The ethnic groups with the greatest number of members are the Wayuu (380,460), Zenú, (307,091), Nasa (243,176) and Pastos (163,873). These peoples account for 58.1% of Colombia's Indigenous population.
Highland peoples refer to the cultures of the Andes and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta of Colombia, while lowland peoples refer to the inhabitants of Chocó, Amazonia, Guajira and the Caribbean Coast, the Urabá Region and other non-mountain cultures.
Highland peoples
Arhuacos/Ijka
Awá
Coconuco
Guambiano/Misak
Guane
Inga
Kamsá (Sibundoy)
Kankuamo
Kogui/Kággaba
Muisca
Páez/Nasa
Pacabuy
Pasto
Panche
Pijao
Sutagao
Tama
Totoró
Umbrá
U'wa/Tunebo
Wiwa/Sanhá
Yanacona
Quimbaya
Lowland peoples
Achagua
Amorúa
Andaquí
Andoque
Bara
Barasana
Barí/Motilon
Betoye
Bora
Cabiyarí
Carapana
Carijona
Catío
Cocama/Kokama
Cofán/Kofán
Coreguaje
Cubeo
Cuiba
Curripaco
Chimila
Chiricoa
Desano
Emberá
Guahibo (Sikuani)
Guayabero
Guayupe
Kuna (Tule)
Kokama
Hupda
Letuama
Makaguaje
Makuna
Masiguare
Mvatapí
Miraña
Mokaná
Muinane
Muzo
Nonuya
Nukak
Ocaína
Piapoco
Piaroa
Piratapuyo
Pitsamira
Puinave
Sáliba
Siona
Siriano
Taiwano
Tanimuka
Tariano
Tatuyo
Tikuna
Tukano
Tuyuca
Wounaan
Wanano
Wayuú
Witoto/Huitoto/Uitoto
Yagua
Yarigui
Yukuna
Yukpa/Yuko
Yuri
Yurutí
Zenú
Struggle for rights
Indigenous people comprise 4.4-10% of the population of Colombia and their level of income as well as the indicators of human development as education and health conditions are behind compared to those of the rest of the Colombians. During the last twenty years, there has been a remarkable increase of the interest dedicated to the concerns of Indigenous communities all over the world. Therefore, the United Nations proclaimed the disclosure of the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People and in Latin America on 10 December 1994 and in Latin America. More than in any other region, this period was characterized by a wave of Indigenous movements which practised a growing political power, since the resistance of the Chiapas of 1994 until the fall of the governments of Ecuador and Bolivia.
The rise of Indigenous mobilization in Colombia is explained as a reaction of crisis at various levels: a crisis of representation, caused by the shortcomings of political parties with sufficient representation to shoulder all collectives' interests; a crisis of participation, that is the result of the lack of citizen's participation in state's business; and a legitimation crisis, due to the discrimination against some social groups.
During their struggle for rights, Indigenes abandoned the armed struggle of the 1980s and the new strategy included forms of legal liberalism, a politics of identity and the use of transnational networks putting pressure on the state to achieve recognition and respect. This hasn't always led to success and often turned into victims of the cultural project of neoliberalism. Besides the cultural accomplishments there was an escalation of the acts of persecution and in the number of violations committed against them.
According to the Indigenous National Organization of Colombia (ONIC) there are 102 Indigenous peoples in Colombia and only 82 of them are recognized by the Colombian government. One of the main problems the Colombian Indigenous communities are currently facing is the lack of recognition of their right to be consulted. Poverty is another central aspect in order to understand the contemporary situation of the Indigenes of Colombia, which has been measured making use of the Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN), considering people poor who have insufficiencies in living, services and education. Facts show differences between zones: those of greater influence of poverty measured with the UBN standard are Chocó, Sucre, Boyacá, Nariño and Córdoba, with numbers that exceed the 50% of the population and those of less influence are found in Bogotá and the departments of El Valle, Atlántico and the cafetero-core: Caldas, Quindío and Risaralda.
In 1986 the concept of pobreza absoluta was introduced in the nation, during a situation of crisis of governability and the escalation of the problems concerning the armed conflict. With the politics of struggle against poverty the presence of the state was tried to be consolidated in zones which were considered 'marginal', especially those areas including Indigenous population.
Politics between 1986 and 1990 tried to rehabilitate the marginal zones and their integration to achieve development; specific institutions were set up to work with Indigenous communities, seeing them as farmer communities which habits and forms of production had to be modernized. As a consequence, the Indigenous minorities revolted, arguing that it was not up to them to reintegrate but it was the state that had to reform his ideas and recognize them as the original Colombian population.
The goal was to solve the crisis of governability by eliminating poverty, without excluding local necessities and impulse development from out of the perspective of diversity. The Indigenous communities were considered to be marginal sectors in disadvantage, a highly retarded population which had to be incorporated and integrated in greater society. The Indigenous people were not seen as a part of the diversity of the nation which participation was needed for the construction of it. This conception has survived since the colonization of the continent until now: generally, the Indigenous and also the black diversity is still seen as a negative element which has to be reduced or completely wiped out to guarantee the development and the modernization of Latin American societies.
Despite the Constitution of 1991 with the introduction of the multi-ethnic and multicultural character of the Colombian nation, the contemporary relation between the state and the Indigenous communities seems to be contradictory, particularly because of the presence of the demands of autonomy of the latter. Until today the Colombian government has recognized the Indigenous groups only as communities, meaning that they are considered to be culturally diverse and therefore require a different political treatment to be able to integrate them in national society. Different forms of participation have been assigned to the communities, but always in conformity with legal and constitutional regulations of the state, defined and established throughout history. Though the 1990s were a decade of mobilization and in some way a victory in terms of neoliberal multiculturalism, after twenty years of the Constitution of 1991 people have realized the need of turning to other forms of mobilization, more than legal mobilization. It has been shown that the recognition of equality is not enough; Indigenous peoples have also demanded their right to difference, that is, access to particular rights as Indigenous communities.
Many people in Colombia choose not to identify as indigenous due to the history of discrimination against them and the immense wealth gap between those who identify as indigenous and those who don’t, leading to only 1% of Colombians in the 1993 census to identify as indigenous. During the most recent censuses however, more people have begun to identify as indigenous, from 3.4% in the 2005 census to 4.31% in the 2018 census. Many scholars estimate the true indigenous population of Colombia to be around 10% of the country’s population, or 5 million people, the same can be said for Afro Colombians who are estimated to be around 20% of the total population or 10 million people, despite only 6% of Colombians identifying as Afro Colombian in the 2018 census.
Currently, Indigenous political participation, both in national and local elections, remains low, because of various reasons: the fragmentation of the movement due to the several groups within the Colombian Indigenous communities; the loss of the vote from non-Indigenous leaders and the low number of voters due to the fact that many who identify as indigenous comprise a small part of the national population and most of them live in the countryside without possibilities to vote.
Notable Indigenous Colombians
Jose Maria Melo, Colombian President during 1854, of Pijao descent.
Agustín Agualongo, Royalist during the Colombian Independence War.
Lido Pimienta, Colombian Canadian Songwriter and Musician, of Wayuu descent.
Luis Díaz, Colombian Footballer, of Wayuu descent.
Hunzahúa, First zaque of the Muisca Confederation.
Aquiminzaque, Last zaque of the Muisca Confederation.
India Catalina, Mokaná interpreter from the Caribbean coast.
Nairo Quintana, Colombian cyclist.
El Indio Harín, Colombian singer from Cali
Egan Bernal, Colombian cyclist.
Quintín Lame, Indigenous rebel of Paez origin.
:es:Feliciano Valencia, a famous Paez leader.
Lorenzo Muelas, Guambiano activist.
:es:María Clemencia Herrera Nemerayema, Witoto activist from Amazonas, Colombia.
See also
Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia
Spanish conquest of the Muisca
Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations
Indigenous peoples of South America
National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC)
Colombian mythology
Colombian folklore
Archaeological sites in Colombia
Race and ethnicity in Colombia
Mestizo Colombians
Concordat of 1928 (mostly deals with Missionary activities among Indigenous peoples)
Bibliography
Ideologia mesianico del mundo andino, Juan M. Ossio Acuña, Edicion de Ignacio Prado Pastor
References
13. http://juankbusaenz.blogspot.com/2011/
External links
UNESCO report on education of indigenous peoples in Colombia
Ethnic groups of Colombia
Documentary about the Wayuu Indigenous people of Colombia
Wayuu women
Colombia
Ethnic groups in Colombia
Colombia
Colombia |
4053624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%E2%80%9385%20in%20English%20football | 1984–85 in English football | The 1984–85 season was the 105th season of competitive football in England.
The season saw Everton build on their FA Cup success of the previous season by winning their first league title for 15 years and their first European silverware in the form of the European Cup Winners' Cup. However, they lost the FA Cup final to Manchester United. Norwich City won the Football League Cup but were relegated from the First Division.
However, the season was overshadowed by three tragedies involving English clubs. On 11 May 1985, the last day of the league season, a teenage spectator was killed at the St Andrew's stadium in a Second Division clash between Birmingham City and Leeds United in another incident of hooliganism which continued to blight English football at home and abroad. A far worse tragedy occurred on the same day when a fire ripped through the stadium of Third Division champions Bradford City, killing 56 spectators. On 29 May, at the European Cup Final in Brussels, rioting by Liverpool fans led to the collapse of a wall and 39 spectators (most of them Italian) were crushed or trampled to death in the panic. Shortly after the game, which Juventus of Italy won 1–0, all English clubs were banned from European competitions for an indefinite period, which ended up being 6 years for Liverpool and 5 years for every other English football club.
Bradford City stadium fire
56 spectators died and more than 200 were injured when a fire ripped through the Main Stand at Valley Parade during Bradford City's Third Division fixture with Lincoln City on 11 May. This tragedy was seen by many as a wake-up call for English clubs to improve the state of their grounds and take more drastic safety measures to bring an end to problems which had been plaguing the game for years without any effective action being taken.
Heysel disaster
Less than three weeks after the Bradford fire, 39 spectators (mostly Italian) were trampled to death on the terraces of Heysel Stadium where Liverpool took on Juventus in the European Cup final. As a result, all English clubs were banned indefinitely from European competition with Liverpool ordered to serve an extra three years whenever the other English sides were re-admitted. Despite the tragedy, the match was played and Juventus beat Liverpool 1–0.
Diary of the season
18 August 1984: Everton win the Charity Shield by beating Merseyside rivals Liverpool 1–0 at Wembley. The only goal is inadvertently deflected into his own net by Reds' goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar.
25 August 1984: The new league season has an early start as the London derby between Arsenal and Chelsea kicks off at 11:30am on police advice. The match ends in a 1–1 draw in front of over 45,000 at Highbury. Three penalties (one missed) and an own goal at Carrow Road where Norwich City come from 2–0 and 3–2 down to hold champions Liverpool to a 3–3 draw. Manchester United are pegged back by an 89th minute Watford equaliser at Old Trafford. Everton crash 4–1 at home to Tottenham Hotspur for whom debutants Clive Allen and John Chiedozie are among the scorers. In the Second Division, newly promoted Oxford United win 3–0 at Huddersfield Town but Wimbledon are held to a 2–2 draw by Manchester City after leading 2–0. Biggest winners of the day are Exeter City who beat Northampton Town 5–0 in Division Four.
27 August 1984: Newcastle United and Aston Villa both have two wins from their opening two matches but Stoke City and Everton are still looking for their first point. Paul Walsh scores after 14 seconds of his home debut for Liverpool, a 3–0 win over West Ham United.
31 August 1984: Everton get off the mark with a 1–0 win at Chelsea who were previously unbeaten since January.
1 September 1984: Newcastle beat Aston Villa 3–0 to top the league with the First Division's only 100% record after three games. Crowd trouble interrupts the match between Coventry City and Leicester City at Highfield Road. Peter Davenport scores a hat-trick as Nottingham Forest beat Sunderland 3–1 and Derby County's Kevin Wilson also scores three in his side's 3–2 win over Bolton Wanderers. Earlier in the week, Wilson scored four in a Milk Cup tie against Hartlepool United.
4 September 1984: Newcastle drop their first points in a 2–0 defeat at Arsenal. Tottenham have Graham Roberts and Clive Allen sent off as they lose 1–0 at Sunderland.
5 September 1984: Nottingham Forest go top after a Trevor Christie hat-trick helps them to a resounding 5–0 win at Aston Villa.
8 September 1984: Arsenal head Division One for the first time since February 1973 following their 3–1 win over Liverpool at Highbury. Manchester United beat Newcastle 5–0 to register their first win after four draws.
15 September 1984: Clive Allen scores twice against his former club as Tottenham beat Queens Park Rangers 5–0 to displace North London rivals Arsenal from top spot. The Gunners are beaten 2–1 at Ipswich Town. At Stamford Bridge, Chelsea's Colin Lee sees his penalty saved by West Ham keeper Tom McAlister but scores from the rebound. Referee Trevor Spencer orders a retake – Lee's second effort is also saved but he again scores from the rebound. The home side go on to win 3–0.
16 September 1984: Nottingham Forest return to the top with a 3–1 win over Luton Town at the City Ground.
18 September 1984: Back in European competition for the first time in eight years, QPR enjoy a 3–0 first leg win over KR Reykjavík in the UEFA Cup. Second Division leaders Birmingham City drop their first points of the season, beaten 1–0 at home by Portsmouth.
19 September 1984: Liverpool begin their defence of the European Cup with a 1–0 win over Lech Poznań in Poland. In the UEFA Cup, Manchester United and Tottenham enjoy comfortable wins but Nottingham Forest and Southampton both draw at home. Everton are surprisingly held by University College Dublin in the Cup Winners' Cup. The last two 100% league records come to an end as Hereford United draw with Chester City and Chesterfield lose at Hartlepool.
22 September 1984: QPR and Newcastle draw an extraordinary match 5–5 at Loftus Road. Newcastle led 4–0 at half-time with Chris Waddle contributing a hat-trick and were 5–3 up with just five minutes remaining. John Deehan scores three in Norwich's 3–2 win over Watford at Carrow Road. In the same fixture last season, Deehan scored four.
24 September 1984: Milk Cup holders Liverpool are held to a goalless draw in the first leg of their second round tie with Stockport County at Edgeley Park.
25 September 1984: Nottingham Forest are the only First Division side beaten in tonight's Milk Cup matches. They lose 1–0 at Portsmouth. John Barnes scores a hat-trick as Watford win for the first time this season, beating Cardiff City 3–1.
26 September 1984: Struggling Stoke lose 2–1 at home to Rotherham United in the Milk Cup. Young Welsh forward Mark Hughes scores his first senior hat-trick in Manchester United's 4–0 win over Burnley. Garth Crooks also scores three as league leaders Tottenham win 5–1 at Halifax Town.
29 September 1984: Another day of high scoring in today's fixtures – 153 goals at an average of more than three per match. Plymouth Argyle beat Preston North End 6–4 and Everton win by the odd goal in nine at Watford who slip to the bottom of the First Division. Leeds United beat Oldham Athletic 6–0 with Andy Ritchie scoring three. Other hat-trick heroes include Gary Stevens of Shrewsbury Town and Barnsley's David Geddis. Arsenal's veteran goalkeeper Pat Jennings saves a Kenny Hibbitt penalty in his side's 2–1 win at Coventry. Liverpool in turmoil – Grobbelaar has a nightmare as Sheffield Wednesday beat them 2–0 at Anfield. The champions have won only two of their eight league matches this season.
2 October 1984: QPR easily make it through to the second round of the UEFA Cup with a 4–0 win over KR Reykjavik, 7–0 on aggregate. The match is played at Arsenal as UEFA will not allow Rangers to use their artificial pitch at Loftus Road. Everton beat University College Dublin in the Cup Winners' Cup but only thanks to a single Graeme Sharp goal at Goodison Park. Fourth Division leaders Hereford concede their first league goals of the season in their eighth match, a 3–1 defeat at Chesterfield.
3 October 1984: Forest and Southampton are knocked out of Europe but Liverpool, Manchester United and Tottenham all make progress. John Wark scores a hat-trick as Liverpool beat Lech Poznań 4–0 and Garth Crooks bags three for the second successive week in Spurs' 6–0 win over Braga.
6 October 1984: Arsenal are back on top of the table – a Charlie Nicholas penalty gives them victory over Everton while Tottenham lose 1–0 at Southampton. Liverpool's woes continue as West Bromwich Albion hold them to a goalless draw at Anfield. The last unbeaten record in Division One goes as Manchester United lose 3–0 at Aston Villa. On-loan French winger Didier Six stars on his Villa debut. With Oxford losing 1–0 at Manchester City – their first defeat away from home since February – Portsmouth are now the only side yet to be beaten in the league this season.
9 October 1984: Coventry crash out of the Milk Cup, beaten 3–0 at home by last season's semi-finalists Walsall, 4–2 on aggregate. Liverpool need extra time to put out Stockport.
12 October 1984: Tottenham move ahead of Arsenal on goal difference at the top of the table with a 1–0 win over Liverpool.
13 October 1984: Arsenal return to the summit with a 4–1 win at Leicester. Manchester United remain in touch with a 5–1 win over West Ham. Watford, the only side without a league win this season, break their duck by beating Chelsea 3–2 at Stamford Bridge.
14 October 1984: Cardiff move off the bottom of Division Two at the expense of Notts County with a 2–0 win at Meadow Lane.
20 October 1984: A watershed moment in the season as Everton win at Anfield for the first time in 14 years. Graeme Sharp scores the only goal with a brilliant volley. Arsenal unveil their new 18ft x 14ft video screen for extra match day entertainment, the first of its kind in English football. On the pitch, the Gunners beat Sunderland 3–2 to retain top spot. Tottenham slip to fifth after defeat at Old Trafford while Sheffield Wednesday move up to second with a 5–0 win over Leicester. Portsmouth suffer their first league defeat, losing 3–2 at Wimbledon.
24 October 1984: In only his second match back following a knee operation, Ian Rush scores a hat-trick in Liverpool's 3–1 European Cup win over Benfica. Everton win at Fortuna Sittard in the Cup Winners' Cup through an early goal by Paul Bracewell. In the UEFA Cup, QPR beat Partizan Belgrade 6–2 at Highbury but Tottenham lose in Bruges with Glenn Hoddle sent off and Manchester United draw with PSV in Eindhoven.
27 October 1984: In-form Everton thrash Manchester United 5–0, United's biggest margin of defeat since losing 6–0 at Ipswich in March 1980. Leaders Arsenal are beaten 3–1 at West Ham. Tottenham nail Stoke to the bottom of the First Division with a 4–0 win at White Hart Lane. Leicester striker Gary Lineker scores a hat-trick in his side's 5–0 win over Aston Villa.
28 October 1984: Having slipped into the bottom three, Liverpool begin the climb to safety with a 2–0 win at Nottingham Forest.
30 October 1984: Chelsea need a late Colin Lee equaliser to rescue a 2–2 draw at Walsall in the Milk Cup third round. Everton beat Manchester United for the second time in four days, 2–1 at Old Trafford. Ex-Evertonian John Gidman heads the winner into his own goal.
31 October 1984: Arsenal are knocked out of the Milk Cup, beaten 3–2 at Second Division leaders Oxford. David Langan scores the winner thanks to a mistake by Pat Jennings. Liverpool's 1–0 defeat at Tottenham is the first tie the holders have lost in the competition since the 1979–80 season. Improving Watford enjoy a comprehensive 4–0 win at Leeds.
2 November 1984: Manchester United beat Arsenal 4–2 at Old Trafford, the Gunners' third consecutive defeat in the space of seven days.
3 November 1984: Everton go top of the League by beating Leicester 3–0. Kerry Dixon scores a hat-trick as Chelsea fight back from two down to beat Coventry 6–2. A late Ronnie Whelan goal gives Liverpool victory at Stoke. In Division Three, bottom side Cambridge United beat Newport County 2–1, their first away win in 18 months.
6 November 1984: Chelsea brush aside Walsall in their Milk Cup third round replay, scoring three goals in the first 11 minutes without reply. A Howard Gayle goal in extra time is enough for Sunderland to knock out Nottingham Forest who have 18-year-old Paul Raynor sent off.
7 November 1984: Liverpool concede early in Lisbon but hang on to edge past Benfica 3–2 on aggregate and into the European Cup quarter-finals. QPR are stunned by Partizan in the UEFA Cup, losing on away goals following a 4–0 defeat in Belgrade, but Tottenham and Manchester United make it through, as do Everton in the Cup Winners' Cup.
10 November 1984: Everton stay top with a 1–0 win over West Ham at Upton Park. Manchester United and Tottenham also win away but Arsenal are held at home by Aston Villa. In the Third Division, Hull City come from 4–1 down to win 5–4 at Orient.
17 November 1984: FA Cup first round day produces its usual selection of surprise results. Altrincham win 1–0 at Blackpool and Northwich Victoria beat Crewe Alexandra 3–1 while seven other non-league clubs take league opposition to a replay. No such luck for Tow Law Town, beaten 7–2 at Bradford City, or Penrith, thrashed 9–0 by Burnley for whom Kevin Hird and Alan Taylor both score three. In Division One, leaders Everton beat bottom club Stoke 4–0 at Goodison Park.
20 November 1984: In the Milk Cup fourth round, Second Division Grimsby Town cause a shock by winning at Everton through a last minute header by Paul Wilkinson. Andy Blair scores a hat-trick of penalties in Sheffield Wednesday's 4–2 win over Luton. Non-league Enfield and Telford United win through in FA Cup replays but Kettering Town and Bangor City are knocked out.
21 November 1984: Kerry Dixon scores his second hat-trick of the month as Chelsea beat Manchester City 4–1 in the Milk Cup. In the FA Cup, Bognor Regis Town beat Swansea City 3–1 to reach the second round for the first time in their history.
24 November 1984: Sunderland beat Manchester United 3–2 in a dramatic match at Roker Park. Both sides have a player sent off and Clive Walker scores a hat-trick (including two penalties) after the home side had trailed 2–0, all in the first half. Oxford also come from two down to beat Leeds 5–2 at the top of the Second Division with John Aldridge scoring three. Two goals by John Wark against his former club Ipswich give Liverpool their first league win at home for three months. Brighton and Hove Albion score their first goal in six matches but are beaten 2–1 at home by Middlesbrough.
26 November 1984: FA Cup replay joy for Alliance Premier League side Dagenham who win 2–1 after extra time at Swindon Town.
27 November 1984: QPR and Southampton play out a goalless Milk Cup replay at Loftus Road. Steve Moran has an 85th minute penalty saved by Rs' keeper Peter Hucker.
28 November 1984: Tottenham beat Bohemians Prague 2–0 in the UEFA Cup third round but Manchester United are held 2–2 at home by Dundee United. Gordon Strachan scores a penalty but has a second saved by fellow Scot Hamish McAlpine.
1 December 1984: Manchester United and Arsenal narrow the gap on leaders Everton who are held 1–1 by Sheffield Wednesday and have top scorer Adrian Heath carried off with a serious knee injury. In Division Two, Portsmouth and Blackburn Rovers draw a top-of-the-table clash 2–2 at Fratton Park with the home side fighting back after gifting the visitors two own goals.
5 December 1984: Sunderland surprise Tottenham in the Milk Cup with a 2–1 replay win at White Hart Lane. Goalkeeper Chris Turner saves a Graham Roberts penalty. QPR finally put out Southampton 4–0 in their second replay.
8 December 1984: Tottenham move to within a point of Everton after coming from behind to beat Newcastle 3–1. The leaders are held 0–0 at QPR and have Pat Van Den Hauwe sent off along with Rangers' Simon Stainrod. Manchester United lose at Forest and Southampton beat Arsenal – only three points now separate the top five. Telford record the most eye-catching result in the FA Cup second round, a 4–1 win at Preston. Other non-league clubs through to round three are Burton Albion, winners at Aldershot, and Dagenham, who knock out Peterborough United.
9 December 1984: Independiente of Argentina beat Liverpool 1–0 to win the World Club Championship in Tokyo.
12 December 1984: Manchester United win 3–2 at Dundee United (5–4 aggregate) and Tottenham draw 1–1 in Prague (3–1 aggregate) to ensure safe passage through to the UEFA Cup quarter-finals.
15 December 1984: Everton maintain their place at the top of the First Division with a 5–0 win over Nottingham Forest for whom Chris Fairclough is sent off and Gary Mills breaks a leg. Southampton lose 2–1 at Coventry, their first league defeat since 4 September.
21 December 1984: Liverpool's revival continues with a 2–0 win at QPR that moves them up to fifth in the table.
22 December 1984: Tottenham win 2–1 at Norwich to reclaim leadership of the First Division as Everton are beaten 4–3 at home by Chelsea for whom recent signing Gordon Davies scores a hat-trick. Two goals in the last two minutes by transfer listed Alan Biley give Portsmouth a 2–1 win over Oxford.
26 December 1984: Bottom of the First Division with only one win and eight points all season, Stoke stun Manchester United 2–1 at the Victoria Ground. Liverpool suffer a surprise home defeat to Leicester but Everton win at Sunderland. Tottenham stay top on goal difference despite being held at home by West Ham.
29 December 1984: The year ends with Tottenham heading the First Division after beating Sunderland 2–0. Everton win by the same score at Ipswich to stay on their heels. Blackburn top Division Two although a 3–1 home defeat to Huddersfield cuts their lead to three points while Bradford and Bury are both clear at the top of Divisions Three and Four respectively.
1 January 1985: Status quo maintained as Tottenham win at Arsenal and Everton beat Luton. Stoke suffer another pasting, this time 4–0 at Coventry. Peter Beardsley scores a hat-trick as Newcastle beat Sunderland 3–1. In Division Two, Fulham stage a remarkable fightback from 4–0 down to draw 4–4 at Portsmouth.
5 January 1985: FA Cup third round shocks include Orient's 2–1 win over West Bromwich Albion and Doncaster Rovers beating QPR 1–0. Burton are beaten 6–1 by Leicester at the Baseball Ground after their goalkeeper Paul Evans is left dazed by a missile thrown from the crowd with the score level at 1–1. The FA subsequently orders the match to be replayed. Trouble too at Highfield Road where Manchester City fans riot as their side go down 2–1 to Coventry. Telford knock out Third Division leaders Bradford but Dagenham are beaten at Carlisle United. Hereford, second in Division Four, hold Arsenal and Wigan Athletic draw at Chelsea after being two goals ahead. At White Hart Lane, Mark Aizlewood earns Charlton Athletic a replay with a scrambled equaliser after seeing his initial penalty saved by Ray Clemence. Luther Blissett scores four in Watford's 5–0 drubbing of Sheffield United.
8 January 1985: Fourth Division Darlington beat Middlesbrough 2–1 in an FA Cup replay at Feethams. The match is held up for 10 minutes during the second half following a pitch invasion.
9 January 1985: Only two FA Cup replays survive as cold weather begins to bite. Luton score two early goals on their way to a 3–2 win at Stoke while Nottingham Forest win 3–1 in extra time at Newcastle.
12 January 1985: Tottenham are held to a 2–2 draw at QPR and relinquish the league leadership to Everton who beat Newcastle 4–0. A frozen pitch causes Sunderland's match with Liverpool at Roker Park to be abandoned at half-time. Manchester United are beaten 1–0 by Coventry, their second successive home defeat, and lose captain Bryan Robson to a shoulder injury.
16 January 1985: Leicester win their replayed FA Cup tie with Burton 1–0 behind closed doors at Highfield Road. Norwich are the first team through to the semi-finals of the Milk Cup following a 1–0 win at Grimsby. Juventus beat Liverpool 2–0 in Turin to win the European Super Cup. Polish international striker Zbigniew Boniek scores both goals.
19 January 1985: Arctic conditions decimate today's fixture programme with only 10 matches played across the four divisions. Three survive in Division One – Liverpool beat Norwich 4–0 while Aston Villa win 3–0 at Coventry and Chelsea draw 1–1 with Arsenal. In the Second Division, Manchester City move into the top three by beating Wimbledon 3–0 and a Tommy Wright hat-trick helps Leeds to a 5–0 win over Notts County.
22 January 1985: The three times postponed FA Cup replay between Arsenal and Hereford finally results in a 7–2 win for the First Division side.
23 January 1985: Sunderland join Norwich in the Milk Cup semi-finals with a 1–0 win at Watford while QPR hold Ipswich to a goalless draw at Portman Road. In FA Cup replays, Tottenham, Huddersfield and Millwall all make it through to round four but Norwich and Birmingham must try again after drawing 1–1 at Carrow Road.
26 January 1985: Third Division York City cause the biggest FA Cup upset of the season – a last minute Keith Houchen penalty gives them victory over Arsenal at Bootham Crescent. Manchester United reserve goalkeeper Stephen Pears saves a Terry Gibson penalty in his side's 2–1 win over Coventry. In delayed third round replays, Blackburn beat Portsmouth 2–1 and Chelsea win 5–0 at Wigan with goal machine Kerry Dixon netting four. The Birmingham–Norwich marathon continues as the two sides draw a second replay 1–1 at St Andrew's.
27 January 1985: Ian Rush scores the only goal to give Liverpool victory over Tottenham in the heavyweight clash of the FA Cup fourth round.
28 January 1985: Ipswich win 2–1 at QPR in the Milk Cup but the fourth semi-finalist is still undecided as Chelsea are held 1–1 by Sheffield Wednesday. A goal credited to Steve Bruce at last sees Norwich overcome Birmingham in the FA Cup third round.
30 January 1985: Sheffield Wednesday and Chelsea draw a thrilling Milk Cup replay 4–4 at Hillsborough. Chelsea came from 3–0 down to lead 4–3 during normal time and then kicked off in both halves of extra time. In the FA Cup, Blackburn win at Oxford and Wimbledon beat Nottingham Forest in a replay. Last season, as a Third Division club, the Dons knocked Forest out of the Milk Cup.
2 February 1985: Everton beat Watford 4–0 to go four points clear of Tottenham, held 2–2 at Luton. The top four in Division Two are separated only by goal difference. Oxford lead the way after winning 1–0 at Carlisle, displacing Blackburn who draw 1–1 at Wimbledon. Manchester City and Birmingham complete the quartet after away wins at Crystal Palace and Huddersfield respectively.
4 February 1985: Telford, the last remaining non-league side in the FA Cup, beat Darlington 3–0 to book a fifth round tie at Everton. Chelsea are shocked 3–2 at home by Third Division promotion chasers Millwall.
6 February 1985: Mickey Thomas scores a last minute winner as Chelsea beat Sheffield Wednesday 2–1 at the third time of asking in the Milk Cup quarter-final.
9 February 1985: More bad weather hits today's fixture list with only 16 matches surviving the freeze. Manchester United are held 1–1 at Newcastle and miss the opportunity to make serious ground on Everton and Tottenham. Manchester City also slip up in Division Two, beaten 3–1 at home by Carlisle.
13 February 1985: Sunderland establish a 2–0 lead over Chelsea in the first leg of their Milk Cup semi-final. Two penalties by Colin West decide the match – he scores the first and converts a rebound after the second is saved by Eddie Niedzwiecki.
16 February 1985: Everton end Telford's FA Cup adventure with a 3–0 win at Goodison Park but York score an 86th minute equaliser to take Liverpool to a replay. Bradford extend their lead at the top of Division Three to 12 points with a 2–0 win at third placed Hull.
19 February 1985: Millwall make the FA Cup quarter-finals with a deserved 2–0 win over Leicester at The Den.
20 February 1985: Liverpool register a decisive 7–0 FA Cup replay win over York at Anfield with John Wark scoring a hat-trick.
23 February 1985: Two goals by Andy Gray – his first since September – give Everton an important 2–1 win at Leicester. Kenny Dalglish celebrates his 300th league appearance by scoring in Liverpool's 2–0 win over Stoke. A goal by Mich d'Avray gives Ipswich a slender 1–0 advantage from the first leg of their Milk Cup semi-final against Norwich.
24 February 1985: At the foot of the Second Division, Crystal Palace's relegation fears deepen as they suffer a 5–0 defeat at home to Wimbledon.
2 March 1985: Both sides miss a penalty as Everton draw 1–1 at Manchester United, enabling Tottenham to close the gap at the top to two points with a 1–0 win at Stoke. Manchester City replace Blackburn as leaders in Division Two with a 1–0 win at Ewood Park. Oxford are beaten 3–0 by Birmingham, their first league defeat at home in nearly a year. Charlton fight back from 3–0 down to win 5–3 against Barnsley for whom Ron Futcher scores a hat-trick and is later sent off.
4 March 1985: Over 100 people are arrested after serious crowd trouble disrupts the second leg of the Milk Cup semi-final between Chelsea and Sunderland. The Wearsiders win 3–2 to reach the final 5–2 on aggregate. In the FA Cup fifth round, Southampton suffer a surprise home defeat to Barnsley while a late goal by Alan Sunderland gives Ipswich a 3–2 win over Sheffield Wednesday.
6 March 1985: An Andy Gray hat-trick helps Everton to a comfortable win over Fortuna Sittard in the Cup Winners' Cup while Liverpool gain a useful 1–1 away draw with Austria Vienna in the European Cup. In the UEFA Cup, Manchester United narrowly beat Videoton but a Steve Perryman own goal against Real Madrid consigns Tottenham to their first ever home defeat in European competition. Norwich beat Ipswich 2–0 at Carrow Road to reach the Milk Cup final. In FA Cup replays, West Ham beat Wimbledon 5–1 with Tony Cottee scoring three while Watford and Luton draw 2–2 after extra time at Vicarage Road.
9 March 1985: Norman Whiteside scores a hat-trick as Manchester United make the FA Cup semi-finals with a 4–2 win over West Ham. Ipswich take Everton to a replay with a 2–2 draw at Goodison Park. Luton beat Watford 1–0 to reach the sixth round. Midfielder Wayne Turner scores the only goal on his 24th birthday.
10 March 1985: Liverpool win 4–0 at Barnsley in the FA Cup with Ian Rush notching up yet another hat-trick.
12 March 1985: A 2–1 win at Tottenham pushes Manchester United back into contention for the league title. Three players are sent off in the goalless draw between Stoke and West Bromwich Albion.
13 March 1985: Another explosion of football violence occurs as Millwall hooligans riot before, during and after their team's FA Cup quarter-final tie at Luton which ends in a 1–0 win for the home side. Everton complete the semi-final line-up with a 1–0 replay win at Ipswich.
15 March 1985: On his return from injury, Bryan Robson scores shortly after coming on as a substitute in Manchester United's 2–2 draw at West Ham.
16 March 1985: Tottenham beat Liverpool at Anfield for the first time since 1912 to move level on points with leaders Everton. Garth Crooks scores the only goal in the 71st minute. Sunderland win 3–1 at Norwich in a dress rehearsal for next weekend's Milk Cup final.
20 March 1985: A mixed night for English clubs in Europe. Liverpool and Everton make it through to their respective semi-finals but Tottenham and Manchester United are knocked out of the UEFA Cup. Spurs have Steve Perryman sent off in their goalless draw at the Bernabéu and United lose on penalties to Videoton.
23 March 1985: Osvaldo Ardiles marks his first appearance of the season with the opening goal in Tottenham's 5–1 win over Southampton. Everton beat Arsenal 2–0 to virtually extinguish the Gunners' waning championship hopes. Hat-tricks for Manchester United's Mark Hughes against Aston Villa and John Wark for Liverpool at West Bromwich Albion. In Division Two, Oxford move up to second with a 3–0 win over leaders Manchester City.
24 March 1985: Norwich win the Milk Cup. The significant action takes place in the space of five minutes at the start of the second half as Gordon Chisholm deflects an Asa Hartford shot into his own net for the only goal and Sunderland's Clive Walker misses a penalty.
30 March 1985: Two goals by reserve midfielder Kevin Richardson give Everton a 2–1 win at Southampton which takes them three points clear of Tottenham, who lose 2–0 at home to Aston Villa. Manchester City's lead in Division Two is cut to two points after a 2–2 draw with bottom club Cardiff. Oxford, Birmingham and Blackburn all win while Portsmouth draw at Shrewsbury.
31 March 1985: Manchester United stay in the championship race as a Frank Stapleton header gives them a 1–0 win at Anfield.
2 April 1985: Watford rout West Ham 5–0 in an important game at the foot of the First Division. In Division Two, Gordon Owen scores a hat-trick as Barnsley beat Oxford 3–0.
3 April 1985: In a match touted as the "title decider", Everton beat Tottenham 2–1 at White Hart Lane. Andy Gray and Trevor Steven score in each half to put Everton in control before Graham Roberts pulls a goal back. Neville Southall denies the home side a point with a breathtaking late save from Mark Falco. The win takes Everton four points clear with two matches in hand on Manchester United who leapfrog Spurs into second after a 2–1 win over Leicester. Ian Rush scores after 52 seconds to set Liverpool on course for a 3–0 win at Sunderland.
6 April 1985: Everton beat Sunderland 4–1 to maintain their lead on the chasing pack. Manchester United hammer Stoke 5–0 but Tottenham are held to a 1–1 draw at West Ham.
8 April 1985: Sunderland drop into the relegation zone following their goalless draw with Newcastle and away victories for Ipswich and Luton. West Ham are drawn further into the mire after a 4–2 defeat at QPR. In Division Two, Portsmouth move up to second by winning 3–1 at Fulham as Manchester City are beaten at home by Leeds.
9 April 1985: Manchester United suffer a major setback in their pursuit of leaders Everton as they slip to a 1–0 defeat at Sheffield Wednesday.
10 April 1985: Liverpool virtually book their place in next month's European Cup final with a 4–0 win over Panathinaikos. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Everton come away from the first leg of their semi-final against Bayern Munich with an encouraging goalless draw.
13 April 1985: FA Cup holders Everton reach the final by beating Luton 2–1 at Villa Park. An 85th minute Kevin Sheedy free kick cancels out Ricky Hill's first half strike and Derek Mountfield scores the winner near the end of extra time. In the other semi-final at Goodison Park, Liverpool twice come from behind to take Manchester United to a replay. The situation at the foot of Division One tightens further with Sunderland's 1–0 win at Coventry the most notable result. In Division Two, a David Geddis hat-trick helps Birmingham to a 3–1 win at Fratton Park which takes the Blues above Pompey into second.
16 April 1985: Cambridge become the first team to be relegated following a 2–1 defeat at Millwall. The Us have won only seven of their last 82 league matches.
17 April 1985: Manchester United beat Liverpool 2–1 in a stirring FA Cup semi-final replay at Maine Road. Tottenham's lingering title hopes suffer another blow as Arsenal beat them 2–0 at White Hart Lane, Spurs' fourth defeat in their last five home matches.
20 April 1985: Leaders Everton beat bottom side Stoke 2–0 at the Victoria Ground. Tottenham lose at home again, 3–2 to Ipswich. Barely two years after almost going out of business, Oxford stand on the brink of promotion to Division One after beating Oldham 5–2 with leading scorer John Aldridge bagging a hat-trick.
21 April 1985: Luton climb out of the relegation zone with a 2–1 win over Manchester United, a result which all but hands Everton the title and confirms Stoke's relegation. The Potters have accumulated just three wins and 17 points from 35 league matches.
23 April 1985: Bradford win 4–0 at Cambridge to clinch promotion from Division Three while Hull look like joining them following a 4–1 win at Preston that gives them a cushion of 11 points over fourth placed Bristol City.
24 April 1985: A Mark Lawrenson goal in Greece completes a comfortable 5–0 aggregate win for Liverpool over Panathinaikos in the European Cup. Their opponents in next month's final will be Italian giants Juventus. Everton reach their first European final with a 3–1 win over Bayern Munich at Goodison Park in the Cup Winners' Cup. Oxford beat Shrewsbury 1–0 and are promoted to Division One.
27 April 1985: Everton beat Norwich 3–0 and need only five points from their remaining seven matches to be certain of the title. Coventry boost their survival hopes with a 2–1 win over West Bromwich Albion but Sunderland remain in deep trouble despite holding Manchester United to a 2–2 draw at Old Trafford. Norman Whiteside misses a penalty. At Stamford Bridge, Chelsea introduce their new 'electric fence' aimed at combating hooliganism. They draw 1–1 with Tottenham and the fence is not switched on. Birmingham's 1–0 win at Barnsley puts them on the verge of an immediate return to the First Division but the third promotion spot is still up for grabs. Blackburn lose 1–0 at Charlton so Manchester City move into the driving seat with a 2–1 win at Portsmouth while Leeds keep their faint hopes alive by beating Oxford 1–0.
4 May 1985: Many promotion and relegation issues remain undecided on the penultimate Saturday of the League season. In Division One, six of the bottom seven lose, the exception being Luton who beat Arsenal 3–1. Sunderland look doomed following a 4–0 home defeat by Aston Villa. Birmingham and Hull confirm their promotions while Darlington are poised to join Chesterfield, Bury and Blackpool in going up from Division Four.
6 May 1985: Everton beat QPR 2–0 and are league champions for the first time since 1970. Sunderland lose 2–0 at Leicester and are relegated. Wolves go down to Division Three despite beating Huddersfield 2–1 in front of a crowd of 4422, the lowest ever for a league match at Molineux. The second half at Notts County is delayed by half an hour as Manchester City fans riot with their team 3–0 behind. County eventually run out 3–2 winners to improve their chances of avoiding relegation and deal a blow to City's promotion hopes.
11 May 1985: A black day for English football. 56 people are burnt to death and more than 200 others injured at Valley Parade, Bradford in a fire caused by a discarded cigarette which set light to waste beneath the wooden main stand. The speed with which the blaze spread was astonishing. Tragedy also at Birmingham where rioting Leeds fans hold up play and later cause the collapse of a brick wall, killing a 14-year-old boy. Manchester City beat Charlton 5–1 and clinch promotion to the First Division ahead of Portsmouth on goal difference while at the other end Notts County and Cardiff are relegated. Oxford secure the Second Division title with a 4–0 win over Barnsley. Millwall are promoted from Division Three but Preston and Orient go down to be joined by either Swansea or Burnley. Everton's unbeaten run of 28 league and cup matches comes to end as they go down to a Garry Birtles goal at Nottingham Forest.
14 May 1985: Norwich win 2–1 at Chelsea in their final match of the season, meaning Coventry – held 0–0 at Ipswich – must win their remaining three matches to stay up and send the Canaries or West Ham down instead.
15 May 1985: Everton lift the European Cup Winners' Cup with a 3–1 win over Rapid Vienna in Rotterdam. Second half goals from Sharp, Steven and Sheedy clinch their second trophy of the season and keep alive hopes of a 'treble' with the FA Cup final to follow.
17 May 1985: West Ham secure their First Division status with a 1–0 win at Ipswich while Coventry win by the same score at Stoke to retain a chance of survival. Swansea hold Bristol City to a goalless draw, a result which relegates Burnley to the Fourth Division. Both they and Lancashire rivals Preston will play at this level next season for the first time in their histories.
18 May 1985: Manchester United win the FA Cup for the sixth time, beating Everton 1–0 thanks to a goal by Norman Whiteside in extra time. United played with only 10 men following the 77th minute dismissal of defender Kevin Moran for a foul on Peter Reid, the first ever sending-off in an FA Cup final.
20 May 1985: After sinking as low as 20th earlier in the season, Liverpool clinch the runners-up spot with a 3–0 win at West Ham in their penultimate League match.
23 May 1985: An 84th minute goal by Brian Kilcline gives Coventry a dramatic 1–0 win over Luton and edges them closer to First Division safety. Everton beat Liverpool 1–0, their third such win over the deposed champions this season. John Wark misses a penalty.
26 May 1985: Coventry beat Everton 4–1 to complete their 'great escape'. Milk Cup winners Norwich are relegated despite a haul of 49 points, the highest ever recorded by a team relegated from the top flight.
28 May 1985: Luton beat an understrength Everton 2–0 in the final match of the League season.
29 May 1985: 39 spectators, most of them Italian, are killed when a wall collapses at the European Cup final between Liverpool and Juventus at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels. Despite the tragedy, the match is played and Michel Platini scores from a penalty as Juventus win 1–0. UEFA later bans all English clubs indefinitely from European competitions as a result of the disaster. Just hours before kick-off, Joe Fagan had announced that he would be retiring as Liverpool manager after two seasons in charge.
National team
European football
FA Cup
Manchester United won their second FA Cup in three years after a Norman Whiteside goal gave them an extra-time 1–0 victory over Everton at Wembley. Defender Kevin Moran became the first player to be sent off in an FA Cup final at Wembley when he brought down Peter Reid in what he insisted was a misjudged tackle. United's triumph ended Everton's hopes of completing a treble of trophies – they had already lifted the league title and UEFA Cup Winners Cup. Millwall fans rioted in their 6th round match against Luton Town, causing Luton to ban away fans from their ground. Non-League Telford United collected four League scalps on their way to the fifth round proper, the joint-best run by a non-league side until Lincoln City reached the quarter-finals in 2016-17.
League Cup
Norwich City became the first club to win a major trophy in a relegation season as they lifted the League Cup after beating Sunderland, who went down with them to the Second Division. This occurrence would not be repeated for some 26 years when Birmingham City suffered the same fate; also relegated after lifting the League Cup earlier in the season.
Football League
First Division
Everton won their first league title for 15 years with five matches to spare, and also won the European Cup Winners' Cup to claim their first ever European trophy, but were denied a treble when they lost to Manchester United in the final of the FA Cup. Liverpool endured their first trophyless season for a decade, although they did finish runners-up in the league, reached the FA Cup semi-finals and were on the losing side in the European Cup final - a match marred by a riot before kick-off in which 39 spectators died. The British government swiftly banned all English clubs from competing in the following season's European competitions, before UEFA placed an indefinite ban on English clubs playing in Europe and ordered Liverpool to serve an extra three years when the ban on other clubs was lifted.
Tottenham Hotspur enjoyed another good season, topping the First Division over Christmas before finishing third in the final table. Southampton continued to compete with the bigger clubs and finished fifth. Newly promoted Chelsea, Sheffield Wednesday and Newcastle United enjoyed a strong return to the First Division, finishing sixth, eighth and 14th respectively.
Stoke City went down in bottom place with one of the worst First Division records ever - a mere three wins from 42 games and 17 points from a possible 126. Sunderland, runners-up in the League Cup, had a dismal season in the league and were relegated in second place from bottom. Norwich City went down with 49 points (more than any other relegated First Division side) but the blow was cushioned by victory in the League Cup. QPR, who had finished fifth a year earlier, avoided relegation by one place and one point. Player-manager Frank Sibley was dismissed after one season to be replaced by Jim Smith of Oxford United. Ipswich Town's decline since the departure of Bobby Robson to the England job three years earlier continued as the Suffolk club finished 17th, with most of Robson's fine team now gone.
Second Division
23 years after joining the Football League, Oxford United reached the First Division by clinching the Second Division title and securing a second successive promotion. The only downside to their promotion was the departure soon afterwards of manager Jim Smith to QPR, leaving Maurice Evans to try to build an Oxford side capable of defying the odds and surviving at the highest level. Birmingham City achieved an instant return to the First Division after keeping faith in manager Ron Saunders, while Manchester City won promotion on goal difference ahead of Portsmouth. Blackburn Rovers, absent from the First Division since 1966, missed out on promotion by a single point, while just two points kept Brighton out of the First Division.
Wimbledon, in their first season as a Second Division club and only their eighth in the Football League, finished a secure 12th.
Notts County and debt-ridden Wolverhampton Wanderers suffered a second successive relegation, while Cardiff City returned to the Third Division after just two years away. Middlesbrough, another club faced with mounting debts, narrowly avoided relegation to the Third Division for the first time in 20 years.
Third Division
Bradford City's promotion glory and Third Division title triumph ended in tragedy with the death of 56 spectators (all but two of them Bradford fans) in a stadium fire on the final day of the season at home to Lincoln City. The second promotion place went to Millwall, who had a happy end to the season just weeks after they had made the headlines for all the wrong reasons after hundreds of their fans ran riot in an FA Cup tie at Luton. The last promotion place was sealed by Hull City, while Gillingham and Bristol City just missed out.
Derby County failed to mount a serious challenge for an immediate return to the Second Division, although their seventh-place finish was hardly disastrous. Newly promoted York City finished eighth in the league but made headlines in the FA Cup by beating Arsenal in the fourth round and taking Liverpool to a replay in the fifth.
In an era where consecutive relegations were a regular event, Cambridge United were rooted to the bottom of the Third Division with just four wins, 21 points and a joint league record of 33 defeats. Orient also went down, but the biggest news at the lower end of this divisions was the relegation of Preston North End and Burnley to the Fourth Division for the very first time - an incredible low for two clubs with a host of league titles and FA Cup wins to their name, with Burnley's most recent title win coming as recently as 1960, although Preston's only two league titles had come in the league's first two seasons nearly a century earlier and their last FA Cup win was in 1938.
Debt-ridden Swansea City, who had finished sixth in the First Division in 1982, narrowly avoided a third successive relegation.
Fourth Division
Chesterfield sealed the Fourth Division title, with runners-up spot going to a Blackpool side who had recently been saved from closure. Former Tottenham Hotspur star Cyril Knowles achieved his first success as a manager by guiding Darlington to promotion in third place, while the last promotion spot went to Bury, who finished seven points ahead of Hereford United.
Torquay United, Northampton Town, Stockport County and Halifax Town propped up the Fourth Division but were re-elected to the league.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Kerry Dixon (Chelsea) and Gary Lineker (Leicester City) – 24 goals
Second Division
John Aldridge (Oxford United) – 30 goals
Third Division
Tommy Tynan (Plymouth Argyle) – 31 goals
Fourth Division
John Clayton (Tranmere Rovers) – 31 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Awards
Everton's team included PFA Players' Player of the Year Peter Reid and FWA Footballer of the Year Neville Southall.
PFA Young Player of the Year was Manchester United's Welsh striker Mark Hughes, who helped his side lift the FA Cup.
Notable managers
Howard Kendall brought glory to Everton as they lifted the league championship trophy and the Cup Winners' Cup.
Ron Atkinson won his second FA Cup in three years with Manchester United.
Jim Smith brought First Division football to Oxford United less than a quarter of a century after they were elected to the league.
Ken Brown guided Norwich City to League Cup glory which compensated for their relegation to the Second Division.
Howard Wilkinson guided newly promoted Sheffield Wednesday to seventh place in the First Division in their first top division season for more than a decade.
Ron Saunders took Birmingham City back into the First Division at the first time of asking.
Trevor Cherry guided Bradford City to Third Division championship glory.
Former Arsenal player George Graham achieved managerial success with Millwall as they won promotion to the Second Division.
Brian Horton took Hull City to promotion in the Third Division.
Cyril Knowles (who played for Tottenham in the late 1960s and early 1970s), enjoyed success in management by getting Darlington promoted to the Third Division.
Notable debutants
25 August 1984: Dale Gordon, 17-year-old winger, makes his debut for Norwich City in a 3–3 draw with Liverpool at Carrow Road in the First Division.
26 December 1984: Nigel Clough, 18-year-old striker and son of manager Brian Clough, makes his debut for Nottingham Forest in a 2–0 home win over Ipswich Town in the First Division.
23 March 1985: Martin Allen, 19-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Queen's Park Rangers in a 2–0 away defeat against Luton Town in the First Division.
13 April 1985: Paul Gascoigne, 17-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Newcastle United in a 1-0 First Division home win over Queen's Park Rangers.
20 April 1985: Tony Daley, 17-year-old winger, makes his debut for Aston Villa in a 0-2 First Division defeat at Southampton.
11 May 1985: Dennis Wise, 18-year-old winger, makes his debut for Wimbledon in 2–1 home win over Cardiff City in the Second Division.
Deaths
14 August 1984 – Mike Barrett, 24, Bristol Rovers winger. Died as a result of cancer.
6 November 1984 – Micky Cave, 35, former Torquay United, AFC Bournemouth and York City midfielder. Died from accidental carbon monoxide poisoning.
27 December 1984 - Leslie Compton, 72, who played senior football and cricket between 1930 and 1956, died from a diabetes related illness. He spent his entire footballing career at Arsenal and was capped twice for England in 1950 at the age of 38.
9 March 1985 - Harry Catterick, 65, manager of Everton from 1961 to 1973, during which time they won two league titles and an FA Cup. Died from a heart attack at Goodison Park after watching Everton draw 2-2 with Ipswich Town in the quarter-final of the FA Cup.
References |
4053672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology | Evolutionary developmental psychology | Evolutionary developmental psychology (EDP) is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of evolution by natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.
EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as individual differences in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts) and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters) rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity." From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.
EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of evolutionary psychology (EP), but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including: research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood); consideration of proximate ontogenetic; environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens). These things of which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.
History
Development and evolution
Like mainstream evolutionary psychology, EDP is rooted in Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin himself emphasized development, using the process of embryology as evidence to support his theory. From The Descent of Man:"Man is developed from an ovule...which differs in no respect from the ovules of other animals. The embryo itself at a very early period can hardly be distinguished from that of other members of the vertebrate kingdom."Darwin also published his observations of the development of one of his own sons in 1877, noting the child's emotional, moral, and linguistic development.
Despite this early emphasis on developmental processes, theories of evolution and theories of development have long been viewed as separate, or even opposed to one another (for additional background, see nature versus nurture). Since the advent of the modern evolutionary synthesis, evolutionary theory has been primarily "gene-centric", and developmental processes have often been seen as incidental. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins's appraisal of development in 1973 illustrates this shift: "The details of embryological developmental processes, interesting as they may be, are irrelevant to evolutionary considerations." Similarly, sociobiologist E. O. Wilson regarded ontogenetic variation as "developmental noise".
As a consequence of this shift in perspective, many biologists interested in topics such as embryology and developmental systems subsequently branched off into evolutionary developmental biology.
Evolutionary perspectives in developmental psychology
Despite the minimization of development in evolutionary theory, early developmental psychology was influenced by evolution. Both Darwin's theory of evolution and Karl Ernst von Baer's developmental principles of ontogeny shaped early thought in developmental psychology. Wilhelm T. Preyer, a pioneer of child psychology, was heavily inspired by Darwin's work and approached the mental development of children from an evolutionary perspective.
However, evolutionary theory has had a limited impact on developmental psychology as a whole, and some authors argue that even its early influence was minimal. Developmental psychology, as with the social sciences in general, has long been resistant to evolutionary theories of development (with some notable exceptions, such as John Bowlby's work on attachment theory). Evolutionary approaches to human behavior were, and to some extent continue to be, considered a form of genetic determinism and dismissive of the role of culture and experience in shaping human behavior (see Standard social science model).
One group of developmental psychologists who have embraced evolutionary perspectives are nativists, who argue than infants possess innate cognitive mechanisms (or modules) which allow them to acquire crucial information, such as language (for a prominent example, see universal grammar).
Evolutionary developmental psychology
Evolutionary developmental psychology can be viewed as a more focused theoretical framework derived from the larger field of evolutionary psychology (EP). Mainstream evolutionary psychology grew out of earlier movements which applied the principles of evolutionary biology to understand the mind and behavior such as sociobiology, ethology, and behavioral ecology, differing from these earlier approaches by focusing on identifying psychological adaptations rather than adaptive behavior. While EDP theory generally aligns with that of mainstream EP, it is distinguished by a conscious effort to reconcile theories of both evolution and development. EDP theory diverges from mainstream evolutionary psychology in both the degree of importance placed on the environment in influencing behavior, and in how evolution has shaped the development of human psychology.
Advocates of EDP assert that evolutionary psychologists, while acknowledging the role of the environment in shaping behavior and making claims as to its effects, rarely develop explicit models (i.e., predictions of how the environment might shape behavior) to support their claims . EDP seeks to distinguish itself from mainstream evolutionary psychology in this way by embracing a developmental systems approach, and emphasizing that function at one level of organization (e.g., the genetic level) effects organization at adjacent levels of an organization. Developmental systems theorists such as Robert Lickliter point out that the products of development are both genetic and epigenetic, and have questioned the strictly gene-centric view of evolution. However, some authors have rebutted the claim that mainstream evolutionary psychologists do not integrate developmental theory into their theoretical programs, and have further questioned the value of developmental systems theory (see Criticism).
Additionally, evolutionary developmental psychologists emphasize research on psychological development and behaviors across the lifespan. Pioneers of EDP contrast their work with that of mainstream evolutionary psychologists, who they argue focus primarily on adults, especially on behaviors related to socializing and mating.
Evolutionary developmental psychologists have worked to integrate evolutionary and developmental theories, attempting to synthesize the two without discarding the theoretical foundations of either. This effort is evident in the types of questions which researchers working in the EDP paradigm ask; in reference to Nikolaas Tinbergen's four categories of questions, EP typically focuses on evolutionary ("Why") questions, while EDP explicitly integrates proximate questions ("How"), with the assumption that a greater understanding of the former category will yield insights into the latter. See the following table for an overview of Tinbergen's questions.
Basic assumptions
The following list summarizes the broad theoretical assumptions of EDP. From "Evolutionary Developmental Psychology," in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology:
All evolutionarily-influenced characteristics in the phenotype of adults develop, and this requires examining not only the functioning of these characteristics in adults but also their ontogeny.
All evolved characteristics develop via continuous and bidirectional gene-environment interactions that emerge dynamically over time.
Infants and children are prepared by natural selection to process some information more readily than others.
Development is constrained by genetic, environmental, and cultural factors.
Infants and children show a high degree of developmental plasticity and adaptive sensitivity to context.
An extended childhood is needed in which to learn the complexities of human social communities.
Many aspects of childhood serve as preparations for adulthood and were selected over the course of evolution (deferred adaptations).
Some characteristics of infants and children were selected to serve an adaptive function at specific times in development and not as preparations for adulthood (ontogenetic adaptations).
Developmental adaptations
EDP assumes that natural selection creates adaptations for specific stages of development, rather than only specifying adult states. Frequently, EDP researchers seek to identify such adaptations, which have been subdivided into deferred adaptations, ontogenetic adaptations, and conditional adaptations.
Deferred adaptations
Some behaviors or traits exhibited during childhood or adolescence may have been selected to serve as preparations for adult life, a type of adaptation that evolutionary developmental psychologists have named "deferred adaptations". Sex differences in children's play may be an example of this type of adaptation: higher frequencies of "rough-and-tumble" play among boys, as well as content differences in fantasy play (cross-culturally, girls engage in more "parenting" play than boys), seem to serve as early preparation for the roles that men and women play in many extant contemporary societies, and, presumably, played over human evolutionary history.
Ontogenetic adaptations
In contrast to deferred adaptations, which function to prepare individuals for future environments (i.e., adulthood), ontogenetic adaptations adapt individuals to their current environment. These adaptations serve a specific function during a particular period of development, after which they are discarded. Ontogenetic adaptations can be physiological (for example, when fetal mammals deriving nutrition and oxygen from the placenta before birth, but no longer utilize the placenta after birth) and psychological. David F. Bjorklund has argued that the imitation of facial gestures by infants, which has a predictable developmental window and seemingly different functions at different ages, shows evidence of being an ontogenetic adaptation.
Conditional adaptations
EDP emphasizes that children display considerable developmental plasticity, and proposes a special type of adaptation to facilitate adaptive developmental plasticity, called a conditional adaptation. Conditional adaptations detect and respond to relevant environmental cues, altering developmental pathways in ways which better adapt an individual to their particular environment. These adaptations allow organisms to implement alternative and contingent life history strategies, depending on environmental factors.
Related research
Social learning and the evolution of childhood
The social brain (or Machiavellian) hypothesis posits that the emergence of a complex social environment (e.g., larger group sizes) served as a key selection pressure in the evolution of human intelligence. Among primates, larger brains result in an extension of the juvenile period, and some authors argue that humans evolved (and/or expanded) novel developmental stages, childhood and adolescence, in response to increasing social complexity and sophisticated social learning.
While many species exhibit social learning to some degree and seemingly possess behavioral traditions (i.e., culture), humans can transmit cultural information across many generations with very high fidelity. High fidelity cultural learning is what many have argued is necessary for cumulative cultural evolution, and has only been definitively observed in humans, although arguments have been made for chimpanzees, orangutans, and New Caledonian crows. Developmentally-oriented researchers have proposed that over-imitation of behavioral models facilitates cultural learning, a phenomenon which emerges in children by age three and is seemingly absent in chimpanzees.
Cooperation and prosociality
Behaviors that benefit other members of one's social group, particularly those which appear costly to the prosocial or "altruistic" individual, have received considerable attention from disciplines interested in the evolution of behavior. Michael Tomasello has argued that cooperation and prosociality are evolved characteristics of human behavior, citing the emergence of "helping" behavior early in development (observed among 18-24 month old infants) as one piece of evidence. Researchers investigating the ontogeny and evolution of human cooperation design experiments intended to reveal the prosociality of infants and young children, then compare children's performance with that of other animals, typically chimpanzees. While some of the helping behaviors exhibited by infants and young children has also been observed in chimpanzees, preschool-age children tend to display greater prosociality than both human-raised and semi-free-ranging adult chimps.
Life history strategies and developmental plasticity
EDP researchers emphasize that evolved strategies are context dependent, in the sense that a strategy which is optimal in one environment will often be sub-optimal in another environment. They argue that this will result in natural selection favoring "adaptive developmental plasticity," allowing an organism to alter its developmental trajectory in response to environmental cues.
Related to this is the idea of a life history strategy, which can be conceptualized as a chain of resource-allocation decisions (e.g., allocating resources towards growth or towards reproduction) that an organism makes. Biologists have used life history theory to characterize between-species variation in resource-allocation in terms of a fast-slow continuum (see r/K selection theory), and, more recently, some anthropologists and psychologists have applied this continuum to understand within-species variation in trade-offs between reproductive and somatic effort.
Some authors argue that childhood environment and early life experiences are highly influential in determining an individual's life history strategy. Factors such as exposure to violence, harsh child-rearing, and environmental unpredictability (e.g., frequent moving, unstable family composition) have been shown to correlate with the proposed behavioral indicators of "fast" life history strategies (e.g., early sexual maturation, unstable couple relationships, impulsivity, and reduced cooperation), where current reproduction is prioritized over future reproduction.
Criticism
John Tooby, Leda Cosmides, and H. Clark Barrett have refuted claims that mainstream evolutionary psychology neglects development, arguing that their discipline is, in reality, exceptionally interested in and highly considerate of development. In particular, they cite cross-cultural studies as a sort of natural developmental "experiment," which can reveal the influence of culture in shaping developmental outcomes. The authors assert that the arguments of developmental systems theorists consists largely of truisms, of which evolutionary psychologists are well aware, and that developmental systems theory has no scientific value because it fails to generate any predictions.
Debra Lieberman similarly objected to the characterization of evolutionary psychology as ignorant of developmental principles. Lieberman argued that both developmental systems theorists and evolutionary psychologists share a common goal of uncovering species-typical cognitive architecture, as well as the ontogeny of that architecture.
See also
Developmental psychology
Differential susceptibility
Dual inheritance theory
Epigenetic theory
Evolutionary educational psychology
Evolutionary psychology
FOXP2 and human evolution
Human behavioral ecology
Life history theory
Nature and nurture
Wikipedia:Research resources/Evolution and human behavior
References
Relevant journals
Evolution and Development Research relevant to interface of evolutionary and developmental biology
Evolutionary Psychology (journal) (2014)
Further reading
Burgess, R. L. & MacDonald (Eds.) (2004). Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Ellis, B.J., & Bjorklund, D.F. (Eds.) (2005). Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development. New York: Guilford Press.
Ellis, B.J., Essex, M.J., & Boyce, W.T. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: II. Empirical explorations of an evolutionary-developmental theory. Development and Psychopathology 17, 303–328. Full text
Flinn M.V. (2004). Culture and developmental plasticity: Evolution of the social brain. In K. MacDonald and R. L. Burgess (Eds.), Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development. Chapter 3, pp. 73–98. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Full text
Flinn, M.V. & Ward, C.V. (2004). Ontogeny and Evolution of the Social Child. In B. Ellis & D. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development. Chapter 2, pp. 19–44. London: Guilford Press. Full text
Geary, D. C. (2005). Folk knowledge and academic learning. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind. (pp. 493–519). New York: Guilford Publications. Full text
Geary, D. C. (2004). Evolution and cognitive development. In R. Burgess & K. MacDonald (Eds.), Evolutionary perspectives on human development (pp. 99–133). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Full text
MacDonald, K. (2005). Personality, Evolution, and Development. In R. Burgess and K. MacDonald (Eds.), Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development, 2nd edition, pp. 207–242. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Full text
MacDonald, K., & Hershberger, S. (2005). Theoretical Issues in the Study of Evolution and Development. In R. Burgess and K. MacDonald (Eds.), Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development, 2nd edition, pp. 21–72. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Full text
Robert, J. S. Taking old ideas seriously: Evolution, development, and human behavior. New Ideas in Psychology.
Developmental psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Human development
E |
4053759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20of%20Warcraft%20Trading%20Card%20Game | World of Warcraft Trading Card Game | The World of Warcraft Trading Card Game (WoW TCG) is an out-of-print collectible card game based on Blizzard Entertainment's MMORPG, World of Warcraft. The game was announced by Upper Deck Entertainment on August 18, 2005 and released on October 25, 2006. Players can play against each other one-on-one, or can join others in order to defeat dungeon/raid "bosses" based on those in the MMORPG. In March 2010, Upper Deck lost the license from Blizzard Entertainment. The license was acquired by Cryptozoic Entertainment later in the month, with the company announcing that planned card sets would be released.
On August 23, 2013, Blizzard Entertainment announced that the TCG would be discontinued, and that they would not be renewing the game's license. In March 2014, Blizzard released Hearthstone: Heroes of Warcraft, an online collectible card game featuring many of the same characters, abilities and artwork.
Game details
Each player uses a hero card and a deck consisting of allies and other supporting cards, such as weapons, abilities, armor, items and quests. Many cards include a trait icon, which limits what heroes can include the card in their decks. Some booster packs also contain legendary rares, or loot cards (i.e. special versions of normal cards) which contain a scratch-off code. This code can then be redeemed in the online game for a virtual prize. The prizes include special tabards, gimmick items, non-combat pets, and mounts.
During play, players start with a single hero. Once per turn, players can play any card from their hand as a resource, which enables the payment of additional cards to augment the hero's powers or add additional members to his or her party. Once brought into play by paying the appropriate cost, all cards (except abilities) remain until destroyed or removed from play. As in games such as Magic: The Gathering, the goal is to reduce the remaining health of the opposing hero to zero. Unlike Magic, combat attacks are always directed at individual heroes or allies, rather than simply declaring an attack with a number of creatures. Furthermore, damage done to characters accumulates between turns, making combat more expensive for both the attacker and defender.
Card types
The following types of cards are featured in the game:
Hero - The character which a given player is playing as. Each hero has an amount of starting health, faction affiliation, race, class, specializations, and professions. The hero's traits determine what other cards can be included in the deck (e.g., Horde heroes can only have Horde allies). Lastly, each hero has a unique power which can be used once per game, after which the hero card is turned face down. Starting with Worldbreaker, Hero cards no longer have professions.
Master Hero - Master Hero cards, when played, replace a player's hero with a new card. The original hero is removed from the game and any damage, abilities, equipment, tokens or attachments that were on the hero beforehand are brought onto the Master Hero. Master Heroes, unless specified otherwise, can use all equipment and abilities, but abilities on cards that look for specific types cannot be activated. Powers originally on heroes do not carry on to the Master Hero.
Ability - Cards that cause some immediate impact to the game. Abilities can either be of the [Basic type], able to be played only during one's turn, or can be [Instant], able to be played at virtually any time.
Ally - Other individuals and companions who assist and fight on behalf of the main hero. Most allies are affiliated with either the Horde or the Alliance; cards affiliated with the faction opposing the hero are not permitted in a deck. Neutral allies can be included in a deck of either faction. Allies can attack opposing heroes or allies, but can also be attacked.
Armor - Defensive cards which protect heroes from damage. By paying the appropriate resource cost, armor can be exhausted each turn in order to reduce damage dealt to a player's hero. Players are limited in how many different pieces of armor they may equip on any given "body part" (e.g., only one piece of chest armor at a time).
Weapon - Offensive cards which can augment a hero's melee or ranged capabilities. As with armor cards, players are limited on how many weapons they may have equipped at once. In order to use a weapon card to increase attack power during combat, a player must pay a resource cost (Strike Cost) associated with the weapon. Weapons can be used when either attacking or defending, but usually only one weapon can be used per combat.
Item - Gear the hero can have in addition to weapons and armor. Rings, potions, and trinkets are examples of items.
Quest - Special cards which act as resource cards, but with additional abilities. Quests can be completed by fulfilling a condition described on the card. When this is done, a reward is earned (e.g., drawing additional cards) and the quest is normally turned face down.
Location - Location cards are similar to quest cards, but are not turned face down to use their abilities. Only one location can be controlled at a time, even if locations have different names.
Loot - Loot cards are special versions of cards which can be used within the card game (e.g. as normal allies), but which also contain a scratch-off code. This code can be entered into the website for the online game, which will provide a unique in-game item.
Products
Twenty-one expansion sets (and one reprint set) were released for the WoW TCG. Cards were usually sold in booster packs, which contain 15 random cards - 10 commons, 3 uncommons, 1 rare or epic, and 1 hero card or loot card. Booster packs also had one UDE point card redeemable online. Starting with March of the Legion and ending with Twilight of the Dragons, booster packs contained 18 random cards due to more variation of card types: 2 extra commons and 1 extra uncommon.
The color of the collector number printed on a card indicates its rarity, using a system similar to that of the online game: white for common, green for uncommon, blue for rare, purple for epic, and orange for legendary.
Certain sets also released with Starter Decks, containing a pre-constructed deck consisting of 33 fixed cards built around one of the 9 classes, 2 booster packs, 3 oversized hero cards and a rulebook. These decks contain 1 rare, 6 uncommons, and the rest are commons. Starter decks were released for Heroes of Azeroth, Through the Dark Portal, March of the Legion, and Drums of War. Class Decks and Champion Decks are other types of Starter Decks. The Battle Deck is a PvP variation of the Starter Deck that contains two pre-constructed decks consisting of 44 fixed cards, 3 oversized hero cards and 8 exclusive allies.
Sets released
Heroes of Azeroth (released October 2006)
Through the Dark Portal (released April 2007)
Fires of Outland (released August 2007)
March of the Legion (released December 2007)
Servants of the Betrayer (released April 2008)
The Hunt for Illidan (released July 2008)
Drums of War (released November 2008)
Blood of Gladiators (released March 2009)
Fields of Honor (released June 2009)
Scourgewar (released November 2009)
Wrathgate (released May 2010)
Archives (released August 2010 - foil reprints from Heroes of Azeroth to Fields of Honor)
Icecrown (released September 2010)
Worldbreaker (released December 2010)
War of the Elements (released April 2011)
Twilight of the Dragons (released July 2011)
Aftermath: Throne of the Tides (released October 2011)
Aftermath: Crown of the Heavens (released February 2012)
Aftermath: Tomb of the Forgotten (released June 2012)
Timewalkers: War of the Ancients (released October 2012)
Timewalkers: Betrayal of the Guardian (released February 2013)
Timewalkers: Reign of Fire (released July 2013)
Raid Decks
In addition to standard 2-player game play, the game also features Raid Decks, representing struggles involving large numbers of players against epic foes. Raid Decks are specially designed pre-constructed products used for a cooperative experience. They combine elements from the World of Warcraft (the team-based questing), and Dungeons & Dragons (the Raid Master). One player, the Raid Master controls all monsters and foes, while 3-5 other players control the characters participating in the raid.
A Raid Deck typically contains epic boss cards, decks for the boss characters, tokens to represent minions, custom rules for the raid, and a treasure pack, intended as a reward for players who are victorious in the raid. The treasure pack contains holofoils and sometimes contains a random insertion of a loot card. Upper Deck Entertainment also made treasure packs available from their UDE points store, although the cards in these packs are not holofoil.
Eight Raid Decks were released:
Onyxia's Lair (December 2006) - Features the black dragon Onyxia.
Molten Core (May 2007) - Includes ten epic bosses, from Lucifron to Ragnaros the Firelord.
Magtheridon's Lair (January 2008) - Contains the Pit Lord Magtheridon, his shadow channelers, and the cubes required to interact with him.
Black Temple (September 2008) - Based around Illidan Stormrage. Contains a 10 hero raid set with heroes such as Supremus and "The Betrayer".
Naxxramas (December 2009) - An undead necropolis, seat of the lich Kel'Thuzad.
Assault on Icecrown Citadel (March 2011) - Featuring the Lich King himself, with other bosses appearing as allies in his deck. Also includes 3 decks built around well-known heroes Lady Jaina Proudmoore, Lady Sylvanas Windrunner and Highlord Tirion Fordring.
Battle of the Aspects (August 2012) - The final confrontation with Deathwing, the corrupted Aspect of Earth.
The Caverns of Time (April 2013) - Take on iconic villains such as Archimonde the Defiler, Queen Azshara, and Murozond, leader of the Infinite Dragonflight.
Dungeon Decks
Similar to Raid Decks, Dungeon Decks are large scale encounters designed for multiple players to play against. The main difference from Raid Decks is that a Dungeon Deck runs itself with no need for an additional player to act as the Raid Master. Additionally Dungeon Decks are designed to be played against basic starter decks with players unlocking the ability to add new cards by gaining experience from defeating dungeons and leveling up.
Three Dungeon Decks were released in November 2011:
Shadowfang Keep
Scarlet Monastery
The Deadmines
Bonus sets
Periodically, bonus card sets are released independently to mark special events or dates.
Burning Crusade Set - A set of 3 cards to mark the release of World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade. Two Heroes of Azeroth starter decks were included alongside the exclusive cards.
Wrath of the Lich King Set - 2 exclusive cards were included in the Collector's Edition of WotLK with 2 March of the Legion starter decks.
Cataclysm Set - 2 exclusive cards were included in the Collector's Edition of Cataclysm with a starter deck and a Landro's Gift loot card.
Feast of Winter Veil - A special collector's set released in November 2007 which corresponds with the holiday in the online game. This comes in a presentation box which contains a booster pack from Heroes of Azeroth, Through the Dark Portal or Fires of Outland, a deck box and 10 Winter Veil themed cards, as well as 2 vanity pets.
Darkmoon Faire - A special collector's set released in September 2008 which includes 5 preset Darkmoon Faire themed cards and 2 Through the Dark Portal booster packs.
Arena Grand Melee - A small collector's set released to supplement the Arena theme. This was released with two decks, one for the Alliance and one for the Horde.
Feast of Winter Veil 2012 - A special collector's set in the vein of the first Feast of Winter Veil.
Artwork
As with many trading card games, a variety of different artists with different styles illustrate the cards. Artists include Chris Rahn, Wayne Reynolds, Steve Prescott, Doug Alexander, Thomas M. Baxa, Julie Bell, Mauro Cascioli, Matt Dixon, Alex Horley, Todd McFarlane, Jeremy Mohler, Ariel Olivetti, Dan Scott, Ron Spencer, Greg Staples, Mike Sutfin, Glenn Rane, Samwise, Boris Vallejo, and Paul Kidby.
Some of the card art was done by Penny Arcade's Mike Krahulik ("Gabe"). In the May 26, 2006 update of the Penny Arcade site, Krahulik revealed his artwork for a card that was based on the exploits of Leeroy Jenkins.
Events
Along with weekly battleground tournaments at local hobby stores, Cryptozoic Entertainment hosted Darkmoon Faires (DMF), events that ran Friday through Sunday in cities all across the world. Previously, the most notable competition featured was the Dream Machine Championship, which the winner received a custom built computer. Darkmoon Faire Championship Events offered electronics and travel vouchers to the top finishers of its main event. However, the Darkmoon Faire itself has been emphasized as a miniature convention featuring additional games, as well as side events for players to compete for Apple electronics, gift cards, and World of Warcraft loot cards.
DMF Championship winners:
2007:
Darkmoon Faire Los Angeles - Oliver Schmid
Darkmoon Faire Austin - Tim Batow
Darkmoon Faire Frankfurt - Pierre Malherbaud
Darkmoon Faire Chicago - Brad Watson
Darkmoon Faire Milan - Erik van der Laan
Darkmoon Faire London - Stuart Wright
Darkmoon Faire Philadelphia - Brian Durkin
Darkmoon Faire Lille - Jonas Skali Lami
Darkmoon Faire San Diego - Tomas Kuchta
2008:
Darkmoon Faire Orlando - Brad Watson
Darkmoon Faire Columbus - William Postlethwait
Darkmoon Faire Stuttgart - Laurent Pagorek
Darkmoon Faire Lyon - Bernd Reinartz
Darkmoon Faire Seattle - Morgan Findlay
Darkmoon Faire Antwerp - Christian Pfeiffer
Darkmoon Faire Indianapolis - Jimmy Choi
Darkmoon Faire New Jersey - Brad Watson
Darkmoon Faire Paris - Pierre Malherbaud
Darkmoon Faire Anaheim - Tim Rivera
Darkmoon Faire Prague - Gabor Körös
2009:
Darkmoon Faire Milton Keynes - Erik van der Laan
Darkmoon Faire San Francisco - Damien Dufresne
Darkmoon Faire Koln - Stuart Wright
Darkmoon Faire Charlotte - Bobby Victory
Darkmoon Faire Turin - Jan Palys
Darkmoon Faire Sydney - Brad Watson
Darkmoon Faire Boston - Pat Eshghy
Darkmoon Faire Indianapolis - Phillip Martin
Darkmoon Faire Amsterdam - Anssi Alkio
Darkmoon Faire Austin - Rob Swarowski
Darkmoon Faire Las Vegas - David Bodimer
2010:
Darkmoon Faire Houston - Calvin Keeney
Darkmoon Faire Guangzhou - Xie Zhi Qiang
Darkmoon Faire Antwerp - Christian Kurze
Darkmoon Faire Los Angeles - Alex Gellerman
2011:
Darkmoon Faire Orlando - Stuart Wright
Darkmoon Faire Paris - Luca Magni
Darkmoon Faire Beijing - Qigeng Zhang
Darkmoon Faire Chicago - Dan Clark
Darkmoon Faire Koln - Krzysztof Morzyc
Darkmoon Faire Shenzhen - Lo Ka Man
Darkmoon Faire Singapore - Lee Keng Yin
Darkmoon Faire Las Vegas - Jason Newill
Darkmoon Faire Rimini - Brad Watson
Darkmoon Faire Indianapolis - Ben Bellis
Darkmoon Faire Poznań - Marcin Filipowicz
Darkmoon Faire Philadelphia - Dan Clark
Darkmoon Faire Rotterdam - Matthieu Laguerre
Darkmoon Faire Shanghai - Hui Xiang
2012:
Darkmoon Faire Los Angeles - Brad Watson
Darkmoon Faire Cannes - Stuart Wright
Darkmoon Faire Chengdu - Xi Lei
Darkmoon Faire Baltimore - Hans Joachim Höh, Brad Watson and Stuart Wright
Darkmoon Faire Madrid - Jeffrey Verwoerd
Darkmoon Faire Las Vegas - Kellen Abel
Darkmoon Faire Beijing - Xiang Jing
Darkmoon Faire Prague - Martin Clement
Darkmoon Faire Indianapolis - Norvic Santos
Darkmoon Faire Antwerp - Anssi Alkio, Jeffrey Verwoerd and Stuart Wright
Darkmoon Faire Shanghai - Yinan Liao
Darkmoon Faire Atlanta - Basem Alsalah
2013:
Darkmoon Faire Jacksonville - Randy Williams
Darkmoon Faire Dallas - James Kandziolka
Darkmoon Faire Shanghai - Jia Bin
Darkmoon Faire Las Vegas - Hans Joachim Höh
Darkmoon Faire Venice - Julian Ukeni
Darkmoon Faire Poznań - Manuel Alvisi
Darkmoon Faire Prague - Andrea Dorigo
WoW Nationals
The U.S. Nationals took place August 16-August 19, 2007 at Gen Con, a gaming convention in Indianapolis, Indiana. After the first day of constructed play, any player with a record of 5-3 or better advanced to day two. Two sets of draft were played on the second day, each set with three rounds. Players sat in draft pods based on their records from day one, where they drafted two packs of Heroes of Azeroth, and two packs of Through the Dark Portal. The finals were held on the third day, played between the top eight selected after draft play concluded. Brad Watson was declared the U.S. Nationals Champion after his victory in the finals.
In 2008, the U.S. National Championship became the North American Continental Championship (NACC), which combined the Canadian and U.S. National Championship events. The winner of the 2008 NACC was Matt Markoff with a Warlock deck.
In 2009, Corey-Scott Burkhart won the NACC at Gen Con Indy with a Shaman deck.
In 2010, under new management with Cryptozoic Entertainment, NACC moved out of Gen Con Indy. Tim Rivera claimed the title for that year in his hometown of Las Vegas.
In 2011, Tim Batow emerged victorious at Las Vegas with his particular Warlock deck, nicknamed "Bunny Deck".
In 2011, Mark Mckiernan was crowned the european champion at the EUCC championship in Rimini (Italy) with the Shaman "Spider Deck".
World Cup
The World Cup Championship took place March 4-6, 2011 in Paris, France. The winners were the American team The Warriors, composed of Ben Isgur, Matt Markoff, and James Kandziolka. They played, respectively: Boarguts the Impaler, Jumo'zin, and Erondra Frostmoon. Their prizes were the Darkmoon Faire tournament scheduled in Baltimore, Maryland along with $15,000 in Amazon vouchers.
World Championships
The first World Championship took place November 30-December 2, 2007 in San Diego, California. The winner, French player Guillaume Matignon, became the inaugural WoW TCG World Champion by defeating the French-Canadian player Eric Prieur and received $100,000, at the time it was the largest prize in TCG history.
The second World Championship took place in Paris, France from October 16-October 19, 2008. Jim Fleckenstein of Virginia won the title using the hero Kil'zin of the Bloodscalp.
The third World Championship took place in Austin, Texas from October 9-October 11, 2009. The format was Drums of War Block Constructed. It was won by William Postlethwait, also known as "Billy P."
The fourth World Championships took place in Indianapolis, Indiana, from August 4-August 7, 2010. The format was Classic Constructed. German player Jonas Skali-Lami won with a Nicholas Merrick mage deck.
The fifth World Championships took place in Rotterdam, Netherlands, from November 10-November 13, 2011. The format consisted of Core and Classic Constructed and Booster Draft. It was won by German player Hans Joachim Höh using a Rohashu Paladin deck, taking down Jim Fleckenstein's less aggressive Rohashu version in the finals.
The sixth and final World Championships took place in Atlanta, Georgia in early November 2012. Brad Watson defeated Raphael Ait-sliman in the final round.
References
External links
Cryptozoic's official World of Warcraft Trading Card Game website
Daily Metagame - A WoW TCG site with daily articles, and archived decklists from all events
Card games introduced in 2006
Collectible card games
Cryptozoic Entertainment games
Upper Deck Company games
Warcraft games
Trading Card Game |
4053775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%E2%80%9384%20in%20English%20football | 1983–84 in English football | The 1983–84 season was the 104th season of competitive football in England.
Diary of the season
6 June 1983: Resurgent Portsmouth, newly promoted to the Second Division after winning last season's Third Division title, prepare for their latest challenge by paying a club record £180,000 for Coventry City's 21-year-old striker Mark Hateley.
1 July 1983: Joe Fagan, 62, is appointed as the new manager of Liverpool on a two-year contract following Bob Paisley's retirement after nine years in charge.
1 August 1983: Gerry Francis, former England midfielder, is appointed player-manager of Exeter City.
4 August 1983: Chelsea, who narrowly avoided relegation to the Third Division last season, pay Reading £175,000 for 21-year-old striker Kerry Dixon.
20 August 1983: Bryan Robson scores both of Manchester United's goals in the FA Charity Shield as they beat Liverpool 2–0.
27 August 1983: The Football League season commences. Notts County are top of the First Division with a 4–0 away win over East Midlands rivals Leicester City. A seven-goal thriller at Villa Park sees Aston Villa beat local rivals West Bromwich Albion 4–3. Liverpool begin their quest for a third successive league title with a 1–1 away draw against newly promoted Wolves. Chelsea record the biggest win in the Second Division with a 5–0 triumph over Derby County at Stamford Bridge.
31 August 1983: Notts County, West Ham United, Aston Villa and Arsenal all win their first two matches of the First Division season to lead the table at the end of August. Leicester City, Birmingham City and West Bromwich Albion lose their first two matches of the season.
3 September 1983: West Ham are the only First Division side with a 100% record after three games after beating London rivals Tottenham Hotspur 2–0 at White Hart Lane.
6 September 1983: West Ham extend their 100% start to the season to four games and remain top with a 3–1 home win over Leicester City. Manchester United beat Arsenal 3–2 at Highbury. Ipswich are second in the table with three wins from their opening four games after a 3–0 home win over Everton.
10 September 1983: West Ham make it five wins in a row with a 5–2 home win over Coventry City, with David Swindlehurst scoring a hat-trick. Ipswich keep up their challenge with a 5–0 home win over Stoke City, as do third-placed Manchester United with a 2–0 home win over Luton Town. Leicester City are still looking for their first point of the season after a 3–0 home defeat at home to Tottenham Hotspur.
17 September 1983: West Ham's perfect start to the season ends with a 1–0 defeat at West Bromwich Albion, although they are still top of the First Division. Southampton go second with a 3–0 home win over Manchester United. Manchester City's bid for an immediate return to the First Division is boosted with a 6–0 home win over Blackburn Rovers, lifting them to second place in the Second Division. Swansea City are facing a battle avoid a second successive relegation after collecting one point from their first five games.
21 September 1983: England lose 1–0 to Denmark in their European Championship qualifier at Wembley, making qualification for the Finals unlikely.
23 September 1983: Newcastle United boost their Second Division promotion push by signing Peter Beardsley, who was rejected by Manchester United last previous season, in a £150,000 deal from Vancouver Whitecaps.
24 September 1983: West Ham return to their winning ways and maintain their lead of the First Division by beating Notts County 3–0 at Upton Park. Manchester United keep up the pressure by beating Liverpool 1–0 at Old Trafford. Southampton's title challenge is hit with a 1–0 defeat away to Aston Villa, who go sixth in the table. Wolves, with no wins from their first seven games, lose 4–0 at home to QPR. Leicester City finally pick up a league point at the seventh attempt with a 2–2 draw at home to Stoke City.
27 September 1983: Manchester United progress to the second round of the European Cup Winners' Cup by eliminating Czech side Dukla Prague on away goals.
28 September 1983: All four English entrants in the UEFA Cup – Watford, Nottingham Forest, Tottenham Hotspur and Aston Villa – progress to the second round. Tottenham recorded a 14-0 aggregate victory over Irish side Drogheda United, while Watford came from 3-1 down against West German side Kaiserlautern in the first leg to win the second leg 3–0 at Vicarage Road.
30 September 1983: With six wins from seven matches, West Ham United are top of the First Division at the end of September, with Manchester United, Southampton, Liverpool and Ipswich Town completing the top five. Leicester City's terrible start to the season sees them prop up the top flight with only a single point from their opening seven games. Wolverhampton Wanderers (winless) and Stoke City (one win) complete the bottom three. Sheffield Wednesday head the race for promotion from the Second Division, followed closely behind by recently relegated Manchester City and a Huddersfield Town side who only won promotion from the Fourth Division four seasons ago. Middlesbrough, Charlton Athletic and Chelsea have also made a good start to the Second Division campaign.
1 October 1983: First Division leaders West Ham lose 3–1 to Stoke City at the Victoria Ground. Southampton cut their lead of the table to a single point with a 1–0 win over Wolves at The Dell. Ipswich keep up the pressure by beating Coventry City 2–1 at Highfield Road. Manchester United miss the chance to draw level on points with the leaders when Norwich City hold them to a 3–3 draw in the thrilling match at Carrow Road. Leicester's shambolic start to the season continues with a 2–1 away defeat to Birmingham City. In the Second Division, leaders Sheffield Wednesday beat Blackburn Rovers 4–2 at Hillsborough. Struggling Derby County lose 4–1 at home to Carlisle United. Newcastle United boost their promotion push with a 4–2 home win over Portsmouth. Brighton give their hopes of an instant return to the First Division a major boost by beating Charlton Athletic 7–0 at the Goldstone Ground. Fallen giants Leeds United lose 5–1 at Shrewsbury.
2 October 1983: In the first fully televised Football League match for 23 years, Tottenham beat Nottingham Forest 2–1 at White Hart Lane.
8 October 1983: Despite the lack of First Division today, all 22 Second Division clubs are in action. Craven Cottage is the scene of an eight-goal thriller in which Chelsea boost their promotion push with a 5–3 away win over West London rivals Fulham.
12 October 1983: England keep their faint hopes of European Championship qualification alive by beating Hungary 3–0 in Budapest in their penultimate qualifying game, but Denmark remain top of the group.
15 October 1983: First Division action returns with Manchester United beating West Bromwich Albion 3–0 at Old Trafford to go top of the First Division, with West Ham's lead of the table being ended by a 3–1 home defeat to Liverpool. Wolves are still without a victory nine games into the season after losing 3–2 at home to Tottenham.
16 October 1983: Nottingham Forest beat neighbours Notts County 3–1 at the City Ground in the only First Division action of the day.
20 October 1983: Coventry City sign 21-year-old full-back Stuart Pearce from Alliance Premier League side Wealdstone.
22 October 1983: Manchester United remain top of the First Division with a 1–0 win over Sunderland at Roker Park. A mid-table clash at Highbury sees Arsenal beat Nottingham Forest 4–1. Leicester City claim their second point of the season with a 2–2 draw at Ipswich, but are still winless after 10 league games.
23 October 1983: The only league action of the day sees Wolves draw 1–1 at home to local rivals Aston Villa in a First Division, making it three points after 10 games, but still no league victories.
26 October 1983: Giant-killings in the second round of the Football League Cup, as third-tier clubs Oxford United and Wimbledon knock out Newcastle United and Nottingham Forest. Elsewhere in round two, Leeds United overcome a 1–0 deficit from the first leg to beat the Football League's basement club Chester City 4–2 on aggregate and Lincoln City win on the night at home to Tottenham Hotspur but lose out on aggregate. There is no such joy for Bury, who lose 10–0 to West Ham at Upton Park (12-1 on aggregate) with teenage striker Tony Cottee scoring four goals.
30 October 1983: Manchester United maintain their lead of the First Division with a 3–0 home win over Wolves, who are still winless after 11 games. Leicester City record their first league win of the season with a 2–0 home win over Everton. Tony Woodcock scores five goals in Arsenal's 6–2 away win over Aston Villa. Ian Rush scores five in Liverpool's 6–0 home win over Luton Town. QPR go third with a 3–0 away win over Norwich City. The Abbey Stadium is the scene of a goal glut in the Second Division as Brighton beat Cambridge United 4–3. Chelsea boost their promotion hopes and deal a blow to the visiting side's by defeating Charlton Athletic 3–2 at Stamford Bridge. Peter Beardsley scores a hat-trick in Newcastle's 5–0 home win over Manchester City.
31 October 1983: October draws to a close with Manchester United top of the First Division. Liverpool continue their push for a third successive league title as they stand second, while newly promoted Queens Park Rangers occupy third place, level on points with West Ham United, Southampton and Tottenham Hotspur. Wolverhampton Wanderers, still without a win after 11 games, remain bottom of the table. Leicester City and Notts County complete the bottom three. Sheffield Wednesday are still top of the Second Division, joined in the top three by Newcastle United and Manchester City. Chelsea, Huddersfield Town and Grimsby Town are pushing them hard for promotion.
1 November 1983: Watford sign 20-year-old striker Mo Johnston from Partick Thistle for £200,000.
2 November 1983: Liverpool progress to the quarter-finals of the European Cup at the expense of Spanish champions Atletico Bilbao. Manchester United reach the quarter-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup with a 4-1 aggregate win over Bulgarian side Spartak Varna. Tottenham eliminate Dutch side Feyenoord 6–2 on aggregate in the second round of the UEFA Cup. Watford eliminate Levski Sofia from the competition and Nottingham Forest oust PSV Eindhoven, but Aston Villa are edged out 4–3 on aggregate by Spartak Moscow.
5 November 1983 – Wolves are bottom of the First Division and still winless after 12 games following a 5–0 defeat at Nottingham Forest. Peter Withe scores twice as Aston Villa inflict a 2–1 defeat on Manchester United at Old Trafford, meaning that Liverpool can return to the top of the table if they win their game tomorrow. Arsenal's erratic form continues as they lose 2–1 at home to Sunderland. There is no shortage of action in the race to reach the First Division. Second Division leaders Sheffield Wednesday maintain a four-point lead at the top of the table by beating Yorkshire rivals Barnsley 2–0 at Hillsborough. Newcastle United win 3–2 at home to Fulham. Manchester City remain in the top three by beating Shrewsbury Town 3–1 at Gay Meadow. Chelsea's promotion push takes a dent when they are held to a 1–1 draw by struggling Oldham at Boundary Park, but they are just three points outside the top three with a game in hand.
6 November 1983 – Liverpool go top of the First Division with a 3–0 win over Everton in the Merseyside derby at Anfield.
10 November 1983 – Everton sign striker Andy Gray from Wolves for £250,000.
12 November 1983 – Liverpool remain top of the First Division despite being held to a 2–2 draw at Tottenham. West Ham keep up the pressure with a 3–0 away win over Wolves, who are still winless after 13 games. Manchester United miss the chance to return to the top of the table when they are held to a 1–1 draw at Leicester. Southampton climb from eighth to fourth with a 1–0 home win over West Bromwich Albion. Arsenal suffer another setback when they lose 1–0 at Ipswich. Brighton's hopes of an instant return to the First Division appear to be fading fast after a 4–0 defeat to Manchester City at Maine Road leaves them 16th in the Second Division. Chelsea close the gap between themselves and the top three with a 4–0 home win over Newcastle United.
16 November 1983: England fail to qualify for the European Championships despite a 4–0 away win over Luxembourg in their final qualifying game, as Denmark win 2–0 in Greece to top the group.
19 November 1983: The first round of the FA Cup sees non-league sides Whitby Town and Telford United both overcome Football League opposition. In the First Division, Everton manager Howard Kendall is under mounting pressure after a 2–1 defeat at Arsenal leaves his side 17th in the table. Tottenham continue their surge up the table with a 4–2 win over Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Liverpool remain top with a 1–0 home win over Stoke City. West Ham are still just a point behind the leaders with a 1–0 win over Sunderland at Roker Park. Frank Stapleton scores a hat-trick in Manchester United's 4–1 home win over Watford, which boosts their goal difference and keeps them level with West Ham and a single point behind Liverpool. Wolves are still winless 14 games into the season and claim their fourth point with a goalless draw at home to fifth-placed Coventry City. A 4–1 home win for Arsenal against Leicester takes some of the pressure off under-fire manager Terry Neill. In the Second Division, Newcastle crash out of the top three with a 4–2 defeat at leaders Sheffield Wednesday, allowing Chelsea to climb into the promotion places despite being held to a 2–2 draw at home by their London rivals Crystal Palace. Manchester City remain in the top three despite losing 2–0 to Carlisle United at Brunton Park.
21 November 1983: Worcester City become the third non-league team this season to knock Football League opposition out of the FA Cup when they beat Aldershot 2–1.
22 November 1983: FA Cup first round replays fail to produce any giant-killing feats but a non-league clash between London rivals Enfield and Wealdstone ends in a 2–2 draw and forces a second replay. There are also replays for four League Cup fourth round ties. Two of these matches go to a second replay – including Liverpool's clash with Fulham at Anfield, which ends in a 1–1 draw. The only league action of the day sees Chelsea go second in the table with a 3–1 win over Swansea City at the Vetch Field. Swansea are now bottom of the Second Division with just one win from their first 15 games and are currently seven points adrift of safety, a mere 18 months after finishing sixth in the First Division.
23 November 1983: Watford further boost their ranks with the £150,000 signing of 19-year-old defender David Bardsley from Blackpool. Maidstone United from the Alliance Premier League knock Third Division Exeter City out of the FA Cup in a first round replay.
26 November 1983: Kenny Dalglish scores his 100th competitive goal for Liverpool in a 1-1 league draw against Ipswich Town. Elsewhere, QPR fail to hold on to their lead at fellow Londoners Spurs, who win 3–2 thanks to Mark Falco's double and Steve Archibald's 15th of the season. Notts County boost their bid to keep clear of the relegation zone with a 5–2 win over Aston Villa. Leicester City are just two points adrift of safety after a 3–0 home win over Arsenal. Watford, runners-up in the league last season, are still in the bottom three after a 2–1 home defeat to local rivals Luton Town, who shoot up from 10th to fifth in the table. Wolves finally win a league game at the 15th attempt when they overcome local rivals West Bromwich Albion 3–1 at The Hawthorns. The highest-scoring game of the day sees Burnley boost their hopes of a quick return to the Second Division when they beat bottom-of-the-table Port Vale 7–0 at Turf Moor.
27 November 1983: Liverpool remain top of the First Division after their nearest rivals West Ham United and Manchester United draw 1–1 at Upton Park. A decisive result for either side would have seen the winner of the game going top of the league.
29 November 1983: Liverpool finally beat Fulham at the third attempt by triumphing 1–0 in front of nearly 21,000 fans at Craven Cottage in their League Cup third round second replay. The fourth round tie between Arsenal and Walsall at Highbury produces a shock result when the Third Division visitors win 2–1. The surprise result has echoes of Walsall's shock win over Arsenal back in January 1933, when they beat the Gunners 2–0 at Fellows Park.
30 November 1983: Liverpool's bid for a third successive league title is now looking stronger, as they finish November as First Division leaders with a one-point lead over West Ham United and Manchester United. Tottenham Hotspur occupy fourth place, while Luton Town are fifth. Wolverhampton Wanderers, with just one win, are still bottom of the table, with Watford (the previous season's runners-up) and Stoke City completing the bottom three. Sheffield Wednesday are still top of the Second Division, while Newcastle United remain in the top three, with Chelsea overtaking Manchester City to move into third. In the League Cup, Oxford United hold Manchester United to a 1–1 draw at the Manor Ground in a fourth round tie. United give a first team debut to 20-year-old Welsh striker Mark Hughes. Norwich City beat their East Anglian rivals Ipswich Town 1–0 at Portman Road. There is another local derby in the competition at The Hawthorns, where Aston Villa beat West Bromwich Albion 2–1. In the only league action of the day, Leicester City climb out of the bottom three with a 2–1 home win over Southampton.
1 December 1983: Newcastle United further boost their promotion bid with the £150,000 acquisition of QPR defender Glenn Roeder, while Terry Neill makes a last-ditch attempt to reverse Arsenal's dismal league form by signing 21-year-old Manchester City defender Tommy Caton for £500,000.
3 December 1983: The pressure mounts further on Arsenal manager Terry Neill after a 1–0 defeat at home to West Bromwich Albion leaves his side 15th in the First Division. Leaders Liverpool are now four points ahead at the top of the table after a 1–0 win over Birmingham City, as Manchester United lose 1–0 at home to Everton and West Ham United are beaten 1-0 by Aston Villa at Villa Park. Coventry City keep up the pressure on the leading pack with a 4–2 away win over Luton Town. Watford climb out of the bottom three with a 5–0 away win over Wolves.
4 December 1983: Nottingham Forest beat their East Midlands rivals Leicester City 3–2 in a First Division clash at the City Ground, lifting the hosts up from 11th place to sixth.
6 December 1983: Everton boost their chances of ending their 14-year wait for a major trophy by beating West Ham United 2–0 in a League Cup fourth round replay at Goodison Park. In the Second Division, Chelsea boost their promotion push and increase Swansea's relegation worries with a 6–1 win at Stamford Bridge.
7 December 1983: Watford's UEFA Cup quest ends in a 7-2 aggregate defeat to Sparta Prague in the third round. Nottingham Forest progress to the quarter-finals with a 2–1 win over Celtic at Parkhead, after the first leg at the City Ground ended in a goalless draw. On the domestic scene, Oxford United take Manchester United to a second replay in the League Cup third round after a 1–1 draw at Old Trafford.
10 December 1983: Coventry City achieve one of the most surprising results of the season by defeating league champions Liverpool 4–0 at Highfield Road. Striker Terry Gibson scores a hat-trick. The defeat cuts Liverpool's lead at the top of the First Division to a single point following victories for both West Ham United and Manchester United. Coventry are now fourth and just three points off the top of the table. QPR climb from ninth to fifth with a 2–1 away win over West Bromwich Albion. Notts County stay clear of the relegation zone after another rout, this time beating Sunderland 6–1 at Meadow Lane. Luton Town remain in touch with the leading pack by winning 4–2 at Stoke City. Wolves are now nine points adrift of safety after losing 6–1 to Leicester City at Filbert Street. Arsenal are just five points clear of the relegation zone after losing 3–1 at West Ham. In the Second Division, Newcastle United beat Huddersfield Town 5–2 on Tyneside to return to the top three at the expense of Manchester City, who lose 2–1 at home to leaders Sheffield Wednesday.
14 December 1983: Telford United beat Football League opposition in the FA Cup for the second time this season, beating Northampton Town 3–2 at home.
16 December 1983: Terry Neill is sacked after more than seven years as manager of Arsenal, who occupy 16th place in the First Division. Manchester United go top of the league with a 4–2 home win over Tottenham.
17 December 1983: Liverpool return to the top of the First Division with a 5–0 home win over Notts County. Aston Villa keep up the pressure on the leading pack with a 4–0 home win over Ipswich Town. Caretaker manager Don Howe begins his spell in charge of Arsenal with a 3–1 home win over Watford. Coventry City miss the chance to close the gap on the leaders with a goalless draw at Norwich. QPR go fourth with a 2–0 home win over Everton.
18 December 1983: Luton Town are sixth in the First Division and just five points behind the leaders after beating West Bromwich Albion 2–0 at Kenilworth Road.
19 December 1983: Arsenal sell misfit striker Lee Chapman to Sunderland for £200,000. Manchester United bow out of the League Cup after losing their second third round replay 2–1 to Oxford United at the Manor Ground.
20 December 1983: Liverpool's bid for a fourth successive League Cup triumph continues when they draw 1–1 with Birmingham City in the fourth round.
22 December 1983: Liverpool beat Birmingham City 3–0 in the League Cup fourth round replay at Anfield.
24 December 1983: Griffin Park is the scene of the last league action before Christmas, with struggling Brentford losing 4–3 at home to a Wimbledon side pushing for a second successive promotion.
26 December 1983: Boxing Day drama in the First Division sees Liverpool extend their lead to three points with a 2–1 away win over West Bromwich Albion, while Manchester United are held to a 1–1 draw at Coventry. Luton Town go third with a 3–0 away win over Notts County. Wolves are now 10 points adrift of safety and have still only won one of their first 19 games, going down 3–1 at Ipswich. Arsenal's recovery continues as they triumph 4–2 over Tottenham in the North London derby at White Hart Lane.
27 December 1983: Wolves gain their first home win of the season with a 3–0 victory against Everton, while Manchester United throw away a two-goal lead to draw 3–3 with struggling Notts County in a bad-tempered match featuring nine yellow cards for the East Midlanders.
28 December 1983: Nottingham Forest are five points off the top of the First Division after beating Coventry City 3–0 at the City Ground.
31 December 1983: The year draws to a close with Liverpool still top of the First Division by a three-point margin over Manchester United, having beaten Nottingham Forest 1–0 at the City Ground, while Ron Atkinson's men keep up the pressure with a 1–0 home win over Stoke City. West Ham United go third with a 4–1 home win over Tottenham at Upton Park. Wolves make it back-to-back victories and are now just five points adrift of safety after a 2–0 home win over Norwich City. Chelsea go top of the Second Division with a 1–0 home win over Brighton.
2 January 1984: Liverpool and Manchester United draw 1–1 at Anfield to keep the gap at the top three points wide. West Ham miss the chance to cut the gap between themselves and the top two after being held to a 2–2 draw at Notts County. Nottingham Forest close in on the top three with a 3–2 away win over Luton Town. Tottenham's erratic league form continues with a 3–2 home defeat to Watford. Sheffield Wednesday regain their lead of the Second Division with a 3–0 home win over Oldham Athletic. Manchester City are held to a 1–1 draw at home to Leeds United and surrender their top-three place to Newcastle United, who beat Barnsley 1–0 at home.
6 January 1984: The FA Cup third round ties begin with a 4–0 win for Liverpool at home to Newcastle United.
7 January 1984: AFC Bournemouth pull off one of the biggest FA Cup upsets of all time with a 2–0 win over holders Manchester United in the third round. Arsenal, Leicester City and QPR lose to Second Division opponents (Middlesbrough, Crystal Palace and Huddersfield Town respectively), while Manchester City are beaten 2-1 by Fourth Division Blackpool. Telford make it three giant-killing ties in a row by beating Rochdale 4–1 at Spotland.
14 January 1984: Leicester City continue their climb towards safety with a 5–2 away win over local rivals Notts County. Leaders Liverpool suffer a shock 1–0 home defeat at home to Wolves, with Steve Mardenborough scoring the only goal of the game and giving Wolves a major boost in their bid for survival, making it three wins from their last four league games.
17 January 1984: QPR beat Stoke City 6–0 at Loftus Road to put themselves fourth in the First Division and six points behind leaders Liverpool.
20 January 1984: Ian Rush scores a hat-trick in Liverpool's 3–1 away win over Aston Villa in the First Division, increasing their lead at the top to five points, although their nearest challengers Manchester United can cut the gap to two points if they win at the weekend.
21 January 1984: Manchester United cut Liverpool's lead of the First Division to two points by beating Southampton 3–2 at Old Trafford. West Ham keep up their title challenge with a 2–0 home win over West Bromwich Albion, as do Nottingham Forest with a 3–0 home win over Norwich City.
23 January 1984: Nottingham Forest are now just three points off the top of the First Division after beating Southampton 1–0 at The Dell.
24 January 1984: Everton reach the League Cup semi-finals with a 4–1 win over Oxford United in their quarter-final replay clash at Goodison Park.
25 January 1984: Liverpool reach the League Cup semi-finals with a 3–0 win over Sheffield Wednesday in their quarter-final replay clash at Anfield.
28 January 1984: Stoke City boost their survival hopes by beating Arsenal 1–0 in their First Division clash at the Victoria Ground.
29 January 1984: Brighton & Hove Albion knock Liverpool out of the FA Cup for the second season running.
31 January 1984: AFC Bournemouth's FA Cup run ends with in a 2–0 defeat to Middlesbrough in the fourth round at Ayresome Park. Everton are held to a goalless draw by Gillingham in their fourth round tie at Priestfield.
1 February 1984: Telford United's FA Cup ends in a 3–2 defeat to Derby County in their fourth round clash at the Baseball Ground. Tottenham's hopes of winning the FA Cup for a record eighth time are ended by a 2–1 defeat to Norwich City at Carrow Road. In the First Division, Liverpool sustain their lead of the league with a 3–0 win over Watford at Anfield.
3 February 1984: Media mogul Robert Maxwell, who already owns Third Division promotion challengers Oxford United, is reported to be on the verge of taking over Manchester United in a deal worth up to £10million.
4 February 1984: Leaders Liverpool are held to a goalless draw by Sunderland in the First Division at Roker Park. Manchester United fail to close the gap at the top when Norwich hold them to a goalless draw at Old Trafford, although third-placed West Ham take advantage of the top two's failure to win by beating Stoke City 3–0 at Upton Park. Nottingham Forest's title hopes are hit by a 2–2 draw at home to Tottenham. Fifth-placed QPR keep up the pressure on the leading pack by beating Arsenal 2–0 at Highbury. The top four sides in the Second Division are all in action today. Sheffield Wednesday are held to a goalless draw by Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park, allowing Chelsea to extend their lead at the top of the table with a 3–1 home win over Huddersfield Town. Manchester City are held to a 1–1 draw by Grimsby Town at Blundell Park, allowing fourth-placed Newcastle United to draw level on points by beating Portsmouth 4–1 at Fratton Park. Grimsby are now fifth and looking like serious contenders for promotion to the First Division, in which they last played just after the Second World War.
6 February 1984: Gillingham's hopes of ousting Everton from the FA Cup are ended when the Merseysiders win the FA Cup fourth replay 3–0.
7 February 1984: Walsall hold Liverpool to a 2–2 draw in the League Cup semi-final first leg at Anfield. In the First Division, their lead of the First Division stands at four points after Manchester United are held to a 2–2 draw at Birmingham City. Third-placed West Ham United also drop points, being held to a 1–1 draw by QPR at Loftus Road.
8 February 1984: Midweek drama in the First Division sees Nottingham Forest win 5–0 away to West Bromwich Albion to go second in the league and three points behind Liverpool. Tottenham beat Sunderland 3–0 at White Hart Lane.
11 February 1984: Liverpool remain top of the First Division with a 2–1 home win over Arsenal. Nottingham Forest keep up the pressure with a 1–0 away win over QPR, as do West Ham with a 2–1 away win over Coventry City. Tottenham continue to close in on the top five with a 3–2 home win over Leicester City. Watford's revival continues as they climb up to 11th with a 5–3 away win over Notts County.
12 February 1984: Bryan Robson and Norman Whiteside score twice and Frank Stapleton is also on the scoresheet as Manchester United beat Luton Town 5–0 at Kenilworth Road. The result means that United are now four points off the top of the table, and also deals a major blow to Luton's hopes of qualifying for the UEFA Cup just two seasons after being promoted.
14 February 1984: Liverpool reach the final of the Football League Cup for the fourth year in a row after a 4-2 aggregate victory over Third Division Walsall. In the First Division, QPR remain firmly in the top five with a 2–0 home win over Norwich City.
15 February 1984: Everton beat Aston Villa 2–0 in the League Cup semi-final first leg.
17 February 1984: Southampton beat Blackburn Rovers 1–0 in the FA Cup fifth round at Ewood Park.
18 February 1984: First Division West Bromwich Albion suffer a shock FA Cup exit at the hands of Third Division strugglers Plymouth Argyle, who win 1–0 in the fifth round showdown at The Hawthorns. West Ham's double hopes are ended when they lose 3–0 to Birmingham City at St Andrew's. Everton's cup adventures continue on both fronts as they beat Shrewsbury Town 3–0. Notts County beat Middlesbrough 1–0 at Meadow Lane. Sheffield Wednesday triumph 3–0 away to Oxford United. Watford beat Brighton 3–1 at Vicarage Road. In the First Division, Arsenal draw 1–1 with Aston Villa at Highbury and Stoke City win 3–2 at Coventry City. The top three of Liverpool, Manchester United and Nottingham Forest are all held to draws away from home.
21 February 1984: West Ham's title hopes are hit by a 4–2 home defeat to Watford.
22 February 1984: Despite losing 1–0 to Aston Villa in the semi-final second leg, Everton are through to the League Cup final, securing them their first cup final for seven years and the first all-Merseyside final in any of the domestic or European cup competitions.
25 February 1984: Wolves are now 13 points adrift of safety after losing 4–0 to local rivals Aston Villa in the First Division at Villa Park. Liverpool maintain a four-point lead at the top of the table, with Manchester United's 2–1 home win over Sunderland keeping up the pressure on the leaders. Nottingham Forest's title hopes take another blow they lose 1–0 at home to Arsenal. West Ham are now nine points behind the leaders after going down 1–0 at Norwich. An eight-goal thriller at Vicarage Road sees Watford and Everton draw 4-4.
28 February 1984: Birmingham City go seven points clear of the relegation zone with a 2–1 home win over local rivals West Bromwich Albion.
29 February 1984: England's first international game since their failure to qualify for the European Championship Finals ends in a 2–0 defeat to France in the Parc des Princes. On the club scene, Liverpool continue to top the First Division, with a four-point lead over Manchester United. Nottingham Forest, West Ham United and Southampton complete the top five. Wolverhampton Wanderers remain bottom of the table, 13 points adrift of safety with 14 games to go. Notts County are 11 points adrift of safety, and Stoke City complete the bottom three, just behind West Bromwich Albion, Leicester City and Ipswich Town. Sheffield Wednesday and Chelsea are level at the top of the Second Division, while Grimsby Town have crept into the top three at the expense of Manchester City.
3 March 1984: The Merseyside derby at Goodison Park ends in a 1–1 draw, allowing Manchester United to cut Liverpool's lead to two points by beating Aston Villa 3–0 at Villa Park. Nottingham Forest's title hopes are fading fast after their fall to another defeat, this time losing 1–0 at Wolves, who grab three points to boost their survival hopes. West Ham win 3–0 at Ipswich, and Southampton boost their hopes of making a late run to the title by beating Norwich City 2–1 at The Dell.
7 March 1984: European action resumes with four English clubs still in the three cups. Liverpool beat Portuguese champions SL Benfica 1–0 in the European Cup quarter-final first leg at Anfield, but Manchester United lose 2–0 to FC Barcelona in the European Cup Winners' Cup quarter-finals. Nottingham Forest beat Austrian side Sturm Graz 1–0 at the City Ground in the UEFA Cup quarter-final first leg, while Tottenham gain a 2–0 advantage over another Austrian side, Austria Vienna, in their quarter-final first leg. On the First Division scene, Sunderland move closer to safety with a 1–0 home win over QPR.
10 March 1984: Watford reach the FA Cup semi-finals for the first time in 14 years with a 3–1 away win over Birmingham City in the quarter-final tie at St Andrew's. Everton's hopes of a domestic cup double are kept alive as a 2–1 away win over Notts County takes them through. One of Home Park's largest-ever crowds of more than 34,000 sees Plymouth Argyle keep their FA Cup dream alive, with a goalless draw with Derby County forcing a replay at the Baseball Ground. First Division action includes victories for leaders Liverpool and second-placed Manchester United.
11 March 1984: Sheffield Wednesday and Southampton draw 0–0 in the FA Cup quarter-final at Hillsborough in front of more than 43,000 fans.
13 March 1984: Midweek action in the First Division includes a six-goal thriller at Highfield Road, where local rivals Coventry City and Aston Villa draw 3-3. Luton Town climb three places to eighth with a 2–1 win over Ipswich Town, who are now on the brink of the relegation zone just two seasons after finishing as runners-up. Notts County keep their survival hopes alive with a 1–0 away win over Norwich City. Nottingham Forest remain in touch with the top two with a 1–0 home win over Everton.
14 March 1984: FA Cup surprise package Plymouth Argyle book a semi-final place by beating Derby County 1–0 in the quarter-final replay at the Baseball Ground, four days after the first match ended in a goalless draw at Home Park.
16 March 1984: The First Division title race takes something of a surprise turn when Southampton beat Liverpool 2–0 at The Dell, putting themselves eight points the leaders with two games in hand, and giving Manchester United the chance to go top of the table if they win this weekend.
17 March 1984: Manchester United go top of the First Division with a 4–0 home win over Arsenal. Nottingham Forest's title challenge is fading as they go down 1–0 at Aston Villa, as is West Ham's following a 4–1 defeat to Leicester City at Filbert Street. Ipswich Town drop in the relegation zone after a 1–0 defeat at Everton, with Stoke City's 2–1 home win over Birmingham City lifting them out of the bottom three.
20 March 1984: Southampton become the fourth team to reach the FA Cup semi-finals, thrashing Sheffield Wednesday 5–1 in a quarter-final replay at The Dell.
21 March 1984: Oxford United, heading for promotion glory under Jim Smith in the Third Division, sign high-scoring Newport County striker John Aldridge for £78,000. Liverpool go through to the European Cup semi-finals with a 5-1 aggregate win over SL Benfica. Bryan Robson is instrumental with two goals as Manchester United overturn a 2–0 deficit against Barcelona to win the second leg of their European Cup quarter-final tie 3-0 and secure their first European semi-final appearance for 15 years. Tottenham Hotspur and Nottingham Forest both go through to the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup.
24 March 1984: Southampton's title hopes are hit by a 4–0 defeat at QPR. Wolves fall closer towards relegation with a 4–1 defeat at Arsenal. Their local rivals West Bromwich Albion move closer to survival with a 3–0 home win over Stoke City in a relegation crunch game at The Hawthorns.
25 March 1984: Liverpool and Everton draw 0–0 in the first all-Merseyside Football League Cup final. The match will be replayed at a neutral venue on 28 March.
28 March 1984: Liverpool win an unprecedented fourth successive Football League Cup by beating Everton 1–0 in the replay at Maine Road with captain Graeme Souness scoring the only goal of the game.
31 March 1984: Liverpool return to the top of the First Division with a 2–0 away win over Watford, as Manchester United lose 2–0 at West Bromwich Albion. Arsenal's revival continues as they climb up to eighth place with a 4–1 away win over Coventry City.
2 April 1984: Tottenham manager Keith Burkinshaw announces that he will resign as manager at the end of the season after nearly eight years in charge.
4 April 1984: Peter Taylor resigns as manager of Second Division strugglers Derby County, and is replaced on a caretaker basis by veteran player Roy McFarland.
7 April 1984: The gap at the top of the First Division remains at two points as Liverpool defeat West Ham 6–0 at Anfield and Manchester United beat Birmingham City 1–0 at Old Trafford. Watford's improved form is interrupted by a 6–1 defeat at Norwich. Nottingham Forest beat West Bromwich Albion 3–1 at the City Ground but are still nine points off the top of the table with eight games left to play. Wolves move closer towards relegation with a 1–0 defeat at home to Notts County, whose own survival hopes are boosted. The Second Division's top three clubs Chelsea, Sheffield Wednesday and Newcastle United are level on 69 points at the top of the table, seven points ahead of fourth-placed Manchester City, with the Owls having two games in hand over their direct rivals.
8 April 1984: Wolves sack manager Graham Hawkins after just under two years in charge.
9 April 1984: Thriving Arsenal's hopes of breaking into the top five are dented when they are held to a 0–0 draw by Everton at Goodison Park.
11 April 1984: Liverpool beat Dinamo Bucharest 1–0 in the European Cup semi-final first leg at Anfield. Manchester United draw 1–1 at home to Juventus in their first semi-final clash in the European Cup Winners' Cup. Tottenham's hopes of reaching the UEFA Cup final are dented by a 2–1 defeat to Hajduk Split in Yugoslavia, but Nottingham Forest go 2-0 up in the first leg of their semi-final clash at home to Anderlecht.
14 April 1984: Everton defeat Southampton 1–0 at Highbury in the FA Cup semi-finals to reach their first final for 16 years, while Watford reach the FA Cup final for the first time ever with a 1–0 win over giantkilling Plymouth Argyle at Villa Park. Liverpool lose 2–0 at Stoke City in the First Division, but Manchester United fail to take advantage and go down 1–0 at Notts County, allowing Joe Fagan's men to stay on top. Nottingham Forest fail to take advantage of the top two's defeat, and are only able to manage a 2–2 draw away to an Ipswich Town side who are still in the bottom three. Down in the Second Division, Cambridge United become the first team to be relegated this season, having won just two out of 36 games, while Swansea City are now almost certain to suffer a second successive relegation.
17 April 1984: Manchester United squander another chance to go top of the First Division, being held to a goalless draw at Watford. Nottingham Forest's title bid is fading fast as they go down 2–1 at Coventry City. Southampton beat Everton 3–1 at The Dell. West Ham keep up their bid for a UEFA Cup place with a 3–1 home win over Luton Town.
18 April 1984: The gap at the top of the First Division now stands at two points after Liverpool draw a thrilling game at Filbert Street 3–3 with Leicester City. Tottenham Hotspur remain in the hunt for another top-five finish by beating Aston Villa 2–1.
21 April 1984: Liverpool beat West Bromwich Albion 3–0 at Anfield in the First Division but Manchester United keep up the pressure on them with a 4–1 home win over Coventry City. Nottingham Forest's title challenge is practically over despite a 5–1 home win over Birmingham City. Southampton remain in with an outside chance of winning the title by beating West Ham 2–0 at The Dell. Wolves lose 3–0 at home to Ipswich Town, a result which boosts the Suffolk club's survival chances but leaves the hosts needing to win all six of their remaining games to have any chance of surviving even on goal difference.
23 April 1984: Wolves go down to the Second Division just one season after winning promotion, their relegation confirmed when they lose 2–0 to Everton at Goodison Park. Their local rivals West Bromwich Albion take another step closer to survival by beating Sunderland 3–1 at The Hawthorns. Ipswich Town climb out of the bottom three by beating East Anglian rivals Norwich City 2–0 at Portman Road. In the Second Division, Manchester City's promotion hopes are left looking slim after they lose 3–2 at home to Huddersfield Town, meaning that Sheffield Wednesday only need one point from their final six games to secure their return to the First Division after 14 years away. Newcastle United's title hopes are also given a huge boost with a 5–1 home win over Carlisle United.
25 April 1984: Liverpool reach their fourth European Cup final in eight seasons with a 3-1 aggregate win over Dinamo Bucharest in the semi-finals. Manchester United's hopes of European glory are ended when they lose their Cup Winners' Cup semi-final second leg 2–1 to Juventus in Turin. Nottingham Forest suffer a spectacular 3–0 defeat to Anderlecht in their UEFA Cup semi-final second leg tie in Belgium, after winning the first leg 2–0, ending their hopes of an all-English UEFA Cup final clash with Tottenham, who overcome Hajduk Split on away goals. Sheffield Wednesday's promotion celebrations are delayed by a 2–0 defeat to Middlesbrough at Ayresome Park.
28 April 1984: Southampton claim the biggest win of the First Division season with an 8-2 thrashing of Coventry City, with Steve Moran and Danny Wallace both scoring hat-tricks, keeping the Saints in contention for the title. Liverpool are held to a 2–2 draw at home to Ipswich Town, but Manchester United miss the chance to draw level on points with the leaders after West Ham hold them to a goalless draw at Old Trafford. QPR's faint hopes of winning the title are kept alive with a 2–1 home win over Tottenham. Sheffield Wednesday's promotion is confirmed by a 1–0 home win over Crystal Palace, and are joined in the First Division next season by Chelsea, who go up in style by beating Leeds United 5–0 at home with top scorer Kerry Dixon scoring a hat-trick, although the Second Division title has yet to be decided. Newcastle United only need four points from their final three games to be sure of promotion.
1 May 1984: Notts County keep their survival hopes alive with a 4–0 home win over Wolves.
2 May 1984: Manchester City's hopes of an immediate return to the First Division are ended by a 2–0 home defeat to Chelsea.
5 May 1984: The guessing game in the First Division title race continues as Liverpool are held to a goalless draw at Birmingham City, while Manchester United draw 1–1 with Everton at Goodison Park. QPR keep up their title push with a 3–0 away win over Notts County, in which Clive Allen scores a hat-trick, leaving the home side needing to win their final three games to stand any chance of survival. Derby County are on the brink of going down to the Third Division a mere nine years after being First Division champions, after a 4–0 away defeat to Newcastle United, who now need just a point from their final two games to be sure of ending their six-year absence from the First Division.
7 May 1984: Liverpool are now just two points away from being league champions for the third successive season, having beaten Coventry City 5–0 at Anfield while Manchester United lose 2–1 at home to Ipswich Town. Notts County's relegation is confirmed when they fail to break the deadlock against Sunderland in a goalless draw at Roker Park. Nottingham Forest's 5–1 home win over Watford books them a second successive UEFA Cup campaign. Newcastle United secure their return to the First Division with a 2–2 draw against Huddersfield Town at Leeds Road. Oldham Athletic's 2–1 home win over Grimsby Town confirms Derby County's relegation to the Third Division
9 May 1984: Tottenham Hotspur draw 1–1 with Anderlecht in the first leg of the UEFA Cup Final in Brussels.
10 May 1984: Ray Wilkins accepts an offer to join AC Milan from Manchester United in a £1.5 million deal at the end of the season.
12 May 1984: Liverpool's third successive league title (and 15th overall) is confirmed when they draw 0–0 at Notts County and their last remaining rivals Manchester United are held to a 1–1 draw at Tottenham, and outsiders Southampton are held to a goalless draw at Birmingham, who are relegated after Coventry City and Stoke City both win their final games of the season. Chelsea seal the Second Division title on goal difference ahead of Sheffield Wednesday.
14 May 1984: Alan Mullery departs Crystal Palace, ostensibly "by mutual consent" though Palace players suspect the sack. Meanwhile, veteran player Archie Gemmill is one of eight released by Derby County, who will spend their centenary season in the Third Division.
16 May 1984: Nottingham Forest beat Manchester United 2–0 to leapfrog their opponents in second place in the First Division on goal difference.
17 May 1984: In the last match of the First Division season, Southampton beat Notts County 3–1 to finish in second place – the highest finish in their history – while Nottingham Forest, Manchester United and QPR complete the top five and qualify for the UEFA Cup.
19 May 1984: Everton win their first major trophy in 14 years by defeating Watford 2–0 in the FA Cup final with goals from Graeme Sharp and Andy Gray. This gives them entry to next season's European Cup Winners' Cup.
21 May 1984: PFA Young Player of the Year Paul Walsh joins Liverpool from Luton Town for £700,000 as manager Joe Fagan lines him up as a potential long-term successor to the 33-year-old Kenny Dalglish.
23 May 1984: Tottenham Hotspur draw 1–1 with Anderlecht in the UEFA Cup final second leg at White Hart Lane, and win 4–3 on penalties to lift the trophy.
25 May 1984: Everton pay Sunderland £425,000 for 22-year-old midfielder Paul Bracewell.
30 May 1984: Liverpool lift the European Cup, beating A.S. Roma 4–2 on penalties after a 1–1 draw in Rome. They become the first English team to win three major competitions in the same season.
31 May 1984: Keith Burkinshaw is succeeded as Tottenham manager by his assistant Peter Shreeves.
10 June 1984: John Barnes scores a spectacular goal for England in their 2–0 away win over Brazil in a friendly. After Luther Blissett and Mark Chamberlain 18 months previously, he becomes only the third black player to score for the full England team.
12 June 1984: Liverpool midfielder Graeme Souness departs for Italian club Sampdoria in a £650,000 deal.
22 June 1984: Coventry City sign 26-year-old goalkeeper Steve Ogrizovic from Shrewsbury Town for £72,000.
28 June 1984: AC Milan sign Portsmouth striker Mark Hateley for £915,000.
National team
The England national football team had failed to qualify for Euro 84 but the FA kept faith in manager Bobby Robson. England also performed badly at the 1984 British Home Championship, coming joint second with Wales behind Northern Ireland but only scoring two goals in the process. However, a tour to South America during June instigated to replace the European Championship for the England team was more successful, with a notable victory over Brazil in the Maracana Stadium.
American tour
European football
Liverpool also won the European Cup, to complete a unique treble of trophies. Keith Burkinshaw resigned after seven years as Tottenham Hotspur manager, and went out on a high after his side won the UEFA Cup.
FA Cup
Everton overcame Watford 2–0 at Wembley to win the FA Cup, with goals from Graeme Sharp and Andy Gray. The biggest shock of the season came in the third round, when AFC Bournemouth beat holders Manchester United 2–0.
League Cup
Liverpool won their fourth successive League Cup, with a 1–0 win over neighbours Everton in a replay.
Football League
First Division
Liverpool went from strength to strength by becoming only the third English team to win three successive First Division titles and the first to win three major trophies in the season, as they won their fourth European Cup in eight seasons and their fourth Football League Cup in succession. But they were not without their contenders in the title race, which was not won until the beginning of May. Southampton enjoyed their best league season ever, finishing runners-up and reaching the semi-finals of the FA Cup (being unlikely contenders for the double until the final weeks of the season), while Nottingham Forest finished third, also taking in a run to the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup. Manchester United led the league more than once during the season but their form collapsed in the run-in and they finished fourth, the brightest moment of the season coming when they overhauled a two-goal deficit in the quarter-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup to overcome a Barcelona side containing world superstar Diego Maradona. The top five was completed by newly promoted QPR, whose manager Terry Venables then accepted an offer to manage Barcelona.
After a dismal start to the season which saw many fans calling for the dismissal of manager Howard Kendall, Everton's fortunes took a dramatic upturn following the arrival of striker Andy Gray, which saw any fears of relegation swiftly forgotten as they climbed up the table and eventually finished seventh, and then ended their 14-year trophy drought by winning the FA Cup. Everton also reached the final of the Football League Cup, but were beaten in a replay by their Merseyside neighbours.
Tottenham Hotspur manager Keith Burkinshaw stepped down at the end of the campaign after eight years in charge, but went out on a high by winning the UEFA Cup. Watford climbed to a secure mid table finish after the arrival of high scoring striker Mo Johnston lifted them clear of the relegation zone, and they also reached their first ever FA Cup final, but lost to Everton.
Wolverhampton Wanderers suffered a swift return to the Second Division with just six wins all season, and were joined in the drop zone by Notts County and local rivals Birmingham City. Coventry City climbed clear of the drop zone after a turnaround in the final few games which had followed a dramatic slump down the table, while Luton Town's survival was ensured by an excellent first half of the season before a post-Christmas slump.
Second Division
A year after narrowly avoiding relegation, Chelsea thrived in the Second Division and won the title on goal difference, thanks largely to the prolific scoring of new striker Kerry Dixon. Sheffield Wednesday finished runners-up to end their 14-year exile from the First Division. The final promotion place went to Newcastle United, whose former England striker Kevin Keegan retired after achieving the objective of promotion that had been his clear target when signing for the Tynesiders two years earlier.
Although the top three all secured promotion before the final game of the campaign, there had been no shortage of competition in the promotion race for much of the season, from the likes of Manchester City, Grimsby Town and Carlisle United.
Dave Bassett agreed to take charge of Crystal Palace at the end of the season, but changed his mind three days later – without signing the contract – and returned to Wimbledon. Palace installed former Manchester United winger Steve Coppell, 29, as their new manager.
Cambridge United's six-year stay in the Second Division ended after a terrible season where they secured just four wins. Swansea City fared little better, going down for the second season running – a mere two years after finishing sixth in the First Division – as financial problems mounted. The last relegation place went to Derby County, First Division champions just nine years previously. Derby's Peter Taylor, who almost guided the club to the semi-finals in the FA Cup that season, resigned as manager and was succeeded by Arthur Cox, who had just taken Newcastle into the First Division.
Administration entrance and exit without arrangements = Swansea City
Third Division
Jim Smith, who had guided Birmingham City into the First Division four years earlier, made use of Robert Maxwell's funds to strengthen Oxford United and this policy paid off at the second attempt as he led Oxford United to the Third Division title by a wide margin. Also going up were Wimbledon and Sheffield United, while Hull City failed to follow Wimbledon to a second successive promotion only on goals scored. Walsall, who enjoyed an impressive run to the Football League Cup semi-finals which included knocking out Arsenal and costing Gunners manager Terry Neill his job after seven years, finished sixth in the league. Millwall, who had achieved a remarkable escape from relegation a year earlier under new manager George Graham, progressed to ninth place in the Third Division.
Narrowly avoiding the Third Division drop zone were Plymouth Argyle, who compensated for their dismal league form by reaching the FA Cup semi finals for the first time in their history.
Exeter City, Port Vale, Southend United and Scunthorpe United ended the season relegated to the Fourth Division. New owner Anton Johnson made an instrumental move to reverse Southend's decline by appointed England's World Cup winning captain Bobby Moore as manager.
Fourth Division
York City became the first English league team to amass 100 league points in a season, and in doing so clinched the Fourth Division title and a place in the Third Division. Leeds United legend Billy Bremner took Doncaster Rovers to promotion as runners-up, while Reading climbed out of the league's basement division in third place. The final promotion place went to a Bristol City side on the comeback trail after their recent catastrophic hat-trick of relegations and near brush with closure. Aldershot just missed out on promotion, as did a Blackpool side who had been under threat of closure and loss of league status a year earlier.
Chester propped up the league, and had to apply for re-election along with Hartlepool United, Halifax Town and Rochdale. All four clubs retained their league status.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Ian Rush (Liverpool) – 32 goals
Second Division
Kerry Dixon (Chelsea) – 28 goals
Third Division
Keith Edwards (Sheffield United) – 33 goals
Fourth Division
Trevor Senior (Reading) – 36 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Star players
Luton Town's promising young striker Paul Walsh was voted PFA Young Player of the Year, and would soon join Liverpool to team up with Ian Rush – who had been voted both PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year.
Also hitting the headlines were Watford winger John Barnes, Manchester United midfielder Bryan Robson and Everton midfielder Peter Reid.
Retiring striker Kevin Keegan ended his playing career on a high as he helped Newcastle United gain promotion to the First Division.
Star managers
Joe Fagan became the first manager to lead an English club to three major trophies in the same season as he ended his first season as Liverpool manager as league champions, League Cup winners and European Cup winners.
Howard Kendall won his first major trophy as Everton manager in shape of the FA Cup.
Keith Burkinshaw resigned from Tottenham at the end of the season but ended his time at the club on a high note by winning the UEFA Cup.
Lawrie McMenemy guided Southampton to their highest-ever league finish – runners-up in the First Division.
John Neal guided Chelsea to the Second Division championship with a new-look side, having helped the club narrowly avoid relegation to the Third Division a year earlier.
Howard Wilkinson brought First Division football back to Sheffield Wednesday just a few seasons after they had narrowly avoided relegation to the Fourth Division.
Arthur Cox helped Newcastle United return to the First Division before suddenly quitting and moving to fallen giants Derby County in hope of reversing their sharp decline.
Jim Smith took Oxford United to title glory in the Third Division.
Dennis Smith took York City to the Fourth Division championship.
Dave Bassett took Wimbledon into the Second Division in only their seventh season as a Football League club.
Famous debutants
29 August 1983: Mark Bowen, 19-year-old defender, makes his debut for Tottenham Hotspur in 1–1 draw with Coventry City at White Hart Lane.
12 October 1983: Stuart Pearce, 21-year-old defender, makes his debut for Coventry City in 2–1 win over Queen's Park Rangers at Highfield Road after signing from non-league Wealdstone.
5 November 1983: Tony Adams, 17-year-old defender, makes his debut for Arsenal in a 2–1 home defeat against Sunderland, a month after his 17th birthday.
13 January 1984: Graeme Hogg, 19-year-old defender, makes his debut for Manchester United in 1–1 draw with Queen's Park Rangers at Loftus Road.
16 May 1984: Clayton Blackmore, 19-year-old winger/defender, makes his debut for Manchester United in 2–0 defeat by Nottingham Forest at the City Ground.
Deaths
31 October 1983: George Smith, 68, played 125 league games at centre-half for Charlton Athletic, Brentford, QPR and Ipswich Town between 1938 and 1950. He was capped once for England and after retirement had spells as manager of four different non-league clubs before serving in the Football League in charge of Crystal Palace and finally a nine-year spell at Portsmouth which ended in 1970. He died at Bodmin, Cornwall.
5 December 1983: Les Talbot, 73, played for Blackburn Rovers and Cardiff City in the 1930s and finished his playing career in 1947 at Walsall. He then moved to the Netherlands where he managed seven clubs between 1949 and 1972, and stayed there until his death.
10 February 1984: Tommy Briggs, 60, scored 256 Football League goals in a 12-year career which began in 1946 and took him from Grimsby Town to Coventry City, and then to Birmingham City and Blackburn Rovers before he completed his playing career back at Grimsby.
4 April 1984: Frank Mitchell, 61, who was born in Australia but spent his whole playing career in England, made 361 Football League appearances between 1946 and 1958 for Birmingham City, Chelsea and Watford.
23 April 1984: Harry Hibbs, 77, kept goal for England 25 times between 1924 and 1939 and also played 358 times for Birmingham City in the Football League. He later managed Walsall for seven years.
13 June 1984: Ken Armstrong, 60, wing-half from Chelsea 1955 league title winning team, died in New Zealand, where he had coached the national side for two spells between 1958 and 1980.
18 June 1984: Arthur Chandler, 88, was Leicester City's all-time leading goalscorer, finding the net 259 times in the league and 273 in all competitions between 1923 and 1935. He also scored a further 16 league goals for his first club QPR and six for his last club Notts County.
References |
4053884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383%20in%20English%20football | 1982–83 in English football | The 1982–83 season was the 103rd season of competitive football in England.
Diary of the season
11 August 1982: Tottenham Hotspur pay Bristol Rovers £105,000 for defender Gary Mabbutt, who turns 21 later this month.
19 August 1982: Newcastle United pay Southampton £100,000 for Kevin Keegan.
21 August 1982: Liverpool beat Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 in the Charity Shield at Wembley with a goal from Ian Rush.
24 August 1982: The Shankly Gates are unveiled at Anfield, honouring former Liverpool manager Bill Shankly almost a year after his death.
25 August 1982: Arsenal sign 22-year-old striker Lee Chapman from Stoke City for £500,000.
26 August 1982: Bob Paisley announces that this season as Liverpool manager, his ninth in charge, will be his last.
28 August 1982: The first games of the First Division season are played. Manchester United achieve the biggest win of the opening day of the season beating Birmingham City 3–0. Peter Shilton exits Nottingham Forest in a £325,000 move to Southampton. In the Second Division, Kevin Keegan scores on his Newcastle debut in a 1–0 home win over QPR.
4 September 1982: Manchester City's victory over Watford ensures the Maine Road side are top of the table and the only First Division side with a 100% record after three games. Their win comes despite having outfield player Bobby McDonald as goalkeeper after Joe Corrigan is rendered unavailable after just three minutes. Paul Walsh scores his first three goals for Luton Town against Notts County as the Hatters win 5–3. Bob Latchford scores three of Swansea City's four without reply against Norwich City, Southampton's Justin Fashanu, on loan from Nottingham Forest, scores the winning goal in a 1–0 victory Aston Villa, West Bromwich Albion beat Manchester United and a Liverpool win 2–0 at Arsenal.
9 September 1982: Peter Beardsley, a 21-year-old former Carlisle United playing for Vancouver Whitecaps in Canada, signs for Manchester United in a £325,000 deal.
11 September 1982: Watford, in the First Division for the first time, go top of the league on goal difference (level with Manchester United and Manchester City) by beating West Bromwich Albion 3–0 in their fifth league game of the season. Ron Atkinson's side beat Ipswich Town 3–1 at Old Trafford. A six-goal thriller at Anfield sees Liverpool draw 3–3 with Luton Town. Aston Villa beat Nottingham Forest 4–1 at Villa Park. Stoke City beat Swansea City 4–1 at the Victoria Ground. West Ham United beat Birmingham City 5–0 at Upton Park. In the Second Division, Steve Lynex and Gary Lineker score hat-tricks in Leicester City's 6–0 home win over Carlisle United. A Yorkshire derby at Hillsborough sees Leeds United beat Sheffield Wednesday 3–2.
18 September 1982: Manchester United go top of the First Division with a 1–0 win over Southampton at The Dell. Liverpool go second with a 3–0 win over Swansea City at the Vetch Field. Stoke City go fourth by beating Ipswich Town 3–2 at Portman Road.
22 September 1982: England draw 2–2 with Denmark in Copenhagen in their opening 1984 European Championship qualifier, their first game under the management of Bobby Robson.
25 September 1982: Watford beat Sunderland 8–0 at Vicarage Road, with Luther Blissett scoring four goals and Ross Jenkins and Nigel Callaghan both scoring twice. Liverpool go top of the First Division with a 5–0 home win over Southampton after Manchester United are held to a goalless draw at home to Arsenal. Luton Town are the First Division's top scorers so far with 20 goals from their first seven games after drawing 4-4 at Stoke. Coventry City win 4–2 at home to Everton. There are 4–1 wins at home for Tottenham Hotspur against Nottingham Forest and West Ham United against Manchester City. In all, today's 11 First Division fixtures have produced a total of 50 goals.
30 September 1982: The month ends with defending champions Liverpool top of the First Division, with Manchester United in second place. Watford occupy third place, West Ham United and Tottenham Hotspur complete the top five, and Southampton, Birmingham City and Norwich City occupy the bottom three places. In the Second Division, surprise promotion contenders Grimsby Town head the race for a place in the First Division, joined by Wolverhampton Wanderers and Sheffield Wednesday in the top three.
2 October 1982: Liverpool's unbeaten start to the season ends when they are beaten 1–0 by Ipswich Town at Portman Road. However, Bob Paisley's men are still top of the First Division on goal difference after Manchester United are held to a 1–1 draw by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road.
6 October 1982: Nottingham Forest smash six past West Bromwich Albion in the League Cup.
9 October 1982: Manchester United go top of the First Division with a 1–0 home win over Stoke City, while Liverpool crash down to fifth place with a 3–1 defeat away to West Ham, who go second.
13 October 1982: Karl-Heinz Rummenigge scores twice as West Germany beat England 2–1 in a friendly at Wembley.
16 October 1982: Manchester United stay top of the First Division after a goalless draw with Liverpool at Anfield. West Ham squander the chance to go top by losing 3–0 at Southampton.
23 October 1982: First Division leaders Manchester United draw 2–2 in the Manchester derby at Old Trafford. West Ham miss another chance to go top of the league when they lose 3–1 to Brighton at the Goldstone Ground. West Bromwich Albion go second with a 1–0 home win over Luton Town. Fulham go top of the Second Division and look well-placed for a second successive promotion after winning 3–1 at home to Burnley.
30 October 1982: Liverpool go top of the First Division after they beat Brighton 3–1 at Anfield, while West Ham go second with a 3–1 home win over Manchester United. The top three are all level on 22 points after 12 games. West Bromwich Albion miss the chance to go top after they crash 6–1 at Ipswich.
6 November 1982: In the Merseyside derby at Goodison Park, Liverpool beat Everton 5–0 with four goals from Ian Rush and a further goal from Mark Lawrenson to maintain their lead of the First Division. West Ham's title hopes take a hit when they lose 5–2 at Stoke, as do Manchester United's with a 1–0 defeat at Brighton. Manchester City take advantage to go second with a 2–0 win over Southampton at Maine Road. Ipswich Town, runners-up in the league for the last two seasons, are now fourth from bottom after a 2–1 defeat at Nottingham Forest.
10 November 1982: Colchester United striker John Lyons, 26, dies at his home in Essex; he is believed to have committed suicide.
13 November 1982: The Ballon d'Or award winner for 1977, Allan Simonsen, scores on his début for Charlton Athletic, who are beaten 3–2 by Middlesbrough in the Second Division. In the First Division, Liverpool maintain a three-point lead at the top by beating Coventry City 4–0 at Anfield. West Ham go second with a 1–0 home win over bottom-of-the-table Norwich City. Manchester United maintain their title push with a 1–0 home win over Tottenham, as do Watford by beating Stoke City by the same scoreline at Vicarage Road. There are six goals in a thrilling clash at The Hawthorns, where West Bromwich Albion draw 3–3 with Swansea City.
17 November 1982: England beat Greece 3–0 in Salonika in a European Championship qualifier.
20 November 1982: The FA Cup first round ties produce giant-killing victories against Football League opposition for non-league sides Altrincham, Boston United, North Shields, Bishop's Stortford and Slough Town. Liverpool are now four points ahead at the top of First Division with a 2–1 win over Notts County at Meadow Lane. Watford go second with a 4–1 win at home to Brighton. Manchester United's title hopes are hit by a 2–1 away defeat to Aston Villa. Manchester City's hopes are hit by a goalless draw at home to struggling Birmingham City.
25 November 1982: Derby County are fined £10,000 and "warned as to their future conduct" by the Football League over breaches of two regulations relating to illicit negotiations with Roy McFarland, who resigns his post as player-manager at Bradford City to return to the club for a second spell as a player.
27 November 1982: The First Division title race sees Liverpool maintain their four-point lead over Watford, as Bob Paisley's team triumph 3–0 at home to Tottenham and Graham Taylor's side beat Arsenal 4–2 at Highbury.
30 November 1982: Liverpool remain top of the First Division as November draws to a close, four points ahead of second-placed Watford. Nottingham Forest, Manchester United and West Ham United complete the top five, while the bottom three clubs remain unchanged from the end of last month. Queens Park Rangers, Fulham and Sheffield Wednesday head the Second Division promotion race.
4 December 1982: Leaders Liverpool suffer a shock 1–0 defeat to Norwich City at Carrow Road. Manchester United go second with a 1–0 at Watford. Aston Villa go third with a 1–0 home win over West Ham. Nottingham Forest's title hopes are hit by a 3–2 defeat to local rivals Notts County at Meadow Lane. Down in the Second Division, Middlesbrough find themselves fifth from bottom and in real danger of a second consecutive relegation after they lose 4–0 at Wolves.
6 December 1982: Mike Bailey is sacked from his job as manager at Brighton & Hove Albion, reportedly because Albion's supporters deemed the team "too boring". Coach Jimmy Melia takes over. Millwall, bottom of the Third Division, appoint former Arsenal and Manchester United midfielder George Graham, 38, as their new manager.
11 December 1982: There is a major upset in the FA Cup second round as Third Division Wrexham lose 2–1 to non-league Worcester City. The gap between Liverpool and Manchester United at the top of the First Division remains three points wide after Bob Paisley guides his team to a 3–1 home win over Watford, and Ron Atkinson watches his side put four without reply past Notts County at Old Trafford. Nottingham Forest revive their title challenge with a 2–1 home win over Swansea City.
12 December 1982: Aston Villa lose the Intercontinental Cup final 2–0 to Argentine side Penarol in Tokyo.
15 December 1982: England beat Luxembourg 9–0 at Wembley in the European Championship qualifiers. Luther Blissett scores a hat-trick on his England debut and becomes the nation's first black goalscorer. Débutant Mark Chamberlain is also on the scoresheet.
18 December 1982: Liverpool extend their lead of the First Division to five points with a 4–2 away win over Aston Villa, while Manchester United can only manage a goalless away draw with Swansea City. In the Second Division promotion race, Wolves beat leaders QPR 4–0 at the Molineux to cut the gap between first and second place to three points. Wolves have a game in hand over the leaders and now have a superior goal difference.
22 December 1982: Everton sign 26-year-old midfielder Peter Reid from Bolton Wanderers in a £60,000 deal.
26 December 1982: With Boxing Day being on a Sunday for the last time until 1993, there are just two fixtures in the whole Football League. In the Second Division, promotion challengers Oldham Athletic and Leeds United draw 2–2 at Boundary Park. In the Third Division, there is a London derby at The Den, where Millwall lose 1–0 at home to Orient in a relegation crunch match.
27 December 1982: Liverpool remain in pole position at the top of the First Division with a 5–2 home win over Manchester City. There is an East Anglian derby clash at Portman Road, where Norwich boost their survival bid with a 3–2 win over their Suffolk neighbours. Birmingham City are on the winning side at home to their neighbours Aston Villa, winning 3–0 to dent Tony Barton's team's hopes of winning a second league title in three seasons, while Birmingham's three points are vital in their battle to avoid relegation. Wolves go top of the Second Division with a 2–0 away win over Shrewsbury Town, as QPR lose 2–1 at home to London rivals Chelsea.
29 December 1982: Watford rise to third in the table with a win over West Ham, who move into fifth. At the lower reaches of the table, Norwich beat Luton and Birmingham draw with Swansea; all four clubs and Brighton are separated by four points. In the Second Division, QPR beat Charlton to go level on points with Wolverhampton Wanderers at the top of the table.
31 December 1982: The year ends with Liverpool's lead at the top of the First Division increased to six points, with Nottingham Forest their nearest challengers and Watford and Manchester United two points further back. Sunderland, Birmingham City and Brighton & Hove Albion occupy the bottom three places. An excellent month for Wolverhampton Wanderers has seen the Midlands side storm to the top of the Second Division, joined in the top three by Queens Park Rangers and Fulham.
1 January 1983: Alan Ball, aged 37 and the only England World Cup winner still playing, leaves Southampton on a free transfer and signs a contract with Bristol Rovers. Liverpool are now eight points ahead at the top of the First Division after beating Notts County 5–1 at Anfield, with Manchester United now their nearest challengers after a 3–1 home win over Aston Villa, while Watford are held to a 1–1 draw at Brighton and Nottingham Forest are unable to break the deadlock in their home clash with Sunderland which ends goalless. Wolves move closer to sealing an immediate return to the First Division by beating fellow promotion challengers Fulham 3–1 at Craven Cottage. Shrewsbury Town are now on the brink of the promotion places after a 2–0 win at home to Chelsea. Derby County, First Division champions eight seasons ago, are now bottom of the First Division and faced with huge debts and falling crowds.
4 January 1983: West Ham are now 13 points off the top of the First Division after losing 3–2 at home to Luton Town.
8 January 1983: Holders Tottenham Hotspur beat Southampton 1–0 in the FA Cup third round. Nottingham Forest are surprisingly beaten 2–0 by manager Brian Clough's former team, Second Division Derby County.
15 January 1983: Liverpool maintain their 10-point lead over their nearest title rivals Manchester United and Nottingham Forest by beating West Bromwich Albion 1–0 at The Hawthorns.
19 January 1983: Aston Villa lose 1–0 to Barcelona at the Nou Camp in the first leg of the European Super Cup. On the domestic scene, Manchester United remain in contention for all three domestic trophies by beating Nottingham Forest 4–0 in the Football League Cup quarter-final clash at Old Trafford. Tottenham suffer a shock 4–1 home defeat to Second Division strugglers Burnley in the same stage of the competition.
26 January 1983: Aston Villa clinch the European Super Cup by beating Barcelona 3–0 at Villa Park.
29 January 1983: Brighton beat Manchester City 4–0 in the FA Cup fourth round at the Goldstone Ground. Burnley continue their good cup form with a 3–1 home win over Swindon Town. Liverpool beat Stoke City 2–0 at Anfield and Manchester United beat Luton Town by the same scoreline at Kenilworth Road, keeping both of the victorious sides in contention for a unique domestic treble.
31 January 1983: As January ends, Liverpool are ten points clear at the top of the First Division, their nearest rivals now being Manchester United. Watford are third, level on points with Nottingham Forest, and Coventry City have moved into the top five. Brighton & Hove Albion and Birmingham City are still in the bottom three, but Sunderland have climbed out of the relegation zone at the expense of Norwich City. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Queens Park Rangers and Fulham continue to lead the way in the Second Division, with third placed Fulham now nine points ahead of their nearest challengers Sheffield Wednesday. At the other end of the table, fallen giants Derby County show no sign of improvement as they remain bottom of the division and are now eight points adrift of safety.
3 February 1983: John Bond resigns after more than two years as manager of Manchester City. Coach John Benson takes over on an interim basis.
5 February 1983: Liverpool extend their First Division lead to 12 points with a 3–1 away win over Luton Town, while Manchester United can only manage a 1–1 draw with Ipswich Town at Portman Road. In the Second Division, the top three of Wolves, QPR and Fulham look certain to win promotion, with more than 10 points separating them from their nearest challengers.
6 February 1983: Watford keep up the pressure on Liverpool with a 3–1 away win over Swansea City, who finished sixth in the First Division last season but are now just one point and one place outside the relegation zone.
12 February 1983: Liverpool are now 15 points ahead at the top of the First Division after beating Ipswich Town 1–0 at Anfield, but Manchester United have a game in hand over them. Coventry City go fifth with a 4–0 home win over Manchester City.
19 February 1983: Tottenham Hotspur lose their first FA Cup match since March 1980, 2–0 to Everton in the fifth round. Aston Villa beat Watford 4–1, while Norwich City beat Ipswich Town 1–0 in the East Anglian derby. Manchester United beat Derby County 1–0 at the Baseball Ground. In the First Division, Southampton remain in the hunt for a UEFA Cup place by beating Southampton 2–0 at The Dell. Manchester City's downturn continues with a 1–0 defeat at home to Notts County.
20 February 1983: Liverpool's hopes of a unique domestic treble are ended when they suffer a shock 2–1 home defeat against Brighton & Hove Albion in the FA Cup fifth round.
26 February 1983: Arsenal goalkeeper Pat Jennings, 37, becomes the first footballer to appear in 1,000 competitive games in England, reaching the milestone in a 0–0 league draw with West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns. Manchester United and Liverpool draw 1–1 at Old Trafford, allowing Watford to move into second place with a 2–1 home win over Aston Villa. Notts County move closer to securing a third successive season in the First Division by demolishing Coventry City 5–1 at Meadow Lane. Sunderland stay clear of the danger zone by inflicting a 3–2 defeat on Manchester City at Roker Park. Leicester City cast doubt on the seemingly certain promotion status of the Second Division's top three by beating Wolves 5–0 at Filbert Street.
28 February 1983: Liverpool now have a 14-point advantage at the top of the First Division, with Watford one place behind and with a game in hand. Manchester United, Nottingham Forest and Aston Villa complete the top five. The bottom three remain unchanged from the end of last month. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Queens Park Rangers and Fulham remain the leading force in the Second Division promotion race, but Leicester City are starting to put pressure on the leading pack. In the FA Cup fifth round replays, Arsenal beat Middlesbrough 3–2 at Highbury and Burnley beat Crystal Palace 1–0 at Turf Moor.
1 March 1983: Peter Beardsley leaves Manchester United and returns to Vancouver Whitecaps on a free transfer, having only made one appearance for the Old Trafford club. In the only First Division action of the day, Brighton win 2–1 at Swansea to draw level on points with their opponents in the battle against relegation. Second Division leaders Wolves at Sheffield Wednesday 1–0 at home.
2 March 1983: European action resumes with European Cup holders Aston Villa losing 2–1 at home to Juventus in the quarter-final first leg, while Liverpool's hopes of a fourth European Cup triumph in seven seasons are hit hard when they go down 2–0 to Polish champions Widzew Lodz. However, Bob Paisley's team still look assured to retain their league title after their nearest rivals Watford and Manchester United are both beaten away from home in the First Division, with Watford going down 3–0 to Norwich City at Carrow Road and Manchester United lose 1–0 away to a Stoke City side who are now pushing for UEFA Cup qualification for the first time in eight years. Everton miss the chance of break into the top five when they are held to a goalless draw by Manchester City at Maine Road.
5 March 1983: Liverpool continue their surge towards the First Division title with a 5–1 home win over Stoke City, although Watford keep up the pressure with a 1–0 win at Coventry, as do Manchester United who triumph 1–2 in the Manchester derby at Maine Road.
8 March 1983: Aston Villa go fourth in the First Division with a 2–0 home win over Notts County.
12 March 1983: Arsenal go through to the FA Cup semi-finals with a 2–0 home win over Aston Villa, as do Brighton with a 1–0 home win over Norwich City. Manchester United are in the semi-finals for the first time in four seasons after beating Everton 1–0 at Old Trafford. The fourth quarter-final clash ends in a 1–1 draw between Burnley and Sheffield Wednesday at Turf Moor. Leaders Liverpool beat West Ham 3–0 in the First Division. In the race for a UEFA Cup place, West Bromwich Albion beat Ipswich Town 4–1 at home. Manchester City, who were among the title contenders as recently as November, are now in danger of relegation after going down 4–1 at Swansea, a result which lifts the hosts out of the bottom three. An eight-goal thriller at Vicarage Road sees Watford beat Notts County 5-3.
15 March 1983: Birmingham City boost their survival hopes with a 2–1 home win over Arsenal. The race for a UEFA Cup place features a 2–0 home win for Everton over Southampton.
16 March 1983: Sheffield Wednesday thrash Burnley in the Hillsborough replay 5–0 to reach the FA Cup semi-finals for the first time since 1966.
22 March 1983: Manchester United keep their slim hopes of catching Liverpool alive by beating West Ham 2–1 at Old Trafford, as do Watford with a 2–1 home win over Birmingham City. Liverpool are held to a 2–2 draw at Brighton. The race for a UEFA Cup place features a 2–2 draw between Arsenal and Ipswich Town at Highbury. QPR move closer to ending their four-year exile from the First Division by beating Charlton Athletic 5–1 at Loftus Road. Leicester City's hopes of breaking into the top three are hit when Sheffield Wednesday hold them to a 2–2 draw at Hillsborough.
26 March 1983: Liverpool clinch the League Cup for the third season running by beating Manchester United 2–1 in the final at Wembley. Alan Kennedy and Ronnie Whelan score for Liverpool, and 17-year-old Norman Whiteside becomes the youngest scorer in a major Wembley final for United. On the same day, legendary former Manchester United player George Best signs for Third Division side AFC Bournemouth two months before his 37th birthday.
30 March 1983: England are held to a 0–0 draw by Greece at Wembley in a European Championship qualifier.
31 March 1983: Liverpool are looking all set to add the league title to their League Cup this season, as they end March as First Division leaders with a 13-point lead over nearest challengers Watford. Manchester United, Aston Villa and Southampton complete the top five. The bottom three clubs remain unchanged for the second month-end running. Queens Park Rangers have overhauled Wolverhampton Wanderers at the top of the Second Division, while Fulham remain third but still under pressure from a determined Leicester City side. Derby County are at last showing some sign of being able to avoid relegation as they are now just two points adrift of safety.
2 April 1983: Liverpool take another step towards title glory by beating Sunderland 1–0 at Anfield, although Manchester United keep up the pressure with a 3–0 home win over Coventry City. Watford's title hopes are now virtually dead after they lose 2–1 at West Ham.
4 April 1983: Tottenham give their hopes of qualifying for the UEFA Cup a huge boost by beating Arsenal 5–0 in the North London derby at White Hart Lane. Watford go second with a 5–2 home win over local rivals Luton Town, who remain second from bottom of the First Division. Manchester United are held to a goalless draw at Sunderland. In the Third Division, Newport County go top of the table with a 1–0 win over South Wales rivals Cardiff City in a promotion crunch game at Somerton Park, boosting the Monmouthshire side's chances of reaching the Second Division for only the second time in the club's history.
5 April 1983: Nottingham Forest go fifth in the First Division with a 2–1 win over Coventry City at Highfield Road. Brighton miss the chance to move out of the bottom three when they are held to a goalless draw at Southampton. West Ham's resurgence continues with a 5–1 away win over Swansea City, which puts them firmly back in the hunt for a UEFA Cup place and deepens the home side's relegation worries.
9 April 1983: Liverpool now need just five points from their last seven games to clinch the First Division title after beating Swansea City, managed by former Liverpool striker John Toshack, 3–0 at Anfield, a result which sends the Swans back into the bottom three. Luton Town climb out of the relegation zone at Swansea's expense by beating Aston Villa 2–1 at Kenilworth Road. Manchester United drop two points when Southampton hold them to a 1–1 draw at Old Trafford, but Watford help delay Liverpool's wait for the title by beating West Bromwich Albion 3–1 away from home. A relegation crunch game at St Andrew's sees Birmingham City lose 4–0 at home to Norwich City.
12 April 1983: Liverpool drop two points when Coventry City hold them to a goalless draw at Highfield Road. Time is running out for Birmingham City in their battle to avoid relegation when they go down 3–1 to Luton Town in a relegation crunch clash at Kenilworth Road.
16 April 1983: Manchester United reach their ninth FA Cup final with a 2–1 win over Arsenal at Villa Park. Brighton reach a cup final for the first time by winning the other semi-final 2–1 against Sheffield Wednesday at Highbury. Liverpool's wait for the First Division title is further delayed by a 3–2 defeat at Southampton. Norwich City move closer to safety with a 2–0 home win over Sunderland, while Birmingham City's survival bid is boosted by a 1–0 away win over Coventry City.
19 April 1983: Manchester United's 2–0 defeat at Everton means that Liverpool now need just one point from their final five league games to be sure of the title, while the win is also a boost to Howard Kendall's team in their challenge for a UEFA Cup place. FA Cup finalists Brighton move closer to relegation after being held to a 1–1 draw at Sunderland. QPR now need just two points from their final six Second Division games to secure promotion after a 1–0 away win over Sheffield Wednesday.
20 April 1983: Norwich City move closer to survival with a 3–1 home win over Arsenal. Newcastle United keep their faint promotion hopes alive in the Second Division by beating struggling Rotherham United 4–0 on Tyneside.
23 April 1983: Liverpool are made to wait for the league title after losing 2–0 at home to Norwich City, with Manchester United's 2–0 home win over Watford ensuring that Bob Paisley's team have to wait at least another game to seal the title. A Second Division promotion crunch game at Craven Cottage sees Leicester City beat Fulham 1–0 and cut the gap between third and fourth place to just two points. Meanwhile, Fulham's West London rivals QPR confirm their promotion with a 1–0 home win over Leeds United. Hull City are promoted from the Fourth Division with a 1–0 win over Crewe Alexandra at Boothferry Park.
27 April 1983: England beat Hungary 2–0 at Wembley in a European Championship qualifier.
30 April 1983: Manchester United's 1–1 draw at Norwich seals the First Division title for Liverpool, despite their 2–0 defeat to Tottenham at White Hart Lane. Nottingham Forest move closer to securing a UEFA Cup place with a 2–1 away win over Manchester City, which leaves the hosts on the brink of the relegation zone. Wolves beat Crystal Palace 1–0 in their Second Division clash at the Molineux, leaving them needing just two points from their final three games to secure an immediate return to the First Division. Wimbledon also seal an immediate return to the Third Division after beating Crewe Alexandra 2–0 at Gresty Road.
2 May 1983: Arsenal keep their hopes of qualifying for the UEFA Cup alive by beating Manchester United 3–0 at Highbury. FA Cup finalists Brighton slide closer to relegation after only being able to manage a 1–1 draw at Birmingham, a result which lifts the hosts out of the relegation zone at the expense of Manchester City. QPR clinch the Second Division title with a 3–1 home win over West London rivals Fulham, which promotes Wolves (who draw 3–3 with Charlton Athletic at The Valley) and allows Leicester City to go third on goal difference despite only being able to manage a 2–2 draw on their visit to Leeds United. Portsmouth miss the chance to seal promotion from the Third Division when Orient hold them to a 2–2 draw at Fratton Park.
3 May 1983: Cardiff City's promotion from the Third Division is delayed by a 3–0 defeat to Gillingham at Priestfield.
4 May 1983: Newcastle United keep their Second Division promotion push alive with a 5–0 win over Barnsley at Oakwell.
6 May 1983: Port Vale win promotion from the Fourth Division with a 2–0 win over Stockport County at Edgeley Park.
7 May 1983: FA Cup finalists Brighton are relegated from the First Division with a 1–0 defeat to Manchester City in the relegation crunch game at the Goldstone Ground. Swansea City's 2–1 defeat at Manchester United also sends them down, just one season after finishing sixth in the First Division. Birmingham City stay clear of the bottom three with a 2–0 home win over Tottenham. Coventry City arrest their alarming slide down the table and stay clear of the bottom three with a 3–0 win at Stoke. Portsmouth, Cardiff City and Huddersfield Town all seal promotion to the Second Division, with Huddersfield seeing off their last remaining promotion rivals Newport County 1–0 at Leeds Road.
8 May 1983: Millwall move closer to securing a remarkable escape from relegation in the Third Division by beating their London rivals Brentford 1–0 at The Den.
9 May 1983: Luton Town miss the chance to climb out of the bottom three when they lose their penultimate First Division game 3–0 to Manchester United at Old Trafford, meaning that they will need to win their final game of the season when they return to Manchester to face City at Maine Road.
11 May 1983: Manchester United miss the chance to clinch runners-up spot in the First Division when they lose 2–0 at Tottenham.
14 May 1983: The First Division season ends with Watford beating Liverpool 2–1 to finish runners-up in their first season as a First Division team. Manchester United finish third after losing 3–2 away to Notts County. Tottenham Hotspur book another European campaign, this time in the UEFA Cup, with a 4–1 home win over Stoke City ensuring a fourth-place finish for Keith Burkinshaw's team. Nottingham Forest seal a return to European competitions after missing out last season by beating doomed Swansea 3–0 at the Vetch Field to fifth. The final UEFA Cup place goes to Aston Villa, who beat Arsenal 2–1 at Villa Park to finish sixth. Luton Town pull off a remarkable escape from relegation when a late goal from Yugoslav defender Radomir Antic gives them a 1–0 away win over Manchester City and sends the hosts down after 17 years in the First Division. Leicester City seal the final promotion place in the Second Division, drawing 0–0 at home to Burnley while Fulham lose 1–0 at Derby and Newcastle draw 2–2 at Wolves. Bolton Wanderers are relegated from the Second Division after going down 4–1 at Charlton Athletic in their final game of the season, as are Rotherham United after being held to a 2–2 draw by Leeds United at Elland Road. The final remaining game of the Second Division is a relegation decider between Burnley and Crystal Palace which has yet to be played. Reading and Wrexham join Doncaster Rovers in relegation from the Third Division. Scunthorpe United pip Bury to the final promotion place in the Fourth Division with a 2–1 win over Chester at Sealand Road, with the Gigg Lane side missing out on promotion after losing 3–1 at home to champions Wimbledon.
17 May 1983: The Football League season draws to a close with the Second Division relegation decider at Selhurst Park and a dead-rubber match at Feethams. In the Selhurst Park clash, Crystal Palace beat Burnley 1–0 to send their Lancastrian opponents down to the Third Division at the end of a season where two good cup runs took their strain on a side which couldn't repeat the same form in the league. The Fourth Division clash between Darlington and Peterborough United is a seven-goal thriller with the home side winning 4–3.
20 May 1983: Everton sell 21-year-old winger Steve McMahon, 21, to Aston Villa for £175,000.
21 May 1983: Manchester United and Brighton & Hove Albion draw 2–2 in the FA Cup final to book a replay in five days time. Brighton nearly win the game with a late shot by Gordon Smith, which United goalkeeper Gary Bailey saves.
26 May 1983: Manchester United thrash Brighton & Hove Albion 4–0 in the FA Cup final replay to lift the trophy on legendary former manager and current director Sir Matt Busby's 74th birthday. Bryan Robson scores twice, with Norman Whiteside becoming the youngest scorer in an FA Cup final shortly after his 18th birthday, while an Arnold Muhren penalty makes the Dutchman one of the first foreign players to score in an English cup final.
31 May 1983: Coventry City sack manager Dave Sexton after two seasons in charge. His successor is the Bristol Rovers manager and former Sky Blues player Bobby Gould.
1 June 1983: England clinch the Home Championship by beating Scotland 2–0 at Wembley. 19-year-old Swindon Town striker Paul Rideout moves from the Fourth Division to the First in a £200,000 transfer to Aston Villa.
30 June 1983: Billy McNeill steps down as manager of Scottish league champions Celtic to take over as manager of Manchester City.
National team
UEFA Competitions
Aston Villa won the European Super Cup with midfield dynamo Gordon Cowans playing a major part in the win.
FA Cup
Manchester United won their first major trophy under Ron Atkinson's management by beating Brighton 4–0 in the FA Cup final replay after a 2–2 draw in the first match.
League Cup
Liverpool won their third successive League Cup as an added bonus for manager Bob Paisley during his final season in charge. When his team prepared to ascend the 39 steps to the Royal Box, they all insisted that he should be the man to collect the trophy.
Football League
First Division
Bob Paisley went out on a high when retiring as Liverpool manager after nine years and numerous trophies by winning the league title and the Football League Cup. His formidable team had looked uncatchable in the league by the turn of 1983, and finished top of the table by 11 points. Their nearest rivals were Watford, in the First Division for the first time and spearheaded by the ownership of Elton John, management of Graham Taylor and the attacking prowess of Luther Blissett and John Barnes. Third placed Manchester United had been on the losing side to Liverpool in the League Cup final and were very nearly beaten by a last minute Brighton goal in the FA Cup final, only for a Gary Bailey save to force a replay which United won 4-0. The top five was completed by Nottingham Forest and Tottenham Hotspur.
FA Cup finalists Brighton & Hove Albion were relegated after four seasons in the top flight. Next to go down were Swansea City, whose second season among the elite was a complete contrast to their first, where they had finished sixth. The final relegation place was decided in dramatic fashion at Maine Road, where Luton Town had to beat their hosts Manchester City to stay up and send the home side (who had never been in the relegation zone at any point of the season until then, and had been safely in mid-table until the controversial sacking of manager John Bond in February, leading to a disastrous run of results under replacement manager John Benson) down. A late winner by Luton's Raddy Antic gave Luton survival, which manager David Pleat famously celebrated by galloping on the pitch, arms aloft, when the final whistle was blown.
Second Division
A year after being runners-up in the FA Cup, Queens Park Rangers won the Second Division title and secured a return to the First Division after four years away. Runners-up spot went to Wolverhampton Wanderers, who had been saved from closure by former player Derek Dougan just before the start of the season, while Leicester City clinched the final promotion place, a point ahead of a Fulham side who came close to a second successive promotion under the management of former England striker Malcolm Macdonald. Another former England striker, Kevin Keegan, who was still playing, had an impressive first season at Newcastle United but could not quite inspire them to promotion, nor could World Cup winner Jack Charlton as manager of FA Cup semi-finalists Sheffield Wednesday.
Bolton Wanderers, Rotherham United and League Cup semi-finalists Burnley ended the season relegated, while Chelsea narrowly avoided the drop, as did Derby County after the return of former coach Peter Taylor to the club as manager.
Third Division
Portsmouth's revival continued as they clinched the Third Division title to secure a second promotion in four seasons. Cardiff City won promotion back to the Second Division after suffering relegation the previous season, as well as Huddersfield Town, who like Portsmouth continued their revival by also securing a second promotion in four seasons. Newport County's collapse in the final weeks of the season cost them a place in the Second Division, a similar fate befalling Oxford United in the first full season of Robert Maxwell's ownership and Jim Smith's management. For the second season running, Lincoln City just missed out on promotion.
Chesterfield, Doncaster Rovers, Wrexham and Reading ended the season relegated.
Fourth Division
Wimbledon set the Football League points record in the second season of three points for a win, gaining 98 points to win the Fourth Division title and their third promotion at this level since joining the Football League in 1977. They were joined by Hull City, Port Vale and Scunthorpe United.
Hereford United, Crewe Alexandra and Hartlepool United perhaps unsurprisingly propped up the league and had to apply for re-election, but the fourth club to suffer this humiliation were fallen giants Blackpool, of Stanley Matthews fame and 1953 FA Cup glory. However, all four clubs were successful in gaining re-election.
Crewe Alexandra built for the future by appointing Dario Gradi as manager, hoping that he could keep them clear of the Fourth Division's lower reaches and achieve some of the success with them that he had achieved in two promotion winning campaigns at Wimbledon (although he did not complete the second promotion campaign at Wimbledon).
Top goalscorers
First Division
Luther Blissett (Watford) – 27 goals
Second Division
Gary Lineker (Leicester City) – 26 goals
Third Division
Kerry Dixon (Reading) – 26 goals
Fourth Division
Steve Cammack (Scunthorpe United) – 25 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Star players
Liverpool's dominant side ran away with the honours as Kenny Dalglish was voted both PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year.
21-year-old Liverpool striker Ian Rush established himself as one of the league's finest goalscorers after collecting the PFA Young Player of the Year award as well as league championship and League Cup medals.
Manchester United's FA Cup winning squad included star players like Bryan Robson, Ray Wilkins and the 18-year-old Norman Whiteside.
Aston Villa's midfield dynamo Gordon Cowans helps inspire Villa to win the European Super Cup.
The key player in Watford's rise to the top of the English game was prolific striker Luther Blissett.
Successful managers
Bob Paisley's illustrious career as Liverpool manager went out on a high as they were league champions and League Cup winners.
Graham Taylor guided Watford to an impressive second-place finish in their First Division debut season.
Ron Atkinson won the FA Cup to end Manchester United's six-year trophy drought.
Terry Venables took Queens Park Rangers back into the First Division after a four-year exile.
Jimmy Melia guided Brighton to their first-ever FA Cup final although he couldn't save them from relegation to the Second Division.
Graham Hawkins took Wolverhampton Wanderers back into the First Division a year after relegation.
Dave Bassett guided Wimbledon to Fourth Division championship glory with 98 points.
Malcolm Macdonald took Fulham to fourth place in the Second Division – just missing out on promotion – to achieve their highest league finish for nearly 20 years.
Keith Burkinshaw inspired Tottenham to fourth place in the First Division and ensured that they would qualify for the following season's UEFA Cup.
Brian Clough ensured that Nottingham Forest remained among English football's leading sides by inspiring them to fifth place in the league and achieving qualification for the UEFA Cup.
Famous debutants
1 January 1983: Tony Cottee, 17-year-old striker, scores on his debut for West Ham United in 3–0 win over Tottenham Hotspur at Upton Park.
26 February 1983: Ian Baird, 18-year-old striker, makes his debut for Southampton in 1–1 draw with West Ham United at Upton Park.
20 April 1983: Colin Hill, 19-year-old defender, makes his debut for Arsenal in 3–1 defeat by Norwich City at Carrow Road.
Deaths
6 September 1982 -
- Ken Barton, 44, played four league games for Tottenham Hotspur and 11 for Luton Town at full-back in the 1960s before dropping into non-league football.
- Robert Done, 78, played 147 league games at full-back for Liverpool between 1926 and 1935, later playing for Reading, Chester, Accrington Stanley and Bangor City.
13 October 1982 - Denis William Cashmore, 75, played for Watford until his career was ended by an injury in 1932 which resulted in the loss of all of his hearing.
25 October 1982 - Bill Eckersley, 57, played 406 league games for Blackburn Rovers at left-back between 1947 and 1961 and was capped 17 times for England.
8 November 1982 – Jimmy Dickinson, 57, former Portsmouth wing-half and captain, and England international, who played more than 800 matches for Pompey, winning two league championship medals.
11 November 1982 – John Lyons, 26, Colchester United striker, committed suicide.
19 November 1982 - Herbie Evans, 88, was a wing-half for Cardiff City in the 1920s before a broken leg ended his career in 1926.
12 January 1983 - Cecil Poynton, 81, played 152 league games at left-back for Tottenham Hotspur in the interwar years.
1 March 1983 - Charlie Dixon, 79, played 60 league games during the interwar years for Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic, Nelson and Southport.
21 March 1983 - Roy Chapman, 49, scored 200 league goals between 1952 and 1969 for Aston Villa, Lincoln City, Mansfield Town, Port Vale and Chester. He player-managed Lincoln City in the mid-1960s and later took charge of Stockport County between two spells in charge of non-league Stafford Rangers. He was the father of fellow footballer Lee Chapman.
29 March 1983 - Tommy Graham, 78, played at centre-half for Nottingham Forest and won two England caps in 1931.
3 April 1983 – Jimmy Bloomfield, 49, former inside-forward, most notably at Arsenal and Birmingham City; later manager at Leyton Orient and Leicester City. Died from cancer.
13 April 1983 – Gerry Hitchens, 48, former England international striker who scored five goals in seven internationals, and played at club level for Cardiff City, Aston Villa and several teams in the Italian Serie A, including Inter and Torino.
17 April 1983 - George Holdcroft, 74, played 359 league games in the interwar years for Port Vale, Darlington and Preston North End, keeping goal for England twice in 1936. He collected an FA Cup winner's medal for Preston in 1938.
References |
4054022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascua%20Yaqui%20Tribe | Pascua Yaqui Tribe | The Pascua Yaqui Tribe of Arizona is a federally recognized tribe of Yaqui Native Americans in the state of Arizona.
Descended from the Yaqui people whose original homelands include the Yaqui River valley in western Sonora, Mexico and southern Arizona, the Pascua Yaqui Tribe sought refuge from the United States government in mass during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). The United States subsequently recognized lands that were part of Yaqui territories near Nogales and south Tucson. In the early 20th century, the tribe began to return to settlements south of Tucson in an area they named Pascua Village, and in Guadalupe, near Tempe. They gained recognition by the United States government on September 18, 1978.
History
In ancient times, Yaquis were living in family groups along the Yaqui River (Yoem Vatwe) north to the Gila River, where they gathered wild desert foods, hunted game, and cultivated corn, beans, and squash. Yaquis traded local foods, furs, shells, salt, and other goods with many indigenous groups. Yaquis traveled extensively in pre-Columbian times and sometimes settled among other Native groups like the Zuni. The Yaqui peoples homelands consisted of several towns in the Yaqui River delta near the Sea of Cortez in Sonora, Mexico. The Jesuits established missions here among the Yaqui by the 19th century. A syncretic Catholic-Native religion developed where Yaquis incorporated Catholic rituals, saints, and teachings into their existing indigenous worldview. After contact with non-Natives after the Spanish arrival in the 1500s, the Yaquis came into an almost constant conflict with Spanish colonists and the later Mexican republic, a period known as the Yaqui Wars, which ended in 1929. The 400 years of wars with the occupiers sent many Yaquis north from Mexico back into Arizona, and the southwestern United States.
The Pascua Yaquis and other Yaquis in Arizona descend from refugees who fled Mexico between 1887 and 1910. During these years the Mexican government attempted to destroy the Yaqui Nation, via warfare, occupation, and forced deportation of Yaquis to virtual slavery in the Yucatan. Yaqui refugees established Yaqui barrios at Pacua and Barrio Libre in Tucson, at Marana, and at Guadalupe and Scottsdale near Phoenix. By the 1940s there were approximately 2,500 Yaquis in Arizona. Most worked as migrant farm laborers. This seasonal work melded well with the off-season when Yaquis would plan and carry out complex religious ceremonials that took months to complete. In Arizona, the Yaqui communities re-established traditional ceremonies, most importantly, the Lenten ceremonies that reenact the passion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Pascua community is named after "Pascua," Easter in Spanish. The various Yaqui communities established modest Catholic churches. At Pascua the church was named San Ignacio de Loyola. The Easter ceremonies featured the Yaqui deer dancer, the most enduring symbol of the Yaquis in America. The Pascua Yaquis maintained other aspects of the syncretic Jesuit-Yaqui religious traditions and offices as well.
After fleeing to Arizona, most Yaquis lived in dire poverty, squatting on open lands most often near railroad lines. In 1923, a retired teacher and humanitarian, Thamar Richey, successfully lobbied Tucson to establish a public school for Yaqui children. A realtor donated land for a new subdivision named Barrio Pascua near downtown. This community became a center of Yaqui life in Arizona. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, there was an effort to deport the foreign-national Yaquis back to Mexico. This effort failed largely because the State Department determined their safety could not be ensured. To protect the Yaquis, Thamar Richey in 1935 established a civic-minded committee that included University of Arizona President H.L. Shantz, Anthropology Professor Edward Holland Spicer, and Arizona's first congresswoman Isabella Greenway. Spicer, whose work on the Pascua Yaquis would establish him as one of the nation's leading anthropologists, and the others contacted the Bureau of Indian Affairs to aid the group. Issues of their Mexican origins clouded this effort. As this was during the landmark Indian New Deal when Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier was attempting to aid indigenous groups that for decades had faced federal assaults on their lands and cultures, at one point he offered a solution: the Yaquis could relocate to the Colorado River Reservation in far western Arizona. Ultimately this plan failed because of finances and nationality questions.
After World War II, a Yaqui veteran, Anselmo Valencia, returned to Pascua vowing to improve life for his people. He came home determined to fight for his people's rights as American citizens and indigenous Americans. He became head of the religious caballeros society. In 1955, Valencia established the San Ignacio Club to work for community betterment at Pascua. Around this time a University of Arizona anthropology student, Muriel Thayer Painter, began to study the Pascua Yaquis, vowing to aid the struggling group. Residents of Pascua increasingly had lost their lots to tax foreclosures and other economic issues. A study found that most homes had no running water, indoor plumbing, or electricity. Valencia, Spicer, and Painter established the Committee for Pascua Community Housing in the early 1960s to improve housing conditions in the neighborhood. In 1962 while collecting wild herbs in the desert southwest of Tucson, Valencia had a vision that his people would one day relocate there. To accomplish this, Valencia, Spicer, and Geronimo Estrella spearheaded the creation of the Pascua Yaqui Land Development Project, with membership that included Yaquis Felipa Suarez, Gloria Suarez, Joaquina Garcia, and Raul Silvas. The group contacted Congressman Mo Udall for federal help in 1962.
At the urging of Ned Spicer, in 1962 the Yaquis formed the Pascua Yaqui Association (PYA) as a non-profit corporation to receive funds and to deal with federal officials. The PYA evolved into the modern Pascua Yaqui tribal government. The PYA was a quasi-tribal government that worked with Congressman Mo Udall to prepare legislation to transfer federal land for the new Yaqui community Valencia had envisioned on the outskirts of Tucson. Because so many members of Congress were opposed to establishing a new tribal-federal relationship with the Yaquis during the "Termination Era" that lasted until the 1960s, language was inserted in the land transfer bill that prohibited the Pascua Yaqui from being eligible for Bureau of Indian Affair's services or benefits that flowed from tribal acknowledgment.
Federal recognition and reservation land
In 1964, Congressman Morris K. Udall introduced a bill in Congress for the transfer to the Tribe of southwest of Tucson. The bill was approved in August 1964 and the Pascua Yaqui Association received the deed for the of Bureau of Land Management land. To build a new community at the desert site, Spicer suggested establishing a Community Action Program under the new Office of Economic Opportunity, established as part of President Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty. Its programs required community participation, and Valencia and Spicer led the federally-funded effort to establish a tribal base at New Pascua. With federal moneys that totaled over $400,000, Pascua Yaquis built roads (named for historic Yaqui communities in Mexico and cultural heroes), installed utilities, and built tribal community buildings. In 1965, about 370 Yaquis still lived in Barrio Pascua, now being called "Old Pascua." In the early 1970s, a younger Yaqui, M. Raymond Ybarra, a protege of Anselmo Valencia, increasingly took leadership roles at New Pascua. In 1975 they asked Congressman Udall to introduce a bill to federally recognize the Pascua Yaquis as a tribe. Opposition over their Mexican origins and from other Arizona Yaqui communities stymied this effort. In early 1977, Raymond Ybarra and Anselmo Valencia, representing the Pascua Yaqui Association, met with US Senator Dennis DeConcini (D-AZ) to urge him to introduce legislation to provide complete federal recognition of the Yaqui people living on the property conveyed to the Pascua Yaqui Association by the United States through the Act of October 8, 1964. (78 Stat. 1197). Senator DeConcini introduced S.1633 on June 7, 1977. After extensive hearings and consideration, it was passed by the Senate on April 5, 1978. It was accepted by the Conference Committee with the House of Representatives and the Conference Report was passed by the Senate. It became public law, PL 95-375, on September 18, 1978. The law provides for all federal services and benefits including those provided by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Indian Health Service. It gives the tribe powers of self-government, with Reservation status for Yaqui lands.
The Pascua Yaqui Tribe of Arizona received designation as a historical tribe in 1994. In 1988 the Tribe's first constitution was approved. The Pascua Yaqui Reservation () is located in Pima County, in the southwestern part of the Tucson metropolitan area, amidst the suburban communities of Drexel Heights and Valencia West, and adjacent to the eastern section of the Tohono O'odham Indian Reservation, known as the San Xavier Indian Reservation. It has a land area of 4.832 km² (1.8657 sq mi, or 1,194 acres), and a 2000 census resident population of 3,315 persons, over 90 percent of whom are Native Americans. The community is governed by a chairman, a vice chairman and nine tribal council members. Police protection is provided by the Tribal Police Department, and fire protection is provided by full-time firefighters and reserves.
Religion
Though many members of the tribe adhere to Christian teachings, predominantly Catholicism, the culture of the Pascua Yaqui has preserved a rich legacy of native cultural elements that have survived the influence of missionaries. The Tribe has accepted political integration into American society but continues to retain much of their former religious and cultural ways of life.
The Yaqui people have a rich oral history related to their past and worldview that is passed down from one generation to the next.
Complexities occur for the preservation of Yaqui religious tradition considering that the Yaqui people are divided by an international boundary. The majority, if not all, of the Yaqui ceremonial leaders are located in Mexico and must cross the border between the United States and Mexico in order for Yaqui ceremonies to be held in accordance with annual calendars.
Economy
The Tribal government is the largest employer on the reservation. In addition to a smoke shop and artisan shop, the Tribe operates the Casino of the Sun gaming facility, which includes slot machines, bingo, restaurants, games and employs more than 600 staff. Casino Del Sol, the Tribe's second gaming property, opened October 2001 and has provided an additional 550+ jobs on the reservation and in the Tucson Community. The expansion of Casino Del Sol opened November 11, 2011. An additional 700 jobs were provided to the community with the expansion.
Government
A tribal council is made up of eleven elected officials, dedicated to the well being and advancement of their tribe as a whole.
The Yaqui Tribal Council 2016–2020::
Peter Yucupicio, Chairman; Robert Valencia, Vice-Chairman; Mary Jane Buenamea, Secretary; Raymundo Baltazar, Treasurer; Antonia Campoy, Council Member; Francisco Munoz, Council Member; Francisco Valencia Council Member; Herminia Frias, Council Member; David Ramirez, Council Member; Rosa Soto Alvarez, Council Member; Cruzita Armenta, Council Member
The list of Council members from 2012 to 2016 was:
Peter Yucupicio Chairman,
Catalina Alvarez Vice Chairwoman,
Francisco Munoz Treasurer,
John Escalante Council Member,
Marcelino Flores Council Member,
Robert Valencia Council Member,
Raymond Buelna Council Member,
David Ramirez Council Member,
Mary Jane Buenamea Council Member,
Rosa Soto Alvarez Council Member,
Cruzita Armenta Council Member.
The Pascua Yaquis have a status similar to other Native American tribes of the United States. This status makes the Yaqui eligible for specific services due to trust responsibility that the United States offers Native American peoples who have suffered land loss.
A U.S. government assisted news letter, Yaqui Times, also helps in keeping the people of the Pascua Yaqui Tribe informed.
Blood quantum for membership in the Pascua Yaqui Tribe is at least one quarter Yaqui blood. The Pascua Yaqui legal system gives no allowance in quantum for other tribal blood.
Court system
The Pascua Yaqui Tribe operates a Judicial Department with both trial courts and an appellate court. Criminal cases are prosecuted by a Prosecutor's Office. Representation for indigent individuals is available through the Public Defender's Office. The Tribe is represented by the Attorney General's Office. All of these functions and a tribal police department are located in a modern Multi-Purpose Justice Center, which was opened in 2012.
2013 Violence Against Women Act Pilot Project
Since the Supreme Court's majority opinion in Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, the tribal courts were forbidden to try a non-Indian, unless specifically authorized by the Congress. The passage of the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013 (VAWA 2013) signed into law on March 7, 2013 by President Barack Obama authorized the tribal courts to try a non-Indian who is charged with domestic violence towards a Native American. This was motivated by the high percentage of Native American women being assaulted by non-Indian men, feeling immune by the lack of jurisdiction of Tribal Courts upon them. This new law generally takes effect on March 7, 2015, but also authorizes a voluntary "Pilot Project" to allow certain tribes to begin exercising special jurisdiction sooner. On February 6, 2014, three tribes were selected for this Pilot Project: the Pascua Yaqui Tribe (Arizona), the Tulalip Tribes of Washington, and the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (Oregon).
Education
Elementary education west of the longitude 111° 5'18.74"W is served by Vesey Elementary School with the rest of the reservation served by Harriet Johnson Primary School and Anna E. Lawrence Intermediate School. The entire reservation is served by Valencia Middle School and Cholla High School for middle and secondary education, respectively. All schools are part of the Tucson Unified School District.
Notable tribal members
Loretta Alvarez, midwife
Mario Martinez, painter living in New York
Marcos A. Moreno, physician of Psychiatry & Neurology, public health advocate, medical research scholar, first tribal member from the Pascua Yaqui Reservation to graduate from an Ivy League University, and the first Doctor of Medicine from the Yaqui's reservation community. Recipient of the national Morris K. and Stewart L. Udall Foundation award for research in medicine and public health work with under-served communities.
Pilar Thomas, lawyer and former government official.
Brian Garcia, Tempe Union Governing Board President (former Vice-President).
Herminia Frias, youngest person and first female tribal member to become Chair of the Pascua Yaqui Indian Tribe.
Carlos Gonzales (MD, FAAFP), physician of Family Medicine, 5th generation Arizonan and beloved student mentor at the University of Arizona College of Medicine. Assistant Dean of Curricular Affairs, Associate Professor of Family and Community Medicine (Clinical Scholar Track), Director of Rural Health Professions Program. He is the Director/Creator of the Commitment to Underserved People Program (1996), a medical student-run clinic at UACOM-Tucson which helps address clinical needs to local underserved and resource-poor populations. He also founded the annual Native American blessing tradition at UACOM-Tucson, a ceremony in which he performs a prayer to the "Seven Sacred Directions" to cleanse and honor medical students as well as the individuals who donated their bodies for the students' education.
References
Pascua Yaqui Reservation, Arizona United States Census Bureau
External links
Pascua Yaqui Tribal Government
Yaqui tribal literature
Casino Del Sol and Casino of the Sun Tribal Casinos
Pascua Yaqui Tribe Trust Land Act: Report (to accompany H.R. 507)
Native American tribes in Arizona
Federally recognized tribes in the United States |
4054100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%E2%80%9382%20in%20English%20football | 1981–82 in English football | The 1981–82 season was the 102nd season of competitive football in England.
It was also the first season that the three-points-for-a-win system was introduced.
Diary of the season
13 July 1981: Everton sign 22-year-old goalkeeper Neville Southall from Bury for £150,000.
19 August 1981: Brighton & Hove Albion sign Liverpool midfielder Jimmy Case for £350,000.
22 August 1981: Aston Villa & Tottenham Hotspur draw 2–2 in the FA Charity Shield at Wembley.
29 August 1981: The first Football League games of the season are played. Swansea City begin life as a First Division side on a high note by beating Leeds United 5–1. Promoted Notts County win 1–0 at Villa Park against defending champions Aston Villa. Howard Kendall begins his career as Everton manager by guiding them to a 3–1 win over Birmingham City. Liverpool lose 1–0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers.
9 September 1981: England suffer a shock 2–1 defeat away to Norway in a qualifier for the World Cup.
19 September 1981: Alan Brazil scores twice as Ipswich Town beat Notts County for 4–1 at Meadow Lane, while Liverpool and Aston Villa draw 0–0.
29 September 1981: Legendary former Liverpool manager Bill Shankly, 68, dies from a heart attack three days after being admitted to hospital.
30 September 1981: The month ends with Ipswich Town leading the First Division. Newly promoted West Ham United and Swansea City are their nearest challengers, with Nottingham Forest completing the top four, but champions Aston Villa are struggling with just one win from seven games. Leeds United are already adrift at the bottom of the table following a horrific start to the season, with Sunderland and, surprisingly, West Bromwich Albion also in the bottom three. The race for a place in next season's First Division is headed by Sheffield Wednesday, Luton Town and Norwich City. In the UEFA Cup, Liverpool beat Finnish league champions Oulun Palloseura 7–0 at Anfield to complete an 8–0 aggregate first leg triumph, with 19-year-old striker Ian Rush scoring his first senior goal for the club.
1 October 1981: Manchester United pay a national record fee of £1.5 million for West Bromwich Albion midfielder Bryan Robson.
7 October 1981: Ian Rush scores his first domestic goals for Liverpool, finding the net twice in their second round first leg League Cup 5–0 win over Exeter City at Anfield.
27 October 1981: First Division clubs Notts County and Swansea City are eliminated from the League Cup by lower league opposition: Division Three's Lincoln City despatch the Nottingham club while the Welsh were beaten by Barnsley of the Second Division.
31 October 1981: Manchester United finish October as First Division leaders, although Ipswich Town are level on points with them, and have two games in hand. Tottenham Hotspur, Swansea City, Nottingham Forest and West Ham United are also amongst the front-runners. Sunderland, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Middlesbrough occupy the relegation places. Luton Town's recent excellent form has taken them to the top of the Second Division, heading a promotion race in which Watford stand second and Sheffield Wednesday are third.
4 November 1981: Fourth Division side York City sack manager Barry Lyons, following a poor start to the season on top of last year's bottom-place finish, and replace him with Kevin Randall.
18 November 1981: England seal qualification for the World Cup with a 1–0 win over Hungary at Wembley in their final qualifying game.
30 November 1981: November draws to a close with Manchester United still top of the First Division, though Swansea City are two points behind them with a game in hand. Ipswich Town and Tottenham Hotspur are still pushing them hard, as are Southampton, Nottingham Forest and West Ham United. Sunderland, Middlesbrough and Birmingham City occupy the relegation places, while defending champions Aston Villa are 13th in the league and Liverpool are 10th. Luton Town continue to head the Second Division promotion race, with Watford and Queens Park Rangers completing the top three.
15 December 1981: Swansea City go top of the First Division after beating Aston Villa 2–1.
16 December 1981: The Football Association bans Chelsea supporters from visiting away grounds for the remainder of the season in response to an incident by travelling Chelsea fans at Derby County.
31 December 1981: The year draws to a close with Manchester City top of the First Division. However, just two points separate the top five places, with Southampton, Swansea City, Manchester United and Ipswich Town in close pursuit. Luton Town remain the runaway leaders of the Second Division, while Oldham Athletic have muscled into second place, with Watford third.
2 January 1982: Holders Tottenham Hotspur beat Arsenal 1–0 in the North London derby in the FA Cup third round. Liverpool beat Swansea City 4–0, while Manchester United are beaten 1–0 by Second Division Watford.
8 January 1982: John Barnwell resigns as manager of Wolverhampton Wanderers, whose fortunes have declined sharply in the two years since he took them to sixth place in the First Division and a League Cup victory.
23 January 1982: Third Division Oxford United cause the shock of the FA Cup fourth round with a 3–0 win away to Brighton & Hove Albion. Watford claim another First Division victim, beating West Ham United 2–0.
31 January 1982: January ends with Southampton top of the First Division. Manchester United are a point behind, while Ipswich Town are two points off the top but still have three games in hand. Manchester City occupy fourth place, two points behind the leaders. Liverpool's resurgence has seen them climb into fifth place. Brighton & Hove Albion, in only their third season as a top flight club, are in seventh position. Defending champions Aston Villa, meanwhile, are struggling in 17th place. Middlesbrough, Sunderland and Wolverhampton Wanderers occupy the relegation places. Luton Town, Oldham Athletic and Watford head the Second Division promotion race, followed closely behind by Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea and Queens Park Rangers.
2 February 1982: Wolverhampton Wanderers appoint Oxford United's Ian Greaves as their new manager.
9 February 1982: Ron Saunders announces his resignation as manager of defending league champions Aston Villa. He is succeeded by assistant Tony Barton.
13 February 1982: Chelsea shock Liverpool 2–0 at Stamford Bridge in the FA Cup fifth round. Shrewsbury Town surprisingly beat Ipswich Town 2–1, Watford's run ends with a 2–0 defeat to Leicester City, and Tottenham Hotspur beat troubled Aston Villa 1–0.
15 February 1982: Birmingham City sack manager Jim Smith, following a run of just one win since the beginning of October, which has left the club only a single place outside the relegation zone.
18 February 1982: Nine days after walking out on Aston Villa, Ron Saunders makes a surprise return to management with their local rivals Birmingham City.
28 February 1982: February ends with Southampton still top of the First Division, with Swansea City's challenge back on track as they occupy second place. Manchester United are six points off the top with two games in hand, and Liverpool now stand fourth, eight points off top place with three games in hand. Middlesbrough, Sunderland and Wolverhampton Wanderers remain in the bottom three. Luton Town, Watford and Oldham Athletic continue to head the Second Division promotion race, with their nearest challenge now coming from Rotherham United, who have yet to play top division football.
1 March 1982: Jim Smith makes a swift return to management at Oxford United, who had been managerless since the departure of Ian Greaves the previous month.
6 March 1982: Shrewsbury Town's impressive FA Cup run comes to an end when they lose 5–2 to Second Division rivals Leicester City at Filbert Street in the sixth round. In two London derbies, Tottenham Hotspur beat Chelsea 3–2 and Queens Park Rangers win 1–0 at home to Crystal Palace. West Bromwich Albion take the remaining semi-final place with a 2–0 win over Coventry City.
13 March 1982: Liverpool retain the Football League Cup with a 3–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur in the Wembley final.
16 March 1982: York City, who have been bottom of the Fourth Division for much of the last few months, sack Kevin Randall. Former captain Barry Swallow is appointed as the third manager of the season at the club, who are considered highly likely to be voted out of the Football League if they finish bottom for the second year in a row.
31 March 1982: Southampton remain the leaders of the First Division, but Liverpool and Ipswich Town are closing in, a point behind with three games in hand. Swansea City and Manchester United complete the top five. The bottom three of Middlesbrough, Sunderland and Wolverhampton Wanderers remains unchanged. Watford have overhauled Luton Town as Second Division leaders, with Sheffield Wednesday now completing the top three. Rotherham United, Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United are close behind in the promotion race. Fulham defender Dave Clement, who was capped five times by England and spent the first 14 years of his career at Queens Park Rangers, commits suicide.
3 April 1982: FA Cup holders Tottenham Hotspur reach the final for the second reason running with a 2–0 semi-final win over surprise contestants Leicester City at Villa Park, while Second Division Queens Park Rangers overcome West Bromwich Albion 1–0 at Highbury to reach the final for the first time in their history. Tottenham's victory is marred by Leicester fans booing Argentine midfielder Ossie Ardiles amid hostility over the Falklands War.
7 April 1982: Liverpool achieve a vital 1–0 win over Manchester United at Old Trafford to move two points ahead of Ipswich Town at the top of the First Division.
21 April 1982: Tottenham Hotspur lose the European Cup Winners' Cup semi-final 2–1 on aggregate to Barcelona.
30 April 1982: Liverpool are now clear at the top of the First Division, four points ahead of Ipswich Town with a game in hand. Swansea City are third. Manchester City, who led the league four months ago, are now 10th. Middlesbrough and Wolverhampton Wanderers remain in the relegation zone, but Sunderland have climbed out of the bottom three at the expense of West Bromwich Albion. Luton Town's promotion is now almost certain, while Watford are also looking likely to reach the First Division for the first time in their history. Sheffield Wednesday currently occupy the final promotion place, but Leicester City, Norwich City and Queens Park Rangers remain in contention.
4 May 1982: Southampton and Coventry City draw 5–5 in the highest-scoring match of the First Division season. A brace from Ross Jenkins in Watford's Second Division win over Wrexham seals their promotion into the First Division for the first time in their history; Jenkins himself was playing for the Hertfordshire club in Division Four five years previously.
15 May 1982: Liverpool win the Football League championship for the 13th time after they beat Tottenham Hotspur 3–1 and Ipswich Town lose 3–1 at home to Nottingham Forest. Wolverhampton Wanderers are relegated despite beating West Ham United 2–1 in their last match of the season. The other two relegation places are still to be decided, with Middlesbrough, Stoke City, West Bromwich Albion and Leeds United all still in danger.
18 May 1982: Middlesbrough draw 0–0 with Liverpool and are relegated to the Second Division, finishing bottom of the First Division table. West Bromwich Albion guarantee safety by beating Leeds United 2–0.
20 May 1982: Stoke City beat West Bromwich Albion 3–0 to survive at the expense of Leeds United, who are relegated after 18 successive seasons in the First Division.
22 May 1982: The FA Cup final between Tottenham Hotspur and Queens Park Rangers ends in a 1–1 draw after extra time. Tottenham's line-up does not include Argentinians Ricardo Villa and Ossie Ardiles, who have withdrawn from first-team action owing to the Falklands War.
26 May 1982: Aston Villa lift the European Cup when a Peter Withe goal gives them victory over Bayern Munich in Rotterdam.
27 May 1982: Tottenham Hotspur retain the FA Cup thanks to a penalty from Glenn Hoddle in the replay against Queens Park Rangers.
29 May 1982: England beat Scotland 1–0 in the 100th international between the countries to win the Home Championship with a 100% record.
16 June 1982: England open their World Cup campaign with a 3–1 win over France.
20 June 1982: England seal qualification to the next stage of the World Cup by defeating Czechoslovakia 2–0.
25 June 1982: England complete the first stage of the World Cup with a 1–0 win over Kuwait.
29 June 1982: England draw 0–0 with West Germany in the first game of the second round of the World Cup.
5 July 1982: England are eliminated from the World Cup after only managing a goalless draw with host nation Spain in a match they needed to win. Ron Greenwood retires as national team manager, and is succeeded by Ipswich's Bobby Robson.
National team
Ron Greenwood, 61, retired as England manager after the 1982 World Cup. He was succeeded by the Ipswich manager Bobby Robson.
UEFA Competitions
Aston Villa beat Bayern Munich 1–0 in the 1982 European Cup Final. Arsenal were knocked out in the 3rd round of the UEFA Cup by semi-professional Belgian side KFC Winterslag
FA Cup
Tottenham Hotspur retained the trophy, drawing 1–1 with Queens Park Rangers, managed by former Tottenham player Terry Venables, in the final before winning the replay 1–0. Venables would however eventually win the trophy himself with Tottenham in 1991.
League Cup
Liverpool won the League Cup with a 3–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur in the final.
Football League
First Division
The First Division title race brought many different challengers. But in the end, however, Liverpool overcame a dismal first half of the season which saw them climb from mid-table at Christmas to clinching the title on the final day of the season, having lifted the Football League Cup weeks earlier for the second successive season. Ipswich (runners-up), Manchester United (third), Swansea (sixth) and Southampton (seventh) all managed good finishes in the league despite being unable to win the title, but Manchester City finished a disappointing 10th after briefly taking the lead of the First Division just after Christmas. Liverpool's season of triumph was overshadowed, however, by the death of former manager Bill Shankly in late September following a heart attack.
Tottenham retained the FA Cup to match Aston Villa's record of seven wins in the competition.
By contrast, Villa had a disappointing defence of the league title and could only finish 11th, with manager Ron Saunders stepping down in February and being replaced by his assistant Tony Barton, who enjoyed instant success in his first managerial job by guiding Villa to glory in the European Cup, while Saunders made a quick return to management at local rivals Birmingham City, achieving First Division survival by a comfortable margin.
Middlesbrough finished bottom of the First Division and went down after eight years among the elite. Wolves, faced with huge debts and the possibility of bankruptcy, went down too. Leeds United, who had rarely challenged for honours since Don Revie left for the England job in 1974, ended their 18-year stay in the First Division with relegation.
Second Division
Luton Town clinched the Second Division title and a place in the top flight in their fourth season under the management of David Pleat, while their local rivals Watford reached the First Division for the first time in their history by finishing runners-up. The final promotion place went to Norwich City, who went from mid table to third place in the final quarter of the season with a storming run of form. Sheffield Wednesday missed out on promotion by a single point, while FA Cup finalists QPR were just two points short of promotion. Barnsley's success under Norman Hunter continued when they finished sixth, the closest they had come in decades to winning the First Division place that had eluded them since their formation in 1896. Emlyn Hughes, the former England captain, enjoyed a promising start to his managerial career as his Rotherham United side emerged as unlikely contenders for a First Division place, before they finished seventh.
Orient, Wrexham and Cardiff City were relegated to the Third Division.
Third Division
Burnley clinched the Third Division title on goal difference ahead of Carlisle United in a tight promotion race, with the final promotion place going to Fulham. Lincoln City missed out on a Second Division place by a single point, while Oxford United's turnaround under new owner Robert Maxwell and new manager Jim Smith was not quite enough for promotion as they had to settle for fifth place in the final table.
Bristol City, faced with closure as a result of huge debts, became the first English league club to suffer three successive relegations. Chester's seven-year stay in the Third Division came to an end as they finished bottom of the table and 21 points adrift of safety. Also relegated were Swindon Town and Wimbledon.
Fourth Division
Sheffield United's ambitious revival under new manager Ian Porterfield began with the Fourth Division title. They went up with Bradford City, Wigan Athletic and AFC Bournemouth.
There was no movement between the Football League and the Alliance Premier League this season.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Kevin Keegan (Southampton) – 26 goals
Second Division
Ronnie Moore (Rotherham United) – 22 goals
Third Division
Gordon Davies (Fulham) – 24 goals
Fourth Division
Keith Edwards (Hull City and Sheffield United) – 36 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Awards
Southampton striker Kevin Keegan marked his return to English football by scoring more goals than any other player in the Football League and being voted PFA Players' Player of the Year.
Tottenham's Steve Perryman added to his FA Cup winners medal with the FWA Footballer of the Year award.
Southampton's Steve Moran was elected as PFA Young Player of the Year.
Successful managers
Bob Paisley retained the League Cup and won the league title for Liverpool.
Tony Barton won the European Cup with Aston Villa.
Keith Burkinshaw helped Tottenham win the FA Cup for the second year running.
David Pleat ended Luton Town's absence from the top flight by guiding them to the Second Division title.
Graham Taylor took Watford into the First Division for the first time in their history.
David Webb took AFC Bournemouth into the Third Division after they finished fourth in the Fourth Division.
Famous debutants
5 September 1981: John Barnes, 17-year-old Jamaica born winger, makes his debut for Watford in their 1–1 home draw with Oldham Athletic in the Second Division.
10 October 1981: Gary Stevens, 18-year-old full back, makes his debut for Everton in their 1–1 league draw with West Ham United at Upton Park.
21 November 1981: Kevin Richardson, 18-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Everton in their 2–1 league defeat at home to Sunderland.
5 December 1981: Stewart Robson, 17-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Arsenal in their 2–1 league win over West Ham United at Upton Park.
24 April 1982: Norman Whiteside, 16-year-old Northern Irish forward, makes his debut for Manchester United in their 1–0 win over Brighton & Hove Albion at the Goldstone Ground 13 days before his 17th birthday.
28 April 1982: Mark Walters, 17-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Aston Villa in their 4–1 home defeat by Leeds United in the league.
1 May 1982: Peter Davenport, 21-year-old striker, makes his debut for Nottingham Forest in a 2–0 league defeat by Liverpool at Anfield.
15 May 1982: Steve Hodge, 19-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Nottingham Forest in a 3–1 league win over Ipswich Town at Portman Road.
Deaths
29 September 1981 – Bill Shankly, 68, former Liverpool manager who transformed the Reds into one of Europe's top footballing sides. Shankly had taken Liverpool into the First Division in 1962, and over the next 12 years they were league champions three times, FA Cup winners twice and UEFA Cup winners once.
8 December 1981 – Bob Lord, 73, chairman of Burnley F.C. for 26 years until three months before his death, died of cancer.
31 March 1982 – Dave Clement, 34, former QPR and England full-back who committed suicide after breaking his leg.
13 May 1982 – Billy Steel, 59, became the most expensive player in Britain in 1947 when he left Morton in his native Scotland to move south of the border to Derby County.
References |
4054142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine%20agonist | Dopamine agonist | A dopamine agonist (DA) is a compound that activates dopamine receptors. There are two families of dopamine receptors, D2-like and D1-like, and they are all G protein-coupled receptors. D1- and D5-receptors belong to the D1-like family and the D2-like family includes D2, D3 and D4 receptors. Dopamine agonists are primarily used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, and to a lesser extent, in hyperprolactinemia and restless legs syndrome. They are also used off-label in the treatment of clinical depression. The use of dopamine agonists is associated with impulse control disorders and dopamine agonist withdrawal syndrome (DAWS).
Medical uses
Parkinson's disease
Dopamine agonists are mainly used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. The cause of Parkinson's is not fully known but genetic factors, for example specific genetic mutations, and environmental triggers have been linked to the disease. In Parkinson's disease dopaminergic neurons that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain slowly break down and can eventually die. With decreasing levels of dopamine the brain can't function properly and causes abnormal brain activity, which ultimately leads to the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
There are two fundamental ways of treating Parkinson's disease, either by replacing dopamine or mimicking its effect.
Dopamine agonists act directly on the dopamine receptors and mimic dopamine's effect. Dopamine agonists have two subclasses: ergoline and non-ergoline agonists. Both subclasses target dopamine D2-type receptors. Types of ergoline agonists are cabergoline and bromocriptine and examples of non-ergoline agonists are pramipexole, ropinirole and rotigotine. Ergoline agonists are much less used nowadays because of the risk of cartilage formation in heart valves.
Treatment of depression in Parkinson's patients
Depressive symptoms and disorders are common in patients with Parkinson's disease and can affect their quality of life. Increased anxiety can accentuate the symptoms of Parkinson's and is therefore essential to treat. Instead of conventional antidepressant medication in treating depression, treatment with dopamine agonists has been suggested. It is mainly thought that dopamine agonists help with treating depressive symptoms and disorders by alleviating motor complications, which is one of the main symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Although preliminary evidence of clinical trials has shown interesting results, further research is crucial to establish the anti-depressive effects of dopamine agonists in treating depressive symptoms and disorders in those with Parkinson's.
Hyperprolactinemia
Dopamine is a prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIFs) since it lowers the prolactin-releasing factors (PRFs) synthesis and secretion through D2-like receptors. That is why dopamine agonists are the first-line treatment in hyperprolactinemia. Ergoline-derived agents, bromocriptine and cabergoline are mostly used in treatment. Research shows that these agents reduce the size of prolactinomas by suppressing the hypersecretion of prolactin resulting in normal gonadal function.
Restless leg syndrome
Numerous clinical trials have been performed to assess the use of dopamine agonists for the treatment of restless leg syndrome (RLS). RLS is identified by the strong urge to move and is a dopamine-dependent disorder. RLS symptoms decrease with the use of drugs that stimulate dopamine receptors and increase dopamine levels, such as dopamine agonists.
Adverse effects
Side effects
Dopamine agonists are mainly used to treat Parkinson’s disease but are also used to treat hyperprolactinemia and restless legs syndrome. The side effects are mainly recorded in treatment for Parkinson’s disease where dopamine agonists are commonly used, especially as first-line treatment with levodopa.
Dopamine agonists are divided into two subgroups or drug classes, first-generation and newer agents. Ergoline derived agonists are the first generation and are not used as much as the newer generation the non-ergoline derived agonists. Ergoline derived agonists are said to be "dirtier" drugs because of their interaction with other receptors than dopamine receptors, therefore they cause more side effects. Ergoline derived agonists are for example bromocriptine, cabergoline, pergolide and lisuride. Non-ergoline agonists are pramipexole, ropinirole, rotigotine, piribedil and apomorphine.
The most common adverse effects are constipation, nausea and headaches. Other serious side effects are hallucinations, peripheral edema, gastrointestinal ulcers, pulmonary fibrosis and psychosis.
Dopamine agonists have been linked to cardiac problems. Side effects such as hypotension, myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, cardiac fibrosis, pericardial effusion and tachycardia. A high risk for valvular heart disease has been established in association with ergot-derived agonists especially in elderly patients with hypertension.
Somnolence and sleep attacks have been reported as an adverse effect that happen to almost 30% of patients using dopamine agonists. Daytime sleepiness, insomnia and other sleep disturbances have been reported as well.
Impulse control disorder that is described as gambling, hypersexuality, compulsive shopping and binge eating is one serious adverse effect of dopamine agonists.
After long-term use of dopamine agonist a withdrawal syndrome may occur when discontinuing or during dose reduction. The following side effects are possible: anxiety, panic attacks, dysphoria, depression, agitation, irritability, suicidal ideation, fatigue, orthostatic hypotension, nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis, generalised pain, and drug cravings. For some individuals, these withdrawal symptoms are short-lived and make a full recovery, for others a protracted withdrawal syndrome may occur with withdrawal symptoms persisting for months or years.
Interactions
Dopamine agonists interact with a number of drugs but there is little evidence that they interact with other Parkinson’s drugs. In most cases there is no reason not to co-administer Parkinson's drugs. Although there has been an indication that the use of dopamine agonists with L-DOPA can cause psychosis therefore it is recommended that either the use of dopamine agonists be discontinued or the dose of L-DOPA reduced. Since ergot-dopamine agonist have antihypertensive qualities it is wise to monitor blood pressure when using dopamine agonists with antihypertensive drugs to ensure that the patient does not get hypotension. That includes the drug sildenafil which is commonly used to treat erectile dysfunction but also used for pulmonary hypertension.
There is evidence that suggests that since ergot dopamine agonists are metabolized by CYP3A4 enzyme concentration rises with the use of CYP3A4 inhibitors. For example, in one study bromocriptine was given with a CYP3A4 inhibitor and the AUC (e. Area under the curve) increased 268%. Ropinirole is a non-ergot derived dopamine agonist and concomitant use with a CYP1A2 inhibitor can result in a higher concentration of ropinirole. When discontinuing the CYP1A2 inhibitor, if using both drugs, there is a change that a dose adjustment for ropinirole is needed. There is also evidence the dopamine agonists inhibit various CYP enzymes and therefore they may inhibit the metabolism of certain drugs.
Pharmacology
Ergoline class
Pharmacokinetics of Bromocriptine
The absorption of the oral dose is approximately 28% however, only 6% reaches the systemic circulation unchanged, due to a substantial first-pass effect. Bromocriptine reaches mean peak plasma levels in about 1–1.5 hours after a single oral dose. The drug has high protein binding, ranging from 90-96% bound to serum albumin. Bromocriptine is metabolized by CYP3A4 and excreted primarily in the feces via biliary secretion. Metabolites and parent drugs are mostly excreted via the liver, but also 6% via the kidney. It has a half-life of 2–8 hours.
Pharmacokinetics of Pergolide
Pergolide has a long half-life of about 27 hours and reaches a mean peak plasma level in about 2–3 hours after a single oral dose. The protein binding is 90% and the drug is mainly metabolized in the liver by CYP3A4 and CYP2D6. The major route of excretion is through the kidneys.
Non-Ergoline class
Pharmacokinetics of Pramipexole
Pramipexole reaches maximum plasma concentration 1–3 hours post-dose. It is about 15% bound to plasma proteins and the metabolism is minimal. Pramipexole has a long half-life, around 27 hours. The drug is mostly excreted in the urine, around 90%, but also in feces.
Pharmacokinetics of Ropinirole
Ropinirole is rapidly absorbed after a single oral dose, reaching plasma concentration in approximately 1–2 hours. The half-life is around 5–6 hours. Ropinirole is heavily metabolized by the liver and in vitro studies show that the enzyme involved in the metabolism of ropinirole is CYP1A2.
Pharmacokinetics of Rotigotine
Since rotigotine is a transdermal patch it provides continuous drug delivery over 24 hours. It has a half-life of 3 hours and the protein binding is around 92% in vitro and 89.5% in vivo. Rotigotine is extensively and rapidly metabolized in the liver and by the CYP enzymes. The drug is mostly excreted in urine (71%), but also in feces (23%).
Mechanism of action
The dopamine receptors are 7-transmembrane domains and are members of the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) superfamily. Dopamine receptors have five subtypes, D1 through D5, the subtypes can be divided into two subclasses due to their mechanism of action on adenylate cyclase enzyme, D1-like receptors (D1 and D5) and D2-like receptors (D2, D3 and D4). D1-like receptors are primarily coupled to Gαs/olf proteins and activates adenylate cyclase which increases intracellular levels of cAMP, they also activate the Gβγ complex and the N-type Ca2+ channel. D2-like receptors decrease intracellular levels of the second messenger cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase.
Bromocriptine
Bromocriptine is an ergot derivative, semi-synthetic. Bromocriptine is a D2 receptor agonist and D1 receptor antagonist with a binding affinity to D2 receptors of anterior pituitary cells, exclusively on lactotrophs. Bromocriptine stimulates Na+, K+-ATPase activity and/or cytosolic Ca2+ elevation and therefore reduction of prolactin which leads to no production of cAMP.
Pramipexole
Pramipexole is a highly active non-ergot D2-like receptor agonist with a higher binding affinity to D3 receptors rather than D2 or D4 receptors. The mechanism of action of pramipexole is mostly unknown, it is thought to be involved in the activation of dopamine receptors in the area of the brain where the striatum and the substantia nigra is located. This stimulation of dopamine receptors in the striatum may lead to the better movement performance.
Structure–activity relationship
When dealing with agonists it can be extremely complex to confirm relationships between structure and biological activity. Agonists generate responses from living tissues. Therefore, their activity depends both on their efficacy to activate receptors and their affinity to bind to receptors.
Crossing the blood brain barrier
Many molecules are unable to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). Molecules must be small, non-polar and lipophilic to cross over. If compounds do not possess these qualities they must have a specific transporter that can transport them over the BBB. Dopamine cannot diffuse across the BBB because of the catechol group, it is too polar and therefore unable to enter the brain. The catechol group is a dihydroxy benzene ring.
The synthesis of dopamine consists of three stages. The synthesis process starts with an amino acid, called L-Tyrosine. In the second stage Levodopa (L-dopa) is formed by adding a phenol group to the benzene ring of L-Tyrosine. The formation of L-dopa from L-tyrosine is catalyzed by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase. The third stage is the formation of dopamine by removing the carboxylic acid group from L-dopa, catalysed by the enzyme dopa decarboxylase.
Levodopa is also too polar to cross the blood brain barrier but it happens to be an amino acid so it has a specialized transporter called L-type amino acid transporter or LAT-1 that helps it diffuse through the barrier.
Dopamine
When dopamine interacts with ATP, which is a component of some dopamine receptors, it has a significant preference for a trans-conformation of the dopamine molecule. The dopamine-ATP complex is stabilised by hydrogen bonding between catechol hydroxyls and purine nitrogens and by electrostatic interactions between the protonated ammonium group of dopamine and a negative phosphate group. Two conformers of dopamine have been identified as alpha- and beta-conformers in which the catechol ring is coplanar with the plane of the ethylamine side chain. They are substantial in agonist-receptor interactions.
Ergoline derivatives
Central dopaminergic agonist properties of semisynthetic ergoline derivatives lergotrile, pergolide, bromocriptine and lisuride have been established. Some studies suggest that ergot alkaloids have the properties of mixed agonist-antagonist with regards to certain presynaptic and postsynaptic receptors. N-n-Propyl groups (chemical formula: –CH2CH2CH3) frequently enhance dopamine agonist effects in the ergoline derivatives.
The (+)-enantiomer displays notably diminished activity whereas the (-)-enantiomer possess potent dopamine agonist properties.
Bromocriptine
Bromocriptine has an ergot alkaloid structure. Ergot alkaloids are divided into 2 groups; amino acid ergot alkaloids and amine ergot alkaloids, bromocriptine is part of the former group. It contains a bromine halogen on the ergot structure which increases the affinity for the D2-receptor but often reduces the efficacy. The similarity between the dopamine structure and the ergoline ring in bromocriptine is likely the cause for its action on the dopamine receptors. It has shown to have equal affinity for D2- and D3-receptor and much lower affinity for D1-receptor.
Non-ergoline derivatives
Non-ergoline dopamine receptor agonists have higher binding affinity to dopamine D3-receptors than dopamine D2-receptors. This binding affinity is related to D2 and D3 receptor homology, the homology between them has a high degree of sequence and is closest in their transmembrane domains, were they share around 75% of the amino acid.
Apomorphine
Apomorphine has a catechol element and belongs to a class called β-phenylethylamines and its main components are similar to the dopamine structure. The effect that apomorphine has on the dopamine receptors can also be linked to the similarities between its structure and dopamine. It is a chiral molecule and thus can be acquired in both the R and S form, the R form is the one that is used in therapy. When apomorphine interacts with the dopamine receptor, or the ATP on the receptor, the catechol and nitrogen are important to stabilize the structure with hydrogen bonding. The position of the hydroxyl groups is also important and monohydroxy derivatives have been found to be less potent than the dihydroxy groups. There are a number of stability concerns with apomorphine such as oxidation and racemization.
Rotigotine
Rotigotine is a phenolic amine and thus has poor oral bioavailability and fast clearance from the body. Therefore, it has been formulated as a transdermal patch, first and foremost to prevent first pass metabolism in the liver.
Members
Examples of dopamine agonists include:
Partial agonist
Aripiprazole (Partial agonist of the D2 family receptors - Trade name "Abilify" in the United States; atypical antipsychotic)
Phencyclidine (a.k.a. PCP; partial agonist. Psychoactivity mainly due to NMDA antagonism)
Quinpirole (Partial agonist of the D2 and D3 family of receptors)
Salvinorin A (chief active constituent of the psychedelic herb salvia divinorum, the psychoactivity of which is mainly due to Kappa-opioid receptor agonism; partial agonist at the D2 with an Intrinsic activity of 40-60%, binding affinity of Ki=5-10nM and EC50=50-90nM)
Agonists of full/unknown efficacy
Apomorphine (Apokyn – used to treat Parkinson's disease & Restless leg syndrome ) – biased at the D1 receptor.
Bromocriptine (Parlodel – used to treat PD/RLS)
Cabergoline (Dostinex – used to treat PD/RLS)
Ciladopa (used to treat PD/RLS)
Dihydrexidine (used to treat PD/RLS)
Dinapsoline (used to treat PD/RLS)
Doxanthrine (used to treat PD/RLS)
Epicriptine (used to treat PD/RLS)
Lisuride (used to treat PD/RLS)
Pergolide (used to treat PD/RLS) – previously available as Permax, but removed from the market in the USA on March 29, 2007.
Piribedil (Pronoran and Trivastal – used to treat PD/RLS)
Pramipexole (Mirapex and Sifrol – used to treat PD/RLS)
Propylnorapomorphine (used to treat PD/RLS)
Quinagolide (Norprolac – used to treat PD/RLS)
Ropinirole (Requip – used to treat PD/RLS)
Rotigotine (Neupro – used to treat PD/RLS)
Roxindole (used to treat PD/RLS)
Sumanirole (used to treat PD/RLS)
Some, such as fenoldopam, are selective for dopamine receptor D1.
Related class of drugs: Indirect agonists
There are two classes of drugs that act as indirect agonists of dopamine receptors: dopamine reuptake inhibitors and dopamine releasing agents. These are not considered dopamine agonists, since they have no specific agonist activity at dopamine receptors, but they are nonetheless related. Indirect agonists are prescribed for a wider range of conditions than standard dopamine agonists.
The most commonly prescribed indirect agonists of dopamine receptors include:
Amphetamine and/or dextroamphetamine (used to treat ADHD, narcolepsy, and obesity)
Bupropion (used to facilitate smoking cessation and treat nicotine addiction and clinical depression)
Lisdexamfetamine (used to treat ADHD and binge eating disorder)
Methylphenidate or dexmethylphenidate (used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy)
Other examples include:
Cathinone
Cocaine (anesthetic with no medical uses as a central nervous system stimulant)
Methamphetamine (used in rare circumstances to treat ADHD and obesity)
Phenethylamine (endogenous trace amine)
p-Tyramine (endogenous trace amine)
History
Since the late 1960 Levodopa (L-DOPA) has been used to treat Parkinson’s disease but there has always been a debate whether the treatment is worth the side effects. Around 1970 clinicians started using the dopamine agonist apomorphine alongside L-DOPA to minimize the side effects caused by L-DOPA, the dopamine agonists bind to the dopamine receptor in the absence of dopamine. Apomorphine had limited use since it had considerable side effects and difficulty with administration. In 1974 bromocriptine was use widely after clinicians discovered its benefits in treating Parkinsons. When using the two drug classes together there is a possibility to reduce the amount of L-DOPA by 20-30% and thus keeping the fluctuating motor responses to a minimum. Dopamine agonists are often used in younger people as monotherapy and as initial therapy instead of L-DOPA. Although it is important to know that there is a correlation between the two drugs, if l-DOPA doesn't work dopamine agonists are also ineffective.
The early dopamine agonists, such as bromocriptine, were ergot derived and activated the D2-receptor. They induced major side effects such as fibrosis of cardiac valves. It is considered that the reason they induced such side effects is that they activate many types of receptors.
Because of the major adverse effects of ergot derived dopamine agonists they are generally not used anymore and were mostly abandoned in favor of non-ergot agonists such as pramipexole, ropinirole and rotigotine. They do not induce as serious side effects although common side effects are nausea, edema and hypotension. Patients have also shown impaired impulse control such as overspending, hypersexuality and gambling.
See also
Dopamine antagonist
Dopamine reuptake inhibitor
Receptor agonist
GABA receptor agonist
Dopaminergic
Serotonin agonist
Adrenergic agonist (sympathomimetic)
Parasympathomimetic drug (acetylcholine agonist)
Histamine agonist
References
Further reading
External links |
4054323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%E2%80%9381%20in%20English%20football | 1980–81 in English football | The 1980–81 season was the 101st season of competitive football in England.
Diary of the season
9 August 1980: Liverpool win the Charity Shield as Terry McDermott scores the only goal in a 1–0 win over West Ham United.
14 August 1980: Having not played a first team game for Arsenal, Clive Allen leaves the club after just two months to join Crystal Palace, again costing his new club £1,250,000.
16 August 1980: Norwich City achieve the biggest win of the opening day of the First Division season, beating Stoke City 5–1. Champions Liverpool begin with a 3–0 win at home to Crystal Palace. Kevin Keegan makes his League début for Southampton in a 2–0 victory at home to Manchester City. Tottenham Hotspur's expensive new strike force of Steve Archibald and Garth Crooks help them to a 2–0 win over Nottingham Forest, with Crooks scoring the second goal.
30 August 1980: Newcastle United's Bill McGarry becomes the first managerial casualty of the season, being sacked after a failure to win any of the Second Division fixtures combined with a humiliating League Cup exit at the hands of Fourth Division side Bury. Former manager Joe Harvey takes charge of the club in a caretaker capacity, but quickly distances himself from any thoughts of a permanent return to the manager's job.
31 August 1980: The first month of the Football League season ends with Ipswich Town, Southampton and Aston Villa level at the top of the First Division after four matches. Stoke City, Manchester City and Leeds United occupy the bottom three places. The Second Division promotion race has begun with Blackburn Rovers, Derby County and Sheffield Wednesday occupying the top three places. Cambridge United, in only their 11th season as a Football League team, stand fourth in the division harbouring dreams of the quickest modern day rise from non-league football to the First Division.
1 September 1980: Third Division basement side Carlisle United sack manager Martin Harvey after only six months in charge, and re-appoint former manager Bob Stokoe to replace him.
7 September 1980: Chesterfield manager Arthur Cox is appointed as Newcastle United's new manager. Jimmy Adamson resigns as Leeds United manager.
10 September 1980: England's 1982 World Cup qualifying series begins with a 4–0 win over Norway at Wembley.
16 September 1980: Leeds United appoint former player and Barnsley manager Allan Clarke as Jimmy Adamson's successor. Clarke is succeeded at Barnsley by former Leeds teammate Norman Hunter.
30 September 1980: September draws to a close with Ipswich Town leading the First Division by four points over their nearest rivals Liverpool, Everton and Aston Villa. Crystal Palace have slumped to the bottom of the table and are joined in the relegation zone by Manchester City and Leeds United. The race for a place in the First Division next season is headed by the Second Division top three of Blackburn Rovers, West Ham United and Notts County. Cambridge United's promising start has fallen away and they now stand third from bottom.
1 October 1980: Manchester City sack manager Malcolm Allison and replace him with Norwich City's John Bond, who in turn is replaced by Ken Brown.
2 October 1980: Terry Venables departs Crystal Palace to take over at Queens Park Rangers, who sacked Tommy Docherty earlier that day. Crystal Palace appoint Venables' assistant, Ernie Walley as caretaker manager.
15 October 1980: England suffer a 2–1 defeat to Romania in Bucharest in their second World Cup qualifier.
17 October 1980: Andy Ritchie, the highly promising Manchester United striker who turns 20 next month, is surprisingly sold to Brighton & Hove Albion for £500,000.
22 October 1980: Bottom of the First Division, Manchester City win their first league match of the season at the thirteenth attempt when they defeat Tottenham Hotspur 3–1.
31 October 1980: Aston Villa, who last won a top division title in 1910, finish October as First Division leaders, though Ipswich Town, still unbeaten, are two points behind them with two games in hand. Liverpool, Nottingham Forest, Manchester United and West Bromwich Albion are a further two points behind. Crystal Palace, Manchester City and Brighton & Hove Albion occupy the relegation places. The race for three places in the First Division next season is being headed by Notts County, West Ham United and Chelsea, with Swansea City, Blackburn Rovers and Sheffield Wednesday in close contention.
11 November 1980: Ipswich Town's unbeaten start to the season ends when they lose their fifteenth match 1–0 to bottom-placed Brighton & Hove Albion.
19 November 1980: England get their World Cup qualifying campaign back on track with a 2–1 win over Switzerland at Wembley.
29 November 1980: Ken Brown makes his first signing for Norwich City by paying Liverpool £100,000 for 19-year-old central defender Dave Watson.
30 November 1980: November ends with Aston Villa still leading the First Division, two points ahead of Liverpool. Ipswich Town are now third, but are three points off top spot with three games in hand. West Bromwich Albion and Arsenal complete the top five. Leicester City prop up the First Division having lost their last four games, and join Crystal Palace and Brighton & Hove Albion in the bottom three. West Ham United, Chelsea and Notts County continue to head the challenge for promotion to the First Division.
6 December 1980: Following a run of just one point in the last month, Crystal Palace reappoint former manager Malcolm Allison. Ernie Walley is offered the chance to continue as first-team manager with Allison in the role of general manager, but opts to leave the club and rejoin Terry Venables at Queens Park Rangers, leaving Allison in sole charge.
31 December 1980: The year ends with Liverpool leading the First Division on goal difference ahead of Aston Villa. Ipswich Town are a point behind the leaders with two games in hand, and Arsenal are a further three points adrift. Crystal Palace and Leicester City remain stranded in the bottom three, but Brighton & Hove Albion have climbed out of the drop zone on goal difference at the expense of Norwich City. FA Cup holders West Ham United lead the Second Division promotion race, joining in the top three by Swansea City (who have never played in the top flight before) and Chelsea (who were last in the top flight two seasons ago). Notts County and Derby County are pushing the top three hard, while the likes of Luton Town and Orient are starting to emerge as possible contenders.
3 January 1981: Ipswich Town beat Aston Villa 1–0 in a heavyweight clash in the FA Cup third round. Everton defeat Arsenal 2–0.
10 January 1981: Aston Villa move to the top of the First Division after beating Liverpool 2–0 at Villa Park.
19 January 1981: FA Cup holders West Ham United are beaten 1–0 in a third round second replay by fellow Second Division side Wrexham.
24 January 1981: Manchester City defeat Norwich City 6–0 in the FA Cup fourth round tie at Maine Road, just two months after John Bond's move between the two clubs as manager. Everton knock out Merseyside rivals Liverpool with a 2–1 victory at Goodison Park, and Nottingham Forest beat Manchester United 1–0.
28 January 1981: Third Division Exeter City cause one of the shocks of the season by beating Leicester City 3–1 in an FA Cup fourth round replay.
31 January 1981: January draws to a close with Ipswich Town back on top of the First Division, ahead of second placed Aston Villa on goal difference with a game in hand. Liverpool are beaten 2–1 at home by Leicester City and are now four points off the top. Southampton and West Bromwich Albion complete the top five, while Manchester United, with fifteen draws already this season, have fallen to ninth in the table. Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Norwich City remain in the bottom three. West Ham United continue to lead the race for promotion, with Notts County and Chelsea completing the top three. Liverpool's 85-match unbeaten home run in all competitions is ended by a 2–1 home defeat to struggling Leicester City in the league, Their last home defeat was in February 1978.
3 February 1981: New Crystal Palace owner Ron Noades sacks Malcolm Allison and appoints Wimbledon manager Dario Gradi as Palace's fourth manager of the season. Wimbledon in turn appoint coach Dave Bassett as their new manager.
18 February 1981: Exeter City reach the FA Cup quarter-finals for only the second time in their history by defeating Newcastle United 4–0 in a replay after drawing 1–1 in the original fixture.
28 February 1981: Having won five League matches in a row, Ipswich Town remain top of the First Division at the end of February, with Aston Villa two points behind them. Liverpool's challenge is effectively over after taking just four points from four League games this month. Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Norwich City still occupy the relegation zone. West Ham United remain top of the Second Division, followed closely behind by Notts County and joined in the top three by Sheffield Wednesday at the expense of Chelsea, who have slumped to seventh. Grimsby Town have emerged as surprise promotion contenders alongside larger clubs like Blackburn Rovers and Derby County.
7 March 1981: Exeter City's FA Cup run finally ends when they lose 2–0 away to Tottenham Hotspur in the quarter-finals. At the City Ground, Ipswich Town go 2–0 up before Nottingham Forest score thrice to take the lead; the match finishes honours even at 3–3 after Frans Thijssen sends the match to a replay.
10 March 1981: Ipswich Town remain in contention for a treble of the league title, FA Cup and UEFA Cup by beating Nottingham Forest 1–0 in the FA Cup quarter-final replay.
12 March 1981: Ken Brown continues to build for the future of First Division strugglers Norwich City by paying Queens Park Rangers £225,000 for 22-year-old goalkeeper Chris Woods. Meanwhile, Liverpool sign 23-year-old Vancouver Whitecaps and Zimbabwe goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar for £250,000.
14 March 1981: The League Cup final ends in a 1–1 draw between Liverpool and West Ham United.
25 March 1981: Spain beat England 2–1 in a friendly at Wembley.
31 March 1981: Ipswich Town lose 3–0 away to Leeds United but remain one point ahead of second placed Aston Villa at the top of the First Division. West Bromwich Albion have moved into third, but are a distant six points behind Aston Villa. Crystal Palace, Norwich City and Leicester City remain in the bottom three places. West Ham United and Notts County continue to head the Second Division promotion race, joined in the top three by Grimsby Town at the expense of Sheffield Wednesday, who are now eighth.
1 April 1981: Liverpool win the Football League Cup for the first time, winning the replay 2–1 against West Ham United at Villa Park.
4 April 1981: Crystal Palace are relegated from the First Division with five matches of the season remaining. West Ham clinch promotion to the 1st Division.
7 April 1981: Sunderland sack manager Ken Knighton, and appoint Mick Docherty as caretaker manager for the last five games of the season.
8 April 1981: Aston Villa move three points clear at the top of the First Division after winning the derby against third-placed West Bromwich Albion 1–0.
10 April 1981: Following a disastrous run of form which has turned an initially promising season into a struggle against relegation, Everton announce that manager Gordon Lee will not be offered a new contract, and will leave the club at the end of the season. Blackburn Rovers manager Howard Kendall is considered the overwhelming favourite to succeed Lee for the following season.
11 April 1981: Ipswich Town's treble bid is ended with a 1–0 extra-time defeat by Manchester City in the FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park. In the final, they will face either Tottenham Hotspur or Wolverhampton Wanderers, who draw 2–2 in the other semi-final at Hillsborough.
14 April 1981: Ipswich Town return to Villa Park for a crucial League match against First Division leaders Aston Villa, and win 2–1 to move within a point of their opponents with a game in hand.
15 April 1981: Tottenham Hotspur reach the FA Cup final by beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 3–0 in the semi-final replay at Highbury.
18 April 1981: Aston Villa take a decisive step towards the First Division title by beating Nottingham Forest 2–0 on the same day that Ipswich Town lose 2–0 at home to Arsenal.
25 April 1981: Aston Villa defeat Middlesbrough 3–0 at Villa Park, meaning they only need a draw from their final game of the season to seal their first league title since 1910. Leicester City are relegated.
29 April 1981: England draw 0–0 with Romania in their World Cup qualifying game at Wembley.
30 April 1981: Manchester United sack Dave Sexton after four trophyless seasons as manager.
2 May 1981: Aston Villa seal their first league title for 71 years despite losing their final game of the season 2–0 to Arsenal as Ipswich Town lose 2–1 to Middlesbrough, their third League defeat in four matches. Norwich City are relegated after a 3–2 home defeat to second-bottom Leicester City. Newly promoted to the First Division for next season are West Ham United after a three-year exile, Notts County after 55 years away, and Swansea City for the first time ever.
6 May 1981: Ipswich Town beat AZ Alkmaar 3–0 of the Netherlands in the first leg of the UEFA Cup final at Portman Road.
9 May 1981: In the FA Cup final against Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester City's Tommy Hutchison scores for both teams, first putting Manchester City 1–0 but later scoring an own goal to bring the match to a replay.
12 May 1981: Zico scores the only goal as Brazil beat England 1–0 at Wembley.
14 May 1981: Tottenham Hotspur lift the FA Cup, defeating Manchester City 3–2 in the replay.
20 May 1981: Ipswich Town win the UEFA Cup 5–4 on aggregate despite losing 4–2 to AZ Alkmaar in the second leg of the final.
23 May 1981: England lose 1–0 at home to Scotland in the Home Championship, but the tournament remains unfinished after Northern Ireland are unable to complete their fixtures.
27 May 1981: An Alan Kennedy goal gives Liverpool their third European Cup triumph as they defeat Real Madrid 1–0 in the final at the Parc des Princes in Paris.
30 May 1981: A 2–1 defeat away to Switzerland leaves England struggling to qualify for the 1982 World Cup Finals.
6 June 1981: England end a run of six matches without a win with a 3–1 victory away to Hungary in a World Cup qualifier.
8 June 1981: Having failed to save Crystal Palace from relegation, Clive Allen drops down a division to return to Queens Park Rangers in a £400,000 deal.
9 June 1981: After a month of searching for a new manager, Manchester United appoint Ron Atkinson from West Bromwich Albion.
National teams
UEFA Competitions
English clubs continued their dominance of European football. Liverpool won the European Cup, beating Real Madrid 1–0 in the final and ensuring that the trophy remained in English hands for the fifth year running. Bobby Robson proved his managerial credentials by bringing UEFA Cup glory to Ipswich Town, who beat AZ Alkmaar 5–4 on aggregate in the final.
FA Cup
Inspired by Ricardo Villa and Osvaldo Ardiles, World Cup winners with Argentina in 1978, Tottenham Hotspur overcame Manchester City in the FA Cup final replay to lift their first major trophy under the management of Keith Burkinshaw.
League Cup
Liverpool won their first League Cup, beating Second Division West Ham United 2–1 in a replay after the original tie ended in a 1–1 draw.
Football League
First Division
A fiercely contested First Division title race went right to the wire between Aston Villa and Ipswich Town, as challenges from the likes of Arsenal, West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool fell away during the season's closing stages. The title was finally won by Villa for the first time since 1910, while Ipswich did manage to win the UEFA Cup. Liverpool slipped into fifth place but compensated for this downfall by lifting the European Cup for the third time and their first-ever League Cup. Manchester United failed to make the top five and this shortcoming cost Dave Sexton his manager's job.
Manchester United endured a disappointing season, finishing eighth. Their manager Dave Sexton had come under increased pressure over the disappointment of record signing Garry Birtles, who failed to find the net for United after his late autumn signing from Nottingham Forest in a million-plus transfer. At the end of the campaign Sexton was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who had just finished fourth in the league and reached the UEFA Cup quarter finals with an impressive West Bromwich Albion side. United's cross-city neighbours had also changed their manager, when dismissing Malcolm Allison in October to replace him with Norwich's John Bond, who pulled them up from the foot of the table to finish 12th in the league and reach the FA Cup final, where they took Tottenham to a replay before losing 3-2.
Crystal Palace endured a dreadful season with just six wins. They were joined in the Second Division by Norwich City and Leicester City. The Eagles' stay in the top flight had lasted just two years, while The Canaries' relegation brought to an end their six years in the limelight. The Foxes, however, were relegated after just a single season in the First Division.
Second Division
FA Cup holders West Ham United clinched the Second Division title by a wide margin to end their three-year absence from the First Division. They were joined by runners-up Notts County and a Swansea City side whose third-place finish gave them First Division football for the first time in their history and also completed a record of three promotions in four seasons. Blackburn Rovers missed out on promotion on goal difference, but their achievements did not go unnoticed by First Division clubs, as their manager Howard Kendall was then appointed manager of Everton.
Both Bristol City and Bristol Rovers were relegated from the Second Division, and they were joined in the relegation zone by Preston North End. The Robins suffered their second consecutive relegation, having been relegated from the top flight just 12 months previously, having not fallen as low as the Third Division for 16 years. Their close rivals, Bristol Rovers, on the other hand, returned to the Third Division after seven years in the Second. However, Preston North End's stay in the Second Division was even shorter, The Lilywhites having only been promoted three years previous.
Third Division
Ian Porterfield, the scorer of Sunderland's winning goal in their famous FA Cup triumph of 1973, achieved the first success of his managerial career by guiding Rotherham United to the Third Division title and a place in the Second Division. Runners-up in the Third Division were another South Yorkshire side, Barnsley, now managed by the former Leeds United defender Norman Hunter. The final promotion place was snatched by Charlton Athletic, who finished three points ahead of a Huddersfield side looking to win a second successive promotion.
Sheffield United and Blackpool both fell into the Fourth Division for the first time, and were joined by Hull City and Colchester United.
Despite falling out of the Third Division this season, Sheffield United remarkably managed to lure Ian Porterfield from a Rotherham side who had just reached the Second Division, offering him a five-year contract and making the resources available to him to get the Blades back into the First Division by 1986.
Fourth Division
Southend United won the Fourth Division title to clinch a place in the Third Division. They were joined by runners-up Lincoln City, third placed Doncaster Rovers and fourth placed Wimbledon.
There were no movements between the Fourth Division and the Alliance Premier League as the re-election system went in favour of the league's bottom four clubs, although bottom-placed York City came perilously close to being replaced by Alliance champions Altrincham, surviving by just two votes.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Steve Archibald (Tottenham Hotspur) and Peter Withe (Aston Villa) – 20 goals
Second Division
David Cross (West Ham United) – 22 goals
Third Division
Tony Kellow (Exeter City) – 25 goals
Fourth Division
Alan Cork (Wimbledon) – 23 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Awards
High scoring defensive midfielder John Wark was credited for his achievements at UEFA Cup Winners Ipswich Town as PFA Players' Player of the Year.
Aston Villa's forward Gary Shaw added the PFA Young Player of the Year award to his league championship medal.
Ipswich Town's Dutch midfielder Frans Thijssen was voted FWA Footballer of the Year.
Star managers
Ron Saunders ended Aston Villa's 71-year wait for the league championship trophy by pipping Ipswich Town at the post.
Bob Paisley made up for Liverpool's disappointing league form with success in the European Cup and League Cup.
Bobby Robson couldn't quite bring the league championship trophy to Ipswich Town but compensated by bringing them the UEFA Cup.
Keith Burkinshaw completed his rebuilding programme at Tottenham Hotspur by yielding an FA Cup triumph.
John Lyall had another successful season with West Ham United as they won promotion to the First Division a year after winning the FA Cup.
John Toshack completed the quickest rise through the Football League with Swansea City, who climbed from the Fourth Division to the First Division with three promotions in four seasons.
Ron Atkinson took West Bromwich Albion to fourth place in the league to attain their second UEFA Cup place in three seasons.
Terry Neill guided Arsenal to third place in the league to ensure UEFA Cup qualification.
Jimmy Sirrel took Notts County into the First Division for the first time in nearly 60 years.
Norman Hunter attained promotion to the Second Division with Barnsley.
Deaths
13 August 1980: George Haslam, 82, was a half-back during the interwar years for Manchester United, Darwen and Portsmouth.
29 August 1980: Billy Furness, 71, scored 93 league goals from inside-forward between 1928 and 1947 for Leeds United and Norwich City and was capped once for England in 1933.
6 September 1980: Joe Bradford, 79, scored a club record 267 goals in all competitions for Birmingham City between 1920 and 1935, completing his career with five games and one goal for Bristol City. He was capped 12 times for England, scoring seven goals.
7 October 1980: Jim Lewis, 71, played 111 league games for Watford as a centre-half in the 1930s before his playing career was ended by the war.
20 December 1980: Tom Waring, 74, scored 159 league goals from centre-forward for Aston Villa between 1928 and 1935, though he failed to win a major trophy with them. He had previously scored 23 goals in 24 league games for Tranmere Rovers, and after leaving Villa Park he turned out for Barnsley and Wolverhampton Wanderers before returning to Tranmere for two years and finishing his career at Accrington Stanley. By the time of his last senior game in 1938, he had scored 244 league goals. He was capped five times by England in the early 1930s and scored four goals.
30 December 1980: George Beel, 80, scored a club record 178 league goals for Burnley between 1923 and 1932. His career spanned from 1919 to 1933 and took in a total of 243 league goals. He also turned out for Lincoln City (twice), Merthyr Town, Chesterfield and Rochdale.
3 February 1981: Sammy Crooks, 73, played 408 league games on the right wing for Derby County between 1927 and 1947 after signing from Durham City. He played for the Rams in the first five rounds of the FA Cup in 1946 but a knee injury prevented him from playing in the final. He managed Shrewsbury Town in their first four seasons in the Football League and also managed four different non-league sides. He was capped 26 times by England in the 1930s and scored seven goals.
4 February 1981: Joe Jacques, 36, made more than 300 league appearances in defence for Lincoln City, Darlington, Southend United, Gillingham and Hartlepool United between 1964 and 1976. He began his professional career in 1959 with Preston but failed to make a league appearance for them in five years.
16 March 1981: Reg Spencer, 72, played 261 games at left-half for his only club Tranmere Rovers in the 1930s.
6 April 1981: Des Harlock, 58, played 150 league games for Tranmere Rovers as a right-winger between 1946 and 1954 after signing from Liverpool in 1945, his league debut delayed until his 24th year due to the war.
10 May 1981: Bert Lyons, 79, played 76 league games for Orient between 1926 and 1930 before signing for Tottenham Hotspur and completing his league career with 54 league games in three years.
16 June 1981: Billy Hughes, 63, played 200 league games between 1935 and 1951 for Birmingham City, Luton Town and Chelsea in a career which was disrupted by the war. He was capped ten times by Wales.
20 June 1981: Billy Charlton, 80, scored 103 league goals as a left-winger for South Shields, West Ham United, Newport County, Cardiff City and finally Tranmere Rovers, 72 of those goals coming for his final club.
References |
4054350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury%2013 | Mercury 13 | The Mercury 13 were thirteen American women who took part in a privately funded program run by William Randolph Lovelace II aiming to test and screen women for spaceflight. The participants—First Lady Astronaut Trainees (or FLATs) as Jerrie Cobb called them—successfully underwent the same physiological screening tests as had the astronauts selected by NASA on April 9, 1959, for Project Mercury. While Lovelace called the project Woman in Space Program, the thirteen women became later known as the Mercury 13—a term coined in 1995 by Hollywood producer James Cross as a comparison to the Mercury Seven astronauts. The Mercury 13 women were not part of NASA's official astronaut program, never flew in space as part of a NASA mission, and never met as a whole group.
In the 1960s some of these women were among those who lobbied the White House and US Congress to have women included in the astronaut program. They testified before a congressional committee in 1962. In 1963, Clare Boothe Luce wrote an article for LIFE magazine publicizing the women and criticizing NASA for its failure to include women as astronauts.
One of the thirteen, Wally Funk, was launched into space in a suborbital flight aboard Blue Origin's July 20, 2021 New Shepard 4 mission Flight 16, making her the (then) oldest person to go into space at age 82. The story of these women was celebrated in numerous books, exhibits, and movies, including the 2018 Netflix-produced documentary Mercury 13.
History
When NASA first planned to put people in space, they believed that the best candidates would be pilots, submarine crews or members of expeditions to the Antarctic or Arctic areas. They also thought people with more extreme sports backgrounds, such as parachuting, climbing, deep sea diving, etc. would excel in the program.
NASA knew that numerous people would apply for this opportunity and testing would be expensive. President Dwight Eisenhower believed that military test pilots would make the best astronauts and had already passed rigorous testing and training within the government. This greatly altered the testing requirements and shifted the history of who was chosen to go to space originally.
William Randolph Lovelace II, former Flight Surgeon and later, chairman of the NASA Special Advisory Committee on Life Science, helped develop the tests for NASA's male astronauts and became curious to know how women would do taking the same tests. In 1960, Lovelace and Air Force Brig. General Don Flickinger invited Geraldyn "Jerrie" Cobb, known as an accomplished pilot, to undergo the same rigorous challenges as the men.
Lovelace became interested in beginning this program because he was a medical doctor who had done the NASA physical testing for the official program. He was able to fund the unofficial program, the Woman in Space program, and invited up to 25 women to come and take the physical tests. Lovelace was interested in the way that women's bodies would react to being in space. The program was hidden from the public eye; the Mercury 13 were not reported in any major publications. However, they were not entirely unknown.
Cobb was the first American woman (and the only one of the Mercury 13) to undergo and pass all three phases of testing. Lovelace and Cobb recruited 19 more women to take the tests, financed by the husband of world-renowned aviator Jacqueline Cochran. Thirteen of the women passed the same tests as the Mercury 7. Some were disqualified due to brain or heart anomalies. The results were announced at the second International Symposium on Submarine and Space Medicine in Stockholm, Sweden on August 18, 1960.
Candidate background
All of the candidates were accomplished pilots; Lovelace and Cobb reviewed the records of more than 700 women pilots in order to select candidates. They did not invite anyone with fewer than 1,000 hours of flight experience. Some of the women may have been recruited through the Ninety-Nines, a women pilot's organization of which Cobb was also a member. Some women responded after hearing about the opportunity through friends. This group of women, whom Jerrie Cobb called the First Lady Astronaut Trainees (FLATs), accepted the challenge to be tested for a research program.
Wally Funk wrote an article saying that, given the secrecy of the testing, not all of the women candidates knew each other throughout their years of preparation. It was not until 1994 that ten of the Mercury 13 were introduced to each other for the first time.
Phase I tests
Nineteen women took astronaut fitness examinations given by the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Unlike NASA's male candidates, who competed in groups, the women did their tests alone or in pairs. Because doctors did not know all the conditions which astronauts might encounter in space, they had to guess what tests might be required. These ranged from typical X-rays and general body physicals to the atypical; for instance, the women had to swallow a rubber tube in order to test the level of their stomach acids. Doctors tested the reflexes in the ulnar nerve of the woman's forearms by using electric shock. To induce vertigo, ice water was shot into their ears, freezing the inner ear so doctors could time how quickly they recovered. The women were pushed to exhaustion while riding specially weighted stationary bicycles, in order to test their respiration. They subjected themselves to many more invasive and uncomfortable tests.
The 13
In the end, thirteen women passed the same Phase I physical examinations that the Lovelace Foundation had developed as part of NASA's astronaut selection process. Those thirteen women were:
Myrtle Cagle
Jerrie Cobb
Janet Dietrich
Marion Dietrich
Wally Funk
Sarah Gorelick (later Ratley)
Jane "Janey" Briggs Hart
Jean Hixson
Rhea Woltman
Gene Nora Stumbough (later Jessen)
Irene Leverton
Jerri Sloan (later Truhill)
Bernice Steadman
At 41, Jane Hart was the oldest candidate, and was the mother of eight. Wally Funk was the youngest, at 23. Marion and Janet Dietrich were twin sisters.
Additional tests and termination of the program
A few women took additional tests. Jerrie Cobb, Rhea Hurrle, and Wally Funk went to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma for Phase II testing, consisting of an isolation tank test and psychological evaluations. Because of other family and job commitments, not all of the women were able to take these tests. Once Cobb had passed the Phase III tests (advanced aeromedical examinations using military equipment and jet aircraft), the group prepared to gather in Pensacola, Florida at the Naval School of Aviation Medicine to follow suit. Two of the women quit their jobs in order to be able to attend. A few days before they were to report, however, the women received telegrams abruptly canceling the Pensacola testing. Without an official NASA request to run the tests, the United States Navy would not allow the use of its facilities for such an unofficial project.
Funk reportedly also completed the third phase of testing, but this claim is misleading. Following NASA's cancellation of the tests, she found ways to continue being tested. She did complete most of the Phase III tests, but only by individual actions, not as part of a specific program. Cobb passed all the training exercises, ranking in the top 2% of all astronaut candidates of both genders.
Regardless of the women's achievements in testing, NASA continued to exclude women as astronaut candidates for years. Despite the Soviet advancement to put the first woman in space in 1963 after Yuri Gagarin's orbit in 1961, the men who testified at the hearing were unmotivated. Any threat to the "patriotic chronology" of the American schedule would be considered an "impediment" or "interruption".
House Committee Hearing on Gender Discrimination
When the Pensacola testing was cancelled, Jerrie Cobb immediately flew to Washington, D.C. to try to have the testing program resumed. She and Janey Hart wrote to President John F. Kennedy and visited Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Finally, on 17 and 18 July 1962, Representative Victor Anfuso (D-NY) convened public hearings before a special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Science and Astronautics. Significantly, the hearings investigated the possibility of gender discrimination two years before passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that made such actions illegal.
Cobb and Hart testified about the benefits of Lovelace's private project. Jacqueline Cochran largely undermined their testimony, talking about her concerns that setting up a special program to train a woman astronaut could hurt the space program. She proposed a project with a large group of women, and expected a significant amount to drop out due to reasons like "marriage, childbirth, and other causes". Though Cochran initially supported the program, she was later responsible for delaying further phases of testing, and letters from her to members of the Navy and NASA expressing concern over whether the program was to be run properly and in accordance with NASA goals may have significantly contributed to the eventual cancellation of the program. It is generally accepted that Cochran turned against the program out of concern that she would no longer be the most prominent female aviator.
NASA representatives George Low and Astronauts John Glenn and Scott Carpenter testified that under NASA's selection criteria women could not qualify as astronaut candidates. Glenn also believed that "The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order." They correctly stated that NASA required all astronauts to be graduates of military jet test piloting programs and have engineering degrees, although John Glenn conceded that he had been assigned to NASA's Mercury Project without having earned the required college degree. In 1962, women were still barred from Air Force training schools, so no American women could become test pilots of military jets. Despite the fact that several of the Mercury 13 had been employed as civilian test pilots, and many had considerably more propeller aircraft flying time than the male astronaut candidates (although not in high-performance jets, like the men), NASA refused to consider granting an equivalency for their hours in the more basic propeller aircraft, it was presumed at the time that training and experience in piloting jet and rocket aircraft, such as the X-15 then being developed, would be "most useful for transition to spacecraft." Jan Dietrich had accumulated 8,000 hours, Mary Wallace Funk 3,000 hours, Irene Leverton 9,000+, and Jerrie Cobb 10,000+. Although some members of the Subcommittee were sympathetic to the women's arguments because of this disparity in accepted experience, no action resulted.
Executive Assistant to Vice President Lyndon Johnson, Liz Carpenter, drafted a letter to NASA administrator James E. Webb questioning these requirements, but Johnson did not send the letter, instead writing across it, "Let's stop this now!"
The pilot paradox
The qualifications for prospective astronauts had been a point of contention after the creation of NASA in 1958. The proposition for astronauts to have a background as a pilot was a logical choice, specifically test pilots with a disposition to train and learn to fly new craft designs. The consensus sought jet test pilots from the military, a field where women were not allowed at the time, and by default excluded from consideration. However, NASA also required potential astronauts to hold college degrees – a qualification that John Glenn of the Mercury 7 group did not possess. Although Glenn had begun studying chemistry at Muskingum College in 1939, when the United States entered World War II he left college before completing his final year to enlist in the U.S. Navy, demonstrating that NASA was sometimes willing to make exceptions to these requirements. The larger issue behind this pretense, recognized by Glenn and the overall fight of the Mercury 13, was the organization of social order. Change was needed for women to be considered, but vehemently resisted in secrecy by those already benefiting from their gender-supported positions. Little to no support ever surfaced for the merit, strength, or intellect women possessed for the role of an astronaut, despite the evidence for the contrary. Some obvious concerns for NASA during the space race included, but were not limited to, oxygen consumption and weight for the drag effect on takeoff. After the undeniable success of their testing, the FLATs were no longer having to prove their physical and psychological fitness. They were pushing the 'social order' to convince NASA that women had a right to hold the same roles men were granted as astronauts. It was not until 1972 that an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 finally granted women legal assistance for entering the realm of space. By 1978, the jet fighter pilot requirement was no longer an obstacle for women candidates. NASA had its first class with women that year. They were admitted into a new category of astronaut, the mission specialist.
Media attention
Lovelace's privately funded women's testing project received renewed media attention when Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space on June 16, 1963. In response, Clare Boothe Luce published an article in Life criticizing NASA and American decision-makers. By including photographs of all thirteen Lovelace finalists, she made the names of all thirteen women public for the first time. On June 17, 1963 New York Times published Jerrie Cobb's comments following the Soviet launch, saying it was "a shame that since we are eventually going to put a woman into space, we didn't go ahead and do it first."
There have been countless newspaper articles, films, and books made about the Mercury 13, but they were never featured on the front page or front runner of any media network. Those opposing the inclusion of women in training as astronauts created an environment where women could be seen to possess either the "virtue of patience" or the "vice of impatience" in terms of U.S. success in the space race.
The media often portrayed the women as unqualified candidates due to their frail and emotional structure that implies that they cannot undergo the severity that men do. On the day of July 17, 1962, a hearing was set in place for Jerrie Cobb's and Jane Hart's testimony. In further detail, Almost Astronauts: 13 Women Who Dared to Dream, justifies the hearings and statements done by the two as well as the reporters and the press. Their testimonies make inquiries about the discrimination among women and that their talents should not be prejudged or prequalified due to the fact that they are not men. A scientific writer of The Dallas Times Herald went so far as to plead with Mr. Vice President Johnson to allow women to "wear pants and shoot pool, but please do not let them into space."
First American female astronaut
Although both Cobb and Cochran made separate appeals for years afterwards to restart a women's astronaut testing project, the U.S. civil space agency did not select any female astronaut candidates until Astronaut Group 8 in 1978, which selected astronauts for the operational Space Shuttle program. Astronaut Sally Ride became the first American woman in space in 1983 on STS-7, and Eileen Collins was the first woman to pilot the Space Shuttle during STS-63 in 1995. Collins also became the first woman to command a Space Shuttle mission during STS-93 in 1999. In 2005, she commanded NASA's return to flight mission, STS-114. At Collins' invitation, seven of the surviving Lovelace finalists attended her first launch, ten of the FLATs attended her first command mission, and she has flown mementos for almost all of them. BBC News reported that if it wasn't for the rules that further restrained them from flying, then the first woman to go to space could have been an American.
Collins on becoming an astronaut: "When I was very young and first started reading about astronauts, there were no female astronauts." She was inspired while she was a child by the Mercury astronauts and by the time she was in high school and college, more opportunities were opening up for women who wanted a part in aviation. Collins then tried out the Air Force and during her very first month's training exercises her base was visited by the newest astronaut class. This class was the first to include women. From that point, she knew that "I wanted to be part of our nation's space program. It's the greatest adventure on this planet – or off the planet, for that matter. I wanted to fly the Space Shuttle."
Other notable influences
The first woman in space, Russian cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, was arguably less qualified than the FLATs having no qualifications as a pilot or scientist. Upon meeting Jerrie Cobb, Tereshkova told her that she was her role model and asked "we always figured you would be first. What happened?"
Honors and awards
In May 2007, the eight surviving members of the group were awarded honorary doctorates by the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh.
The Mercury 13 were awarded the Adler Planetarium Women in Space Science Award in 2005.
Jerrie Cobb was acknowledged in Clare Boothe Luce's Life article, highlighting her various flying awards and achieving four major world records.
In 1959, she established the world record for long-distance nonstop flight and the record of the world light-plane speed.
In 1960, she was given the acknowledgement for the altitude record of a lightweight aircraft flown at about 37,010 feet.
On July 1, 2021, Blue Origin announced that Wally Funk would fly to space on the first crewed flight of New Shepard. Funk, 82, flew the suborbital flight on July 20, 2021, and became the oldest person to fly to space.
In popular culture
The #1 issue of the Marvel comic Captain Marvel (2012) features a fictionalized Mercury 13 participant named Helen Cobb as one of Carol Danvers's heroes.
An episode of the 2015 ABC series The Astronaut Wives Club features a fictional account of the FLATs.
A 2007 documentary She Should Have Gone to the Moon by Ulrike Kubbatta
A 2018 documentary Mercury 13 by David Sington for Netflix
In the 2019 Apple TV+ miniseries For All Mankind, two fictional members of the Mercury 13 are chosen as female astronaut candidates after the Soviets land the first woman on the Moon.
Literature about or referencing the group
Amelia Earhart's Daughters: the Wild and Glorious Story of American Women Aviators from World War II to the Dawn of the Space Age, by Leslie Haynsworth and David Toomey
Right Stuff, Wrong Sex: America's First Women in Space Program by Margaret A. Weitekamp
The Mercury 13: The True Story of Thirteen Women and the Dream of Space Flight by Martha Ackmann
Almost Astronauts: 13 Women Who Dared to Dream by Tanya Lee Stone
Promised the Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race by Stephanie Nolan
Wally Funk's Race for Space: The Extraordinary Story of a Female Aviation Pioneer by Sue Nelson
Women in Space: 23 Stories of First Flights, Scientific Missions, and Gravity-Breaking Adventures (Women of Action) by Karen Bush Gibson
Fighting for Space: Two Pilots and Their Historic Battle for Female Spaceflight by Amy Shira Teitel
Past and current parallels
"Before their time"
Reflecting on the events of 1962 and the outcome of the Mercury 13, astronaut Scott Carpenter said, "NASA never had any intention of putting those women in space. The whole idea was foisted upon it, and it was happy to have the research data, but those women were before their time." Despite the importance of the physiological data collected during the 1960-61 testing of the women, it was subsequently lost and the research had to be repeated in the 1970s.
Reflecting on the exclusion of women from training as jet fighter pilots, The United States Air Force explicitly would not test women for high-altitude flight for lack of pressure suits in the correct sizes. Their response to the initial testing of female astronauts was that women could not become astronauts "because they had nothing to wear."
In March 2019, NASA announced that there would be the first all-female spacewalk on the 29th of that month performed at the International Space Station. Anne McClain and Christina Koch were supposed to make history that day, but complications arose when there was a lack of spacesuit availability. NASA has had issues when it comes to spacesuit sizes claiming that they only come in medium, large and extra-large sizes. In the 1990s, NASA stopped making spacesuit sizes in small due to technical glitches. This had a huge impact on women astronauts and later led to the cancellation. The long-delayed first all-female spacewalk finally occurred on October 18, 2019, with Koch and Jessica Meir performing the task, and astronaut Stephanie Wilson acting as Capcom.
See also
Valentina Tereshkova, first woman in space
Svetlana Savitskaya, second woman in space and the first to do a spacewalk
Sally Ride, first American woman in space
Women in NASA
Notes
References
External links
Mercury 13 web site
NPR feature on the FLATs
Alexis Madrigal, "The Women Who Would Have Been Sally Ride", The Atlantic, July 24, 2012. (Tagline: "The truth is: the sexism of the day overwhelmed the science of the day.")
Mercury 13: the untold story of women testing for spaceflight in the 1960s, Adam Gabbatt, The Guardian, April 18, 2018
Project Mercury
Human subject research |
4054372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald%20Murray | Archibald Murray | General Sir Archibald James Murray, (23 April 1860 – 21 January 1945) was a British Army officer who served in the Second Boer War and the First World War. He was Chief of Staff to the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in August 1914 but appears to have suffered a physical breakdown in the retreat from Mons, and was required to step down from that position in January 1915. After serving as Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff for much of 1915, he was briefly Chief of the Imperial General Staff from September to December 1915. He was subsequently Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from January 1916 to June 1917, in which role he laid the military foundation for the defeat and destruction of the Ottoman Empire in the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant.
Army career
Born the son of Charles Murray and Anne Murray (née Graves), and educated at Cheltenham College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, Archibald Murray was commissioned into the 27th Regiment on 13 August 1879. He was appointed adjutant of his regiment on 12 February 1886. After promotion to captain on 1 July 1887 and taking part in the suppression of a Zulu uprising in 1888, he became adjutant of the 4th Battalion, the Bedfordshire Regiment on 15 December 1890. He attended Staff College, Camberley, in 1897.
Promoted to major on 1 June 1898, Murray served in the Second Boer War as Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General for Intelligence in Natal from 9 October 1899 and then as chief of staff to the commander there. He took part in the withdrawal from Dundee and then the siege of Ladysmith in late 1899 and became senior staff officer to Sir Archibald Hunter, General Officer Commanding 10th Division, early in 1900. He was appointed Assistant Adjutant-General on 6 March 1900, promoted to lieutenant colonel on 29 October 1900 and awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 29 November 1900. He was again mentioned in despatches in February 1901.
Murray was appointed Commanding Officer of the 2nd Battalion Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, stationed in India, in October 1901, but never took up this position. He was deployed to Northern Transvaal in February 1902 where he was seriously wounded in April 1902 and mentioned in despatches once more in July 1902. After the end of hostilities in South Africa, he returned to England in June 1902, and became Assistant Adjutant-General at Headquarters 1st Division at Aldershot on 3 November 1902. Promoted to colonel on 29 October 1903, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the King's Birthday Honours 1904 and a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order on 12 June 1907.
Murray became Director of Military Training at the War Office on 9 November 1907 and, having been promoted to major general on 13 July 1910, he was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the Coronation Honours in June 1911. He also took part in the procession for the coronation of King George V on 22 June 1911. Murray became Inspector of Infantry on 9 December 1912. At the General Staff Conference in January 1914 he rejected proposals to adopt what he saw as a stereotyped French fire-and-movement doctrine. He then briefly commanded 2nd Division from 1 February 1914.
Chief of Staff, British Expeditionary Force, France and Belgium
Appointment
When the First World War started in July 1914 Murray was not appointed QuarterMaster-General of the British Expeditionary Force as was originally intended. Instead he became Chief of Staff. Murray had already earned a high reputation as a staff officer in South Africa and under French at the War Office. It is sometimes claimed that Murray was given the position largely because French's initial choice for the post, Wilson, was vetoed because of his role in the Curragh Affair. Although this claim was made after the war by Edmonds, Kirke (in his memoir of Macdonogh) and Murray, there is no contemporary evidence, even in Wilson's diary, to confirm it (unlike January 1915, when Wilson was certainly blocked from succeeding Murray for political reasons).
Wilson, Sir John French (BEF Commander-in-Chief) and Murray crossed to France on 14 August. The code books had been left behind in London, and Lieutenant Spears had to go back to London for another set. He returned to find Murray at Rheims trying to "unravel" the strategic situation of the German Empire's armies' invasion of France on a set of large maps spread out upon the floor of his hotel room, on all fours, dressed only in his "pants" (underwear), whilst chambermaids came and went.
Retreat from Mons
During the retreat of August 1914 the BEF staff, who had not rehearsed their roles, performed poorly. French was a dynamic leader but no manager. Robertson and Kirke recorded that Murray knew little of the plans which Wilson had drawn up with the French and had to work with a staff "almost entirely staffed from the (Military Operations) Directorate" who were used to working with Wilson. This staff included Colonel Harper, GSO1.
Murray summoned the Corps Chiefs of Staff at around 1am on 24 August (the night after the Battle of Mons), and ordered them to retreat, but gave them no detailed plans, leaving them to work out the details themselves. French agreed to Haig's request that I Corps retreat east of the Forest of Mormal (Haig Diary, 24 August) without, apparently, Smith-Dorrien (GOC II Corps) being asked or informed. (Inept staffwork was not unique to GHQ – neither I nor II Corps staff had checked whether or not the Forest of Mormal was occupied by the enemy.) On 24 August Harper refused to do anything for Murray, so that Lord Loch had to write messages even though it was not his job. Loch wrote in his diary for that day that Murray was "by nature petulant" and "difficult to work with". Murray and his staff were working flat out in intense heat at Bavai, and recorded (24 August) that he had passed 24 hours without undressing or sleeping. Smith-Dorrien visited GHQ to request detailed orders on the evening of 24 August, and had to bully Murray into issuing orders for II Corps to retreat to Le Cateau.
Murray noted in his diary (25 August) that GHQ had moved back from Le Cateau to St Quentin and that I Corps was being heavily engaged by night – making no mention of what II Corps were up to. When 4th Division arrived (25 August) Snow's orders were to help prepare a defensive position on the Cambrai-Le Cateau position, as GHQ had no idea of the seriousness of the situation facing II Corps. 4th Division was eventually able to participate in the Battle of Le Cateau. The news that Smith-Dorrien planned to stand and fight at Le Cateau reached GHQ at 5 am on 26 August – French was woken from his sleep, and insisting that Murray not be woken, sent Smith-Dorrien an ambiguous message that he had "a free hand as to the method" by which he fell back, which Smith-Dorrien took as permission to fight.
Murray appears to have suffered some kind of physical collapse round about this time, although the details differ between different eyewitness accounts. Wilson recorded that Murray had "completely broken down", had been given "morphia or some other drug" which made him incapable of work and when told (7 am on 26 August) of Smith-Dorrien's decision to stand and fight "promptly got a fainting fit". Spears' recollection (in 1930) was that Murray had collapsed with a weak pulse, but did not actually faint, when told earlier during the same night (the news later turned out to be exaggerated) that the Germans had fallen upon Haig's I Corps at Landrecies. Spears wrote that Murray was too ill to attend the meeting of Sir John French with Joffre and Lanrezac on 26 August, although Terraine has him attending this meeting. General Macready later recorded that Murray fainted at his desk whilst working at Noyon (where GHQ was based on 27 August).
Wilson returned to GHQ on 29 August from a visit to Joffre to find – he said – "a perfect debacle" with "Murray leading the fright".
Autumn 1914
On 4 September Murray had an important meeting with Gallieni (military governor of Paris) and Maunoury (commander, French Sixth Army) to discuss the planned Allied counterattack which would become the First Battle of the Marne. Murray had no idea when French, who was out visiting British I Corps, was to return and was unwilling to make any decision in his absence. After a three-hour meeting a provisional agreement was drawn up; the French came away with the impression that the British would not cooperate and that Murray had "une grande repugnance" for them, but he did in fact pass the plans along to French. Whilst this was going on, Wilson was negotiating separate plans with Franchet d'Esperey (French Fifth Army, on the British right).
Wilson noted (diary 6 Sep – the day on which the BEF began to advance as part of the Battle of the Marne) that French and Murray "were out motoring and playing the ass all day". He had to intercede to prevent French from sacking Harper (Wilson diary 7 Sep) but a week later recorded (Wilson diary 14 Sep), that Murray and Harper argued constantly. After a month Murray was still talking of "my men" and "(Wilson')s men" which Wilson thought "rather sad" and "deplorable" (Clive diary 18 Sep). Wilson thought French and Murray were "between them quite unable to size up a position or to act with constancy for 24 hours" (Wilson diary 28 Sep)
Murray complained to Victor Huguet (a French liaison officer serving with the British) about Wilson (6 October), but also told Wilson that French was getting "more unreasonable" and asked Wilson whether he (Murray) should resign; Wilson informed Billy Lambton, French's secretary, of both of these incidents. Murray also (4–5 November) complained and threatened to resign when Wilson amended one of his orders without telling him. Murray later wrote (in 1930) "Why did I stay with (this) War Office clique when I knew I was not wanted? I wanted to see Sir John through. I had been so many years with him, and knew better than anyone how his health, temper and temperament rendered him unfit, in my opinion, for the crisis we had to face. ... the senior members (of GHQ staff) entirely ignored me, as far as possible, continually thwarted me, even altered my instructions." He also said that Wilson's disloyalty had left him the impossible job of managing French alone. Rawlinson noted in his diary that Murray became "a cipher at GHQ" (28 November 1914), was disliked by his subordinates (4 December) and that French often ignored his staff "chiefly because Murray is incapable of managing them and getting any good work out of them" (6 December 1914). Edmonds later said that Murray sometimes falsified the timing of orders, but he was given away by the time stamp which the duty clerk placed on them.
Removal
At the end of November and again in mid-December French told Wilson he was thinking of moving Murray to a corps command. Asquith and Kitchener (20 December) forbade French to replace Murray with Wilson. Wilson claimed to have heard Joffre, on a visit to GHQ (27 December), complain that it was "a pity" that Murray had not been removed.
Murray was sent off sick for a month (24 January 1915) and French demanded his resignation (25 January 1915), despite Murray insisting that he only needed to take a few days off. Wilson was widely suspected of having plotted for Murray's removal in the vain hope of replacing him, but the job went to Robertson. Although a sore throat prevented him seeing Murray off, French wrote to him (29 January) saying he hoped to see him back as an army commander before long. Haig wrote (diary 26 January) that "Murray was a kindly fellow but not a practical man in the field".
A staff officer, Brigadier General Philip Howell, wrote to his wife (27 February 1915) that Murray had been "incompetent, cantankerous, timid & quite useless". The Official Historian Edmonds later described him as "a complete nonentity". Richard Holmes described him as "an intelligent, cultivated man" who had not yet recovered from a stomach wound in South Africa.
Chief of the Imperial General Staff
He was made Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff on 10 February 1915 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George on 18 February 1915. As Deputy CIGS Murray's responsibility was training and organising the New Armies, a job requiring much travel.
Murray became Chief of the Imperial General Staff on 26 September 1915. He was promoted to permanent lieutenant general on 28 October 1915. After the war he wrote to Ian Hamilton, criticising Kitchener in harsh terms, writing that "He seldom told the absolute the truth and the whole truth" and that it was not until Kitchener left for his inspection of the Dardanelles that Murray was able to inform the Cabinet that volunteering had fallen far below the level needed to maintain a BEF of 70 divisions, requiring the introduction of conscription. The Cabinet insisted on proper General Staff papers being presented in Kitchener's absence. Murray wrote that "I have never in my forty years' service done better work than I did during the three months I was CIGS". Cabinet Secretary Maurice Hankey praised Murray highly as a real "St John the Baptist" to Sir William Robertson, his successor as CIGS.
However H. H. Asquith, the Prime Minister, sought changes in senior military positions. Haig, about to be appointed Commander-in-Chief of the BEF (3 December 1915), rejected Kitchener's suggestion that Murray be reappointed as Chief of Staff BEF (the job which Robertson was vacating to become CIGS). In his final days in office Murray issued a paper urging concentration of effort on the Western Front (16 December 1915) which was described by Robertson as the "Bible of the war". Murray was forced out as CIGS on 23 December 1915 and replaced by Robertson, a strong advocate of the single (Western) front strategy.
Murray's advice had been met with dismay from some Liberal members of the coalition Cabinet, who were unhappy at the realignment of Britain's war effort towards total war and a massive commitment of troops to the Western Front. Augustine Birrell (Chief Secretary for Ireland), along with Reginald McKenna (Chancellor of the Exchequer), Walter Runciman (President of the Board of Trade) and Sir Edward Grey (Foreign Secretary) had contemplated joining Sir John Simon (Home Secretary) in resigning in protest at the conscription of bachelors, due to be enacted in January 1916. Birrell wrote to the Prime Minister (29 December) that he and Runciman agreed that finance and "strategic policy as expounded in Murray's long, unconvincing and frightening paper" were more important than conscription.
Egyptian Command
1916
In January 1916, Murray was given command of the British Troops in Egypt and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Egypt was a base for the Salonika and Gallipoli Fronts. In January 1916 Murray was relieved of operational command of (though not logistical responsibility for) British troops at Salonika, which was given to the French General Sarrail. Initially General Maxwell still had command of Western Egypt (facing the Senussi Revolt) until he was sent to Ireland to suppress the Easter Rising.
Murray wrote to Robertson (18 March 1916) that the Australians were "from a physical point of view a magnificent body of men" but had "no idea of ordinary decency or self control".
Britain had 300,000 men in Egypt, many of them ANZACs or Gallipoli evacuees, supposedly to guard against a Turkish attack across the Sinai, which Robertson thought logistically unlikely. By July 1916, on Robertson's orders, Murray had shipped out 240,000 of them, including 9 infantry divisions, three independent infantry brigades and 9 heavy artillery batteries, most of them going to France, leaving him with four Territorial divisions and some mounted troops. 11,000 Indian troops were shipped out, and another division to Mesopotamia and an eleventh to France early in 1917, leaving him with three under-strength infantry divisions and the elements of two more, and two cavalry divisions.
Trying to prevent another Turkish attack against the Suez Canal, Murray reorganized his troops and led a counterattack, winning a victory at Romani in August 1916. He now had to advance over the Sinai Peninsula, which consisted of sand in the north, gravel and clay in the centre and mountains in the south. 400 miles of railway, 300 miles of metalled and wire-meshed roads and 300 miles of pipes had to be laid. Drinking water had to be pumped underneath the Suez Canal from the Sweet Water Canal in the Nile Delta, requiring the construction of filtration plants, reservoirs and pumping stations. The line on the frontier was 45 miles in width, half the width of the 80–90-mile front on the Canal. Murray captured El Arish in December and Rafa on the Palestine frontier in January 1917.
1917
Lloyd George wanted to make the destruction of Turkey a major British war aim, and two days after becoming Prime Minister told Robertson that he wanted a major victory, preferably the capture of Jerusalem, to impress British public opinion. Robertson thought the capture of Beersheba should suffice as more divisions were needed in France. However, Robertson was not entirely hostile to efforts in Palestine, telling Murray (31 January 1917) he wanted him to launch a Palestine Offensive in autumn and winter 1917, if the war was still going on then. The object was to sustain public morale and, with a compromise peace leaving Germany in control of the Balkans increasingly possible, to capture Aleppo. Aleppo was more easily reached from Palestine than from Mesopotamia, and her capture would make untenable Turkey's hold on both regions. At this stage Russia was still pinning down many Turkish troops, although the Admiralty were not enthused about suggestions that the Royal Navy make amphibious landings in Palestine. It was agreed to build up Murray's forces to 6 infantry divisions and 2 mounted divisions by the autumn, as well as 16 Imperial Camel Companies and possibly some Indian cavalry from France.
Murray was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 20 January 1917.
It was Murray who authorized T. E. Lawrence's expedition to join the Arab Revolt against the Turks in Arabia, providing monetary and limited military support for Lawrence's attack on Aqaba: initially skeptical of the Revolt's potential, Murray became an ardent supporter of it later in his tenure in Cairo, largely through Lawrence's persuasion. By early 1917 the Turks had also withdrawn from Persia and had pulled back from Medina, which was besieged by the Arabs.
Murray completed the defeat of the Senussi (taking Siwa in February 1917).
In March 1917 at the First Battle of Gaza a British force under Murray's command comprising 52nd (Lowland) Division reinforced by an infantry brigade from Eastern Force attacked Gaza. While the Imperial Mounted Division held off the Turkish reinforcements, the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division (Anzac Mounted Division) reinforced the infantry attack and together, they succeeded in entering Gaza from the north and capturing the adjoining hill of Ali Muntar. However the determination of the Turkish defenders and the threat from large Turkish reinforcements approaching from the north and north east ultimately led to decision to withdraw. The First Battle of Gaza had been described as "most successful" by understating British and exaggerating enemy casualties. This led to loss of political confidence in Murray.
At the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917 Murray assembled a larger force comprising the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 53rd (Welsh) Division, the 54th (East Anglian) Division and the recently formed 74th (Yeomanry) Division which was made up of brigades of dismounted yeomanry serving as infantry. However the six British tanks, the British heavy guns and naval gunfire from the French coastal defence ship and two British monitors ( and ) did little damage and only served to warn the Turks of the imminent British attack which faltered at all points. Again Murray decided to withdraw. The Second Battle of Gaza failed due to lack of artillery.
The Second Battle of Gaza coincided with the failure of the Nivelle Offensive, reports of unrest among Russian troops after the February Revolution and an escalation of the U-Boat War (it was thought that loss of shipping might make Egypt untenable) causing Robertson to prefer a return to a defensive policy in the Middle East, although this was not Lloyd George's view.
Despite laying the plans for the ultimate defeat of the Turks, Murray was relieved of command and replaced by Edmund Allenby on 29 June 1917. Murray was mentioned in despatches again on 3 November 1917.
After Egypt
Murray was reassigned, becoming General Officer Commanding-in-Chief for Aldershot Command in October 1917 and having been promoted to full general on 25 August 1919, remained in post until 15 November 1919. After retiring from the British Army on 15 November 1922, he was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the New Year Honours 1928.
He was also colonel of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers from 22 August 1911.
Murray died at his home "Makepeace" at Reigate in Surrey on 21 January 1945 and was buried in a family vault on the west side of Highgate Cemetery.
Family
In 1890 he married Caroline Helen Sweet; they had one son. Following the death of his first wife he married Mildred Georgina Dooner in 1912.
Culture references
Murray was unsympathetically portrayed by Donald Wolfit in the cinema film Lawrence of Arabia as a stereotypical blimpish British general, obsessed with artillery.
Mount Murray in the Canadian Rockies was named in his honor in 1918.
References
Bibliography
External links
Despatches of General Murray
General Murray's Despatch, 16 January to 31 May 1916
General Murray's Despatch, 1 June to 30 September 1916
General Murray's Despatch, 1 October 1916, to 28 February 1917
General Murray's Despatch, 1 March to 28 June 1917
Other
The British Army in Great War
His introduction to The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine
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1860 births
1945 deaths
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
27th Regiment of Foot officers
British Army generals of World War I
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
Chiefs of the Imperial General Staff
Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
People educated at Cheltenham College
Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers officers
People from Kingsclere
Military personnel from Hampshire
British Army generals |
4054442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20End%2C%20Boston | West End, Boston | The West End is a neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, bounded generally by Cambridge Street to the south, the Charles River to the west and northwest, North Washington Street on the north and northeast, and New Sudbury Street on the east. Beacon Hill is to the south, North Point is across the Charles River to the north, Kendall Square is across the Charles River to the west, and the North End is to the east. A late 1950s urban renewal project razed a large Italian and Jewish enclave and displaced over 20,000 people in order to redevelop much of the West End and part of the neighboring Downtown neighborhood. After that, the original West End became increasingly non-residential, including part of Government Center (formerly Scollay Square) as well as much of Massachusetts General Hospital and several high rise office buildings. More recently, however, new residential buildings and spaces, as well as new parks, have been appearing across the West End.
Geography
The West End occupies the northwest portion of the Shawmut Peninsula. Much of the land on which the neighborhood lies is the product of land reclamation. Beginning in 1807, parts of Beacon Hill were used to fill in a small bay and mill pond that separated Beacon Hill and the West End from the North End. Today the neighborhood consists primarily of superblocks containing high rise residential towers. The West End borders the Charles River between the Longfellow Bridge and the Charles River Dam Bridge. The Charlesbank Playground runs along the bank of the river, but is separated from the rest of the neighborhood by Storrow Drive, a large crosstown expressway.
Early days
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Boston's waterfront and North End were becoming overcrowded, and many of the city's well off residents took the opportunity to develop the area now known as the West End. At that time, the area was separated from the older neighborhoods by a small bay. The architect Charles Bulfinch was responsible for much of Boston's architectural character at the time, and played a large part in this new development of the West End.
Bulfinch spent much of his early career in the 1790s designing mansions, many of them in the West End and other Boston neighborhoods. One of the most famous examples of these was the first Harrison Gray Otis House. This historic building was the first of three that Bulfinch designed for the affluent lawyer Harrison Gray Otis, and is one of the few buildings that survived Urban Renewal in the West End. Other West End landmarks designed by Bulfinch were the Massachusetts General Hospital's domed granite building, built 1816–1825 (today known as the Bulfinch Pavilion), and the West End Market on the corner of Grove and Cambridge Streets. Constructed in 1810, this historic market did not survive the area's redevelopment in the 1950s. Bulfinch's architecture of newer large brick buildings with gardens attracted many of Boston's wealthier citizens. By 1810, the West End was inhabited by wealthy business men, merchants, and lawyers. Many would soon move to the nearby Beacon Hill, turning the West End into an African American community and stopping point for new immigrants.
Another early West End building is the Charles Street Jail (1851), designed by Gridley James Fox Bryant, which was renovated into the Liberty Hotel.
West End House
The West End House was originally founded in 1906 as a community center for young immigrant boys. The community center's founding was funded by Boston-area philanthropist and investment banker James J. Storrow. The West End House served as a center for social and community life in Boston's West End neighborhood for over 60 years, opening its doors to young immigrant boys from a myriad of different ethnic and national backgrounds. The urban renewal plans of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw the near complete upheaval of the original West End neighborhood, negatively affected the community center's membership since much of the neighborhood's immigrant population was subsequently displaced. In 1971, thanks in large part to the fundraising efforts of alumni of the original West End House, the West End House was relocated to Allston-Brighton and reimagined into a modernized co-ed center for youth development with a focus on the arts, academics, athletics, and leadership.
Ethnic history
African American history
In the early 19th century the West End, along with Beacon Hill's north slope, became an important center of Boston's African American community. The mostly affluent and white inhabitants of Beacon Hill's south slope were strongly supportive of abolitionism. This encouraged middle and working class free African Americans to move into the nearby North slope and West End. After the Civil War, the West End continued to be an important center of African American culture. It was one of the few locations in the United States at the time where African Americans had a political voice. At least one black resident from the West End sat on Boston's community council during every year between 1876 and 1895.
Immigration
From the second half of the 19th century to the mid-20th century, Boston's West End became a home to many different immigrant groups. The wealthy and middle class business men were almost entirely gone, but many African Americans remained in the neighborhood, making it one of Boston's most diverse. Among the many immigrant groups contributing to this melting pot were Armenians, Greeks, Irish, Lebanese, Italians, Jews, Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, Syrians, Ukrainians and many other Eastern Europeans and Southern Europeans. It was during this period that the neighborhood's population reached its peak at approximately 23,000 residents
As a result of this immigration, the religious make-up of the neighborhood changed dramatically. Protestant churches moved away or shut down, to be replaced by Catholic churches and synagogues. For example, the old West Church, built in 1806 closed in 1892 due to lack of congregation. It reopened two years later as a library to better serve the new community.
Irish
Irish immigrants were among the first to settle the West End. After briefly passing through the North End, many Irish families moved on to the West and South ends. The West End soon developed a thriving Irish community.
Later on, this community became associated with Martin Lomasney. Lomasney, also known as "the Mahatma", was the ward boss of Boston's Ward 8 located in the West End. He was well known for taking care of the community that had developed there, especially the Irish families.
Early in Lomasney's career, he established the Hendricks Club in the heart of the neighborhood. The Hendricks began as a social club and gathering place, but later turned into the center of Lomasney's political machine. It was from here that he began to provide social services, charity, and shelter for poor immigrants. In return, he was able to drum up votes and support from much of the neighborhood.
Jewish community
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Irish immigration had slowed and Eastern European Jews began to immigrate into the West End in large numbers. Many came to escape persecution in Lithuania, Russia, and Poland. They formed a community in the West End and became a significant part of the population by 1910. They made their home in the neighborhood, constructing health centers, libraries, labor unions, loan societies, orphanages, and synagogues. Actor Leonard Nimoy was raised in this community. The new Boston Synagogue, the 1919 Vilna Shul, and the African Meeting House which was the home of Anshi Lubuvicher from 1900 to 1972 are the only surviving West End synagogues. The Boston Synagogue is a newly merged congregation; the Vilna Shul at 16 Philips Street, which was outside the urban renewal demolition area, is now a synagogue museum, and the African American Meeting House is now a church museum. Over the Vilna Shul's ark is the double hand symbol for the Kohanim, the ancient Israelite priests, which was the source for the Star Trek Vulcan salute. The Vilna Shul also has pews salvaged from the former Twelfth Baptist Church on which once sat former African American slaves and volunteers in the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment popularized by the movie Glory. The Vilna was the last of the approximately seven West End synagogues to stay open, closing in 1985.
Urban destruction
By the 1950s, Boston's West End had turned into a working poor residential area with scattered businesses with small meandering roads much like the North End. According to most residents, the West End was a good place to live at this time. The once overcrowded neighborhood was in the process of "deslumming" and the population had dropped to around 7,500 residents. By the end of the 1950s, over half of the neighborhood would be completely leveled to be replaced with residential high rises as part of a large scale urban renewal project.
Political background
The large-scale renewal of the West End was first proposed in the 1930s by Nathan Strauss Jr., among others, shortly after the National Housing Act of 1934 was passed. The neighborhood was considered a slum by wealthy Bostonians who did not live there. The working class residents of the West End felt strong ties to the community and so the plan would not become politically feasible until the 1950s.
When the John B. Hynes administration came into power in 1949 city officials recognized that the federal government's Housing Act of 1949 presented the opportunity to remake parts of Boston. The Boston Housing Authority (BHA) held responsibility for developing Boston's urban renewal plans and was designated the city's local public authority for federal funds.
Implementation
As part of a plan to create a "New Boston", the Boston Housing Authority (BHA) and its 1957 successor, the Boston Redevelopment Authority, redeveloped neighborhoods throughout the 1950s and 1960s. The New York Streets section of the South End was redeveloped before the West End, and in the 1960s Scollay Square was leveled to create the Brutalist Government Center afterwards. The motivation behind these projects was to replace neighborhoods that had been classified as slums with neighborhoods that would bring in increased tax revenues. It is estimated that before the renewal project, the tax revenue from the West End was approximately $546,000 a year.
The redevelopment of the West End was officially announced on April 11, 1953. Mayor Hynes and the BHA stated that the project would be beneficial to the neighborhood. The West End's narrow streets were a fire hazard and many of the buildings were not up to code, with approximately 80% of them substandard or marginal. Tenants were assured that affordable housing would be found for them, and many were led to believe that they would be able to move back into the West End after the project was complete.
The plan involved completely leveling a portion of the West End, displacing 2,700 families to make way for 5 residential high rise complexes that would contain only 477 apartments. The new development was aimed towards upper middle class residents: most of those displaced would not be able to afford to return.
In October 1957, the BRA held a hearing on the new project. At least 200 West End residents attended and the consensus was overwhelmingly opposed to the plan. The Save the West End committee was formed with the support of Joseph Lee to organize protests against the new development. Most residents believed that the project would not be realized, and so did not act until it was too late.
Residents received their eviction letters on April 25, 1958. The BRA used the Housing Act of 1949 to raze the West End to the ground. Working-class families were displaced, and superblocks replaced the original street layout. The result was a neighborhood consisting of residential high rises, shopping centers and parking lots.
Controversy
The urban renewal of the West End has been attacked by critics for its destruction of a neighborhood and its careless implementation. One of the main criticisms of the project is that the neighborhood was not considered a slum by the residents, and instead had a strong sense of community. A later mayor of Boston, Ray Flynn, described the West End as "a typical neighborhood" and "not blighted." The perception of the neighborhood as a slum was mostly held by wealthy outsiders and was enhanced by city policy. For example, the city stopped collecting garbage and cleaning the streets, leaving the neighborhood a mess. A photographer for a local newspaper was even assigned to go to the West End, overturn a trashcan, and take a picture of it to create the impression of a blighted neighborhood.
Many building owners were not adequately compensated for their property. Due to city law, as soon as tenement buildings were condemned by the BRA, the city became the legal owner. This meant that building owners had no income as rent was paid directly to the city. Soon owners became desperate to sell their property at severely reduced prices.
The justification for razing the West End has also been called into question. Some say that, as one of the neighborhoods that supported the former mayor, it was in the political sights of the Hynes administration. The entire net cost of the project was $15.8 million, not including the additional loss of tax dollars for the years that the West End was vacant. It is uncertain as to whether the increased tax revenue would ever be enough to justify the costs.
The negative effect of urban renewal on the former residents of the West End has been well documented. Between one quarter and one half of the former residents were relocated to substandard housing with higher rents than they were previously paying. Approximately 40% also suffer from severe long term grief reactions. Many former residents share their memories and grief through the West Ender Newsletter, published with the tag line, "Printed in the Spirit of the Mid-Town Journal and Dedicated to Being the Collective Conscience of Urban Renewal and Eminent Domain in the City of Boston." The destruction of the West End community led to a strong distaste for urban renewal in Boston. In 2015, Boston Redevelopment Authority director Brian P. Golden officially apologized for the demolition of the neighborhood.
Present day
Today, the West End is a mixed-use commercial and residential area. A few non-residential areas were spared from the urban renewal of the 1950s, such as Massachusetts General Hospital, the Charles Street Jail, and the Bulfinch Triangle—a small section surrounded by Causeway, Merrimac, and North Washington Streets. Massachusetts General Hospital and the Charles Street Jail are located in the northwest section, while Government Center which was the former site of Scollay Square, comprises the southern section. Most of the northern section is covered by North Station and the TD Garden.
The character of the area prior to the urban renewal can still be seen in existing commercial and mixed use building of the Bulfinch Triangle. Here there are a few pubs and restaurants that feed off the traffic traveling to and from Faneuil Hall and the Garden. The residential areas that have been rebuilt are primarily upscale highrises, though the neighborhood is currently making strides to re-establish the close knit community that once was. The West End Museum currently has a permanent exhibition outlining the history of the neighborhood and its residents, while the West End Community Center hosts classes and events, in addition to putting on the annual West End Children's Festival.
42 Lomasney Way
One of the survivors of the West End's redevelopment phase is 42 Lomasney Way. Originally constructed in the 1870s, the building survived multiple redevelopment attempts, as well as two fires. Called "The Last Tenement" due to it being the only tenement structure still located in the West End, it also has been home to an associate of the Angiulo Brothers crime family.
Demographics
According to the city of Boston, the total population was 4,080 as of the 2010 United States Census. 75.2% of residents were white, 16.2% were Asian, and 8.4% were some other race. Housing in the West End was about 89.3% occupied.
Notable people
Jules Aarons (1921–2008), photographer "remembered for his poignant portraits of Boston's West End"
James George Barbadoes (1796-1841), abolitionist
Jennie Loitman Barron (1891–1969), suffragist, lawyer, and judge
Bernard Berenson (1865–1959), art historian
Lawrence Berk (1908–1995), founder of Berklee College of Music
Hyman Bloom (1913–2009), artist and key figure in the Boston Expressionist movement
Kirk Boott (1790–1837), industrialist
Buddy Clark (1912–1949), singer
John P. Coburn (1811–1873), abolitionist
Thomas Dalton (1794–1883), abolitionist
George W. Forbes (1864-1927), journalist, librarian
Eliza Ann Gardner (1831–1922), abolitionist and religious leader
Leonard Grimes (1815–1873), pastor, abolitionist
Alan L. Gropman (b. 1938), military officer and college professor
Primus Hall (1756–1842), civic leader
Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), abolitionist
John T. Hilton (1801–1864), abolitionist
Robert Dwyer Joyce (1830–1883), poet
Joseph E. Levine (1905–1987), film producer
Barzillai Lew (1743–1822), Revolutionary War soldier
Annie “Londonderry” Cohen Kopchovsky (1870–1947), first woman to ride around the world on a bicycle
Thomas Melvill (1751–1832), American patriot
William Cooper Nell (1816–1874), abolitionist
Leonard Nimoy (1931–2015), actor
John Boyle O'Reilly (1844–1890), poet
Harrison Gray Otis (1765–1848), politician
Thomas Paul (1773–1831), minister, abolitionist
Sumner Redstone (1923-2020), media magnate
Ruth Roman (1922–1999), actress
George Lewis Ruffin (1834–1886), the first African-American graduate of Harvard Law School and the first black judge in the United States
Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin (1842–1924) and her daughter Florida Ruffin Ridley (1861–1943), civil rights activists
John J. Smith (1820–1906), abolitionist
Isaac H. Snowden (1826–1869), physician, Liberian colonist
David Walker (1796–1830), abolitionist
Daniel A. Whelton (1872–1953), politician
See also
Bowdoin Square
Charles Street Jail
Leverett Street Jail (1822–1851)
Massachusetts General Hospital
Mission Hill, Boston
Nashua Street Park
National Theatre (1836–1863)
North Station
Old West Church
Revere House (1847–1912)
West End Museum
References
Further reading
Books
External links
Boston Pictorial Archive. Boston Public Library on Flickr. Images of West End, Boston.
The West End Community Center
Global Boston: The West End
Neighborhoods in Boston |
4054509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%E2%80%9380%20in%20English%20football | 1979–80 in English football | The 1979–80 season was the 100th season of competitive football in England.
Diary of the season
11 August 1979: League champions Liverpool defeat FA Cup holders Arsenal 3–1 at Wembley Stadium to win the Charity Shield.
18 August 1979: Arsenal move straight to the top of the First Division table with a 4–0 away win against newly promoted Brighton & Hove Albion on the first day of the League season. The first round of fixtures in the inaugural season of the Alliance Premier League, now the National League, takes place.
31 August 1979: The first month of the season ends with Norwich City, who have never even finished in the top five of the First Division, leading the League alongside 1978 champions Nottingham Forest, after both teams win their first three matches. Middlesbrough are one point behind the leaders. At the bottom, Tottenham Hotspur and Brighton & Hove Albion have yet to gain a point.
5 September 1979: Manchester City sign midfielder Steve Daley from Wolverhampton Wanderers for a national record fee of £1,437,500. In the League Cup second round, braces for Ian Bowyer and John Robertson contribute to Nottingham Forest firing six past Blackburn Rovers.
8 September 1979: The national transfer record fee is broken for the second time in four days when Wolverhampton Wanderers pay almost £1,500,000 for Aston Villa and Scotland striker Andy Gray.
30 September 1979: September ends with newly promoted Crystal Palace, unbeaten after eight games, topping the First Division on goal difference from Manchester United and Nottingham Forest. After losing twice this month, Liverpool occupy ninth place. Derby County, champions in 1972 and 1975, are bottom of the table, joined in the relegation zone by Stoke City and Tottenham Hotspur.
3 October 1979: Liverpool are knocked out of the European Cup 4–2 on aggregate by Dinamo Tbilisi.
13 October 1979: Kazimierz Deyna scores the only goal as Manchester City beat Nottingham Forest, knocking the Midlands club into second place, behind Manchester United. Crystal Palace's unbeaten start to the season ends with a 3–1 defeat to Everton at Goodison Park.
31 October 1979: Manchester United end October as First Division leaders, one point ahead of Nottingham Forest, with Liverpool, Norwich City, Crystal Palace, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Tottenham Hotspur a further two points adrift. Brighton & Hove Albion now occupy bottom place behind Derby County, while Bolton Wanderers have dropped into the relegation zone.
24 November 1979: Joe Jordan's brace helps Manchester United put five past Norwich without reply, struggling Ipswich Town turn over Southampton while Derby are the victors in the East Midlands derby, beating Forest 4–1.
30 November 1979: November ends with Manchester United still top of the First Division, one point ahead of Liverpool. Crystal Palace remain in contention, two points behind the leaders, and Middlesbrough have joined the chasing pack. Bolton Wanderers, Brighton & Hove Albion and Ipswich Town occupy the relegation zone.
26 December 1979: The Steel City derby in the Third Division sees Sheffield Wednesday beat Sheffield United 4–0, attracting a crowd of nearly 50,000.
31 December 1979: The decade ends with Liverpool narrowly ahead of Manchester United at the top of the First Division, having won the clash between the two on Boxing Day. Southampton and Arsenal lead the chasing group, but are eight points behind the leaders. Crystal Palace have fallen to ninth place. Bristol City have joined Derby County and Bolton Wanderers in the relegation zone.
5 January 1980: Fourth Division Halifax Town cause the upset of the FA Cup third round by beating Manchester City 1–0.
8 January 1980: Non-League Harlow Town beat Second Division promotion candidates Leicester City 1–0 in an FA Cup third round replay.
31 January 1980: Liverpool hold a two-point lead over Manchester United at the end of January. Arsenal are third, five points behind the leaders having played two games more.
29 February 1980: With the season approaching its final quarter, Manchester United have moved level on points at the top of the First Division with Liverpool, who have a game in hand. Unbeaten since the beginning of December, Ipswich Town have moved from third-bottom to third-top in less than three months, and are five points behind the leaders in third place. Arsenal and Southampton complete the top five. Bolton Wanderers remain bottom, with just one League win from their first 27 matches, and Derby County and Bristol City also remain in the relegation zone, with Everton occupying the last safe spot.
1 March 1980: Everton lose 2–1 at home to Liverpool in the First Division Merseyside derby, and during the game their legendary former striker Dixie Dean dies from a heart attack in the stands, aged 72. Manchester United's title hopes are dashed by a 6–0 thrashing at Ipswich Town.
8 March 1980: Second Division West Ham United beat Aston Villa 1–0 in the FA Cup sixth round. They are joined in the last four by Liverpool, Everton and holders Arsenal.
15 March 1980: Wolverhampton Wanderers beat Nottingham Forest, who have won the trophy in the last two seasons, 1–0 in the League Cup final thanks to a second-half goal from Andy Gray.
22 March 1980: United win the Manchester derby: Mickey Thomas scores the only goal of the game. Elsewhere in the top-flight, Derby and Bristol City share six, Liverpool beat Brighton and Nottingham Forest win at home to UEFA Cup hopefuls Southampton. The day's high scorers in the Football League are Third Division club Colchester United, who smash six past Brentford.
31 March 1980: Liverpool now have a four-point lead over Manchester United at the top of the First Division. Ipswich Town and Arsenal are the nearest challengers to the top two, and Southampton complete the top five. At the bottom of the table, Bolton Wanderers managed three League wins in March, but are still in bottom place, eight points adrift of safety. Derby County and Bristol City remain with them in the drop zone.
12 April 1980: Both FA Cup semi-finals - Arsenal versus Liverpool and Everton versus West Ham United - end in draws. Bolton Wanderers are relegated from the First Division.
16 April 1980: West Ham United beat Everton 2–1 at Elland Road to reach the FA Cup final. In the other semi-final replay, Arsenal and Liverpool draw again, 1–1.
23 April 1980: Nottingham Forest lose the second leg of their European Cup 1–0 to Ajax, but reach the final for the second year in succession with a 2–1 aggregate victory.
26 April 1980: Derby County, twice champions in the 1970s, are relegated from the First Division with one match remaining. Liverpool's goalless draw at Crystal Palace puts them on the verge of retaining the title.
28 April 1980: Arsenal and Liverpool require another replay after drawing 1–1 again in their FA Cup semi-final second replay at Villa Park.
29 April 1980: Bristol City lose 5–2 at Southampton to take the final First Division relegation spot.
30 April 1980: Liverpool are level on points with Manchester United at the end of April, with a superior goal difference and with two matches remaining to the Red Devils' one. Ipswich Town are third, five points behind.
1 May 1980: Arsenal finally reach the FA Cup final after beating Liverpool 1-0 in the FA Cup semi-final third replay at Highfield Road. Liverpool agree a fee of £300,000 for Chester striker Ian Rush, 18.
3 May 1980: Liverpool clinch the league title in their penultimate league game of the season by beating Aston Villa 4–1 at Anfield. The result is rendered academic by Manchester United's 2–0 defeat to Leeds United. Ipswich Town lose the unbeaten League run that they have maintained for over five months against Manchester City, but remain third. Leicester City beat Orient to clinch the Second Division title, and Birmingham City join them in promotion by drawing 3–3 with Notts County. In the Third Division, Kevin Drinkell fires three of Grimsby Town's four without reply at home to Sheffield United; a result that sees the Mariners crowned third-tier champions.
10 May 1980: Trevor Brooking scores the winning goal as Second Division West Ham United triumph 1–0 over holders Arsenal in the FA Cup final.
14 May 1980: Arsenal lose 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out to Valencia after a 0–0 draw in the European Cup Winners' Cup Final.
19 May 1980: More than two weeks after the planned final day of the season, the First Division fixtures are completed when Arsenal lose 5–0 to Middlesbrough. The result leaves Ipswich Town one point ahead of the Gunners in third place.
28 May 1980: Nottingham Forest retain the European Cup by beating Hamburg 1–0 in the final in Madrid. John Robertson scores the only goal in the first half.
13 June 1980: Clive Allen, 19, becomes the most expensive teenager in Europe when he joins Arsenal from Queens Park Rangers in a £1,250,000 deal.
National teams
12 September 1979: England move closer to the 1980 European Championship Finals with a 1–0 win at home to Denmark.
17 October 1979: England virtually guarantee their place in the summer's European Championship Finals by beating Northern Ireland 5–1 at Windsor Park.
22 November 1979: Glenn Hoddle scores on his debut for England in a 2–0 over Bulgaria in a European Championship qualifier.
13 May 1980: England beat world champions Argentina 3–1 in a friendly at Wembley with two goals from David Johnson and one from Kevin Keegan.
17 May 1980: England's run of six consecutive wins ends abruptly in a 4–1 defeat to Wales in the Home Championship.
24 May 1980: England beat Scotland 2–0 at Hampden Park but finish runners-up to Northern Ireland in the Home Championship.
12 June 1980: England's first match at the European Championship Finals for twelve years ends in a 1–1 draw against Belgium. The game is marred by hooliganism in the stands that is only calmed by the use of tear gas by the Italian police.
15 June 1980: England are eliminated from the European Championships after they lose 1–0 to hosts Italy through a late goal from Marco Tardelli.
18 June 1980: England win their final group match at the European Championships 2–1 against Spain, but finish in third place in the group.
UEFA competitions
Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest made up for disappointment in the League by retaining the European Cup and becoming the first team to have won more European Cups than league championships. Arsenal faced Valencia of Spain in the European Cup Winners' Cup final, days after their FA Cup final loss. It finished goalless after extra time, and Arsenal lost the penalty shoot-out after misses from Liam Brady and Graham Rix.
FA Cup
Second Division West Ham United, managed by John Lyall, won the FA Cup, beating Arsenal 1–0 with a Trevor Brooking goal. They are the last team to win the FA Cup from outside the top division.
League Cup
Wolverhampton Wanderers overcame the challenge of European champions Nottingham Forest to lift their second League Cup. The match finished 1–0 with a goal by Andy Gray following a mix-up between goalkeeper Peter Shilton and defender David Needham.
Football League
First Division
Bob Paisley's Liverpool retained their league championship trophy after fighting off a determined challenge by Dave Sexton's Manchester United. Nottingham Forest failed to make a serious title challenge but compensated for this by retaining the European Cup.
Bristol City and Bolton Wanderers were relegated after brief and uneventful spells in the First Division, but Derby County's relegation came just five years after they had been league champions.
Kevin Keegan, the current European Footballer of the Year, ended his three-year spell with Hamburg in Germany and returned to England in a shock £400,000 move to Southampton.
Much of the attention in the early part of the season focused on Manchester City where Malcolm Allison had dismantled the side selling international talents such as Asa Hartford and Peter Barnes and replacing them with unknowns and the uncapped Steve Daley for £1.5 million. City had a mediocre season including an FA Cup defeat by Fourth Division Halifax Town.
Second Division
Leicester City, Sunderland and Birmingham City ended their relatively short spells in the Second Division and occupied the division's three promotion places. Going down were Fulham, Burnley and Charlton Athletic.
Third Division
Grimsby Town, Blackburn Rovers and Sheffield Wednesday all achieved some long-awaited success by gaining promotion from the Third Division. Bury, Southend United, Mansfield Town and Wimbledon occupied the Third Division's relegation places.
Fourth Division
Huddersfield Town and Portsmouth finally achieved some success by gaining promotion from the Fourth Division. Newport County achieved their first promotion since 1939 and Walsall were also promoted. Rochdale finished bottom but survived re-election by one vote ahead of Altrincham.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Phil Boyer (Southampton) – 23 goals
Second Division
Clive Allen (Queens Park Rangers) – 28 goals
Third Division
Terry Curran (Sheffield Wednesday) – 22 goals
Fourth Division
Colin Garwood (Portsmouth and Aldershot) – 27 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Awards
Liverpool's Terry McDermott was voted PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year. PFA Young Player of the Year was Tottenham Hotspur's midfielder Glenn Hoddle.
Star managers
Bob Paisley yielded another league title triumph for Liverpool.
Brian Clough retained the European Cup for Nottingham Forest.
John Barnwell took Wolverhampton Wanderers to victory in the League Cup.
John Lyall won the FA Cup for Second Division West Ham United for the second time in five years.
Dave Sexton came close to ending Manchester United's long wait for a league title.
Jock Wallace achieved promotion to the First Division with Second Division champions Leicester City.
Jim Smith's success in the Second Division with promoted Birmingham City ensured that four of the five West Midlands clubs would be playing top-flight football apart from Walsall in 1980–81.
Bobby Robson took Ipswich Town into the UEFA Cup after they finished third in the league.
Terry Neill took Arsenal to the runners-up spot in both the European Cup Winners' Cup and the FA Cup.
Howard Kendall won promotion to the Second Division with Blackburn Rovers.
Len Ashurst clinched Newport County's first promotion for 41 years.
Famous debutants
18 August 1979: Tommy Caton, 16-year-old defender, makes his debut for First Division side Manchester City on the opening day of the season in a goalless home draw with newly promoted Crystal Palace, just weeks after leaving school.
15 September 1979: Gary Stevens, 17-year-old defender, makes his debut for First Division side Brighton and Hove Albion in a 2-0 win over Ipswich Town, at the Goldstone Ground
29 September 1979: Danny Thomas, 17-year-old defender, makes his debut as a substitute for First Division side Coventry City in a 1-1 draw with Tottenham Hotspur, at Highfield Road
12 March 1980: Kevin Ratcliffe, 19-year-old defender, makes his First Division debut for Everton in a 0-0 draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford.
22 March 1980: Paul Bracewell, 17-year-old midfielder, makes his First Division debut as a substitute for Stoke City in a 0-3 defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux.
7 April 1980: Paul Davis, 18-year-old midfielder, makes his First Division debut for Arsenal in a 2–1 win over local rivals Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane.
Deaths
20 August 1979 - Stan Fox, 73, played 136 league games at half-back and full-back for York City in the 1930s.
26 August 1979 – Sam Lawrie, 44, former Middlesbrough and Charlton Athletic winger.
11 September 1979 - Laurie Banfield, 89, played 259 league games for Bristol City between 1911 and 1925 as a left-back, his career disrupted by World War I.
c. 24 January 1980 – Terry Anderson, 35, former Norwich City winger who helped the club reach the First Division for the first time in 1972. He was found drowned on 31 January after going missing a week earlier.
1 March 1980 – Dixie Dean, 73, legendary Everton striker who scored 60 league goals in the 1927–28 season; died on 1 March after suffering a heart attack while watching Everton's game against Liverpool at Goodison Park.
4 March 1980 - Eric Kerfoot, 55, spent most of his professional career with Leeds United, played 349 games at left-half between 1949 and 1959.
24 April 1980 - Johnny McIlwaine, 75, played in defence and attack during the 1920s and 1930s, starting in his native Scotland with Falkirk before moving south of the border to Portsmouth in 1928, later having two spells with Southampton and a spell in Wales with Llanelli. He also served Southampton and Grimsby Town as assistant manager after retiring as a player.
References |
4054664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTLM | NTLM | In a Windows network, NT (New Technology) LAN Manager (NTLM) is a suite of Microsoft security protocols intended to provide authentication, integrity, and confidentiality to users. NTLM is the successor to the authentication protocol in Microsoft LAN Manager (LANMAN), an older Microsoft product. The NTLM protocol suite is implemented in a Security Support Provider, which combines the LAN Manager authentication protocol, NTLMv1, NTLMv2 and NTLM2 Session protocols in a single package. Whether these protocols are used or can be used on a system which is governed by Group Policy settings, for which different versions of Windows have different default settings.
NTLM passwords are considered weak because they can be brute-forced very easily with modern hardware.
Protocol
NTLM is a challenge–response authentication protocol which uses three messages to authenticate a client in a connection-oriented environment (connectionless is similar), and a fourth additional message if integrity is desired.
First, the client establishes a network path to the server and sends a NEGOTIATE_MESSAGE advertising its capabilities.
Next, the server responds with CHALLENGE_MESSAGE which is used to establish the identity of the client.
Finally, the client responds to the challenge with an AUTHENTICATE_MESSAGE.
The NTLM protocol uses one or both of two hashed password values, both of which are also stored on the server (or domain controller), and which through a lack of salting are password equivalent, meaning that if you grab the hash value from the server, you can authenticate without knowing the actual password. The two are the LM hash (a DES-based function applied to the first 14 characters of the password converted to the traditional 8-bit PC charset for the language), and the NT hash (MD4 of the little endian UTF-16 Unicode password). Both hash values are 16 bytes (128 bits) each.
The NTLM protocol also uses one of two one-way functions, depending on the NTLM version; NT LanMan and NTLM version 1 use the DES-based LanMan one-way function (LMOWF), while NTLMv2 uses the NT MD4 based one-way function (NTOWF).
NTLMv1
The server authenticates the client by sending an 8-byte random number, the challenge. The client performs an operation involving the challenge and a secret shared between client and server, specifically one of the two password hashes described above. The client returns the 24-byte result of the computation. In fact, in NTLMv1 the computations are usually made using both hashes and both 24-byte results are sent. The server verifies that the client has computed the correct result, and from this infers possession of the secret, and hence the authenticity of the client.
Both the hashes produce 16-byte quantities. Five bytes of zeros are appended to obtain 21 bytes. The 21 bytes are separated in three 7-byte (56-bit) quantities. Each of these 56-bit quantities is used as a key to DES encrypt the 64-bit challenge. The three encryptions of the challenge are reunited to form the 24-byte response. Both the response using the LM hash and the NT hash are returned as the response, but this is configurable.
C = 8-byte server challenge, random
K1 | K2 | K3 = NTLM-Hash | 5-bytes-0
response = DES(K1,C) | DES(K2,C) | DES(K3,C)
NTLMv2
NTLMv2, introduced in Windows NT 4.0 SP4 (and natively supported in Windows 2000), is a challenge-response authentication protocol. It is intended as a cryptographically strengthened replacement for NTLMv1, enhancing NTLM security by hardening the protocol against many spoofing attacks and adding the ability for a server to authenticate to the client.
NTLMv2 sends two responses to an 8-byte server challenge. Each response contains a 16-byte HMAC-MD5 hash of the server challenge, a fully/partially randomly generated client challenge, and an HMAC-MD5 hash of the user's password and other identifying information. The two responses differ in the format of the client challenge. The shorter response uses an 8-byte random value for this challenge. In order to verify the response, the server must receive as part of the response the client challenge. For this shorter response, the 8-byte client challenge appended to the 16-byte response makes a 24-byte package which is consistent with the 24-byte response format of the previous NTLMv1 protocol. In certain non-official documentation (e.g. DCE/RPC Over SMB, Leighton) this response is termed LMv2.
The second response sent by NTLMv2 uses a variable-length client challenge which includes (1) the current time in NT Time format, (2) an 8-byte random value (CC2 in the box below), (3) the domain name and (4) some standard format stuff. The response must include a copy of this client challenge, and is therefore variable length. In non-official documentation, this response is termed NTv2.
Both LMv2 and NTv2 hash the client and server challenge with the NT hash of the user's password and other identifying information. The exact formula is to begin with the NT hash, which is stored in the SAM or AD, and continue to hash in, using HMAC-MD5, the username and domain name. In the box below, X stands for the fixed contents of a formatting field.
SC = 8-byte server challenge, random
CC = 8-byte client challenge, random
CC* = (X, time, CC2, domain name)
v2-Hash = HMAC-MD5(NT-Hash, user name, domain name)
LMv2 = HMAC-MD5(v2-Hash, SC, CC)
NTv2 = HMAC-MD5(v2-Hash, SC, CC*)
response = LMv2 | CC | NTv2 | CC*
NTLM2 Session
The NTLM2 Session protocol is similar to MS-CHAPv2. It consists of authentication from NTLMv1 combined with session security from NTLMv2.
Briefly, the NTLMv1 algorithm is applied, except that an 8-byte client challenge is appended to the 8-byte server challenge and MD5-hashed. The least 8-byte half of the hash result is the challenge utilized in the NTLMv1 protocol. The client challenge is returned in one 24-byte slot of the response message, the 24-byte calculated response is returned in the other slot.
This is a strengthened form of NTLMv1 which maintains the ability to use existing Domain Controller infrastructure yet avoids a dictionary attack by a rogue server. For a fixed X, the server computes a table where location Y has value K such that Y=DES_K(X). Without the client participating in the choice of challenge, the server can send X, look up response Y in the table and get K. This attack can be made practical by using rainbow tables.
However, existing NTLMv1 infrastructure allows that the challenge/response pair is not verified by the server, but sent to a Domain Controller for verification. Using NTLM2 Session, this infrastructure continues to work if the server substitutes for the challenge the hash of the server and client challenges.
NTLMv1
Client<-Server: SC
Client->Server: H(P,SC)
Server->DomCntl: H(P,SC), SC
Server<-DomCntl: yes or no
NTLM2 Session
Client<-Server: SC
Client->Server: H(P,H'(SC,CC)), CC
Server->DomCntl: H(P,H'(SC,CC)), H'(SC,CC)
Server<-DomCntl: yes or no
Availability and use of NTLM
Since 2010, Microsoft no longer recommends NTLM in applications:
Implementers should be aware that NTLM does not support any recent cryptographic methods, such as AES or SHA-256. It uses cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) or MD5 for integrity, and RC4 for encryption.
Deriving a key from a password is as specified in RFC1320 and FIPS46-2. Therefore, applications are generally advised not to use NTLM.
Despite these recommendations, NTLM is still widely deployed on systems. A major reason is to maintain compatibility with older systems. However, it can be avoided in some circumstances.
Microsoft has added the NTLM hash to its implementation of the Kerberos protocol to improve interoperability (in particular, the RC4-HMAC encryption type). According to an independent researcher, this design decision allows Domain Controllers to be tricked into issuing an attacker with a Kerberos ticket if the NTLM hash is known.
Microsoft adopted Kerberos as the preferred authentication protocol for Windows 2000 and subsequent Active Directory domains. Kerberos is typically used when a server belongs to a Windows Server domain. Microsoft recommends developers neither to use Kerberos nor the NTLM Security Support Provider (SSP) directly.
Your application should not access the NTLM security package directly; instead, it should use the Negotiate security package. Negotiate allows your application to take advantage of more advanced security protocols if they are supported by the systems involved in the authentication. Currently, the Negotiate security package selects between Kerberos and NTLM. Negotiate selects Kerberos unless it cannot be used by one of the systems involved in the authentication.
Use of the NTLM Security Support Provider
The NTLM SSP is used in the following situations:
The client is authenticating to a server that doesn't belong to a domain or no Active Directory domain exists (commonly referred to as "workgroup" or "peer-to-peer")
The server must have the "password-protected sharing" feature enabled, which is not enabled by default and which is mutually exclusive with HomeGroup on some versions of Windows.
When server and client both belong to the same HomeGroup, a protocol similar to Kerberos, Public Key Cryptography based User to User Authentication will be used instead of NTLM. HomeGroup is probably the easiest way to share resources on a small network, requiring minimal setup, even compared to configuring a few additional users to be able to use password-protected sharing, which may mean it is used much more than password-protected sharing on small networks and home networks.
If the server is a device that supports SMB, such as NAS devices and network printers, the NTLM SSP may offer the only supported authentication method. Some implementations of SMB or older distributions of e.g. Samba may cause Windows to negotiate NTLMv1 or even LM for outbound authentication with the SMB server, allowing the device to work although it may be loaded with outdated, insecure software regardless of whether it were a new device.
If the server is a member of a domain but Kerberos cannot be used.
The client is authenticating to a server using an IP address (and no reverse name resolution is available)
The client is authenticating to a server that belongs to a different Active Directory forest that has a legacy NTLM trust instead of a transitive inter-forest trust
Where a firewall would otherwise restrict the ports required by Kerberos (typically TCP 88)
Use of protocol versions
After it has been decided either by the application developer or by the Negotiate SSP that the NTLM SSP be used for authentication, Group Policy dictates the ability to use each of the protocols that the NTLM SSP implements. There are five authentication levels.
Send LM & NTLM responses: Clients use LM and NTLM authentication, and never use NTLMv2 session security; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send LM & NTLM - use NTLMv2 session security if negotiated: Clients use LM and NTLM authentication, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send NTLM response only: Clients use NTLM authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send NTLMv2 response only: Clients use NTLMv2 authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send NTLMv2 response only\refuse LM: Clients use NTLMv2 authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs refuse LM (accept only NTLM and NTLMv2 authentication).
Send NTLMv2 response only\refuse LM & NTLM: Clients use NTLMv2 authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs refuse LM and NTLM (accept only NTLMv2 authentication).
DC would mean Domain Controller, but use of that term is confusing. Any computer acting as server and authenticating a user fulfills the role of DC in this context, for example a Windows computer with a local account such as Administrator when that account is used during a network logon.
Prior to Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 4, the SSP would negotiate NTLMv1 and fall back to LM if the other machine did not support it.
Starting with Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 4, the SSP would negotiate NTLMv2 Session whenever both client and server would support it. Up to and including Windows XP, this used either 40- or 56-bit encryption on non-U.S. computers, since the United States had severe restrictions on the export of encryption technology at the time. Starting with Windows XP SP3, 128-bit encryption could be added by installing an update and on Windows 7, 128-bit encryption would be the default.
In Windows Vista and above, LM has been disabled for inbound authentication. Windows NT-based operating systems up through and including Windows Server 2003 store two password hashes, the LAN Manager (LM) hash and the Windows NT hash. Starting in Windows Vista, the capability to store both is there, but one is turned off by default. This means that LM authentication no longer works if the computer running Windows Vista acts as the server. Prior versions of Windows (back as far as Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 4) could be configured to behave this way, but it was not the default.
Weakness and vulnerabilities
NTLM remains vulnerable to the pass the hash attack, which is a variant on the reflection attack which was addressed by Microsoft security update MS08-068. For example, Metasploit can be used in many cases to obtain credentials from one machine which can be used to gain control of another machine. The Squirtle toolkit can be used to leverage web site cross-site scripting attacks into attacks on nearby assets via NTLM.
In February 2010, Amplia Security discovered several flaws in the Windows implementation of the NTLM authentication mechanism which broke the security of the protocol allowing attackers to gain read/write access to files and remote code execution. One of the attacks presented included the ability to predict pseudo-random numbers and challenges/responses generated by the protocol. These flaws had been present in all versions of Windows for 17 years. The security advisory explaining these issues included fully working proof-of-concept exploits. All these flaws were fixed by MS10-012.
In 2012, it was demonstrated that every possible 8-character NTLM password hash permutation can be cracked in under 6 hours.
In 2019, this time was reduced to roughly 2.5 hours by using more modern hardware. Also, Rainbow tables are available for eight- and nine-character NTLM passwords. Shorter passwords can be recovered by brute force methods.
In 2019, EvilMog published a tool called the ntlmv1-multitool to format NTLMv1 challenge responses in a hashcat compatible cracking format. With hashcat and sufficient GPU power the NTLM hash can be derived using a known plaintext attack by cracking the DES keys with hashcat mode 14000 as demonstrated by atom on the hashcat forums.
Note that the password-equivalent hashes used in pass-the-hash attacks and password cracking must first be "stolen" (such as by compromising a system with permissions sufficient to access hashes). Also, these hashes are not the same as the NTLMSSP_AUTH "hash" transmitted over the network during a conventional NTLM authentication.
Compatibility with Linux
NTLM implementations for Linux include Cntlm and winbind (part of Samba) allow Linux applications to use NTLM proxies.
FreeBSD also supports storing passwords via Crypt (C) in the insecure NT-Hash form.
See also
LAN Manager
NTLMSSP
Integrated Windows Authentication
Kerberos
References
External links
Online NTLM hash crack using Rainbow tables
NT LAN Manager (NTLM) Authentication Protocol Specification
Cntlm – NTLM, NTLMSR, NTLMv2 Authentication Proxy and Accelerator Personal HTTP(S) and SOCKS5 proxy for NTLM-unaware applications (Windows/Linux/UNIX)
The NTLM Authentication Protocol and Security Support Provider A detailed analysis of the NTLM protocol.
MSDN article explaining the protocol and that it has been renamed
MSDN page on NTLM authentication
Libntlm – a free implementation.
NTLM Authorization Proxy Server software that allows users to authenticate via an MS Proxy Server.
Installing NTLM authentication – NTLM set-up instructions for Samba and Midgard on Linux
NTLM version 2 (NTLMv2) and the LMCompatibilityLevel setting that governs it
Jespa – Java Active Directory Integration Full NTLM security service provider with server-side NETLOGON validation (commercial but free up to 25 users)
EasySSO - NTML Authenticator for JIRA NTLM Authenticator utilising Jespa library to provide IWA for Atlassian products.
ntlmv2-auth NTLMv2 API and Servlet Filter for Java
A ntlm message generator tool
WAFFLE – Java/C# Windows Authentication Framework
objectif-securite (Rainbow tables for ophcrack)
Px for Windows - An HTTP proxy server to automatically authenticate through an NTLM proxy
Microsoft Windows security technology
Computer network security
Computer access control protocols |
4054754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379%20in%20English%20football | 1978–79 in English football | The 1978–79 season was the 99th season of competitive football in England.
Diary of the season
12 August 1978: League champions Nottingham Forest beat FA Cup holders Ipswich Town 5–0 in the Charity Shield at Wembley.
19 August 1978: The First Division season begins with newly promoted Tottenham Hotspur holding Nottingham Forest to a 1–1 draw at the City Ground – the visitors' goal scored by new Argentine signing Ricardo Villa.
31 August 1978: Liverpool, West Bromwich Albion and Everton are level on points at the top of the League at the end of August with three wins from three matches. Wolverhampton Wanderers are bottom after three consecutive defeats.
2 September 1978: Liverpool thrash Tottenham Hotspur 7–0 at Anfield to take their goal tally to sixteen in four League matches at the start of the season.
20 September 1978: England start their qualifying campaign for the 1980 European Championships with a narrow 4–3 victory over Denmark in Copenhagen.
27 September 1978: Nottingham Forest knock holders Liverpool out of the European Cup in the first round after completing a 2–0 aggregate success with a goalless draw at Anfield.
30 September 1978: Liverpool hold a two-point advantage at the top of the First Division from Merseyside rivals Everton, having dropped just one point from their first eight League games. Nottingham Forest are still unbeaten, but are five points off the pace having drawn six matches already. Birmingham City are bottom, still looking for their first win of the season.
21 October 1978: Liverpool continue their tremendous start to the season by beating Chelsea 2–0. The result puts them four points clear at the top of the table – they have taken 21 points from a possible 22, scoring 35 goals and conceding just four in eleven matches so far. West Bromwich Albion continue their good start to the season by thrashing Coventry City 7–1.
28 October 1978: Everton beat Liverpool for the first time for nearly seven years when Andy King scores the winning goal in a 1–0 victory at Goodison Park. The result cuts Liverpool's lead over the Toffeemen to two points. Like Everton, Nottingham Forest are still unbeaten, and are a further two points behind. At the bottom, Birmingham City remain without a win, and have just three points from twelve matches.
4 November 1978: Nottingham Forest and Everton draw 0–0 at the City Ground, leaving both teams still unbeaten in the League.
11 November 1978: Birmingham City record their first League win of the season at the fourteenth attempt, 5–1 at home to Manchester United.
29 November 1978: Viv Anderson, the 22-year-old Nottingham Forest defender, becomes England's first black full international when he appears in the 1–0 friendly win over Czechoslovakia at Wembley.
30 November 1978: At the end of November, Liverpool still hold a two-point lead over Everton, with West Bromwich Albion and Nottingham Forest a further four points adrift.
7 December 1978: Birmingham City sign 1978 World Cup-winning Argentinian player Alberto Tarantini for £295,000.
9 December 1978: Nottingham Forest lose in the League for the first time for 13 months, a run covering 42 matches, when they are beaten 2–0 by Liverpool at Anfield.
23 December 1978: Everton lose their first League match of the season, 3–2 to Coventry City, after a sequence of 19 unbeaten games. Arsenal beat Tottenham Hotspur 5–0 at White Hart Lane in the North London derby.
31 December 1978: At the end of the year, Liverpool lead Everton on goal difference at the top of the First Division, with a game in hand. West Bromwich Albion remain in contention, just two points off the top. Birmingham City are bottom with just eight points so far, and Chelsea and Wolverhampton Wanderers are also in the relegation zone.
7 January 1979: West Bromwich Albion pay a national record £516,000 for Middlesbrough defender David Mills.
10 January 1979: High-fliers Everton are beaten 2–1 by Second Division Sunderland in the FA Cup third round. Tottenham Hotspur are held to a 1–1 draw by non-league Altrincham.
22 January 1979: After four draws, the FA Cup third round tie between Arsenal and Third Division Sheffield Wednesday is finally resolved when the Gunners win the fourth replay 2–0.
31 January 1979: At the end of a month in which only twelve First Division matches were played, West Bromwich Albion and Everton have moved above Liverpool at the top of the table, although the Reds have played fewer games.
3 February 1979: Liverpool beat West Bromwich Albion 2–1 at Anfield to reclaim top spot in the First Division table as Everton suffer just their second League defeat of the season, 1–0 at relegation-threatened Wolverhampton Wanderers.
7 February 1979: England move to the top of their European Championship qualifying group with an emphatic 4–0 win over Northern Ireland at Wembley.
9 February 1979: Trevor Francis becomes Britain's first £1million footballer when he is transferred from Birmingham City to Nottingham Forest, doubling the British record fee set when West Bromwich Albion signed David Mills last month.
26 February 1979: Arsenal beat Nottingham Forest 1–0 at the City Ground in the FA Cup fifth round. Tottenham Hotspur, Liverpool, Manchester United and Ipswich Town are amongst the other First Division sides to progress.
28 February 1979: Liverpool at now five points clear of Arsenal and Everton at the top of the First Division, with two games in hand. Birmingham City are eight points from safety at the bottom, and are joined in the relegation zone by Chelsea and Queens Park Rangers.
3 March 1979: Chelsea débutant goalkeeper Petar Borota picks up a clean sheet against Liverpool, while Osvaldo Ardiles and David Mills score their first goals for their clubs: the Argentine internationalist bags a brace in Tottenham's 2–0 win over Derby County while Mills contributes to West Bromwich Albion's 3–1 win over Coventry City.
10 March 1979: Liverpool win 1–0 away to Ipswich Town to reach the FA Cup semi-finals. The two other ties played today end in 1–1 draws.
17 March 1979: Nottingham Forest retain the EFL Cup with a 3–2 win over Southampton in the final.
21 March 1979: Arsenal beat Southampton 2–0 in their FA Cup sixth round replay to join Liverpool, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Manchester United in the semi-finals.
31 March 1979: Arsenal beat Wolverhampton Wanderers 2–0 at Villa Park to reach the FA Cup final. In the other semi-final, Manchester United and Liverpool draw 2–2 at Maine Road. In the league, Liverpool hold a comfortable four-point lead over Everton at the top at the end of the month. Chelsea have slipped behind Birmingham City on goal difference at the bottom, and Queens Park Rangers remain in the relegation zone.
4 April 1979: Manchester United beat Liverpool 1–0 at Goodison Park in the FA Cup semi-final replay to reach the Final.
16 April 1979: Chelsea lose 5–2 away to Arsenal and are relegated to the Second Division.
21 April 1979: Birmingham City become the second team to be relegated from the First Division when they lose 2–0 at home to Nottingham Forest.
25 April 1979: Nottingham Forest reach the European Cup final at the first attempt when a 1–0 win away to West German side Cologne gives them a 4–3 aggregate victory.
28 April 1979: Liverpool move to the brink of regaining the First Division title after they draw 0–0 away to Nottingham Forest. They are seven points ahead of Forest and West Bromwich Albion.
4 May 1979: Queens Park Rangers take the last First Division relegation place when they are beaten 4–3 by Leeds United.
8 May 1979: Liverpool beat Aston Villa 3–0 at Anfield to clinch the First Division title. They finish unbeaten at home this season, and have scored 51 and conceded just four goals in 19 wins and two draws.
12 May 1979: Arsenal win the FA Cup to end an eight-year trophy drought, defeating Manchester United 3–2 in the final with a last-gasp goal by Alan Sunderland after United had scored two goals in the last five minutes.
18 May 1979: Nottingham Forest pip West Bromwich Albion to second place in the League by beating them 1–0 at The Hawthorns. Forest finish eight points behind champions Liverpool and one ahead of Albion, who are themselves eight points ahead of fourth-placed Everton.
26 May 1979: England beat Scotland 3–1 at Wembley to clinch the Home Championship.
30 May 1979: Nottingham Forest's remarkable run of glory continues when they beat Malmö of Sweden 1–0 in the European Cup final. Trevor Francis scores the only goal of the game.
1 June 1979: West Bromwich Albion sell winger Laurie Cunningham to Real Madrid of Spain for £995,000.
6 June 1979: England win 3–0 away to Bulgaria to move closer to next season's European Championship Finals.
National teams
British Home Championship
UEFA competitions
Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest added the European Cup to their League Cup victory with a 1–0 win over Malmö of Sweden in the final.
In UEFA Cup, West Bromwich Albion and Manchester City reached the quarter-finals. Arsenal were eliminated in the third round, and Everton in the second round.
FA Cup
Arsenal won the FA Cup after surviving a late fight-back from Manchester United in the final at Wembley. Manchester United scored twice in the last five minutes to make the score 2–2, but a last-minute goal from Alan Sunderland saw Arsenal claim the trophy with a 3–2 scoreline. It was their first trophy success since Terry Neill replaced Bertie Mee as manager.
League Cup
Nottingham Forest added the League Cup to their honours list, with a 3–2 victory over Southampton in the final.
Football League
First Division
Bob Paisley won his third league title as his Liverpool side fought off competition from Nottingham Forest and West Bromwich Albion to finish eight points clear at the top of the table. Their final points tally of 68 was a record under the two points for a win system, and Ray Clemence kept 28 clean sheets in a season that saw Liverpool concede only four goals at home. Also, Liverpool became one of the first English clubs to have a shirt sponsor when they agreed a sponsorship deal with the Japanese hi-fi manufacturers Hitachi.
Defending champions Nottingham Forest finished second, but their amazing success story under Brian Clough continued as they won the European Cup and also retained the EFL Cup. In February 1979, they made history by signing Trevor Francis from Birmingham City in British football's first million-pound transfer. West Bromwich Albion finished third in their first full season under the management of Ron Atkinson. Everton and Leeds United completed the top five.
Arsenal, who finished seventh, compensated for a failure to challenge for the league title by winning the FA Cup, where they beat Manchester United 3–2 in a dramatic final where they had surrendered a 2–0 lead in the final few minutes before Alan Sunderland scored a last-gasp winner. It marked the end of a disappointing second season in charge for Dave Sexton, whose United team could only manage a ninth-place finish in the league.
New manager Danny Blanchflower was unable to save Chelsea from relegation to the Second Division, and with financial problems still affecting the West London club, midfielder Ray Wilkins was sold to Manchester United for £750,000. Birmingham City fared little better, finishing only two points ahead of Chelsea. QPR, who had declined since the departure of Dave Sexton in 1977, were the final relegated side, just three years after finishing second in the league; they had been comfortably mid-table at the turn of the year, but a disastrous second half of the season sent them down.
With 23 draws from 42 matches, Norwich City set a record that stands to this day for highest percentage of draws in an English Football League season.
Second Division
Crystal Palace continued to excel under Terry Venables and finished the season as Second Division champions, with their promising young side being dubbed "the team of the eighties" by the sporting press, who expected them to challenge for honours at the highest level in the coming decade. Brighton and Stoke City were also promoted, while Sunderland missed out by a single point.
Blackburn Rovers, Millwall and Sheffield United went down to the Third Division.
Third Division
Graham Turner kicked off his managerial career by delivering the Third Division title to Shrewsbury Town, who reached the Second Division for the first time in their history. The other two promotion spots were occupied by newly promoted Watford and Swansea City, who within a few seasons would make their mark on the First Division.
Lincoln City, Tranmere Rovers, Walsall and Peterborough United all went down to the Fourth Division.
Fourth Division
Reading, Grimsby Town, Wimbledon and Barnsley occupied the Fourth Division promotion places. The success came for Wimbledon in only their second season as a league club and within a decade they would be an established First Division club. Wigan Athletic enjoyed a strong debut in the Football League by finishing sixth.
The re-election system voted in favour of the league's bottom four clubs and there was no relegation from the Fourth Division this season.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Frank Worthington (Bolton Wanderers) – 24 goals
Second Division
Pop Robson (West Ham United) – 24 goals
Third Division
Ross Jenkins (Watford) – 29 goals
Fourth Division
John Dungworth (Aldershot) – 26 goals
Non-league football
The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:
Star players
Liam Brady was credited for his part in Arsenal's FA Cup triumph with the PFA Players' Player of the Year.
Cyrille Regis played a major part in West Bromwich Albion's best league season for years and received the PFA Young Player of the Year award in recognition of his excellence.
Kenny Dalglish was voted FWA Footballer of the Year for helping Liverpool win the First Division.
Star managers
Bob Paisley brought league championship glory to Liverpool.
Brian Clough guided Nottingham Forest to a double triumph of the European Cup and League Cup.
Terry Neill won his first major trophy as Arsenal manager in shape of the FA Cup.
Ron Atkinson led West Bromwich Albion to third place in the League, just two places and nine points away from the top spot.
Gordon Lee took Everton into the UEFA Cup after steering them to fourth place in the league.
Terry Venables took Crystal Palace into the First Division as Second Division champions.
Graham Turner took Shrewsbury Town into the Second Division for the first time by winning the Third Division title.
Graham Taylor won his second promotion with Watford to bring them within one division of the top flight.
John Toshack completed back-to-back promotions with Swansea City to take them into the Second Division.
Famous debutants
1 January 1979 – Gary Lineker, English striker, makes his English league debut for Leicester City aged 18 in a 2–0 win over Oldham Athletic in a Second Division game at Filbert Street
28 April 1979 – Ian Rush, 17-year-old Welsh striker, makes his debut playing out of position (in midfield) for Chester in their 2–2 Third Division draw with Sheffield Wednesday at Sealand Road. On the same day, Clive Allen, 17-year-old striker, scores a hat-trick on his debut for Queens Park Rangers in the 5–1 First Division win over Coventry City.
30 April 1979 – Kevin Moran, Irish defender, makes his English league debut for Manchester United the day after his 23rd birthday in a 1–1 draw with Southampton in a First Division game at The Dell.
5 May 1979 – Mark Hateley, English striker, makes his English league debut for Coventry City aged 17 in a 3–0 win over Wolves in a First Division game at Highfield Road.
Deaths
13 July 1978 – George Reader, 81, scored in his only appearance for Exeter City in their last season before joining the Football League in 1920, and then signed for Southampton, playing three league matches before dropping into non-League football to concentrate on his career as a school teacher before becoming a linesman in 1936 and being promoted to a referee in 1939. He refereed the decisive final group match of the 1950 World Cup between Uruguay and Brazil.
23 July 1978 – Tommy McLaren, 29, former Port Vale midfielder; committed suicide.
15 August 1978 – Dan Tremelling, 80, kept goal in 382 league games for Birmingham City between 1919 and 1932, then playing a further 57 league games for Bury before retiring in 1936. He won one England cap in 1927.
18 September 1978 – Bobby Finch, 30, who died of meningitis, played six league games for QPR in the late 1960s before moving to South Africa.
13 October 1978 – Bill Yates, 75, kept goal six times in the league for Bolton Wanderers and 47 times for Watford during the interwar years.
23 October 1978 – Vic Woodley, 68, kept goal in 252 league games for Chelsea during the 1930s, signing for Derby County in 1946 and completed his senior career with a further 30 league games for the East Midlanders. He was England's regular goalkeeper in the immediate pre-war era, being capped 19 times from 1937 to 1939.
November 1978 – Hugh Neil, 42, former Carlisle United defender; died in a car accident.
8 November 1978 – Geoff Marlow, 63, was a left-winger for Lincoln City between 1937 and 1949, with the war restricting him to just 80 league appearances for the Sincil Bank side, scoring 26 goals.
14 November 1978 – Charlie Flood, 82, scored 68 league goals as a forward during the 1920s for Hull City, Bolton Wanderers, Nottingham Forest, York City and Swindon Town.
18 December 1978 – Cuthbert Coundon, 73, played 39 league games as a right-winger for Southampton and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the 1920s.
24 December 1978 – Stan Seymour, 83, served Newcastle United as a player, manager, vice-chairman and life president from 1920 until his death. He played in their FA Cup winning side of 1924 and league title winning side of 1927, and managed them to FA Cup glory in 1951 and 1952. As a player, he could play as a winger or striker, and managed 73 goals in 242 league games between 1920 and 1929.
20 January 1979 – Johnny Paul, 74, Scottish born winger, played 206 league games and scored 49 goals for Bristol City from 1922 until a knee injury ended his career in 1930.
21 March 1979 – Leslie Allman, 76, made his 15 Football League appearances as a goalkeeper for Norwich City in the late 1920s, spending the rest of his career at non-league level.
13 April 1979 – Fred Worrall, 68, was capped twice by England as a right-winger in the 1930s and was an FA Cup runner-up in 1934 and a winner in 1939 with Portsmouth.
31 May 1979 – Ernest Perry, 87, was with Port Vale as a centre-half when they joined the Football League during 1919–20 on taking over the fixtures of Leeds City, playing 44 league games for the Valiants, later playing 62 times in the league for Crewe Alexandra.
17 June 1979 – Sir Hubert Ashton, 81, was a full-back during the interwar years for West Bromwich Albion, Corinthian, Bristol Rovers and Orient. He was more famous as a cricketer and after retiring for sport he entered politics, serving Chelmsford in Essex as a Conservative MP from 1950 to 1964. He was knighted in 1959.
References |
4055057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377%20in%20English%20football | 1976–77 in English football | The 1976–77 season was the 97th season of competitive football in England. This year The Football League revamped the tie-breaking criteria for teams level on points, replacing the traditional goal average tiebreaker with one based on goal difference to try to encourage more scoring. Coloured red and yellow cards were introduced for the first time in domestic English football.
Diary of the season
21 August 1976: The First Division season opens with a surprise 1–0 win for promoted Bristol City over Arsenal at Highbury. Champions Liverpool beat Norwich City 1–0, but last year's runners-up Queens Park Rangers lose 4–0 at home to Everton.
31 August 1976: No fewer than nine teams are level on four points at the top of the First Division after three matches. Aston Villa lead on goal difference. Norwich City are the only team yet to register a point.
22 September 1976: West Bromwich Albion winger Willie Johnston is sent off, reportedly for "aiming a kick" at the referee, as his side are eliminated from the League Cup by Brighton & Hove Albion.
30 September 1976: Liverpool lead the First Division at the end of September, level on points with Middlesbrough. The two Manchester clubs are a point behind.
9 October 1976: Surprise package Middlesbrough move to the top of the First Division table following a 1–0 win at home to Norwich City.
13 October 1976: England beat Finland 2–1 at Wembley in their second World Cup qualifier.
16 October 1976: The 1975 champions Derby County belatedly record their first League win of the season when they thrash Tottenham Hotspur 8–2 at the Baseball Ground. Newly promoted West Bromwich Albion beat Manchester United 4–0.
18 October 1976: Sunderland manager Bob Stokoe stuns the world of football by handing in his resignation, saying that he believes a new manager will give the club a better chance of First Division survival. Despite a poor start which has seen the club marooned at the bottom of the table with no wins, Stokoe was still incredibly popular among the Roker Park faithful, due to his role in the club's victory in the 1973 FA Cup final.
31 October 1976: Liverpool are the First Division leaders at the end of October, three points ahead of a chasing group that comprises Manchester City, Ipswich Town, Newcastle United, Leicester City and Middlesbrough. West Ham United are bottom, and Sunderland and Bristol City make up the bottom three.
6 November 1976: Ipswich Town move up to second in the First Division with a 7–0 thrashing of West Bromwich Albion. Tottenham Hotspur suffer another heavy defeat, 5–3 at struggling West Ham United.
17 November 1976: With a team featuring six changes from their previous match, England suffer a major set-back in their attempt to reach the World Cup Finals when they are beaten 2–0 by Italy in Rome.
25 November 1976: Barely 18 months after winning the First Division title, Derby County manager Dave Mackay resigns following a poor start to the season, which has left the club just a single point off the bottom of the table. Reserve team coach Colin Murphy takes over as caretaker manager of the club, who are rumoured to be looking to reappoint former manager Brian Clough.
30 November 1976: Liverpool retain a three-point lead from Ipswich Town and Newcastle United at the end of November. Tottenham Hotspur have joined West Ham United and Sunderland in the relegation zone.
2 December 1976: After over a month without a permanent manager, Sunderland announce former Burnley manager Jimmy Adamson as Bob Stokoe's successor.
4 December 1976: Malcolm Macdonald scores a hat-trick for Arsenal in their 5–3 League win over his old team Newcastle United.
15 December 1976: Aston Villa beat Liverpool 5–1 in the League at Villa Park.
31 December 1976: At the end of the year, Liverpool's lead at the top of the First Division has been cut to two points over Ipswich Town, who have three games in hand, and Manchester City. Sunderland, West Ham United and Tottenham Hotspur continue to occupy the relegation zone.
8 January 1977: Tottenham Hotspur are beaten 1–0 by Second Division Cardiff City in the FA Cup third round. Northern Premier League side Northwich Victoria beat Watford 3–2.
10 January 1977: Everton sack manager Billy Bingham. The club had looked like possible title challengers early in the season, but a poor run of form has dropped them to the lower reaches of the table.
30 January 1977: Newcastle United manager Gordon Lee is appointed as Everton's new manager. Lee's assistant at Newcastle, Richard Dinnis takes over as acting manager of the Tyneside club.
31 January 1977: Liverpool still lead the First Division, but Ipswich Town are now just a point behind, and still have three games in hand. Manchester City are a further two points adrift.
2 February 1977: The Newcastle United squad, led by captain Geoff Nulty, threaten to strike unless Richard Dinnis is appointed as the club's permanent manager, with frictions exacerbated by the board signing Ralph Callachan without consulting either Dinnis or the other players. Later that day however, the board agree to the players' demands and appoint Dinnis as manager.
9 February 1977: England lose at home for the first time for four years when they are beaten 2–0 by Holland at Wembley.
15 February 1977: Ipswich Town move to the top of the First Division with a 5–0 thrashing of Norwich City in the East Anglia derby.
26 February 1977: Middlesbrough dump Arsenal out of the FA Cup with a 4–1 win at Ayresome Park in the fifth round. Manchester City lose 1–0 to Leeds United, and Manchester United draw 2–2 against Southampton in a repeat of last year's final.
28 February 1977: Two successive defeats for Ipswich Town have allowed Liverpool to regain top spot in the race for the title. At the bottom, Tottenham Hotspur now prop up the table, and are joined by Sunderland and Bristol City in the relegation zone.
5 March 1977: In a spectacular change in form, Sunderland beat West Ham United 6–0 at Roker Park. It is their third consecutive victory in a run in which they have scored sixteen goals.
8 March 1977: Holders Southampton are knocked out of the FA Cup 2–1 by Manchester United in their fifth round replay.
12 March 1977: The League Cup final ends in a 0–0 draw between Aston Villa and Everton at Wembley. Arsenal's 2–1 loss to Queens Park Rangers is their seventh consecutive League defeat, a club record.
16 March 1977: The Football League Cup final replay at Hillsborough ends in a 1–1 draw.
19 March 1977: First Division heavyweights Everton, Leeds United, Liverpool and Manchester United all win their FA Cup sixth round ties to reach the last four.
20 March 1977: Peter Houseman, who helped Chelsea win the FA Cup in 1970 and the European Cup Winners' Cup a year later, dies in a car crash at the age of 31. His wife is among the four people who die in the crash, which occurred near Oxford.
31 March 1977: With ten matches left, Ipswich Town have joined Liverpool at the top of the First Division table. Manchester City are three points behind with a game in hand, and Newcastle United are still in contention, a further point adrift. At the bottom, West Ham United, Sunderland, Derby County and Bristol City are separated by a single point.
9 April 1977: Liverpool beat Manchester City 2–1 in a crunch League match at Anfield. Ipswich Town continue their challenge by winning 1–0 at Norwich City.
13 April 1977: The Football League Cup final is decided at the third attempt when Aston Villa beat Everton 3–2 in the second replay at Old Trafford. A last minute goal from Brian Little sends the trophy to Villa Park and prevents the game from going to a third replay.
23 April 1977: Everton and Liverpool draw 2–2 in the FA Cup semi-final at Maine Road, with referee Clive Thomas disallowing a late goal from Everton's Bryan Hamilton. At Hillsborough, Manchester United beat Leeds United 2–1 to reach the final for the second consecutive year.
27 April 1977: Liverpool beat Everton 3–0 in the semi-final replay to reach the FA Cup final.
30 April 1977: Liverpool effectively end Ipswich Town's title challenge by beating them 2–1 at Anfield. Manchester City crash to a 4–0 defeat at relegation-threatened Derby County and are now two points behind the Reds having played a game more. Meanwhile, half the clubs in the division remain in danger of relegation: Bristol City are bottom, but just five points separate the ten teams immediately above them, with Tottenham Hotspur in most danger, having played more games than their rivals.
7 May 1977: Tottenham Hotspur's first relegation since 1935 is virtually guaranteed after the Londoners are thrashed 5–0 at Manchester City.
14 May 1977: Liverpool are confirmed champions of the First Division for the second season running and for the tenth time in total following a 0–0 draw with West Ham United. Manchester City finish second. Tottenham Hotspur's relegation is confirmed, but in an extraordinarily close finish to the season, six other clubs are still fighting to avoid the other two relegation spots.
16 May 1977: Stoke City lose 1–0 to Aston Villa and are relegated. West Ham United and Queens Park Rangers win their last matches of the season to survive, and Bristol City keep their hopes alive by beating Liverpool 2–1. They go into their last match level on points with Coventry City and Sunderland.
19 May 1977: Coventry City and Bristol City draw 2–2 at Highfield Road and both survive in the First Division as Sunderland lose 2–0 at Everton to take the final relegation slot.
21 May 1977: Liverpool's treble bid ends when they lose 2–1 to Manchester United in the FA Cup final. It is United's first major trophy since they won the European Cup nine years ago.
24 May 1977: The First Division fixture schedule is completed when Everton beat Newcastle United. Just five points separate the bottom ten clubs in one of the closest finishes in the history of the League.
25 May 1977: Liverpool win the European Cup for the first time, defeating Borussia Mönchengladbach of West Germany 3-1 Stadio Olimpico in Rome.
28 May 1977: Wimbledon, champions of the Southern League, are elected to the Fourth Division at the expense of Workington, who drop into the Northern Premier League.
31 May 1977: England lose to Wales at Wembley for the first time when Leighton James scores the only goal from the penalty spot in a Home Championship fixture.
4 June 1977: Scotland beat England 2–1 at Wembley to clinch the Home Championship, but their victory is overshadowed by a pitch invasion by celebrating supporters.
15 June 1977: After previous draws against Brazil and Argentina, England end their South American summer tour with a 0–0 draw against Uruguay.
1 July 1977: Liverpool sell striker Kevin Keegan to Hamburger SV for a European record fee of £500,000.
4 July 1977: Just six weeks after managing Manchester United to FA Cup glory, Tommy Docherty is sacked by the United board soon after admitting to having an affair with Mary Brown, the wife of club physiotherapist Laurie Brown.
11 July 1977: Don Revie announces his resignation as England manager after three years.
14 July 1977: Dave Sexton is announced as the new Manchester United manager.
National teams
UEFA Competitions
Liverpool won the European Cup for the first time, beating Borussia Mönchengladbach 3–1 in the final in Rome.
FA Cup
Tommy Docherty guided Manchester United to a 2–1 win over Liverpool in the FA Cup final, but was sacked within weeks after announcing his affair with the wife of the club's physiotherapist.
A new competition, the Debenhams Cup, was introduced to reward the two teams from outside the top two divisions to progress furthest in the FA Cup. Chester beat Port Vale in the final but the competition was to last for only two seasons.
League Cup
Ron Saunders took Aston Villa to their second League Cup victory in three seasons as the Midlanders continued to re-establish themselves as a top club.
Football League
First Division
Liverpool retained their league championship trophy after a season long neck and neck battle with Ipswich Town and Manchester City that came down to the final game, City edging out Ipswich for second place.
Ipswich finished third, Aston Villa finished fourth and won their second League Cup in three seasons, while Newcastle United completed the top five. Manchester United finished sixth but beat Liverpool 2–1 to win the FA Cup final and prevent their opponents from becoming the first English team to win a treble of trophies in the same season.
Queens Park Rangers dropped to 14th place a year after almost winning the title, while 1975 champions Derby County finished 15th, with manager Dave Mackay being sacked before Christmas and replaced by 26-year-old coach Colin Murphy, one of the youngest managers ever to take charge of a Football League side.
Tottenham Hotspur and Stoke City's long spells in the First Division came to an end with relegation. Stoke sacked their manager Tony Waddington. On the last day of the season, with three teams hoping to avoid the last relegation place, Coventry City and Bristol City played out a controversial 2–2 draw. The kick-off had been delayed for fifteen minutes by Coventry chairman Jimmy Hill due to "crowd congestion". With ten minutes still to play, and the sides level, play virtually stopped when it was announced over the public address system that Sunderland had lost to Everton. Both clubs survived while Sunderland was relegated.
Second Division
Wolves sealed an instant return to the First Division as champions of the Second Division. They were joined by Chelsea, back in the First Division after two seasons away, and by Brian Clough's ambitious Nottingham Forest side. Bolton Wanderers and Blackpool stayed down by a single point.
Hereford United, Plymouth Argyle and Carlisle United were relegated to the Third Division. Hereford became the first club to finish bottom of the Second Division after winning the Third Division the previous season.
Third Division
Mansfield Town won the Third Division title to seal a second promotion in three seasons. Alan Mullery guided Brighton to promotion. The last promotion place was sealed by Crystal Palace, where Terry Venables was enjoying a dream start to his managerial career. Rotherham United stayed down on goal difference, while Wrexham missed out by a single point.
Sheffield Wednesday progressed to an eighth-place finish after almost slipping into the Fourth Division a year earlier, while Lincoln City finished ninth. Manager Graham Taylor was subject of interest by a number of First and Second Division clubs, but ended up leaving Sincil Bank to drop into the Fourth Division and take over at Watford, who had just been taken over by Elton John.
York City, Northampton Town and Reading fell into the Fourth Division along with Grimsby Town who entered administration.
Fourth Division
Cambridge United won the Fourth Division title under the management of Ron Atkinson, lifting them into the Third Division. Also promoted were Exeter City, Colchester United and Bradford City. Swansea City missed out on promotion by a single point.
A terrible season for Workington resulted in them having to apply for re-election to the Football League for the fourth season in succession, and this caused their fellow clubs to finally run out of patience and vote to end their membership of the League, a humiliation which saw them slip into the Northern Premier League. In their place were Southern League champions Wimbledon, who would make amazing progress over the next decade.
The British pop star Elton John took over Fourth Division side Watford and installed Graham Taylor as manager at the end of the season. Former Arsenal manager Bertie Mee came out of retirement to work at Watford as Taylor's assistant. John immediately asserted his ambition by promising to bring First Division football to Watford.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Andy Gray (Aston Villa), Malcolm Macdonald (Arsenal) – 25 goals
Second Division
Mickey Walsh (Blackpool) – 26 goals
Third Division
Peter Ward (Brighton & Hove Albion) – 32 goals
Fourth Division
Brian Joicey (Barnsley) – 25 goals
Non-league football
Star players
Aston Villa's exciting young striker Andy Gray finished the season with a League Cup winners medal as well as being voted PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year.
Liverpool captain Emlyn Hughes added the FWA Footballer of the Year award to his league championship and European Cup winners medals.
Manchester United's FA Cup winners included promising young players Steve Coppell and Arthur Albiston.
Fulham's Football League Second Division team starred ex Manchester United player George Best alongside ex Queens Park Rangers player Rodney Marsh
Star managers
Bob Paisley retained Liverpool's league title and guided them to their first European Cup triumph.
Tommy Docherty ended Manchester United's 14-year wait for the FA Cup and delivered their first trophy of the post-Matt Busby era.
Ron Saunders delivered another League Cup victory for Aston Villa.
Brian Clough guided Nottingham Forest to promotion to the First Division.
Deaths
22 October 1976 – Willie Hamilton, 38, former Scottish international forward who had played for Sheffield United, Middlesbrough and Aston Villa as well as several Scottish clubs. Died in Canada as a result of a heart attack.
20 March 1977 – Peter Houseman, 31, Oxford United midfielder who had previously played for Chelsea when they won the F.A Cup in 1970 and the Cup Winners Cup a year later. Houseman died in a car crash near Oxford. His wife also died in the crash.
18 May 1977 - Tony Aveyard, 21, Scarborough winger, died in hospital after collapsing as a result of a head injury in a Northern Premier League fixture two days earlier.
References |
4055812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo%20nickel | Buffalo nickel | The Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel is a copper-nickel five-cent piece that was struck by the United States Mint from 1913 to 1938. It was designed by sculptor James Earle Fraser.
As part of a drive to beautify the coinage, five denominations of US coins had received new designs between 1907 and 1909. In 1911, Taft administration officials decided to replace Charles E. Barber's Liberty Head design for the nickel, and commissioned Fraser to do the work. They were impressed by Fraser's designs showing a Native American and an American bison. The designs were approved in 1912, but were delayed several months because of objections from the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, which made mechanisms to detect slugs in nickel-operated machines. The company was not satisfied by changes made in the coin by Fraser, and in February 1913, Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh decided to issue the coins despite the objections.
Despite attempts by the Mint to adjust the design, the coins proved to strike indistinctly, and to be subject to wear—the dates were easily worn away in circulation. In 1938, after the expiration of the minimum 25-year period during which the design could not be replaced without congressional authorization, it was replaced by the Jefferson nickel, designed by Felix Schlag. Fraser's design is admired today, and has been used on commemorative coins and the gold American Buffalo series.
Background
In 1883, the Liberty Head nickel was issued, featuring designs by Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber. After the first coins were circulated, the design was modified to add the word "CENTS" to the reverse because the similarity in size with the half eagle allowed criminals to gild the new nickels and pass them as five-dollar coins. An Act of Congress, passed into law on September 26, 1890, required that coin designs not be changed until they had been in use 25 years, unless Congress authorized the change. The act excepted the current five-cent piece and silver dollar from the twenty-five-year rule and made them eligible for immediate redesign. However, the Mint continued to strike the Liberty Head nickel in large numbers through the first decade of the 20th century.
In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of American coins, and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to redesign all of them. Constrained by the 1890 act, the Mint hired Saint-Gaudens to redesign only the cent and the four gold pieces. Saint-Gaudens designed the eagle and double eagle, which entered circulation in the year of his death, 1907; the cent, quarter eagle, and half eagle were designed by other artists and released into circulation by 1909. By that time, the Liberty Head nickel had been in circulation for more than 25 years and was eligible for redesign. In 1909, Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels. Most of these coins featured the first president, George Washington. The press found out about the pieces, and speculated that they would be in circulation by the end of the year. The Mint received orders from banks in anticipation of the "Washington nickel". However, the project was discontinued when Leach left office, on November 1, 1909, to be replaced by Abram Andrew.
Andrew was dissatisfied with the Lincoln cent, which was new, and considered seeking congressional authorization to replace it with a design by sculptor James Earle Fraser. Although the change in the cent did not occur, according to numismatic historian Roger Burdette, "Fraser's enthusiasm eventually led to adoption of the Buffalo nickel in December 1912."
Inception
New design
On May 4, 1911, Eames MacVeagh, son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh, wrote to his father:
Soon after the MacVeagh letter, Andrew announced that the Mint would be soliciting new designs for the nickel. Fraser, who had been an assistant to Saint-Gaudens, approached the Mint and rapidly produced concepts and designs. The new Mint director, George Roberts, who had replaced Andrew, initially favored a design featuring assassinated President Abraham Lincoln, but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other. Andrew and Roberts recommended Fraser to MacVeagh, and in July 1911 the Secretary approved hiring Fraser to design a new nickel. Official approval was slow in coming; it was not until January 1912 that MacVeagh asked Roberts to inform Fraser that he had been commissioned. MacVeagh wrote, "Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo." Roberts transmitted the news, then followed up with a long list of instructions to the sculptor, in which he noted, "The motto, 'In God We Trust', is not required upon this coin and I presume we are agreed that nothing should be upon it that is not required." Fraser completed the models by June 1912, and prepared coin-size electrotypes. He brought the models and electrotypes to Washington on July 10, where they met with the enthusiastic agreement of Secretary MacVeagh.
Hobbs affair
In July 1912, word of the new design became publicly known, and coin-operated machine manufacturers sought information. Replying to the inquiries, MacVeagh wrote that there would be no change in the diameter, thickness, or weight of the nickel. This satisfied most firms. However, Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, of Worcester, Massachusetts requested further information. According to Hobbs, his firm was the manufacturer of a device which would detect counterfeit nickels inserted into vending machines with complete accuracy. Discussions continued for most of the rest of 1912, with Hobbs demanding various changes to the design, to which the artist was reluctant to agree. When in December 1912, the Hobbs Company submitted a modified design for the nickel, MacVeagh strongly opposed it. On December 18, Roberts officially approved Fraser's design, and the sculptor was authorized to complete and perfect the design, after which he would be paid $2,500 (US$ with inflation) for his work.
On January 7, 1913, Fraser's approved design was used to strike experimental pieces; the sculptor later wrote that he remembered several of the workmen commenting that the new piece struck more easily than the old. Afterwards, Roberts asked Fraser if the Hobbs Company was content with the design. The sculptor told the Mint director that the firm wanted changes made, and Fraser agreed to meet with them further. Over the following two weeks, Fraser worked with George Reith, the Hobbs Company's mechanic who had invented the anti-slug device, in an attempt to satisfy the firm's concerns. On January 20, Fraser wired the Mint from his studio in New York, announcing that he was submitting a modified design, and explained that the delay was "caused by working with inventor until he was satisfied". The next day, Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis sent Roberts a sample striking of the revised design, stating, "the only change is in the border, which has been made round and true".
Despite the apparent agreement, the Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections. Engraver Barber was asked for his view; he stated that Reith, who had attended the trial striking, had been given all the time and facilities he had asked for in testing the new pieces, and the mechanic had pronounced himself satisfied. Hobbs Company agent C. U. Carpenter suggested that Reith had been intimidated by the preparations that had already gone into the issue of the modified nickel, "and, instead of pointing out clearly just what the situation demanded, agreed to adapt our device to the coin more readily that he was warranted in doing". On February 3, Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin, and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs and Reith. On the fifth, following the conference, which ended with no agreement, Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten-page letter, complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close. MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14. When the Hobbs Company requested permission to bring a lawyer, Fraser announced he would be doing the same. The Hobbs Company sought letters of support from the business community, with little success; Fraser's efforts to secure support from artists for his position were more fruitful. Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made. MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing, and issued a letter the following day.
The Secretary noted that no other firm had complained, that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold, and that the changes demanded—a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Indian's cheekbone—would affect the artistic merit of the piece.
After he issued his decision, MacVeagh learned that the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Company, which Hobbs claimed had enthusiastically received his device, was actually removing it from service as unsatisfactory. The Secretary's decision did not end the Hobbs Company efforts, as the firm appealed to President Taft. With only two weeks remaining in his term, the President was not minded to stop the new nickel (production of which had started on February 18) and MacVeagh wrote to Taft's secretary, Charles D. Hilles, "Certainly Hobbs got all the time and attention out of this administration that any administration could afford to give to one manufacturing corporation." Numismatic historian and coin dealer Q. David Bowers describes the Hobbs matter as "much ado about nothing from a company whose devices did not work well even with the Liberty Head nickels".
Release and production
The first coins to be distributed were given out on February 22, 1913, when Taft presided at groundbreaking ceremonies for the National American Indian Memorial at Fort Wadsworth, Staten Island, New York. The memorial, a project of department store magnate Rodman Wanamaker, was never built, and today the site is occupied by an abutment for the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. Forty nickels were sent by the Mint for the ceremony; most were distributed to the Native American chiefs who participated. Payment for Fraser's work was approved on March 3, 1913, the final full day of the Taft administration. In addition to the $2,500 agreed upon, Fraser received $666.15 (US$ with inflation) for extra work and expenses through February 14.
The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4, 1913, and quickly gained positive comments as depicting truly American themes. However, The New York Times stated in an editorial that "The new 'nickel' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ...[it] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny, and will be an abomination when old and dull." The Numismatist, in March and May 1913 editorials, gave the new coin a lukewarm review, suggesting that the Indian's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse.
With the coin now in production, Barber monitored the rate at which dies were expended, as it was the responsibility of his Engraver's Department to supply all three mints with working dies. On March 11, 1913, he wrote to Landis that the dies were being used up three times faster than with the Liberty Head nickel. His department was straining to produce enough new dies to meet production. In addition, the date and denomination were the points on the coin most subject to wear, and Landis feared the value on the coin would be worn away. Barber made proposed revisions, which Fraser approved after being sent samples. These changes enlarged the legend "FIVE CENTS" and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground. According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives, the changes to what are known as Type II nickels (with the originals Type I) actually decreased the die life. The new Treasury Secretary, William G. McAdoo, wanted further changes in the coin, but Fraser had moved on to other projects and was uninterested in revisiting the nickel. The thickness of the numerals in the date was gradually increased, making them more durable; however the problem was never addressed with complete success, and even many later-date Buffalo nickels have the date worn away.
The Buffalo nickel saw minor changes to the design in 1916. The word "LIBERTY" was given more emphasis and moved slightly; however many Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s exhibit weak striking of the word, the Denver issue of 1926 especially; Bowers questions whether any change was made to the portrait of the Indian, though Walter Breen in his reference work on United States coins states that Barber made the Indian's nose slightly longer. According to Breen, however, none of these modifications helped, with the coin rarely found well-struck and with the design subject to considerable wear throughout the remainder of its run. The bison's horn and tail also posed striking problems, again with the Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s in general, and 1926-D in particular, showing the greatest propensity for these deficiencies.
The piece was struck by the tens of millions, at all three mints (Philadelphia, Denver and San Francisco), through the remainder of the 1910s. In 1921, a recession began, and no nickels at all were struck the following year. The low mintage for the series was the 1926-S, at 970,000 — the only date-mint combination with a mintage of less than 1 million. The second lowest mintage for the series came with the 1931 nickel struck at the San Francisco Mint. The 1931-S was minted in a quantity of 194,000 early in the year. There was no need for more to be struck, but Acting Mint Director Mary Margaret O'Reilly asked the San Francisco Mint to strike more so that the pieces would not be hoarded. Using materials on hand, including the melting down of worn-out nickels, San Francisco found enough metal to strike 1,000,000 more pieces. Large quantities were saved in the hope they would become valuable, and the coin is not particularly rare today despite the low mintage.
A well-known variety in the series is the 1937–D "three-legged" nickel, on which one of the buffalo's legs is missing. Breen relates that this variety was caused by a pressman, Mr. Young, at the Denver Mint, who in seeking to remove marks from a reverse die (caused by the dies making contact with each other), accidentally removed or greatly weakened one of the animal's legs. By the time Mint inspectors discovered and condemned the die, thousands of pieces had been struck and mixed with other coins.
Another variety is the 1938-D/S, caused by dies bearing an "S" mintmark being repunched with a "D" and used to strike coins at Denver. While the actual course of events is uncertain, Bowers is convinced that the variety was created because Buffalo nickel dies intended for the San Francisco mint were repunched with the "D" and sent to Denver so they would not be wasted—no San Francisco Buffalo nickels were struck in 1938, but they were produced at Denver, and it was already known that a new design would be introduced. The 1938-D/S was the first repunched mintmark of any US coin to be discovered, causing great excitement among numismatists when the variety came to light in 1962.
When the Buffalo nickel had been in circulation for the minimum 25 years, it was replaced with little discussion or protest. The problems of die life and weak striking had never been solved, and Mint officials advocated its replacement. In January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design, to feature early President Thomas Jefferson on the obverse, and Jefferson's home, Monticello on the reverse. In April, Felix Schlag was announced as the winner. The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938, at the Denver Mint, the only mint to strike them that year. On October 3, 1938, production of the Jefferson nickel began, and they were released into circulation on November 15.
Design, models, and name controversy
In a 1947 radio interview, Fraser discussed his design:
The visage of the Indian which dominates Fraser's obverse design was a composite of several Native Americans. Breen noted (before the advent of the Sacagawea dollar) that Fraser's design was the second and last US coin design to feature a realistic portrait of an Indian, after Bela Pratt's 1908 design for the half eagle and quarter eagle.
The identity of the Indians whom Fraser used as models is somewhat uncertain, as Fraser told various and not always consistent stories during the forty years he lived after designing the nickel. In December 1913, he wrote to Mint Director Roberts that "[b]efore the nickel was made I had done several portraits of Indians, among them Iron Tail, Two Moons, and one or two others, and probably got characteristics from those men in the head on the coins, but my purpose was not to make a portrait but a type."
By 1931, Two Guns White Calf, son of the last Blackfoot tribal chief, was capitalizing off his claim to be the model for the coin. To try to put an end to the claim, Fraser wrote that he had used three Indians for the piece, including "Iron Tail, the best Indian head I can remember. The other one was Two Moons, the other I cannot recall." In 1938, Fraser stated that the three Indians had been "Iron Tail, a Sioux, Big Tree, a Kiowa, and Two Moons, a Cheyenne". Despite the sculptor's efforts, he (and the Mint) continued to receive inquiries about the identity of the Indian model until his 1953 death.
Nevertheless, John Big Tree, a Seneca, claimed to be a model for Fraser's coin, and made many public appearances as the "nickel Indian" until his 1967 death at the age of 90 (though he sometimes alleged he was over 100 years of age). Big Tree was identified as the model for the nickel in wire service reports about his death, and he had appeared in that capacity at the Texas Numismatic Association convention in 1966. After Big Tree's death, the Mint stated that he most likely was not one of the models for the nickel. There have been other claimants: in 1964, Montana Senator Mike Mansfield wrote to Mint Director Eva B. Adams, enquiring if Sam Resurrection, a Choctaw was a model for the nickel. Adams wrote in reply, "According to our records, the portrait is a composite. There have been many claimants for this honor, all of whom are undoubtedly sincere in the belief that theirs is the one that adorns the nickel."
According to Fraser, the animal that appears on the reverse is the American bison Black Diamond. In an interview published in the New York Herald on January 27, 1913, Fraser was quoted as saying that the animal, which he did not name, was a "typical and shaggy specimen" which he found at the Bronx Zoo. Fraser later wrote that the model "was not a plains buffalo, but none other than Black Diamond, the contrariest animal in the Bronx Zoo. I stood for hours ... He refused point blank to permit me to get side views of him, and stubbornly showed his front face most of the time." However, Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo, but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo until he was sold and slaughtered in 1915. Black Diamond's mounted head is still extant and has been exhibited at coin conventions. The placement of Black Diamond's horns differs considerably from that of the animal on the nickel, leading to doubts that Black Diamond was Fraser's model. One candidate cited by Bowers is Bronx, a bison who was for many years the herd leader of the bison at the Bronx Zoo.
During an "oral history" interview with the sculptor Beniamino Bufano recorded in 1965, he stated that he "made" and "designed the buffalo" for the coin, when he was Fraser's apprentice.
From its inception, the coin was referred to as the "Buffalo nickel", reflecting the American colloquialism for the North American bison. As the piece is 75% copper and 25% nickel, prominent numismatist Stuart Mosher objected to the nomenclature in the 1940s, writing that he was "uncertain why it is called a 'Buffalo nickel' although the name is preferable to 'Bison copper'". The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation, Coin World, calls it an Indian head nickel, while R.S. Yeoman's Red Book refers to it as an "Indian Head or Buffalo type".
In 2001, the design was adopted for use on a commemorative silver dollar. Photographer Mitchell Simon, inspired by an encounter with a buffalo, launched a post card campaign. Colorado Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell in 2001 successfully sponsored a bill for the minting of 500,000 commemorative silver dollars reproducing Fraser's design. The entire mintage sold out in the span of just weeks and raised 5 million dollars to help in the building of The Smithsonian Museum of The American Indian in Washington, D.C.
In 2006, the Mint began striking American Buffalo gold bullion pieces, using a modification of Fraser's Type I design.
See also
United States nickel mintage figures
The Nickel Trophy, an oversized Indian Head nickel awarded to winners of the annual football game between the North Dakota State Bison and the University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux
Hobo nickel, artistically carved nickels created during the Great Depression
Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar, designed in 1926 by James Earle Fraser and his wife Laura Gardin Fraser
References
Bibliography
Other sources
Further reading
Van Ryzin, Robert R. "Which Indian Really Modeled?" Numismatic News February 6, 1990
Van Ryzin, Robert R. Fascinating Facts, Mysteries & Myths About U.S. Coins, Krause Publications
External links
NGC Coin Encyclopedia for Buffalo Nickels
Currencies introduced in 1913
Five-cent coins of the United States
Native Americans on coins
Bison
Bison on coins
Works by James Earle Fraser (sculptor) |
4055928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure%20%28mathematical%20logic%29 | Structure (mathematical logic) | In universal algebra and in model theory, a structure consists of a set along with a collection of finitary operations and relations that are defined on it.
Universal algebra studies structures that generalize the algebraic structures such as groups, rings, fields and vector spaces. The term universal algebra is used for structures of first-order theories with no relation symbols. Model theory has a different scope that encompasses more arbitrary first-order theories, including foundational structures such as models of set theory.
From the model-theoretic point of view, structures are the objects used to define the semantics of first-order logic, cf. also Tarski's theory of truth or Tarskian semantics.
For a given theory in model theory, a structure is called a model if it satisfies the defining axioms of that theory, although it is sometimes disambiguated as a semantic model when one discusses the notion in the more general setting of mathematical models. Logicians sometimes refer to structures as "interpretations", whereas the term "interpretation" generally has a different (although related) meaning in model theory, see interpretation (model theory).
In database theory, structures with no functions are studied as models for relational databases, in the form of relational models.
History
In the context of mathematical logic, the term "model" was first applied in 1940 by the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine, in a reference to mathematician Richard Dedekind (1831 – 1916), a pioneer in the development of set theory. Since the 19th century, one main method for proving the consistency of a set of axioms has been to provide a model for it.
Definition
Formally, a structure can be defined as a triple consisting of a domain a signature and an interpretation function that indicates how the signature is to be interpreted on the domain. To indicate that a structure has a particular signature one can refer to it as a -structure.
Domain
The domain of a structure is an arbitrary set; it is also called the of the structure, its (especially in universal algebra), its (especially in model theory, cf. universe), or its . In classical first-order logic, the definition of a structure prohibits the empty domain.
Sometimes the notation or is used for the domain of but often no notational distinction is made between a structure and its domain (that is, the same symbol refers both to the structure and its domain.)
Signature
The signature of a structure consists of:
a set of function symbols and relation symbols, along with
a function that ascribes to each symbol a natural number
The natural number of a symbol is called the arity of because it is the arity of the interpretation of
Since the signatures that arise in algebra often contain only function symbols, a signature with no relation symbols is called an algebraic signature. A structure with such a signature is also called an algebra; this should not be confused with the notion of an algebra over a field.
Interpretation function
The interpretation function of assigns functions and relations to the symbols of the signature. Each function symbol of arity is assigned an -ary function on the domain. Each relation symbol of arity is assigned an -ary relation on the domain. A nullary (-ary) function symbol is called a constant symbol, because its interpretation can be identified with a constant element of the domain.
When a structure (and hence an interpretation function) is given by context, no notational distinction is made between a symbol and its interpretation For example, if is a binary function symbol of one simply writes rather than
Examples
The standard signature for fields consists of two binary function symbols and where additional symbols can be derived, such as a unary function symbol (uniquely determined by ) and the two constant symbols and (uniquely determined by and respectively).
Thus a structure (algebra) for this signature consists of a set of elements together with two binary functions, that can be enhanced with a unary function, and two distinguished elements; but there is no requirement that it satisfy any of the field axioms. The rational numbers the real numbers and the complex numbers like any other field, can be regarded as -structures in an obvious way:
In all three cases we have the standard signature given by
with and
The interpretation function is:
is addition of rational numbers,
is multiplication of rational numbers,
is the function that takes each rational number to and
is the number and
is the number
and and are similarly defined.
But the ring of integers, which is not a field, is also a -structure in the same way. In fact, there is no requirement that of the field axioms hold in a -structure.
A signature for ordered fields needs an additional binary relation such as or and therefore structures for such a signature are not algebras, even though they are of course algebraic structures in the usual, loose sense of the word.
The ordinary signature for set theory includes a single binary relation A structure for this signature consists of a set of elements and an interpretation of the relation as a binary relation on these elements.
Induced substructures and closed subsets
is called an (induced) substructure of if
and have the same signature
the domain of is contained in the domain of and
the interpretations of all function and relation symbols agree on
The usual notation for this relation is
A subset of the domain of a structure is called closed if it is closed under the functions of that is, if the following condition is satisfied: for every natural number every -ary function symbol (in the signature of ) and all elements the result of applying to the -tuple is again an element of
For every subset there is a smallest closed subset of that contains It is called the closed subset generated by or the hull of and denoted by or . The operator is a finitary closure operator on the set of subsets of .
If and is a closed subset, then is an induced substructure of where assigns to every symbol of σ the restriction to of its interpretation in Conversely, the domain of an induced substructure is a closed subset.
The closed subsets (or induced substructures) of a structure form a lattice. The meet of two subsets is their intersection. The join of two subsets is the closed subset generated by their union. Universal algebra studies the lattice of substructures of a structure in detail.
Examples
Let be again the standard signature for fields. When regarded as -structures in the natural way, the rational numbers form a substructure of the real numbers, and the real numbers form a substructure of the complex numbers. The rational numbers are the smallest substructure of the real (or complex) numbers that also satisfies the field axioms.
The set of integers gives an even smaller substructure of the real numbers which is not a field. Indeed, the integers are the substructure of the real numbers generated by the empty set, using this signature. The notion in abstract algebra that corresponds to a substructure of a field, in this signature, is that of a subring, rather than that of a subfield.
The most obvious way to define a graph is a structure with a signature consisting of a single binary relation symbol The vertices of the graph form the domain of the structure, and for two vertices and means that and are connected by an edge. In this encoding, the notion of induced substructure is more restrictive than the notion of subgraph. For example, let be a graph consisting of two vertices connected by an edge, and let be the graph consisting of the same vertices but no edges. is a subgraph of but not an induced substructure. The notion in graph theory that corresponds to induced substructures is that of induced subgraphs.
Homomorphisms and embeddings
Homomorphisms
Given two structures and of the same signature σ, a (σ-)homomorphism from to is a map that preserves the functions and relations. More precisely:
For every n-ary function symbol f of σ and any elements , the following equation holds:
.
For every n-ary relation symbol R of σ and any elements , the following implication holds:
where , is the interpretation of the relation symbol of the object theory in the structure , respectively.
A homomorphism h from to is typically denoted as , although technically the function h is between the domains , of the two structures , .
For every signature σ there is a concrete category σ-Hom which has σ-structures as objects and σ-homomorphisms as morphisms.
A homomorphism is sometimes called strong if:
For every n-ary relation symbol R of the object theory and any elements such that , there are such that and
The strong homomorphisms give rise to a subcategory of the category σ-Hom that was defiend above.
Embeddings
A (σ-)homomorphism is called a (σ-)embedding if it is one-to-one and
for every n-ary relation symbol R of σ and any elements , the following equivalence holds:
(where as before , refers to the interpretation of the relation symbol R of the object theory σ in the structure , respectively).
Thus an embedding is the same thing as a strong homomorphism which is one-to-one.
The category σ-Emb of σ-structures and σ-embeddings is a concrete subcategory of σ-Hom.
Induced substructures correspond to subobjects in σ-Emb. If σ has only function symbols, σ-Emb is the subcategory of monomorphisms of σ-Hom. In this case induced substructures also correspond to subobjects in σ-Hom.
Example
As seen above, in the standard encoding of graphs as structures the induced substructures are precisely the induced subgraphs. However, a homomorphism between graphs is the same thing as a homomorphism between the two structures coding the graph. In the example of the previous section, even though the subgraph H of G is not induced, the identity map id: H → G is a homomorphism. This map is in fact a monomorphism in the category σ-Hom, and therefore H is a subobject of G which is not an induced substructure.
Homomorphism problem
The following problem is known as the homomorphism problem:
Given two finite structures and of a finite relational signature, find a homomorphism or show that no such homomorphism exists.
Every constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) has a translation into the homomorphism problem. Therefore, the complexity of CSP can be studied using the methods of finite model theory.
Another application is in database theory, where a relational model of a database is essentially the same thing as a relational structure. It turns out that a conjunctive query on a database can be described by another structure in the same signature as the database model. A homomorphism from the relational model to the structure representing the query is the same thing as a solution to the query. This shows that the conjunctive query problem is also equivalent to the homomorphism problem.
Structures and first-order logic
Structures are sometimes referred to as "first-order structures". This is misleading, as nothing in their definition ties them to any specific logic, and in fact they are suitable as semantic objects both for very restricted fragments of first-order logic such as that used in universal algebra, and for second-order logic. In connection with first-order logic and model theory, structures are often called models, even when the question "models of what?" has no obvious answer.
Satisfaction relation
Each first-order structure has a satisfaction relation defined for all formulas in the language consisting of the language of together with a constant symbol for each element of which is interpreted as that element.
This relation is defined inductively using Tarski's T-schema.
A structure is said to be a model of a theory if the language of is the same as the language of and every sentence in is satisfied by Thus, for example, a "ring" is a structure for the language of rings that satisfies each of the ring axioms, and a model of ZFC set theory is a structure in the language of set theory that satisfies each of the ZFC axioms.
Definable relations
An -ary relation on the universe (i.e. domain) of the structure is said to be definable (or explicitly definable cf. Beth definability, or -definable, or definable with parameters from cf. below) if there is a formula such that
In other words, is definable if and only if there is a formula such that
is correct.
An important special case is the definability of specific elements. An element of is definable in if and only if there is a formula such that
Definability with parameters
A relation is said to be definable with parameters (or -definable) if there is a formula with parameters from such that is definable using Every element of a structure is definable using the element itself as a parameter.
Some authors use definable to mean definable without parameters, while other authors mean definable with parameters. Broadly speaking, the convention that definable means definable without parameters is more common amongst set theorists, while the opposite convention is more common amongst model theorists.
Implicit definability
Recall from above that an -ary relation on the universe of is explicitly definable if there is a formula such that
Here the formula used to define a relation must be over the signature of and so may not mention itself, since is not in the signature of If there is a formula in the extended language containing the language of and a new symbol and the relation is the only relation on such that then is said to be implicitly definable over
By Beth's theorem, every implicitly definable relation is explicitly definable.
Many-sorted structures
Structures as defined above are sometimes called s to distinguish them from the more general s. A many-sorted structure can have an arbitrary number of domains. The sorts are part of the signature, and they play the role of names for the different domains. Many-sorted signatures also prescribe on which sorts the functions and relations of a many-sorted structure are defined. Therefore, the arities of function symbols or relation symbols must be more complicated objects such as tuples of sorts rather than natural numbers.
Vector spaces, for example, can be regarded as two-sorted structures in the following way. The two-sorted signature of vector spaces consists of two sorts V (for vectors) and S (for scalars) and the following function symbols:
If V is a vector space over a field F, the corresponding two-sorted structure consists of the vector domain , the scalar domain , and the obvious functions, such as the vector zero , the scalar zero , or scalar multiplication .
Many-sorted structures are often used as a convenient tool even when they could be avoided with a little effort. But they are rarely defined in a rigorous way, because it is straightforward and tedious (hence unrewarding) to carry out the generalization explicitly.
In most mathematical endeavours, not much attention is paid to the sorts. A many-sorted logic however naturally leads to a type theory. As Bart Jacobs puts it: "A logic is always a logic over a type theory." This emphasis in turn leads to categorical logic because a logic over a type theory categorically corresponds to one ("total") category, capturing the logic, being fibred over another ("base") category, capturing the type theory.
Other generalizations
Partial algebras
Both universal algebra and model theory study classes of (structures or) algebras that are defined by a signature and a set of axioms. In the case of model theory these axioms have the form of first-order sentences. The formalism of universal algebra is much more restrictive; essentially it only allows first-order sentences that have the form of universally quantified equations between terms, e.g. x y (x + y = y + x). One consequence is that the choice of a signature is more significant in universal algebra than it is in model theory. For example, the class of groups, in the signature consisting of the binary function symbol × and the constant symbol 1, is an elementary class, but it is not a variety. Universal algebra solves this problem by adding a unary function symbol −1.
In the case of fields this strategy works only for addition. For multiplication it fails because 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse. An ad hoc attempt to deal with this would be to define 0−1 = 0. (This attempt fails, essentially because with this definition 0 × 0−1 = 1 is not true.) Therefore, one is naturally led to allow partial functions, i.e., functions that are defined only on a subset of their domain. However, there are several obvious ways to generalize notions such as substructure, homomorphism and identity.
Structures for typed languages
In type theory, there are many sorts of variables, each of which has a type. Types are inductively defined; given two types δ and σ there is also a type σ → δ that represents functions from objects of type σ to objects of type δ. A structure for a typed language (in the ordinary first-order semantics) must include a separate set of objects of each type, and for a function type the structure must have complete information about the function represented by each object of that type.
Higher-order languages
There is more than one possible semantics for higher-order logic, as discussed in the article on second-order logic. When using full higher-order semantics, a structure need only have a universe for objects of type 0, and the T-schema is extended so that a quantifier over a higher-order type is satisfied by the model if and only if it is disquotationally true. When using first-order semantics, an additional sort is added for each higher-order type, as in the case of a many sorted first order language.
Structures that are proper classes
In the study of set theory and category theory, it is sometimes useful to consider structures in which the domain of discourse is a proper class instead of a set. These structures are sometimes called class models to distinguish them from the "set models" discussed above. When the domain is a proper class, each function and relation symbol may also be represented by a proper class.
In Bertrand Russell's Principia Mathematica, structures were also allowed to have a proper class as their domain.
See also
Notes
References
External links
Semantics section in Classical Logic (an entry of Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Mathematical logic
Mathematical structures
Model theory
Universal algebra |
4055983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saber%20%28Fate/stay%20night%29 | Saber (Fate/stay night) | , whose real name is (alternatively, Altria Pendragon), is a fictional character from the Japanese 2004 visual novel Fate/stay night by Type-Moon. Saber is a heroic warrior who is summoned by a teenager named Shirou Emiya to participate in a war between masters and servants who are fighting to accomplish their dreams using the mythical Holy Grail. Saber's relationship with the story's other characters depends on the player's decisions; she becomes a love interest to Shirou in the novel's first route and also serves as that route's servant protagonist, a supporting character in the second, and a villain called in the third route.
Saber is an agile and mighty warrior who is loyal, independent, and reserved; she appears emotionally cold but is actually suppressing her emotions to focus on her goals. She is also present in the prequel light novel Fate/Zero, in which she is the servant of Shirou's guardian Kiritsugu Emiya during the previous Holy Grail War, and in the sequel Fate/hollow ataraxia. Saber also appears in the novel's printed and animated adaptations, reprising her role in the game.
Saber was created by Kinoko Nasu after the series' leading illustrator suggested having an armored woman as a protagonist for the visual novel; writer Gen Urobuchi commented on her character becoming darker depending on the situations. Urobuchi created his scenario involving Saber and Kiritsugu because their relationship was little explored in the original visual novel. Saber has been voiced by Ayako Kawasumi in her Japanese appearances, and multiple actresses took the role in English-language dubs of the series' animated adaptations.
Critical reception to Saber's character and role in the series and her relationship with Shirou has been generally positive. Her characterization and her relationship with the characters in Fate/Zero have also been met with a positive response. However, Saber's lack of character focus in the Unlimited Blade Works anime adaptation met mixed reactions. Additionally, Saber has been popular within the Fate series and anime in general.
Character backstory
Saber's real name is Artoria Pendragon (sometimes written as Altria, Arthuria or Arturia). The character was inspired by the legends of King Arthur. At her birth, Uther decides to not publicly announce Artoria's birth or gender, fearing his subjects will never accept a woman as a legitimate ruler. Merlin entrusts Artoria to Sir Ector, a loyal knight who raises her as a surrogate son. When Artoria is fifteen, King Uther dies, leaving no known, eligible heir to the throne. Britain enters a period of turmoil following the growing threat of invasion by the Saxons. Merlin approaches Artoria, explaining that the British people will recognize her as a destined ruler if she draws Caliburn, a ceremonial sword, from the rock in which it is embedded. Pulling this sword, however, means accepting the hardships of a monarch; Artoria will be responsible for preserving the welfare of her people. Without hesitation and despite her gender, she draws Caliburn and becomes king of Britain. The only knights who know the truth of her gender are her foster brother, Sir Kay, and the king's secretary, Sir Agravain.
Artoria is plagued by feelings of guilt and inferiority throughout her reign; she sacrifices her emotions for the good of Britain, but many of her subjects and knights become critical of her lack of humanity and cold calculation. A traitorous knight mortally wounds Artoria, a homunculus named Mordred who is born of her blood during the Battle of Camlann. Morgan le Fay and Sir Bedivere escort the dying king to a holy isle; Artoria orders Bedivere to dispose of Excalibur by throwing it back to Vivian. In her absence, she reflects on her failures, regretting her life as king. Before taking her last breath, she appeals to the world; in exchange for her services as a Heroic Spirit, she asks to be allowed to relive her life, in which someone more suitable and effective would lead Britain in her stead. Artoria possesses the Noble Phantasm , a celestial sword constructed from the collective wishes of mankind. She also possesses , another Noble Phantasm, which compresses and gyrates the air around Saber's blade, turning it invisible, and the holy lance which she possesses if summoned in Lancer class.
Appearances
In Fate/stay night
In the visual novel Fate/stay night, Saber is accidentally summoned by a young mage named Shirou Emiya, stopping the servant Lancer in the process.
Fate route
In the Fate route of Fate/stay night, Shirou and Saber often clash because of their fighting methods. Despite this, Shirou tries to persuade Saber that the past cannot be changed and that trying to change it is unwise. Once Saber discovers the Holy Grail is corrupt and causes only death, she accepts that her wish is indeed impossible to accomplish. She later works with Shirou to save the world she was summoned into.
Saber and Shirou develop romantic feelings for one another but decide to end their relationship once the Holy Grail War is finished. Having realized Kiritsugu Emiya sealed Excalibur's scabbard, , inside his body, Shirou passes it to his Servant so that she could defeat the Servant Gilgamesh. Saber and Shirou win their respective fights against Gilgamesh and his master Kirei Kotomine. Saber destroys the Holy Grail with Excalibur and, after accepting Shirou's feelings and confessing her own, is sent back to her original time and dies. In the PlayStation 2 remake, an extra ending in which Shirou and Saber reunite following their deaths was added. After accepting her own identity and dying, Saber forgoes becoming a Heroic Spirit so she can wait for Shirou in Avalon, the mystical land where only true heroes may reside. After waiting for many lifetimes for Shirou to earn the right to ascend to Avalon, they are finally reunited for eternity.
Unlimited Blade Works route
In the Unlimited Blade Works route of Fate/stay night, Saber is stabbed by Caster's Rule Breaker and is forced to become her Servant. Caster then forces Saber to kill Shirou and Rin Tohsaka, but Saber resists the spell, giving Rin and Shirou time to escape. After Archer kills Caster, Rin then forges a contract with her, becoming her new Master. Saber, Shirou and Rin remain conflicted in how to deal with Gilgamesh. Eventually, they decide that Shirou should fight their enemy as he possesses the same powers as the missing Archer while Saber and Rin go to stop the Holy Grail, facing the Servant Assassin in the process. After defeating Assassin, Saber destroys the Holy Grail with Excalibur, and Shirou manages to defeat Gilgamesh with the reappeared Archer's help. In the Good End of this scenario, Saber lives on as one of Rin's familiars along with Shirou. Nasu states her role to be more akin to a mother or guardian figure. In the True End, she disappears after destroying the Holy Grail.
Heaven's Feel route
In Heaven's Feel route of Fate/stay night, Saber is consumed by the Holy Grail during a battle with True Assassin and becomes a stronger, corrupted version of her former self, known as Saber Alter, and a Servant under Sakura Matou, the heroine of this route. While Shirou is on his way to seek an alliance with Ilya and Berserker, Saber appears in her Alter form and defeats Berserker, making herself known to Shirou while nearly killing her former allies. Shirou returns to Illya's home and defeats Berserker, who is now working for Sakura. Saber approaches the weakened Shirou but refuses to kill him since she feels honored by his recent fight. In the Normal End and True End, Sakura orders Saber to kill Shirou and the servant Rider. However, the duo manages to overpower Saber, with Shirou killing his former comrade.
In Fate/hollow ataraxia
In the sequel video game Fate/hollow ataraxia, Saber continues to protect Shirou; if the player chooses, Shirou can pursue Saber romantically once more. She kills Archer when he attacks Shirou in one loop. In another loop, Saber is killed by Bazett Fraga McRemitz's Fragrach when she tries to use Excalibur on her. In the final loop of Fate/hollow ataraxia, Saber aids Shirou/Avenger to reach the Grail by fending off mysterious monsters with other Heroic Spirits. When the stray hair on Saber's head is pulled, she reverts to her Alter form. Saber Alter is portrayed as crude and obsessed with fast food in direct opposition to Saber's love of Shirou's cooking.
Fate/Zero
In the prequel light novel series Fate/Zero, Kiritsugu Emiya summons Saber to participate in the 4th Holy Grail War. To prepare for the war, Kiritsugu persuades his wife Irisviel von Einzbern to act as Saber's guide while he aids her in secret. As in the original visual novel, Saber wishes to obtain the Holy Grail to change her kingdom's past, which results in Gilgamesh and Alexander the Great mocking her ideals. During a fight against Lancer, Kiritsugu ignores knightly ideals and forces Lancer's Master to commit suicide, angering Saber. Shortly afterwards, Kirei Kotomine kidnaps Irisviel, and Saber goes to find her. On the way, Saber confronts Berserker, who is revealed to be her former ally, Lancelot. After Lancelot's death, Saber is ordered to destroy the Holy Grail by her then-master, Kiritsugu, using two back-to-back Command Seals. Still, she only succeeds in destroying its physical form. Saber returns to her world, still aiming to take the Holy Grail for her people.
Fate/Grand Order
Artoria Pendragon appears in Fate/Grand Order as a recurring Servant. She is one of the Servants of Ritsuka Fujimaru of the Grand Order conflicts of Fate/Grand Order. She appears as Saber, along with her multiple forms Saber Alter and Saber Lily, as well as her newer forms Lancer and Lancer Alter, and gag forms as Archer, Rider Alter and Ruler form wearing a swimsuit, maid outfit and bunny girl costume respectively, as well as another rider form as "Santa Alter" introduced in the game and a Caster form introduced for the game's 5th anniversary. Her other gag iterations are the Assassin-class Mysterious Heroine X, Berserker-class Mysterious Heroine X Alter, and Foreigner-class Mysterious Heroine XX; all are stated to be Artorias came from space.
In the main story, Saber Alter appears in the Fuyuki chapter as the main antagonist, Lancer Alter appears in the London chapter, and Lancer in the form of "Lion King/Goddess Rhongomyniad" served as the central villain of Camelot chapter. Heroine X appeared in the Grand Time Temple chapter as one of "event and gag Servants".
Other appearances
Saber appears in the anime and manga versions of Fate/stay night, and the movie Unlimited Blade Works. Three of versions of Saber—regular, Saber Alter, and Saber Lily—appear in the fighting game Fate/unlimited codes. The Lily form is based on Saber's alternative outfit from Unlimited Blade Works, which development staff noted was well received by fans. A Lion form of Saber also appeared in Fate/tiger colosseum. Saber, along with other characters from Tsukihime, Melty Blood, and the other characters of Fate/stay night, appears in the 2011 anime Carnival Phantasm. Saber also appears in the series Fate/Labyrinth as Manaka's Servant during the Subcategory Holy Grail. Together, they defeat many opponents and the bosses of each of the floor levels in Caubac Alcatraz's labyrinth.
She also appears in Fate/Extella as a secret playable character. Saber is also present in the manga and anime adaptations Today's Menu for the Emiya Family, in which she is living with Shirou, who teaches her to cook. Outside Type-Moon's works and adaptations, Saber appears in the video games Divine Gate and Nitroplus Blasterz: Heroines Infinite Duel. To promote the animated adaptations of the routes, Saber was added to the video games Summons Board, Puzzle & Dragons, and The Alchemist Code. She is also present in Phantasy Star Online 2 and Hortensia Saga. Two videogame adaptations for smartphones, Fate/Zero The Adventure and Fate/Zero Next Encounter, feature Saber.
Saber is a playable guest character in a fighting game Melty Blood: Type Lumina, a prequel to both Tsukihime -a piece of blue glass moon- and original timeline Melty Blood games, taking place in a remake timeline. Following the playable inclusion of Tsukihime’s Neco Spirit mascot, Neco-Arc, Saber’s inclusion in this game revealed to be the cause of the latter, when the Neco-Spirit inexplicably managed to use her smartphone's Fate/Grand Order app to do so. It also reveals that summoning servants like Saber in Tsukihime world (currently Remake version) should have been impossible, and even the Dead Apostle Michael Roa Valdamjong knows the risk on doing so and had since develop a distaste of learning its ritual, until Neco-Arc’s presence and the Fate/Grand Order app she brought in that world causes it to be possible.
Creation and conception
Before Kinoko Nasu started writing Fate/stay night, he wrote the route Fate for fun in his spare time when he was a student. Shirou and Saber's sexes were swapped, mostly due to an experience with the novel Tsukihime because Type-Moon believed this would fit the modern demographic. Takeuchi had the idea of drawing an armored woman, which resulted in Saber being female. Takeuchi called Saber as one of his favorite Servants in the series and an ideal bride to the point of drawing her whenever he has free time. The relationship between Shirou and Saber was intended to be different from previous fictional romances because Shirou must accept Saber has to fight for him. As a foreshadowing of Shirou and Saber's first meeting, the team included a dream sequence in which Shirou sees the mythical sword Excalibur, which the latter wields. Because Shirou possessed the scabbard Avalon from Excalibur, Nasu wrote this to explain how the two become Master and Servant. Although Saber does not have the same character in "Unlimited Blade Works" than in "Fate" where she dropped her desires for the Holy Grail, Nasu still wanted Saber to have a similar resolution in regards to what to do in the war once confronting the Grail, leading to its destructions at her hands.
Nasu originally had an idea to extend the Fate route by involving an alternative Fifth Holy Grail War in which Shirou fights alongside Saber, but they do not have a romantic relationship. Following their separation, Shirou would bond with Rin Tohsaka. Because "Unlimited Blade Works" is playable after concluding "Fate", Saber's true identity is revealed early in the story. Saber is not a romantic interest in this route; Nasu considered her a motherly figure to Shirou and Rin. During making the video game's anime adaptation, Nasu said the staff intended to make her more beautiful than the heroine Rin in the previous Fate series.
Nasu said: ... it's difficult to call the relationship between Shirou and Saber a relationship between a man and a woman. Saber has fought for a long time as the ruler of Britain but then turned into a girl all of a sudden and fell in love with Shirou. It's pretty ridiculous when you think about it. But I really wanted to push it towards that sort of boy-meets-girl story. So as a last resort, I had Shirou continually say things to her like "But you're a girl," and "Girls aren't supposed to fight," in order to remind the users that "she is really a girl." It's like the author's actually the one trying to convince Saber that she's a girl... I feel like I could have written it a lot better now, but that was the best I could do at the time. It's true that Rin is different from Saber.
Regarding Saber's alternate designs, Gen Urobuchi referred to Alter as a dark hero rather than a villain. Nasu further commented on Alter, stating she "is an idealist who clings to her own values even though she's been blackened". On the other hand, her becoming a Servant from Caster during Unlimited Blade Works was believed by Urobuchi to take a darker role than Saber Alter due to how she has been defeated in combat with Nasu speculating how her new dress symbolizes her defeat. Takeuchi enjoyed illustrating her due to the impact it left on the character. He added he enjoyed minor changes due to her design, such as her visor and her alternative dresses featured in related works to Fate. Saber Lily's character was created by Takeuchi, as an alternative costume for Saber, based on the visual novel's Unlimited Blade Works story arcade dress, and got its name because of the similarity of color and shape of the dress to the white lily. After the release of the Unlimited codes on the arcade machines, Saber Lily received a lot of positive feedback from fans and, unlike the game costumes of other characters, when porting the game to the PlayStation 2, she had her own name displayed in the match interface. Originally it was planned to include the character only in a limited edition of the game, but later it was added to the standard version.
During the making of Fate/Zero, writer Urobuchi had multiple ideas, including Saber being lectured by Gilgamesh and Alexander, which motivated Nasu to write the light novel series. As in the original Fate/stay night, Saber states she did not know her former master Kiritsugu Emiya properly. Urobuchi created Kiritsugu's wife Irisviel von Einzbern to facilitate communication between Saber and Kiritsugu. The staff worried Urobuchi would handle Kiritsugu's relationship with Saber because more unforgivable actions by the servant would have made it impossible for her to trust his adoptive son Shirou in the sequel. As a result, Urobuchi had to alter some of his original ideas. Urobuchi stated that in his works, the characters who survive the plot's events become "pillars". While Saber, Kiritsugu, and Kirei Kotomine are the major survivors, Kiritsugu dies offscreen. Because Saber does not have a large role in Fate/Zero, the pillar character is instead Kirei. For the first Heaven's Feel movie, there is a scene where Saber battles in the snow in front of the Ryuudou Temple which Ufotable noted as one of the big steps in animation due to its quality.
Saber's real name is often written inconsistently. While Artoria Pendragon is the most-used spelling, Nasu has also used Altria Pendragon. As a result, the localization members of the video game Fate/Grand Order have found it challenging to properly write her true name in the game whenever it is needed. The translators working for the game stated they enjoyed Saber Alter's interactions with Jeanne Alter based on how the story develops across them.
Voice actors
Saber is voiced by Ayako Kawasumi in Japanese; Nasu and Takeuchi chose her because they found her voice fitting for Saber's personality. The sound director suggested Kawasumi during the making of the series. Kawasumi said despite the multiple appearances she has in the Fate/stay night series, her characterization did not change due to her convictions. Kawasumi noted that Saber was drawn by Irisviel due to her love for her family. Still, because Saber did not accept Kiritsugu's principles, Kawasumi was regretful of this area about her character. While originally more popular for voicing Fuu in the anime Samurai Champloo, Kawasumi noted her work as Saber impressed fans due to the actress often seeing cosplayers of her new character. Furthermore, Kawasumi's role was noted to give her a good career. She noted she received multiple requests to voice female characters with strong personalities ever since her debut as Saber. Kawasumi remarks having fun in the making of Saber as across the recording of the series and visual novel, she met famous veteran actors with a spin-off giving her an alternate comical version of her character.
Kawasumi noted that Saber's characterization in Unlimited Blade Works differs from the previous ones because of her lack of romantic feelings for Shirou; instead, Saber acts less emotionally, seeing Shirou as her Master. When asked about the heroines in the Fate franchise, Kawasumi said Saber represents the strong female character type Type-Moon has created. Kawasumi believes that while Saber commonly acts with the idea of protecting other people, her appeal causes other characters to want to protect her. Regarding Fate/Zero, Kawasumi noted that while people saw this version of Saber as a more masculine woman than in the previous series, she kept her strong sense of self, which would make her more recognizable fans. For the second Heaven's Feel film, Kawasumi expressed mixed thoughts about Saber's darker characterization but still wanted viewers to see her in action.
Saber's English-language voice is provided by American voice actor Kari Wahlgren, who said that when voicing the character, she became interested in knowing the character's future actions because of the story's major plot twists. Because Saber is based on King Arthur, Wahlgren said she had no major problems doing the work because she had previously worked on William Shakespeare's plays. Comparing Saber to a Shakespearean character, Wahlgren said, "There's a little bit of Hamlet in there definitely, and a little bit of The Scottish Play [Macbeth]—I won't say it. Henry V. All the great leaders and warlords."
Reception
Popularity
In the Type-Moon Fes. 10th Anniversary Event, Saber was ranked the most popular character created by Type-Moon. In 2012, Niconico News ran a poll asking people which characters from Fate/Zero they wanted as boyfriends or girlfriends. Saber was the most popular character on the girlfriend list, polling 34.1%. She took fourth place in an Unlimited Blade Works poll. In 2011 Manga artist group Clamp drew their own version of Saber to celebrate the premiere of Fate/Zero.
Saber was voted the top female Fate/Zero character whom men would like to date. To promote Fate/Grand Order, artist Yoshitaka Amano drew Saber in the Japanese convention AnimeJapan in March 2019. In a 2018 Manga.Tokyo poll, Saber was voted the most popular Fate character. A Charapedia poll asked fans to list their favorite "cool" women in anime; Saber placed fourth with 498 votes.
In a Newtype poll, Saber was the second-most popular female character from September 2017. In a list of top-30 characters of the 2010s in the same magazine, Saber was the most popular female character. In 2017, a cafe using Fate based characters including Saber was released in Osaka, Japan. She was also voted as the best servant from Fate/Zero during 2012. Japanese figure maker Good Smile Company ran a poll that asked fans which figures they most wanted; Saber's regular look and her Lily form from Unlimited Codes appeared in the figure category. She was also voted as the best servant from Fate/Zero during 2012.
Numerous figures of all versions of Saber and a keychain replica of her sword have been created. Another replica includes her motorcycle from Fate/Zero.
Critical response
Critical reception to Saber has generally been positive. Carl Kimlinger, writing for Anime News Network, praised the character, saying "Saber alone is worth the price of admission" when watching the series, and also commented on her fight scenes. He added, "the results are positively exhilarating, cementing Saber's status as one of the coolest heroines to come down the anime turnpike in quite some time". Kimlinger further referred to Saber and Archer as "the only spices" of the series. Mania Entertainment's Chris Beveridge liked the development of Saber during the series, particularly her team-ups with Shirou. He made similar comments about the romantic relationship between Saber and Shirou, with other writers such as DVDTalk and IGN finding them as the most appealing relationship within the television series.
Saber's role in Fate/Zero is also positively received. ANN praised the tragedy that happened to Saber and Kiritsugu in the prequel Fate/Zero despite wishing for solutions to world issues, making the series worth watching. The writer also noted that Saber and Kiritsugu are opposites due to their backgrounds but still have similarities. Anime News Network's Carlo Santos praised Saber's fight against Lancer in Fate/Zero, calling it "one dazzling special effect after another—and it gets even better when other Servants enter the fray and show off their unique powers". Kotaku's reviewer enjoyed the way Saber, Gilgamesh and Alexander the Great discuss their ideals as kings and how their people should be treated, giving each character different philosophies. Aiden Foote of THEM Anime Reviews said the relationships between the characters, including that between Rider, Saber, and Archer, are personal highlights of the series. The Fandom Post's Chris Beveridge praised the fight between Saber and Berserker as well as her painful history and tragedy, and said that Saber "getting a glimmer of the future definitely hits all the right sweet spots." On the other hand, Uk Anime Network said that Saber feels like the Servant who lacked a character arc because she is mocked by her rivals for her beliefs and her relationship with Kiritsugu, showing more conflict within her.
Feedback to Saber's role in the anime Unlimited Blade Works have received negative responses; several critics have expressed anger on how wasted her character was. Dee Hogan from The Mary Sue stated that Saber was sidelined in favour of Rin and that she "deserve much better". According to UK Anime Network, Rin and Shirou were less interesting as a couple in the anime Unlimited Blade Works in comparison to Saber and Shirou in Studio Deen's anime adaptation of Fate/stay night; stating that Rin Tohsaka and Archer felt more entertaining and interesting. Gabriella Ekens of Anime News Network criticized the lack of focus on Saber's character, saying "it's a shame" especially when Saber is considered the mascot of the Fate Franchise. Urobuchi said Saber's relationship with Shirou does not seem like a realistic relationship fueled by instinct like the relationship between a man and a woman, but a romance of logic between two people who need each other. He added that the Fate route could have been told through the Ancient Greek views on love. In contrast, both Nasu and Takeuchi however state that Shirou and Saber is more appealing and still functions as realistic even if it is the relationship between two soulmates. Michelle Ruff's English performance as Saber has led to negative criticism for leading an unfitting tone as the character in comparison to Kate Higgins; Anime News Network criticized her lack of dialogues in the Unlimited Blade Works movie. Saber's charming side in Today's Menu for the Emiya Family was well received.
In the first Heaven's Feel film, Fandom Post said Saber's importance is reduced because her relationship with Shirou "does not develop in an engaging way" in the movie. Although, Chris Beveridge stated he enjoyed multiple interactions between Sakura and Shirou and at the same time with Saber. Her transformation into Alter and her fight in the second Heaven's Film earned praise from Fandom Post, which called it one of the biggest highlights of the sequel.
References
External links
Anime and manga characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Anime and manga characters who use magic
Anime and manga characters with accelerated healing
Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength
Cultural depictions of Arthurian legend
Fate/stay night characters
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Female soldier and warrior characters in video games
Fictional British people
Fictional characters who can manipulate light
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4056111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.%20Margaret%20McKeown | M. Margaret McKeown | Mary Margaret McKeown (born May 11, 1951) is a Senior United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit based in San Diego. McKeown has served on the Ninth Circuit since her confirmation in 1998.
Early life and education
McKeown, a native of Casper, Wyoming, graduated from Kelly Walsh High School in Casper in 1969. She attended the University of Madrid and graduated Phi Beta Kappa from the University of Wyoming with a Bachelor of Arts in 1972.
She worked for Senator Clifford P. Hansen, whom she credits with inspiring her interest in the legal profession. McKeown received her Juris Doctor in 1975 from Georgetown University Law Center. She also received an honorary Doctor of Laws from Georgetown.
Legal career
McKeown was the first female partner with the law firm of Perkins Coie in Seattle and Washington, D.C. McKeown specialized in intellectual property, antitrust, trade regulation, and complex litigation, representing clients like Boeing, Nintendo, Amazon, and Citicorp. McKeown was co-founder of the firm’s Washington, D.C. office and founded the firm’s intellectual property practice. She spent over two decades at the firm.
From 1980 until 1981, McKeown served as a White House Fellow. She worked as a Special Assistant to Secretary of the Interior Cecil D. Andrus and as Special Assistant for domestic policy at the White House.
McKeown was the president of the Federal Bar Association of the Western District of Washington and a founder and first co-president of the statewide Washington Women Lawyers.
Teaching and scholarship
McKeown is the jurist-in-residence at the University of San Diego (USD) School of Law.
She taught at Georgetown University Law Center, Northwestern University Law School, and the University of Washington School of Law. McKeown is an affiliated scholar at the Center for the American West at Stanford University.
Selected publications include: "The Lost Sanctuary: Examining Sex Trafficking Through the Lens of Ah Sou" (Cornell Journal of International Law, 2008); "Happy Birthday Statute of Anne: The Dance Between the Courts and Congress" (Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 2010); "To Judge or Not to Judge: Transparency and Recusal in the Federal System" (The Review of Litigation, 2011); "The Internet and the Constitution: A Selective Retrospective" (Washington Journal of Law, Technology & Arts, 2014); "Culinary Ambiguity: A Canonical Approach to Deciphering Menus" (Harvard Journal on Legislation, 2014); "Beginning with Brown: Springboard for Gender Equality and Social Change" (San Diego Law Review, Fall 2015); "The ABA Rule of Law Initiative: Celebrating 25 Years of Global Initiatives" (Michigan Journal of International Law, 2018); "The Nineteenth Amendment Centennial Cookbook: 100 Recipes for 100 Years" (ABA 2019); "My Mother Made Me Do It: A Short History of the Nineteenth Amendment" (Litigation, 2020); "The Judiciary Steps Up to the Workplace Challenge" (Northwestern University Law Review, 2021); and "Politics and Judicial Ethics: A Historical Perspective" (Yale Law Journal Forum, 2021).
She is the author of Citizen Justice: The Environmental Legacy of Justice William O. Douglas—Public Advocate and Conservation Champion (Potomac Press 2022).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Citizen Justice |url=https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/potomac-books/9781640123007/ |access-date=October 4, 2022 |website=Nebraska Press}}</ref>
Federal judicial service
On March 29, 1996, President Bill Clinton nominated McKeown for a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, and then renominated her on January 7, 1997. McKeown was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 27, 1998, by a 80–11 vote. She received her commission on April 8, 1998.
On January 12, 2022, McKeown announced that she would assume senior status upon the confirmation of her successor.
On September 15, 2022, she assumed senior status.
She has served on multiple committees for the court. For the Ninth Circuit, she currently serves as chair of the Workplace Environment Committee and chair of the Pacific Islands Committee. She has also served on the Executive Committee of the Ninth Circuit, chair of the Ninth Circuit Judicial Conference, the Ad Hoc Death Penalty Rules Committee, and chair of the Ninth Circuit Education Commission.
She served as chair of the Judicial Conference of the United States Codes of Conduct Committee, the national ethics committee for federal judges, and is currently a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States Committee on Judicial Conduct and Disability. McKeown served as a member of the ABA Commission to redraft the Model Code of Judicial Ethics.
McKeown has worked on promoting a respectful work environment within the judiciary through her position as Chair of the Workplace Environment Committee for the Ninth Circuit and her appointment by Chief Justice Roberts to the Federal Judiciary Workplace Conduct Working Group.
She is former president of the Federal Judges Association and the San Diego Association of Business Trial Lawyers. She served as chair of the ABA Commission on the Nineteenth Amendment and the ABA Standing Committee on Federal Judicial Improvements. She has also served on the Managerial Board of the International Association of Women Judges.
Statistics
Between December 2014 and August 2020, McKeown sat on an en banc panel 29 times. McKeown was in the majority in all 29 of the en banc cases she heard during that period. She has also authored more than 600 opinions.
Cases
En banc Skidmore as Tr. for Randy Craig Wolfe Tr. v. Led Zeppelin, 952 F.3d 1051 (9th Cir. 2020) (en banc). On rehearing en banc, McKeown wrote for the majority to clarify the scope of copyright protection under federal law. A songwriter’s estate claimed that Led Zeppelin’s Stairway to Heaven copied portions of the rock song Taurus. The Ninth Circuit held that under the Copyright Act of 1909, the scope of the copyright in Taurus was limited to the 1967 deposit copy. This meant that the estate could not play sound recordings for the jury to evaluate whether Stairway to Heaven and Taurus were substantially similar. Additionally, the court formally abrogated the “inverse ratio rule” which had permitted a lower standard of proof to satisfy the “substantial similarity” test if a plaintiff could demonstrate that the alleged infringer had a high degree of access to the protected work. In doing so, McKeown wrote that the rule “defies logic” and joined the Second, Fifth, Seventh, and Eleventh Circuits to dispose of its use.City of Oakland v. Wells Fargo & Co., 14 F. 4th 1030 (9th Cir. 2021) (en banc). The City of Oakland, California claimed that Wells Fargo’s discriminatory lending practices caused higher default rates, which in turn triggered higher foreclosure rates that drove down the assessed value of properties, and which ultimately resulted in lost property tax revenue and increased municipal expenditures for the city. McKeown wrote for a unanimous en banc panel to hold that these downstream “ripples of harm” were too attenuated and traveled too “far beyond” Wells Fargo’s alleged misconduct to establish proximate cause under recent Supreme Court precedent. Absent proximate cause, the city failed to state a claim that Wells Fargo violated the Fair Housing Act.
Copyright Garcia v. Google, Inc., 786 F.3d 733 (9th Cir. 2015) (en banc). Actor Cindy Lee Garcia was tricked into performing in a blasphemous video proclamation against the Prophet Mohammed. The video was uploaded to YouTube and garnered millions of views. Garcia received death threats. Asserting a copyright interest in her performance, Garcia sought a preliminary injunction against Google to remove the film from its platform. On rehearing en banc, McKeown wrote that the district court did not abuse its discretion in denying Garcia a preliminary injunction based on her copyright claim. Garcia failed to establish a likelihood of success on the merits because Garcia’s fleeting performance in the video did not amount to a “work” under copyright law, and she was unlikely to experience irreparable harm because the video had already persisted for months online before she sought the injunction. Finally, McKeown dissolved the prior panel’s takedown order to Google because the film was of substantial interest to the public and a prior restraint of speech under the First Amendment, and Garcia could not overcome the heavy presumption against such restraints with her thin copyright claim. Dr. Seuss Enterprises, L.P. v. ComicMix LLC, 983 F.3d 443 (9th Cir. 2020). This case concerned a book titled “Oh, the Places You’ll Boldly Go!”: a Dr. Seuss and Star Trek “mashup.” The comic book contains various elements from Dr. Seuss’s famous book entitled “Oh, the Places You’ll Go!”, which were mashed-up with several characters, imagery, and elements from the Star Trek science fiction franchise. Writing for the panel, McKeown concluded that ComicMix had created, without seeking permission or a license, a non-transformative commercial work that targets and usurps the original work’s potential market. Because the work was neither transformative nor parody, it did not qualify as fair use.
Criminal United States v. Cotterman, 709 F.3d 952 (9th Cir. 2013) (en banc). Cotterman was traveling back from Mexico with his wife. Border Agents got an alert that Cotterman was a sex offender convicted for child molestation. They conducted a cursory search of his laptop and found no incriminating pictures but did find password-protected files. Given the alert and the protected files, agents seized the laptop at the U.S.-Mexico border and shipped it 170 miles away for a full forensic examination. In this second inspection, agents discovered child pornography. At trial, the district court granted Cotterman's motion to suppress the evidence of child pornography obtained during the forensic examination because there was no reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. Writing for the en banc majority, McKeown held the Fourth Amendment required that Border Agents have reasonable suspicion before they may conduct a forensic examination of a traveler's personal electronic equipment.
Immigration Quintero Perez v. United States, 8 F.4th 1095 (9th Cir. 2021). In Quintero Perez v. USA, a Mexican national was fatally shot by U.S. Border Patrol while on U.S. soil. The shot caused the Mexican national’s body to fall exactly on the U.S.-Mexico Border. The family of the deceased Mexican national sued the United States under the Alien Tort Statute (ATS) and the Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) and also brought Fourth Amendment Bivens claims against the agent and the supervisor in charge of Border Patrol. McKeown’s majority opinion held that the ATS and FTCA claims were barred by sovereign immunity and the applicable statute of limitations, respectively. With respect to the Fourth Amendment Bivens claims, McKeown held that these claims presented a new context and declined to extend Bivens to reach this new context.
Antitrust DeHoog v. Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, 899 F.3d 758 (9th Cir. 2018). A group of beer consumers sued to prevent Anheuser-Busch InBev, SA/NV from acquiring SABMiller, plc, alleging that the merger was anticompetitive and violated Section 7 of the Clayton Act. Writing for a unanimous panel, McKeown dismissed the consumers’ lawsuit because the acquisition “did not create a reasonable probability of anticompetitive effects in the U.S. beer market” because the Department of Justice had required SAB to completely divest its interests in the domestic beer market.
International law Von Saher v. Norton Simon Museum of Art at Pasadena, 897 F.3d 1141 (9th Cir. 2018). This case involved the ownership of two oil paintings by Lucas Cranach the Elder that were forcibly sold to Nazi officials from a Dutch art dealer after the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940. After the war, the Allied Forces recovered the paintings and turned them over to the Dutch government, which sold the paintings to an individual, who later re-sold them to the Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena, California. In the 1990s, descendants of the Dutch art dealer sought restitution in the Dutch Court of Appeals, which denied relief. In her opinion, McKeown also denied relief. Applying the act of state doctrine, she “decline[d] the invitation to invalidate the official actions of the Netherlands,” and held that the museum had valid title to the paintings.de Fontbrune v. Wofsy, 838 F.3d 992 (9th Cir. 2016), as amended on denial of rehearing and rehearing en banc (November 14, 2016). This case involved a multi-year litigation centered on photographs of Pablo Picasso’s artwork. Vincent de Frontbrune received a $2.2 million judgment in French court and sought to enforce the judgment in California. McKeown’s majority opinion held that astreinte (a French judicial device) functioned not as a fine but as a grant of monetary recovery, thus allowing the judgment to be enforced in federal court under the California Uniform Foreign-Court Monetary Judgment Recognition Act.
Gender discrimination Costa v. Desert Palace, 299 F.3d 838 (9th Cir. 2002) (en banc). In an opinion written by McKeown, the en banc panel held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 imposes no special or heightened evidentiary burden on a plaintiff in a mixed-motive sex discrimination case. In this case, a forklift operator—the only woman in her bargaining unit—claimed that her employer, a Las Vegas casino, had fired her in part on account of her sex. Further, she claimed to have been singled out and harassed by her male colleagues and subjected to unwarranted disciplinary sanctions throughout her employment. McKeown’s opinion affirmed the casino’s liability, as well as the judgment for back-pay and compensatory damages. The opinion noted that discrimination on the basis of sex need only be “a motivating factor,” rather than the sole motivating factor, in order for a plaintiff to be able to bring a Title VII claim.Edmo v. Corizon, Inc., 935 F.3d 757 (9th Cir. 2019). In a per curiam opinion, the panel held that an incarcerated transgender woman had a right to gender-affirming surgery. For prison officials to deny her access to such “medically necessary” care, the panel wrote, would constitute cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The panel concluded that the prisoner was entitled to injunctive relief, because “the deprivation of [her] constitutional right to adequate medical care is sufficient to establish irreparable harm.”
Awards
McKeown is the recipient of the: American Inns of Court Professionalism Award for the Ninth Circuit; ABA John Marshall Award; ABA Margaret Brent Women of Achievement Award; Big Sisters Outstanding Mentor Award; California Bar Association Intellectual Property Vanguard Award; Federal Bar Association Public Service Award; Georgetown University Law Center Robert F. Drinan Public Service Award; Georgetown University Law Center Outstanding Alumnae; Georgetown University John Carroll Award (highest honor); Girl Scouts Cool Women Award; University of Wyoming Distinguished Alumni Award; Washington Women Lawyers’ President’s Award; White House Fellows Legacy of Leadership Award; and Federal Bar Association Public Service Award.
In 2020, McKeown was elected to the American Academy of Arts & Sciences. She served as past chair of the White House Fellows Foundation and the Georgetown Law School Board of Visitors. Additionally, she was on the national boards of Volunteers of America and Girl Scouts U.S.A.
McKeown serves on the board of the Teton Science School in Jackson, Wyoming.
She participated in the first American mountain climbing expedition to Mount Shishapangma in Tibet.
Law reform work
McKeown was elected to the American Law Institute in 1993 and was elected to the ALI Council in 2009. She has served as an Adviser on several projects, including: Intellectual Property: Principles Governing Jurisdiction, Choice of Law, and Judgments in Transnational Disputes; Restatement of the U.S. Law of International Commercial Arbitration and Investor-State Arbitration; and Restatement of U.S. Foreign Relations Law. She is also a current Advisor on the Restatement of the Law for Copyright.
Rule of law work
McKeown has lectured and taught throughout the world on intellectual property, international law, human rights law, litigation, ethics, judicial administration, and constitutional law and has participated in numerous rule of law initiatives with judges and lawyers. In 2016, McKeown took part in the 10th annual International Humanitarian Law Dialogs in Nuremberg, Germany, where she presented the Nuremberg Declaration—a joint statement by international prosecutors. McKeown has chaired the American Bar Association’s Rule of Law Initiative and is a senior advisor. She previously chaired ABA ROLI Latin America and the Caribbean Council. She serves on the board of the World Justice Project and on the Judicial Advisory Board of the American Society of International Law.
Book
In 2022, McKeown published a nonfiction book, Citizen Justice: The Environmental Legacy of William O. Douglas.''
See also
Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates
References
External links
Official author website
Bar Association profile of Judge McKeown
Faculty page for the University of San Diego Law School
1951 births
Living people
20th-century American judges
20th-century American women judges
21st-century American judges
21st-century American women judges
American legal scholars
American women lawyers
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
People from Casper, Wyoming
United States court of appeals judges appointed by Bill Clinton
University of Washington School of Law faculty
University of Wyoming alumni
White House Fellows
American women legal scholars |
4056361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor%20An | Viktor An | Viktor An (; born Ahn Hyun-soo () on November 23, 1985), is a South Korean-born Russian short-track speed skating coach and retired short-track speed skater. With a total of eight Olympic medals, six gold and two bronze, he is the only short track speed skater in Olympic history to win gold in every distance, and the first to win a medal in every distance at a single Games. He has the most Olympic gold medals in the sport, three of which he won in the 2006 Winter Olympics and the other three in the 2014 Winter Olympics. Considered to be the greatest short track speed skater of all time, he is a six-time overall World champion (2003-2007, 2014), two-time overall World Cup winner (2003–04, 2005–06), and the 2014 European champion. He holds the most overall titles at the World Short Track Speed Skating Championships, and is the only male short track skater to win five consecutive world titles.
In 2008, Ahn suffered a knee injury and could not regain his health by the time the national qualifiers for Vancouver 2010 came around. His recovery being slow and his South Korean local team dissolved in 2010, Ahn, aiming for his second Olympics, became a Russian citizen the next year and began racing for the Russian team. After winning gold in Sochi, Ahn explained his reasons for joining the Russian team saying, "I wanted to train in the best possible environment and I proved my decision was not wrong." As expected, a gold-winning athlete leaving the national team caused public uproar in South Korea. However, it was aimed not at Ahn, but at the country's skating union. Most South Korean fans in a poll said they understood his decision. Ahn continued his skating career in his adopted nation until 2019 and declared his retirement in April 2020.
In 2023, Ahn returned to Korea as a short track leader. Ahn returned to South Korea and applied to be a coach for Seongnam City's short track speed skating team, despite having renounced his South Korean citizenship when becoming Russian. However, since his change in 2014 he had been increasingly criticized for his work in Russia amid the Russo-Ukrainian War and his coaching position in the Chinese team at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing. Some Korean coaches have formed The Korea Skating Coaches' Union and urged "Seongnam City to appoint a coach that meets the public eye level" and criticized Ahn that he "lied during the naturalization process and betrayed his country". and He was criticized by the public for betraying his country by transferring Korean sports skills to Russia and China. Ahn was eventually denied the coaching position due to significant public opposition.
After being denied his position as Seongnam City Hall coach due to strong public opposition, Ahn explained the controversy he knew about his loss of nationality in advance and receives a full Olympic medal pension prior to Russian naturalization. he said: "I donated every pension I had received prior to naturalization".According to his explanation and a Korean ice skating official mentioned in Chosun Ilbo shortly thereafter, the entire lump sum pension he received was spent on rehabilitating "children who needed heart surgery and Korean junior players". And he make his first start as a Korean Sports leader, being named as a coach in the 2023-2024 national team trials at the request of his juniors. The Korea Skating Union officially announced this through Yonhap News Agency, and the Korean media reported it collectively.
Early life and education
Ahn began skating in 1993 in his first year of primary school. The first time he watched the sport on television was during the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer where one of his heroes, Chae Ji-hoon, took gold in the 500 m and silver in the 1000 m for South Korea. Incidentally, these were the Games where Russia achieved a national record of 11 Olympic golds, a feat that he himself would help to repeat twenty years later. His coach, Kim Ki-hoon, was a three-time Olympic gold medalist who scouted Ahn and continued to train him. He trained ten hours every day from techniques, speed, and endurance to video analysis.
Career
2000s
Early career and the 2002 Winter Olympics
Ahn made his international debut at the World Junior Short Track Speed Skating Championships in 2002. Finishing first in the 1500 m, 1000 m, and 5000 m relay events, he claimed the overall title.
Ahn then participated in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. He made the finals for the 1000 m event but returned home without a medal, after a controversial fall involving Apolo Ohno, Li Jiajun, and Mathieu Turcotte that allowed Australian Steve Bradbury to sweep the gold medal. Ahn finished in fourth place, behind Ohno and Turcotte.
After the 2002 Olympics, Ahn finished second to Kim Dong-sung at his first senior-level world championship competition the same year, almost duplicating Kim's feat of winning both the Junior and Senior World Championship titles in 1997.
Ahn began dominating the sport from the 2002–2003 season. As well as claiming four overall and 1500 m World Championship titles in a row between 2003 and 2006, Ahn excelled himself at 1000 m and 3000 m during that period and also starred with the Republic of Korea's 5000 m relay team. In all, he won a total of 23 medals in that prolific spell, and took the 2004 and 2006 World Cup titles for good measure. He also set the world records for the 1500 m in 2003 at World Cup #2 in Marquette and the 3000 m at World Cup #4 in Beijing, which he held for the following eight years.
National team 'recommendation system'
South Korea has produced many outstanding short track speed skaters and is highly competitive in selecting the national team. Their key method of selecting players is to automatically select the best players in advance according to the comprehensive podium rankings of the World Championships. However, there is a system that has disappeared after much controversy and factional fight. It was the 'recommendation system'.
South Korea's elite sports system was strictly a top-down relationship between leaders and athletes. and the factions were formed according to the leaders and the factions of the players were also determined by their universities and leaders. And the players was disadvantaged if he disobeyed the instructions from the factional leader. Viktor Ahn is one of these representative players.
Ahn graduated from Korea National Sport University. His leaders were Kim Ki-hoon, a three-time Olympic champion, and Jun Myung-kyu, former vice president of the Korea Skating Union who was also the head coach of the Korean short track speed skating team from 1987 to 2002. Ahn as a junior, consistently excelled in Korea's domestic competitions and captured the Overall title at the Junior World Championships. Though he initially didn't participate in the national team trial, he was subsequently recommended to join the 2002 national team as a substitute for an injured player. This recommendation came from Park Seong-in, the president of the Korea Skating Union, and Yoo Tae-wook, the federation's director. After observing Ahn's stellar performance at the Junior World Championships, head coach Jun Myung-kyu chose him for the Olympic team. In a bold move, Jun opted for the 16-year-old, who lacked international experience, to compete in the 1000 m individual event, a decision that faced opposition from the Korea Skating Union and others. The 2002 Olympics was his Senior international debut. In addition to Ahn, many athletes and leaders were recommended by the Korea Skating Union. They were Chae Ji-hoon, Chun Lee-kyung, Kim So-hee, Choi Min-kyung Ko Gi-hyun, Lee Ho-suk, and Choi Eun-kyung, and also included were Kim Dong-sung and Kim Sun-tae, who were injured and failed to participate in the national team trials.
This referral system was used to discover talented players and give opportunities to injured players. However, there were players who were alienated, which led to conflict. In 2006, the recommendation system for selection of representative players of the Korea Skating Union disappeared from the national team trials as the conflict of factional fighting was exposed to the public.
2002-2005, KNSU and Non-KNSU
Factional fight in south Korean ice skating was allegedly mentioned as a form of Korea National Sport University (KNSU) and non-Korea National Sport University. But it was far more complicated inside. The power struggle of first-generation ice skating leaders, which started in the 1990s, changed form and influenced leaders, their direct disciples and athletes and changed their relationship. In 2002, when Ahn became a member of the national team, it was the time when Korean society was noisy due to the corruption of the ice skating world. Athletes and parents, who were University entrance students, gave money to professors who were influential in the ice skating world, and the professor received it. And the person who reported the case and accused his senior of corruption is Jun Myung-Kyu who becomes professor at the Korea National Sport University. In June 2003, Ahn decided to enter the Korea National Sport University in spite of exceptional conditions, including the guarantee of professor posts in other universities. The recommendation system that selected Ahn for the national team in 2002 had been in place since 1995, even before Ahn's inclusion. but in the process, At 16, he became the emblematic figure of the Korea National Sport University and professor Jun. And those on the other side accused 16-year-old Ahn of being responsible for factional conflicts in Korea's skating world.
In 2003-2004, when Ahn's heyday began, conflicts in the ice skating world and the tyranny of leaders were serious. In the national team Jun Myung-kyu stepped down from his post due to poor performance at the 2002 Salt Lake Olympics, and Olympic medalists Kim Ki-hoon took over the men's national team, but in 2004, Kim was forced to resign due to the controversy over forcing his athletes to wear skates made by the family-run skating company. In November 2004, Choi Eun-kyung, Byun Chun-sa etc six women's team members left the athletes' village due to the coach's habitual beating scandal. The coaches for the women's team have all been replaced. Two months later, Ahn was assaulted at the Winter Universiade in January 2005. The men's team coach Yoon had to resign after the World Team Championships in March due to controversy over match-fixing and assault allegations raised at the time. Kim Ki-hoon was reelected coach of the men's team for the Turin 2006 Olympics instead of Yoon Jae-Myung. However, in April 2005, seven other non-Korea National Sport University athletes, with the exception of Ahn Hyun-soo, declined to enter the athletes' village. They insisted, The main person is fixed. We can't trust a coach who favours a specific player. At the end of the day, Kim Ki-hoon resigns, saying, "I can't teach these players anymore." Kim Ki-hoon was professor Jun's direct disciple. Kim is known to have passed on special know-how skating skills to Ahn.
Kim Ki-hoon mentioned in an interview in 2018: "Ahn hyun-soo was really outstanding. Teach him one thing and he really absorbs it in like a sponge. Ahn was not the only one to teach more. I coached everyone on the national team, but Ahn came to see me more often."
2005, Conflict with Korea Skating Union
Ahn was reported to be the victim of senior player Seo Ho-jin's assault at the 2005 Winter Universiade. Though Seo was expelled from the national team and Yoon Jae-myung, head coach for the event, was dismissed on charges of match-fixing, Seo returned to the national team for the 2006 Winter Olympics the next year.
Ahn refused to join the national team and take training in 2005 and also confronted with the leaders of the Korea Skating Union. In July 2005, parents and coaches, including Ahn and Choi Eun-kyung, Sung Si-bak held a press conference and exposed coach Yoon Jae-myung's Aiding and abetting assault. It also called for the resignation of all federation leaders and announced its absence from the 2006 Turin Olympics. As a result, coach Yoon's appointment has been canceled. However, the conflict at that time was at its peak. At the height of the conflict, the Korea Skating Union dismissed the national team coach Chun Jae-Su, who had called for the resignation of the entire leadership, accusing him of stirring unrest among parents and athletes. He was subsequently suspended for six months. As a result, Ahn declined to train with the national team. Parents further alleged that there was political pressure exerted by a national assembly member associated with the Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. This situation led Ahn to train with the women's team instead of the men's, presenting considerable challenges leading up to the 2006 Olympics. Prior to his naturalization in Russia in 2011, Ahn mentioned that during this difficult time, Sung Si-bak and Lee Seung-hoon, who weren't then part of the national team, supported him.
The issue came back to the fore after Ahn's victory as a Russian in the 2014 Winter Olympics, as the South Korean public questioned the Korea Skating Union of losing their biggest Olympic star. Regarding the uproar against him, Seo argued that the incident was just a form of discipline from senior to junior, but Ahn revealed in 2015 that he and his junior were hit with helmets on.
In 2014, some Korean media outlets criticized that there was a line that went down from Jun Myung-kyu - Kim Ki-hoon - Ahn Hyun-soo and it couldn't just blame the fact that the alienated players who became coaches held Ahn Hyun-soo in check to oppose Jun Myung-kyu, and Ahn Hyun-soo also wanted it or not, he also could not be free from the responsibility of factional fighting. However, in May 2005, The Hankyoreh newspaper reported:
The officials of the Korea Skating Union were investigated by police for receiving money from the father of a player who was disqualified for hitting a junior player at a Universiade in Austria earlier this year to return his son to the national team.
2006 Winter Olympics
At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Ahn won gold medals in the 1500 m and 1000 m events. He set a new Olympic record time of 1:26.739 in the 1000 m, finishing ahead of teammate Lee Ho-suk and rival Ohno. Ahn also won gold in men's 5000 m relay along with teammates Lee Ho-suk, Seo Ho-jin, and Song Suk-woo. With his patented outside overtaking maneuver, he overtook defending champion Canada to get his third gold medal of the Games. Ahn became the second South Korean athlete ever to win three gold medals in one Olympics, following Jin Sun-yu who had accomplished this earlier on the same day. He also won a bronze medal in the 500 m event. Ahn was the only athlete in Turin to step on to the podium four times.
Ahn became the first short track speed skater to win a medal in every distance at a single Games, a feat unprecedented by any athlete in his sport. He is the first South Korean man to win at least 3 medals in a single Winter Olympics.
Following the 2006 Olympics, Ahn maintained his record at the 2006 World Championships in Minneapolis. Despite being disqualified in the finals of the 500 m and 3000 m events, his victories in both the 1000 m and 1500 m events helped him defend his title with 68 points, followed by countryman Lee Ho-suk with 60 points. He became the first male short track skater to win four consecutive world titles.
After Torino
After the 2006 World Championships, Ahn flew back to South Korea. At Incheon International Airport, Ahn's father had a loud quarrel with the vice president of the Korea Skating Union (KSU), claiming that the coach did not associate with Ahn and conspired with other skaters to prevent Ahn from winning the title of overall champion.
Ahn collided with Lee Ho-suk and Oh Se-jong in the World Championship 3000m Super Final. The airport incident, which was reported on news screens, caused a stir in the media and the public along with factional issues. as a result, the Korea Skating Union said it would hold a committee meeting to consider disciplinary action. On April 26, 2006, the reward and punishment committee concluded that "it was not an intentional collision after playing the videos more than 100 times," and that Ahn Hyun-soo, Lee Ho-suk, and Oh Se-jong were all unintentional.
The South Korean short track team was split into two groups, in one of which Ahn was being coached by the women's coach Park Sae-woo due to conflicts with the men's coach Song Jae-kun. even though Ahn was the main player winning the gold medal in the Turin Olympics 5000m relay, the men's team members held a ceremony to their mentor commentator Lee Joon-ho, excluding only Ahn Hyun-soo. The tensions had risen so high that the skaters refused to dine in the same room, sit next to each other on the plane, or even share the same floor with each other. Ahn and Lee Ho-suk used to attend the same high school together, and even shared a room the previous year in skating camps, but due to the conflict they had begun to rarely speak to each other.
Ahn mentioned on his personal website that the pressure was too much for him and he contemplated quitting the sport. Due to the issue, KSU stated that starting next season, the team would be united under one head coach to prevent deleterious rivalries.
In spite of the conflicts, Ahn continued to dominate the sport. At the 2007 World Championships held in Milan, Ahn won his fifth world championship, finishing first in the 1000 m and in the 5000 m relay with teammates Kim Byeong-jun, Sung Si-bak, Song Kyung-taek, and Kim Hyun-kon. He also won silver in the 3000 m behind Song, and won two bronze medals in the 500 m and the 1500 m. With this victory, Ahn became the first man to win five consecutive world championships. Ahn is the only male short track skater to have won at least three consecutive world championships; Canadian short track legend Marc Gagnon has won four times, but his titles did not come back to back.
Injury in early 2008
On January 16, 2008, the Korea Skating Union (KSU) reported that Ahn had injured his knee after colliding with a fence during national team training at the Korea Training Center in Taeneung. The skate blade got stuck on the ice then the Ahn fell and bumped his knee on the fence. The fence, placed to absorb the shock, froze hard like a rock, causing serious injury rather than absorbing the impact. After being sent to the hospital, the injury was diagnosed as a fractured knee.
Due to the injury, KSU announced that Ahn would not be competing in the ISU Samsung World Cup Series #5 and #6 in Quebec City and Salt Lake City, respectively. It was also reported that he would not be competing in the 2008 World Championships in Gangneung or the 2008 World Team Championships in Harbin, China. As a result of the unexpected injury, it was clear that Ahn would be unable to defend his sixth World title, leaving his countrymen Lee Ho-suk, Song Kyung-taek, and Lee Seung-hoon to make up the ground. After undergoing three surgeries, his rehabilitation period was predicted to be around 2–3 months.
After eight months off the ice, a South Korean news article reported on September 5, 2008, that Ahn was back training, undergoing approximately two hours of physical reinforcement and skating along with around five hours of rehabilitation accompanied by muscular power training. The article also reported that Ahn was eyeing the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada.
However, his recovery from the injury was much slower than initially expected, and he had to undergo four surgeries in 15 months.
In 2009, Ahn finished seventh overall at the Korean national team trials, which was not enough for him to qualify for the Olympic team. Not having fully recovered from his injury, he again was unable to qualify for the national team in the following season.
In 2010-2011, Ahn served as a commentator for SBS Sports on the season's World Cup series and World Championships.
2010s
2010, Conflict with Korea Skating Union
In March 2010, Ahn's father, Ahn Ki-Won, revealed that Lee Jung-su forfeited the individual competition at the world championships because of external pressure, not injury. Athletes traded the rights to participate in the Olympics and the World Championships under the instructions of the coaches, and each other helped the Olympic national team trials. This incident had a huge impact. The players involved and the Vancouver Olympic coaches have all been disciplined. The leaders of the Korea Skating Union were all forced to resign.
Ahn became a whistleblower who informed the South Korean society of the dark side of Korean shorttrack speed skating of factional fight and match-fixing regardless of his will. And it took a toll on him, officially or informally. The selection of the national team was suddenly postponed, and Ahn Hyun-soo, overlapped with the four-week basic military training period, disrupted his own training plan. Suspicions have also been raised that he missed an Olympic opportunity by disobeying the factional leader's words. Noise and controversy continued around him regarding factional issues and the way the national team was selected.
And his team Seongnam City declared a moratorium in July 2010 and decided to dismantle the ice skating team in December 2010. But there was not a team to scouted Ahn Hyun-soo.
Naturalization to Russia
Ahn last competed as a South Korean citizen at the national team trials in April 2011, where he took gold in the 500 m. Prior to the trials, his local team Seongnam City Hall dissolved due to financial reasons, and therefore Ahn had to train by himself. Shortly before this competition, he informed the South Korean media that it would be his farewell performance. Ahn finished fifth overall at the national team trials. After the trials, Ahn announced that he will be moving to Russia because he wanted to skate in an environment where he could concentrate in skating, apart from the issues surrounding him.
He moved to Russia in June 2011 and decided to naturalize on July. On December 28, 2011, he was officially granted a Russian nationality by President Dmitry Medvedev. His Korean nationality was automatically extinguished by the South Korean nationality law, which does not allow dual nationality. Since then, South Korean media has reported that he received the full Olympic medal pension in July 2011, and decided to naturalized to Russia in August. Based on this, when the Korea skating coach union pointed out "pension receipt" due to "morality" issues in the process of hiring Seongnam City coach in 2023, Viktor Ahn said he decided on everything in July 2011 and donated the entire pension just before Russian naturalization for the first time in 12 years.
In a 2015 documentary aired on South Korea's MBC, Ahn disclosed that there was pressure from Korea Skating Union an official just before his naturalization in Russia. The official warned. "This athlete is a problematic player in South Korea and should never be accepted."
2011, Conflict with the South Korean coaches
South Korean coaches and staff were already in Russia before Ahn decided to go to Russia. But in October 2011, the Russian Skating Union fired everyone, leaving Viktor Ahn alone. According to South Korean media reports at the time, 'internal conflicts between leaders', 'South Korean experts never notified Russian coaches how to prepare skating equipment accordingly in shorttrack speed skating', 'compulsory training ' and 'corporal punishment on athletes' were the reasons for the dismissal.
At that time, however, there were rumors in South Korea that Ahn was reluctant to undergo Korean-style training again. After this incident, Ahn's wife Woo Nari and coach Hwang Ik-hwan who were coach of his team for Seongnam City just before his naturalization, were invited to Russia for Viktor Ahn's rehabilitation and psychotherapy. Along with this incident during the 2014 Sochi Olympics, the 2004 women's short track team assault incident was re-examined. This is because the assault incident of women player team in 2004, and one of the coaches who had a conflict with Viktor Ahn in Russia in 2011 was on the coaching staff of the South Korea national team.
About this issue, coach Hwang Ik-hwan had an interview as follows. "Hyun-soo won first place in the 500m in the last national trial in Korea before going to Russia. In other words, his physical condition was not bad. However, he was in the worst slump when I met him after six months. Even after they were expelled from the Russian Skating Union, Hyun-soo could not easily get out of that wound for a while."
In 2018, an official from the Korean skating world also revealed the following. "Viktor Ahn had to went through hard time in the early days of settling in Russia. And he was able to train normally only after the Russian Skating Union fired the coach."
Heading to Sochi
Ahn participated in the Russian national team trials for the 2011–2012 season and was selected as a relay member for the season. He made his debut as a Russian short track speed skater at World Cup #5 in Moscow.
In the national trials for the 2012–2013 season, Ahn won the 1000 m and 3000 m events, successfully pulling off to the national team. At World Cup #1 in Calgary, he won his first individual gold in the international stage since his knee injury four years ago. He also contributed to Russia's first-ever relay gold at World Cup #5 in Sochi, making an inside pass that reminded of performances in his heyday.
Ahn came through the Olympic season with flying colors, finishing second in the overall World Cup rankings and winning four golds at the 2014 European Championships. While his knee injury did not allow him to top the 1500 m races that he had dominated when representing Korea, his experience, technique, and exclusive training on the 500 m helped Ahn lead the distance in the World Cup rankings.
2014 Winter Olympics
At the 2014 Winter Olympics, Ahn won the bronze medal in the 1500 m event, which was the first short track speed skating medal that Russia had ever earned. Ahn then won the first Russian gold medal in short track, winning the 1000 m event by leading the first Russian 1–2 finish in short track with Vladimir Grigorev. On February 21, Ahn won his seventh overall and fifth Winter Olympic gold medal when he finished first in the 500 m men's final. With that gold medal, he became the first short track skater to win all four Olympic golds, the 500 m, 1000 m, 1500 m, and 5000 m relay. He also became the short track speed skater with the most Olympic gold medals, with five, which increased to six with a 5000 m relay win later the same day. With that gold, he became the short tracker with the most Olympic medals, at eight, tied with Apolo Ohno; he also became the short tracker with the most Olympic gold medals, at six.
After his victory, Koreans came to an uproar questioning the Korea Skating Union of the reason for Ahn's naturalization, which eventually caused Korean President Park Geun-hye to order an investigation on the issue. Contrary to the public opinion in Korea, Ahn contended that he did not move to Russia because of factionalism. He also added that his father, who had argued Ahn was the victim of faction fight in Korea, was contradicting him, and going to the Olympics was the sole reason why he made the difficult decision to come to Russia. Ahn expressed his concern that though his relationship with the Korean athletes had no problems, the press was making them awkward.
After Sochi
In the 2014 World Championships held a month after the Olympics, Ahn won the 1000 m and finished third in the 3000 m, grabbing his sixth world title by 63 points. He became the only man to win six world championships in the sport.
After his prolific season, Ahn continued his skating career despite a part-move into coaching. He missed the 2015–2016 season due to knee problems and his wife's pregnancy. In an interview after the 2016 World Championships, which he did not take part in but did watch, he told the press that doctors have warned him undergoing extra surgery would jeopardize his career, and thus he is working on adding muscles to relieve the pain.
Ahn continued to win medals at the World and European championships for Russia. He won bronze in the 500 m and silver in the 5000 m relay at the 2017 European Championships, and won silver in the 500 m race at the 2018 European Championships. Although Ahn had planned to retire after participating the 2018 Winter Olympics in his native South Korea, he missed out the Olympics in the wake of the alleged sports doping in Russia. The IOC did not disclose the specific reasons for banning Ahn, only mentioning "lingering suspicions" about doping use regarding the country. Ahn, who had never tested positive for drugs, challenged the decision writing an open letter to IOC President Thomas Bach, but he was not answered.
Retirement
Ahn decided to retire from the sport and return to his home country of South Korea after rejecting an offer to coach the Russian team in September 2018.
After stepping off ice, Ahn starred in the South Korean variety-reality show Real Man 300. He was also noticed working as a player-coach at Korea National Sports University.
In 2018, Ahn received an offer as a national team leader from the South Korea as well as the Russia national team. A senior South Korean official revealed in February of that year that there had been informal discussions and the final decision rested with Ahn. However, the Korea Skating Union was soon mired in controversy due to an assault on a female player and a related #MeToo incident involving a national team coach, which drew significant attention in South Korean society and led to government investigations. Amid the tumultuous events within the Korea Skating Union, Viktor Ahn's discussions to lead the South Korean national team were hindered by his controversies and lack of coaching experience. The offer ultimately dissolved when he rejoined the Russian national team for the 2019-2020 season.
In February 2019, Ahn reversed his decision, announcing that he wanted to compete as an athlete.
Aged 33, he won silver in the 500 m and 1000 m races respectively at the ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup in Salt Lake City and Shanghai before anchoring Russia to gold in the mixed gender 2,000 m relay and men's 5,000 m relay.
In April 2020, Ahn revealed that knee problems were affecting his ability to train and that it was time for him to finally finish his skating career. In his retirement statement, he announced he will continue to work for the sport.
2020s
2022 Winter Olympics
In 2018, Ahn was offered a coaching position for China's national speed skating team by Wang Meng, who had been Ahn's acquaintance since 2002. Although Ahn declined the offer in 2018, he accepted the offer in late 2019.
As the top assistant of Kim Sun-tae, head coach for China's short track team in the 2022 Winter Olympics and previous head coach for Korea's short track team in the 2018 Winter Olympics, Ahn helped Chinese players win two gold medals, one silver medal, and one bronze medal in Beijing. His training style was to skate with the athletes throughout the sessions, so that they could naturally learn how to make steps.
When Korean skaters were disqualified during the men's 1000 m semifinals, arousing short track speed skating controversies, South Korean netizens directed anger and criticism towards Ahn, who was seen congratulating his team for winning gold in the 2000 m mixed relay.
In addition, some Korean media and the public have remarked that he received an Olympic medal pension ('sports pension') just prior to his naturalization in Russia.
Regarding the Olympic medal pension, he has already been confirmed to have received the most 'sports pension' among South Korean sports athletes through a parliamentary audit by the South Korean National Assembly in October 2012. During his career, he received a pension of more than 370 million won from the state.
"The receipt of the Olympic medal pension" has been raised since his naturalization, but it has not been much controversy. However, in 2021, his junior Lin Xiaojun (Lim Hyo-jun), an Olympic gold medalist, was known to have decided to naturalize to China, and major South Korean media compared Lin XiaoJun, who was naturalized to China over the repeated naturalization of Korean ace athletes to other countries and pensions for the first time in 10 years. And anti-Chinese sentiment during the 2022 Beijing Olympics has raised criticism over his receipt of the Olympic medal pension.
Not responding to interview requests during the Games, Ahn shared his thoughts on the issue in March in an interview with the Korean press by saying, "I kept a stiff upper lip because I didn't want to be an irresponsible person. Due to the nature of the sport, judgment problems can occur at any time. All players come to the game with the mindset that they should be careful about decision issues, but the unexpected often happens on ice." Regarding the accusations that were poured on not only him but also his family, Ahn said, "It suddenly occurred to me that if I gave up short track speed skating, this controversy would end," adding, "I thought I had been supported for my passion and games, but it was heartbreaking to see unexpected things lead to criticism." He yet stated that despite the adversities, he won't be leaving the sport.
After the Olympics, Ahn rejected a four-year coaching position and returned to Korea, having not met his family for 19 months due to Covid-19 situations. Furthermore, Ahn declined long-term leadership offers from third countries outside of South Korea, China, and Russia.
Failure to return to South Korea for coaching
In 2023, Ahn returned to South Korea and applied to be a coach for Seongnam City's short track speed skating team. However, he is under huge criticism from the South Korean short track speed skating coaches as he has helped South Korean rival China to gain medals during the 2022 Beijing Olympics. The Korea skating coach union urged "Seongnam City to appoint a coach that meets the public eye level" and criticized Ahn that he "lied during the naturalization process and betrayed his country", avoiding the fact that Ahn was mistreated by the Korea Skating Union after his injuries. In late January, Seongnam City's short track speed skating team announced that no one is qualified to be a coach, meaning that Ahn is unlikely to be coach for his homeland. After Seongnam City has since announced that there are no successful candidates, and the city ultimately decided not to fill the vacant coaching position.
since then, the Korea skating coach union has been known as a close aide to a specific candidate, and suspicions have been raised that the disciplinary history of a specific candidate has not been raised. As a result, some South Korean media outlets suggested that there was a factional power struggle and political involvement in the ice skating world.
Following South Korea's rejection of Viktor Ahn, through TASS, Russian Skating Union president expressed that they would like to appoint Ahn. In 2022, Russia invited Viktor Ahn to become an advisor to the Skating Union, but he refused due to objections by Ahn's wife. While Russia sports media outlet Sport Express urged Ahn to return to Russia as a leader.
On February 7, Viktor Ahn expressed his position on the controversy over Russian naturalization on his social network service (SNS) after "received a lump-sum payment of the athletes' pension," which the Korea skating coach union pointed out as a moral issue. At first, he thought dual citizenship was possible. However, when he found out that he had to give up his Korean nationality, he decided that it was right to return the Olympic medal pension he received. And before naturalization in Russia, he made a full donation to "children in need of heart surgery and junior athletes in need of rehabilitation and treatment." Since then, some of the pensions have been delivered to the family of Noh Jin-kyu, his junior athlete at the Korean National Sport University, according to a South Korean ice skating official. Ahn then said that he would humbly accept the criticism of choosing naturalization for any reason, but he said he would raise speak out when there is misunderstanding.
On February 9, The Hankyoreh pointed out Seongnam City's negligence in administration in that Ahn's coaching support was exposed in advance in connection with the recruitment of the ice skating team at Seongnam City. While the Korea Skating Coaches Union pointed out that it was not the opinion of the Korean ice skating leaders as a whole, and that it was a serious problem for the media to report the opinions of certain unofficial organizations as the opinions of the entire leaders.
South Korean leadership activities
On April 13, 2023, South Korean media reported as follows. Viktor Ahn will participate as a coach for multiple skaters in the 2023-24 season for the South Korean national team trials. He personally coached young skaters at the Korea National Sport University after the 2022 Beijing Olympics. Among them, seven players from high school and Korea National Sport University wrote him as a leader on the application form for participation in the national team trials. This is Ahn's first official South Korean leadership acitivity.
According to JTBC, Ahn completed the Korea Skating Union's "leader's lesson" in Korea after the 2022 Beijing Olympics. According to the Korea Sports Association and the Korea Skating Union Registration Regulations, which have been changed since April 12, 2021 due to years of "violation of human rights of ice sports" and "ethical controversy of ice coaches" in Korea, even a leader who has obtained a "coach national license" must complete a leader course before he can serve as a leader of the Korea Skating Union.
Conflict with mentor
This issue that has been consistently mentioned due to Ahn's choice of naturalization in Russia is the issues of conflict with his mentor, Jun Myung-kyu, vice president of the Korea Skating Union. According to Korean medias, Professor Jun was the planner of all Ahn's career paths. Jun was Ahn's professor. And he was Ahn's personal coach in 2007. However, Ahn disobeyed the professor Jun's words.
In 2014, his father and Lee Joon-ho, who was the former coach of the national team, said the following. : "Ahn, was set to graduate from Korea National Sport University in 2007. Ahn chose the Seongnam City Hall Short track team that Professor Jun did not want, and the relationship between Professor Jun and Ahn was estranged". During the Olympics, Chang Myung-hee, former president of the Korea Skating Union, also said that Vice-President Jun Myung-kyu had abused his authority, and Ahn was disadvantaged. In fact, the conflict with factional leaders was also mentioned by the South Korean media in 2010. In 2018, Another a Korean skating official commented, "A mere 16 days after Viktor Ahn joined the Seongnam City Hall skating team, he sustained a severe injury during training. Subsequently, Seongnam City Hall suspended the team's operations. Ahn's strained relationship with Jun Myung-kyu, the president of Korea Ice Skating, made it challenging for him to find a suitable place to train and compete within the country."
In March 2014, Professor Jun stepped down as vice-president of the Korean Skaters Union. However, in 2014, Ahn and the Korea Skating Union denied any conflicts or factional issues.
The assault of the women's short track team coach during the 2018 PyeongChang Olympics and the athletes' discord over women's speed skating factions raised the issue of the responsibility of Samsung, which had sponsored the Korea Skating Union and the Korea Skating Union. The Korea Skating Union was investigated by the government, including the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. Viktor Ahn and Professor Jun have returned to the agenda. However, in February 2018, Viktor Ahn sent a text message to South Korean Culture, Sports and Tourism Committee Member of parliament Ahn Min-seok. Ahn Min-seok said that Ahn hyun-soo has a good relationship with Professor Jun Myung-kyu, and released it to the South Korean media.
In March 2022, Viktor Ahn said Yonhap News Agency in an interview that he had never been disadvantaged by the Korean Skating Union.
See also
Korea Skating Union
Style
"Ahn is a master of short track speed skating, particularly in controlling the track during competition." - Wu Dajing
"In terms of his racing strategy, when he's following the other skaters, he's not really just following. He's always waiting for that perfect chance to pass." - Chae Ji-hoon
"Viktor Ahn, as he's now called, is the most beautiful short track skating athlete in the world in terms of his technique and the way he skates." "If there is any athlete that is designed for short track, body-type wise, it is him," "If you watch him stand and jog, his pelvic is tilted forward naturally, which is perfect for a skater. He has incredible technique, tons of experience." - Apolo Anton Ohno
Awards and honors
Representing Korea
Ahn was awarded the Outstanding Player Award at the Sports Chosun Coca-Cola Sports Awards in January 2006. After his victory in Torino, he was selected as Player of the Month by the American Sports Academy. He was also named as honorary ambassador for the PyeongChang Winter Olympics bidding committee with Jin Sun-yu.
In 2008, Ahn was selected as the Most Valuable Player with Lee Kyou-hyuk and Yuna Kim by the Korea Skating Union. In the same year, he also received the Men's Team Award at the Asian Sports Awards. with Lee Ho-seok, Song Suk-woo, Oh Se-jong, and Seo Ho-jin.
Ahn was chosen as the ambassador for the Korea Sports Promotion Foundation in 2009.
Representing Russia
In March 2013, Ahn was named as Merited Master of Sport by the Russian Federation.
After his feat in Sochi, Ahn was awarded the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland" from Russian President Vladimir Putin and the Medal "For Strengthening of Brotherhood in Arms"". He was also selected Most Valuable Player in the Sochi Winter Olympics by NBC, and 2014 Athlete of the Year by the Russian edition of 'GQ' magazine. In light of his status as a South Korean-born Russian, Ahn was further named as honorary ambassador for the 2014-2015 Korea-Russia Year of Mutual Visit in 2014.
In 2016, Ahn received the Proud Alumnus Award at his alma mater. He was also inducted into the Korea National Sports University Ice Rink Hall of Fame as the 2006 Winter Olympics champion and the Sochi Walk of Fame as the 2014 Winter Olympics champion.
Personal life
Ahn is married to Woo Nari (), a Korean born in 1983. Nari was a member of Ahn's fan club. Ahn said that her presence and care helped him adapt to Russia. Their daughter was born in December 2015. But his wife, Woo Nari, couldn't endure the life in Russia and missed South Korea, so eventually left Russia. The Russian media reported that his wife wanted to raise their daughter in South Korea, and Viktor Ahn's choice to go to South Korea was influenced by his wife.
Ahn's younger brother is speed skater Ahn Hyun-Jun. He made the Korean national speed skating team for the 2022–23 season. The younger Ahn switched from short track to speed skating in 2021.
Russian citizenship
Ahn trained in Russia and received Russian citizenship to compete for Russia in the 2014 Winter Olympics. Ahn's father stated that the decision was due to lack of support from the South Korean skating association. Prior to moving to Russia, Ahn did not know the Russian language and had no familial ties to Russia. He had considered competing for the United States, but found that the process for gaining Russian citizenship was much easier. He chose "Viktor" as his Russian name as it derived from Victory, and to pay tribute to Viktor Tsoi, a Soviet rock star of ethnic Korean descent.
In South Korea, fury erupted over the loss of Ahn to Team Russia, after his participation in the 2014 Winter Olympics. Several newspapers reported the scorn of the South Korean public and newspaper editors on the actions of the skating federation. Right after the Olympics, the Minister of Sports and President Park Geun-hye of South Korea both promised action in rooting out corruption and feuding at the organization that may have led to Ahn's "defection", in a bid to clean it up in preparation for the 2018 Winter Olympics in South Korea. In September 2018, Ahn announced his retirement from short track and moved back to South Korea. The South Korean public was generally supportive of Ahn in early 2014, but he also received online bashing amidst controversies at Sochi and in later years. In 2023, Ahn sought a coaching position in South Korea, despite having renounced his South Korean citizenship when becoming Russian. He was denied that position due to significant public opposition.
Political issues
In 2011, Ahn's decision to naturalize became a contentious political issue, with some attributing the responsibility to Seongnam Mayor at the time, Lee Jae-myung. By 2014, Lee defended himself by emphasizing that the state-supervised Korean Skating Union should be held accountable rather than the leaders of Local government. A significant development occurred in February 2022 when Won Hee-ryong, associated with Yoon Suk Yeol's People's Power presidential campaign, asserted that Viktor Ahn's choice to become a Russian national was influenced by Lee Jae-myung. Won Hee-ryong further claimed that the halting of operations for the Seongnam City Hall ice skating team was a disguise for bankruptcy and alleged that 30 billion won from Seongnam City's funds were diverted to acquire Seongnam FC in a bid to boost the mayor's re-election prospects. The Democratic Party of Korea refuted the allegations, deeming them false. Concurrently, Korean ice skating officials emphasized the difficulty in isolating a single cause, especially when injuries and team disbandments coincided with ongoing factional controversies within the ice skating community. As of 2022, Lee Jae-myung faces legal scrutiny for allegedly accepting 17 billion won in unauthorized bribes from companies, masked as donations to Seongnam FC.
Notes
He can restore his South Korean nationality under the South Korean nationality law. In 2003, at the age of 17, he was exempted from military service by winning three gold medals at the Asian Games and finished his four-weeks of basic military training in 2010. For sports personnels who are exempted from active duty are recognized to have completed 34 months of military service if they have spent time as athletes in their field. In September 2018, A South Korean Ministry of National Defense official said in an interview with South Korean media. "Ahn hyun-soo has already completed his military service".
But if Ahn gets his South Korean citizenship back, he has to renounce his Russian citizenship.
In the media
In the 2010–2011 season, Ahn served as a short track commentator for SBS Sports. He covered the World Cup series (#3~#6) and the World Championships.
From 2014 to 2016, he guest-starred in three episodes of Russia's late-night talk show Evening Urgant (episodes S3.E90, S4.E104, S5.E157).
From 2017 to 2018, Ahn guest-starred in the South Korean variety-reality show The Return of Superman (episodes 202~204, 237, 241) with his daughter.
In 2018, he starred in the South Korean variety-reality show Real Man 300 (episodes 1~15, 18).
Other television appearances of Ahn are as follows:
Han Su-jin's Sunday Click (South Korean talk show) - with Jin Sun-yu (episode 49)
Human Docu Love (South Korean documentary) - with wife Woo Nari (episodes 44, 45)
Live Talk Show Taxi (South Korean talk show) - with wife Woo Nari (episode 488)
Detailed results
Olympics results
World Championships Podiums results
Six-time Overall world champion. 20 world titles. 18 gold medals.
Overall points and medals results
World Team Championships
World Cup Podiums results
2 times Overall World Cup winner, 6 time individual distances World Cup winner, 67 World Cup victories
World Cup Ranking Podiums
World Cup medals results
67 Gold medals
37 Silver medals
25 Bronze medals
National competitions
References
External links
Victor An at ShorttrackOnLine.info
Victor An at Olympics.com
Victor An at Olympedia
Victor An at IMDb
1985 births
Living people
Russian male short track speed skaters
South Korean male short track speed skaters
Short track speed skaters at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Short track speed skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Short track speed skaters at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Olympic short track speed skaters for Russia
Olympic short track speed skaters for South Korea
Olympic bronze medalists for Russia
Olympic bronze medalists for South Korea
Olympic gold medalists for Russia
Olympic gold medalists for South Korea
Olympic medalists in short track speed skating
Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Russian people of Korean descent
Naturalised citizens of Russia
South Korean emigrants to Russia
Speed skaters from Seoul
Asian Games medalists in short track speed skating
Short track speed skaters at the 2003 Asian Winter Games
Short track speed skaters at the 2007 Asian Winter Games
Asian Games gold medalists for South Korea
Asian Games silver medalists for South Korea
Medalists at the 2003 Asian Winter Games
Medalists at the 2007 Asian Winter Games
South Korean male speed skaters
Russian male speed skaters
Universiade medalists in short track speed skating
World Short Track Speed Skating Championships medalists
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 4th class
FISU World University Games gold medalists for South Korea
Universiade bronze medalists for South Korea
Competitors at the 2005 Winter Universiade
Korea National Sport University alumni
Olympic coaches |
4056451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Roman%20Calendar%20of%201954 | General Roman Calendar of 1954 | This article lists the feast days of the General Roman Calendar as they were at the end of 1954. It is essentially the same calendar established by Pope Pius X (1903–1914) following his liturgical reforms, but it also incorporates changes that were made by Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), such as the institution of the Feast of Christ the King (assigned to the last Sunday in October), and the changes made by Pope Pius XII (1939–1958) prior to 1955, chief among them the imposition of the Feast of the Immaculate Heart of Mary upon the universal Church (August 22, on the existing octave day of the Assumption) in 1944, the inscription of Pius X into the General Calendar (September 3) following his 1954 canonization, and the institution of the Feast of the Queenship of Mary (May 31) in October 1954.
The changes that the latter Pope made in 1955 are indicated in General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII. They included: a revision of the Church's traditional ranking of liturgical days; the institution of the feast of St. Joseph the Worker on May 1 as a Double of the I Class, requiring the transfer of Ss. Philip and James to May 11; the suppression of the Solemnity of Saint Joseph, which for just over a century had been celebrated on the second Wednesday after the Octave of Easter. A total of fifteen Octaves—all those except Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas—were also suppressed in the reform of 1955, as were most vigils (specifically, the vigils of all apostles save for that of Ss. Peter and Paul, and the vigils of the Immaculate Conception, Epiphany, and All Saints).
Five years later, Pope John XXIII made a further revision with the motu proprio Rubricarum instructum of July 23, 1960. This revision, the General Roman Calendar of 1960, was incorporated in the Roman Missal of 1962, which was issued as implementation of this motu proprio The 1960 calendar is thus the calendar approved by Pope Benedict XVI with his July 7, 2007 document Summorum Pontificum for use as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite.
The General Roman Calendar was again revised in 1969, in connection with the revision of the Roman Missal, and later. For its current state, see General Roman Calendar.
For most of the celebrations here listed, the Mass is found in the Roman Missal of the time in the section called the "Proper of the Saints", but for those occurring from 24 December to 13 January it is found in the "Proper of the Season", as these days do not move with respect to the seasons of the Church year. The Offices of these feasts are likewise arranged in the Breviary.
While the General Calendar of 1954 is generally not authorized for liturgical use by traditional groups in communion with the Holy See, some sedevacantists continue to use it, as well as Old Roman Catholics, as their members consider it to be the last calendar untainted by the revisions that began in 1955. Indults have been granted, however, to certain communities in full communion with Rome, such as some apostolates of the Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest and the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter.
Rank of feast days
The ranking of feast days that had grown from an original division between doubles and simples and that by the time of the Tridentine Calendar included semidoubles, with Pope Clement VIII adding in 1604 to the distinction between first and second class doubles the new rank of greater double, was in until 1955, when Pope Pius XII abolished the rank of semidouble.
The rank of feast days determines which Mass is said when two feast days occur on the one day, as well as when a feast day falls on Sundays or certain other privileged days. Feast days were classified as Simple, Semidouble, or Double, with feast days of the Double Rite further divided into Double of the I Class, Double of the II Class, Greater Double or Major Double, and Double, in order of descending rank. On ferias and many feast days of simple rank, the celebrant was permitted to substitute a Mass of his own choice such as a votive Mass, or a Mass for the Dead.
What the original meaning of the term "double" may have been is not entirely certain. Some think that the greater festivals were thus styled because the antiphons before and after the psalms were "doubled", i.e. twice repeated entire on these days. Others, with more probability, point to the fact that before the ninth century in certain places, for example at Rome, it was customary on the greater feast days to recite two sets of Matins, the one of the feria or week-day, the other of the festival. Hence such days were known as "doubles".
The Catholic Encyclopedia of the early years of the twentieth century shows the incremental crowding of the calendar (which had increased further by 1954) in the following table based on the official revisions of the Roman Breviary in 1568, 1602, 1631, 1882 and on the situation in 1907.
In 1907, when, in accordance with the rules in force since the time of Pope Pius V, feast days of any form of double, if impeded by falling on the same day with a feast day of higher class, were transferred to another day, this classification of feast days was of great practical importance for deciding which feast day to celebrate on any particular day. Pope Pius X simplified matters considerably in his 1911 reform of the Roman Breviary. In the case of occurrence the lower-ranking feast day could become a commemoration within the celebration of the higher-ranking one. Further retouches were made by Pope Pius XII in 1955, Pope John XXIII in 1960, and Pope Paul VI in 1969.
Sundays
Sundays were divided into greater and lesser Sundays, with the greater Sundays being further divided into two classes. The Greater Sundays of the I class were the I Sunday of Advent, the four Sundays of Lent, Passion Sunday, Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Low Sunday, and Pentecost. No feast day whatsoever could be celebrated on these days, although they admitted commemorations except on Easter and Pentecost. Greater Sundays of the II class permitted the celebration of Doubles of the I Class only, and consisted of the other three Sundays in Advent and the three pre-Lenten Sundays. All other Sundays (II to V after Easter and the Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost, except for those that might occur during an Octave, which followed the rules for the Octave), were lesser Sundays or Sundays per annum ("through the year"), and only the celebration of Doubles of the I or II Class, or a feast of the Lord, took precedence over them. The Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity was a special case, due to the fixed date of Christmas and the high rank of the feast days following it. If December 29, 30, or 31 were a Sunday, the Mass assigned to it was celebrated on that day; otherwise, it was celebrated on December 30.
Before the reform of Pope Pius X in 1911, ordinary Doubles took precedence over most of the Semidouble Sundays, resulting in many of the Sunday Masses rarely being said. While retaining the Semidouble rite for Sundays, the reform permitted only the most important feast days, Doubles of the I or II class, to be celebrated on Sunday. When a feast of the rank of double of the I or II class fell on a Sunday, the Mass would be that of the feast, with a commemoration of the occurring Sunday; the Gospel of the omitted Sunday Mass would be read at the end of Mass instead of the usual Gospel "In principio erat Verbum" of St. John. When a feast of a rank lower than that occurred with a Sunday, the feast would be commemorated in the Sunday Mass by including a commemoration of the feast, and its Gospel would be read at the end of Mass, provided it was a "proper" Gospel, i.e. one not taken from the Common.<ref>Additiones et Variationes in Rubricis Missalis, IX, 3.</ref>
Following the reform of Pope Pius X, only three feasts were assigned to a Sunday: the feast days of the Holy Name, the Holy Family, and the Most Holy Trinity. A fourth, Christ the King, was added in 1925.
Ferias
Ferias also were classified into three categories:
Greater privileged ferias: Ash Wednesday and Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of Holy Week. No feast day could be celebrated on these days.
Greater non-privileged ferias: The ferias of Advent, Lent, and Passion Week, Rogation Monday, and the Ember Days. Any feast day except a Simple could occur on these days, with a commemoration of the feria.
On all other ferias, any feast day of whatever rank could be celebrated without any commemoration of the feria.
Ember Days are four separate sets of three days within the same week — specifically, the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday — roughly equidistant in the circuit of the year, that were formerly set aside for fasting and prayer. These days set apart for special prayer and fasting were considered especially suitable for the ordination of clergy. The Ember Days are known in Latin as quatuor tempora (the "four seasons"), or jejunia quatuor temporum'' ("fasts of the four seasons"). They occur in the weeks between the third and fourth Sundays of Advent, between the first and second Sundays of Lent, between Pentecost and Trinity Sunday, and beginning the first Wednesday after the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (September 14), which is between the liturgical third and fourth Sundays of September.
Rogation Days are, in the calendar of the Western Church, four days traditionally set apart for solemn processions to invoke God's mercy. They are April 25, the Major Rogation (or Greater Litanies), coinciding with St. Mark's Day (but transferred to the following Tuesday if they fell on Easter); and the three days preceding Ascension Thursday, the Minor Rogations (or Lesser Litanies). These are indicated below in the main body of the calendar and in the Movable Feasts section.
Vigils
In the Tridentine Calendar the vigils of Christmas, the Epiphany, and Pentecost were called "major vigils"; the rest were "minor" or "common" vigils In early times, every feast day had a vigil, but the increase in the number of feast days and abuses connected with the evening and night service of which the vigils originally consisted, led to their diminishment. Nevertheless, the Roman Rite kept many more vigils than other Latin liturgical rites such as the Ambrosian Rite and the Mozarabic Rite. If a Vigil fell on a Sunday, it was transferred to the previous Saturday, although the Vigil of Christmas took precedence over the IV Sunday of Advent.
Prior to the suppression of some vigils by Pope Pius XII in 1955, there were three classes of Vigils. The Vigils of Christmas and Pentecost were of the I class, and took precedence over any feast day. The Vigil of Epiphany was of the II class, and permitted only Doubles of the I or II classes, or any feast of the Lord. All other vigils were "common" and took precedence only over ferias and Simple feast days, but were anticipated on Saturday if they fell on Sunday. Most feasts of the Apostles had Vigils; the exceptions being those that fell in Eastertide, when Vigils were not permitted. The Vigil of St. Matthias was unique, in that it was normally commemorated on February 23, the feast day of St. Peter Damian, but in leap year, was kept on February 24, the traditional leap day of the Roman calendar.
Octaves
The Tridentine Calendar had many octaves, without any indication in the calendar itself of distinction of rank between them, apart from the fact that the Octave Day (the final day of the octave) was ranked higher than the days within the octave. Several octaves overlapped, so that, for instance, on 29 December the prayer of the saint of the day, Saint Thomas Becket, was followed by the prayers of Christmas, of Saint Stephen, of Saint John the Evangelist and of the Holy Innocents. The situation remained such until the reform of Pope Pius X.
To cut down on the monotony of repeating the same prayers in Mass and Office every day for eight days, Pope Pius X classified the octaves as "privileged", "common" or "simple"
The privileged octaves were of three "ranks". The first rank belonged to the octaves of Easter and Pentecost (no feast day could be celebrated in these octaves or even, until Vespers on Tuesday, be commemorated), the second to those of Epiphany and Corpus Christi (the Octave Day ranked as a Greater Double, the days within the octave as Semidoubles, giving way only to Doubles of the I Class, and on the Octave day itself only to a Double of the I class that was celebrated in the entire Church), the third rank to those of Christmas, the Ascension, and the Sacred Heart (these gave way to any feast day above the level of Simple).
The common octaves were those of the Immaculate Conception, the Assumption, the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist, the Solemnity of Saint Joseph, Saints Peter and Paul, and All Saints, as well as, locally, the principal patron saint of a church, cathedral, order, town, diocese, province, or nation. These too gave way to any feast day above the level of Simple; the difference between these and the third privileged rank was that ferial psalms were said during common octaves, while the psalms from the feast day were used during privileged octaves.
The simple octaves were those of Saint Stephen, Saint John the Evangelist, the Holy Innocents, Saint Lawrence, the Nativity of Mary and, locally, secondary patrons. These were all Doubles of the II class, their Octave day was a Simple and, in contrast to the situation before Pope Pius X, their Mass was not repeated nor a Commemoration made, except on the Octave day, as simple Octaves had no days within the Octave.
In Pope Pius XII's reform, only the octaves of Christmas, Easter and Pentecost were kept. The days within the Easter and Pentecost octaves were raised to double rite, had precedence over all feast days, and did not admit commemorations.
January
1: Circumcision of the Lord and Octave of the Nativity, Double of the II Class.
2: Octave of St. Stephen Protomartyr, Simple.
3: Octave of St. John Apostle and Evangelist, Simple.
4: Octave of the Holy Innocents Martyrs, Simple.
5: Vigil of the Epiphany, Semidouble, Com. of St. Telesphorus Pope and Martyr.
6: Epiphany of the Lord, Double of the I Class with a privileged Octave of the II rank.
7: Of the II day within the Octave of the Epiphany, Semidouble.
8: Of the III day within the Octave of the Epiphany, Semidouble.
9: Of the IV day within the Octave of the Epiphany, Semidouble.
10: Of the V day within the Octave of the Epiphany, Semidouble.
11: Of the VI day within the Octave of the Epiphany, Semidouble, Com. of St. Hyginus Pope and Martyr.
12: Of the VII day within the Octave of the Epiphany, Semidouble.
13: Octave of the Epiphany, Greater Double.
14: St. Hilary Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of St. Felix Priest and Martyr.
15: St. Paul first hermit, Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Maurus.
16: St. Marcellus I Pope and Martyr, Semidouble.
17: St. Anthony Abbot, Double.
18: Chair of St. Peter Apostle at Rome, Greater Double, Com. of St. Paul Apostle, and of St. Prisca Virgin and Martyr.
19: Ss. Marius, Martha, Audifax, and Abachum Martyrs, Simple, Com. of St. Canute, Martyr.
20: Ss. Fabian Pope and Sebastian Martyrs, Double.
21: St. Agnes, Roman Virgin and Martyr, Double
22: Ss. Vincent and Anastasius Martyrs, Semidouble.
23: St. Raymund of Peñafort Confessor, Semidouble, Com. of St. Emerentiana Virgin and Martyr.
24: St. Timothy Bishop and Martyr, Double.
25: Conversion of St. Paul Apostle, Greater Double, Com. of St. Peter.
26: St. Polycarp Bishop and Martyr, Double.
27: St. John Chrysostom Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
28: St. Peter Nolasco Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Agnes Virgin and Martyr second.
29: St. Francis de Sales Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
30: St. Martina Virgin and Martyr, Semidouble.
31: St. John Bosco Confessor, Double.
Sunday between the Circumcision and Epiphany [or January 2, when no such Sunday occurs]: The most holy Name of Jesus, Double of the II Class.
Sunday within the Octave of the Epiphany: The Most Holy Family of Jesus, Mary, Joseph, Greater Double.
February
1: St. Ignatius Bishop and Martyr, Double.
2: Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class.
3: St. Blase Bishop and Martyr, Simple.
4: St. Andrew Corsini Bishop and Confessor, Double.
5: St. Agatha Virgin Martyr, Double.
6: St. Titus Bishop and Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Dorothy Virgin Martyr.
7: St. Romuald Abbot, Double.
8: St. John of Matha Confessor, Double.
9: St. Cyril Bishop of Alexandria, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of St. Apollonia Virgin Martyr.
10: St. Scholastica Virgin, Double.
11: Apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary Immaculate, Greater Double.
12: The Seven Holy Founders of the Order of Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary Confessors, Double.
13: Feria
14: St. Valentine Priest and Martyr, Simple.
15: Ss. Faustinus and Jovita Martyrs, Simple.
16: Feria
17: Feria
18: St. Simeon Bishop and Martyr, Simple.
19: Feria
20: Feria
21: Feria
22: Chair of St. Peter at Antioch, Greater Double, Com. of St. Paul.
23: St. Peter Damian Confessor, Double, Com. of the Vigil.
24: St. Matthias Apostle, Double of the II Class.
25: Feria
26: Feria
27: St. Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows, Double
28: Feria
In leap year the month of February is of 29 days, and the Feast of St. Matthias is celebrated on the 25th day and the Feast of St. Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows on the 28th day of February, and twice is said Sexto Kalendas, that is on the 24th day and 25th day; and the dominical letter, which was taken up in the month of January, is changed to the preceding; that, if in January, the dominical letter was A, it is changed to the preceding, which is g, etc.; and the letter f is kept twice, on the 24th and 25th.
March
1: Feria
2: Feria
3: Feria
4: St. Casimir Confessor, Semidouble, Com. of St. Lucius I Pope and Martyr.
5: Feria
6: Ss. Perpetua and Felicity Martyrs, Double.
7: St. Thomas Aquinas Confessor and Doctor of the Church, Double.
8: St. John of God Confessor, Double.
9: St. Frances of Rome Widow, Double.
10: The Forty Holy Martyrs, Semidouble.
11: Feria
12: St. Gregory I Pope, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
13: Feria
14: Feria
15: Feria
16: Feria
17: St. Patrick Bishop and Confessor, Double.
18: St. Cyril Bishop of Jerusalem, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
19: St. Joseph, Spouse of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Confessor, and Patron of the Universal Church, Double of the I Class.
20: Feria
21: St. Benedict Abbot, Greater Double.
22: Feria
23: Feria
24: St. Gabriel the Archangel, Greater Double.
25: Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the I Class.
26: Feria
27: St. John Damascene Confessor and Doctor of the Church, Double.
28: St. John Capistran Confessor, Semidouble.
29: Feria
30: Feria
31: Feria
Friday after Passion Sunday: Seven Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Greater Double, Com. of the Feria.
April
1: Feria
2: St. Francis of Paula Confessor, Double.
3: Feria
4: St. Isidore Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
5: St. Vincent Ferrer Confessor, Double.
6: Feria
7: Feria
8: Feria
9: Feria
10: Feria
11: St. Leo I Pope, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
12: Feria
13: St. Hermenegild Martyr, Semidouble.
14: St. Justin Martyr, Double, Com. of Saints Tiburtius, Valerian and Maximus, Martyrs.
15: Feria
16: Feria
17: St. Anicetus Pope and Martyr, Simple.
18: Feria
19: Feria
20: Feria
21: St. Anselm Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
22: Ss. Soter and Cajus Popes and Martyrs, Semidouble.
23: St. George Martyr, Semidouble.
24: St. Fidelis of Sigmaringen Martyr, Double.
25: St. Mark Evangelist, Double of the II Class.
26: Ss. Cletus and Marcellinus Popes and Martyrs, Semidouble.
27: St. Peter Canisius Confessor and Doctor of the Church, Double.
28: St. Paul of the Cross Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Vitalis Martyr.
29: St. Peter Martyr, Double.
30: St. Catherine of Siena Virgin, Double.
Wednesday within the second week after the Octave of Easter: Solemnity of St. Joseph, Spouse of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Confessor, and Patron of the Universal Church, Double of the I Class with a common Octave (from 1871 to 1954)
May
1: Ss. Philip and James Apostles, Double of the II Class.
2: St. Athanasius, Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
3: Invention of the Holy Cross, Double of the II Class, Com. of Ss. Alexander, Pope, Eventius and Theodulus Martyrs, and Juvenal, Bishop and Confessor.
4: St. Monica Widow, Double.
5: St. Pius V Pope and Confessor, Double.
6: St. John Apostle before the Latin Gate, Greater Double.
7: St. Stanislaus Bishop and Martyr, Double.
8: Apparition of St. Michael, Greater Double
9: St. Gregory Nazianzen Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
10: St. Antoninus Bishop and Confessor, Double, Com. of Ss. Gordian and Epimachus Martyrs.
11: Feria
12: Ss. Nereus, Achilleus, Domitilla Virgin, and Pancras Martyrs, Semidouble.
13: St. Robert Bellarmine Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
14: St. Boniface Martyr, Simple.
15: St. John Baptist de la Salle Confessor, Double.
16: St. Ubald Bishop and Confessor, Semidouble.
17: St. Paschal Baylon Confessor, Double.
18: St. Venantius Martyr, Double.
19: St. Peter Celestine Pope and Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Pudentiana Virgin.
20: St. Bernardine of Siena Confessor, Semidouble.
21: Feria
22: Feria
23: Feria
24: Feria
25: St. Gregory VII Pope and Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Urban I Pope and Martyr, Double.
26: St. Philip Neri Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Eleutherius Pope and Martyr.
27: St. Bede the Venerable Confessor and Doctor of the Church, Com. of St. John I Pope and Martyr, Double.
28: St. Augustine Bishop and Confessor, Double.
29: St. Mary Magdalen de Pazzi Virgin, Semidouble.
30: St. Felix I Pope and Martyr, Simple.
31: Blessed Virgin Mary, Queen Double of the II Class, Com. of St. Petronilla Virgin.
June
1: St. Angela Merici Virgin, Double.
2: Ss. Marcellinus, Peter, and Erasmus Bishop, Martyrs, Simple.
3: Feria
4: St. Francis Caracciolo Confessor, Double.
5: St. Boniface Bishop and Martyr, Double.
6: St. Norbert Bishop and Confessor, Double.
7: Feria
8: Feria
9: Ss. Primus and Felician Martyrs, Simple.
10: St. Margaret Queen, Widow, Semidouble.
11: St. Barnabas Apostle, Greater Double.
12: St. John of San Facundo Confessor, Double, Com. of Ss. Basilides, Cyrinus, Nabor and Nazarius Martyrs.
13: St. Anthony of Padua Confessor and Doctor of the Church, Double.
14: St. Basil the Great Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
15: Ss. Vitus, Modestus, and Crescentia Martyrs, Simple.
16: Feria
17: Feria
18: St. Ephraem Syrus Deacon, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of Ss. Mark and Marcellianus Martyrs.
19: St. Juliana Falconieri Virgin, Double, Com. of Ss. Gervase and Protase Martyrs.
20: St. Silverius Pope and Martyr, Simple.
21: St. Aloysius Gonzaga Confessor, Double.
22: St. Paulinus Bishop and Confessor, Double
23: Vigil.
24: The Nativity of St. John the Baptist, Double of the I Class with a common Octave.
25: St. William Abbot, Double, Com. of the Octave.
26: Ss. John and Paul Martyrs, Double, Com. of the Octave.
27: Of the IV day within the Octave of St. John the Baptist, Semidouble.
28: St. Irenaeus Bishop and Martyr, Double, Com. of the Octave and of the Vigil.
29: Ss. Peter and Paul Apostles, Double of the I Class with a common Octave.
30: Commemoration of St. Paul Apostle, Greater Double, Com. of St. Peter Apostle and of the Octave of St. John the Baptist.
July
1: The Most Precious Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, Double of the I Class, Com. of the Octave day of St. John the Baptist.
2: Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class, Com. of Ss. Processus and Martinian Martyrs.
3: St. Leo II Pope and Confessor, Semidouble, Com. of the Octave of the Holy Apostles.
4: Of the VI day within the Octave of Ss. Peter and Paul Apostles, Semidouble.
5: St. Anthony Mary Zaccaria Confessor, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Holy Apostles.
6: Octave of Ss. Peter and Paul Apostles, Greater Double.
7: Ss. Cyril and Methodius Bishops and Confessors, Double.
8: St. Elizabeth Queen, Widow, Semidouble.
9: Feria
10: The Seven Holy Brothers Martyrs, Semidouble, and Ss. Rufina and Secunda Virgins and Martyrs.
11: St. Pius I Pope and Martyr, Simple.
12: St. John Gualbert Abbot, Double, Com. of Ss. Nabor and Felix Martyrs.
13: St. Anacletus Pope and Martyr, Semidouble.
14: St. Bonaventure Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
15: St. Henry II Emperor, Confessor, Semidouble.
16: Commemoration of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mt. Carmel, Greater Double.
17: St. Alexius Confessor, Semidouble.
18: St. Camillus de Lellis Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Symphorosa and her seven Sons Martyrs.
19: St. Vincent de Paul Confessor, Double.
20: St. Jerome Emiliani Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Margaret Virgin Martyr.
21: St. Praxedes Virgin, Simple.
22: St. Mary Magdalene Penitent, Double.
23: St. Apollinaris Martyr, Double, Com. of St. Liborius Bishop and Confessor.
24: Vigil. Com. of St. Christina Virgin and Martyr.
25: St. James Apostle, Double of the II Class, Com. of St. Christopher Martyr.
26: St. Anne Mother of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class.
27: St. Pantaleon Martyr, Simple.
28: Ss. Nazarius and Celsus Martyrs, Victor I Pope and Martyr, and St. Innocent I Pope and Confessor, Semidouble.
29: St. Martha Virgin, Semidouble, Com. of Ss. Felix II Pope, Simplicius, Faustinus, and Beatrice Martyrs.
30: Ss. Abdon and Sennen Martyrs, Simple.
31: St. Ignatius Confessor, Greater Double.
August
1: St. Peter in Chains, Greater Double, Com. of St. Paul and the Holy Machabees Martyrs.
2: St. Alphonsus Mary of Liguori Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of St. Stephen I Pope and Martyr.
3: Invention of St. Stephen Protomartyr, Semidouble.
4: St. Dominic Confessor, Greater Double.
5: Dedication of Our Lady of the Snows, Greater Double.
6: Transfiguration of our Lord Jesus Christ, Double of the II Class, Com. of Ss. Sixtus II Pope, Felicissimus and Agapitus Martyrs.
7: St. Cajetan Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Donatus Bishop and Martyr.
8: Ss. Cyriacus, Largus and Smaragdus Martyrs, Semidouble.
9: St. John Vianney Confessor and Priest, Double, Com. of the Vigil and St. Romanus Martyr.
10: St. Laurence Martyr, Double of the II Class with a simple Octave.
11: Ss. Tiburtius and Susanna Virgin, Martyrs, Simple.
12: St. Clare Virgin, Double.
13: Ss. Hippolytus and Cassian Martyrs, Simple.
14: Vigil. Com. of St. Eusebius Confessor.
15: Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the I Class with a common Octave.
16: St. Joachim Father of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Confessor, Double of the II Class.
17: St. Hyacinth Confessor, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Assumption and the Octave Day of St. Laurence.
18: Of the IV day within the Octave of the Assumption, Semidouble, Com. of St. Agapitus Martyr.
19: St. John Eudes Confessor, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Assumption.
20: St. Bernard Abbot, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Assumption.
21: St. Jane Frances de Chantal Widow, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Assumption.
22: Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class, Com. of Ss. Timothy, Hippolytus Bishop, and Symphorianus Martyrs.
23: St. Philip Benizi Confessor, Double, Com. of the Vigil.
24: St. Bartholomew Apostle, Double of the II Class.
25: St. Louis King, Confessor, Semidouble.
26: St. Zephyrinus Pope Martyr, Simple.
27: St. Joseph Calasanctius Confessor, Double.
28: St. Augustine Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of St. Hermes Martyr.
29: Beheading of St. John the Baptist, Greater Double, Com. of St. Sabina Martyr.
30: St. Rose of St. Mary Virgin of Lima, Double, Com. of Ss. Felix and Adauctus Martyrs.
31: St. Raymond Nonnatus Confessor, Double.
September
1: St. Giles Abbot, Simple, Com. of the Holy Twelve Brothers Martyrs.
2: St. Stephen King, Confessor, Semidouble.
3: St. Pius X Pope and Confessor, Double.
4: Feria
5: St. Laurence Justinian Bishop and Confessor, Semidouble.
6: Feria
7: Feria
8: Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class with a simple Octave, Com. of St. Adrian Martyr.
9: St. Gorgonius Martyr, Simple.
10: St. Nicholas of Tolentino Confessor, Double.
11: Ss. Protus and Hyacinth Martyrs, Simple.
12: The Most Holy Name of Mary, Greater Double.
13: Feria
14: Exaltation of the Holy Cross, Greater Double.
15: Seven Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class, Com. of St. Nicomedes Martyr.
16: St. Cornelius Pope and St. Cyprian Bishop, Martyrs, Semidouble, Com. of Ss. Euphemia Virgin, Lucy and Geminian Martyrs.
17: Impression of the sacred Stigmata of St. Francis Confessor, Double.
18: St. Joseph of Cupertino Confessor, Double.
19: St. Januarius Bishop and Companions Martyrs, Double.
20: St. Eustace and Companions Martyrs, Double, Com. of the Vigil.
21: St. Matthew Apostle and Evangelist, Double of the II Class.
22: St. Thomas of Villanova Bishop and Confessor, Double, Com. of Ss. Maurice and Companions Martyrs.
23: St. Linus Pope and Martyr, Semidouble, Com. of St. Thecla Virgin and Martyr.
24: Our Lady of Ransom, Greater Double.
25: Feria
26: Ss. Cyprian and Justina Virgin, Martyrs, Simple.
27: Ss. Cosmas and Damian Martyrs, Semidouble.
28: St. Wenceslaus Duke, Martyr, Semidouble.
29: Dedication of St. Michael Archangel, Double of the I Class.
30: St. Jerome Priest, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
October
1: St. Remigius Bishop and Confessor, Simple.
2: The Holy Guardian Angels, Greater Double.
3: St. Teresa of the Child Jesus Virgin, Double.
4: St. Francis of Assisi Confessor, Greater Double.
5: St. Placid and companions Martyrs, Simple.
6: St. Bruno Confessor, Double.
7: The most Holy Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class, Com. of St. Mark Pope and Confessor, and Ss. Sergius, Bacchus, Marcellus and Apuleius Martyrs.
8: St. Bridget Widow, Double.
9: St. John Leonard Confessor, Semidouble, Com. of Ss. Denis Bishop, Rusticus Priest, and Eleutherius Martyrs.
10: St. Francis Borgia Confessor, Semidouble.
11: The Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the II Class.
12: Feria
13: St. Edward King, Confessor, Semidouble.
14: St. Callistus I Pope and Martyr, Double.
15: St. Teresa Virgin, Double.
16: St. Hedwig Widow, Semidouble.
17: St. Margaret Mary Alacoque Virgin, Double.
18: St. Luke Evangelist, Double of the II Class.
19: St. Peter of Alcantara Confessor, Double.
20: St. John Cantius Confessor, Double.
21: St. Hilarion Abbot, Simple, Com. of St. Ursula and Companions Virgins and Martyrs.
22: Feria
23: Feria
24: St. Raphael Archangel, Greater Double.
25: Ss. Chrysanthus and Daria Martyrs, Simple.
26: St. Evaristus Pope and Martyr, Simple.
27: Vigil.
28: Ss. Simon and Jude Apostles, Double of the II Class.
29: Feria
30: Feria
31: Vigil.
Last Sunday in October: The Feast of our Lord Jesus Christ the King, Double of the I Class, Com. of the Sunday.
November
1: All Saints, Double of the I Class with a common Octave.
2 or, if 2 November is a Sunday, 3 November: Commemoration of all the Faithful Departed, Double
3: Of the III day within the Octave of All Saints, Semidouble.
4: St. Charles Bishop and Confessor, Double, Com. of the Octave of All Saints and Ss. Vitalis and Agricola Martyrs.
5: Of the V day within the Octave of All Saints, Semidouble.
6: Of the VI day within the Octave of All Saints, Semidouble.
7: Of the VII day within the Octave of All Saints, Semidouble.
8: Octave of All Saints, Greater Double, Com. of the Holy Four Crowned Martyrs.
9: Dedication of the Archbasilica of the most Holy Saviour, Double of the II Class, Com. of St. Theodore Martyr.
10: St. Andrew Avellino Confessor, Double, Com. of Ss. Tryphon, Respicius, and Nympha Martyrs.
11: St. Martin Bishop and Confessor, Double, Com. of St. Mennas Martyr.
12: St. Martin I Pope and Martyr, Semidouble.
13: St. Didacus Confessor, Semidouble.
14: St. Josaphat Bishop and Martyr, Double.
15: St. Albert the Great Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double.
16: St. Gertrude Virgin, Double.
17: St. Gregory Thaumaturgus Bishop and Confessor, Semidouble.
18: Dedication of the Basilicas of Ss. Peter and Paul, Greater Double
19: St. Elisabeth Widow, Double, Com. of St. Pontianus Pope and Martyr.
20: St. Felix of Valois Confessor, Double.
21: Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Greater Double
22: St. Cecilia Virgin and Martyr, Double.
23: St. Clement I Pope and Martyr, Double, Com. of St. Felicitas Martyr.
24: St. John of the Cross Confessor and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. St. Chrysogonus Martyr.
25: St. Catherine Virgin and Martyr, Double.
26: St. Sylvester Abbot, Double, Com. of St. Peter of Alexandria Bishop and Martyr.
27: Feria
28: Feria
29: Vigil. Commemoration of St. Saturninus.
30: St. Andrew Apostle, Double of the II Class.
December
1: Feria
2: St. Bibiana Virgin and Martyr, Semidouble.
3: St. Francis Xavier Confessor, Greater Double.
4: St. Peter Chrysologus Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of St. Barbara Virgin and Martyr.
5: Com. of St. Sabbas Abbot.
6: St. Nicholas Bishop and Confessor, Double.
7: St. Ambrose Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church, Double, Com. of the Vigil.
8: The Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Double of the I Class with a common Octave.
9: Of the II day within the Octave of the Immaculate Conception, Semidouble.
10: Of the III day within the Octave of the Immaculate Conception, Semidouble, Com. of St. Melchiades Pope and Martyr.
11: St. Damasus I Pope and Confessor, Semidouble, Com. of the Octave of the Immaculate Conception.
12: Of the V day within the Octave of the Immaculate Conception, Semidouble.
13: St. Lucy Virgin and Martyr, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Immaculate Conception.
14: Of the VII day within the Octave of the Immaculate Conception, Semidouble.
15: Octave of the Immaculate Conception, Greater Double.
16: St. Eusebius Bishop and Martyr, Semidouble.
17: Feria
18: Feria
19: Feria
20: Vigil.
21: St. Thomas Apostle, Double of the II Class.
22: Feria
23: Feria
24: Vigil.
25: Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, Double of the I Class with a privileged Octave of the III rank.
26: St. Stephen Protomartyr, Double of the II class with a simple Octave, Com. of the Octave of the Nativity.
27: St. John Apostle and Evangelist, Double of the II class with a simple Octave, Com. of the Octave of the Nativity.
28: The Holy Innocents, Double of the II class with a simple Octave, Com. of the Octave of the Nativity.
29: St. Thomas Bishop and Martyr, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Nativity.
30: Of the VI day within the Octave of the Nativity, Semidouble.
31: St. Sylvester I Pope and Confessor, Double, Com. of the Octave of the Nativity.
Although not listed on the general Calendar, a commemoration of St. Anastasia Martyr is made at the second Mass on Christmas Day.
Moveable feasts
The moveable feasts are those connected with the Easter cycle, and Easter is the date relative to which their position is ultimately determined. The date of Easter is determined relative to the lunar calendar as used by the Hebrews. The rule has since the Middle Ages been phrased as "Easter is observed on the Sunday after the first full moon on or after the day of the vernal equinox." However, this does not reflect the actual ecclesiastical rules precisely. One reason for this is that the full moon involved (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but an ecclesiastical moon. Another difference is that the astronomical vernal equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on 20 or 21 March, while the ecclesiastical vernal equinox is a fixed March 21 (on the Gregorian Calendar). Easter is determined from tables which determine Easter based on the ecclesiastical rules described above, which do not always coincide with the astronomical full moon. The moveable feasts are given below:
Septuagesima Sunday (9th Sunday before Easter)
Sexagesima Sunday (8th Sunday before Easter)
Quinquagesima Sunday (7th Sunday before Easter)
Ash Wednesday (Wednesday after Quinquagesima Sunday)
Passion Sunday (Sunday 2 weeks before Easter)
Feast of the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin Mary (Friday after 2nd Sunday before Easter)
Palm Sunday (Sunday before Easter)
Holy Thursday (Thursday before Easter)
Good Friday (Friday before Easter)
Holy Saturday (Saturday before Easter)
Easter Sunday, the Solemnity of Solemnities, the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ
Low Sunday (Sunday after Easter)
The Solemnity of St. Joseph, spouse of the Virgin Mary, confessor, and patron of the Universal Church (Wednesday after the 2nd Sunday after Easter)
The Octave of St. Joseph, spouse of the Virgin Mary, confessor and patron of the Universal Church (Wednesday after the 3rd Sunday after Easter)
The Lesser Litanies at St. Mary Major (Monday after the 5th Sunday after Easter)
The Lesser Litanies at St. John Lateran (Tuesday after the 5th Sunday after Easter)
The Vigil of the Ascension of our Lord Jesus Christ and the Lesser Litanies at St. Peter's (Wednesday after the 5th Sunday after Easter)
The Ascension (Thursday after the 5th Sunday after Easter)
The Octave of the Ascension (Thursday after the 6th Sunday after Easter)
The Vigil of Pentecost (Saturday after the 6th Sunday after Easter)
Pentecost (7th Sunday after Easter)
Holy Trinity and the Octave of Pentecost (8th Sunday after Easter)
Corpus Christi (Thursday after the 8th Sunday after Easter)
Octave of Corpus Christi (Thursday after the 9th Sunday after Easter)
Sacred Heart of Jesus (Friday after the 9th Sunday after Easter)
Octave of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (Friday after the 10th Sunday after Easter)
The 1954 calendar assigned special celebrations also to the days within these Octaves, as to the days within the Octaves of fixed feasts.
Feasts celebrated in some places (pro Aliquibus Locis)
The pre-1962 Roman Missal also listed a number of celebrations in the section headed "Mass for Some Places". These celebrations were:
The Holy House of Loreto (10 December)
The Expectation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (18 December)
The Betrothal of the Virgin Mary with Saint Joseph (23 January)
Saint Ildephonsus (23 January)
The Flight into Egypt (17 February)
Saint Margaret of Cortona (26 February)
The Prayer of Christ (Tuesday after Septuagesima)
Commemoration of the Passion of Christ (Tuesday after Sexagesima)
The Sacred Crown of Thorns (Friday after Ash Wednesday)
The Sacred Lance and Nails (Friday after the First Sunday in Lent)
The Holy Shroud (Friday after the Second Sunday in Lent)
The Five Holy Wounds (Friday after the Third Sunday in Lent)
The Precious Blood (Friday after the Fourth Sunday in Lent)
Saint Catherine of Genoa (22 March)
Saint Benedict Joseph Labre (16 April)
Our Lady of Good Counsel (26 April)
Saint Isidore the Farmer (15 May)
Saint John Nepomucene (16 May)
Saint Rita of Cascia (22 May)
Saint John Baptist de Rossi (23 May)
Our Lady Help of Christians (24 May)
Saint Ferdinand III (30 May)
Saint Joan of Arc (30 May)
Our Lady Queen of All Saints and Mother of Fair Love (31 May)
Our Lady Mediatrix of All Graces (31 May)
Our Lady Queen of the Apostles (Saturday after the Ascension)
The Immaculate Heart of Mary (Saturday after the octave of Corpus Christi)
The Eucharistic Heart of Jesus (Thursday after the octave of Corpus Christi)
Our Lady Mother of Grace (9 June)
Saint John Francis Regis (16 June)
Our Lady of Prompt Succor (27 June)
All Holy Popes (3 July)
Saint Lawrence of Brindisi (7 July)
Saint Veronica Giuliani (9 July)
Humility of the Blessed Virgin Mary (17 July)
Our Lady Mother of Mercy (Saturday after the 4th Sunday of July)
Saint Emygdius (9 August)
Saint Philomena (11 August)
Our Lady Refuge of Sinners (13 August)
Saint John Berchmans (13 August)
Saint Roch (16 August)
Empress Helena (18 August)
Our Lady of Consolation (Saturday after the Feast of St. Augustine)
Our Lady Help of the Sick (Saturday after the last Sunday in August)
Saint Rose of Viterbo (4 September)
Saint Peter Claver (9 September)
Saint Gregory the Illuminator (1 October)
Purity of the Blessed Virgin Mary (16 October)
Feast of the Holy Redeemer (23 October)
The Sacred Relics (5 November)
Saint Stanislaus Kostka (13 November)
Our Lady Mother of Divine Providence (Saturday after the 3rd Sunday in November)
St. Leonard of Port Maurice (26 November)
Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal (27 November)
See also
List of saints
Moveable feast
Name days in the Czech Republic
Name days in Sweden
Namesdays
General Roman Calendar
Tridentine Calendar
General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII
General Roman Calendar of 1960
General Roman Calendar of 1969
References
External links
An Anglican calendar based on the General Roman Calendar of 1954
Liturgical calendars of the Catholic Church
Tridentine Mass
1954 in Christianity
Canon law history |
4056793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20George%27s%20County%20Public%20Schools | Prince George's County Public Schools | Prince George's County Public Schools (PGCPS) is a public school district that serves Prince George's County, Maryland. During the 2023-2024 academic year, the district enrolls 133,000 students and operates over 200 schools. PGCPS is the second-largest school district in Maryland, the third-largest district in the Washington-Baltimore metropolitan area, the 18th-largest in the United States, and the nation's largest school district with a majority-black student population.
Headquartered in Upper Marlboro, PGCPS is the county's sole school district. The Prince George's County Board of Education (BoE) comprises 14 members who oversee the Superintendent.
The current Superintendent is Millard House II.
History
Early years of PGCPS (1899–1974)
In 1899, Laurel High was founded as the first high school in Prince George's County. Situated at Montgomery and Eighth Streets in Downtown Laurel, it began with nine teachers and 59 students, with the 1900 graduating class being all women. The school's roof served as a Civil Defense Aircraft Spotting Station during World War II. By 1965, the school relocated to a more expansive campus. The original building, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, now functions as a community center.
In 1952, the school district permitted black students to attend grades 1-12. Before this, black students in the county were limited to the 11th grade, while only white students could progress to the 12th grade.
PGCPS ran three high schools exclusively for black students before desegregation: Marlboro Colored High (now Frederick Douglass High School) in Upper Marlboro, Lakeland High School in College Park and Fairmont Heights High School.
Desegregation (1974–2009)
In 1974, Prince George's County became the nation's largest school district mandated to implement a busing plan to address segregation. Despite the county's over 80% white demographic at the time, specific communities near Washington, D.C. had denser black populations. Although school boundaries were based on communities, the NAACP contended they mirrored segregated housing patterns. Consequently, a federal court mandated a school busing plan. A 1974 Gallup poll indicated that 75% of the county opposed forced busing, with just 32% of black respondents in favor.
The court-mandated busing commenced abruptly mid-school year, excluding final-year high school students. This swift transition disturbed regular school activities and affected family life due to altered schedules, transportation challenges, and disrupted extracurriculars.
By 2001, the court concluded that segregation had been sufficiently addressed. The busing order ended, and neighborhood-centric school boundaries were reinstated.
School mergers and consolidation (2009–2019)
In 2009, the Prince George's County Public Schools Board voted to merge eight under-enrolled schools and bolster its magnet program offerings. This decision was informed by community consultations, public hearings, and over 2,500 survey responses.
Key aspects of the 2009 consolidation:
Eight schools, including Berkshire, John Carroll, and John E. Howard Elementaries, were permanently closed for the 2009-2010 academic year.
Five schools, like Andrew Jackson Middle and Samuel P. Massie Elementary, transitioned to K-8 programs.
Benjamin D. Foulois Elementary was converted into a K-8 Creative & Performing Arts magnet center.
Concord, Dodge Park, District Heights, and Oakcrest elementary schools remained open despite potential closure considerations.
By 2016, additional school consolidations occurred due to changing student populations, particularly in the southern parts of the county. Conversely, northern regions, including Beltsville and Hyattsville, saw increased enrollment and overcrowding.
Data Breachs and COVID-19 impact (2020-present)
Because of The COVID-19 impact, PGCPS schools went through lockdown after March 13, 2020. The 2020-2021 school year was online during the year until April 2021 with hybrid learning. The 2021-2022 was virtual for some and in-person for some. Because of COVID-19 cases increasing during Late 2021. PGCPS went through online school mode again until January 18, 2022 for in-person students and January 31, 2022 for virtual students to go to in-person school.
In August 14, PGCPS encountered a data breach which caused all students and staff to be locked out. Students had to reset their password during The week of August 28, while staff had to reset it right now. PGCPS were able to regain control of their systems within the first 12 hours. PGCPS sent a message to every student in the district about the cyber attack.
Starting from the 2023-2024 school year, clear backpacks are required for high school students and Non Traditional Program North, South and Middle and optional for middle school students to combat shooting in the district.
Demographics
For the 2023-2024 academic year, PGCPS boasts an enrollment of over 133,000 students. In the DC area, only neighboring Montgomery County Public Schools in Maryland and Fairfax County Public Schools in Virginia surpass this number.
Based on September 2022 demographic data, the racial and ethnic composition of PGCPS students is as follows:
Further, 60.4% of students participate in the federal Free and Reduced Lunch program, 10.4% are enrolled in special education courses, and nearly 25% of PGCPS students are English language learners.
Superintendent/CEO
In 2013, a governance reorganization led by then-County Executive Rushern Baker renamed the superintendent position to Chief Executive Officer of PGCPS. Dubbed a 'takeover' of the county's school system, this shift increased the operational control for the CEO while limiting the school board's powers. Dr. Kevin Maxwell was the inaugural CEO of Prince George's County Public Schools, serving until 2018. He was succeeded by Dr. Monica Goldson, who remained in the position through the 2022-2023 school year.
After a rigorous 6-month nationwide search, the district shortlisted three candidates. Following an interview with County Executive Angela Alsobrooks, Millard House II, former Superintendent of the Houston Independent School District, was chosen to succeed Dr. Goldson. With House's appointment as Superintendent in June 2023, the district ceased referring to its head as CEO.
List of superintendents:
Millard House II (2023–present)
Monica Goldson, CEO (interim 2018–2019; 2019–2023)
Kevin M. Maxwell, CEO (2013–2018)
Alvin Crawley (interim 2012–2013)
William R. Hite, Jr. (interim 2008–2009; 2009–2012)
John E. Deasy (2006–2008)
Howard A. Burnett (interim 2005–2006)
André J. Hornsby (2003–2005)
Iris T. Metts (1999–2003)
Jerome Clark (1995–1999)
Edward M. Felegy (1991–1995)
John A. Murphy (1984–1991)
Edward J. Feeney (1976–1984)
Carl W. Hassel (1970–1976)
William S. Schmidt (1951–1970)
G. Gardner Shugart (1944–1951)
Nicholas Orem Sr. (1921–1943)
E.S. Burroughs (1915–1921)
Frederick Sasscer Jr. (1902–1914)
Transportation
Prince George's County Public Schools operates its bus system, providing student transportation. The fleet comprises various school bus models from Blue Bird Corporation, IC Bus, and Thomas Built Buses, all running on diesel. Accessible buses are available for special-needs children. All buses bear the Prince George's County Public Schools inscription.
With 12 bus lots, the transportation department dispatches over 1,900 drivers and 1,200 buses on more than 5,000 routes. Annually, at least 83,000 students utilize these services. Routes are labeled with three-digit numbers like 615 or a combination of letters and numbers such as B12.
Besides daily commuting, buses also serve school field trips, athletic events, and other sanctioned activities within Maryland and the region. Bus ridership is contingent on the student's distance from school, generally around two miles for intermediate/secondary schools and one and a half miles for primary institutions.
Notably, the district offers students in magnet programs bus service throughout the county, with ridership not contingent on the student's proximity to school.
List of schools
High schools
All high schools in Prince George's County operate with a "comprehensive" model as their base, with the exception of the new Academy of Health Sciences at Prince George's Community College, which is a middle college program. All students are assigned to a high school based on an attendance area.
Magnet Programs operate as a "School-Within-A-School" model, where the magnet serves as an alternative program---in addition to the main comprehensive program---and students from outside the regular attendance area of the high school are enrolled and accepted into the magnet, either through continuity (automatic continuation from a middle school magnet program to the high school level equivalent) or more commonly, through a Magnet Lottery, in which students apply for a magnet program and are granted acceptance through a random drawing. Enrollment into the Center for the Visual and Performing Arts is through audition only.
Several high schools have also implemented a Smaller Learning Community model, where they offer anywhere from two or more Academy Programs, which effectively breaks a school down into several smaller schools within the school, by allowing students to essentially declare a major (such as a student attending a college or university) through career academies such as "Arts, Media, and Communication" or the "National Academy of Finance," for example.
All high schools within PGCPS operate on a staggered school day schedule, where some high schools start as early as 7:45am and end as early as 2:25pm, and other high schools start as late as 9:30am and end as late as 4:10pm. All high schools operate on an alternating A/B-day block scheduling system, where one group of classes are taken on "A-Days" and a different group of classes are taken on "B-Days," and the cycle repeats. Most high schools have between three and four lunch shifts, depending on enrollment and eating accommodations. The only exceptions are Eleanor Roosevelt High School — which has adopted a modified hybrid block schedule in which both traditional single period courses and double period (block schedule) courses are integrated — and the Academy of Health Science at Prince George's Community College.
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|+ High schools
|- style="background:darkblue;"
!style="width:235px;"|School
!Website
!Location
!style="width:90px;"|Opening date (current facility)
!Grades
!Enrollment (2014–15)
!Square footage
!style="width:80px;"|Attendance hours (start/end)
!Specialized programs
|-
| rowspan="2"|Academy of Health Sciences at Prince George's Community College
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Largo
| align="center"|2011
| align="center" |9-12
| align="right"|397 students
| align="center"|N/A
| align="center" |9:30a – 4:40p
| Current program(s): Academy of Health Sciences
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: This high school is run in conjunction with the Prince George's Community College (PGCC) with classes being held on the PGCC campus, and is the State of Maryland's first middle college. The school admitted the first class of 100 freshmen in the fall of 2011. A new grade level will be added each year until a full, four-year, grades 9-12 high school is operational. There will be a total of 400 students.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Bladensburg High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Bladensburg
| align="center"|1936
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,857 students
| align="right"|304,000
| align="center"|9:30a – 4:10p
| Current program(s): Biomedical Magnet Program; Career and Technical Education Magnet Program; Academy of Hospitality and Tourism; America's Choice School Design Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Health and Biosciences; Academy of Graphic Arts, Media and Communications
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Bladensburg received a state-of-the-art replacement facility in August 2004.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Bowie High School (included with Bowie High School Annex)
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Bowie
| align="center"|1965
| align="center"|10–12
| align="right"|2,442 students
| align="right"|280,306
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): SUMMIT Scholar Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Information Technology; Performing Arts Academy; Academy of Environmental Sciences
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Bowie High School has two physical campuses. 10th-12th grade attend classes at the main campus and 9th graders attend classes at the Belair Annex (a former middle school) a half mile away. Bowie was ranked #1,173 on Newsweeks 2010 list of Top 1500 Public High Schools in America. The SUMMIT Scholar Program at Bowie is a four-year course of study through which a select group of students (60-65 students per grade level) follow a comprehensive curriculum combining accelerated honors level and rigorous Advanced Placement course work. The program combines honors, SUMMIT, and Advanced Placement courses, yet remains an integral part of the high school community at Bowie; SUMMIT scholars do not comprise a school within a school.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Bowie High School Annex (included with Bowie High School)
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Bowie
| align="center"|1963
| align="center"|9
| align="right"|N/A
| align="right"|102,351
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): SUMMIT Scholar Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Information Technology; Performing Arts Academy; Academy of Environmental Sciences
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Bowie High School has two physical campuses. 10th-12th grade attend classes at the main campus and 9th graders attend classes at the Belair Annex (a former middle school) a half mile away. Bowie was ranked #1,173 on Newsweeks 2010 list of Top 1500 Public High Schools in America. The SUMMIT Scholar Program at Bowie is a four-year course of study through which a select group of students (60-65 students per grade level) follows a comprehensive curriculum combining accelerated honors level and rigorous Advanced Placement course work. The program combines honors, SUMMIT, and Advanced Placement courses yet remains an integral part of the high school community at Bowie; SUMMIT scholars do not comprise a school within a school.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Central High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Walker Mill
| align="center"|1961
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,004 students
| align="right"|168,366
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): French Immersion Magnet Program; International Baccalaureate (IB) Magnet Program; Law, Education and Public Service Academy; AVID Signature Program; America's Choice School Design Signature Program
Future program(s): Global Studies Academy; Academy of Graphic Arts, Media and Communications
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Central was ranked #1,429 on Newsweeks Top 1500 Public High Schools in America for 2010. It is an IB World School. Programs they have include Architecture and Design, Global Studies, Graphic Arts, Media and Communications
Health and Biosciences
Consumer Services, Hospitality and Tourism
Law, Education and Public Service
Cosmetology(CAPS)
Culinary(CAPS)
Electrical(CAPS)
Carpentry(CAPS)
French Immersion
Nursing(CAPS)
|-
| rowspan="2"|Crossland High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Camp Springs
| align="center"|1963
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,081 students
| align="right"|313,276
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): Technical Academy Magnet Program; International Baccalaureate (IB) Program (non-magnet); Global Studies Academy; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Crossland Evening High School
Future program(s): Academy of Architecture and Design; Academy of Transportation Technologies; Performing Arts Academy
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Crossland was named an IB World School in 2009.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Frederick Douglass High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Upper Marlboro
| align="center"|1965
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|940 students
| align="right"|184,417
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): International Baccalaureate (IB) Middle Years Programme; America's Choice School Design Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Global Studies; Academy of Business and Finance; Academy of Information Technology
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Frederick Douglass is an IB World School.
|-
| rowspan="2"|DuVal High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Lanham
| align="center"|1960
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,697 students
| align="right"|281,281
| align="center"|8:30a – 3:10p
| Current program(s): Aerospace Engineering and Aviation Technology Program; Project Lead The Way Pre-Engineering Academy; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Academy of Consumer Services, Hospitality & Tourism; Academy of Humanities, Leadership & Public Service; Academy of Engineering and Science; Academy of Graphic Arts, Media and Communications
Future program(s): Academy of Transportation Technologies
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: DuVal received a state-of-the-art, $13.4 million USD, 65,995 sq. ft., 600-student classroom addition in 2007. This added a music wing and two-story academic wing. Starting in 2014, DuVal housed a new specialized Aerospace Engineering and Aviation Technology Program. Admission is based on competitive examination only, and prospective students take the same specialized examination currently used for entrance into the Science and Technology Center. DuVal is currently constructing a new Aerospace building that will be placed next to the Cafeteria.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Fairmont Heights High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Chapel Oaks
| align="center"|1950
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|788 students
| align="right"|174,128
| align="center"|8:30a – 3:10p
| Current program(s): Biotechnology Magnet Program; National Academy of Finance; Information Technology; America's Choice School Design Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Environmental Studies; Performing Arts Academy
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Fairmont Heights is one of three PGCPS high schools which house a special Health and Wellness Center', an on-site medical facility operated under the auspices of the county's Health Department.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Charles Herbert Flowers High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Springdale
| align="center"|2001
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|2,032 students
| align="right"|332,500
| align="center" |7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): Science and Technology Center Magnet Program; National Academy of Finance; Project Lead The Way Pre-Engineering Academy; ProStart: Hospitality and Restaurant Management Program
Future program(s): Academy of Engineering and Science; Academy of Information Technology
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Flowers was ranked #1,445 on Newsweeks Top 1500 Public High Schools in America, for 2009.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Friendly High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Friendly
| align="center"|1970
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|979 students
| align="right"|236,861
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): Academy of Health and Biosciences; America's Choice School Design Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Engineering and Science; Academy of Information Technology
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments:
|-
| rowspan="2"|Gwynn Park High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Brandywine
| align="center"|1956
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,064 students
| align="right"|194,845
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): Technical Academy Magnet Program; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Academy of Consumer Services, Hospitality and Tourism; Academy of Environmental Studies; Academy of Information Technology;
Future program(s): Academy of Transportation Technologies
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments:
|-
| rowspan="2"|High Point High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Beltsville
| align="center"|1954
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|2,426 students
| align="right"|318,376
| align="center"|8:45a – 3:25p
| Current program(s): AVID Signature Program; Academy of Engineering and Science
Future program(s): Academy of Environmental Studies; Academy of Military Science
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: High Point received the Siemens Award for Advanced Placement in 2004. High Point was ranked #1,361 on Newsweeks Top 1500 Public High Schools in America, for 2010. U.S. News & World Report named High Point a Silver Medal School in 2010.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Largo High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Largo
| align="center"|1970
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,026 students
| align="right"|243,581
| align="center" |7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): Biotechnology Magnet Program; AVID Signature Program; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Largo Evening High School
Future program(s): Academy of Health and Biosciences; Academy of Hospitality and Tourism
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments:
|-
| rowspan="2"|Laurel High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Laurel
| align="center"|1961
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,814 students
| align="right"|371,531
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): Technical Academy Magnet Program; International Baccalaureate (IB) Program (Non-Magnet); Academy of Global Studies; America's Choice School Design Signature Program
Future program(s): Academy of Transportation Technologies; Academy of Information Technology; Academy of Architecture and Design
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Laurel completed a 600-student classroom addition and a new auditorium in the spring of 2010. Laurel was ranked #1,343 on Newsweeks Top 1500 Public High Schools in America, for 2010. It is an IB World School.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Northwestern High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Hyattsville
| align="center"|1951
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|2,262 students
| align="right"|386,000
| align="center"|Comprehensive9:30a – 4:10p
CVPA Magnet8:15a – 4:10p
| Current program(s): The Jim Henson Center for the Visual and Performing Arts Program; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; School of Business Management and Finance (National Academy of Finance, Academy of Business Management); School of Human Resource Services (The International Studies Academy, NJROTC Academy of Military Science); School of Manufacturing, Engineering and Technology (Project Lead The Way Pre-Engineering Academy); Colours Performing Arts Program; Northwestern Evening High School; Northwestern Adult Evening High School; Northwestern Saturday Academy
Future program(s): Academy of Law, Education and Public Service; Performing Arts Academy
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Northwestern received a state-of-the-art, $45 million replacement facility, which opened in August 2000. At 386,000sq. ft., it was then the largest high school in the state of Maryland in terms of total square footage. It was surpass in physical size by the new Dr. Henry Wise, Jr. HS (also in Prince George's County), in 2006. Northwestern is the second largest high school in Maryland. U.S. News & World Report named Northwestern a Silver Medal School in 2010. Northwestern became the county's second location for the Center for the Visual and Performing Arts program in the fall of 2013. The program is in-boundary only, and draws students from the Hyattsville Middle School for the Creative and Performing Arts. Entrance into the program is through competitive audition only. Northwestern is one of three PGCPS high schools which house a special Health and Wellness Center, an on-site medical facility operated under the auspices of the county's Health Department.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Oxon Hill High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Oxon Hill
| align="center" |1948
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right" |1,456 students
| align="right"|243,048
| align="center"|9:30a – 4:10p
| Current program(s): Science and Technology Center Magnet Program; AVID Signature Program; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Academy of Business and Finance (Academy of Accounting and Finance, Academy of Business Administrative Services, Academy of Business Management); Academy of Engineering; Academy of Graphic Arts and Media; Academy of Consumer Sciences, Hospitality and Tourism (Academy of Hospitality and Restaurant Management); Academy of Military SciencesFuture program(s): Academy of Health and Biosciences
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Oxon Hill was ranked #957 on Newsweeks Top 1500 Public High Schools in America, for 2010. In August 2013, Oxon Hill relocated into a brand new LEED-certified building, that replaced the decades-old former facility. The new school was constructed adjacent to the former building. Oxon Hill is one of three PGCPS high schools which house a special Health and Wellness Center, an on-site medical facility operated under the auspices of the county's Health Department.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Parkdale High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Riverdale
| align="center"|1968
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|2,148 students
| align="right"|265,201
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): International Baccalaureate (IB) Magnet Program; America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Academy of Global Studies; Capital One Student Banking ProgramFuture program(s): Academy of Architecture and Design; Academy of Law, Education and Public Service; Academy of Military Science
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Parkdale received a state-of-the-art, 400-seat classroom addition in November 2007. Parkdale was ranked #1,481 on Newsweeks Top 1500 Public High Schools in America, for 2010. Parkdale is an IB World School.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Potomac High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Oxon Hill
| align="center"|1965
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,145 students
| align="right"|218,083
| align="center"|7:45a – 2:25p
| Current program(s): America's Choice School Design Signature Program; National Academy of Finance; School of Arts, Media and Communications (Academy of the Arts-Dance, Academy of the Arts-Music, Academy of the Arts-Visual); School of Business Management and Finance (Academy of Finance, Academy of Business Management); School of Consumer Services, Hospitality and Tourism (Academy of Hospitality and Restaurant Management); School of Human Resource Services (Academy of Homeland Security and Military Science, Academy of Law, Education and Public Service, Teacher Academy of Maryland); School of Manufacturing, Engineering and Technology (Project Lead the Way Pre-Engineering Academy, Information Technology)Future program(s): Academy of Environmental Studies; Academy of Graphic Arts, Media and Communications
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Potomac received a state-of-the-art, 600-seat classroom addition in January 2008.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Eleanor Roosevelt High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Greenbelt
| align="center"|1974
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|2,504 students
| align="right"|327,458
| align="center"|8:30a – 3:10p
| Current program(s): Science and Technology Center Magnet Program; Capstone Program; Gilder-Lehrman American History Program; National Academy of Finance; Quality Education in Science and Technology (QUEST) Program/Academy of Information Technology (AOIT)
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Eleanor Roosevelt has been twice recognized as a National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence, in 1991 and 1998, as well as a Maryland Blue Ribbon School of Excellence in 1991 and 1998. It was named a New American High School in 1999, and it received the Siemens Award for Advanced Placement in 2002. Roosevelt was named a National School of Character in 2002. It was ranked #409 on Newsweeks 2010 list of "Top 1500 Public High Schools in America. U.S. News & World Report named Roosevelt a Silver Medal School in 2008.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Suitland High School (included with Suitland High School CVPA Annex)
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Suitland
| align="center"|1951
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|1,806 students
| align="right"|324,046
| align="center"|Comprehensive8:40a – 3:25pCVPA Magnet8:30a – 4:40p
| Current program(s): Center for the Visual and Performing Arts Magnet Program; International Baccalaureate (IB) Magnet Program; Technical Academy Magnet Program (the Jesse J. Warr Vocational Center); America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Navy Junior ROTC (NJROTC) Academy; School of Business and Finance (National Academy of Finance; Academy of Homeland Security and Military Science)Future program(s): Academy of Architecture and Design; Academy of Transportation Technologies
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Suitland High School has two physical campuses: the main campus and the "annex" (a former elementary school) located directly behind the main campus, which houses the majority of the school's Center for the Visual and Performing Arts magnet program. Suitland was named a 1989 National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence and a 1989 Maryland Blue Ribbon School. It is an IB World School.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Suitland High School CVPA Annex (included with Suitland High School)
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Suitland
| align="center"|1963
| align="center"|9-12
| align="right"|N/A
| align="right"|70,933
| align="center"|Comprehensive8:30a – 3:10pCVPA Magnet8:30a – 4:40p
| Current program(s): Center for the Visual and Performing Arts Magnet Program; International Baccalaureate (IB) Magnet Program; Technical Academy Magnet Program (the Jesse J. Warr Vocational Center); America's Choice School Design Signature Program; Navy Junior ROTC (NJROTC) Academy; School of Business and Finance (National Academy of Finance; Academy of Homeland Security and Military Science)Future program(s): Academy of Architecture and Design; Academy of Transportation Technologies
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: Suitland High School has two physical campuses: the main campus and the "annex" (a former elementary school) located directly behind the main campus, which houses the majority of the school's Center for the Visual and Performing Arts magnet program. It was named a 1989 National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence.
|-
| rowspan="2"|Dr. Henry A. Wise, Jr. High School
| align="center"|Link
| align="center"|Upper Marlboro
| align="center"|2006
| align="center"|9–12
| align="right"|2,255 students
| align="right"|434,600
| align="center"|9:00a – 3:40p
| Current program(s): Technical Academy Magnet Program; Academy of Health and Biosciences; Academy of Computer NetworkingFuture program(s): Performing Arts Academy
|-
| style="background:#fff;" colspan="8"|Notes & comments: At 434,600 sq. ft. and with a capacity of 2,600 students, Wise is the largest high school in the state of Maryland when measured by total square footage. It was completed in August 2006 and features a 5,000-seat professional gymnasium, the largest of any school in the Washington metropolitan area.
|}
Middle schools
Intermediate schools are referred to as "middle schools" in the PGCPS system, and operate as grades 6–8 middle schools. Grades 7–9 junior high school were phased out in the mid-1980s. Recent efforts have been made to convert most middle schools to the more popular grades 6–8 model. Issues in the past such as over-enrollment, lack of classroom space, and funding, had made it hard to convert all middle schools to a grades 6–8 configuration, but with increased funding and the addition of new middle schools, the transition is slowly being made, to be completed by the beginning of SY2024-2025.
Most middle schools in Prince George's County operate with a "comprehensive" model, as their base. Most students are assigned to a middle school based on an "attendance area." Most magnet programs operate as a "School-Within-A-School" model, where the magnet serves as an alternative program, in addition to the main comprehensive program, and students from outside the regular attendance area of the middle school are enrolled and accepted into the magnet, either through "continuity" (automatic continuation from an elementary school magnet program to the middle school level equivalent) or more commonly, through a magnet lottery, where students apply for a magnet program and are granted acceptance through a random drawing. Almost all middle schools have a whole-school "Signature Program" that includes a specialized program of instruction which is the foundation of the school's comprehensive program.
All middle schools in the PGCPS operate on a staggered school day schedule, where some middle schools start as early as 7:30 am and the end as early as 2:50 pm, and other middle schools start as late as 9:00 am and end as late as 4:20 pm. All middle schools operate on a modified block scheduling system, where some classes meet for as long as 70-minutes, daily. For the 2012-13 school year and beyond, an additional 40-minutes of instruction time has been added to the school day for all middle schools and their students, within the school district.
In a cooperative effort of the county government, Board of Education, and the Maryland-National Capital Park & Planning Commission (M-NCPPC) some M-NCPPC community centers are physically connected to middle schools, throughout the district. The unique community park/school centers features shared use areas which include a gymnasium, multi-purpose room, exercise/fitness room, dance room, arts and crafts room, computer lab, offices; storage areas, patio area, and restrooms. There are tennis courts and unlighted fields located on-site at select centers.
Dedicated magnet schools
Dedicated magnet schools are offered in the PGCPS system at the PreK-8th grade, elementary and middle school level only. As of 2012-13, Glenarden Woods and Heather Hills are the only full elementary-level dedicated magnet schools in the system. Dedicated magnet schools are "whole school" programs and differ from traditional comprehensive schools, as (1) all students at the school are enrolled and receive instruction in the magnet program and (2) traditional attendance areas for assigning students to a school are replaced by much larger geographical attendance zones, usually split between north county (areas north of Central Avenue) and south county (areas south of Central Avenue). Whole school, dedicated magnet programs are offered through the Creative and Performing Arts, French Immersion, Montessori, and Talented & Gifted Center magnet programs. Students receive specialized instruction that varies from the typical comprehensive program, offered at most other schools. Students are selected for the magnet programs through a magnet lottery for the French Immersion and Montessori programs and also for the Creative and Performing Arts program at the elementary school level. Acceptance into the Creative and Performing Arts program is through audition only at the middle school level. Acceptance into the TAG Centers at Glenarden Woods and Heather Hills Elementary Schools is through specialized TAG testing only.
Combined elementary and middle schools
Pre-kindergarten through grade 8 schools are essentially combined elementary and middle schools, facilitated in one building. Most of these schools are referred to as "academies" in the school district. The elementary school usually starts at pre-kindergarten and ends at grade 5 and the middle school starts at grade 6 and ends at grade 8. These schools usually offer a slightly enhanced standard of learning and studies have suggested that students have benefited from being in one continuous facility from kindergarten through 8th grade, without having the disruption having to attend a brand new school, for the middle school years. Cora L. Rice Elementary School and G. James Gholson Middle School are not true academies. Both schools are housed in one facility but they operate as two completely separate schools for all intents and purposes.
Elementary schools
Elementary schools in Prince George's County operate in several configurations, ranging from Pre-K (Head Start) through grade 6. Most elementary schools operate under a kindergarten through grade 6 configuration, and lack a pre-kindergarten/Head Start program. More recently, with boundary realignments to ease overcrowding and with the opening of newer and larger schools and increased funding, several schools have changed to a PreK-6th grade configuration while others have added a Pre-kindergarten, but dropped the sixth grade, to change to a Pre-K through grade 5 school. The sixth grades from those schools were added to the elementary schools' feeder middle schools.
In a cooperative effort of the county government, board of education, and the Maryland National Capital Park & Planning Commission (M-NCPPC), several M-NCPPC community centers are physically connected to elementary schools, throughout the district. The unique community park/school centers features shared use areas which include a gymnasium, multi-purpose room, exercise/fitness room, dance room, arts and crafts room, computer lab, offices, storage areas, patio area, and restrooms. Tennis courts and unlighted fields are located on-site at select centers.
Accolades and achievements
Newsweeks America's Best High Schools
In June 2010, seven PGCPS high school were listed in Newsweeks annual list of the top 1600 high schools in the nation. This was up from five county high schools which made the list from the previous year. The 2010 list included Eleanor Roosevelt High School in Greenbelt (#409), Oxon Hill High School in Oxon Hill (#957), Bowie High School in Bowie (#1,173), Laurel High School in Laurel (#1,343), High Point High School in Beltsville (#1,361), Central High School in Capitol Heights (#1,429), and Parkdale High School in Riverdale (#1,481).
The schools are ranked on the number of Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate and/or Cambridge tests taken by all students in a school in 2009, divided by the number of graduating seniors, called the "Challenge Index". The schools represent the top six percent of all public high schools in America. In June 2009, five PGCPS high schools were named in the best high schools list. It included Bowie High School in Bowie, Charles Herbert Flowers High School in Springdale, High Point High School in Beltsville, Oxon Hill High School in Oxon Hill, and Eleanor Roosevelt High School in Greenbelt. Eleanor Roosevelt ranked the highest out of county schools at 372nd on the nationwide list, Oxon Hill ranked 918th, High Point ranked 961st, Bowie ranked 1,370th, and Charles Herbert Flowers ranked 1,445th.
U.S. News & World Reports Best High Schools
Since 2007, U.S. News & World Report has ranked high schools in PGCPS among the Best High Schools in America. High Point High School, Northwestern High School, and Eleanor Roosevelt High School have been recognized as Silver Medal Schools.
State and national Blue Ribbon Schools
PGCPS has 16 state Blue Ribbon Schools, 13 of which are USDE National Blue Ribbon Schools of Excellence.
National Blue Ribbon Schools of Excellence
Beacon Heights Elementary School, Riverdale, 2003–04
Columbia Park Elementary School, Landover, 1987–88
Fort Foote Elementary School, Fort Washington, 2000–01
Glenarden Woods Elementary School, Glenarden, 2005–06
Greenbelt Center Elementary School, Greenbelt, 1991–92
Heather Hills Elementary School, Bowie, 1989–90
Templeton Elementary School, Riverdale, 1998–99
Whitehall Elementary School, Bowie, 2011–12
Kenmoor Middle School, Landover, 1988–89
Dora Kennedy French Immersion, Greenbelt, 2013–14
Kettering Middle School, Upper Marlboro, 1992–93
Martin Luther King, Jr. Middle School, Beltsville, 1992–93
Eleanor Roosevelt High School, Greenbelt, 1990-91 & 1997-98
Suitland High School, Forestville, 1988–89
Maryland Blue Ribbon Schools
Beacon Heights Elementary School, Riverdale, 2003–04
Bond Mill Elementary School, Laurel (year N/A)
Columbia Park Elementary School, Landover, 1987–88
Fort Foote Elementary School, Fort Washington, 2000–01
Glenarden Woods Elementary School, Glenarden, 2005–06
Greenbelt Center Elementary School, Greenbelt, 1991–92
Heather Hills Elementary School, Bowie, 1989-90 & 2006-07
Rockledge Elementary School, Bowie, 1997–98
Whitehall Elementary School, Bowie, 2011–12
Templeton Elementary School, Riverdale, 1998–99
Kenmoor Middle School, Landover, 1988–89
Dora Kennedy French Immersion, Greenbelt, 2013–14
Kettering Middle School, Upper Marlboro, 1992–93
Martin Luther King, Jr. Middle School, Beltsville, 1992–93
Eleanor Roosevelt High School, Greenbelt, 1990-91 & 1997-98
Suitland High School, Forestville, 1988–89
Magnet programs and centers
Magnet programs were first implemented in PGCPS in 1985, to fulfill a court-ordered desegregation mandate. Up until as late as the late 80s, Prince George's County had been predominantly white in terms of racial demographics. In order to desegregate mostly all-White schools in the school system, PGCPS created several magnet programs that eventually were instituted in over fifty schools, spread throughout the county.
By the late 1990s, the population demographics of the county had shifted towards a mostly African American majority. Magnet programs (as they were set up) were costing PGCPS approximately $14 million per year, to operate. The programs were costly and this was exacerbated by the fact that the school system's operating budget was greater than the final budget the school system had traditionally been allotted, an issue that had plagued the school system for years. Since the county's population now primarily consisted of African Americans, and due to the expense of operating the Magnet Schools Program, courts began to investigate the justification of PGCPS's magnet program. In 2004, a court ruled to discontinue court-ordered busing which had existed in the county, for over 30 years, based primarily on the fact that desegregation was no longer an issue in the predominantly Black Prince George's County.
With the ending of the court-ordered busing, also came changes to the school system's Magnet Schools Program. The program had gained national attention, as it was one of the largest in the country. It served as a model for school systems across the nation. Dr. Iris T. Metts, the superintendent of schools at the time, formulated an ambitious plan to actually expand the magnet programs in PGCPS, as well as reassign magnet programs that weren't performing well at one location, to other schools. Due to long and highly publicized in-house issues between Metts and the board of education, Metts was replaced by Dr. Andre Hornsby at the end of her contract with PGCPS. When Hornsby arrived, he essentially reversed the decision that Metts had made, in regards to the future of the county's magnet programs, and he decided to instead eliminate most of the school system's magnet programs, most of which had been identified as under-performing for several years. Ten magnet programs were identified for elimination, which proved extremely controversial because some of the proposed eliminated programs were located at sites in which the program in question had been extremely successful, such as the Academic Center magnet program at Martin Luther King, Jr. Academic Center, which had been the highest performing middle school in the system for several years and also was a blue ribbon school.
Despite the opposition by parents, in 2006 the magnet programs in PGCPS underwent an overhaul, and most of the magnets were eliminated. A few programs that were determined to be "successful" were either expanded and replicated at other locations, or consolidated and relocated to a dedicated magnet school that would serve large geographic areas of the county.
Current magnet programs
ES = elementary school; MS = middle school; HS = high school
Aerospace Engineering and Aviation Technology Program (HS)
Biomedical (HS)
Biotechnology (HS)
Career and Technical Education (HS)
Centers for Visual and Performing Arts (HS)
Chinese Immersion (ES, MS)
Creative and Performing Arts (ES, MS)
French Immersion (ES, MS, HS)
International Baccalaureate (HS)
Montessori (ES, MS)
Science and Technology Center (HS)
Spanish Dual Language Program (ES)
Spanish Immersion (ES, MS)
Talented and Gifted Center (ES, MS)
Magnet program descriptions
Aerospace Engineering and Aviation Technology
The Aerospace Engineering and Aviation Technology program is a college and career preparatory program, offering areas of study in Aerospace Engineering and Aviation Technology. It is supported by partnerships with the College Park Aviation Museum, NASA, local colleges and universities, and private industry. This program is designed to prepare students for college and high-demand careers. Each student receives a laptop upon entry into the program, and is provided with transportation.
Admission to the program is based on the same criteria and examination used for the Science and Technology Center.Locations:DuVal High School
Biomedical
The Biomedical Program at Bladensburg High School is a high school curriculum that focuses on medical and health careers, such as physicians and research doctors. Students who have a strong interest in pursuing a career in health-related fields have an opportunity to engage in biomedical research, internships, and practicums, and to enroll in medical-related science courses and other advanced placement courses. The curriculum introduces students to a wide variety of medical careers through field trips, speakers in the medical field, internships, accelerated courses, a wide variety of electives related to the biological and social sciences, and independent research.Locations:
Bladensburg High School
Biotechnology
The Biotechnology Program offers a four-year, college-preparatory program of study in molecular biology, biochemistry and technical career training that includes scanning electron microscopy. Students have first-hand experience with the advanced technologies used in biotechnology research, academia, and industry.
Courses are taught in modern laboratory classrooms equipped with the latest biotechnology instrumentation. The facilities include gel electrophoresis, refrigerated centrifugation, scanning spectrophotometry, high pressure liquid chromatography, gas chromatography and access to scanning electron microscopy. Computers will support classroom instruction as well as student initiated research projects.
Students study biotechnology theory and technique in a cyclic fashion where concepts introduced in beginning courses will be emphasized in depth during upper level classes. Mini-research projects are conducted by science students to demonstrate their understanding of course content and laboratory procedures. Complementing the specific science offerings of the Biotechnology Program is a full selection of courses, including Advanced Placement level in English, social studies and mathematics.Eligibility Requirements: Students who express interest are eligible to apply. No pre-testing is required. Admission to the program is through a race-neutral random magnet lottery application process, on a space-available basis.Locations:
Fairmont Heights High School
Largo High School
Career and Technical Education (CTE) Program
The Technical Academy is a program that provides students with technical skills and knowledge. Benefits to students include gaining a foundation for a college major in a technical field, having access to a technical career after high school if college is postponed, and having access to a part-time technical job to help with college expenses.Locations:
Bladensburg High School
Crossland High School
Gwynn Park High School
Laurel High School
Suitland High School
Centers for the Visual and Performing Arts
The Centers for the Visual and Performing Arts (CVPA) has been in existence since 1986, originally at Suitland High School. The program was expanded to Northwestern High School in the fall of 2013. The CVPA is a rigorous four-year arts program that offers artistically talented high school students educational opportunities designed to prepare them artistically for college, professional study, or career options in the arts. Strong association with the arts in the Washington, DC-area offers distinct advantages. Students study with professional artists, dancers, actors, musicians, singers, directors/producers, and radio/television personalities. Students explore, and eventually major, in any one of the six principal concentrations: vocal music, instrumental music, dance, theatre, visual arts, and interactive media production. Suitland High School offers a 1000-seat auditorium and experimental theatre, a fully equipped dance studio, and a television and recording studio. Northwestern High School offers an 1100-seat auditorium, fully equipped dance studio, state-of-the-art music rooms, several music practice rooms, a piano lab, and a television and recording studio. Admission into the CVPA magnet program is through audition only.Locations:
Northwestern High School
Suitland High School
Creative and Performing Arts
The Creative and Performing Arts Magnet Program is located at three sites. The programs at Thomas G. Pullen and Benjamin D. Foulois are open to students in Kindergarten through eighth grade; the program at Hyattsville Middle School is open to students in seventh and eighth grade (Hyattsville Middle School has a limited program boundary).
The Creative and Performing Arts Magnet Program is designed to develop the interest and talents of students in the arts, and feature an enhanced interdisciplinary academic program that encourages creative and artistic expression. Experiences and training are designed to challenge and develop skills of all students, as well as to provide exceptional opportunities for artistically talented students.
The curriculum provides in-depth experiences in each art discipline, plus related arts experiences and an infusion of the arts in the overall curriculum. The arts are provided as an integral part of a strong academic program.
The Creative Arts Schools follow the general curriculum guidelines that are used for all Prince George's County public elementary and middle schools. Basic instruction is provided in reading, mathematics, English, science, and social studies, as well as specialized instruction in the arts - art, drama, music, dance, physical education, creative writing, media production, literary arts, and related computer lab experiences.Locations:
Thomas G. Pullen Creative and Performing Arts Academy
Hyattsville Middle School for the Creative and Performing Arts
The Benjamin D. Foulois Creative and Performing Arts Academy
French Immersion
The French Immersion Magnet Program is designed for kindergarten through twelfth grade. It is referred to as a "full immersion program" as all academic subjects are taught through French, in grades K-5. In grades 6-8, the students have two periods per day of French, one period for French Language Arts and one period of world studies in French. In high school, students have two courses in grades 9 and 10 with a focus on literature and the francophone world, which are part of the Pre-International Baccalaureate (IB) Program. At the elementary level, students are immerse totally in French by their bilingual teachers, as they learn math, science, social studies and language arts.
At the middle school level, students also study Italian. In addition, Algebra and Geometry are possible options in mathematics. The interdisciplinary approach for English, Art and World Studies includes special themes, seminars, field trips, and a strong focus on essay writing. International travel is an enrichment part of the French Immersion Program.
At the high school level, students may take one of the immersion courses and the continuation of the second foreign language started at the middle school level. Other options are IB preparation courses for English, history, science, and access to Chemistry and Calculus. Higher level IB or Advanced Placement (AP) courses, are available. There is an Exchange Program with a school in France and other exchanges are being explored for high school students. In addition to the immersion continuity, students may continue the study of their second foreign language which began in middle school — either Russian, Italian, Latin, or German.Locations:
Maya Angelou French Immersion
Dora Kennedy French Immersion
Central High School
International Baccalaureate
The International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Magnet Program is an academically challenging and balanced course of study, that prepares students for success in college and life beyond. The mission of the program is to develop inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring young people who help to create a better, more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.
The IB program offers many benefits to its participants, such as: higher university and college acceptance rates for IB graduates; increased scholarship and grant opportunities; a college-level academic program that transitions students to university and college standards; and teacher development using IB strategies.Locations:
Central High School
Crossland High School
Laurel High School
Parkdale High School
Suitland High School
Montessori
Prince George's County Public Schools has implemented two facilities dedicated to the Montessori instructional program — the Robert Goddard Montessori School and the John Hanson Montessori School. As dedicated facilities, these schools do not have a neighborhood attendance area. Entry into the program is through the random lottery application process only.
The Montessori Primary Program for children ages 3 to 6 years old is based on the Montessori educational philosophy. Taught by Montessori accredited teachers, young children are guided in developing an inner discipline, strengthening their coordination, and extending their concentration span. These accomplishments result with their readily learning to read, write and grasp mathematics. The program consists of a half-day morning for preschoolers (ages 3 ). Children older than four must be enrolled in a certified Montessori program to be accepted into the program.
The Montessori Lower Elementary Program is designed for students ages 6 to 9 years old with prior Montessori experience. Rapid growth and learning is observed in classrooms filled with appropriate educational materials. The Montessori Upper Elementary Program continues for the next age grouping of students ages 9–12 with prior Montessori experience. Taught by Montessori accredited teachers, these elementary program students study an integrated curriculum that includes: mathematics, geometry, language, cultural studies, astronomy, biology, chemistry, geography, history, geology, philosophy, art, music and physical education.
The Montessori Middle School Program completes the Montessori studies for students progressing to the seventh and eighth grades. An interdisciplinary teaching team provides the Montessori Program for multidisciplinary learning to include English Language Arts, mathematics, science and social studies. At the high school level, the student can apply for entry to Biotechnology, Biomedical, Military Academy, Center for the Visual & Performing Arts and/or the Science & Technology Center.Locations:Robert Goddard Montessori School
John Hanson Montessori School
Judith P. Hoyer Montessori School
Science and Technology Center
The Science and Technology Center (S/T) is a highly challenging four-year curriculum which provides college-level academic experiences in science, mathematics, and technology. The program is not a true magnet program, as students are admitted into the S/T program based on competitive examination only, as opposed to the standard magnet lottery process. Of twenty-eight possible credits, a student is required to obtain a minimum of thirteen credits in specific mathematics, pre-engineering technology, research and science courses. In grades nine and ten, the program consists of common experiences courses for all student. In grades eleven and twelve, each student must choose course work from at least one of four major study areas. Students are expected to be enrolled in a full schedule of classes during the entire four-year program. External experiences are possible and encouraged, but must be a direct extension or enrichment of the Science and Technology Program, and have the recommendation of the Science and Technology Center Coordinator prior to approval by the principal.
The program is offered at three centers — Eleanor Roosevelt High School in northern Prince George's County, Oxon Hill High School in southern Prince George's County, and Charles Herbert Flowers High School in central Prince George’s County. Students attend the center that serves their legal residence. Transportation is provided for all students. Each school is a four-year comprehensive high school, as well as a Science and Technology Center. Each school is an active member of the National Consortium for Specialized Secondary Schools of Mathematics, Science and Technology (NCSSSMST).
Admission into the Science and Technology Center is highly competitive and contingent upon three criterion, with all criterion weighed equally. The criterion are:
Grades from four quarters of 7th grade and the first quarter of 8th grade (or four quarters of 8th grade and first quarter of 9th grade) in math, science, English, and social studies
A standardized reading comprehension test
A standardized numerical test
All of these are factored into a final score. The number of students admitted into the S/T program vary from each school, but as an example, 225-250 students with the top scores are admitted to Roosevelt's Science and Technology Program. The next 60 students are placed on a waiting list. All interested 8th and 9th grade students who are residents of Prince George's County are eligible to apply for admission to the Science and Technology Center.
Locations
Charles Herbert Flowers High School
Oxon Hill High School
Eleanor Roosevelt High School
Spanish Dual Language Program
The Spanish Dual Language Program gives equal emphasis to English and non-English language speakers. Students learn Spanish and English through content based instruction in selected core subjects with a cross cultural understanding for both native and non-native speakers. Students read, write, listen and speak in both languages, becoming bilingual, biliterate and bicultural.
Locations
Cesar Chavez Elementary School
Spanish Immersion
Language Immersion is an educational approach in which students are taught the curriculum content through the medium of a second language, Spanish. Children learn their entire core subjects (reading, writing, mathematics, social studies, and science) in Spanish. Spanish speaking teachers immerse student completely in Spanish as they learn. In this way, immersion students not only learn the content, but also gain knowledge of the language in which it is taught.
Locations
Overlook Elementary School
Phyllis E. Williams Elementary School
Talented and Gifted Center (TAG)
Talented and Gifted Center (TAG) Magnet Schools provide a full-day intensive educational program appropriate for identified talented and gifted students, in grades 2-8. Each school offers a full-day of enriched and accelerated educational experiences in the four major content areas. Special offerings include elementary foreign language programs, computer laboratories, laboratory based science program, and fine arts programs.Locations:'''
The Accokeek Academy
Capitol Heights Elementary School
Glenarden Woods Elementary School
Heather Hills Elementary School
Highland Park Elementary School
Longfields Elementary School
Valley View Elementary School
Greenbelt Middle School
Kenmoor Middle School
Walker Mill Middle School
See also
List of Prince George's County Public Schools Middle Schools
Prince George's County Public Schools Magnet Programs
List of schools in Prince George's County, Maryland
References
External links
Public Schools
School districts in Maryland
School districts established in 1899 |
4056974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sundance%20Film%20Festival%20award%20winners | List of Sundance Film Festival award winners | The following includes a list of films that won awards at the American Sundance Film Festival.
1980s
1984
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Old Enough
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Style Wars
Honorable Mention Documentary – Seeing Red
Honorable Mention Documentary – The Good Fight (The Abraham Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War)
Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Last Night at the Alamo
Special Jury Prize Documentary – When the Mountains Tremble
Special Jury Recognition Documentary – The Secret Agent
Special Jury Recognition Dramatic – Hero
Source:
1985
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Blood Simple
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Seventeen
Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Almost You
Special Jury Prize Dramatic – The Killing Floor
Special Jury Prize Documentary – America and Lewis Hine
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Kaddish
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Streetwise
Special Jury Prize Documentary – The Times of Harvey Milk
Special Jury Recognition Dramatic – Stranger Than Paradise
Special Jury Recognition Documentary – In Heaven There Is No Beer?
Sources:
1986
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Smooth Talk
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Private Conversations
Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Desert Hearts
Special Jury Prize Documentary – The Mothers of Plaza de Mayo
Special Jury Recognition – Parting Glances
Special Jury Recognition – The Great Wall is a Great Wall
Special Jury Recognition for Youth Comedy – Seven Minutes in Heaven
Source:
1987
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Waiting for the Moon
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – The Trouble with Dick
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Sherman's March
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – No Picnic
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Chile: When Will It End?
Special Jury Recognition – Working Girls
Special Jury Recognition – River's Edge
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Chile: When Will It End?
Special Jury Prize for Originality – Sullivan's Pavilion
Source:
1988
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Heat and Sunlight
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Beirut: The Last Home Movie
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Rachel River
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Beirut: The Last Home Movie
Special Jury Prize – Lemon Sky
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Thy Kingdom Come, Thy Will Be Done
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Dear America: Letters Home from Vietnam
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Viveca Lindfors in Rachel River
Special Jury Recognition – The Brave Little Toaster
Source:
1989
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – True Love
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – For All Mankind
Audience Award Documentary – For All Mankind
Audience Award Dramatic – sex, lies and videotape
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Powwow Highway
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – John Huston
Special Jury Recognition – The Roommate
Source:
1990s
1990
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Chameleon Street
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – H-2 Worker
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Water and Power
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – H-2 Worker
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – House Party
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – House Party
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – Metamorphosis: Man Into Woman
Audience Award Dramatic – Longtime Companion
Audience Award Documentary – Berkeley in the Sixties
Special Jury Recognition – To Sleep with Anger
Special Jury Recognition – Samsara: Death and Rebirth in Cambodia
Source:
1991
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Poison
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – American Dream
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Paris Is Burning
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Privilege
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – American Dream
Audience Award Dramatic – One Cup of Coffee
Audience Award Documentary – American Dream
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Daughters of the Dust
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Christo in Paris
Special Jury Recognition – Straight Out of Brooklyn
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Hangin' with the Homeboys
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Trust
Source:
1992
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – In the Soup
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – A Brief History of Time
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Finding Christa
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Zebrahead
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – A Brief History of Time
Audience Award Dramatic – The Waterdance
Audience Award Documentary – Brother's Keeper
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Swoon
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Shoot for the Contents
Special Jury Recognition – The Hours and Times
Special Jury Recognition – My Crasy Life
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Seymour Cassel for his performance in In the Soup
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – The Waterdance
Piper-Heidseick Award for Independent Vision – John Turturro
Source:
1993
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Ruby in Paradise
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Public Access
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Silverlake Life: The View from Here
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic –
Audience Award Dramatic – El Mariachi
Audience Award Documentary – Something Within Me
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – An Ambush of Ghosts
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Children of Fate: Life and Death in a Sicilian Family
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Combination Platter
Special Jury Recognition – Just Another Girl on the I.R.T.
Special Jury Recognition – Earth and the American Dream
Piper-Heidsieck Tribute to Independent Vision – Denzel Washington
Source:
1994
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – What Happened Was...
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Freedom on My Mind
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Clerks
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Fresh
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – What Happened Was...
Audience Award Dramatic – Spanking the Monkey
Audience Award Documentary – Hoop Dreams
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Suture
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Colorado Cowboy: The Bruce Ford Story
Freedom of Expression Award – Dialogues with Madwomen
Freedom of Expression Award – Heart of the Matter
Special Jury Recognition – Coming Out Under Fire
Special Jury Recognition for Acting – Alicia Witt, Renee Humphrey for Fun
Piper-Heidsieck Tribute to Independent Vision – Gena Rowlands
Source:
1995
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – The Brothers McMullen
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – The Young Poisoner's Handbook
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Crumb
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Angela
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – Black is... Black Ain't
Audience Award Dramatic – Picture Bride
Audience Award Documentary – Ballot Measure 9 and Unzipped
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Living in Oblivion
Freedom of Expression Award – When Billy Broke His Head...and Other Tales of Wonder
Special Jury Recognition for Directing – Jupiter's Wife
Special Jury Recognition for Directing – Heavy
Special Jury Recognition for Directing – Rhythm Thief
Special Jury Recognition – El héroe
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Eagles Don't Hunt Flies
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Strawberry and Chocolate
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – The Salesman and Other Adventures
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Tom's Flesh
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Nonnie & Alex
Piper-Heidsieck Tribute to Independent Vision – Nicolas Cage
Source:
1996
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Welcome to the Dollhouse
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Troublesome Creek: A Midwestern
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Girls Town
Audience Award Dramatic – Care of the Spitfire Grill
Audience Award Documentary – Troublesome Creek: A Midwestern
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Color of a Brisk and Leaping Day
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Cutting Loose
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Big Night
Freedom of Expression Award – The Celluloid Closet
Special Jury Recognition – When We Were Kings
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Lili Taylor for I Shot Andy Warhol
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Guantanamera
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Wild Horses
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Pig!
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Dry Mount
Piper-Heidsieck Tribute to Independent Vision – Dianne Wiest
Sources:
1997
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Sunday
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Girls Like Us
Audience Award Dramatic – Love Jones
Audience Award Dramatic – Hurricane
Audience Award Documentary – Paul Monette: The Brink of Summer's End
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – Licensed to Kill
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – In the Company of Men
Freedom of Expression Award – Family Name
Freedom of Expression Award – Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – My America ...or Honk if You Love Buddha
Special Jury Recognition – Kirby Dick for SICK: The Life & Death of Bob Flanagan, Supermasochist / Parker Posey for The House of Yes
Latin American Cinema Award – Landscapes of Memory
Short Filmmaking Award – Man About Town
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Deep Crimson
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Syphon Gun
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Birdhouse
Piper-Heidsieck Tribute to Independent Vision – Tim Robbins
Source:
1998
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Slam
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Frat House (tie)
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – The Farm: Angola, USA (tie)
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Miss Monday
Special Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Fishbelly White
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Smoke Signals
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – Divine Trash
Directing Award Dramatic – Pi
Directing Award Documentary – Moment of Impact
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – 2by4
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Wild Man Blues
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – High Art
Freedom of Expression Award – The Decline of Western Civilization III
Honorable Mention Latin American Cinema – Who the Hell Is Juliette?
Audience Award Dramatic – Smoke Signals
Audience Award Documentary – Out of the Past
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Snake Feed
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Human Remains
Piper-Heidseick Tribute to Independent Vision – Frances McDormand
Source:
1999
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – American Movie
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Three Seasons
Audience Award Documentary – Genghis Blues
Audience Award Dramatic – Three Seasons
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Three Seasons
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Regret to Inform
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Rabbit in the Moon
Directing Award Dramatic – Judy Berlin
Directing Award Documentary – Regret to Inform
Freedom of Expression Award – The Black Press: Soldiers Without Swords
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Joe the King (tie)
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Guinevere (tie)
World Cinema Audience Award – Run Lola Run (tie)
World Cinema Audience Award – Train of Life (tie)
Filmmakers Trophy Dramatic – Tumbleweeds
Filmmakers Trophy Documentary – Sing Faster: The Stagehands' Ring Cycle
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Stubble Trouble
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Come unto Me: The Faces of Tyree Guyton
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – A Pack of Gifts, Now
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Atomic Tabasco
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Devil Doll/Ring Pull
Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – Little Saints
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – More
Special Jury Prize – On the Ropes
Special Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – Life is to Whistle
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Happy, Texas
Special Jury Prize for Distinctive Vision in Filmmaking – Treasure Island
Piper-Heidsieck tribute to Independent Vision – Laura Dern
Source:
2000s
2000
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Long Night's Journey into Day
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Girlfight & You Can Count on Me (tie)
Directing Award Dramatic – Girlfight
Directing Award Documentary – Paragraph 175
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – You Can Count on Me
Freedom of Expression Award – Dark Days
Audience Award Dramatic – Two Family House
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Americanos: Latino Life in The United States
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Committed
World Cinema Audience Award – Saving Grace
Special Jury Prize for Artistic Achievement – The Ballad of Ramblin' Jack
Special Jury Prize for Writing – George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire
Special Jury Prize for Ensemble Cast – The Tao of Steve
Special Jury Prize for Ensemble Cast – Songcatcher
Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – Herod's Law
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Five Feet High and Rising
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – No One Writes to the Colonel
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Darling International
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – G.
Piper-Heidsieck tribute to Independent Vision – Kevin Spacey
Source:
2001
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Southern Comfort
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – The Believer
Audience Award Dramatic – Hedwig and the Angry Inch
Audience Award Documentary – Dogtown and Z-Boys & Scout's Honor
Directing Award Documentary – Dogtown and Z-Boys
Directing Award Dramatic – Hedwig and the Angry Inch
Freedom of Expression Award – Scout's Honor
World Cinema Audience Award – The Road Home
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – LaLee's Kin: The Legacy of Cotton
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – The Deep End
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Memento
Special Jury Prize for Acting – In the Bedroom
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Children Underground
Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – Possible Loves
Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – Sin Dejar Huella (English title Without a Trace)
Special Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – Coffin Joe - The Strange World Of José Mojica Marins
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Gina, An Actress, Age 29
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Delusions in Modern Primitivism
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Jigsaw Venus
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Metropopular
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Peter Rabbit and the Crucifix
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Pie Fight '69
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Sweet
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Zen and the Art of Landscaping
Piper-Heidsieck Award – Julianne Moore
Source:
2002
Audience Award Documentary – Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony
Audience Award Dramatic – Real Women Have Curves
Directing Award Documentary – Sister Helen
Directing Award Dramatic – Tadpole
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Blue Vinyl
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Personal Velocity: Three Portraits
Freedom of Expression Award – Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Daughter from Danang
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Personal Velocity: Three Portraits
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – No Dumb Questions
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – The Parlor
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Stuck
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Drowning Lessons
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Bus 44
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Morning Breath
Jury Prize Latin American Cinema – The Trespasser
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Gasline
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Senorita Extraviada
Special Jury Prize Documentary – How to Draw a Bunny
Special Jury Prize for Ensemble Cast – Manito
Special Jury Prize for Originality – Secretary
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Love Liza
World Cinema Audience Award – L'ultimo bacio
World Cinema Audience Award – Bloody Sunday
Source:
2003
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Dopamine
Audience Award Documentary – My Flesh and Blood
Audience Award Dramatic – The Station Agent
Directing Award Dramatic – thirteen
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Stevie
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Quattro Noza
Freedom of Expression Award – What I Want My Words to Do to You
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Capturing the Friedmans
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – American Splendor
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Ocularist
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – The Planets
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Pan with Us
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – The Freak
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Asylum
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Fits & Starts
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Earthquake
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – From the 104th Floor
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Terminal Bar
Online Film Festival Audience Award Short Filmmaking – One
Online Film Festival Audience Award Short Filmmaking Animation – Broken Saints
Online Film Festival Second Place Audience Award Short Filmmaking – S-11 Redux: Channel Surfing the Apocalypse
Online Film Festival Second Place Audience Award Short Filmmaking Animation – LOR
Online Film Festival Third Place Audience Award Short Filmmaking – Icarus of Pittsburgh
Online Film Festival Third Place Audience Award Short Filmmaking Animation – Bumble Beeing
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – The Station Agent
World Cinema Audience Award – Whale Rider
Source:
2004
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Primer
Audience Award Documentary – Born into Brothels
Audience Award Dramatic – Maria Full of Grace
Directing Award Documentary – Super Size Me
Directing Award Dramatic – Down to the Bone
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Imelda
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – November
Freedom of Expression Award – Repatriation
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Dig!
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Primer
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Curtis
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Harvie Krumpet
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Krumped
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Papillon D’Amour
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Spokane
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – When the Storm Came
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Gowanus, Brooklyn
Jury Prize in International Short Filmmaking – Tomo
Online Film Festival Audience Award Short Filmmaking – Strangers
Online Film Festival Audience Award Short Filmmaking Animation – Drum Machine
Online Film Festival Jury Award Short Filmmaking – Wet Dreams and False Images
Online Film Festival Jury Award Short Filmmaking Animation – Bathtime in Clerkenwell
Online Film Festival Jury Award Short Filmmaking New Forms – The Dawn at My Back: Memoir of a Texas Upgringing
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Farmingville
Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Brother to Brother
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Vera Farmiga for her performance in Down to the Bone
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Larry Gross for We Don't Live Here Anymore
World Cinema Audience Award Documentary – The Corporation
World Cinema Audience Award Dramatic – Seducing Doctor Lewis
Source:
2005
Special Jury Prize for Editing – Murderball
Audience Award Documentary – Murderball
Audience Award Dramatic – Hustle & Flow
Directing Award Documentary – Jeff Feuerzeig for The Devil and Daniel Johnston
Directing Award Dramatic – Noah Baumbach for The Squid and the Whale
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – The Education of Shelby Knox
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Hustle & Flow
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Why We Fight
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Forty Shades of Blue
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – One Weekend A Month
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Small Town Secrets
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Victoria Para Chino
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Tama Tu
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Ryan
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Bullets in the Hood: A Bed-Stuy Story
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Family Portrait
Jury Prize in International Short Filmmaking – Wasp
Special Jury Prize Documentary – After Innocence
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Amy Adams in Junebug
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Lou Pucci in Thumbsucker
Special Jury Prize for Originality of Vision Dramatic – Miranda July writer, director, and actor in Me and You and Everyone We Know
Special Jury Prize for Originality of Vision Dramatic – Rian Johnson director of Brick
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Noah Baumbach for The Squid and the Whale
World Cinema Jury Prize Documentary – Shape of the Moon
World Cinema Jury Prize Dramatic – The Hero
World Cinema Audience Award Dramatic – Brothers
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – The Liberace of Baghdad
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – Wall
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Dramatic – The Forest For the Trees
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Live-In Maid
Source:
2006
2006 Alfred P. Sloan Prize – The House of Sand
Audience Award Documentary – God Grew Tired of Us
Audience Award Dramatic – Quinceañera
Directing Award Documentary – James Longley for Iraq in Fragments
Directing Award Dramatic – Dito Montiel for A Guide to Recognizing Your Saints
Editing Award Documentary – Iraq in Fragments
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – James Longley for Iraq in Fragments
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Tom Richmond for Right at Your Door
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – God Grew Tired of Us
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Quinceañera
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Before Dawn
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Undressing My Mother
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Bugcrush
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – The Wraith of Cobble Hill
Jury Prize in International Short Filmmaking – The Natural Route
Special Jury Prize Documentary – American Blackout
Special Jury Prize Documentary – TV Junkie
Special Jury Prize for Independent Vision Dramatic – In Between Days
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Hilary Brougher for Stephanie Daley
World Cinema Audience Award Documentary – De Nadie
World Cinema Audience Award Dramatic – No. 2
World Cinema Jury Prize Documentary – In the Pit
World Cinema Jury Prize Dramatic – 13 Tzameti
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – Into Great Silence
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – Dear Pyongyang
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Eve and the Fire Horse
Source:
2007
2007 Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Dark Matter
Audience Award: Documentary – Hear and Now
Audience Award: Dramatic – Grace Is Gone
Directing Award Documentary – Sean Fine and Andrea Nix Fine for War/Dance
Directing Award Dramatic – Jeffrey Blitz for Rocket Science
Editing Award Documentary – Hibah Sherif Frisina, Charlton McMillan, and Michael Schweitzer for Nanking
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – Manda Bala (Send a Bullet)
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Benoît Debie for Joshua
Grand Jury Prize Documentary – Manda Bala (Send a Bullet)
Grand Jury Prize Dramatic – Padre Nuestro
Honorable Mentions in Short Filmmaking – Death to the Tinman
Honorable Mentions in Short Filmmaking – t.o.m.
Honorable Mentions in Short Filmmaking – Men Understand Each Other Better (Mardha Hamdigar Ra Behtar Mifahmand)
Honorable Mentions in Short Filmmaking – Spitfire 944
Honorable Mentions in Short Filmmaking – Motodrom
Honorable Mentions in Short Filmmaking – The Fighting Cholitas
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Everything Will Be OK
Jury Prize in International Short Filmmaking – The Tube With a Hat
Special Jury Prize: Documentary – No End in Sight
Special Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Freeheld
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Jess Weixler in Teeth
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Tamara Podemski in Four Sheets to the Wind
Special Jury Prize for Singularity of Vision Dramatic – Chris Smith, director of The Pool
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award: Dramatic – James C. Strouse for Grace Is Gone
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – In the Shadow of the Moon
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Once
World Cinema Jury Prize Documentary – Enemies of Happiness
World Cinema Jury Prize Dramatic – Sweet Mud
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – Hot House
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Dramatic – L' Héritage (The Legacy)
Source:
2008
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize – Sleep Dealer
Audience Award: Documentary – Fuel
Audience Award: Dramatic – The Wackness
Directing Award: Documentary – American Teen
Directing Award: Dramatic – Ballast
Editing Award Documentary – Roman Polanski: Wanted and Desired
Excellence in Cinematography Award: Documentary – Patti Smith: Dream of Life
Excellence in Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Ballast
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – Trouble the Water
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Frozen River
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Aquarium
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – August 15th
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – La Corona (The Crown)
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Oiran Lyrics
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Spider
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Suspension
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – W.
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – My Olympic Summer
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Sikumi (On the Ice)
Jury Prize International Short Filmmaking – Soft
Special Jury Prize: Documentary – The Greatest Silence: Rape in the Congo
Special Jury Prize for Spirit of Independence – Anywhere, U.S.A.
Special Jury Prize for Ensemble Cast – Choke
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Sleep Dealer
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Captain Abu Raed
World Cinema Cinematography Award Documentary – Recycle
World Cinema Directing Award Documentary – Durakovo: The Village of Fools (Durakovo: Le Village Des Fous)
World Cinema Directing Award Dramatic – Mermaid (Rusalka)
World Cinema Documentary Editing Award – The Art Star and the Sudanese Twins
World Cinema Jury Prize Documentary – Man on Wire
World Cinema Jury Prize Dramatic – King of Ping Pong (Ping Pongkingen)
World Cinema Screenwriting Award – I Always Wanted to Be a Gangster (J'ai Toujours Rêvé d'Être un Gangster)
World Cinema Special Jury Prize: Dramatic – Blue Eyelids (Párpados Azules)
Source:
2009
2009 Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Adam
Audience Award: Dramatic – Precious: Based on the Novel "Push" by Sapphire
Audience Award: Documentary – The Cove
Directing Award Dramatic – Cary Joji Fukunaga for Sin Nombre
Directing Award Documentary – Natalia Almada for El General
Excellence in Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Adriano Goldman for Sin Nombre
Excellence in Cinematography Award: Documentary – Bob Richman for The September Issue
Editing Award Documentary – Karen Schmeer for Sergio
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Precious: Based on the Novel "Push" by Sapphire
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – We Live in Public
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Omelette
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – The Attack of the Robots from Nebula-5
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Jerrycan
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Western Spaghetti
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – I Live in the Woods
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Love You More
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Protect You + Me.
Honorable Mention Short Filmmaking – Treevenge
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Short Term 12
Jury Prize International Short Filmmaking – Lies
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Good Hair
Special Jury Prize for Spirit of Independence – Humpday
Special Jury Prize for Acting – Mo'Nique for Precious: Based on the Novel "Push" by Sapphire
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award: Dramatic – Nicholas Jasenovec and Charlyne Yi for Paper Heart
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – Afghan Star
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – An Education
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Documentary – John Maringouin for Big River Man
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Dramatic – John De Borman for An Education
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – Havana Marking for Afghan Star
World Cinema Documentary Editing Award – Janus Billeskov Jansen and Thomas Papapetros for Burma VJ
World Cinema Jury Prize Documentary – Rough Aunties
World Cinema Jury Prize Dramatic – The Maid (La Nana)
World Cinema Screenwriting Award – Guy Hibbert for Five Minutes of Heaven
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – Tibet in Song
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Acting – Catalina Saavedra for The Maid (La Nana)
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Originality – Louise-Michel
Source:
2010s
2010
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Obselidia
Audience Award: Dramatic – happythankyoumoreplease
Audience Award: Documentary – Waiting for "Superman"
Best of NEXT – Homewrecker (2010 film)
Directing Award Documentary – Smash His Camera
Directing Award Dramatic – 3 Backyards
Excellence in Cinematography Award Dramatic – Obselidia
Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary – The Oath
Editing Award Documentary – Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – Restrepo
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Winter's Bone
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Born Sweet
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Can We Talk?
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Dock Ellis & The LSD No-No
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – How I Met Your Father
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Quadrangle
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Rob and Valentyna in Scotland
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Young Love
Jury Prize International Short Filmmaking – The Six Dollar Fifty Man
Jury Prize Short Filmmaking – Drunk History: Douglass & Lincoln
Special Jury Prize Documentary – Gasland
Special Jury Prize Dramatic – Sympathy for Delicious
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Winter's Bone
World Cinema Audience Award Documentary – Waste Land
World Cinema Audience Award Dramatic – Undertow
World Cinema Cinematography Award Documentary – His & Hers
World Cinema Cinematography Award Dramatic – The Man Next Door
World Cinema Directing Award Documentary – Space Tourists
World Cinema Directing Award Dramatic – Southern District
World Cinema Documentary Editing Award – A Film Unfinished
World Cinema Jury Prize Documentary – The Red Chapel (Det Røde Kapel)
World Cinema Jury Prize Dramatic – Animal Kingdom
World Cinema Screenwriting Award – Southern District
World Cinema Special Jury Prize Documentary – Enemies of the People
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Acting – Grown Up Movie Star
Source:
2011
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – How to Die in Oregon
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Like Crazy
World Cinema Jury Prize: Documentary – Hell and Back Again
World Cinema Jury Prize: Dramatic – Happy, Happy
Audience Award: Documentary – Buck
Audience Award: Dramatic – Circumstance
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – Senna
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Kinyarwanda
Best of NEXT Audience Award – to.get.her
Directing Award: Documentary – Jon Foy for Resurrect Dead: The Mystery of the Toynbee Tiles
Directing Award: Dramatic – Sean Durkin for Martha Marcy May Marlene
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – James Marsh for Project Nim
World Cinema Directing Award: Dramatic – Paddy Considine for Tyrannosaur
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Sam Levinson for Another Happy Day
World Cinema Dramatic Screenwriting Award – Erez Kav-El for Restoration
Documentary Editing Award – Matthew Hamachek and Marshall Curry for If a Tree Falls: A Story of the Earth Liberation Front
World Cinema Documentary Editing Award – Goran Hugo Olsson and Hanna Lejonqvist for The Black Power Mixtape 1967-1975
Excellence in Cinematography Award: Documentary – Eric Strauss, Ryan Hill and Peter Hutchens for The Redemption of General Butt Naked
Excellence in Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Bradford Young for Pariah
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Documentary – Danfung Dennis for Hell and Back Again
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Diego F. Jimenez for All Your Dead Ones
World Dramatic Special Jury Prizes for Breakout Performances – Peter Mullan and Olivia Colman for Tyrannosaur
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Prize – Position Among the Stars
Documentary Special Jury Prize – Being Elmo: A Puppeteer's Journey
Dramatic Special Jury Prize – Another Earth
Dramatic Special Jury Prize for Breakout Performance – Felicity Jones for Like Crazy
Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Brick Novax Pt 1 and 2
International Jury Prize in Short Filmmaking – Deeper Than Yesterday
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Choke
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Diarchy
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – The External World
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – The Legend of Beaver Dam
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Out of Reach
Honorable Mention in Short Filmmaking – Protoparticles
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize – Another Earth
Sundance Institute/Mahindra Global Filmmaking Awards – Bogdan Mustata of Romania for Wolf, Ernesto Contrera of Mexico for I Dream In Another Language, Seng Tat Liew of Malaysia for In What City Does It Live?, and Talya Lavie of Israel for Zero Motivation
Sundance Institute/NHK Award – Cherien Dabis, director of May in the Summer
Source:
2012
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – The House I Live In
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Beasts of the Southern Wild
World Cinema Jury Prize: Documentary – The Law in These Parts
World Cinema Jury Prize: Dramatic – Violeta Went to Heaven (Violeta se Fue a Los Cielos)
Audience Award: U.S. Documentary – The Invisible War
Audience Award: U.S. Dramatic – The Surrogate (retitled The Sessions)
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – Searching for Sugar Man
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Valley of Saints
Best of NEXT Audience Award – Sleepwalk with Me
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize – Robot & Frank
U.S. Directing Award: Documentary – The Queen of Versailles
U.S. Directing Award: Dramatic – Middle of Nowhere
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – 5 Broken Cameras
World Cinema Directing Award: Dramatic – Teddy Bear
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Safety Not Guaranteed
World Cinema Screenwriting Award – Young & Wild
U.S. Documentary Editing Award – Detropia
World Cinema Documentary Editing Award – Indie Game: The Movie
Excellence in Cinematography Award: U.S. Documentary – Chasing Ice
Excellence in Cinematography Award: U.S. Dramatic – Beasts of the Southern Wild
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Documentary – Putin's Kiss
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Dramatic – My Brother the Devil
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Prize for an Agent of Change – Love Free or Die
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Prize for Spirit of Defiance – Ai Weiwei: Never Sorry
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Prize for Excellence in Independent Film Producing – Smashed and Nobody Walks
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Prize for Ensemble Acting – The Surrogate (retitled The Sessions)
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Prize for Artistic Vision – Can
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Prize for its Celebration of the Artistic Spirit – Searching for Sugar Man
Jury Prize: Short Filmmaking – Fishing Without Nets
Short Film Audience Award – The Debutante Hunters
Source:
2013
U. S. Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Fruitvale (retitled Fruitvale Station)
U. S. Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – Blood Brother
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Jiseul
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – A River Changes Course
Audience Award: U. S. Dramatic presented by Acura – Fruitvale (retitled Fruitvale Station)
Audience Award: U.S. Documentary presented by Acura – Blood Brother
Audience Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Metro Manila
Audience Award: World Cinema: Documentary – The Square
Audience Award: Best of NEXT – This Is Martin Bonner
Directing Award: U. S. Dramatic – Afternoon Delight
Directing Award: U. S. Documentary – Cutie and the Boxer
Directing Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Crystal Fairy
Directing Award: World Cinema Documentary – The Machine Which Makes Everything Disappear
Cinematography Award: U. S. Dramatic – Ain't Them Bodies Saints
Cinematography Award: U. S. Dramatic – Mother of George
Cinematography Award: U. S. Documentary – Dirty Wars: The World Is a Battlefield
Cinematography Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Lasting
Cinematography Award: World Cinema Documentary – Who Is Dayani Cristal?
U. S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Achievement in Filmmaking – Inequality for All
U. S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Achievement in Filmmaking – American Promise
U. S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Acting – Miles Teller & Shailene Woodley, The Spectacular Now
U. S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Sound Design – Shane Carruth & Johnny Marshall, Upstream Color
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award – Circles
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Punk Spirit – Pussy Riot – A Punk Prayer
Editing Award: U. S. Documentary – Gideon's Army
Editing Award: World Cinema Documentary – The Summit
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award: U.S. Dramatic – In a World...
Screenwriting Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Wajma (An Afghan Love Story)
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize – Computer Chess
Short Film Grand Jury Prize – The Whistle
Short Film Jury Award: US Fiction – Whiplash
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction – The Date
Short Film Jury Award: Non-fiction – Skinningrove
Short Film Jury Award: Animation – Irish Folk Furniture
Short Film Special Jury Award for Acting – Joel Nagle, Palimpsest
Short Film Special Jury Award – Kahlil Joseph, Until the Quiet Comes
Short Film Audience Award, Presented by YouTube – Catnip: Egress to Oblivion
Source:
2014
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Whiplash
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary - Rich Hill
Directing Award: Dramatic – Fishing Without Nets
Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Low Down
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – The Skeleton Twins
Special Jury Prize for Breakthrough Talent: Dramatic – Dear White People
Special Jury Prize for Musical Score: Dramatic – Kumiko, the Treasure Hunter
Directing Award: Documentary – The Case Against 8
Cinematography Award: Documentary – E-Team
Editing Award: Documentary – Watchers of the Sky
Special Jury Prize for Intuitive Filmmaking: Documentary – The Overnighters
Special Jury Prize for Use of Animation: Documentary – Watchers of the Sky
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – To Kill a Man
World Cinema Directing Award: Dramatic – 52 Tuesdays
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Lilting
World Cinema Screenwriting Award – Blind
World Cinema Special Jury Prize: Dramatic – God Help the Girl
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – Return to Homs
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – 20,000 Days on Earth
World Cinema Cinematography Award : Documentary – Happiness
World Cinema Editing Award: Documentary – 20,000 Days on Earth
World Cinema Special Jury Prize: Documentary – We Come as Friends
Audience Award: Dramatic – Whiplash
Audience Award: Documentary – Alive Inside: A Story of Music and Memory
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Difret
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – The Green Prince
Best of NEXT Audience Award – Imperial Dreams
Short Filmmaking Audience Award – Chapel Perilous
Short Film Grand Jury Prize – Of God and Dogs
Short Film Jury Award: Animation – Yearbook
Short Film Jury Award: International – The Cut
Short Film Jury Award: Non-Fiction – I Think This Is the Closest to How the Footage Looked
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction – Gregory Go Boom
Special Jury Prize for Unique Vision: Short Filmmaking – Rat Pack Rat
Special Jury Prize for Non-Fiction: Short Filmmaking – Love. Love. Love.
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – I Origins
Source:
2015
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Me and Earl and the Dying Girl by Alfonso Gomez-Rejon
Directing Award: Dramatic – Robert Eggers for The Witch
Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Brandon Trost for The Diary of a Teenage Girl
Editing Award: Dramatic – Lee Haugen for Dope
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Tim Talbott for The Stanford Prison Experiment
Special Jury Prize for Collaborative Vision: Dramatic – Jennifer Phang and Jacqueline Kim for Advantageous
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – The Wolfpack by Crystal Moselle
Directing Award: Documentary – Matthew Heineman for Cartel Land
Cinematography Award: Documentary – Matthew Heineman and Matt Porwoll for Cartel Land
Special Jury Prize for Breakout First Feature: Documentary – Lyric R. Cabral and David Felix Sutcliffe for (T)error
Special Jury Prize for Verité Filmmaking: Documentary – Western by Bill and Turner Ross
Special Jury Prize for Social Impact: Documentary – 3½ Minutes by Marc Silver
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Slow West by John Maclean
World Cinema Directing Award: Dramatic – Alantė Kavaitė for The Summer of Sangailé
World Cinema Cinematography Award: Dramatic – Germain McMicking for Partisan
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Acting: Dramatic – Regina Casé and Camila Márdila for The Second Mother
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Acting: Dramatic – Jack Reynor for Glassland
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – The Russian Woodpecker by Chad Gracia
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – Kim Longinotto for Dreamcatcher
World Cinema Editing Award: Documentary – Jim Scott for How to Change the World
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Impact: Documentary – Pervert Park by Frida and Lasse Barkfors
World Cinema Special Jury Prize for Unparalleled Access: Documentary – The Chinese Mayor by Hao Zhou
Audience Award: Dramatic – Me and Earl and the Dying Girl by Alfonso Gomez-Rejon
Audience Award: Documentary – Meru by Jimmy Chin and Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Umrika by Prashant Nair
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – Dark Horse by Louise Osmond
Best of NEXT Audience Award – James White by Josh Mond
Short Film Grand Jury Prize – World of Tomorrow by Don Hertzfeldt
Short Film Jury Award: Animation – Storm hits jacket by Paul Cabon
Short Film Jury Award: International – Oh Lucy! by Atsuko Hirayanagi
Short Film Jury Award: Non-Fiction – The Face of Ukraine: Casting Oksana Baiul by Kitty Green
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction – SMILF by Frankie Shaw
Special Jury Prize for Acting: Short Filmmaking – Laure Calamy for Back Alley by Cécile Ducrocq
Special Jury Prize for Visual Poetry: Short Filmmaking – Object by Paulina Skibińska
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – The Stanford Prison Experiment
Source:
2016
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – The Birth of a Nation by Nate Parker
Directing Award: Dramatic – Daniel Scheinert and Daniel Kwan for Swiss Army Man
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Chad Hartigan for Morris From America
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award – Miles Joris-Peyrafitte for As You Are
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Breakthrough Performance – Joe Seo for Spa Night
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Individual Performance – Melanie Lynskey for The Intervention and Craig Robinson for Morris from America
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – Weiner by Elyse Steinberg and Josh Kriegman
Directing Award: Documentary – Roger Ross Williams for Life, Animated
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Editing – Penny Lane and Thom Stylinski for NUTS!
Special Jury Prize for Social Impact: Documentary – Trapped by Dawn Porter
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Writing – Robert Greene for Kate Plays Christine
Special Jury Prize for Verité Filmmaking: Documentary – The Bad Kids by Keith Fulton and Lou Pepe
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – Sand Storm by Elite Zexer
World Cinema Directing Award: Dramatic – Felix van Groeningen for Belgica
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Acting – Vicky Hernandez and Manolo Cruz for Between Land and Sea
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Screenwriting – Ana Katz and Inés Bortagaray for Mi Amiga del Parque
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Unique Vision & Design – The Lure by Agnieszka Smoczyńska
World Cinema Jury Prize: Documentary – Sonita by Rokhsareh Ghaemmaghami
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – Michal Marczak for All These Sleepless Nights
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Best Debut Feature – Heidi Brandenburg and Mathew Orzel for When Two Worlds Collide
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Best Cinematography – Pieter-Jan De Pue for The Land of the Enlightened
World Cinema Editing Award: Documentary – Mako Kamitsuna and John Maringouin for We Are X
Audience Award: Dramatic – The Birth of a Nation by Nate Parker
Audience Award: Documentary – Jim: The James Foley Story by Brian Oakes
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – Between Sea and Land by Manolo Cruz and Carlos del Castillo
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – Sonita by Rokhsareh Ghaemmaghami
Best of NEXT Audience Award – First Girl I Loved by Kerem Sanga
Short Film Grand Jury Prize – Thunder Road by Jim Cummings
Short Film Jury Award: US Fiction – The Procedure by Calvin Lee Reeder
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction – Maman(s) by Maïmouna Doucouré
Short Film Jury Award: Non-fiction – Bacon & God's Wrath by Sol Friedman
Short Film Jury Award: Animation – Edmond by Nina Gantz
Short Film Special Jury Award for Outstanding Performance – Grace Glowicki for Her Friend Adam
Short Film Special Jury Award for Best Direction – Ondřej Hudeček for Peacock
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Embrace of the Serpent by Ciro Guerra
Source:
2017
Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – I Don't Feel at Home in This World Anymore by Macon Blair
Audience Award: Dramatic – Crown Heights by Matt Ruskin
Directing Award: Dramatic – Eliza Hittman for Beach Rats
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – David Branson Smith and Matt Spicer for Ingrid Goes West
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Breakthrough Performance – Chanté Adams for Roxanne Roxanne
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Breakthrough Director – Maggie Betts for Novitiate
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Cinematography – Daniel Landin for The Yellow Birds
Grand Jury Prize: Documentary – Dina by Dan Sickles and Antonio Santini
Directing Award: Documentary – Peter Nicks for The Force
U.S. Documentary Orwell Award - Icarus by Bryan Fogel
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Editing – Kim Roberts and Emiliano Battista for Unrest
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Storytelling – Yance Ford for Strong Island
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Inspirational Filmmaking – Amanda Lipitz for Step
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic – The Nile Hilton Incident by Tarik Saleh
World Cinema Directing Award: Dramatic – Francis Lee for God's Own Country
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Screenwriting – Kirsten Tan for Pop Aye
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Cinematic Visions – Geng Jun for Free and Easy
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Cinematography – Manuel Dacosse for Axolotl Overkill
World Cinema Jury Prize: Documentary – Last Men in Aleppo by Feras Fayyad
World Cinema Directing Award: Documentary – Pascale Lamche for Winnie
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Masterful Storytelling – Catherine Bainbridge and Alfonso Maiorana for Rumble: The Indians Who Rocked the World
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Best Cinematography – Rodrigo Trejo Villanueva for Machines
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Editing – Ramona S. Diaz for Motherland
Audience Award: Documentary – Chasing Coral by Jeff Orlowski
World Cinema Audience Award: Dramatic – I Dream in Another Language by Ernesto Contreras
World Cinema Audience Award: Documentary – Joshua: Teenager vs. Superpower by Joe Piscatella
Best of NEXT Audience Award – Gook by Justin Chon
Alfred P. Sloan Prize – Marjorie Prime by Michael Almereyda
Short Film Grand Jury Prize - And so we put goldfish in the pool by Makoto Nagahisa
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction - Lucia, Before and After by Anu Valia
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction - And The Whole Sky Fit In The Dead Cow's Eye by Francisca Alegría
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction - Alone by Garrett Bradley
Short Film Jury Award: Animation - Broken – The Women's Prison at Hoheneck by Volker Schlecht, Alexander Lahl, and Max Mönch
Short Film Special Jury Award for Cinematography - Dadyaa — The Woodpeckers of Rotha by Pooja Gurung, Bibhusan Basnet, and Chintan Rajbhandari
Short Film Special Jury Award for Editing - Laps by Charlotte Wells and Blair McClendon
Source:
2018
U.S. Dramatic Grand Jury Prize Award: The Miseducation of Cameron Post, directed by Desiree Akhavan
U.S. Dramatic Audience Award: Burden, directed by Andrew Heckler
U.S. Dramatic Directing Award: The Kindergarten Teacher, directed by Sara Colangelo
U.S. Dramatic Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award: Nancy, written by Christina Choe
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Outstanding First Feature: Monsters and Men, directed by Reinaldo Marcus Green
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Excellence in Filmmaking: I Think We're Alone Now, directed by Reed Morano
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Achievement in Acting: Benjamin Dickey, Blaze
U.S. Documentary Grand Jury Prize Award: Kailash (later released as The Price of Free), directed by Derek Doneen
U.S. Documentary Audience Award: The Sentence, directed by Rudy Valdez
U.S. Documentary Directing Award, On Her Shoulders, directed by Alexandria Bombach
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Social Impact: Crime + Punishment, directed by Stephen Maing
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Creative Vision: Hale County This Morning, This Evening, directed by RaMell Ross
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Breakthrough Filmmaking: Minding the Gap, directed by Bing Liu
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award for Storytelling: Three Identical Strangers, directed by Tim Wardle
World Cinema Dramatic Grand Jury Prize: Butterflies, directed by Tolga Karacelik
World Cinema Dramatic Audience Award: The Guilty, directed by Gustav Moller
World Cinema Dramatic Directing Award: And Breathe Normally, directed by Ísold Uggadóttir
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Acting: Valeria Bertuccelli, The Queen of Fear
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Screenwriting: Time Share (Tiempo Compartido), written by Julio Chavezmontes and Sebastián Hofmann
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Ensemble Acting: Dead Pigs, directed by Cathy Yan
World Cinema Documentary Grand Jury Prize: Of Fathers and Sons, directed by Talal Derki
World Cinema Documentary Audience Award: This Is Home, directed by Alexandra Shiva
World Cinema Documentary Directing Award: Shirkers, directed by Sandi Tan
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Matangi/Maya/M.I.A., presented to director Stephen Loveridge and M.I.A.
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Cinematography: Genesis 2.0, Peter Indergand and Maxim Arbugaev
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Editing: Our New President, Maxim Pozdorovkin and Matvey Kulakov
NEXT Audience Award: Searching, directed by Aneesh Chaganty
NEXT Innovator Award: (tie) Night Comes On, directed by Jordana Spiro; We the Animals, directed by Jeremiah Zagar
Short Film Grand Jury Prize: Matria, directed by Alvaro Gago
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction: Hair Wolf, directed by Mariama Diallo
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction: Would You Look at Her, directed by Goran Stolevski
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction: The Trader (Sovdagari), directed by Tamta Gabrichidze
Short Film Jury Award: Animation: Glucose, directed by Jeron Braxton
Special Jury Awards: Emergency, directed by Carey Williams; Fauve, directed by Jérémy Comte; and For Nonna Anna, directed by Luis De Filippis.
Sundance Institute Open Borders Fellowship Presented by Netflix: Of Fathers and Sons (Syria), directed by Talal Derki; Untitled film (India), directed by Chaitanya Tamhane; and Prayers for the Stolen, directed by Tatiana Huezo
Sundance Institute / NHK Award: His House, directed by Remi Weekes.
Sundance Institute Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize: Searching, Aneesh Chaganty and Sev Ohanian
Sundance Institute / Amazon Studios Producers Award: Sev Ohanian
2019
US Dramatic Grand Jury Prize: Clemency
US Dramatic Audience Award: Brittany Runs a Marathon
US Dramatic Directing: Joe Talbot for The Last Black Man in San Francisco
US Dramatic Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award: Pippa Bianco for Share
US Dramatic Special Jury Award for Vision and Craft: Alma Har'el for Honey Boy
US Dramatic Special Jury Award for Creative Collaboration: The Last Black Man in San Francisco
US Dramatic Special Jury Award for Breakthrough Performance: Rhianne Barreto for Share
US Documentary Grand Jury Prize: One Child Nation
US Documentary Audience Award: Knock Down the House
US Documentary Directing: Steven Bognar and Julia Reichert for American Factory
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Moral Urgency: Jacqueline Olive for Always in Season
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Emerging Filmmaker: Liza Mandelup for Jawline
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Cinematography: Luke Lorentzen for Midnight Family
World Cinema Dramatic Grand Jury Prize: The Souvenir
World Cinema Dramatic Audience Award: Queen of Hearts
World Cinema Dramatic Directing: Lucía Garibaldi for The Sharks
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Alejandro Landes for Monos
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Acting: Krystyna Janda for Dolce Fine Giornata
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Originality: Makoto Nagahisa for We Are Little Zombies
World Cinema Documentary Grand Jury Prize: Honeyland
World Cinema Documentary Audience Award: Sea of Shadows
World Cinema Documentary Directing: Mads Brügger for Cold Case Hammarskjöld
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Impact for Change: Tamara Kotevska and Ljubomir Stefanov for Honeyland
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Cinematography: Fejmi Daut and Samir Ljuma for Honeyland
Short Film Grand Jury Prize: Aziza, directed by Soudade Kaadan
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction: Green, directed by Susan Andrews Correa
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction: Dunya's Day, directed by Raed Alsemari
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction: Ghosts of Sugar Land, directed by Bassam Tariq
Short Film Jury Award: Animation: Reneepoptosis, directed by Renee Zhan
Special Jury Award: Directing: Alexandra Lazarowich for Fast Horse; Robert Machoian for The Minors
NEXT Audience Award: The Infiltrators
NEXT Innovator Award: The Infiltrators
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize: The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind
Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Awards: Carly Hugo & Matt Parker for Share; Sev Ohanian for Lori Cheatle
Sundance Open Borders Fellowship Presented by Netflix: Talal Derki for Of Fathers and Sons; Chaitanya Tamhane and Tatiana Huezo for Prayers for the Stolen
Source:
2020s
2020
US Dramatic Grand Jury Prize: Minari
US Dramatic Audience Award: Minari
US Dramatic Directing Award: Radha Blank for The 40-Year-Old Version
US Dramatic Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award: Edson Oda for Nine Days
US Dramatic Special Jury Award for Ensemble Cast – The cast of Charm City Kings
US Dramatic Special Jury Award: Auteur Filmmaking – Josephine Decker for Shirley
US Dramatic Special Jury Award: Neo-Realism – Eliza Hittman for Never Rarely Sometimes Always
US Documentary Grand Jury Prize: Boys State (Jesse Moss)
US Documentary Audience Award: Crip Camp (Jim LeBrecht and Nicole Newnham)
US Documentary Directing: Garrett Bradley for Time
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Editing – Tyler H. Walk for Welcome to Chechnya
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Innovation in Non-fiction Storytelling – Kirsten Johnson for Dick Johnson Is Dead
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Emerging Filmmaker – Arthur Jones for Feels Good Man
US Documentary Special Jury Award for Social Impact Filmmaking – Eli Despres, Josh Kriegman and Elyse Steinberg for The Fight
World Cinema Dramatic Grand Jury Prize: Yalda, a Night for Forgiveness (Massoud Bakhshi)
World Cinema Dramatic Audience Award: Identifying Features (Fernanda Valadez)
World Cinema Dramatic Directing: Maïmouna Doucouré for Cuties
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Acting – Ben Whishaw for Surge
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Visionary Filmmaking – Lemohang Jeremiah Mosese for This Is Not a Burial, It's a Resurrection
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award for Best Screenplay – Astrid Rondero and Fernanda Valadez for Identifying Features
World Cinema Documentary Grand Jury Prize: Epicentro (Hubert Sauper)
World Cinema Documentary Audience Award: The Reason I Jump (Jerry Rothwell)
World Cinema Documentary Directing: Iryna Tsilyk for The Earth Is Blue as an Orange
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Creative Storytelling – Benjamin Ree for The Painter and the Thief
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Cinematography – Radu Ciorniciuc and Mircea Topoleanu for Acasă, My Home
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for Editing – Mila Aung-Thwin, Ryan Mullins and Sam Soko for Softie
Short Film Grand Jury Prize: So What if the Goats Die, directed by Sofia Alaoui
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction: Ship: A Visual Poem, directed by Terrence Daye
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction: The Devil’s Harmony, directed by Dylan Holmes Williams
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction: John Was Trying to Contact Aliens, directed by Matthew Kilip
Short Film Jury Award: Animation: Daughter, directed by Daria Kashcheeva
NEXT Audience Award: I Carry You With Me (Heidi Ewing)
NEXT Innovator Award: I Carry You With Me (Heidi Ewing)
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize: Tesla (Michael Almereyda)
Source:
2021
U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Competition – CODA (Siân Heder)
U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Documentary Competition – Summer of Soul (Ahmir “Questlove” Thompson)
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Competition – Hive (Blerta Basholli)
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Documentary Competition – Flee (Jonas Poher Rasmussen)
Audience Award: U.S.Dramatic – CODA (Siân Heder)
Audience Award: U.S. Documentary – Summer of Soul (Ahmir “Questlove” Thompson)
Audience Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Hive (Blerta Basholli)
Audience Award: World Cinema Documentary – Writing with Fire (Rintu Thomas and Sushmit Ghosh)
Audience Award: NEXT – Ma Belle, My Beauty (Marion Hill)
Directing Award: U.S. Dramatic – Siân Heder for CODA
Directing Award: U.S. Documentary – Natalia Almada for Users
Directing Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Blerta Basholli for Hive
Directing Award: World Cinema Documentary – Hogir Hirori for Sabaya
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Ari Katcher and Ryan Welch for On the Count of Three
Jonathan Oppenheim Editing Award – Kristina Motwani and Rebecca Adorno for Homeroom
NEXT Innovator Award - Dash Shaw for Cryptozoo
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Ensemble Cast – The cast of CODA
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award: Best Actor - Clifton Collins Jr. for Jockey
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award: Emerging Filmmaker - Parker Hill and Isabel Bethencourt for Cusp
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award: Nonfiction Experimentation - Theo Anthony for All Light, Everywhere
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Vérité Filmmaking - Camilla Nielsson for President
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Impact for Change - Rintu Thomas and Sushmit Ghosh for Writing with Fire
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Acting - Jesmark Scicluna for Luzzu
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Creative Vision - Baz Poonpiriya for One for the Road
Short Film Grand Jury Prize - Lizard
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction - The Touch of the Master's Hand
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction - Bambirak
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction - Don't Go Tellin' Your Momma
Short Film Jury Award: Animation - Souvenir Souvenir
Short Film Special Jury Award for Acting - Wiggle Room
Short Film Special Jury Award for Screenwriting - The Criminals
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize - Son of Monarchs
Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Award for Nonfiction - Nicole Salazar for Philly D.A.
Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Award for Fiction - Natalie Qasabian for Run
Sundance Institute/Adobe Mentorship Award for Editing Nonfiction - Juli Vizza
Sundance Institute/Adobe Mentorship Award for Editing Fiction - Terilyn Shropshire
Sundance Institute/NHK Award - Meryam Joobeur for Motherhood
Source:
2022
U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Competition – Nanny (Nikyatu Jusu)
U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Documentary Competition – The Exiles (Ben Klein and Violet Columbus)
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Competition – Utama (Alejandro Loayza Grisi)
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Documentary Competition – All That Breathes (Shaunak Sen)
Festival Favorite – Navalny (Daniel Roher)
Audience Award: U.S. Dramatic – Cha Cha Real Smooth (Cooper Raiff)
Audience Award: U.S. Documentary – Navalny (Daniel Roher)
Audience Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Girl Picture (Alli Haapasalo)
Audience Award: World Cinema Documentary – The Territory (Alex Pritz)
Audience Award: NEXT – Framing Agnes (Chase Joynt)
Directing Award: U.S. Dramatic – Jamie Dack for Palm Trees and Power Lines
Directing Award: U.S. Documentary – Reid Davenport for I Didn't See You There
Directing Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Maryna Er Gorbach for Klondike
Directing Award: World Cinema Documentary – Simon Lereng Wilmont for A House Made of Splinters
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – K.D. Dávila for Emergency
Jonathan Oppenheim Editing Award – Erin Casper and Jocelyne Chaput for Fire of Love
NEXT Innovator Award – Chase Joynt for Framing Agnes
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award: Ensemble Cast – The cast of 892
U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award: Uncompromising Artistic Vision – Bradley Rust Gray for blood
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award: Creative Vision – Margaret Brown for Descendant
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award: Impact for Change – Paula Eiselt and Tonya Lewis Lee for Aftershock
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Acting – Teresa Sánchez for Dos Estaciones
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Innovative Spirit – Martika Ramirez Escobar for Leonor Will Never Die
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Excellence in Verité Filmmaking – Snow Hnin Ei Hlaing for Midwives
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Documentary Craft – Alex Pritz for The Territory
Short Film Grand Jury Prize – The Headhunter's Daughter
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction – If I Go Will They Miss Me
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction – Warsha
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction – Displaced
Short Film Jury Award: Animation – Night Bus
Short Film Special Jury Award for Ensemble Cast – A Wild Patience Has Taken Me Here
Short Film Special Jury Award for Screenwriting – Stranger Than Rotterdam with Sara Driver
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize – After Yang
Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Award for Nonfiction – Su Kim for Free Chol Soo Lee
Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Award for Fiction – Amanda Marshall for God's Country
Sundance Institute/Adobe Mentorship Award for Editing Nonfiction – Toby Shimin
Sundance Institute/Adobe Mentorship Award for Editing Fiction – Dody Dorn
Sundance Institute/NHK Award – Hasan Hadi for The President's Cake'
Source:
2023
U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Competition – A Thousand and One (A.V. Rockwell)
U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Documentary Competition – Going to Mars: The Nikki Giovanni Project (Joe Brewster and Michèle Stephenson)
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Competition – Scrapper (Charlotte Regan)
World Cinema Grand Jury Prize: Documentary Competition – The Eternal Memory (Maite Alberdi)
Festival Favorite – Radical (Christopher Zalla)
Audience Award: U.S. Dramatic – The Persian Version (Maryam Keshavarz)
Audience Award: U.S. Documentary – Beyond Utopia (Madeleine Gavin)
Audience Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Shayda (Noora Niasari)
Audience Award: World Cinema Documentary – 20 Days in Mariupol (Mstyslav Chernov)
Audience Award: NEXT – Kokomo City (D. Smith)
Directing Award: U.S. Dramatic – Sing J. Lee for The Accidental Getaway Driver
Directing Award: U.S. Documentary – Luke Lorentzen for A Still Small Voice Directing Award: World Cinema Dramatic – Marija Kavtaradze for Slow
Directing Award: World Cinema Documentary – Anna Hints for Smoke Sauna Sisterhood
Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award – Maryam Keshavarz for The Persian Version Jonathan Oppenheim Editing Award – Daniela I. Quiroz for Going Varsity in Mariachi NEXT Innovator Award – D. Smith for Kokomo City U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award: Ensemble Cast – The cast of Theater Camp U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award: Creative Vision – The creative team of Magazine Dreams
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Acting – Lio Mehiel for Mutt
U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award: Clarity of Vision – The Stroll U.S. Documentary Special Jury Award: Freedom of Expression – Bad Press
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Creative Vision – Fantastic Machine World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Excellence in Verité Filmmaking – Against the Tide
World Cinema Dramatic Special Jury Award: Creative Vision – Sofia Alaoui for Animalia
World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award: Cinematography – Lílis Soares for Mami Wata
Short Film Grand Jury Prize – When You Left Me On That Boulevard
Short Film Jury Award: U.S. Fiction – Rest Stop
Short Film Jury Award: International Fiction – The Kidnapping of the Bride
Short Film Jury Award: Nonfiction – Will You Look At Me
Short Film Jury Award: Animation – The Flying Sailor
Short Film Special Jury Award, International: Directing – AliEN0089
Short Film Special Jury Award, U.S.: Directing – The Vacation
Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize – The Pod Generation Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Award for Nonfiction – Jess Devaney for It’s Only Life After All
Sundance Institute/Amazon Studios Producers Award for Fiction – Kara Durrett for The Starling Girl
Sundance Institute/Adobe Mentorship Award for Editing Nonfiction – Mary Manhardt
Sundance Institute/Adobe Mentorship Award for Editing Fiction – Troy Takaki
Sundance Institute/NHK Award – Olive Nwosu for Lady''
Source:
References
Sundance Film Festival award-winning films
Sundance |
4057023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Bowl%20XLVIII | Super Bowl XLVIII | Super Bowl XLVIII was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Denver Broncos and National Football Conference (NFC) champion Seattle Seahawks to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2013 season. The Seahawks defeated the Broncos 43–8, the largest margin of victory for an underdog and tied for the third largest point differential overall (35) in Super Bowl history with Super Bowl XXVII (1993). It was the first time the winning team scored over 40 points while holding their opponent to under 10. This became the first Super Bowl victory for the Seahawks and the fifth Super Bowl loss for the Broncos, at the time a league record (it would later be tied by the New England Patriots following their Super Bowl LII loss) for the most of any team. The game was played on February 2, 2014, at MetLife Stadium at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey, the first Super Bowl played outdoors in a cold-weather city and the first Super Bowl to be played on February 2.
The Seahawks posted a 13–3 record and were making their second Super Bowl appearance in nine years. The Broncos were making their seventh Super Bowl appearance after also posting a 13–3 record. This marked one of the few times that two former divisional rivals met in a Super Bowl, as the Seahawks and Broncos were in the same division (the AFC West) from 1977 to 2001.
Seattle led 22–0 at halftime and ultimately went up 36–0 before allowing Denver's first and only score on the final play of the third quarter. The 36–0 lead was by far the largest shutout lead in Super Bowl history; the previous record was 24–0, shared by the Miami Dolphins over the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl VIII and the Washington Redskins over the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVI. Seahawks defensive end Cliff Avril scored a safety on the first play from scrimmage. They became the first team in a Super Bowl to score on a safety (12 seconds into the start of the game which set the record for the quickest score), a kickoff return for a touchdown (12 seconds into the second half), and an interception return for a touchdown. The Broncos were held to almost 30 points below their scoring average. Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning, a five-time NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) award winner, threw two interceptions in the first half. Seahawks linebacker Malcolm Smith, who returned one of those interceptions 69 yards for a touchdown, recovered a fumble and made nine tackles, was named Super Bowl MVP.
In the United States, the game was televised by Fox; with an average audience of 111.5 million viewers that peaked at 115.3 million during the halftime show featuring Bruno Mars, the game was briefly the most-watched U.S. television broadcast of all time, until it was surpassed by Super Bowl XLIX the following year. The game's inaugural Spanish-language telecast on Fox Deportes was also the highest-rated Spanish-language cable telecast outside of soccer. Seattle also tied the 1992 Dallas Cowboys for the third-largest blowout in Super Bowl history, behind Super Bowl XXIV in 1990, a 55–10 San Francisco 49ers victory over the Denver Broncos, and Super Bowl XX in 1986, a 46–10 Chicago Bears victory over the New England Patriots. This was also the first time since 1991 that the #1 scoring offense (Broncos) went up against the #1 scoring defense (Seahawks).
Because the game was one-sided from start to finish, Super Bowl XLVIII is widely regarded as one of the worst and most disappointing Super Bowls of all time, although it is also viewed as a crowning achievement of the Seahawks’ 2013 defense.
Background
Previous plans for a Super Bowl in the New York City area
Efforts to see the New York City area host a Super Bowl predate MetLife Stadium's planning.
In the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., those metro areas' business communities separately discussed seeking to host a future Super Bowl. The general thought was that either of these cities being the location of a Super Bowl would symbolize national recovery in the aftermath of the attacks. There was belief that if New York were awarded a Super Bowl (either building a new stadium or renovated the existing Giants Stadium to be the host venue), it might assist the city's bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics in the same vein that awarding Super Bowl XXVIII to the city of Atlanta may have assisted the prospects of Atlanta's ultimately successful bid for the 1996 Summer Olympics.
Both New York City and Washington, D.C. were, at one point, seen as likely to bid in 2003 for either 2008's Super Bowl XLII or 2009's Super Bowl XLIII. However, the prospect of the New York City region hosting a Super Bowl proved challenging due not only to the non-ideal cold weather climate, but also due to the difficulty in delivering an appropriate host venue. The city of New York and the New York Jets failed to secure a deal to build a new West Side Stadium (which, according to the initial plans, would have been built with a roof). Proposed renovations to the aging Giants Stadium were still subject to dispute between stakeholders. Giants Stadium lacked a roof, as did the city's two Major League Baseball stadiums. The lack of a venue with a roof was also seen as an obstacle due to the NFL having never played an outdoor Super Bowl in a cold weather climate.
New York City ultimately bid in 2005 for a Super Bowl. The NFL voted on March 23, 2005 to award New York City the rights to host 2010's Super Bowl XLIV, contingent on the proposed West Side Stadium (the planned site of the game) being completed by 2008. In August 2005, after New York state government officials declined to approve $400 million for the stadium, the NFL decided to revoke New York City's hosting rights, and reopen the bidding for the game's site.
Host selection process
Three stadiums were part of the bidding to host the game:
MetLife Stadium – East Rutherford, New Jersey
Raymond James Stadium – Tampa, Florida
Sun Life Stadium – Miami Gardens, Florida
Tampa had hosted four Super Bowls (XVIII, XXV, XXXV and XLIII), while South Florida / Miami had hosted ten Super Bowls (II, III, V, X, XIII, XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, XLI and XLIV).
During the voting process by the league owners, the South Florida/Miami bid was eliminated in the second round of voting, but it eventually took the fourth round of voting for New Jersey's bid to beat Tampa's. The game was awarded on May 26, 2010 at the NFL owners meetings in Irving, Texas.
Super Bowl XLVIII was the first Super Bowl held at an open-air stadium in a "cold-weather" city; previous Super Bowls in cold-weather cities were held at indoor stadiums. However, the temperature at kickoff was a mild , making this only the third-coldest Super Bowl. A major snow storm hit the area the very next day. According to Weather.com, the average high and low temperatures for East Rutherford on February 2 were and , respectively. The coldest outdoor Super Bowl of the first 47 games was Super Bowl VI, held at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 16, 1972, with a kickoff temperature of (Tulane Stadium also hosted the second coldest outdoor Super Bowl, Super Bowl IX, with a kickoff temperature of ). However, New Orleans usually has a humid subtropical climate, with January morning lows averaging around and daily highs around ; also, all New Orleans Super Bowls since XII have been played at the indoor Superdome. Since Super Bowl X in 1976, all but one outdoor Super Bowl has been played in either California or Florida, the exception being Super Bowl XXX in Tempe, Arizona. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell indicated that if Super Bowl XLVIII was successful, additional "cold-weather" Super Bowls would be considered.
Super Bowl XLVIII was the first NFL championship game to be held in the New York metropolitan area since December 30, 1962, when the Green Bay Packers beat the New York Giants in the original Yankee Stadium, 16–7. Since then, two other major pro football leagues have held title games in the area:
1968 AFL Championship Game at Shea Stadium, December 29, 1968: New York Jets 27, Oakland Raiders 23. The Jets went on to Super Bowl III, where they upset the Baltimore Colts, 16–7.
1985 USFL Championship Game at Giants Stadium, July 14, 1985: Baltimore Stars 28, Oakland Invaders 24. This game turned out to be the final contest in the league's three-year history.
MetLife Stadium was the first Super Bowl venue that was simultaneously home to two NFL teams: the New York Giants and the New York Jets, and thus was the first championship game to have two host teams. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (which hosted Super Bowls I and VII) served as the home of the Los Angeles Rams and the Los Angeles Raiders, but not at the same time.
This was also the first Super Bowl played outdoors on artificial turf (FieldTurf) since Super Bowl X (1976) at the Miami Orange Bowl. It was also the first in which two U.S. states, New York and New Jersey, shared hosting duties. This was also the first Super Bowl to be played outdoors since Super Bowl XLIV was played in Miami Gardens.
Winter outlook and contingency plans
The choice of holding the Super Bowl outdoors in a cold weather environment generated some controversy. When it was released in August 2013, the "Winter Outlook" section in the 2014 Farmers' Almanac predicted that a winter storm would hit just about the time Super Bowl XLVIII kicked off; this generated the attention of several media sources, including ESPN's Rick Reilly in a piece that aired on ESPN's Monday Night Countdown on October 21, 2013. In a radio interview broadcast on WFAN, Fox studio analyst Terry Bradshaw stated that he opposes the idea of a cold Super Bowl, stating "I don't want it to be bad ... What if we get two passing teams?" In a piece published on Sports Illustrated'''s "Monday Morning Quarterback" site, Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman also opposed holding the game at MetLife Stadium, stating that "it's the league's responsibility to show its audience the best possible product, and this can't happen in the snow." The decision to play the game in New Jersey was made even more controversial by the fact that the NFL informed the Miami Dolphins that Sun Life Stadium would never host another Super Bowl until they put a roof over the stadium for fear of rain.
The NFL announced on December 18, 2013, that in the event of a forecast of heavy snow, the game would be rescheduled for the Saturday before, or for the Monday or Tuesday after.
One day before the Super Bowl, weather conditions for the game were forecast to be mostly cloudy with temperatures in the low to mid-40s Fahrenheit.
A winter storm arrived 6 hours after the game ended, dropping of snow on the region. The inclement weather canceled a quarter of the flights available at the area's three major airports, stranding thousands.
Nicknames
Super Bowl XLVIII earned a few unofficial nicknames, with the "Weed Bowl", "Bong Bowl", and "Marijuana Bowl" being among the most prominent, from users of social networking websites and various news outlets as the home states of the Seahawks and Broncos (Washington and Colorado, respectively) were the first two states to legalize marijuana for recreational use, during the fall 2012 elections.
Teams
The Broncos and Seahawks were divisional AFC West rivals from 1977 until 2001, when the Seahawks moved to the NFC West. Their matchup in Super Bowl XLVIII marked the first time former in-division rivals met in the Super Bowl since Super Bowl XLIII.
Seattle Seahawks
Seattle finished the season 13–3, winning the NFC West division and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. The team scored 417 points during the season, while giving up 231.
The offense was led by second-year quarterback Russell Wilson, a third-round draft pick who won the starting role after a three-way quarterback competition in training camp and went on to win a playoff game in his rookie season with the Seahawks. In his second season, he completed 63.1 percent of his passes for 3,357 yards and 26 touchdowns, with only nine interceptions, while also rushing for 539 yards and another score. His 101.2 passer rating ranked him seventh in the NFL, and made him the first quarterback in history with a triple-digit passer rating in his first two seasons. His top target was Pro Bowl receiver Golden Tate, who caught 64 passes for 898 yards and five touchdowns. Tate was also a major asset on special teams, returning 51 punts for 585 yards (second in the NFL). Other key targets included Doug Baldwin (50 receptions, 775 yards, five touchdowns) and tight end Zach Miller (33 receptions, 387 yards, five touchdowns). Pro Bowl running back Marshawn Lynch was the team's leading rusher with 1,257 yards and 12 touchdowns. He was also a reliable receiver, hauling in 36 passes for 316 yards and two more scores. The Seahawks' offensive line was led by Pro Bowl center Max Unger. Kicker Steven Hauschka ranked fourth in the NFL in scoring (143 points) and second in field goal percentage (.943, 33/35).
Seattle had the NFL's top defense, with the fewest yards allowed per game (273.6), fewest points allowed (231) and most takeaways (39). They were the first team since the 1985 Chicago Bears to lead the league in all three categories. The Seahawks were also the fourth team to lead the NFL in interceptions and fewest passing yards allowed; all four teams reached the Super Bowl. Seattle's defensive line featured defensive ends Cliff Avril and Michael Bennett, both of whom recorded eight sacks. Avril also forced five fumbles, while Bennett recovered three, returning them for 39 yards and a touchdown. Defensive tackle Clinton McDonald also made a big impact with 5.5 sacks, two fumble recoveries and an interception. Linebacker Bobby Wagner led the team in combined tackles (120), while also racking up five sacks and two interceptions. But the best aspect of the defense was their secondary – collectively known as the Legion of Boom – which sent three of their four starters to the Pro Bowl: cornerback Richard Sherman, who led the NFL in interceptions (eight, with 125 return yards), along with free safety Earl Thomas (five interceptions, 105 tackles, two forced fumbles) and strong safety Kam Chancellor (99 tackles, three interceptions, 78 return yards).
Denver Broncos
Denver finished the season 13–3 for the second straight year, winning the AFC West division and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. The Broncos had the best offense in the NFL, leading the league in points scored (606, the highest total in NFL history) and yards gained (7,313). The offense was so explosive that they scored points on their opening possession at least eight straight games leading into the playoffs and a ninth time against the San Diego Chargers during the Divisional Playoffs game. During the AFC Championship Game against the New England Patriots, they broke that streak, only to score on the opening possession of the second half. In only five out of 18 games (including playoffs) did they score fewer than 30 points, the fewest being 20 points.
In command of the offense was 16-year veteran quarterback Peyton Manning. Now in his second year as the team's starter, Manning posted one of the best seasons of any quarterback in NFL history (and the best season of his entire career), leading the league in completions, attempts, yards and touchdown passes. His 5,477 passing yards and 55 touchdown completions both set new NFL records. His total of 450 completions was the second-highest in NFL history, and his 115.1 passer rating ranked second in the league that season. Denver's leading pass-catcher was Pro Bowl receiver Demaryius Thomas, who caught 92 passes for 1,430 yards and 14 touchdowns, but Manning had plenty of other reliable options, including Eric Decker (97 receptions, 1,288 yards, 11 touchdowns), Wes Welker (73 receptions, 778 yards, 10 touchdowns) and Pro Bowl tight end Julius Thomas (65 receptions, 788 yards, 12 touchdowns). Overall, they made Denver the first team in NFL history ever to have four players with at least 10 touchdown receptions in a season. Running back Knowshon Moreno was the team's leading rusher with 1,038 yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 60 passes for 548 yards and another three scores. Rookie running back Montee Ball was also a big contributor with 554 rushing yards, four touchdowns and 20 receptions. The team's offensive line featured Pro Bowl guard Louis Vasquez. On special teams, Pro Bowl kicker Matt Prater ranked second in the NFL in scoring (150 points) and first in field goal percentage (.962, 25/26). His only miss of the year was from 52 yards and his successful attempt from 64 yards against Tennessee in Week 14 broke an NFL record that had stood for 44 years.
Defensive end Shaun Phillips anchored the Broncos' line with 10 sacks, while linebacker Danny Trevathan racked up 129 combined tackles, three forced fumbles and three interceptions. Defensive end Malik Jackson was also a key component of the defense with 42 tackles and six sacks, helping compensate for the loss of Von Miller, who had five sacks in nine games before suffering a season-ending injury. Cornerbacks Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie and Chris Harris Jr. led the secondary with three interceptions each.
Playoffs
Both the Seahawks and Broncos entered the postseason as the number one seed in their respective conferences, which meant they received byes through the first round of the playoffs.
The Seahawks' first playoff game was in the NFC divisional round, a rematch of Monday Night Football from Week 13, playing the New Orleans Saints at home. The Seahawks had a 16-point lead at halftime, but although the Saints were able to halve the deficit in the fourth quarter, they could not close the gap further before a botched play in the final seconds ended the game, with the Seahawks winning 23–15.
The Seahawks then played in the NFC Championship Game at home against the rival San Francisco 49ers; the two teams had each won once against the other during the regular season. Despite entering halftime with a seven-point deficit, the Seahawks took the lead in the fourth quarter thanks largely to Colin Kaepernick losing one fumble and throwing two interceptions. The second interception came in the final seconds of the game when Richard Sherman batted the ball into the arms of Malcolm Smith to seal the 23–17 win and send the Seahawks to their second Super Bowl in franchise history.
The Broncos faced the San Diego Chargers in the AFC divisional round. Although their record-breaking offense was held to an unusually low 24 points, the Broncos still emerged victorious, 24–17, having shut out the Chargers until the fourth quarter.
The AFC Championship Game once again pitted Peyton Manning and his Broncos against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots, the 15th matchup between the two veteran quarterbacks. The Broncos won 26–16 on the back of a 400-yard passing performance by Manning, which included two touchdown drives that lasted over seven minutes each, earning the Broncos their first Super Bowl berth since 1998.
Pre-game notes
As the Broncos were the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, they elected to wear their home uniform (orange jerseys with white pants) while the Seahawks wore a mixed uniform (white jerseys with navy blue pants, representing away and home, respectively). With the loss, the Broncos fell to 0–4 (outscored 167–38) in Super Bowls in which they wore orange jerseys, while with the Seahawks' win, the team wearing white had then won nine of the previous ten Super Bowls.
Team facilities
The Hyatt Regency in Jersey City served as the home for the Broncos during their stay. The team took up 150 of the 351 rooms until the night of January 29 before taking up the entire hotel. The team hosted the press conferences during the week on a cruise ship docked at the pier of the hotel. Meanwhile, the Seahawks took up 120 to 150 of 429-room Westin Hotel, also in Jersey City. The team retrofitted some rooms into training and massage rooms and occupied the pool. The City of Jersey City renamed its main boulevard, Columbus Drive, to Super Bowl Drive to welcome the teams.
The Broncos utilized the New York Jets headquarters, Atlantic Health Jets Training Center in Florham Park, while the Seahawks utilized the New York Giants headquarters, Quest Diagnostics Training Center adjacent to MetLife Stadium.
Super Bowl week
Since New York and New Jersey co-hosted the Super Bowl, pregame events took place in both states.
The "Super Bowl Kickoff Spectacular" concert was held on January 27 at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, headlined by Daughtry and featuring a fireworks show. Media Day took place on January 28 at the Prudential Center in Newark.
The NFL replaced its indoor NFL Experience fan attraction with an outdoor festival known as Super Bowl Boulevard, which was held along Broadway and Times Square in Manhattan from January 29 to February 1. The event featured various fan-oriented events and attractions, including an artificial toboggan hill. As the area was expected to see around 400,000 people, security was increased in the area. NFL On Location and an NFL Tailgate Party was held at the Meadowlands Sports Complex prior to the game.
Broadcasting
Television
United States
Super Bowl XLVIII was televised by Fox in the United States, with Joe Buck calling play-by-play, Troy Aikman as color analyst, and Pam Oliver and Erin Andrews as sideline reporters. Fox planned to use multiple 4K resolution cameras to provide the ability to zoom closer into certain camera angles, and due to the expected possibility of cold weather, graphics developed by Autodesk would display simulations of wind patterns inside the stadium. Fox constructed an enclosed studio in Times Square for use as part of studio programming on Fox and Fox Sports 1 during the week of the game.
The broadcast attracted 111.5 million viewers, becoming the most-watched event in U.S. television history and surpassing the previous record of 111.3 million viewers who watched Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. Episodes of New Girl and Brooklyn Nine-Nine were the lead-out programs.
For the first time in Super Bowl history, a dedicated Spanish language telecast of the game was broadcast in the United States. The broadcast was carried by sister cable network Fox Deportes as part of a larger package of marquee games simulcast by Fox, and featured commentary and surrounding coverage in that language. As with all NFL games, the Spanish play-by-play was also carried via Fox's SAP feed. John Laguna was the play-by-play announcer and Brady Poppinga was the color analyst. With 561,000 viewers, the Fox Deportes broadcast was the highest-rated U.S. Spanish-language cable telecast outside of soccer.
Advertising
Fox set the sales rate for a 30-second advertisement at US$4 million, matching the price set by CBS for Super Bowl XLVII. Fox began selling advertising for the game in May 2013 and announced it had sold out on December 4.USA Todays Super Bowl Ad Meter named Budweiser's ad "Puppy Love" as the best of the game. Meanwhile, a Coca-Cola spot with people of diverse cultures singing "America the Beautiful" in various languages ignited controversy, with political commentators such as Glenn Beck, Todd Starnes and Allen West condemning the ad for discouraging assimilation, while others considered it a tribute to the idea of the United States as a multicultural society.
Paramount Pictures, Sony Pictures, Lionsgate, Warner Bros., Universal Studios and Walt Disney Studios paid for movie trailers to be aired during the Super Bowl. Following Monsters vs. Aliens' footsteps, Paramount paid for the debut trailers for Transformers: Age of Extinction and Noah, Sony paid for The Amazing Spider-Man 2, RoboCop, The Monuments Men, and Pompeii, Lionsgate paid for Draft Day, Warner Bros. paid for The Lego Movie, Universal paid for Neighbors, and Disney paid for Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Need for Speed, and Muppets Most Wanted.
International
NFL Network produced an international television feed of the game, with alternate English-language commentary provided by Bob Papa (play-by-play) and Charles Davis (color analyst).
Streaming
For the third consecutive year, a webcast was provided for viewers. Fox streamed its coverage of the game online on PCs and tablets through its new TV Everywhere service Fox Sports Go. Although normally requiring a television subscription to use, Fox made the service available as a free preview for the Super Bowl. Due to contractual restrictions imposed by the NFL's exclusive digital and mobile content deals with Microsoft and Verizon Communications, Fox was unable to offer any additional camera angles or offer streaming on smartphones. Mobile streaming of the game was exclusive to the Verizon Wireless NFL Mobile service.
Social media
The social network Twitter estimated that Super Bowl XLVIII generated 24.9 million posts ("tweets") on the service (surpassing last year's total of 24.1), peaking at 381,605 tweets per-minute following Percy Harvin's kickoff return at the start of the second half (surpassing the 231,500 per-minute peak the previous year during the blackout). 57% of the ads broadcast during the game promoted an associated hashtag, up from 50% in 2013.
Radio
National coverage
The game was nationally broadcast on Westwood One radio, with Kevin Harlan as play-by-play announcer, Boomer Esiason as color analyst, and James Lofton and Mark Malone as sideline reporters. Jim Gray hosted the network's pregame, halftime and post-game coverage. Scott Graham, who hosted additional pregame coverage for Westwood One, also served as MetLife Stadium's public address system announcer for the game.
Local market coverage
The flagship stations of each station in the markets of each team carried their local play-by-play calls. In Seattle, KIRO-FM (97.3) and KIRO (710 AM) carried the "Seahawks Bing Radio Network" call with Steve Raible on play-by-play and Warren Moon with color commentary, while in Denver, the Broncos play-by-play from the "Denver Broncos Radio Network" aired on KOA (850 AM) and KRFX (103.5) with the play-by-play of Dave Logan and the color commentary of Ed McCaffrey. The Spanish-language partner of the Broncos, KJMN (92.1)/KMXA (1090) carried the game in that language for the Denver market. Sirius XM Radio carried the Westwood One and local team feeds over satellite radio, along with the call in eight other languages. Outside of those stations, all the other stations in the Seahawks and Broncos radio networks carried the Westwood One call per NFL rules. KOA and KIRO are both clear-channel stations, which allowed listeners throughout most of the western US to hear the portion of the contest which continued past sunset local time.
International radio coverage
Westwood One's coverage was simulcast on TSN Radio in Canada.
In the United Kingdom, Absolute Radio 90s carried the game for the first time, taking over rights from the BBC, who carried the contest for several years prior. The in-house Absolute Radio broadcast featured Darren Fletcher on color commentary (the same capacity in which he served with the BBC), Rocky Boiman with additional contributions and Will Gavin on play-by-play.
Entertainment
Pregame
The pregame show began with the Rutgers Scarlet Knights Marching Band and Syracuse University Marching Band. Queen Latifah, joined by the New Jersey Youth Chorus, sang "America the Beautiful".
"The Star-Spangled Banner" was then sung by Renée Fleming accompanied by the Armed Forces Chorus, the first (and, so far, only) opera singer ever to do so at a Super Bowl. A V-shaped formation of three United States Army Black Hawks, three Apache attack helicopters and three Chinook heavy-lifters did a military flyover timed with the last note of the song.
Halftime show
On September 8, 2013, the league announced that Bruno Mars would perform at halftime. On January 10, 2014, it was announced that Red Hot Chili Peppers would be joining Mars as halftime show performers. The show opened with a children's choir singing a chorus from "Billionaire". Afterward, Mars appeared, playing a drum solo. Mars then performed the songs "Locked Out of Heaven", "Treasure", "Runaway Baby", "Give It Away" (with Red Hot Chili Peppers) and "Just the Way You Are" as a tribute to the United States Armed Forces. The halftime performance was the most watched in the history of the Super Bowl drawing in a record 115.3 million viewers, passing the record 114 million who watched Madonna perform two years earlier. It was later revealed that the music was pre-recorded. Red Hot Chili Pepper's drummer, Chad Smith responded on Twitter by saying "FYI... Every band in the last 10 years at the Super Bowl has performed to a previously recorded track. It's the NFL's policy."
Planners initially indicated there would not be a halftime show at all due to the possibility of poor weather conditions. One such logistical problem would be assembling and disassembling the halftime show stage during a blizzard. But the league went ahead after all. According to Mike Florio of Profootballtalk.com, the NFL wanted to avoid a repeat of Super Bowl XXVI when Fox counter-programmed a special live episode of In Living Color''. Fox had not yet become a television partner with the NFL and saw an opportunity to pull young audiences away from a halftime show that lacked big-name performers. As a result of Fox's ratings success, the league tapped Michael Jackson to perform during the following season's Super Bowl XXVII, and since then the league has continued to book big-name talent to hold the television audience.
Touchdown Entertainment, the company that produced the event, incorporated the live audience into the show and transformed the crowd into "the largest ever LED screen". During the show, spectators put on a black knitted hat called a "video ski hat" with 3 embedded LEDs that lit up on command. The hats transformed the audience into an enormous human video screen made up of over 80,000 pixels. Images including the Pepsi logo flashed across the crowd, as well as video of the live Red Hot Chili Peppers performance and fireworks display. Thanks to this technology, each spectator was integrated to the show and the Super Bowl Halftime claimed to feature the largest-ever human video screen. In an original idea by Nuno Lopes, the company that invented and provided the crowd activation technology is the Montreal-based company PixMob.
Game summary
The game kicked off at 6:32 p.m. EST (UTC−05:00).
First half
On Denver's first play after receiving the opening kickoff, center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball while quarterback Peyton Manning was shifting forward (from shotgun formation) in the process of calling an audible, resulting in the ball going past Manning into the end zone. Running back Knowshon Moreno recovered the ball to prevent a Seahawks touchdown, but he was downed for a safety to give the Seahawks a 2–0 lead. Seattle's score just 12 seconds into the game was the quickest to start a game in Super Bowl history, surpassing the kickoff return by Devin Hester to start Super Bowl XLI seven years earlier. Following the free kick, receiver Percy Harvin gained 30 yards on an end around run to set up Stephen Hauschka's 31-yard field goal, making the score 5–0. Denver was forced to a three-and-out on their next drive, and after the Denver punt, Russell Wilson completed a 37-yard pass to Doug Baldwin, leading to another Hauschka field goal, this one from 33 yards, that increased the lead to 8–0. On the third play of Denver's ensuing possession, Manning was intercepted by Kam Chancellor, giving Seattle a first down on the Denver 37.
Aided by a 15-yard run from Harvin on the first play, Seattle quickly got the ball into the red zone. The Broncos defense eventually managed to force an incomplete pass on third down, but defensive back Tony Carter was flagged for pass interference in the end zone, giving Seattle a first down at the one-yard line. One play later, running back Marshawn Lynch crashed into the end zone, hitting the line so effectively that he ended the play on his feet, scoring a 1-yard touchdown run that made the score 15–0 three minutes into the second quarter.
At this point, the Broncos offense finally managed to get moving, picking up a first down for the first time in the game at 10:37 and moving the ball to the Seattle 35-yard line. But on third-and-13, Manning was hit by Seahawks defensive end Cliff Avril as he tried to throw a pass to Moreno, causing a high short floater that was intercepted by linebacker Malcolm Smith and returned 69 yards for a touchdown. After Seattle's kickoff, Denver mounted a drive to the Seahawks' 19-yard line, aided by Demaryius Thomas's 19-yard reception on third-and-5. With just over a minute left in the half, Denver faced fourth-and-2. Rather than kick a field goal, they tried to pick up a first down, but Manning's pass was incomplete and the score remained 22–0 at the end of the half. The 22-point deficit was the largest faced by the Broncos all season. It was also the third-largest halftime deficit in Super Bowl history; the previous two were also against the Broncos – the Redskins led the Broncos 35–10 in Super Bowl XXII and the 49ers led the Broncos 27–3 in Super Bowl XXIV. Seattle's 22-0 shutout lead at the half also broke the previous record of 20-0 set by the 49ers in the Super Bowl XVI.
Second half
In order to avoid a big kickoff return, Matt Prater kicked the second half kickoff short, hitting the ground at the Seattle 12-yard line. But it did not stop Harvin from picking the ball out of the air and taking off for an 87-yard touchdown return that increased Seattle's lead to 29–0. The touchdown took place 12 seconds into the second half, exactly the same amount of time that the Seahawks took to score the safety in the first half. It was also the first time that consecutive Super Bowls had kickoff returns for touchdowns (Jacoby Jones' return in Super Bowl XLVII being the previous one, which was also the second half opening kickoff). After an exchange of punts, Eric Decker gave Denver good field position with a 9-yard return to the Denver 45. Two plays later, Manning completed a 23-yard pass to Demaryius Thomas, but cornerback Byron Maxwell knocked the ball out of his hands and Malcolm Smith recovered it, returning the ball seven yards. An unnecessary roughness penalty against Denver added 15 more yards onto the end of the play, giving Seattle the ball at the Denver 42-yard line. Two plays later, Russell Wilson hit tight end Luke Willson for a 12-yard completion on third-and-7 and later completed a 19-yard pass to Ricardo Lockette. On the next play, he threw a short pass to Jermaine Kearse, who broke four tackles as he took off for a 23-yard touchdown reception bringing the score to 36–0.
Denver finally managed to respond on their next drive, advancing the ball 80 yards as Manning completed six consecutive passes, including a 22-yard completion to Wes Welker, and finished the drive with a 14-yard touchdown toss to Demaryius Thomas on the last play of the third quarter. Welker then caught another pass for a successful two-point conversion, cutting the score to 36–8.
However, any momentum Denver might have gained was quickly snuffed out as Seattle tight end Zach Miller recovered Prater's onside kick attempt on his own 48-yard line. He also caught a 10-yard reception as the Seahawks subsequently drove 52 yards, featuring a 24-yard reception by Kearse, and scored on a 10-yard touchdown pass from Wilson to Baldwin that increased their lead to 43–8. There were more than 11 minutes left in the game, but this turned out to be the final score, as Denver's last three drives resulted in a turnover on downs, a Manning fumble that was forced and recovered by Seattle defensive end Chris Clemons (the only sack of the game for either team), and time expiring in the game.
Game statistics and notes
Wilson finished the game 18/25 for 206 yards and two touchdowns. Baldwin was his top receiver with five catches for 66 yards and a score, while Kearse added four catches for 65 and a touchdown. In addition to his 87-yard kickoff return touchdown, Harvin was Seattle's leading rusher with 45 yards, even though he only carried the ball twice. Chancellor had nine tackles and an interception. Manning completed 34/49 passes for 280 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions. His top target was Demaryius Thomas, who caught 13 passes (a Super Bowl record) for 118 yards and a touchdown. Welker added eight receptions for 84 yards. Linebacker Danny Trevathan had 12 tackles. Moreno was Denver's leading rusher, but with just 17 yards. Overall, Denver's record setting offense gained only 306 yards, with just 27 yards on the ground.
Seahawks' linebacker Malcolm Smith received the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award. Denver fell to 2–5 in Super Bowls, while five-time league MVP Manning dropped to 11–12 in the playoffs and 1–2 in the Super Bowl. Including Denver's loss, none of the eight highest-scoring teams in league history won a Super Bowl in the same season and all four teams who entered the championship with the league's leading passer lost the game. Manning's 34 completions and Demaryius Thomas' 13 receptions were both Super Bowl records.
With touchdowns scored on offense, defense and special teams, the Seahawks became the first team since the Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV to do so. Teams with an interception return for a touchdown also stayed perfect, improving to 12–0 in Super Bowls. As a result of scoring their safety 12 seconds into the game and subsequently never relinquishing the lead for the rest of the game, the Seahawks set a Super Bowl record for holding a lead continuously for the longest time (59:48). Denver became only the second team in the past 30 years to score fewer than 10 points during the course of the game.
This was the first time that any NFL game ended with a 43–8 final score, a phenomenon known as scorigami. It is one of three Super Bowls, alongside XXI and XXIV, coincidentally involving the Broncos, where such a phenomenon has occurred.
Following on from his two national championships at USC, Seahawks coach Pete Carroll became just the third coach to win both an NCAA Division 1-A/FBS national championship and a Super Bowl after Jimmy Johnson (Miami and Dallas) and Barry Switzer (Oklahoma and Dallas).
Box score
Final statistics
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLVIII, The Football Database Super Bowl XLVIII
Statistical comparison
Individual statistics
1Completions/attempts
2Carries
3Long gain
4Receptions
5Times targeted
Starting lineups
Mass Transit Super Bowl
Organizers dubbed Super Bowl XLVIII the "Mass Transit Super Bowl", emphasizing and encouraging game attendees and other visitors to use public transportation to get to the game and other festivities throughout the region. The host committee in conjunction with other metropolitan transit agencies, such as NJ Transit, the lead agency, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and Metropolitan Transportation Authority developed special services, fares, schedules and maps to promote the use of metro area's trains, subways, light rail and buses during Super Bowl Week. The plan was a failure that lead to universal criticism by fans and writers who attended the game due to poor execution and overcrowding. , the diagram is still updated online.
Security and safety
The Super Bowl was considered a level one national security event. To that end, the New Jersey State Police and the NFL host committee installed a chain-link perimeter fence around the Meadowlands Sports Complex, which is located at the intersection of a number of highways. Security planners stated that access to the area would be strictly limited and regulated. To that end, parking spaces were greatly reduced, tailgate parties restricted and walking to the venue strictly prohibited. Taxis and limousines were not permitted to drop off passengers. Passengers for trains to the stadium were limited in what they could carry and were screened before boarding.
The area was patrolled on land, by air and by water since it is surrounded by wetlands. More than 3,000 security guards and 700 police officers were on duty on game day. In addition, SWAT teams and snipers were located throughout the stadium. The security effort was overseen by a joint operations center a few miles away from MetLife Stadium, which was staffed by hundreds of people from 35 different agencies ranging from the CIA to the New Jersey Transit Police.
In February 2013, controversy arose as mayors of five local municipalities said they would not provide emergency services, stating they have been poorly compensated for past stadium events. One of the mayors, William J. Roseman of Carlstadt, New Jersey, stated: "The teams don't care about budget caps and what the impacts are on the taxpayers of Carlstadt. I had to cut back my police department budget by a total of a million dollars over the last several years. While we are forced to lay off police officers, the owners of the Jets and Giants are filling their pockets at taxpayers' expense."
During the postgame news conference with Super Bowl MVP Malcolm Smith, a man jumped onto the podium, grabbed the microphone and said "Investigate 9/11. 9/11 was perpetrated by people within our own government." Smith did not react hastily but was rather confused and continued on with answering questions from the media. The man quickly walked away but security closed in and he was arrested for trespassing.
Officials
Super Bowl XLVIII had seven officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
Referee – Terry McAulay (77)
Umpire – Carl Paganelli (124)
Head Linesman – Jim Mello (48)
Line Judge – Tom Symonette (100)
Field Judge – Scott Steenson (88)
Side Judge – Dave Wyant (16)
Back Judge – Steve Freeman (133)
Replay Official – Earnie Frantz
Replay Assistant - Brian Matoren
Alternate Referee - Clete Blakeman (34)
Alternate Umpire - Paul King (121)
Alternate Wing - Greg Bradley (98)
Alternate Deep - James Coleman (95)
Alternate Back Judge - Terrence Miles (111)
See also
Broncos–Seahawks rivalry
List of Super Bowl champions
Sports in New York City
Sports in Newark, New Jersey
References
External links
Super Bowl
2013 National Football League season
2014 in American football
2014 in American television
2014 in sports in New Jersey
American football in New Jersey
Denver Broncos postseason
Seattle Seahawks postseason
Events in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Sports competitions in East Rutherford, New Jersey
February 2014 sports events in the United States
21st century in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Meadowlands Sports Complex |
4057149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes%20State%20Office%20Tower | Rhodes State Office Tower | The James A. Rhodes State Office Tower is a 41-story, state office building and skyscraper on Capitol Square in Downtown Columbus, Ohio. The Rhodes Tower is the tallest building in Columbus and the fifth tallest in Ohio. The tower is named for James A. Rhodes, the longest-serving Ohio governor, and features a statue of Rhodes outside the entrance. The building's interior includes a large open lobby with 22 elevators. Higher floors have offices for numerous state agencies. The tower's 40th floor contains an observation deck, open to the public.
The Rhodes Tower was designed by Brubaker/Brandt and Dalton, Dalton, Little, and Newport in a Modernist style. It was conceived in 1969 as a way to consolidate state offices in one building and give more space to legislative offices in the Ohio Statehouse. Construction spanned from 1971 to 1974; it has held state offices since mid-1974, including the Supreme Court of Ohio until it moved to the renovated Ohio Judicial Center in 2004. The Rhodes Tower was renovated from 2018 to 2022 for energy savings and façade maintenance.
Attributes
The Rhodes State Office Tower sits on Capitol Square in Downtown Columbus, on Broad Street. It is the tallest building in Columbus, measuring tall. It is also the tallest building housing the state government. The building faces the Ohio Statehouse, the state capitol building, located to its immediate south. A bi-level tunnel connects the basements of the two buildings, with the upper level designed for pedestrians and the lower for vehicles. The building's basement contains parking for 78 cars.
, the building holds offices for the Ohio Attorney General, Ohio State Treasurer, Ohio Department of Administrative Services, Ohio Office of Budget and Management, Ohio Department of Developmental Disabilities, Ohio Department of Job and Family Services, Ohio Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, Ohio Department of Taxation, the Ohio Inspector General, and the Ohio Arts Council.
Plaza
The southern portion of the site has a small pedestrian plaza facing Broad Street, partially formed as the building's entrance is set back from underneath the bulk of the building. The plaza includes six trees; the six planted in 1974 were 'Moraine' honey locusts, tall.
The plaza contains a bronze statue titled Governor James A. Rhodes and depicting Jim Rhodes, Ohio's longest-serving governor and the building's namesake. The six-foot, six-inch statue was originally installed and dedicated on the northeast corner of the Ohio Statehouse grounds in 1982. It was moved to its current location in 1991 as a temporary measure amid renovation of the statehouse. Jim Rhodes was among those who preferred it at the Statehouse, though those in charge of the renovations were in support of its current placement; it remains at the foot of the tower today.
Exterior
The Rhodes Tower was designed by Brubaker/Brandt of Columbus and Dalton, Dalton, Little, and Newport of Cleveland. The skyscraper was designed in a Modernist style, sometimes characterized as Brutalist, featuring the style's characteristic heavy rectilinear masonry. The verticality of the building serves as a foil to the Ohio Statehouse across Broad Street, increasing the horizontal appearance of the Statehouse, and the glass-walled lobby reflects a mirror image of the Statehouse to pedestrians on Broad Street.
The Rhodes Tower has a complex massing and form. It includes a low asymmetrical base, reflecting the scale of the shorter buildings surrounding the tower. The lower floors of the building were designed to house the Supreme Court of Ohio; the court's chamber there is visible from the exterior with a projecting granite wall, surrounded by glass walls that further emphasize the chamber. The tower has a steel frame above a foundation of concrete-filled steel caissons. The foundation reaches below the surface to the limestone bedrock. The entire exterior of the Rhodes Tower, the surrounding sidewalk, and the lower part of the building's interior are lined with coarse-grained Milbank granite, quarried in Milbank, South Dakota by the Cold Spring Granite Company and branded as Carnelian granite. The stone is estimated to be 2 billion years old. The exterior has 13,108 granite panels, which give varying effects depending on the viewer's angle. The same stone is used on Capitol Square's Huntington Center, and a similar color on the Wyandotte Building nearby. The rich red stone intensifies the brightness of the white limestone used in the Ohio Statehouse. In 1975, the tower was claimed to be the largest granite structure on Earth. The building also has 3,144 windows with dark gray glass.
The building is topped with radio and television antennae, installed during the building's construction. The initial antennae were for the Columbus Division of Police, Columbus Division of Fire, and the Ohio Educational Television network (the latter was supported by a large circular steel structure). Also at the top of the building are air navigation beacons as well as a rooftop helicopter pad (for official and emergency use only).
The building has suffered minor maintenance issues and fires over its history. In 1989, three fires took place; one extensively damaged much of the 36th floor, with no injuries. Drinking water taste was an issue for years, leading offices to purchase five-gallon water coolers to use instead. As renovations to the building's façade began in 2017, a 12-by-2-inch piece of granite fell from the building, prompting the surrounding sidewalk to close pending an inspection. In 2015, one of the building's workers contracted Legionnaire's disease; Legionella bacteria was found at safe levels in locations throughout the building, and at a high level only in a basement shower. The water system was cleaned and health officials did not announce if they had concluded the origin of the worker's illness. Controlling temperatures in the building was an issue in the 1970s, especially in the glass-walled offices of the Supreme Court. A burst pipe flooded the chief justice's office in early 1977.
Interior
Rhodes Tower contains 41 stories and of office space. The building was constructed to accommodate 5,000 workers. As of 2022, approximately 2,600 state employees work in the building.
Its first floor was designed with a five-story galleria-like lobby, a unique feature made possible by the building's elevator placement. The center of the lobby has a winding staircase leading up to the former Supreme Court level as well as two escalators that lead to the basement's restaurant and passage to the Statehouse garage. Towards the back of the lobby is a stainless steel recreation of the Great Seal of Ohio. The floorplans of the building are column-free, 144 feet square. All of the building's elevators (20 for passengers and two for freight) and service shafts were designed outside of the square office space, at the north and east (back and side of the building). The elevators include express elevators that skip floors between the lobby and 18th floor. One of these elevators malfunctioned in 2021 with no injuries.
The four floors originally for the Ohio Supreme Court, directly above the lobby, were described in 1975 as an impressive "polished steel and glass enclave" with cushioned flaming scarlet carpeting. The main courtroom had leather high-back chairs behind a polished red granite bench. Behind the seats was a smaller version of the steel Ohio seal in the building's lobby. The courtroom connected to a corridor leading to justices' chambers, containing teakwood desks, velvet furniture, spacious work areas, and private individual showers. Each of these chambers was fronted by a wall of glass, and had a private mahogany-paneled elevator. The building's fourth floor contained the Supreme Court's 150,000-volume law library, with teak shelving, plush furniture, custom drapes and scarlet carpeting, as recorded in 1975.
The tower's interior has frequently been used for art exhibits. These include the Young People's Art Exhibit, sponsored by the Ohio Art Education Association in 2001. An Ohio Art League exhibition in 1992 prompted complaints from the building's tenants. Some of the pieces impeded hallways; other works in the exhibit received complaints due to nudity or their statements on sexism and reproductive rights. It was reported in 1973 that tower would feature its own commissioned artwork, at a cost of $300,000 to $400,000, including graphics, sculptures, and tapestries with themes of Ohio history, culture, geography, and resources. In 1974, a proposal aimed for $1,175,000 for paintings, gardens, sculptures, and other artworks, including a rooftop garden and sculpture; $800,000 was estimated to have been spent on the program in June 1974.
Treasurer offices
The building's ninth floor was designed for the offices of the Ohio State Treasurer, including a large and secure bank vault. The treasurer at the time the building opened, Gertrude Walton Donahey, objected to moving into the tower, preferring tradition and historical continuity with her office in the Ohio Statehouse, and alleging that the older bank vaults in the Statehouse would be more secure. The office and vault contents were nonetheless moved to the Rhodes Tower, though in 2007 the treasurer's office was moved back into the Statehouse.
Observation deck
The tower's 40th floor contains an observation deck, providing an unobscured panoramic view of Columbus, accessed by a 28-second elevator ride. The attraction is free to the public, requiring only photo IDs in order for lobby staff to grant visitor badges. The floor-to-ceiling viewing windows are located on the north, east, and south sides of the building, and on clear days they give views past the Columbus metropolitan area. Signs by the windows identify notable buildings and sights. When the building opened, the deck wrapped around all four sides of the building, though it was altered to allow for more office space on the floor. It is nevertheless one of few observation decks remaining open to the public; areas in the Leveque Tower and One Nationwide Plaza are no longer accessible.
The observation deck supports panoramic views of the surrounding city as well as numerous natural landmarks: the Scioto River, the beginning of the Appalachian Plateau, till plains to the north and south, and the Powell Moraine to the north.
The east-facing hallway on the floor features a mural by local artist Mandi Caskey. The artwork depicts Ohio in four seasons, accompanied by some of its natural symbols, including the white trillium flower, buckeye tree, and white-tailed deer. The work was unveiled in January 2017, and was the first new piece of public art in the building since it opened. Other works in the building will next be replaced, at one or two per year, as some of the 75 works on display are outdated, worn, or damaged.
The view has been described in Secret Columbus as the best panoramic view of the city, and a well-kept secret, given the observation deck's unlikely location in a state office building.
Falcon nest
On the 41st floor, a nesting box with a video feed had been installed for peregrine falcons. The project began in 1989 in hopes of reintroducing the falcons to the area. Similar projects ran in Akron, Dayton, and Cincinnati to support the bird populations, which had severely dropped in the mid-20th century due to pesticide use. The box was moved to the 31st floor of the Vern Riffe State Office Tower (which had its own peregrines) in 2017 to prevent incidents during the renovation of the building's exterior, though the falcons nested in a commercial building on State Street instead.
One of the hatchlings at the tower, named Buckeye, lived from 1996 to 2009. It was believed to be one of the oldest and most prolific peregrines in the U.S. The falcon flew north as an adult, living for two years at the Case Western Reserve University campus in Cleveland before spending about 12 nesting on Terminal Tower, raising 34 chicks over its lifetime.
History
Planning and construction
The idea for the building began with the Ohio General Assembly, which created a committee to plan for the future use of the Ohio Statehouse, its annex, and any new buildings in 1969. The committee in turn ordered the Ohio Building Authority to construct the tower for the state treasurer, auditor, secretary of state, attorney general, supreme court, and any other state agencies. Legislative leaders supported the move, granting them more space in the Ohio Statehouse.
The new office tower was initially planned to contain 42 stories with an additional three sub-floors. A cafeteria floor was removed in 1970, and the exterior materials were selected limestone and bronze-tinted glass. The building's cost was estimated at $50-52 million, with groundbreaking on June 1, 1971. The new state offices led the Ohio Building Authority to plan for the demolition of four older buildings it was occupying, which had skyrocketing maintenance costs: the Wyandotte Building, the Ohio Statehouse Annex, and the two former main school buildings of the Ohio Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. The new building would also allow the state to vacate four additional buildings it was using.
In 1971, Democrats were elected to the state's auditor and treasurer offices, after Republicans had previously run them. The new Democratic officials stated their preference that state officials should keep their offices in the Statehouse, and in 1973, they requested that the assembly reverse its decision to move their offices into the new building.
Construction necessitated demolition of the Columbus Board of Trade Building (at the same address), the Outlook Building, and the Spahr Building. In 1971, the site was clear, allowing for construction, which began on May 4, 1971. There was no groundbreaking ceremony, reportedly because the governor declined to participate. The building was topped out in October 1972. The first agency to move in was the Department of Administrative Services (DAS), in January 1974. Construction lasted until mid-1974; in the meantime, the DAS worked on the logistics of moving in other agencies. Late in construction, the state decided to reduce the building's height from 42-43 stories to 41; costs rose from the $40 million expected up to $66 million or $80 million.
Opening
When completed, the building became the tallest in Columbus, taking the title from the 1927-built LeVeque Tower. In the first five years of its operation, it was officially the State Office Tower; governor John J. Gilligan chose the name over 25 others, including the Supreme Court Tower, State Office Building, Buckeye Tower, and George Busche Memorial Tower. It was renamed and dedicated to James Rhodes in 1979. The building earned an honor award from the Columbus chapter of the American Institute of Architects in 1975.
The Rhodes Tower was built during the 1970s energy crisis; to combat the oil shortage, the building was designed with light bulbs that would provide up to half of the building's heat, and without light switches in many areas, preventing office workers from interfering with the climate controls. In 1980, the Ohio Building Authority found cheaper heating alternatives and installed switches in the building to save on electricity costs.
In September 2001, days after the September 11 attacks took place, the Rhodes Tower was identified among about a dozen other sites potentially vulnerable to terrorism in the Columbus area. One year after the attacks, on September 11, 2002, a contractor was arrested in the building after making a statement that resembled a bomb threat. A bomb threat called in to police caused evacuations in three government buildings downtown, including the Rhodes Tower; a bomb was alleged to be placed on its 13th floor.
The offices and courtroom for the Supreme Court of Ohio were located in the Rhodes Office Tower from 1974 to 2004, having moved from the Judiciary Annex of the Ohio Statehouse. The court left the building for its own facility, the Ohio Judicial Center, in 2004. The move would allow the court to expand from its space on eight floors of the Rhodes Tower into sixteen floors of the Judicial Center.
The Ohio Arts Council moved its offices into the building in 2010; it had previously been based in the Neville Mansion and LeVeque Tower.
From 2018 to 2022, the state government commissioned a renovation of the building. It involved replacing all of the windows on the building, as well as the anchors to its granite panels, some of which were cracked or chipped. 204 of the panels were replaced, and insulation and a vapor barrier were added to the structure. The project was well-managed, ending hours before its deadline and $5 million under its $70 million budget. It was the largest renovation of an Ohio government building since the 1996 Ohio Statehouse renovation. Scaffolding was placed around the tower almost a year prior to the project's official start, and was removed in summer 2021. During this time, restaurants in the surrounding alleys complained that the scaffolds led to a loss in revenue. The project was one of several significant initiatives that earned the building an Energy Star certification in from 2019 to 2021.
For years, the building has been the site of the Fight For Air Climb Columbus event, a fundraiser run by the American Lung Association. In the event, about 400 participants climbed up the tower's 880 steps in an effort to raise awareness and funds for the association. In the 1990s, one of the climbers used the event to break Guinness World Records for fast ascents; his 1994 record was for 53 ascents in just over nine hours.
Reception
The building was positively reviewed at the time of its completion. Architect Richard R. Tully indicated that as Columbus buildings were conservative in design at the time, they age well; he opined that the Rhodes Tower is one of several examples of well-designed buildings that will still look good 50 years from that time.
See also
Architecture of Columbus, Ohio
References
External links
Facility website
1974 establishments in Ohio
Broad Street (Columbus, Ohio)
Brutalist architecture in Ohio
Buildings and structures in Downtown Columbus, Ohio
Government buildings completed in 1974
Government buildings in Columbus, Ohio
Granite buildings
Skyscraper office buildings in Columbus, Ohio
State government buildings in the United States |
4057344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20A.%20Havelock | Eric A. Havelock | Eric Alfred Havelock (; 3 June 1903 – 4 April 1988) was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States. He was a professor at the University of Toronto and was active in the Canadian socialist movement during the 1930s. In the 1960s and 1970s, he served as chair of the classics departments at both Harvard and Yale. Although he was trained in the turn-of-the-20th-century Oxbridge tradition of classical studies, which saw Greek intellectual history as an unbroken chain of related ideas, Havelock broke radically with his own teachers and proposed an entirely new model for understanding the classical world, based on a sharp division between literature of the 6th and 5th centuries BC on the one hand, and that of the 4th on the other.
Much of Havelock's work was devoted to addressing a single thesis: that all of Western thought is informed by a profound shift in the kinds of ideas available to the human mind at the point that Greek philosophy converted from an oral to a literate form. The idea has been controversial in classical studies, and has been rejected outright both by many of Havelock's contemporaries and modern classicists. Havelock and his ideas have nonetheless had far-reaching influence, both in classical studies and other academic areas. He and Walter J. Ong (who was himself strongly influenced by Havelock) essentially founded the field that studies transitions from orality to literacy, and Havelock has been one of the most frequently cited theorists in that field; as an account of communication, his work profoundly affected the media theories of Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan. Havelock's influence has spread beyond the study of the classical world to that of analogous transitions in other times and places.
Education and early academic career
Born in London on 3 June 1903, Havelock grew up in Scotland where he attended Greenock Academy before
enrolment at The Leys School in Cambridge, England, at the age of 14. He studied there with W. H. Balgarnie, a classicist to whom Havelock gives considerable credit. In 1922, Havelock started at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
While studying under F. M. Cornford at Cambridge, Havelock began to question the received wisdom about the nature of pre-Socratic philosophy and, in particular, about its relationship with Socratic thought. In The Literate Revolution in Greece, his penultimate book, Havelock recalls being struck by a discrepancy between the language used by the philosophers he was studying and the heavily Platonic idiom with which it was interpreted in the standard texts. It was well known that some of these philosophical texts (Parmenides, Empedocles) were written not only in verse but in the metre of Homer, who had recently been identified (still controversially at the time) by Milman Parry as an oral poet, but Cornford and other scholars of these early philosophers saw the practice as a fairly insignificant convention left over from Hesiod. Havelock eventually came to the conclusion that the poetic aspects of early philosophy "were matters not of style but of substance", and that such thinkers as Heraclitus and Empedocles actually have more in common even on an intellectual level with Homer than they do with Plato and Aristotle.
In 1926 Havelock took his first academic job at Acadia University in Nova Scotia, Canada. He married Ellen Parkinson in 1927, and moved on to Victoria College at the University of Toronto in 1929. Havelock's scholarly work during this period focused on Latin poetry, particularly Catullus, far from the early Greek philosophy he had worked on at Cambridge. While in Canada Havelock became increasingly involved in politics. With his fellow academics Frank Underhill and Eugene Forsey, Havelock was a cofounder of the League for Social Reconstruction, an organisation of politically active socialist intellectuals. He and Underhill were also the most outspoken of a group of dissident faculty members at the University.
Havelock's political engagement deepened rapidly. In 1931, after Toronto police had blocked a public meeting by an organisation the police claimed was associated with communists, he and Underhill wrote a public letter of protest, calling the action "short-sighted, inexpedient, and intolerable." The letter led to considerable tension between the leadership of the university and the activist professors led by Havelock and Underhill, as well as a sharply critical public reaction. All of the major newspapers in Toronto, along with a number of prominent business leaders, denounced the professors as radical leftists and their behaviour as unbecoming of academics.
Though the League for Social Reconstruction began as more of a discussion group than a political party, it became a force in Canadian politics by the mid-1930s. After Havelock joined the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, along with several other members of the League, he was pressured by his superiors at the University to curtail his political activity. He did not, continuing to act as an ally and occasional spokesman for Underhill and other leftist professors. He found himself in trouble again in 1937 after criticising both the government's and industry's handling of an automotive workers' strike. Despite calls from Ontario officials for his ouster, he was able to remain at Victoria College, but his public reputation was badly damaged.
While at Toronto, Havelock began formulating his theory of orality and literacy, establishing the context of a later movement at the University interested in the critical study of communication, which Donald F. Theall has called the "Toronto School of Communications". Havelock's work was complemented by that of Harold Innis, who was working on the history of media. The work Havelock and Innis began in the 1930s was the preliminary basis for the influential theories of communication developed by Marshall McLuhan and Edmund Snow Carpenter in the 1950s.
During World War II, Havelock moved away from the socialist organisations he had been associated with, and in 1944 was elected founding president of the Ontario Classical Association. One of the association's first activities was organising a relief effort for Greece, which had just been liberated from Nazi control. Havelock continued to write about politics, however, and his political and academic work came together in his ideas about education; he argued for the necessity of an understanding of rhetoric for the resistance to corporate persuasiveness.
Toward a new theory of Greek intellectual history
At the same time that he was becoming increasingly vocal and visible in politics, Havelock's scholarly work was moving toward the concerns that would occupy him for the bulk of his career. The first questions he raised about the relationship between literacy and orality in Greece concerned the nature of the historical Socrates, which was a long-debated issue. Havelock's position, drawn from analyses of Xenophon and Aristophanes as well as Plato himself, was that Plato's presentation of his teacher was largely a fiction, and intended to be a transparent one, whose purpose was to represent indirectly Plato's own ideas. He argued vociferously against the idea associated with John Burnet, which still had currency at the time, that the basic model for the theory of forms originated with Socrates. Havelock's argument drew on evidence for a historical change in Greek philosophy; Plato, he argued, was fundamentally writing about the ideas of his present, not of the past. Most earlier work in the field had assumed that, since Plato uses Socrates as his mouthpiece, his own philosophical concerns must have been similar to those debated in the Athens of his youth, when Socrates was his teacher. Havelock's contention that Socrates and Plato belonged to different philosophical eras was the first instance of one that would become central to his work: that a basic shift in the kinds of ideas being discussed by intellectuals, and the methods of discussing them, happened at some point between the end of the fifth century BC and the middle of the fourth.
In 1947, Havelock moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, to take a position at Harvard University, where he remained until 1963. He was active in a number of aspects of the University and of the department, of which he became chair; he undertook a translation of and commentary on Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound for the benefit of his students. He published this translation, with an extended commentary on Prometheus and the myth's implications for history, under the title The Crucifixion of Intellectual Man (and then changed it back to Prometheus when the book was republished in the 1960s, saying that the earlier title had "come to seem a bit pretentious"). During this time he began his first major attempt to argue for a division between Platonic or Aristotelian philosophy and what came before. His focus was on political philosophy and, in particular, the beginnings of Greek liberalism as introduced by Democritus. In his book The Liberal Temper in Greek Politics, he argued that for Democritus and the liberals, political theory was based on an understanding of "the behaviour of man in a cosmic and historical setting": that is, humanity defined as the poets would define it—measured through its individual actions. Plato and Aristotle were interested in the nature of humanity and, in particular, the idea that human actions might be rooted in inherent qualities rather than consisting of individual choices.
In arguing for a basic heuristic split between Plato and the contemporaries of Democritus, Havelock was directly contradicting a very long tradition in philosophy that had painstakingly assembled innumerable connections between Plato and the pre-Socratics, to reinforce the position that Plato, as his own dialogues imply, was primarily informed by his teacher Socrates, and that Socrates in turn was a willing participant in a philosophical conversation already several hundred years old (again, with a seeming endorsement from Plato, who shows a young Socrates conversing with and learning from the pre-Socratics Parmenides and Zeno in his dialogue the Parmenides—a historical impossibility that might represent figuratively an intellectual rather than direct conversation). The book was intriguing to many philosophers but was poorly received among some classicists, with one reviewer calling Havelock's argument for basic difference between Plato and the pre-Socratics "a failure" and his analysis of Plato and Aristotle "distortion." Some problems have persisted in research of Greek literacy, and in the main, the interest in continuing the line of research has been sustained in scholarship since Havelock's death.
Preface to Plato
The Liberal Temper makes the argument for the division between Plato and early Greek philosophy without a fully realised account of Havelock's theory of Greek literacy, which he was still developing throughout this period. Rather than attempting once again to explain his distinction between 5th- and 4th-century BC thought in terms of a dissection of the earlier school, Havelock turned, in his 1963 Preface to Plato, to 4th century BC philosophy itself. He was interested principally in Plato's much debated rejection of poetry in the Republic, in which his fictionalised Socrates argues that poetic mimesis—the representation of life in art—is bad for the soul. Havelock's claim was that the Republic can be used to understand the position of poetry in the "history of the Greek mind." The book is divided into two parts, the first an exploration of oral culture (and what Havelock thinks of as oral thought), and the second an argument for what Havelock calls "The Necessity of Platonism" (the title of Part 2): the intimate relationship between Platonic thought and the development of literacy. Instead of concentrating on the philosophical definitions of key terms, as he had in his book on Democritus, Havelock turned to the Greek language itself, arguing that the meaning of words changed after the full development of written literature to admit a self-reflective subject; even pronouns, he said, had different functions. The result was a universal shift in what the Greek mind could imagine:
We confront here a change in the Greek language and in the syntax of linguistic usage and in the overtones of certain key words which is part of a larger intellectual revolution, which affected the whole range of the Greek cultural experience ... Our present business is to connect this discovery with that crisis in Greek culture which saw the replacement of an orally memorised tradition by a quite different system of instruction and education, and which therefore saw the Homeric state of mind give way to the Platonic.
Two distinct phenomena are covered by the shift Havelock observed in Greek culture at the end of the 5th century: the content of thought (in particular the concept of man or of the soul), and the organisation of thought. In Homer, Havelock argues, the order of ideas is associative and temporal. The epic's "units of meaning ... are linked associatively to form an episode, but the parts of the episode are greater than the whole." For Plato, on the other hand, the purpose of thought is to arrive at the significance of the whole, to move from the specific to the general. Havelock points out that Plato's syntax, which he shares with other 4th-century writers, reflects that organisation, making smaller ideas subordinate to bigger ideas. Thus, the Platonic theory of forms in itself, Havelock claims, derives from a shift in the organisation of the Greek language, and ultimately comes down to a different function for and conception of the noun.
Preface to Plato had a profound impact almost immediately after publication, but an impact that was complex and inconsistent. The book's claims refer to the ideas of a number of different fields: the study (then fairly new) of oral literature as well as Greek philosophy and Greek philology; the book also acknowledges the influence of literary theory, particularly structuralism. The 1960s were a period in which those fields were growing further apart, and the reaction to Preface from each of them was starkly different. Among classicists the response ranged from indifference to derision, with the majority simply questioning the details of Havelock's history of literacy, pointing both to earlier instances of writing than Havelock thinks possible or to later instances of oral influence. Philosophy, particularly Platonic scholarship, was moving in a different direction at the time, and Havelock neither engages nor was cited by the principal movers in that field. However, the book was embraced by literary theorists, students of the transition to literacy, and others in fields as diverse as psychology and anthropology.
There have been affirmations and criticism of Havelock's methods. His account of orality is based almost entirely on Homer, but the history of the Homeric text is not known, which forces Havelock to make claims based on assumptions that cannot fully be tested. The works of Milman Parry on Homer were instrumental in developing the orientation to his work, and the breakthrough sustained research which Havelock prepared. The "Parry-Lord thesis" was introduced by Rosalind Thomas, to clarify the import of this approach. Some later classicists argue that the poetic nature of Homer's language works against the very arguments Havelock makes about the intellectual nature of oral poetry. What he asserts as a definitive use of language can never be conclusively demonstrated not to be an accident of "metrical convenience." Homerists, like Platonists, found the book to be less than useful for the precise work of their own discipline; many classicists rejected outright Havelock's essential thesis that oral culture predominated through the 5th century. At the same time, though, Havelock's influence, particularly in literary theory, was growing enormously. He is the most cited writer in Walter J. Ong's influential Orality and Literacy other than Ong himself. His work has been cited in studies of orality and literacy in African culture and the implications of modern literacy theory for library science. Preface to Plato has remained continuously in print since its initial publication.
Later years
Shortly after publication of Preface to Plato, Havelock accepted a position as chair of the Classics Department at Yale University. He remained in New Haven for eight years, and then taught briefly as Raymond Distinguished Professor of Classics at the State University of New York at Buffalo. He retired in 1973 and moved to Poughkeepsie, New York, where his wife Christine Mitchell, whom he had married in 1962, taught at Vassar College. He was a productive scholar after his retirement, writing three books as well as numerous essays and talks expanding the arguments of Preface to Plato to a generalised argument about the effect of literacy on Greek thought, literature, culture, society, and law.
Increasingly central to Havelock's account of Greek culture in general was his conception of the Greek alphabet as a unique entity. He wrote in 1977:
The invention of the Greek alphabet, as opposed to all previous systems, including the Phoenician, constituted an event in the history of human culture, the importance of which has not as yet been fully grasped. Its appearance divides all pre-Greek civilisations from those that are post-Greek.
But his philological concerns now were only a small part of a much larger project to make sense of the nature of the Greek culture itself. His work in this period shows a theoretical sophistication far beyond his earlier efforts, extending his theory of literacy toward a theory of culture itself. He said of the Dipylon inscription, a poetic line scratched into a vase and the earliest Greek writing known at the time, "Here in this casual act by an unknown hand there is announced a revolution which was destined to change the nature of human culture." It is this larger point about the differences between oral and literate culture that represents Havelock's most influential contribution. Walter J. Ong, for example, in assessing the significance of non-oral communication in an oral culture, cites Havelock's observation that scientific categories, which are necessary not only for the natural sciences but also for historical and philosophical analysis, depend on writing. These ideas were sketched out in Preface to Plato but became central to Havelock's work from Prologue to Greek Literacy (1971) onward.
In the latter part of his career, Havelock's relentless pursuit of his unvarying thesis led to a lack of interest in addressing opposing viewpoints. In a review of Havelock's The Greek Concept of Justice, a book that attempts to ascribe the most significant ideas in Greek philosophy to his linguistic research, the philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre accuses Havelock of a "brusque refusal to recognize the substance of the case he has to defeat." As a result of this refusal, Havelock seems to have been caught in a conflict of mere contradiction with his opponents, in which without attempt at refutation, he simply asserts repeatedly that philosophy is fundamentally literate in nature, and is countered only with a reminder that, as MacIntyre says, "Socrates wrote no books."
In his last public lecture, which was published posthumously, Havelock addressed the political implications of his own scholarly work. Delivered at Harvard on 16 March 1988, less than three weeks before his death, the lecture is framed principally in opposition to the University of Chicago philosopher Leo Strauss. Strauss had published a detailed and extensive critique of Havelock's The Liberal Temper in Greek Politics in March 1959, as "The Liberalism of Classical Political Philosophy" in the journal Review of Metaphysics. (Strauss died 14 years later in 1973, the same year in which Havelock retired.) Havelock's 1988 lecture claims to contain a systematic account of Plato's politics; Havelock argues that Plato's idealism applies a mathematical strictness to politics, countering his old teacher Cornford's assertion that Platonic arguments that morality must be analyzable in arithmetical terms cannot be serious. This way of thinking about politics, Havelock concluded, could not be used as a model for understanding or shaping inherently nonmathematical interactions: "The stuff of human politics is conflict and compromise."
Major works
The Lyric Genius of Catullus. Oxford: Blackwell, 1939.
The Crucifixion of Intellectual Man, Incorporating a Fresh Translation into English Verse of the Prometheus Bound of Aeschylus. Boston: Beacon Press, 1950. Reprinted as Prometheus. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968.
The Liberal Temper in Greek Politics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957.
Preface to Plato. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963.
Prologue to Greek Literacy. Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati Press, 1971.
The Greek Concept of Justice: From its Shadow in Homer to its Substance in Plato. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.
The Literate Revolution in Greece and its Cultural Consequences. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981.
The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
Notes and references
External links
Chapter-by-chapter redaction of Preface to Plato by Anthony J. Mioni
Official page for Preface to Plato from the Harvard University Press.
Guide to the Eric Alfred Havelock Papers at the Yale University Archives, compiled by Carol King; contains a biography.
Eric A. Havelock, Chinese Characters and the Greek Alphabet, Sino-Platonic Papers, 5 (December 1987)
1903 births
1988 deaths
20th-century British historians
Academic staff of Acadia University
Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
British Christian socialists
British classical scholars
British expatriates in Canada
British expatriates in the United States
British scholars of ancient Greek philosophy
Canadian Christian socialists
Classical scholars of Harvard University
Classical scholars of the University of Toronto
Classical scholars of Yale University
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
Harvard University faculty
Historians of printing
Mass media theorists
Philosophers of technology
Literacy and society theorists
People educated at The Leys School
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Yale Sterling Professors |
4057511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd%20Virginia%20Infantry%20Regiment | 33rd Virginia Infantry Regiment | The 33rd Virginia Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment raised in the Commonwealth of Virginia for service in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. It was a part of the famed "Stonewall Brigade," named for General Stonewall Jackson.
Companies and early statistics
The regiment was organized and mustered into service soon after the secession of Virginia on 17 April 1861. It was formed of ten companies, which included men from Shenandoah County, as well as Frederick, Hampshire, Hardy, Page, and Rockingham counties along the Shenandoah Valley. Two of these counties, Hampshire and Hardy, were included in the new state of West Virginia despite having ratified Virginia's secession ordinance and very low voting for the new state. The units gathered at Winchester, and the Potomac Guards and Independent Greys were soon sent out to Romney to counter Federal forces gathered under Lew Wallace at New Creek.
By late May, the regiment was placed under the commanded of Col. Arthur C. Cummings, a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute who practiced law in Abingdon, Virginia at the far southernmost end of the Valley and would twice represent Washington County, Virginia in the Virginia House of Delegates (first beginning in 1863 and again in 1871). Due to its frequent combat, and resulting injuries, leadership would change hands many times through the war. Other colonels were future Virginia governor Frederick W. M. Holliday, Edwin G. Lee, John F. Neff (died at Second Manassas), Abraham Spengler and John R. Jones (who rose to Brigadier General, as did Ned Lee, but whose conduct became controversial after a severe concussion). John Gatewood, a publisher, had been a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Shenandoah County in 1857, and would win re-election during the war, but not win military promotion. The 33rd, along with the 2nd, 4th, 5th, and 27th Virginia Regiments, formed the famous 'Stonewall Brigade' under the command of VMI professor Stonewall Jackson. The average height of a soldier in the regiment was 5'8", and the average age was 25 years; these figures fluctuated greatly as the years progressed.
The 33rd Virginia remained in the Stonewall Brigade in Thomas J. Jackson's Second Corps until the restructuring of the Army of Northern Virginia after his death in the spring of 1863. It was then put under Richard Ewell's command until the spring of 1864, when it dissolved following heavy losses at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House.
Companies and officers
First Manassas
When the Union and Confederate armies engaged near Manassas Junction, Virginia, on 21 July 1861, General Jackson and his brigade earned the nickname "Stonewall" when, as they retreated to reform along Henry House Hill, Gen. Barnard Bee cried out to his ailing troops: "There stands Jackson like a stone wall. Rally behind the Virginians!" Eight of the ten companies in the 33rd were present.
At the height of the battle, it was Jackson's first brigade, and more specifically, the undersized regiment of Colonel Cummings that turned the tide of battle with a well-timed charge against an exposed artillery battery. The successful capture of the guns is thought to be largely because, due to the lack of formality in early war uniforms, Jackson's men were dressed in blue, just like their Federal counterparts. Though the 33rd Virginia succeeded in capturing the guns, the number of men that made the charge (only about 250) were unable to maintain possession and were forced to retreat. The charge had halted the steady advance of the Union Army up to that point, and precipitated further charges by Jackson's other regiments. By day's end, the actions of the 33rd led to the complete rout of the Union Army, and played a major role in immortalizing the brigade.
The cost of immortality for Cummings' regiment was high. Of the 450 men who were present at the battle, the 33rd would suffer 43 killed and 140 wounded.
In the Valley
Three days later, General Jackson took leave of his old brigade and returned to the Shenandoah Valley to take command of Virginia's Valley District. Finding the size of his command inadequate for the task, he petitioned Richmond for the return of the Stonewall Brigade to the Valley. On 9 November, only five days after Jackson left his command, the brigade received orders for them to pack up camp and march to Manassas Junction, where they were expected to board the train and return to the Valley.
Arriving in the evening, it was determined that there were only enough cars to take the 2nd, 5th and 27th Virginia Regiments back. The 4th and 33rd were ordered to encamp at the junction and wait for the trains to return in the morning. Around 10 o'clock, without shelter to protect them, a steady, cold rain began to fall continuing throughout the long night. Having somehow come into the possession of a barrel of whiskey, the Emerald Guard would make it longer yet and twice as miserable for the others present. "The whole of the Irish company gets drunk save a few," wrote a member of Company H, 33rd Virginia, "they get to fighting, in which swords, bayonets and knives are used; have a hard time tying them and putting them in the guardhouse. Several of both parties get badly wounded…"
News of the incident resounded all the way up to General Jackson's headquarters. On 2 December, Jackson, in his official report, provided the following account of the rowdy Irishmen. "... While the Thirty-third Regiment Virginia Volunteers was en route from Manassas to this place one of its companies (Company E) arrived in camp near here without any officer, in consequence of its first lieutenant (T.C. Fitzgerald) having absented himself without leave. In consequence of Colonel Cummings having reported to me that he could not undertake another march with the company, as it was composed of unmanageable Irishmen ..." Two days later, Jackson introduced the men to their new commander (because of his promotion), West Point graduate and U.S. Army veteran Richard Brooke Garnett, although the men had hoped that one of their regimental colonels should have received the promotion. They had several operations in the mountains, including toward Martinsburg, before finally assuming winter quarters near Winchester on 25 January, which they called Camp Felix Kirk Zollicoffer after the CSA General killed at Mill Springs Kentucky on 19 January.
As spring came, so did the Federals in force. Jackson, being forced to evacuated Winchester, headed southwards up the Valley until news from Jackson's cavalry scouts suggested that the Federals, were reducing their force so as to reinforce Union operations further east. Doubling back, Jackson launched an attack against the Federals situated at Kernstown a few miles south of Winchester on 23 March 1862. The 33rd played a large role in holding a stone wall against overwhelming numbers, until being ordered to retire as their ammunition became expended. The regiment suffered 23 killed, 12 wounded and 18 captured of the 275 engaged at First Kernstown.
Following Kernstown, Jackson's Army retreated down the Valley towards Rude's Hill, where, in accordance with various orders issued by the Governor of Virginia and the Confederate Congress, the existing units were reenlisted for a period of three years or the war. New recruits between the ages of 18 and 45 were encouraged through bounty and the fear of being conscripted involuntarily, to join the army. To augment recruiting, state militias were obliged to disband and its members obliged to fill up the ranks of the regular companies. By the end of April, the 33rd Virginia Infantry grew by 297 recruits and with the absorption of the militia, swelled to 762 men before breaking camp on 3 May.
The 33rd Virginia marched with the Stonewall Brigade into the Alleghany Mountains, but the Stonewall Brigade was held in reserve at the Battle of McDowell and was subsequently in the rear of Jackson's column at the Battle of Front Royal. The 33rd would see combat at the First Battle of Winchester, and then the Battle of Port Republic.
The Peninsula Campaign
After a three-day rest near Weyer's Cave, the brigade was again on the move. Crossing Rockfish Gap, Jackson hurried his men towards Richmond to augment the besieged forces around the capital. The Stonewall Brigade arrived in time to assist Robert E. Lee in his counteroffensive against George McClellan. On 28 June, the Stonewall Brigade would participate in the final charge near twilight at the battle of Gaines' Mill, and again would see action near day's end at the Battle of Malvern Hill on 1 July. The 33rd took 32 casualties at Malvern Hill.
From 8 July through 17, the entire brigade left the battlefield and moved to Richmond, where the men were allowed to take a well-deserved rest. On the 17th, however, the men of the Stonewall Brigade again packed their blanket rolls, shouldered arms and began marching northwards for a new campaign, this time against a new Federal Army being organized around Manassas Junction under General John Pope. On 9 August, the brigade would run into Pope at the Battle of Cedar Mountain. The 33rd Regiment fought fiercely throughout the battle, taking 17 casualties.
Two days after Cedar Mountain, the regiment would officially lose one more. Captain Marion Sibert, who, coming to terms with his inability to rejoin the Emerald Guard in the field, resigned his commission as captain on 11 August 1862. Sibert would survive the war without further injury, serving as provost for both Winchester and New Market.
Second Manassas
Continuing northwards, Jackson's men swept away the single brigade of infantry that guarded the vast supply depot at Manassas Junction. Taking all that could be used by the army, it was left to the 33rd Virginia to see that the cars and warehouses were set aflame and otherwise destroyed. On the following day, 27 August the brigade encamped at Groveton, just to the North of the old battlefield. Around twilight, the Stonewall Brigade confronted their equals in the Federal Army, the Iron Brigade, composed of the 2nd, 6th, and 7th Wisconsin Infantry, and 19th Indiana. Both commands would stand in line facing each other well into the darkness justifying their reputations to the other. In the end, the Stonewall Brigade would hold their position on the field. Over the next two days, the regiment would be engaged in the Second Battle of Manassas. The three days fighting would cost the 33rd Virginia 33 killed and 81 wounded, including their Colonel John Neff.
Antietam (Sharpsburg)
Continuing their advance into Maryland, the regiment, now only numbering about 200 men, fought just as tenaciously, suffering 3 killed and 17 more wounded. As the battle resulted in a draw, the Confederate army retreated back across the Potomac and Jackson's army settled in around the lower Valley at which time a number of men, who had been wounded, released from Northern prisons or returned from being AWOL filled up the ranks. By the end of October, the regiment was mustered and paid once more.
Chancellorsville
At the beginning of May 1863, a new Union General, Joseph Hooker led the Army of the Potomac across the Rappahannock River while making a demonstration in front of Fredericksburg, Virginia. Over the next three days, the Battle of Chancellorsville took place. In the thick of the fighting on 3 May was the Stonewall Brigade's 33rd Virginia. Capt. Bedinger of the Emerald Guard (Co. E), taking a moment during a lull in the fighting on 4 May, wrote:
Yesterday we fought the most terrible battle of this war, attacking the enemy in his chosen positions and driving him at every point, our Brigade behaved magnificently, but lost very heavily ... Today we are in line and throwing up breast works, whether we will attack or the enemy retreat further, I cannot say, I'm pretty certain of more fighting. Thank God I am spared to write you this note, tho half of my little company were killed or wounded ...
This battle would have a devastating effect on the Stonewall Brigade and the Confederacy despite the military victory. General Jackson, their beloved leader, had been severely wounded by his own pickets on the night of the 3rd. He lost his arm and within a few days he died from complications. Although General Lee would feel that he had come to lose his right arm with the death of Jackson, Lee prepared to launch his second offensive northwards into Maryland and Pennsylvania. The Stonewall Brigade was now placed under the command of James A. Walker and was placed in the Second Corps, now commanded by Richard S. Ewell. By early June, Lee stealthily pulled his troops out of line and began the trek westward into the Valley and then north towards the Potomac River for the second invasion of the North.
Gettysburg
Within 15 days, the 33rd had crossed the Potomac and were encamped around Chambersburg when the order came for the Second Corps to converge on the Pennsylvania town of Gettysburg. Arriving late in the evening of 1 July, the brigade spent much of the second day skirmishing on the far Confederate left. It would not be until the next day that the 33rd would see real fighting. At 3:00 a.m. on the morning of the 3rd, the regiment was aroused and marched off with the rest of the brigade towards the enemy position atop Culp's Hill. After daybreak, the regiment advanced in line of battle towards the enemy who was "strongly intrenched in a most advantageous position." The regiment advanced up the slopes of the hill advancing "in intervals" as the men took cover behind rocks and trees as they advanced. Although the regiment exhausted its ammunition within an hour or two, at least part of the 33rd remained engaged for almost five hours, as partial supplies were received upon the field. During this portion of the fighting, Captain Bedinger of the Emerald Guard was killed while advancing towards the enemy. Captain Golladay, in temporary command of the regiment after the battle would write that Bedinger's body had fallen perhaps the closest to the enemy's lines.
Sometime around noon, the regiment was withdrawn from the slopes, reorganized and replenished with ammunition. The regiment was then moved several hundred yards to the right, and another advance was made upon the enemy. The fighting was intense and lasted only a half-hour or so before the regiment was withdrawn again and marched to the rear for a short rest until mid-afternoon. Again, the regiment was aroused, reequipped and marched to a position farther to the right of the line. From this time until nightfall, the regiment was only engaged in skirmishing after which the day's survivors quietly retired. Upon the field were left many whom Golladay considered the "flower of the regiment." Twenty-three percent of the 236 men who fought at Gettysburg were killed, wounded, or missing.
On 3 July, the Stonewall Brigade lost one of its former commanders, Richard B. Garnett, who was killed during the infamous 'Pickett's Charge,' possibly due to an injured leg that caused him to ride a horse into the battle.
As Lee began his long retreat in the rain on 4 July and 5, several members of company E and H, some of whom had been wounded two days before, were captured at Waterloo, Chambersburg, and South Mountain. By the time the 33rd had re-crossed the Potomac and moved into camp around Orange Court House, the regiment numbered only 90 men. With the death of George Bedinger and the only Lieutenant, Patrick Maxwell, absent sick, Captain D. B. Huffman of Co. G, 33rd Virginia Infantry assumed temporary responsibility for the shattered Emerald Guard. On 31 August 1863, the 33rd was again mustered to be paid.
1864: The Wilderness and Spotsylvania
The ill-fated spring of 1864 would begin with news of Union General Ulysses S. Grant's crossing of the Rapidan River. General Lee responded by maneuvering his ever-shrinking army to meet Grant on ground of his own choosing. On 4 May, the Army of Northern Virginia and Army of the Potomac collided in the tangled landscape that sprawled between Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and Spotsylvania Court House known as the "Wilderness". Fighting raged amidst the broken terrain 4 May–5. Fewer than 100 men remained in the regiment. About 11:00 a.m. on the 5th, the regiment became heavily engaged, taking several casualties.
A slight lull occurred as the repulse of his army caused General Grant to side step Lee in his continual descent towards Richmond. On 10 May, both armies had shifted their positions and Lee had managed to cut off Grant's line of march at Spotsylvania Court House. At 6:00 a.m. on 12 May, the VI Corps of the Army of the Potomac surprised the Second Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. Overrunning the salient known as the Mule Shoe, many of the brigades under Allegheny Edward Johnson were captured en masse. Among those captured were the majority of the Stonewall Brigade. Though some got away, the brigade effectively ceased to exist as a unit at that point.
The End of the War
What was left of the 33rd Virginia and the Stonewall Brigade would be incorporated with the remnants of several other brigades of Johnson's old division and placed under the overall command of William Terry from the 4th Virginia Regiment. This amalgamated brigade would go on to participate in Early's 1864 Valley Campaign, Hatcher's Run, Waynesboro, Fort Stedman and Lee's final retreat to Appomattox. When Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to General Grant at Appomattox Court House on 9 April 1865, only 1 officer and 18 men were present from the 33rd Regiment.
The field officers during the conflict were Colonels Arthur C. Cummings, Frederick W. M. Holliday, Edwin G. Lee, John F. Neff, and Abraham Spengler; Lieutenant Colonels George Huston and John R. Jones; and Majors Jacob B. Golladay and Philip T. Grace.
Current Portrayals
Currently, six companies of the 33rd Virginia are reenacted. Co. A., the 'Potomac Guard' is located in Central Indiana, Co. D the 'Mountain Rangers' is located near Winchester, Va, Co. E., the 'Emerald Guard' is located near Washington, D.C., Co. H, the 'Page Grays' is located in Manassas, VA., company G the Mount Jackson Rifles is located in Buffalo NY, and Company C The Tenth Legion Minutemen in Southern California.
A recreation of the flag of the 33rd Virginia can be seen in the opening credits of the movie "Gods and Generals," and the regiment's charge on the aforementioned Union artillery is reenacted.
See also
List of Virginia Civil War units
List of West Virginia Civil War Confederate units
References
External links
History of the Emerald Guard
Company A Reenactment Group
Company E (Emerald Guard) – Inactive Reenactment Group
Company H Reenactment Group
Company G (Mount Jackson Rifles) Reenactment Group
Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Virginia
Hampshire County, West Virginia, in the American Civil War
Stonewall Brigade
1861 establishments in Virginia
Military units and formations established in 1861
1865 disestablishments in Virginia
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865 |
4057599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastia%20Liukin | Nastia Liukin | Anastasia "Nastia" Valeryevna Liukin (; ; born October 30, 1989) is a Russian-born American former artistic gymnast. She is the 2008 Olympic all-around champion, a five-time Olympic medalist, the 2005 and 2007 World champion on the balance beam, and the 2005 World champion on the uneven bars. She is also a four-time all-around U.S. national champion, winning twice as a junior and twice as a senior. With nine World Championships medals, seven of them individual, Liukin is tied with Shannon Miller for the third-highest tally of World Championship medals among U.S. gymnasts. Liukin also tied Miller's record (later equaled by Simone Biles) as the American gymnast having won the most medals in a single non-boycotted Olympic Games. In October 2011, Liukin announced that she was returning to gymnastics with the hopes of making a second Olympic team. Liukin did not make the 2012 Olympic team and retired from the sport on July 2, 2012.
Personal life
Liukin was born on October 30, 1989, in Moscow, Russia SFSR, Soviet Union. She is the only child of two former Soviet champion gymnasts: 1988 Summer Olympics double-gold medalist Valeri Liukin and 1987 World clubs champion in rhythmic gymnastics Anna Kotchneva. Her nickname Nastia is a Russian diminutive for Anastasia. The family immigrated to the United States when Nastia was two and a half years old, following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and settled first in New Orleans before moving to Texas. In 1994, Valeri Liukin teamed up with another former Soviet champion athlete, Yevgeny Marchenko, to open the World Olympic Gymnastics Academy (WOGA) in Plano, Texas.
Liukin is fluent in English and Russian. She graduated from Spring Creek Academy, located in Plano, Texas, in the spring of 2007. She enrolled as an international business major at Southern Methodist University in January 2008, and took a leave from classes to concentrate on preparations for the 2008 Olympic Games. She returned to campus in spring 2009, but her travel schedule and professional commitments caused her to withdraw before the end of the semester. In January 2013, Liukin attended New York University where she studied sports management and psychology, graduating in May 2016.
Nastia has been involved with numerous charities and philanthropy over the years including Cards for Hospitalized Kids, breast cancer awareness and more. Liukin also established the Nastia Liukin Fund with USA Gymnastics which helps support fitness oriented programs for young people.
Junior career
Liukin began gymnastics at the age of three because she was "always hanging around in the gym" with her parents, who could not afford a babysitter to look after her while they were working as coaches. Liukin's parents initially did not aspire for their daughter to become a gymnast, knowing the pressure of high-level competition firsthand, but relented when they noticed her aptitude for the sport.
Liukin competed in her first national championships as a junior in 2002, at the age of 12 and a half. In contrast to her WOGA teammates Carly Patterson and Hollie Vise, who finished first and second, respectively, Liukin fell on the uneven bars which rendered her unable to finish the routine. She continued through the rest of the competition and, despite the incomplete bars set, finished 15th, which landed her one of the final spots on the U.S. National Team. She was chosen to compete with the U.S. team at the 2002 Junior Pan American Championships, where she contributed to the team gold medal and placed second on the uneven bars and balance beam and in the all-around.
By 2003, Liukin was one of the strongest junior gymnasts in the United States. She won the junior division of the U.S. National Championships, as well as gold medals on three of the four events: uneven bars, balance beam and floor exercise. She was a member of the gold medal-winning U.S. team at the 2003 Pan American Games; she took second place in the all-around behind teammate Chellsie Memmel. She also won the all-around in the junior division of the 2004 Pacific Alliance Championships. She repeated as junior U.S. all-around champion in 2004. Born in 1989, Liukin was ten months too young to compete as a senior in 2004, and thus was not eligible for a place on the U.S. team for the 2004 Olympics in Athens.
Senior career
2005–2006
In 2005, Liukin won her first senior national championships and, once again, earned gold medals on the bars and beam. At the 2005 World Championships in Melbourne, she finished second in the all-around behind teammate Chellsie Memmel with a score of 37.823. In event finals, she won the gold on the uneven bars and balance beam and the silver on the floor exercise.
In March 2006, Liukin placed first in the all-around at the American Cup. At the 2006 Pacific Alliance Championships, Liukin tied with teammate Memmel for first in the all-around, won the uneven bars title and a silver medal on beam, and contributed to the U.S. team's gold-medal performance. She competed at the 2006 U.S. Classic as the defending all-around champion, but falls on the uneven bars and floor resulted in a fourth-place finish. However, she scored well on the balance beam and was the only competitor in the meet, junior or senior, to earn a score over 16.00 on this event.
In late August, at the 2006 U.S. National Championships, Liukin successfully defended her all-around, beam and bars titles, becoming a two-time senior national champion. She was named to the U.S. team for the 2006 World Gymnastics Championships in Aarhus, Denmark, and was expected by many to be a strong contender for the all-around title. However, because of an ankle injury, she was only able to compete on the uneven bars. Her bars routine in team finals scored a 15.7 and helped the U.S. team win the silver medal. Liukin also qualified for the event finals on bars, scoring 16.05 to earn a silver medal behind Britain's Beth Tweddle.
2007
Liukin's ankle injury required surgery, and the recovery period kept her out of both national and international competition for much of the year. In July 2007, although she was still recovering from her injury, she returned to competition as a member of the American team for the Pan Am Games in Rio de Janeiro. She competed only on bars and beam, contributing to the team's gold-medal finish and winning individual silver medals in the uneven bars and balance beam finals.
Despite limited training time on floor and vault in the summer of 2007, Liukin opted to compete all-around at the 2007 U.S. National Championships. She posted the highest score of the entire meet on bars and the second highest score on beam on the second day of competition, winning the senior bars title for the third year in a row and placing second on beam. However, she made several falls and errors on floor and vault, finishing in third place overall, more than five points behind Shawn Johnson, the all-around gold medalist.
Following Nationals, Liukin was named to the American team for the World Championships in Stuttgart, Germany, where she competed all-around in the team qualifying round and on bars and beam in the finals. Liukin's score for her bars routine in team finals was a 16.375, the highest score of the day and, in the end, the entire World Championships. However, she made an error at the end of her beam routine and scored 15.175. The team recovered from this and other mistakes to finish first overall with 184.400. Her struggles with the balance beam continued in the all-around final, where she fell. She finished the competition in fifth place. In the event finals, however, Liukin regained her world champion title on the balance beam with a score of 16.025. She also earned a silver on the uneven bars behind Russia's Ksenia Semenova, scoring a 16.300 after taking a step on her dismount.
2008
Liukin's first meet of the 2008 season was the American Cup in New York City, where she defeated 2007 winner Shawn Johnson to regain her title. She posted the highest score of the meet, a 16.600 on the uneven bars. In March, Nastia competed at the Pacific Rim (formerly Pacific Alliance) Championships in San Jose, where she led the American team to a gold medal and won the all-around and balance beam titles. In the team competition, Liukin posted an all-time high score of 16.650 on the uneven bars, but in event finals, she fell on her Gienger release move and took a step on her dismount, earning a 15.225 and taking second place.
At the 2008 U.S. National Championships in Boston, Liukin fell on the floor on her double front tuck on the first day of competition, but had a strong meet on her other events and placed second in the all-around behind Shawn Johnson. She regained her national champion title on the beam and defended her national title on the uneven bars for the fourth consecutive year, scoring 17.050 in preliminaries and 17.100 in finals. In June, Liukin competed in the U.S. Olympic Trials in Philadelphia, finishing second behind Johnson and earning a spot on the American team for Beijing.
2008 Olympics
Liukin performed in the all-around in the qualifying round of competition. She fell on her dismount from the uneven bars, but nevertheless qualified for the all-around final with a score of 62.325. Liukin also qualified to three event finals: beam, uneven bars (in spite of the fall) and floor exercise.
In the team finals, Liukin performed on three events: beam, bars and floor exercise. Her uneven bars score of 16.900 was the highest mark awarded in the entire Olympic competition. Liukin performed second on balance beam, matching her qualifying score of 15.975. On floor exercise, she stepped out of bounds on her first tumbling pass, incurring a 0.1-point penalty, with a final score of 15.200. The American team earned the silver medal, 2.375 points behind China.
On August 15, Liukin performed clean routines on all four events (sticking her landings on three out of four events) to win the all-around gold medal with a final score of 63.325. Shawn Johnson took the silver medal with a score of 62.725. The win marked the third time that an American woman had won the Olympic all-around title; Mary Lou Retton and Carly Patterson were the two previous American gold medalists. It was also the fourth time in the history of the Games that two athletes from the same country had taken first and second place in the women's all-around.
In the event finals, Liukin earned a surprising bronze medal on floor exercise with a score of 15.425, behind Shawn Johnson, with 15.500, and Romanian Sandra Izbasa, with 15.650. On uneven bars, Liukin and China's He Kexin both posted final marks of 16.725 and earned identical A- and B-panel scores of 7.70 and 9.025, respectively. However, He Kexin was awarded the gold medal, and Liukin got the silver, after a tie-breaking calculation that took into account individual marks given by judges on the B-panel. In the balance beam final, Liukin scored 16.025 to claim silver behind Shawn Johnson's 16.225. With her fifth Beijing medal, Liukin tied Mary Lou Retton and Shannon Miller for the most gymnastics medals won by an American in a single Olympic Games.
Following her success in Beijing, Liukin was named the USOC Female Athlete of the Month (August) and ultimately USOC Co-Sportswoman of the Year alongside swimmer Natalie Coughlin; the Women's Sports Foundation Individual Sportswoman of the Year and FIG Athlete of the Year. In addition, she was ranked third in the Associated Press' 2008 Female Athlete of the Year voting behind Candace Parker and Lorena Ochoa.
2009
Liukin decided that she was not done with gymnastics and made her first post-Olympics competitive appearance at the CoverGirl Classic, where she competed only on the balance beam. She placed second behind WOGA teammate Ivana Hong. Liukin once again just performed on the beam at the U.S. Championships, placing fourth. Liukin was added to the national team and included in the World Championships selection camp. However, she pulled out of Worlds selection consideration because she felt that she was not up to World Championships standards.
2012
Liukin announced in the fall of 2011 that she had resumed training for the 2012 Olympic Games. She returned to competition at the 2012 U.S. Classic and only competed on the balance beam, where she finished third. At the Visa Championships, Liukin competed on the balance beam and the uneven bars. On the balance beam, she scored a 15.100 on night one, followed by a 14.100 on night two to place sixth on the event. On the uneven bars, she placed 20th after scoring a 13.150 on night one and 13.650 on night two. Liukin was chosen to compete at the Olympic Trials.
Liukin's gymnastics career came to an end after the 2012 Olympic Trials. On the final night of competition, she fell off the bars on her Gienger release, but got back up to finish her routine and landed her first competitive dismount since her comeback. Her bars routine received a 13.950. Her beam routine scored a 14.950, and she did not make the Olympic team. Liukin went to London as the athlete representative for the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG).
Eponymous skill
Liukin has one eponymous skill listed in the Code of Points.
Nastia Liukin Cup
The Nastia Liukin Cup is an annual gymnastics competition held in the United States that is hosted by Liukin. The inaugural edition was contested in 2010. The competition is open to Level 10 gymnasts, who can only qualify for the event at designated invitationals across the country. There are both junior and senior fields for the competition, and the competition takes place the Friday prior to the AT&T American Cup, which occurs on the next day, Saturday. The incentive of the competition is to give pre-elite athletes the experience and opportunity to compete on a raised podium surface as well as in a large arena, which is not the norm for average USAG Optional competitions. In 2009, Liukin established the Nastia Liukin Fund in conjunction with USA Gymnastics. The fund's goals include building partnerships with fitness-oriented programs for young people and supporting clubs that have programs that aid gymnastics athletes who need financial assistance. Since its inception in 2010, all net proceeds from the Nastia Liukin Cup have gone to the fund.
Many former competitors at the Cup have gone on to elite competition and even international competition, with 2012 Olympic Champion Gabby Douglas and 2017 World all-around Champion Morgan Hurd having competed in the 2010 and 2014 editions respectively. World champions including Maggie Nichols and Mykayla Skinner have also participated in the event.
Media appearances
Film and television
Liukin had cameo roles in the April 2006 Touchstone Pictures film Stick It, and a 2008 episode of Gossip Girl. Liukin also guest starred on The CW series Hellcats.
Liukin was on The Tour of Gymnastics Superstars after the 2008 Olympic Games, which was broadcast nationwide on MyNetworkTV.
On February 24, 2015, Liukin was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on the 20th season of Dancing with the Stars. She was partnered with professional dancer and five-time champion Derek Hough. They made it to week 9 (the semi-finals), but were then eliminated on May 12, 2015, despite consistent high scores. She later returned to Dancing with the Stars during season 27 to be a trio partner to Mary Lou Retton and Sasha Farber.
On May 4, 2015, Liukin was announced as the grand marshal for the 99th Indianapolis 500.
In January 2023, Liukin appeared on the reality show Special Forces on FOX alongside other celebrities.
Liukin serves as an analyst for NBC Sports Group during their coverage of gymnastics events. She was also a special correspondent for NBC during the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi.
Professional alliances
In 2017, Liukin launched her own line of gymnastics equipment, including mats, bars and balance beams in her signature pink, produced by American Athletic, Inc.
Liukin's corporate sponsors include Visa, AT&T, GK Elite Sportswear and Longines. She appeared in an Adidas commercial with Nadia Comăneci that ran during the 2004 Olympics and a 2008 commercial for Visa Inc. She signed an endorsement deal on March 15, 2010, and appeared in commercials for Subway. After the Beijing Olympics, she was signed to be one of four American Olympians featured on Wheaties cereal boxes.
Liukin was a Longines Sports Ambassador of Elegance in 2006 and, along with her teammates Shawn Johnson and Alicia Sacramone, was one of the first female athletes ever to be signed as CoverGirl spokesmodels. She also collaborated with Vanilla Star Jeans to create a junior girls' clothing line and has modeled for Max Azria. In June 2010, she launched a line of girls' wear called Supergirl by Nastia for department store chain JC Penney.
Literature
Liukin released her autobiography, Finding My Shine, on November 24, 2015.
Competitive history
See also
List of multiple Olympic medalists at a single Games
List of top Olympic gymnastics medalists
List of top medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
List of Olympic female gymnasts for the United States
References
External links
1989 births
Living people
American child actresses
American female artistic gymnasts
Gymnasts at the 2003 Pan American Games
Gymnasts at the 2007 Pan American Games
Gymnasts at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Nastia
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
New York University School of Professional Studies alumni
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States
People from Parker, Texas
Soviet emigrants to the United States
Sportspeople from Texas
Gymnasts from Moscow
Russian emigrants to the United States
Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia
Russian Orthodox Christians from the United States
World champion gymnasts
World Olympic Gymnastics Academy
Pan American Games medalists in gymnastics
Gymnasts from Texas
U.S. women's national team gymnasts
Medalists at the 2003 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 2007 Pan American Games
Originators of elements in artistic gymnastics
Gymnastics broadcasters |
4057707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-suppressed%20decision%20diagram | Zero-suppressed decision diagram | A zero-suppressed decision diagram (ZSDD or ZDD) is a particular kind of binary decision diagram (BDD) with fixed variable ordering. This data structure provides a canonically compact representation of sets, particularly suitable for certain combinatorial problems. Recall the Ordered Binary Decision Diagram (OBDD) reduction strategy, i.e. a node is replaced with one of its children if both out-edges point to the same node. In contrast, a node in a ZDD is replaced with its negative child if its positive edge points to the terminal node 0. This provides an alternative strong normal form, with improved compression of sparse sets. It is based on a reduction rule devised by Shin-ichi Minato in 1993.
Background
In a binary decision diagram, a Boolean function can be represented as a rooted, directed, acyclic graph, which consists of several decision nodes and terminal nodes. In 1993, Shin-ichi Minato from Japan modified Randal Bryant's BDDs for solving combinatorial problems. His "Zero-Suppressed" BDDs aim to represent and manipulate sparse sets of bit vectors. If the data for a problem are represented as bit vectors of length n, then any subset of the vectors can be represented by the Boolean function over n variables yielding 1 when the vector corresponding to the variable assignment is in the set.
According to Bryant, it is possible to use forms of logic functions to express problems involving sum-of-products. Such forms are often represented as sets of "cubes", each denoted by a string containing symbols 0, 1, and -. For instance, the function can be illustrated by the set . By using bits 10, 01, and 00 to denote symbols 1, 0, and – respectively, one can represent the above set with bit vectors in the form of . Notice that the set of bit vectors is sparse, in that the number of vectors is fewer than 2, which is the maximum number of bit vectors, and the set contains many elements equal to zero. In this case, a node can be omitted if setting the node variable to 1 causes the function to yield 0. This is seen in the condition that a 1 at some bit position implies that the vector is not in the set. For sparse sets, this condition is common, and hence many node eliminations are possible.
Minato has proved that ZDDs are especially suitable for combinatorial problems, such as the classical problems in two-level logic minimization, knight's tour problem, fault simulation, timing analysis, the N-queens problem, as well as weak division. By using ZDDs, one can reduce the size of the representation of a set of n-bit vectors in OBDDs by at most a factor of n. In practice, the optimization is statistically significant.
Definitions
We define a Zero-Suppressed Decision Diagram (ZDD) to be any directed acyclic graph such that:
1. A terminal node is either:
The special ⊤ node which represents the unit family (i.e., the empty set), or
The special ⊥ node which represents the empty family .
2. Each nonterminal node satisfies the following conditions:
a. The node is labelled with a positive integer v. This label does not have to be unique.
b. The node has an out-degree of 2. One of the outgoing edges is named "LO", and the other "HI". (In diagrams, one may draw dotted lines for LO edges and solid lines for HI edges)
c. A destination node is either terminal or labelled with an integer strictly larger than v. Thus one can omit arrowheads in diagrams because the edge directions can be inferred from the labels.
d. The HI edge never points to the ⊥ node.
3. There is exactly one node with zero in-degree—the root node. The root node is either terminal or labelled by the smallest integer in the diagram.
4. If two nodes have the same label, then their LO or HI edges point to different nodes. In other words, there are no redundant nodes.
We call Z an unreduced ZDD, if a HI edge points to a ⊥ node or condition 4 fails to hold.
In computer programs, Boolean functions can be expressed in bits, so the ⊤ node and ⊥ node can be represented by 1 and 0. From the definition above, we can represent combination sets efficiently by applying two rules to the BDDs:
1.Eliminate all the nodes whose 1-edge points to the 0-terminal node (Figure 1). Then connect the edge to the other subgraph directly.
2.Share all equivalent sub-graphs the same as for original BDDs.
If the number and the order of input variables are fixed, a zero-suppressed BDD represents a Boolean function uniquely (as proved in Figure 2, it is possible to use a BDD to represent a Boolean binary tree).
Representing a family of sets
Let F be a ZDD. Let v be its root node. Then:
1. If v = ⊥ , then there can be no other nodes, and F represents Ø, the empty family.
2. If v = ⊤, then there can be no other nodes, and F represents the family containing just the empty set { Ø }. We call this a unit family, and denote it by .
3. If v has two children. Let v0 be the LO node, and v1 be the HI node. Let Fi be the family represented by the ZDD rooted at vi, which can be shown by proof of induction. Then F represents the family
One may represent the LO branch as the sets in F that don't contain v:
And the HI branch as the sets in F that do contain v:
Example
Figure 3: The family . We may call this , an elementary family. Elementary families consist of the form , and are denoted by .
Figure 4: The family
Figure 5: The family
Figure 6: The family
Features
One feature of ZDDs is that the form does not depend on the number of input variables as long as the combination sets are the same. It is unnecessary to fix the number of input variables before generating graphs. ZDDs automatically suppress the variables for objects which never appear in combination, hence the efficiency for manipulating sparse combinations.
Another advantage of ZDDs is that the number of 1-paths in the graph is exactly equal to the number of elements in the combination set. In original BDDs, the node elimination breaks this property. Therefore, ZDDs are better than simple BDDs to represent combination sets. It is, however, better to use the original BDDs when representing ordinary Boolean functions, as shown in Figure 7.
Basic operations
Here we have the basic operations for ZDDs, as they are slightly different from those of the original BDDs. One may refer to Figure 8 for examples generated from the table below.
Empty() returns ø (empty set)
Base() returns{0}
Subset1(P, var) returns the subset of P such as var = 1
Subset0(P, var) returns the subset of P such as var = 0
Change(P, var) returns P when var is inverted
Union(P, Q) returns ()
Intsec(P, Q) returns ()
Diff(P, Q) returns ()
Count(P) returns . (number of elements)
In ZDDs, there is no NOT operation, which is an essential operation in original BDDs. The reason is that the complement set cannot be computed without defining the universal set . In ZDDs, can be computed as Diff(U, P).
Algorithms
Suppose , we can recursively compute the number of sets in a ZDD, enabling us to get the 34th set out a 54-member family. Random access is fast, and any operation possible for an array of sets can be done with efficiency on a ZDD.
According to Minato, the above operations for ZDDs can be executed recursively like original BDDs. To describe the algorithms simply, we define the procedure Getnode(top, P0, P1) that returns a node for a variable top and two subgraphs P0 and P1. We may use a hash table, called uniq-table, to keep each node unique. Node elimination and sharing are managed only by Getnode().
Getnode (top, P0, P1) {
if (P1 == ø) return P0; /* node elimination */
P = search a node with (top, P0, P1 ) in uniq-table; if (P exist) return P; /* node sharing */
P = generate a node with (top, P0, P1 );
append P to the uniq-table;
return P;
}
Using Getnode(), we can then represent other basic operations as follows:
Subset1 (P, var) {
if (P.top < var) return ø;
if (P.top == var) return P1;
if (P.top > var)
return Getnode (P.top, Subset1(P0, var), Subset1(P1, var));
}
Subset0 (P, var) {
if (P.top < var) return ø;
if (P.top == var) return P0;
if (P.top > var)
return Getnode (P.top, Subset0(P0, var), Subset0(P1, var));
}
Change (P, var) {
if (P.top < var) return Getnode (var, ø, P);
if (P.top == var) return Getnode (var, P1, P0);
if (P.top > var)
return Getnode (P.top, Change(P0, var), Change(P1, var));
}
Union (P, Q) {
if (P == ø) return Q;
if (Q == ø) return P;
if (P == Q) return P;
if (P.top > Q.top) return Getnode (P.top, Union(P0, Q), P1);
if (P.top < Q.top) return Getnode (Q.top, Union(P, Q0), Q1);
if (P.top == Q.top)
return Getnode (P.top, Union(P0, Q0), Union(P1, Q1));
}
Intsec (P, Q) {
if (P == ø) return ø;
if (Q == ø) return ø;
if (P == Q) return P;
if (P.top > Q.top) return Intsec(P0, Q);
if (P.top < Q.top) return Intsec (P, Q0);
if (P.top == Q.top)
return Getnode (P.top, Intsec(P0, Q0), Intsec(P1, Q1));
}
Diff (P, Q) {
if (P == ø) return ø;
if (Q == ø) return P;
if (P == Q) return ø;
if (P.top > Q.top) return Getnode(P.top, Diff(P0, Q), P1;)
if (P.top < Q.top) return Diff(P, Q0);
if (P.top == Q.top)
return Getnode (P.top, Diff(P0, Q0), Diff(P1, Q1));
}
Count (P) {
if (P == ø) return 0;
if (P == {ø}) return 1;
return Count(P0) + Count(P1);
}
These algorithms take an exponential time for the number of variables in the worst case; however, we can improve the performance by using a cache that memorizes results of recent operations in a similar fashion in BDDs. The cache prevents duplicate executions for equivalent sub-graphs. Without any duplicates, the algorithms can operate in a time that is proportional to the size of graphs, as shown in Figure 9 and 10.
Application
ZDDs as dictionaries
ZDDs can be used to represent the five-letter words of English, the set WORDS (of size 5757) from the Stanford GraphBase for instance.
One way to do this is to consider the function that is defined to be 1 if and only if the five numbers , , ..., encode the letters of an English word, where , ..., . For example,
. The function of 25 variables has Z(f) = 6233 nodes – which is not too bad for representing 5757 words.
Compared to binary trees, tries, or hash tables, a ZDD may not be the best to complete simple searches, yet it is efficient in retrieving data that is only partially specified, or data that is only supposed to match a key approximately. Complex queries can be handled with ease. Moreover, ZDDs do not involve as many variables. In fact, by using a ZDD, one can represent those five letter words as a sparse function that has 26×5 = 130 variables, where variable for example determines whether the second letter is "a". To represent the word "crazy", one can make F true when and all other variables are 0.
Thus, F can be considered as a family consisting of the 5757 subsets , etc. With these 130 variables the ZDD size Z(F) is in fact 5020 instead of 6233. According to Knuth, the equivalent size of B(F) using a BDD is 46,189—significantly larger than Z(F). In spite of having similar theories and algorithms, ZDDs outperform BDDs for this problem with quite a large margin.
Consequently, ZDDs allow us to perform certain queries that are too onerous for BDDs. Complex families of subset can readily be constructed from elementary families. To search words containing a certain pattern, one may use family algebra on ZDDs to compute where P is the pattern, e.g .
ZDDs to represent simple paths
One may use ZDDs to represent simple paths in an undirected graph. For example, there are 12 ways to go from the upper left corner of a three by three grid (shown in Figure 11) to the lower right corner, without visiting any point twice.
These paths can be represented by the ZDD shown in Figure 13, in which each node mn represents the question "does the path include the arc between m and n?" So, for example, the LO branch between 13 and 12 indicates that if the path does not include the arc from 1 to 3, the next thing to ask is if it includes the arc from 1 to 2. The absence of a LO branch leaving node 12 indicates that any path that does not go from 1 to 3 must therefore go from 1 to 2. (The next question to ask would be about the arc between 2 and 4.) In this ZDD, we get the first path in Figure 12 by taking the HI branches at nodes 13, 36, 68, and 89 of the ZDD (LO branches that simply go to ⊥ are omitted). Although the ZDD in Figure 13 may not seem significant by any means, the advantages of a ZDD become obvious as the grid gets larger. For example, for an eight by eight grid, the number of simple paths from corner to corner turns out to be
789,360,053,252 (Knuth). The paths can be illustrated with 33580 nodes using a ZDD.
A real world example for simple paths was proposed by Randal Bryant, "Suppose I wanted to take a driving tour of the Continental U.S., visiting all of the state capitols, and passing through each state only once. What route should I take to minimize the total distance?" Figure 14 shows an undirected graph for this roadmap, the numbers indicating the shortest distances between neighboring capital cities. The problem is to choose a subset of these edges that form a Hamiltonian path of smallest total length. Every Hamiltonian path in this graph must either start or end at Augusta, Maine(ME). Suppose one starts in CA. One can find a ZDD that characterizes all paths from CA to ME. According to Knuth, this ZDD turns out to have only 7850 nodes, and it effectively shows that exactly 437,525,772,584 simple paths from CA to ME are possible. By number of edges, the generating function is
;
so the longest such paths are Hamiltonian, with a size of 2,707,075. ZDDs in this case, are efficient for simple paths and Hamiltonian paths.
The eight-queens problem
Define 64 input variables to represent the squares on a chess board. Each variable denotes the presence or absence of a queen on that square. Consider that,
In a particular column, only one variable is "1".
In a particular row, only one variable is "1".
On a particular diagonal line, one or no variable is "1".
Although one can solve this problem by constructing OBDDs, it is more efficient to use ZDDs. Constructing a ZDD for the 8-Queens problem requires 8 steps from S1 to S8.
Each step can be defined as follows:
S1: Represents all choices of putting a queen at the first row.
S2: Represents all choices of putting a queen at the second row so as not to violate the first queen.
S3: Represents all choices of putting a queen at the third row so that it does not violate the previous queens.
…
S8: Represents all choices of putting a queen at the eighth row so that it does not violate the previous queens.
The ZDD for S8 consists of all potential solutions of the 8-Queens problem.
For this particular problem, caching can significantly improve the performance of the algorithm. Using cache to avoid duplicates can improve the N-Queens problems up to 4.5 times faster than using only the basic operations (as defined above), shown in Figure 10.
The knight's tour problem
The Knight's tour problem has a historical significance. The knight's graph contains n2 vertices to depict the squares of the chessboard. The edges illustrate the legal moves of a knight. The knight can visit each square of the board exactly once. Olaf Schröer, M. Löbbing, and Ingo Wegener approached this problem, namely on a board, by assigning Boolean variables for each edge on the graph, with a total of 156 variables to designate all the edges. A solution of the problem can be expressed by a 156-bit combination vector. According to Minato, the construction of a ZDD for all solutions is too large to solve directly. It is easier to divide and conquer. By dividing the problems into two parts of the board, and constructing ZDDs in subspaces, one can solve The Knight's tour problem with each solution containing 64 edges. However, since the graph is not very sparse, the advantage of using ZDDs is not so obvious.
Fault simulation
N. Takahashi et al suggested a fault simulation method given multiple faults by using OBDDs. This deductive method transmits the fault sets from primary inputs to primary outputs, and captures the faults at primary outputs. Since this method involves unate cube set expressions, ZDDs are more efficient. The optimizations from ZDDs in unate cube set calculations indicate that ZDDs could be useful in developing VLSI CAD systems and in a myriad of other applications.
Available packages
CUDD: A BDD package written in C that implements BDDs and ZBDDs, University of Colorado, Boulder
JDD, A java library that implements common BDD and ZBDD operations
Graphillion, A ZDD software implementation based on Python
, A CWEB ZDD implementation by Donald Knuth.
References
Further reading
Ch. Meinel, T. Theobald, "Algorithms and Data Structures in VLSI-Design: OBDD – Foundations and Applications", Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1998.
Lynn, Ben. "ZDDs." ZDDs - Introduction, Stanford University, 2005, crypto.stanford.edu/pbc/notes/zdd/.
Knuth, Donald E. The Art of Computer Programming, Vol 4. 22 Dec. 2008.
External links
Lynn, Ben. "ZDDs." ZDDs - Introduction, Stanford University, 2005, crypto.stanford.edu/pbc/notes/zdd/
Donald Knuth, Fun With Zero-Suppressed Binary Decision Diagrams (ZDDs) (video lecture, 2008)
Minato Shin-ichi, Counting paths in graphs (fundamentals of ZDD) (video illustration produced on Miraikan)
Graph data structures |
4057850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia%20State%20Route%2015 | Georgia State Route 15 | State Route 15 (SR 15) is a state highway that travels south-to-north across the entire length of the U.S. state of Georgia, east of its centerline. This route is part of a multi two-state route 15 that begins at Florida and ends at Georgia at the North Carolina state line. It connects the Florida state line, south-southeast of Folkston with the North Carolina state line, in Dillard, via Folkston, Vidalia, Sandersville, Athens, Demorest, and Clayton.
SR 15 used to travel through Hazlehurst, Glenwood, and Dublin, which is now the path of SR 19. It used to travel from Dublin to Wrightsville, which is now the path of US 319/SR 31. It also used to travel from Athens, through Arcade and Jefferson, to Commerce, which is now the route of SR 15 Alt.
Route description
SR 15 enters Georgia just south of Folkston as a four-lane highway, along with US 1, US 23, US 301, and SR 4. In Homeland, US 301 branches off to the north while the other four routes plus SR 121, head northwest. After about , SR 15 and SR 121 also branch off from US 1/US 23/SR 4, as a two-lane highway, crossing US 82/SR 520 (South Georgia Parkway) in Hoboken. The two state routes continue northwest through Blackshear, where they cross US 84/SR 38. After that, the two state routes continue to stay together, heading north through the community of Bristol. Soon after, SR 121 branches off to the north while SR 15 heads northwest to rejoin US 1 and SR 4 at Baxley. North of Baxley, the three highways continue, remaining a four-lane highway all the way to the Altamaha River. Approximately past the river crossing, SR 15 branches off to the northwest again, where SR 29 begins and follows SR 15. At Vidalia, SR 15 and SR 29 turn west and follow US 280/SR 30 for several miles to the community of Higgston. The two highways head north from there through the community of Tarrytown and then on to Soperton. SR 29 heads northwest of Soperton while SR 15, along with SR 78, continues north, reaching an interchange with I-16, and goes to Adrian. The two state routes continue northwest to Wrightsville, where SR 78 departs eastward. SR 15 continues by itself through the adjacent cities of Tennille and Sandersville. Through these cites, most of SR 15 has been widened to four lanes, and it briefly picks up SR 24. North of Sandersville, SR 15 crosses SR 24/SR 540 (Fall Line Freeway) and then heads north through the community of Warthen and onto Sparta. Through Sparta, SR 15 makes a few turns, briefly picking up SR 16 and SR 22. North of Sparta, it picks up SR 77, and continues north through White Plains and Siloam. At Siloam, SR 15 has an interchange with I-20. SR 77 departs to the north while SR 15 continues northwest to Greensboro, passing beneath I-20, but without direct access. In Greensboro, SR 15 makes two more turns, briefly following US 278/SR 12 through downtown. SR 15 continues northwest to Watkinsville, after which it joins US 129/US 441. It travels together with US 441 as a mostly four-lane highway throughout the rest of their course in Georgia.
The three highways, along with several others, circle around the east side of Athens along the SR 10 Loop (Athens Perimeter Highway) and head north through the town of Nicholson and around the east side of Commerce via a bypass. The highways then have an interchange with I-85, and head between the towns of Baldwin and Cornelia, where they become a limited access freeway for a short time and rejoin US 23. The three highways remain together and head through the cities of Tallulah Falls, Clayton, and Dillard before crossing into North Carolina.
History
1920s
SR 15 was established at least as early as 1919 on three segments. The southern segment extended from the current southern terminus through Folkston, Waycross, and Alma, and ended at Hazlehurst. The central segment extended from SR 27 in Lumber City to SR 19/SR 30 west-southwest of Mount Vernon. The northern segment extended from SR 30 in Mount Vernon to Athens, through Jefferson to its current northern terminus. There was no indication if SR 15 traveled between the separate segments, though. By the end of September 1921, the portion of SR 15 from west-southwest of Mount Vernon to Wrightsville was shifted westward, to travel north-northwest to Dublin and had a separate segment from SR 26 east-northeast of Dublin to Wrightsville (again no indication of SR 15 between the two segments). Its former path from Mount Vernon to Adrian was redesignated as part of SR 56. By October 1926, US 1 was designated on SR 15 from the Florida state line to north-northeast of Alma. US 129 was designated on SR 15 from just south of Watkinsville to Jefferson. Three segments had a "completed hard surface": a portion southwest of Waycross, a portion in the south-southwest part of Athens, and the Cornelia–Clarkesville segment. By October 1929, SR 4 was designated on US 1/SR 15 from the Florida state line to north-northeast of Alma. This segment, as well as a portion south of Sandersville, had a completed hard surface.
1930s
By the middle of 1930, the southern terminus was truncated to the point it previously left the concurrency with US 1/SR 4 north-northeast of Alma. Four segments had a completed hard surface: a portion in the northwestern part of Athens, from southeast of Jefferson to southwest of Commerce, the Baldwin–Cornelia segment, and the Clarkesville–North Carolina segment. Between November 1930 and the beginning of 1932, US 23 was designated on the Baldwin–North Carolina segment. In January 1932, SR 29 was established on SR 15's current path from US 1/SR 4 in South Thompson through Vidalia to SR 56 in Soperton. In March, the Watkinsville–Athens segment was completed. The next month, SR 24 was extended from Athens to Commerce, on what is now SR 15's. Also, the Tennille–Sandersville segment was also completed. Nearly two years later, SR 121 was established from US 84/SR 50 in Hoboken to SR 38 in Blackshear. Later that year, the southern terminus of the northern segment of SR 15 was shifted west-southwest to Dublin, to connect with its central segment. From just north of the Appling–Jeff Davis county line to Hazlehurst, SR 15 had a completed hard surface. About one year later, the Johnson County portion of the Dublin–Wrightsville segment was completed. During the first half of 1936, two segments of SR 15 were completed: the Laurens County portion of the Dublin–Wrightsville segment and a short portion south-southeast of Baldwin. Later that year, the northern half of the Homer–Baldwin segment was completed. By the end of the year, the Treutlen County portion of the Vidalia–Soperton segment of SR 29 was also completed. In the first quarter of 1937, SR 78 was established from Soperton north to Adrian and north-northwest to Wrightsville. In the third quarter of the year, three segments of SR 15 were completed: the entire southern segment (from north of Alma to Hazlehurst), a portion north-northeast of Lumber City, and from the Hancock–Greene county line to just north-northwest of Greensboro. The next year, SR 121 was extended southward to US 1/SR 4 in Racepond and northward to Baxley. Two segments of SR 15 were completed: the Athens–Jefferson and Homer–Baldwin segments. By July 1939, the Vidalia–Soperton segment, as well as a portion in the southeastern part of Commerce, of SR 29, and a portion in the southern part of Wrightsville on SR 78, was completed. Later that year, the entire Commerce–Homer segment of SR 15, as well as the northern half of the South Thompson–Vidalia segment of SR 29, was completed. By the end of the year, all of SR 15 north of Watkinsville, as well as a portion of SR 24 in the extreme northern part of Athens, was completed.
1940s
In 1940, the Wrightsville–Tennille segment of SR 15, as well as the portion of SR 78 from Soperton to north-northwest of Adrian, was completed. In the second half of 1941, the Adrian–Wrightsville segment of SR 78 was completed. The next year, a portion of SR 15 southeast of Sparta, as well as the southern half of the South Thompson–Vidalia segment of SR 29, was completed. Between January 1945 and November 1946, US 319 was designated on the Dublin–Wrightsville segment of SR 15. Three segments of SR 15 and one segment of SR 24 were "hard surfaced": from Lumber City to north of Glenwood, from Sandersville to just south of Warthen, the Sparta–Greensboro segment, and the Jackson County portion of SR 24. By February 1948, the Sandersville–Sparta segment of SR 15, the Pierce County portion of the Hoboken–Blackshear segment of SR 121, a portion of SR 121 south-southeast of Baxley, and the entire Athens–Commerce segment of SR 24 were all hard surfaced. By April 1949, US 441 was designated on the Watkinsville–Athens and Commerce–Baldwin segments of SR 15 and the Athens–Commerce segment of SR 24. Two segments of SR 15 were hard surfaced: a portion south-southeast of Dublin and the Oconee County portion of the Greensboro–Watkinsville segment.
1950s and 1960s
By August 1950, US 23 was designated on US 1/SR 4 from the Florida state line to north of Alma and on the southern segment of SR 15 from north of Alma to Hazlehurst. The Wheeler County portion of SR 15 and the Greene County portion of its Greensboro–Watkinsville segment, as well as the Blackshear–Bristol segment of SR 121, was hard surfaced. By the beginning of 1952, US 441 was designated on US 23/SR 15 from Baldwin to the North Carolina state line. The Glenwood–Dublin segment of SR 15 and the Racepond–Hoboken and Bristol–Baxley segments of SR 121 were hard surfaced. Between July 1957 and June 1960, SR 15 was re-extended to the Florida state line, on its current path, to Wrightsville. Its former path from north of Alma to Dublin was redesignated as SR 19; its former path from Dublin to Wrightsville, on US 319, was redesignated as SR 31. The paths of SR 15 and SR 24 between Athens and Commerce were swapped. By June 1963, SR 350 was established from US 129/SR 15 in the northwestern part of Athens to US 29/SR 8 in the northeastern part of the city. SR 15 and SR 24 between Athens and Commerce were swapped back. The path of SR 15 between Tallulah Falls and Tiger was shifted southwest on a more direct path. Its former path on US 23/US 441 was redesignated as SR 343. By the beginning of 1966, SR 24's northern terminus was truncated to Watkinsville. SR 15 replaced the Watkinsville–Athens segment, and SR 15 Alt. replaced the Athens–Commerce segment. US 29 was designated on SR 350 from the US 129/SR 15 interchange, which also had US 29 Temp. and US 441 Temp., to the US 29/SR 8 interchange. US 441 Temp. was designated on it from the US 129/SR 15 interchange to the US 441/SR 15 Alt. interchange. A western extension of SR 350, ending at US 29/US 78/SR 8/SR 10, was under construction. Also, SR 350 was under construction east-southeast just slightly from the US 29/SR 8 interchange. US 23/US 441/SR 15 between Tallulah Falls and a point about halfway between Clayton and Mountain City was shifted eastward; at this time, SR 343 was decommissioned. In 1966, SR 350 was decommissioned. US 29 was designated on the freeway from the western terminus to where it, as well as SR 8, depart the freeway. This interchange also had SR 8 Bus. and SR 106. SR 8 was designated on the entire length of the freeway. Its former path through the city was redesignated as SR 8 Bus., still concurrent with US 78/SR 10. In 1967, US 29 was extended on the freeway one interchange to the east. At this interchange, SR 72 was extended southeast to end here, concurrent with US 29/SR 8.
1970s and 1980s
In 1971, the path of US 23/US 441/SR 15 in the Baldwin–Demorest area was shifted westward. Their former path became US 23 Bus./US 441 Bus./SR 15 Loop. In 1976, SR 72 was indicated to be "projected mileage" from this point south to US 78/SR 10, then southwest and west to end at US 441/SR 15. In 1980, the Athens freeway was completed along its proposed extension's path, with US 129/US 441/SR 15 designated on it. The path of SR 15 in the Clarkesville area was shifted eastward, off of US 23/US 441 and partially onto SR 115. The next year, the portion of the Athens freeway between US 29/SR 8/SR 72 and US 78/SR 10 on the northeastern part was downgraded to a divided highway. In 1983, US 129/US 441/SR 15 Alt. was designated on the freeway from the then-current southern terminus to their current respective interchanges. In 1985, US 441 Temp. was no longer shown on maps. SR 72's western terminus was truncated to the far northeastern part of the city, at its current location. In 1986, a western cut-off, designated as SR 773, was proposed on a more direct path between two intersections with US 23/US 441/SR 15 from south of Tallulah Falls and into the city. The next year, SR 10 was designated on the Athens freeway from the US 129/US 441/SR 15 to the eastern US 78/SR 10 Bus. interchange. Its old path through downtown, still concurrent with US 78, was redesignated as SR 10 Bus. At this time, SR 72 was re-extended to the northeastern interchange. The path of US 23/US 441/SR 15 in the Tallulah Falls area was shifted westward, onto the proposed path of SR 773. The former path was redesignated as SR 15 Loop. In 1988, SR 10 in Athens was shifted back to downtown, with SR 10 Loop designated on the city's freeway. US 78 was shifted to the southern side of the freeway, with its former path redesignated as US 78 Bus. A southern bypass of Demorest and Clarkesville, designated as a northern extension of SR 365, was proposed from SR 365's then-current northern terminus at US 23/US 441/SR 15 south-southeast of Demorest to SR 115 south-southeast of Hollywood. At this time, SR 365 Spur was proposed from SR 115 at SR 365's proposed extension north-northwest to Hollywood. The next year, an eastern bypass of the main part of Commerce, designated as SR 759, was proposed from US 441/SR 15 south-southeast of Commerce to another intersection north-northeast of the city. SR 365 extended east-northeast on its previously proposed path to SR 115 south-southeast of Hollywood. An eastern bypass of Hollywood and Turnerville, designated as SR 835, was proposed from SR 17 just south of Hollywood to US 23/US 441/SR 15 south-southwest of Tallulah Falls.
1990s and 2000s
In 1991, the paths of SR 15 and SR 15 Alt. between Athens and Commerce were swapped. SR 759 around Commerce was completed. An eastern bypass of Homer, designated as SR 765, was proposed from US 441/SR 15/SR 164 south-southeast of Homer to US 441/SR 15 north-northeast of the city. Also, the path of US 23/SR 15 in the Demorest–Hollywood area was shifted off of US 441 and onto SR 365 from south-southeast of Demorest to south-southeast of Hollywood, then north-northwest on the proposed path of SR 365 Spur to Hollywood. The next year, a slightly western rerouting of US 129/US 441/SR 15 in the southern part of Athens, designated as SR 901, was proposed from US 129/US 441/SR 15 southwest of their southern interchange with the Athens freeway north-northwest to Timothy Road just north of the freeway. The path of US 441/SR 15 in the Commerce area was shifted eastward, replacing SR 759. The former path of US 441, on SR 334 and SR 98, was redesignated on US 441 Bus. A southeastern bypass of Hollingsworth, designated as SR 876, was proposed from US 441/SR 15 south-southeast of Hollingsworth to SR 198 southeast of the community. A cutoff, north-northeast of Hollingsworth, was proposed as an unnumbered road from Hollingsworth to US 441/SR 15 north-northwest of it. The path of US 441, from south-southeast of Demorest to Hollywood, was shifted southeast, onto the path of US 23/US 441/SR 15/SR 365. The former path of US 441 was redesignated as a northern extension of US 441 Bus. In 1993, the path of US 23/US 441/SR 15, from Hollywood to Tallulah Falls, was shifted eastward, onto the proposed path of SR 835. The next year, the cutoff north-northeast of Hollingsworth, now proposed as SR 877, was extended to SR 105 just east of the southern end of US 441/SR 15 concurrency. In 1995, US 29/SR 8 was also shifted to the southern side of the freeway, concurrent with US 78/SR 316. SR 72's western terminus was once again truncated to its current location. In 1997, the path of US 441/SR 15, from Homer–Cornelia, was shifted eastward, onto the proposed path of SR 876. In 2001, the path of US 129/US 441/SR 15 in Athens was shifted westward, onto the proposed path of SR 901. They were placed on a southern concurrency with the freeway for less than . This brief concurrency ended at Macon Highway. The next year, US 129/US 441/SR 15 was shifted off of Macon Highway and onto the Athens freeway. SR 877 was canceled. Two years later, the unsigned SR 422 designation was applied to the Athens freeway. The path of US 441/SR 15 in Homer area was shifted eastward, onto the proposed path of SR 765.
Major intersections
Special routes
Sparta connector route
State Route 15 Connector (SR 15 Conn.) was a connector route of SR 15 that existed in Sparta. Between April 1949 and August 1950, it was established from SR 16 northeast of the city to SR 15/SR 22 north of it. Between June 1955 and July 1957, the path of SR 15 in the Sparta area was shifted northeast, replacing SR 15 Conn.
Athens spur route
State Route 15 Spur (SR 15 Spur) was a very short-lived spur route of SR 15 that existed completely within the city limits of Athens. In 1952, it was established from US 441/SR 15 in the southern part of the city north-northwest to US 129/SR 15 in the western part of it. The next year, it was decommissioned.
Athens–Commerce alternate route
State Route 15 Alternate (SR 15 Alt.) is a alternate route of SR 15. It consists of a series of streets, roads, and highways that form a south-to-north-oriented highway in Clarke and Jackson counties in the northeastern part of the state. SR 15 Alt.'s southern terminus is in Athens at the interchange of Milledge Avenue and US 29/US 78/US 129/US 441/SR 8/SR 10 Loop/SR 15 (Athens Perimeter Highway) and Macon Highway. The segment along Milledge Avenue winds by the campus of the University of Georgia. This street features stately homes and mansions, some of which house college fraternities and sororities. SR 15 Alt. follows Prince Avenue northwest after the northern end of Milledge Avenue. As SR 15 Alt. leaves Athens, it becomes concurrent with US 129, where it is known as Jefferson Road. Upon entering Jefferson, SR 15 Alt. splits from US 129 to the northeast and becomes an independent highway. Its northern terminus is in the northeastern part of the city of Commerce at its intersection with US 441 (sometimes referred to as the Commerce Bypass) and SR 59. This intersection is the north end of SR 15 Alt.'s concurrency with US 441 Bus.
The entire length of SR 15 Alt. that is concurrent with US 129, from Athens to Arcade, is part of the National Highway System, a system of routes determined to be the most important for the nation's economy, mobility, and defense.
Between June 1963 and the beginning of 1966, it was established from US 129/US 441 Temp./SR 15 in Athens north-northeast on Lumpkin Street, east-northeast on US 78/SR 8/SR 10 (Broad Street), north-northwest on Thomas Street with SR 8, curved to the north-northeast on Madison Avenue, and traveled northwest on Hobson Avenue. At US 29/US 441 Temp./SR 350, US 441 joined it in a concurrency. In Commerce, it split off of US 441 temporarily to the northeast and curved to the north-northwest to rejoin it at the spot where SR 98 also joined it. At an intersection with SR 15/SR 326, the alternate route ended. In 1966, the path of SR 8 in Athens was shifted northward onto the Athens freeway. Its former path through the city, partially on SR 15 Alt., was redesignated as SR 8 Bus.
Jackson–Banks County spur route
State Route 15 Spur (SR 15 Spur) was a spur route of SR 15 that existed on the Jackson–Banks county line, northeast of Commerce. In the second half of 1957, it was established from US 441/SR 15 just south of the county line to SR 59 just north of it. In 1981, the path of SR 59 in this area was shifted eastward, replacing all of SR 15 Spur.
Baldwin spur route
State Route 15 Spur (SR 15 Spur) was a spur route of SR 15 that existed in Baldwin. Between the beginning of 1938 and the beginning of 1951, it was established from US 441/SR 15 to US 23/SR 13. In 1972, it was redesignated as SR 15 Conn.
Baldwin connector route
State Route 15 Connector (SR 15 Conn.) was a connector route of SR 15 that existed in Baldwin. The roadway that would become SR 15 Conn. was established between the beginning of 1938 and the beginning of 1951 as SR 15 Spur from US 441/SR 15 to US 23/SR 13. In 1972, it was redesignated as SR 15 Conn. In 1981, the path of US 441/SR 15 in Baldwin was shifted westward, replacing the connector route.
Baldwin–Cornelia loop route
State Route 15 Loop (SR 15 Loop) was a very short-lived loop route of SR 15 that existed in Baldwin and Cornelia. In 1971, the path of US 23/US 441/SR 15 in the Baldwin–Demorest area was shifted westward, bypassing Cornelia. The former path was redesignated as US 23 Bus./US 441 Bus./SR 15 Loop. The next year, SR 105 was extended through the area, replacing the loop route.
Cornelia alternate route
State Route 15 Alternate (SR 15 Alt.) was an alternate route of SR 15 that existed entirely within the city limits of Cornelia. Between June 1963 and the beginning of 1966, it was established from US 23/US 441/SR 15 (Wells Street), to the northwest and north-northeast, and curved to the north-northwest on Clarkesville Street to a second intersection with US 23/US 441/SR 15. In 1972, this highway was redesignated as SR 105 Alt.
Cornelia connector route (1965–1972)
State Route 15 Connector (SR 15 Conn.) was a connector route of SR 15 that existed entirely within the city limits of Cornelia. Between June 1963 and the beginning of 1966, it was established from US 23/US 441/SR 15 east-northeast to SR 15 Alt. In 1972, this highway was redesignated as SR 105 Conn.
Cornelia connector route
State Route 15 Connector (SR 15 Conn.) is a connector route that exists almost entirely within Cornelia. It is known locally as Level Grove Road, and is designed to facilitate northbound to southbound traffic between US 441/SR 15 and US 23/SR 365 (Tommy Irvin Parkway).
The roadway that would eventually become SR 15 Conn. was established between the beginning of 1976 and the beginning of 1982, as an extension of US 123 and SR 13. Between the beginning of 1987 and the beginning of 1995, US 123 and SR 13 were truncated off of this path, and SR 13 Conn. was designated in their place.
Cornelia spur route
State Route 15 Spur (SR 15 Spur) was a spur route of SR 15 that existed entirely within the city limits of Cornelia. Between June 1963 and the beginning of 1966, it was established on Main Street from SR 15 Alt. north-northwest to US 23/US 441/SR 15 (which also used the Main Street name). In 1972, this highway was redesignated as SR 105 Spur.
Clarkesville connector route
State Route 15 Connector (SR 15 Conn.) was a connector route of SR 15 that existed entirely within the city limits of Clarkesville. The roadway that would eventually become SR 15 Conn. was established between the beginning of 1951 and the beginning of 1962, as an unnumbered road from US 23/US 441/SR 15 northwest to US 23/US 441/SR 15/SR 115/SR 197. Between the beginning of 1966 and the beginning of 1976, SR 15 Conn. was designated on this path, but with SR 15 shifted eastward, off of the northern intersection. Between the beginning of 1987 and the beginning of 1995, SR 15 Conn. was redesignated as SR 197 Conn.
Tallulah Falls spur route
State Route 15 Spur (SR 15 Spur) was a spur route of SR 15 that partially existed in Tallulah Falls. The roadway that would eventually become SR 15 Spur was established between January and September 1938 as an unnumbered road between two intersections with US 23/SR 15. Its southern terminus was southwest of Tallulah Falls, and its northern terminus was west-northwest of it. Between the beginning of 1945 and November 1946, SR 15 Spur was designated on this road. In 1953, the northern terminus was shifted to north-northwest of the town. Between June 1954 and June 1955, its southern terminus was shifted to being south-southwest of Tallulah Falls, and its northern terminus was shifted into the town. Between June 1963 and the beginning of 1966, its southern terminus was shifted to south of town. In 1969, its southern terminus was shifted to south-southeast of town. Between the beginning of 1979 and March 1980, SR 15 Spur was decommissioned.
Tallulah Falls loop route
State Route 15 Loop (SR 15 Loop) is a loop route of SR 15 that exists completely within the city limits of Tallulah Falls. It begins at an intersection with US 23/US 441/SR 15. The loop travels to the east and curves to the northeast to a turnoff that leads to Tallulah Lodge. It passes a U.S. Post Office for the town and Indian Springs Trading Post and curves to the north-northwest. At the Tallulah Point Overlook, it begins heading west-northwest and reaches its northern terminus, a second intersection with US 23/US 441/SR 15.
In 1987, the path of US 23/US 441/SR 15 in the Tallulah Falls area was shifted westward. Its former path was redesignated as SR 15 Loop.
See also
References
External links
Georgia Roads (Routes 1 - 20)
Georgia State Route 15 on State-Ends.com
Georgia State Route 15 CONN on State-Ends.com
015
Transportation in Charlton County, Georgia
Transportation in Brantley County, Georgia
Transportation in Pierce County, Georgia
Transportation in Appling County, Georgia
Transportation in Toombs County, Georgia
Vidalia, Georgia, micropolitan area
Transportation in Montgomery County, Georgia
Transportation in Treutlen County, Georgia
Transportation in Emanuel County, Georgia
Transportation in Johnson County, Georgia
Transportation in Washington County, Georgia
Transportation in Hancock County, Georgia
Transportation in Greene County, Georgia
Transportation in Oconee County, Georgia
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4057953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan%20Lochte | Ryan Lochte | Ryan Steven Lochte ( ; born August 3, 1984) is an American professional swimmer and 12-time Olympic medalist. Along with Natalie Coughlin, Dara Torres, and Jenny Thompson, he is the second-most decorated swimmer in Olympic history measured by total number of medals, behind only Michael Phelps. Lochte's seven individual Olympic medals rank second in history in men's swimming (again to Michael Phelps), tied for second among all Olympic swimmers. He currently holds the world records in the 200-meter individual medley (long and short course). As part of the American teams, he also holds the world record in the 4×200-meter freestyle (long course) and 4×100-meter freestyle (mixed) relay.
Lochte's success has earned him SwimSwam's Swammy Award for U.S. Male Swimmer of the Year in 2013, the World Swimmer of the Year Award, and the American Swimmer of the Year Award twice. He has also been named the FINA Swimmer of the Year three times. He has won a total of 90 medals in major international competition (54 gold, 22 silver, and 14 bronze) spanning the Olympics, the World Championships, Pan American Games, and Pan Pacific Championships, including six Olympic gold medals and 39 world championship titles.
Lochte specializes in the backstroke and individual medley, but is also a freestyle and butterfly swimmer. He is noted for the speed and distance he attains while kicking underwater. Lochte is also known for his dominance in the short course format (25-yard and 25-meter-long pools). Lochte swam the 100-meter individual medley in 50.71 seconds on December 15, 2012, at the FINA World Championships in Istanbul, Turkey. At this same event, he is also credited with swimming the fastest 200-meter individual medley, finishing in 1 minute 49.63 seconds.
In 2016, Lochte generated international controversy when he claimed that he and three other American swimmers had been pulled over and robbed by armed men with police badges while in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, at the 2016 Summer Olympics. While initial news stories reported that Lochte and three other US swimmers had been robbed at gunpoint after a night out in Rio, later details emerged that the "armed robbers posing as police" were actually security guards at a gas station where the swimmers had urinated outside the bathroom and Lochte allegedly vandalized a framed poster, and ended with the swimmers providing money to the guards. Some of the swimmers were detained in Brazil as witnesses. Ultimately, the athletes each released statements, and one swimmer paid a fine of approximately $10,800 to a Brazilian charity in order to get his passport back. Lochte apologized for not being more candid about the gas station dispute, and subsequently lost four major sponsorships. On September 8, both the U.S. Olympic Committee and USA Swimming suspended Lochte for 10 months and Bentz, Conger, and Feigen for four months. Additionally, Lochte was required to complete 20 hours of community service, and Bentz was required to complete 10 hours. All were made ineligible for financial support during their suspensions, removed from the U.S. Olympic delegation to the White House, barred from U.S. Olympic training centers, and blocked from attending USA Swimming's year-end Golden Goggles celebration. Lochte was charged in Brazil with falsely reporting a crime. The scandal gained significant media attention both during the games and after their conclusion. In July 2017, the court in Brazil dismissed the charges against Lochte, saying his actions "did not rise to the level of filing a false crime report."
On July 23, 2018, the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency imposed a 14-month suspension from competition on Lochte because he had received a "prohibited intravenous infusion." Lochte immediately accepted the sanction. On May 24, 2018, the same day he had received the infusion, Lochte had posted a picture - since deleted - on Instagram "showing him receiving an intravenous injection of what he says were 'vitamins'," even though the USADA bans "intravenous infusions of permitted substances at volumes greater than in a 12-hour period without a special 'Therapeutic Use Exemption'," Vox reported.
Early life
Lochte was born in Rochester, New York, the son of Ileana "Ike" (née Aramburu) and Steven R. Lochte. His mother is Cuban and was born and raised in Havana, while his father is of Dutch, English, and German descent. He has two older sisters, Kristin and Megan, and two younger brothers, Devon and Brandon. During his early childhood, his family lived in Bristol, New York where he attended Bloomfield Central Schools. The family moved to Florida when Ryan was 12 so his father could coach swimming.
Lochte only began taking swimming seriously when he was in junior high school. His father said, "I would send him to go shower when he was messing around. He spent more time in the showers than he did in the pool." At 14 years old, his loss at the Junior Olympics changed his attitude. He later commented: "I suddenly said, 'I'm sick of losing'. After that I trained hard and I never lost there again."
College career
Lochte attended the University of Florida and graduated in 2007, majoring in sport management. As a member of the Florida Gators swimming and diving team, he swam for coach Gregg Troy in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and Southeastern Conference (SEC) competition from 2004 to 2007. At Florida, Lochte was the NCAA Swimmer of the Year twice, a seven-time NCAA champion, a seven-time SEC champion, and a 24-time All-American. At the 2006 NCAA Men's Swimming and Diving Championships, during his senior year, Lochte won national titles in all three of his individual events, setting U.S. Open and American records in the 200-yard individual medley and 200-yard backstroke. He also broke Tom Dolan's nearly decade-old NCAA record in the 400-yard individual medley.
International career
2004–2005
Lochte qualified for his first Olympics after finishing second to Michael Phelps in the 200-meter individual medley at the 2004 U.S. Olympic Team Trials. He also qualified for the 4×200-meter freestyle relay team after finishing fourth in the 200-meter freestyle final. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, Lochte swam with Phelps, Klete Keller, and Peter Vanderkaay to upset the Australian team and capture the gold medal in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay. It was the first loss for the Australian team in six years. He also narrowly edged out George Bovell and László Cseh in the 200-meter individual medley to win the silver medal behind Phelps.
Later that year, at the 2004 FINA Short Course World Championships in Indianapolis, Lochte won the silver medal in the 200-meter individual medley and the bronze in the 200-meter freestyle. He also won the gold medal in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay with Chad Carvin, Dan Ketchum, and Justin Mortimer.
At the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Montreal, Lochte won the bronze medals in both the 200-meter backstroke and 200-meter individual medley. In the 4×200-meter freestyle relay, Lochte teamed with Phelps, Vanderkaay, and Keller to win gold ahead of Canada and Australia.
2006–2007
At the 2006 FINA Short Course World Championships in Shanghai, held just two weeks after the 2006 NCAA Championships, Lochte won three individual titles, one silver, and one bronze. He won the 200-meter individual medley and the 200-meter backstroke, setting new world records in both events. He also set another world record in the 100-meter backstroke in the opening leg of the 4×100-meter medley relay, becoming the first man to complete the distance in under 50 seconds. He won his third gold medal in the 400-meter individual medley, setting a new championship record.
At the 2007 World Aquatics Championships in Melbourne, Australia, Lochte won his first individual gold medal at a long course world championships in the 200-meter backstroke against compatriot Aaron Peirsol, breaking Peirsol's world record and his seven-year win streak in the event. This was Lochte's first world record in a long course event. A little more than 90 minutes later, Lochte went on to set a world record in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay with Phelps, Keller and Vanderkaay. He also won silver medals in the 100-meter backstroke, and 200-meter and 400-meter individual medley, making his medal total for the meet second only to Phelps.
Within a week of the world championships, Lochte competed in the annual Mutual of Omaha Duel in the Pool where he again beat Peirsol. In the 100-meter backstroke, he broke Peirsol's other seven-year winning streak in the shorter of the backstroke races, edging out Peirsol by 0.06 seconds.
2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic Trials
At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials in Omaha, Nebraska, Lochte competed in six individual events and qualified to swim in three individual events at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Also, with his third-place finish in the 200-meter freestyle, Lochte was ensured a spot on the 4×200-meter freestyle relay. In his first event, Lochte finished second to Phelps in the 400-meter individual medley. Both Lochte and Phelps finished below Phelps' previous world record in the event. In his second event, the 200-meter freestyle, Lochte finished in third place behind Phelps and Vanderkaay. Less than 30 minutes after the 200-meter freestyle final, Lochte finished in third place behind Aaron Peirsol and Matt Grevers in the 100-meter backstroke final. The next day, Lochte competed in the 100-meter freestyle but withdrew after the semifinals. Two days later, in the 200-meter backstroke, Lochte finished in second place behind Peirsol, who equalled Lochte's world record. Less than 30 minutes after the 200-meter backstroke final, Lochte finished second to Phelps in the 200-meter individual medley.
Olympics
In his first event at the 2008 Summer Olympics, Lochte won the bronze medal in the 400-meter individual medley behind Phelps and Cseh. His time of 4:08.09 was two seconds slower than the time he swam in Omaha. In his second event, Lochte swam the second leg of the 4×200-meter freestyle relay. With Phelps, Ricky Berens, and Vanderkaay, he won his first gold medal and set his first world record as the American team finished first with a time of 6:58.56. The Americans were the first team to break the seven-minute mark in the relay, and broke the previous record, set in Melbourne, Australia, by more than four and a half seconds. In his third event, the 200-meter backstroke, Lochte won his first individual gold medal and set the world record, beating defending champion Peirsol. Twenty-seven minutes after the final of the 200-meter backstroke, Lochte went on to win the bronze in the 200-meter individual medley, finishing behind Phelps and Cseh.
2009 World Championships
At the 2009 National Championships, the selection meet for the 2009 World Aquatics Championships, Lochte won individual titles in the 200 and 400-meter individual medley. Lochte also qualified to swim in the 4×100 and 4×200-meter freestyle relay. In the 200-meter backstroke final, Lochte placed second behind Aaron Peirsol, and lost his world record he set in Beijing when Peirsol recorded a time of 1:53.08.
In his first event at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships in Rome, Lochte swam the second leg of the men's 4×100-meter freestyle relay in a time of 47.03. He earned a gold medal in the event along with Phelps, Matt Grevers, and Nathan Adrian. The final time of 3:09.21 was a championship record and just ahead of Russia (3:09.52) and France (3:09.89). With Phelps not competing in the 200 or 400-meter individual medley at these championships, Lochte won the gold in both events. In the 200-meter individual medley, Lochte broke Phelps' world record of 1:54.23 with a time of 1:54.10. In the 200-meter backstroke, Lochte won the bronze medal, finishing behind Peirsol and Ryosuke Irie of Japan. In the 4×200-meter freestyle relay final, Lochte swam the anchor leg in 1:44.46. Combined with Phelps, Berens, and David Walters, Lochte won the gold medal and his team broke the previous world record by one-hundredth of a second with a time of 6:58.55.
2010
At the 2010 National Championships, the selection meet for the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships and 2011 World Aquatics Championships, Lochte won individual titles in the 200-meter backstroke, 200-meter individual medley, and the 400-meter individual medley. He also placed second in the 100 and 200-meter freestyle. Lochte's win in the 200-meter individual medley was the first time he defeated Phelps in a major national or international meet. At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Irvine, California, Lochte won a total of six gold medals. His wins included the 200-meter backstroke, 200-meter freestyle, 200 and 400-meter individual medleys, and 4×100 and 4×200-meter freestyle relays.
At the 2010 FINA Short Course World Championships in Dubai, Lochte became the first individual in history to win seven medals at the Short Course Worlds and was the only person to set a world record individually since body-length swimsuits were banned. In Dubai, Lochte won gold in the 200-meter backstroke, 200-meter freestyle, all individual medleys (100, 200, 400), and 4×100-meter medley relay. He also won silver in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay. Lochte's world records in Dubai came on consecutive days, first in the 400-meter individual medley, then in the 200-meter individual medley. Both world records were broken by considerable margins.
At year's end, Lochte was named the World Swimmer of the Year and American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine. He was also named FINA male swimmer of the year for 2010 by FINA Aquatics World Magazine. 2010 saw Lochte win a total of 13 international medals, 12 of them gold.
2011 World Championships
At the 2011 World Aquatics Championships, Lochte won a total of six medals, five golds and one bronze. Lochte won his first medal, a bronze, in the 4×100-meter freestyle relay for his contributions in the heats. In the heats, Lochte recorded a time of 48.28, off from the 47.98 he recorded last year in Irvine. In his second event, the 200-meter freestyle, Lochte won the gold with a time of 1:44.44, finishing ahead of Michael Phelps who recorded a time of 1:44.79. It was Lochte's first gold in the event in the long course World Championships. Lochte won the 200-meter individual medley event in a world record time of 1:54.00, finishing ahead of Michael Phelps time of 1:54.16. In the 200-meter backstroke, Lochte dominated the competition with a time of 1:52.96, over a second ahead of second-place finisher Ryosuke Irie. Shortly after completing the 200-meter backstroke, Lochte competed in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay with Michael Phelps, Peter Vanderkaay, and Ricky Berens. Swimming the anchor leg in 1:44.56, Lochte was able to make up a deficit from France for the win. The final time for the relay was 7:02.67. In his last event, the 400-meter individual medley, Lochte continued his dominance with a win in a time of 4:07.13. His closest competitor, Tyler Clary, finished in 4:11.17, over four seconds behind.
Lochte said he was pleased with his performance at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships but feels that he can improve his times before the 2012 Olympics. "Getting five gold medals is definitely great, but the times that I went, I know I could go a lot faster," he said. "There are a lot of places in my races that I messed up on that I could have changed and gone faster, but I guess I have a whole year to make sure I have those perfect swims."
At year's end, Lochte was named the World Swimmer of the Year and American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine, and defended his titles from 2010. He was also named FINA male swimmer of the year for 2011 by FINA Aquatics World Magazine and also defended this title.
2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic Trials
At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials, the qualifying meet for the 2012 Summer Olympics, Lochte qualified for the Olympic team by finishing first in the 200-meter backstroke and 400-meter individual medley, and second in the 200-meter freestyle and 200-meter individual medley. Lochte also narrowly missed a spot competing in the individual 100-meter butterfly by finishing third.
Olympics
At the Olympics in London, Lochte won his first gold medal of the games in the 400-meter individual medley with a time of 4:05.18. Commenting on his first medal of the 2012 Olympics and head-to-head competition with fellow American and world record holder, Michael Phelps, Lochte acknowledged Phelps' greatness while positioning himself as "the best today."
Lochte won a silver medal with the U.S. 4×100-meter freestyle relay team, losing out to the French team with a 47.74 split, a full second slower than the French finishing swimmer Yannick Agnel and six tenths of a second slower than teammate Phelps.
Lochte placed fourth in the 200-meter freestyle race. He followed that performance, however, by winning gold with the U.S. 4×200-meter freestyle team. Lochte swam the first split and provided the U.S. team a commanding lead, which it never relinquished.
On the sixth night of the Games, Lochte swam his last two finals, with only 30 minutes in between. First, he won the bronze medal in the 200m backstroke, finishing behind compatriot Tyler Clary and Japan's Ryosuke Irie. His time of 1.53.94 tied the time he swam four years ago when he won the gold medal at the 2008 Games, which was then a world record. Half an hour later, Lochte took on Phelps in the 200m individual medley. He won a silver medal behind Phelps in what was thought at the time to be the last head-to-head race of their careers, as Phelps retired after the Games. This was the third consecutive Olympics in which Lochte won a medal in the 200m individual medley.
His five medals brought his total to 11 Olympic medals, tied for second among male swimmers with compatriots Mark Spitz and Matt Biondi, behind only Phelps. His seven individual Olympic medals are the second-most in men's Olympic swimming, surpassing Zoltán Halmay and Mark Spitz, who won six.
Lochte has announced he intends to continue swimming through the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. He is also considering exploring new events.
2013 World Championships
In his first event at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona, Lochte combined with Nathan Adrian, Anthony Ervin, and Jimmy Feigen in the 4×100-meter freestyle relay, with the team finishing behind France. Swimming the second leg, Lochte recorded a split of 47.80, and the team finished with a final time of 3:11.44. In his first individual event, the 200-meter freestyle, Lochte was unsuccessful in defending his title and placed fourth in the final with a time of 1:45.64. Lochte won his first individual medal of the competition, a gold, by defending his title in the 200-meter individual medley, recording a time of 1:54.98. The day following his 200 medley gold, Lochte also defended his title in the 200-meter backstroke, recording a time of 1:53.79 in the final. On the same day of winning the 200-meter backstroke (and swimming in the 100-meter butterfly semifinals where he set a personal best and qualified for the final), Lochte combined with Conor Dwyer, Charlie Houchin, and Ricky Berens, to win the 4×200-meter freestyle relay. Swimming the second leg, Lochte recorded a split of 1:44.98, and the team finished with a final time of 7:01.72. In winning the 4×200 relay, Lochte became the first swimmer to win 5 consecutive gold medals at the World Championships in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay (while also being the first swimmer, along with compatriot Michael Phelps, to win the 4×200-meter freestyle relay Olympic Gold Medal on 3 successive occasions).
The next day, Lochte competed in the 100-meter butterfly and finished 6th in the final with a time of 51.58, just off his semifinal time of 51.48.
2015 World Championships
Lochte competed in his sixth World Championships in Kazan in 2015. He made history upon his win in the 200-meter individual medley by becoming the only person other than Grant Hackett to successfully win an event in four consecutive world championships. However, he finished a disappointing fourth in the 200-meter freestyle in 1:45.83, just off the podium. In addition, Lochte also won three relay medals. Lochte led off the 4×200-meter freestyle relay in 1:45.71, but the US team could not hold on as Great Britain pulled off a great upset and beat the US team 7:04.33 to 7:04.75. Alongside Nathan Adrian, Simone Manuel, and Missy Franklin, he was also part of the winning and world record-breaking 4×100-meter mixed freestyle relay. Lochte also anchored the prelim team for the 4×100-meter medley relay and received a gold medal for his efforts since the finals team won.
2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic Trials
At the 2016 United States Olympic Trials, the U.S. qualifying meet for the Rio Olympics, Lochte finished third in the 400-meter individual medley, just missing out on an Olympic berth. In the 200-meter freestyle, he missed his second chance at making the team in an individual event by placing fourth; nonetheless, he earned a relay spot in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay. Lochte finally qualified for an individual event by finishing second in the 200-meter individual medley behind Phelps.
Olympics
Lochte's first event in Rio was the 4×200 meter freestyle relay, where he swam both the morning heats and the finals. In the finals, Lochte swam the third leg after Conor Dwyer and Townley Haas. After Lochte's leg, the U.S. had a commanding lead. Phelps anchored the relay to touch the wall first at 7:00.66. This brought Lochte's Olympic medal count up to 12 total, making him the second most decorated male Olympic swimmer of all time, second only to Phelps.
Lochte finished 5th in the 200-meter individual medley. This was his 4th consecutive final in the event, and the first time he did not win a medal.
Lochtegate
On the morning of August 14, 2016, Lochte and Jimmy Feigen claimed that they and teammates Gunnar Bentz and Jack Conger were robbed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, during the 2016 Summer Olympics after men forced them out of their taxi at gunpoint in the early morning hours. Lochte also alleged that a gun had been put up against his head. A police report stated that one or more of the athletes had vandalized the gas station bathroom and damaged a sign on the premises, though investigative reporters found that the athletes had damaged the sign but had neither entered the bathroom nor damaged items in the bathroom. Lochte later stated in an interview that he had been drunk and that he "over-exaggerated that story". However, his amended story raised concerns about the facts, and a witness who also translated between the security guards and the athletes claimed that the swimmers had stopped to use the fuel station's bathroom, damaged the sign on the premises, and that he stepped in when it was obvious that events could get out of control. He noted that all sides understood that the money was being paid to cover the damage done, but also that Lochte was drunk or ”very altered” at the time of the incident.
In August 2016, Lochte was charged with providing a false claim of a robbery during the 2016 Olympic Games, and if convicted could be jailed up to 18 months. The charges were later dismissed by a court, which stated that Lochte's actions "did not rise to the level of filing a false crime report." On August 30, 2016, when appearing on Good Morning America, he said that he was unsure how he would classify the incident, stating, "I don't know if I would consider it as a robbery, or extortion, or us just paying up for the poster being ripped." Investigative reporting by USA Today, which reviewed the security camera tapes, showed that Lochte and the other swimmers did not enter the bathroom that they were accused of vandalizing, and that the items purportedly damaged inside the bathroom were neither damaged nor recently replaced.
Lochte apologized for the gas station dispute. In the aftermath of the incident, USA Swimming suspended Lochte from domestic and international competitions for 10 months. Lochte was also dropped by all four of his major sponsors. However, by January 2017, TYR announced an apparel deal with Lochte.
2018 suspension
On July 23, 2018, the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) imposed a 14-month suspension from competition on Lochte because, on May 24 of that year, he received a 'prohibited intravenous infusion.' "I have never taken a prohibitive [sic] substance," Lochte told the media, "I have never attempted to gain any advantage by putting anything illegal in my body...I may be on the sideline from competition, but I'll continue to train every day...I want nothing more than to earn the privilege to swim for my country in my fifth Olympic Games in Tokyo 2020."
On May 24, 2018, the same day he had received the infusion, Lochte had posted a picture - since deleted - on Instagram "showing him receiving an intravenous injection of what he says were 'vitamins'," even though the USADA bans "intravenous infusions of permitted substances at volumes greater than in a 12-hour period without a special 'Therapeutic Use Exemption'," Vox reported.
2021
On June 17, 2021, the fifth day of competition at the 2020 USA Swimming Olympic Trials, Lochte swam a 1:58.48 in the morning prelims of the 200-meter individual medley, ranking second and qualifying for the semifinals. In the evening semifinals, he swam a 1:58.65 ranking sixth and qualifying for the final. In the final, Lochte finished seventh with a time of 1:59.67 and not qualifying for the 2020 Summer Olympics in the event. In Michael Andrew's post-win interview for the 200-meter individual medley final, Lochte joined Andrew and called him family along with the swimming community. Lochte also said missing out on the Olympic Team was not the end of the road for him.
A few days after the end of the US Olympic Trials, Lochte confirmed he was still committed to the sport of swimming, both in terms of competing and growing the sport, and he was not retiring. He added that one of his swimming pursuits moving forward included teaching youth how to swim.
Television appearances and pop culture fame
Magazines
Before the 2012 Summer Olympics, Fortune magazine estimated that Lochte earned $2.3 million from endorsement deals with Speedo, Mutual of Omaha, Gillette, Gatorade, Procter and Gamble, Ralph Lauren, Nissan, and AT&T. Lochte has also appeared in commercials for the Nissan Altima and been featured on the covers of Vogue, Time, Men's Health, and Men's Journal.
Television
Comedian Seth MacFarlane parodied Lochte in the 2012 season premiere of Saturday Night Live, after which Lochte said he would be open to doing a cameo appearance on the show.
Lochte appeared as an exaggerated version of himself in the 30 Rock episode "Stride of Pride", which aired October 18, 2012. He also had a guest appearance on 90210 in late 2012.
What Would Ryan Lochte Do? began airing April 21, 2013, on E! and was cancelled after only one season, five weeks later. Lochte's public persona and character have inspired a series of unflattering Internet memes.
On August 30, 2016, Lochte was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 23 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with professional dancer Cheryl Burke. Lochte and Burke were eliminated on Week 8 of competition, finishing in 7th place.
In 2017, Lochte played a supporting role in Little Something for Your Birthday.
On January 13, 2019, the reality game show Celebrity Big Brother announced that Lochte would be a houseguest in the second American season of the show. He finished in 10th place after 13 days.
On the Family Guy season 17 episode "Griffin Winter Games", Peter Griffin meets Lochte at a party for the athletes of the Korean winter Olympics where he asks him, "wait, aren't you a summer sport guy?" As Lochte offers him a beer, a narrator imitating Morgan Freeman refers to him as an 'international bozo' and notes that Peter partied with him all night.
On September 22, 2019, Lochte appeared on Celebrity Family Feud along with his wife Kayla. Lochte won the family be family round, and between Kayla and himself they scored over 200 points in the final round to win the game.
On November 13, 2019, Ryan appeared on an episode of "Back in the Game" with Alex Rodriguez. The series focuses on Rodriguez mentoring athletes and entertainers who have fallen on hard times. In the episode Alex helps Lochte get his finances back on track.
On January 12th, 2023, Ryan appeared on the show The Traitors (US). He finished in 14th place after being murdered by the traitors in episode 5.
Radio
National Public Radio named Lochte as their "platonic ideal of bro-dom".
Awards
Personal life
Trademark application
On August 1, 2012, Lochte filed an application to trademark his personal catchphrase, "Jeah", with the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office. He abandoned the application before it was finalized.
Sponsorships
In January 2017, active-wear maker TYR Sport, Inc. signed Lochte to his first major professional swimming sponsorship deal since the Lochtegate scandal.
In November 2019, Lochte revealed to Alex Rodriguez on an episode of CNBC's Back In The Game that he once made "well over $1 million" a year and also earned $75,000 from a single sponsor. However, he also stated to Rodriguez that his scandalswhich resulted in his suspension and losing his sponsorsand lavish spending resulted in him suffering significant financial losses. He was forced to sell his home and now resides in a apartment. He also estimated that he had only about $20,000 in savings.
Protests
In July 2021, Lochte spoke about his stance not supporting protests at athletic events in advance of the 2020 Summer Olympics. This reiterated sentiments Lochte shared concerning the safety and security of individuals after protesters targeting him stormed the stage during one of his performances on the television show Dancing with the Stars in September 2016.
Friendships
Lochte is good friends with longtime teammates Conor Dwyer and Michael Phelps.
Marriage and fatherhood
Despite rumors in the Australian press linking Lochte with Australian swimmer Blair Evans, Lochte's mother, Ileana, confirmed to Us Weekly in a July 28, 2012, interview that her son was "too busy" to be in a relationship.
During the 2016 Summer Olympics, Lochte revealed that he was in a relationship with Playboy Playmate of the Month for July 2015 Kayla Rae Reid, whom he first got in touch with via Instagram. They became engaged in October 2016, and Reid gave birth to a son named Caiden Zane Lochte on June 8, 2017. Lochte and Reid married in an at-home civil ceremony in January 2018, and followed it with a formal wedding ceremony in front of family and friends on September 9, 2018. On November 30, 2018, they announced they were expecting their second child. On December 23, 2018, they announced they were having a girl. Their daughter, Liv Rae, was born on June 17, 2019. On December 9, 2022, they announced they were expecting their third child. on June 21 2023 they welcomed their child a daughter named Georgia June Lochte.
Career best times
See also
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists in one event
List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)
List of top Olympic gold medalists in swimming
List of multiple Summer Olympic medalists
List of United States records in swimming
List of University of Florida alumni
List of University of Florida Olympians
List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (men)
List of individual gold medalists in swimming at the Olympics and World Aquatics Championships (men)
World record progression 100 metres backstroke
World record progression 100 metres individual medley
World record progression 200 metres backstroke
World record progression 200 metres individual medley
World record progression 400 metres individual medley
World record progression 4 × 100 metres freestyle relay
World record progression 4 × 200 metres freestyle relay
References
External links
Ryan Lochte on Encyclopedia Britannica
1984 births
Living people
American male backstroke swimmers
American male freestyle swimmers
American male medley swimmers
American people of Basque descent
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American sportspeople of Cuban descent
American sportspeople in doping cases
Doping cases in swimming
Florida Gators men's swimmers
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m)
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in swimming
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in swimming
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in swimming
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Participants in American reality television series
People from Canandaigua, New York
People from Port Orange, Florida
Sportspeople from Volusia County, Florida
Sportspeople from Rochester, New York
Swimmers at the 2003 Pan American Games
Swimmers at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming
World record holders in swimming
University of Florida alumni
Pan American Games medalists in swimming
Medalists at the 2003 Pan American Games
21st-century American people |
4058657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Lewis%20High%20School | Francis Lewis High School | Francis Lewis High School (FLHS) is a selective public high school located in Fresh Meadows, in the New York City borough of Queens. It is one of the most-applied-to public high schools in New York City with 9,468 applicants in 2016. Operated by the New York City Department of Education, the school serves students of grades 912. The school is named after Francis Lewis, who signed the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of New York.
The school has several competitive and high-performing academic programs. Students are admitted to the school, either as zoned applicants from the surrounding area, or through these programs, whose acceptance rate are below 3% in the 2019 admissions statistics, some being as low as 1%.
The school has a 93% attendance rate, compared to 89% citywide. The school's graduation rate is 88% in four years, compared to 76% citywide. Of the graduating class, 82% of graduates enrolled in college or other post-secondary program within six months of graduation, compared to 59% citywide.
Student body
Francis Lewis is one of the most selective and applied to public high schools in New York City. In March 2016, Francis Lewis had 9,468 applicants applying for a seat in the school. During the 2019–2020 school year, Francis Lewis had 4,418 students enrolled. For the 2019–2020 academic year, the student body was 56% Asian, 22% Hispanic, 16% Caucasian, and 6% African American. Ten percent of the students were learning English as a second language. Fourteen percent of the students had special needs.
Francis Lewis is also one of the most overcrowded; it has a capacity of 2,300, and the 2019–2020 enrollment figures exceeded that capacity by 176 percent. In 2019, the New York City School Construction Authority started constructing an annex with 500 seats and amenities such as a culinary arts room, a science lab, and a greenhouse. The annex is scheduled to be completed by September 2022.
The school has an alumni association for graduates.
Special programs and enrollment
Eighth and ninth graders applying to Francis Lewis can be admitted through its specialized academic programs which include the following.
The Jacob K. Javits Law Institute for law studies. Students take semesters studying American law, analyzing the court system, and participating in mock trials and moot court. The program is a three-year program. The school's team won the New York City Moot Court Championships in December 1997.
The University Scholars Program, a program which gives its students an accelerated humanities program including Mythology for freshman year and Philosophy for sophomore year. Students are required to take AP English Language and Composition during junior year, and they have the choice of taking either Ancient Greek or AP English Literature and Composition during senior year. Students are required to take two foreign languages as well. The program is a four-year program.
The Math and Science Research Program offers advanced studies of math, science and statistics. Students analyze scientific articles, write scientific papers, design and conduct experiments, and participate in science fairs. The program is a four-year program. The program has garnered various Siemens Competition and Intel Science Talent Search finalists and winners. For example, Francis Lewis had three semifinalists in 2010, more than any other high school in New York City.
Math Team is a program that allows students to participate in citywide math competitions in addition to required math courses. In April 1999, the senior math team came in first place in the New York State Interscholastic Math Competition. In 2016, the program's math magazine received a gold medal from Columbia Scholastic Press Association, a Columbia University group.
The Robotics and Engineering Program offers students education in engineering. Students learn how to construct and program their own robots and compete in citywide competitions.
The International Relations Program allows students to take an accelerated class in international relations including conflicts and trade. Students take field trips to the United Nations building to analyze relations between different country leaders.
The Computer Science Program allows students to learn how to code on a computer and improve their programming skills.
In May 1995, the debate team won the New York City Championship in the annual Lincoln-Douglas debates for the first time in school history.
Before students enter sophomore year, Francis Lewis High School offers students the chance to switch into different programs. Several three-year programs become available, including the following:
The Dance Academy allows students to take a dance class in addition to the physical education class. Students learn how to do classical dances and modern dances. As of the 2018–2019 school year, students are able to audition to join the academy in their freshman year through orientation in June.
School of Design allows students classes to further their art skills.
The Graphic Design Academy allows students to pursue interests in graphic design.
The Journalism Academy offers students a classes to better understand news writing, reporting, and production. Students learn to produce a news story, learn to photojournalism skills, and broadcast and report through multimedia. The program has garnered multiple awards from the Newsies! Awards, run by Baruch College.
The Sports and Medicine Academy teaches students necessary skills for working in the medical field. Students study human anatomy, medicines, and medical conditions.
The Music Program allows students to further their music skills with different types of instruments and through voice, taking any of the music electives for most of their high school tenure.
The Virtual Enterprise International Academy allows students to learn the basis of designing and selling a product. Student learn marketing techniques, and they use these skills to try to sell a product to real investors. The program has garnered honors with top ranking companies in citywide competitions making nationals.
Academics
In order to give students high school credit and Regents credit, Francis Lewis offers numerous classes such as integrated algebra, geometry, trigonometry/algebra II, pre-trigonometry, English, living environment/biology, chemistry, physics, earth science, global history and geography, U.S. History and geography, U.S. government and economics, health, forensic science, sports medicine, literature, music appreciation, art, and graphic design.
As physical education classes, Francis Lewis High School offers frisbee, racket sports, soccer, basketball, yoga and dance, walking, weight training and conditioning, and volleyball.
The school offers music electives including chorus, concert choir, honors concert band, jazz ensemble, guitar, keyboard, marching band, and string orchestra. Students may take music electives for as long as their high school tenure. Music appreciation is offered as a one-year class for art/music credit.
Language studies
In keeping with the school's diversity, Francis Lewis High School teaches several foreign languages, including Chinese (Mandarin), French, Greek (for the fourth year of the University Scholars program), Italian, Japanese, Korean, Latin, and Spanish. Classes for native speakers in Chinese, Korean, and Spanish are also available for students satisfying the NYCDOE's foreign language requirement. The school previously taught Arabic and Hebrew, but those classes ended due to declining interest.
English as New Language (ENL) is also available for English learners.
Advanced Placement courses
In 1978, Francis Lewis High School was the first public high school to achieve certification to the International Baccalaureate, but stopped offering it in the 1990s. Advanced Placement (AP) courses are also available, offering college credit for work done during high school (based on the final test score). Students may choose the full program to get a full years' college credit, or simply courses of interest (for credit towards single college courses such as math or humanities). Sixty-six percent of twelfth graders take at least one Advanced Placement exam at any time during high school; of these, 50% earned at least a 3 on at least one Advanced Placement exam.
Students may choose from 20 AP courses offered at Francis Lewis, including Biology, Calculus AB, Calculus BC, Capstone, Chemistry, Chinese Language and Culture, Computer Science A, English Language and Composition, English Literature and Composition, Environmental Science, Japanese Language and Culture, Latin, Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, Physics 1, Physics 2, AP Physics C: Mechanics, Psychology, Spanish, Statistics, United States Government and Politics, United States History, and World History.
Francis Lewis High School was ranked 29th out of the 520 public high schools in New York City, according to U.S. News & World Report.
College Now! courses
Francis Lewis High School offers several courses from College Now, a program offered by the City University of New York to allow students access City University of New York classes and earn college credit. Classes are offered at Queens College and Queensborough Community College.
Students can choose up to six classes including astronomy, health and nutrition, criminal justice/sociology, computers in modern society, English, and pre-calculus.
Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps
In 1994, the US Army Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC) program was established in the school. It is the largest in the nation, with more than 1,000 cadets of the 1,725 high school chapters in the country. The battalion is an honor unit with distinction, and it is considered one of the best and well-known US Army JROTC units in the nation. It had a 100% graduation rate from 1992 to 2013.
There are six JROTC teams, namely Academic, Choir, Drum Corps, Honor Guard, and Drill Team (Armed and Unarmed). Two teams compete, Academic and Drill Team (Unarmed – Patriot Pride, Armed – Patriot Guard). Francis Lewis High School used to have a competing Raiders team (female – Patriot Strength, male – Patriot Force).
In 2018 allegations of hazing (involving sexual and physical assault) from the male Raiders team were made.
The Patriot Guard were national champions in 2007, 2009–2011, and placed second in 2012. The Patriot Pride came in second in 2006, 2008 and 2009 and first in 2010 and 2013 National Championships in Daytona, Florida.
The female Raiders were national champions for four consecutive years from 2009 to 2012. The male Raiders' most recent first-place title was in 2011, having come in third in the 2012 Nationals and second in the 2013 Nationals.
The Academic team was awarded first place at the 2015 Leadership Bowl Nationals. The Academic team placed as finalists in the JROTC Leadership Academic Bowl in 2011, 2012, and 2013.
In 2010, Francis Lewis had more cadets in the United States Military Academy than any other public high school in the United States.
The JROTC Program may be chosen as an elective that a student may have in addition to their program. Students enrolled in JROTC are required to partake in weekly physical training, conduct school and community service, wear the Army Service Uniform once a week, as well as take courses on leadership, nutrition, personal finance, civics, and government.
Extracurricular activities
Athletics
Francis Lewis High School's athletic teams compete in the PSAL. Student-athletes compete in baseball, basketball, bowling, cheerleading, cross country, fencing, golf, handball, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track, volleyball, and wrestling
Francis Lewis High School's cross country team won the PSAL championship in 1968.
The school's soccer team won the PSAL championship in 1969.
The softball team won the PSAL championship in 1975.
Francis Lewis High School's girls basketball team won the PSAL Championship in March 1979. The team was undefeated in the regular season that year.
Francis Lewis has had a cricket team since 2015.
The school's male and female American handball team won the PSAL championship in the 2018–2019 season.
During the 1994–1995 season, Francis Lewis High School's boys basketball team was undefeated in its division, the first time it had done so since the 1980–1981 season. The team won the PSAL B Championship in March 1995. The team advanced to the New York State Federation Basketball Class A championship in Glens Falls. It lost to Mount Saint Michael Academy of the Bronx, knocking it out of the state tournament.
Francis Lewis High School's athletic field is named for Margaret Lambert, a German Jewish track and field athlete. During the 1930s, German athletic teams were closed to Jewish athletes, and the United States was considering to boycott the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin in protest of Germany's anti-Semitism. Adolf Hitler wanted to avoid a boycott, so he threatened her father to have her train for Germany in order to convince the world that Germany welcomed Jewish athletes to its team if they qualified. She tied the German high jump record at the national trials in Stuttgart, and she trained at the Olympic training camp in Ettlingen.
Clubs
Francis Lewis offers a varying number of clubs approved by the Student Organization (SO). Students may fill out a club registration forms from the SO Office by the late September deadline.
The 2019–2020 school year offers clubs including 4H Cornell, American Red Cross Club, Anime Club, Art Club, Asian Food Culture Club, Baseball Club, Calligraphy Club, Chess Club, Chinese Chess Club, Chinese Club, Chinese Origami Club, Christian Seekers Fellowship, Creative Writing Club, Cultural Dance Club, Current Events Club, DECA, DIY Club, Double Up (mentor) Club, Dungeons and Dragons, Endangered Species Club, Environmental Club, Fashion Club, Film Club, Fitness Club, Food Club, Gardening Club, Girls Fall Conditioning, Girls Who Code (GWC), Glamour Gals, Green Team, Harry Potter Club, Hellenic Club, History Club, HS Investment Club (HSIC), Humans of Francis Lewis Magazine, Inspiring Inclusive Leaders, International Education Club, ISS Club, Japanese Club, Jewish Student Union, Journalism Club (FLHS News), Junior State of America (JSA), K-pop and Urban Dance Club (KUD), Key Club, Korean Club, Korean Drum Club, Kung Fu Club, LGBTQ+ Club, Math Club, Media Production Club, Medical Explorers Club, Mindfulness + Yoga Club, Model United Nations, Modern Music Club, Muslim Student Association Club, My Brother's Keeper, No Place for Hate, Nu Gamma Psi (male and female step teams), One Love Counseling Club, Paper Bridges Club, Programmers Initiative Club (PI), Public Speaking for Beginners, Puzzle Club, Science Olympiads, Sikh Student Association, Spanish Club, Students for Climate Action Now, Taekwondo Club, TED Talk Club, Teen Community Service (TCS), Travelers Club, Trivia Club, Ultimate Unity Dance Club, UNICEF, Video Game Club, Visual Arts Club, Women's Empowerment Club, and Workout Club.
Former clubs include 3D Model Club (2017–2018), ACLU (2017–2018) African American Club (2018–2019), Ancient History Club (2018–2019), Animal Humane Society (2017–2018), Astronomy Club (2016–2017), Big Sib-Little Sib (2017–2018), Books for Baddies (2018–2019), Bookworms (2017–2018), Caribbean Club (2017–2018), Comedy Club (2018–2019), Comic Book Club (2016–2017), Conscious Club (2018–2019), Conservation Club (2017–2018), Dancer Dynasty Club (2018–2019), Debate Club (2018–2019), eSport Club (2018–2019), Filipino Club, FLNBC (2015–2016), Food Appreciation Club (2017–2018), Game Club (2017–2018), Gamer's Connect (2018–2019), Game Development and Design Club (2018–2019), Glee Club (2015–2018), Global Advocates Club (2017–2019), Interconnected Club (2017–2018), International Club (2017–2018), International Pop Club (2017–2018), Latin Club (2017–2018), Latinos Unidos (2018–2019), Make-Up Club (2017–2018), Mental Health Club (2018–2019), Music Cover Club (2018–2019), Music Creation (2018–2019), One Neutron Extra (ONE, 2016–2017), Operation CARE Team (2017–2019), Philosophy Club (2018–2019), Photography Club, Pre-Med Club, Social Activist Club (2018–2019), SPEAK (2018–2019), STEMP Club (2018–2019), Video Game Club (2017–2018), and Youth Civic Engagement (YCE, 2018–2019).
History
In 1952, the Northeast Queens Council for Schools advocated for a northeast Queens high school because of severe overcrowding at Bayside High School, Flushing High School, Andrew Jackson High School, and Jamaica High School.
In December 1955, the New York City Board of Education approved the building of a new high school, called Northeast Queens High School, near the intersection of Utopia Parkway and 59th Avenue, with a capacity of 3,000 students. The city bought 11 acres of land, and the City Planning Commission agreed that the high school was needed, but the Commission did not approve the allocation of money to build the school in the capital budget.
In August 1956, the city approved the hiring of the firm of Eggers & Higgins to be the architect of the building, although the budget to actually build the high school was not yet approved.
In October 1956, Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. wrote a letter to the City Planning Commission asking it to include the construction of Northeast Queens High School in its capital budget. The construction was included in the capital budget in 1957.
In March 1958, the Board of Education approved a contract to build the high school. A $4,229,000 contract was awarded to the lowest bidder, Caristo Construction Company. The ground-breaking happened that same year. A group of parents tried to have an indoor swimming pool built in the high school, but they were not successful. The high school ended up costing $6,100,000 to build.
Francis Lewis High School opened on September 13, 1960. The school was named after Francis Lewis, a resident of Whitestone who signed the United States Declaration of Independence. Vincent McGarrett was the first principal. Herman Wolf was the first basketball coach. Queensborough Community College held some of its classes at Francis Lewis High School that year because its own campus was still under construction.
Francis Lewis High School was built for a capacity of 2,700 students. The school was overcrowded as of the 1962–1963 school year. Cardozo High School was built in 1967 in order to relieve overcrowding at Francis Lewis.
In 1965, Queensborough Community College held some of its evening classes at Francis Lewis High School due to overcrowding at Queensborough.
In 1978, Francis Lewis High School graduated International Baccalaureate diploma students, the first public high school in the United States to do so. It terminated in the 1990s.
In early 2018, Francis Lewis High School announced plans for a new annex to add more space and alleviate overcrowding. It would be located where a tennis court and the Margaret Lambert Track and Field House were. Construction began in 2019. Completion is expected by 2023.
Notable alumni
Mashama Bailey - an American chef specializing in Southern cuisine, she is the chef at The Grey
Steve Dorff (1968) – composer/music producer
Rob Echeverria – American musician who has worked as the guitarist of Biohazard, Helmet, Rest in Pieces, and Straight Ahead.
Rick Elice (1973) – actor, writer
Steve Greenberg (1978) – record producer, former President of Columbia Records
Sebastián Guenzatti – soccer player for the Tampa Bay Rowdies of the United Soccer League
Peter Guttman (1972) – travel journalist, lecturer, and author
Heejun Han (2007) – finalist on American Idol, season 11
Albie Hecht – former president of Nickelodeon, founder of Spike TV
Mike Jorgensen (1966) – drafted by the New York Mets; played for the New York Mets, Montreal Expos, Oakland Athletics, Texas Rangers, Atlanta Braves, and St. Louis Cardinals; managed the Cardinals
Paul Joskow — American economist and professor
Peter Marino – American architect
Clair Marlo (1976) - aka Clara Veseliza - composer/music producer, known for her hit-song "'Til They Take My Heart Away", for her work as a record producer, and for her exceptional body of work heard in Television, Film, and streaming worldwide.
Peter Mehlman (1973) - a renowned writer, comedian, and television and film producer best known for his work on Seinfeld and Madagascar.
Mark Miloscia – Washington State Senator
Jonathan Pontell – television director, producer, and editor
Craig Setari – American musician and former competitive boxer who is currently active as the bass player in Sick of It All – hardcore punk band
Ron Shandler (1974) – national baseball analyst, author of Baseball Forecaster, founder of BaseballHQ.com, columnist for USA Today
Dennis Walcott – former chancellor of the New York City Department of Education, president and CEO of the Queens Borough Public Library system
Chris Welty (1981) – computer scientist
Alfred Scudieri - (1963) - Former President of The Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI.
In fiction
In The Yards, Joaquin Phoenix plays a character who graduated from Francis Lewis High School. The film's director, James Gray, grew up in Flushing.
References
External links
At High School in Queens, R.O.T.C.’s Enduring Influence
At School in Queens, Success Draws Crowd - New York Times
National Drill Competition- Champions Interview- NBC
Public high schools in Queens, New York |
4058777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL%20on%20Westwood%20One%20Sports | NFL on Westwood One Sports | The NFL on Westwood One Sports is the branding for Cumulus Broadcasting subsidiary Westwood One's radio coverage of the National Football League. These games are distributed throughout the United States and Canada (the latter through TSN Radio). The broadcasts were previously branded with the CBS Radio and (for one season) Dial Global marques; CBS Radio was the original Westwood One's parent company and Dial Global purchased the company in 2011. Dial Global has since reverted its name to Westwood One after merging with Cumulus Media Networks.
Westwood One's package consists of every primetime regular season NFL broadcast (Sunday Night Football, Monday Night Football, Thursday Night Football), the opening game of the season, all NFL International Series games, any NFL game airing on Thanksgiving Day, any late season Saturday NFL broadcasts, the Pro Bowl and all playoff games (including the Super Bowl). The network also carries the annual NFL Hall of Fame Game. Additionally, in some cases, the network also carries any postponed game broadcast nationally (as this was the case for the 2020 season, due to impacts from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic).
History of NFL games on Westwood One's predecessors
While major networks such as Westwood One, CBS, NBC, and Mutual held exclusive rights to most national broadcasts of the NFL throughout the league's history, Dial Global's predecessor, Jones Radio Networks, had carried several years' worth of Sunday afternoon games nationwide. Beginning in 2002, Jones carried game broadcasts from the Sports USA Radio Network. After Dial Global's massive acquisition spree of other networks began in 2008, Jones came under the Dial Global banner and Sports USA ended its relationship with the network. In 2009, Dial Global instead switched to Compass Media Networks for its Sunday afternoon NFL coverage.
Relationship to CBS
Westwood One had a long-standing relationship with CBS Radio. CBS' parent company owned the network for approximately ten years (1998–2008) and, through the CBS Radio Network, maintained control of the production of certain programming, including NFL games, an arrangement that continued following Westwood One's acquisition by Dial Global through the end of the 2011 NFL season. CBS had likely been carrying NFL games since at least 1935, when George A. Richards, owner of WJR and the Detroit Lions, switched WJR's affiliation from NBC Blue to CBS; Richards had negotiated with NBC the previous season to carry the Lions' Thanksgiving contest that year and likely carried those games over to CBS when he switched WJR's network.
As such, there was often synergy between the NFL on Westwood One and its former sister outlet, the NFL on CBS.
The theme music for The NFL on Westwood One from 2003 until the end of the 2012 season was "Posthumus Zone" by E.S. Posthumus, the same theme music used for the NFL on CBS television coverage (Westwood One's sports coverage had always used the appropriate CBS television theme for their sport where applicable). For the 2013 season onwards, a new radio-specific score was commissioned by the network.
Some personnel is shared between the two units; for instance, certain CBS play-by-play announcers (e.g. Don Criqui, Dick Enberg and Ian Eagle) call select Sunday afternoon games throughout the first several weeks of the season on CBS and then switch to Thursday and Saturday night games on Westwood One. Boomer Esiason, who is an analyst for CBS' The NFL Today, called color commentary on Westwood One's Monday Night Football (and would often advertise the latter on the former, as "the Monday night game on Westwood One"); conversely, Steve Tasker, a color commentator for CBS's Sunday afternoon coverage, served as an analyst on The NFL on Westwood One shows.
The coverage carried the CBS Radio Sports tag (both with and without "Westwood One") for many years before switching to Westwood One. The Mutual Broadcasting System, purchased by Westwood One in 1985, also aired NFL coverage for many years beginning in 1940, while NBC Radio, purchased by Westwood One in 1987, had exclusive NFL coverage in 1985–86. Westwood One now acknowledges the NBC Radio broadcasts as part of the entire history of the network's football coverage.
In December 2008, it was reported that the NFL was considering leaving Westwood One for a rival service (ESPN Radio, Sports USA, and Sporting News Radio being the contenders), or possibly splitting rights for prime-time, Thanksgiving, and postseason games between two or more networks. However, on March 12, 2009, it was announced that Westwood One had signed a two-year extension with the NFL. The league then announced on December 22, 2010, that Westwood One's contract has been extended through 2014.
For 2009 and 2010, Westwood One also served as the distributor for the Sports USA network's NFL games after taking over the distribution rights from Dial Global. as such, Westwood One employed Sports USA announcers for certain games covered by the former network, including Thanksgiving Day games, the opening Monday night doubleheader, and Wild Card Weekend.
Sale of Westwood One to Dial Global and Cumulus
CBS Corporation sold off Westwood One to The Gores Group in 2007, who in turn sold it to Oaktree Capital Management (under the Dial Global brand) in 2011. Dial Global discontinued use of the Westwood One name during its ownership.
Although Dial Global's broadcasts continued to carry CBS branding and personalities through 2012, it was initially unclear whether or not this would continue in 2013. CBS is currently working with Cumulus Media Networks in distributing its own nationwide sports radio network, while Dial Global is distributing NBC's national sports network. Several of Dial Global's announcers (Kevin Harlan, Boomer Esiason, Dan Fouts, and Ian Eagle) are employed by CBS and Esiason is a contributor to CBS Sports Radio. The situation was mooted in August 2013, just weeks before the 2013 season started, when Cumulus agreed to acquire Dial Global's network assets; Townsquare Media, which had previously been in the same corporate structure as Dial Global, will acquire 53 of Cumulus's stations as part of the trade. Thus, CBS Sports' radio operations will once again be under the same management as the NFL package.
In 2014, Cumulus/Westwood One and the NFL agreed to an extension through the 2017 season.
Cumulus Media, Westwood One's owner, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in November 2017 and began canceling its national broadcast contracts (beginning with that of Imus in the Morning) in January 2018. Cumulus's local sports rights, including affiliations with the Seattle Seahawks outside Seattle, and a long-unpaid debt to the Buffalo Bills, are among those Cumulus seeks to terminate in bankruptcy. At the same time, CBS's local radio operations, while still under the control of CBS's shareholders, were spun off and merged into Entercom (which later became Audacy in 2021). No contract extension has yet been announced as of May 2018; the NFL still recognizes Westwood One as a broadcast partner (for instance, San Diego's KWFN proclaimed that it would carry the package in the fall when it switched to a sports radio format in April 2018), and unlike in 2010, the league has not publicly solicited bids for a radio contract. The network confirmed it would continue carrying the league in 2021, with no statement as to how long the renewal would last.
In March 2022, Westwood One confirmed an extension of the radio rights for an unspecified multi-year length, which adds radio coverage of other NFL events such as the NFL Draft and NFL Honors, as well as the expansion of rights to distribute its broadcasts via affiliates' digital platforms and the NFL's app, as well as the opportunity to develop alternative audio broadcasts (in the vein of CBS's Nickelodeon simulcasts and ESPN's Peyton and Eli and Megacast supplements for television) for games.
Coverage overview
Sunday Night Football
Pregame
Westwood One's coverage of Sunday Night Football begins with their weekly recap show, NFL Sunday. The show beings at 7:30 p.m every Sunday night on most affiliates and is hosted by Scott Graham. The show consists of highlights and statistics from the previous games of the day as well as a preview of the upcoming Sunday night game live from the stadium.
For the 2006 season, NFL Sunday assumed a different format. The show was produced in conjunction with NBC Sports, used its John Williams-composed Sunday Night Football theme song, and was regarded as more of a radio version of the television network's Football Night in America pregame. Al Trautwig was the initial host of the program, and an analyst from NBC would offer his own take on the game to come. Incidental music for game highlights came from NFL Films’ library.
Trautwig left the show before the season ended for reasons unexplained; Scott Graham would eventually take his place after Chris Carlin substituted for two weeks. (He eventually became permanent host in 2009.)
Play-by-play
The play-by-play role for CBS Radio Sports' coverage of Sunday Night Football was originally filled by Jack Buck, who called the initial Sunday night games in 1987. Jim Nantz took over for Buck, who was already calling Monday Night Football for the network, the following season and announced games until 1990 when he was moved to television. Nantz was replaced by Howard David for 1991 and continued through 1995, after which he replaced the retiring Buck on Monday Night Football. Brad Sham was hired away from his job with the Dallas Cowboys to replace David for the 1996 season, and he stayed for that season and the following season before deciding to rejoin the Cowboys. Former NBC television announcer Joel Meyers then took over and stayed until the 2005 season when he was replaced by Sunday doubleheader voice Dave Sims, who had been his primary substitute. Sims remained in this role until the end of the 2012 season, when he traded places with Sunday doubleheader voice Kevin Kugler.
During Week 8 of the 2018 and 2019 seasons, Tom McCarthy substituted for Kugler as the latter was calling games for Fox. During week 11 of the 2019 season, McCarthy again substituted for Kugler, as he called the Monday Night game (Chiefs-Chargers) from Mexico City for the network.
For the 2020 season, after Fox Sports suspended Thom Brennaman for inappropriate comments he made on air in his other job as lead broadcaster for baseball's Cincinnati Reds, the network selected Kugler, who was employed by Fox already through his work on the Big Ten Network, to replace him on their Sunday NFL broadcasts (Kugler remains with the network for select games and as a substitute play-by-play announcer). Westwood One announced that due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, they would utilize different broadcasters from week-to-week depending on where the game was emanating from.
Westwood One elected to go back to having a single lead broadcaster for its Sunday night coverage for 2022; on March 30, 2022, the network announced that Ryan Radtke, who had been serving as the network’s lead college football broadcaster and was one of the announcers used in the rotation for 2021, would fill the role.
Color commentary
John Dockery was the initial color commentator for Sunday Night Football, serving under Buck and Nantz. Beginning in 1990, Pat Haden joined Dockery as color commentator. At the time, the Sunday night games were divided between Turner Sports, with games airing on TNT, and ESPN. Haden was TNT's television analyst and thus unavailable to do radio broadcasts until the network's slate of games had completed, so Dockery would serve an analyst for the radio broadcasts. Once ESPN took over coverage, Haden joined the radio team in place of Dockery. The arrangement lasted until the end of the 1997 season, after which ESPN claimed exclusivity over the Sunday night broadcast. Both Haden and Dockery left the network after that season.
Other color commentators include Bob Trumpy, who served as Sunday Night Football analyst from 2000 to 2004 and again from 2006 to 2007; John Riggins, who was the color man for the 2005 season; Jim Fassel, who was 2008's analyst; James Lofton, who replaced Fassel in 2009 after he left for a head coaching job in the United Football League. Jason Taylor replaced Lofton starting with the 2017 season due to Lofton moving to CBS television (Lofton remains with the network as a substitute analyst, primarily for its Monday Night Football coverage).
After not having a regular analyst for some time after Taylor left the broadcast, Westwood One decided to give the full-time position to Mike Golic, the former ESPN analyst and radio show host who had recently joined the network, for 2022.
Monday Night Football
The Monday Night Football broadcast on Westwood One features its lead broadcast team, as the network has long considered Monday night to be its flagship NFL broadcast, even as the NFL now considers the Sunday night game (since 2006 when NBC launched their Sunday night television package) its marquee "game of the week". As such, the team occupying this position stays together to call important playoff games and the Super Bowl.
Buck and Stram (1978–1985; 1987–1995)
For many years (beginning in 1978), the CBS Radio/Westwood One coverage of Monday Night Football was anchored by Jack Buck on play-by-play, with former Kansas City Chiefs coach Hank Stram alongside him in the color position. They stayed paired together for nearly every major game covered by the network from 1978 until Super Bowl XIX in January 1985. Since Westwood One now regards NBC Radio's coverage of Monday Night Football as part of its broadcast history Stram and Buck were regarded as temporarily replaced by Don Criqui and Bob Trumpy for the two years NBC Radio held the contract. Buck and Stram returned to the booth at the beginning of the 1987 season and stayed there until the end of the 1995 season, with Super Bowl XXX in January 1996 marking their final game as a broadcast team after sixteen total seasons on radio.
During their time as Monday Night Football lead broadcast team both Buck and Stram worked on the television side as well. Stram had served as a color commentator on The NFL on CBS prior to joining Buck on the radio and continued to do so from 1978 until CBS lost the rights to the NFL in 1993. Buck rejoined the CBS television coverage as a play-by-play man in 1982 (after having called games for the network from 1964 to 1974) and remained there until 1987. The duo worked together as a television broadcast team in 1982, 1983, and 1985.
David, Millen and Esiason (1996–2001)
To replace the departing Buck and Stram for 1996, Westwood One promoted Howard David from the Sunday Night Football broadcast and moved Matt Millen, who at the time was a color commentator for Fox and a contributor to the Westwood One Monday night pregame show, into the booth alongside him. Beginning in 1998 and continuing until 2001, David served as the play-by-play voice of the New York Jets for WFAN and later WABC, and would require a substitute when the Jets played on Monday night or in the playoffs. An example of the latter came in the 1998 NFC Championship Game; John Rooney substituted for an absent David in Minneapolis for Westwood One as he called that year's AFC Championship Game for WFAN from Denver.
Boomer Esiason joined David and Millen for the 2000 season after being fired by ABC from the Monday Night Football telecast. It was the last season in the booth for Millen as he departed to take a position as President of the Detroit Lions, a job which he received great criticism in and was eventually fired from in 2008.
In 2001, David and Esiason were joined by CBS Sports' veteran reporter Lesley Visser, who became the first woman to be an analyst on an NFL broadcast. Visser had previously become the first female sportscaster to preside over the Vince Lombardi Trophy presentation, while covering Super Bowl XXVI for CBS television in 1992. The pairing only lasted the one season, as Visser decided to leave the booth to focus on her reporting for both CBS and HBO. It was also David's last season calling games for Westwood One until his 2009 return, as he became a full-time sports talk show host in Miami and the voice of the Miami Dolphins beginning in 2002.
Albert and Esiason (2002–2009)
For the 2002 season Westwood One chose veteran broadcaster Marv Albert, who had last called NFL games for NBC in 1997 and was best known for his NBA broadcasting for NBC, TNT, and (at the time) the New York Knicks. Esiason stayed on to be his color commentator. Since Esiason also joined The NFL Today broadcast team for the 2002 season and CBS (at the time) traveled to the site of the AFC Championship Game, Albert and Esiason became the exclusive voices of the game. To accomplish this Esiason would call the end of each half with a wireless microphone so he could save time to go to the field level set CBS used for these games. Esiason has also done this in years CBS has carried the Super Bowl, but has not done this for the AFC Championship game since the 2005 game in Denver as CBS has not traveled to the AFC Championship since (until 2016).
Beginning in 2007, Westwood One has employed a series of substitute analysts for Monday Night Football. This was a change necessitated by the premiere of the Boomer and Carton morning show on the network's flagship station, New York's WFAN, which saw Esiason and Craig Carton take over the station's morning show following Don Imus' firing and a job which, when combined with his CBS duties, has Esiason in New York six days a week. Esiason employs a private jet service to get him to and from Monday night games outside the New York-Delaware Valley area, but for games that require significant travel (e.g. west coast games, certain games outside the Northeastern U.S. or games held outside the U.S.) he is unable to return to New York in enough time to rest and be ready for the start of Boomer and Carton at 6:00 am, thus requiring a fill-in analyst for those games.
Initially, Albert called the game with a rotating series of guest analysts on weeks that Esiason was unavailable. Beginning in 2009, Westwood One appointed Kevin Harlan and Warren Moon to serve as the backup broadcast team, with Harlan substituting for Albert on games he was unable to make due to other commitments (a role formally filled by Dave Sims) and Moon substituting for Esiason.
The pairing ended following the 2009 NFL season, with Albert's last call being Super Bowl XLIV in Miami. On June 4, 2010, Albert announced that he was leaving Westwood One to focus on his NBA broadcasting duties for TNT and the YES Network. In 2011, he returned to calling NFL games for CBS television.
Harlan and Esiason (2010–2017)
On June 29, 2010, it was announced that Kevin Harlan would be succeeding Albert as Westwood One's primary play-by-play voice for Monday Night Football, with Esiason continuing as color commentator. In 2010, Randy Cross served as Esiason's substitute for select games, while Wayne Larrivee filled in on play-by-play when Harlan was unavailable. The following year, Dan Fouts replaced Cross as substitute analyst and stayed until 2014 when Kurt Warner replaced him.
2016 substitutions
In 2016, for the first time since being employed by the network, Esiason did not call the opening game of the season as it took place in Denver. Regular substitute Kurt Warner filled in for Esiason. During Week 7 of the same season neither Harlan or Esiason was available for the Monday Night game, Kevin Kugler filled in for Harlan as he was calling the International Series game in London, England for NFL Network, with Kurt Warner also filling in for Esiason (despite Kugler and Warner, the latter filling in for James Lofton, calling the Sunday Night Football game the previous night). For the Week 11 Monday Night game (Texans-Raiders) being played in Mexico City, Armando Quintero and Benny Ricardo (both Mexican-Americans) called the game instead of Harlan and Esiason/Warner. Kugler and Warner would again call the Week 16 Monday Night game (Lions-Cowboys), with Kugler filling in for Harlan as the latter called the Christmas Night game (Broncos-Chiefs) in Kansas City (where Harlan resides in) with Lofton.
Harlan and Warner (2018–present)
On August 9, 2018, it was announced that Kurt Warner would be succeeding Esiason as Westwood One's primary color commentator for Monday Night Football ending Esiason's 18-year reign in the Monday Night Football booth, with Harlan continuing as play-by-play announcer. However, Esiason called the opening game of the 2018 season (Falcons-Eagles) as his final game for the network.
For the opening-week Monday night doubleheader, the primary team initially split up to cover the two games. In 2014, for example, Esiason joined Ian Eagle to call the early game while Harlan teamed with James Lofton on the broadcast of the late game. However, this was no longer the case as of the 2018 season due to Esiason's departure, with Harlan and Warner calling the late game.
Pregame and halftime show host
The Monday Night Football pregame and halftime shows are conducted differently from usual pregames, as there is no other game action to recap. Jim Gray presided over both the pregame and halftime shows, which are more feature driven and often feature guest commentators such as Tom Brady and Larry Fitzgerald, who contributes to the pregame show weekly with predictions and commentary. In addition to the Monday night games, Gray also hosted the studio shows for the Thursday opening game and the Super Bowl. For the Monday Night game held in Mexico during Week 11 of the 2016 season, Scott Graham co-hosted the pregame and halftime shows with Gray. Starting with the 2021 season, NFL Network host Rich Eisen succeeded Gray on this role while, in-turn, also relocating the Monday Night pregame/halftime coverage to Los Angeles from the network’s New York City studios. Gray, Fitzgerald and Brady have since started a podcast titled Let's Go!, which airs on Mondays during the season on SiriusXM NFL Radio prior to the game broadcasts.
Steve Tasker serves as the sideline reporter for Monday Night Football. John Dockery served as sideline reporter from 1999 to 2007. From 2008 to 2012, there was no official sideline reporter for Monday Night Football.
Spanish language
In 2005, Westwood One carried an alternate Spanish-language feed featuring Clemson Smith-Muniz as play-by-play host and David Crommett as commentator. Those broadcasts have moved to United Stations Radio Networks.
Thursday Night Football
In addition to its Sunday and Monday night coverage, Westwood One also is the radio home for Thursday Night Football. Westwood One and its predecessors have always aired Thursday games in the past, but until 2006 those games were usually limited to Thanksgiving, rarely scheduled midweek games, and the season opening game beginning in 2002.
When Thursday Night Football was added to the NFL schedule permanently, Westwood One created a specific broadcast team to cover it. From 2006 until 2008, Dick Enberg was the play-by-play man. Sam Wyche was the initial color analyst, and Dennis Green replaced him after the 2006 season.
Since 2009, Ian Eagle has been the voice of Thursday Night Football for Westwood One and Dave Pasch, Tom McCarthy or Brandon Gaudin has worked as a backup play by play man for Thursday Night Football in 2021. After Dennis Green left to take the head coaching position with the United Football League's California Redwoods in 2008, Fox television analyst Trent Green replaced him and stayed on until the end of the 2013 season when Mike Mayock took over.
As of 2022, Eagle's analyst is Tony Boselli. The backup announcers for 2022 will be Kevin Kugler (play by play) and Jason McCourty (analyst).
Saturday games
When the NFL expanded its weekly games into Thursday nights on a regular basis, a package of Saturday night games was added as part of it and the entire broadcast package was titled Run to the Playoffs. As Westwood One had already had rights to the late season Saturday afternoon tripleheaders through 2005, the network retained its rights when the Saturday action was reduced to one game.
For the first two seasons, where three Saturday Night Football games were broadcast, Westwood One carried a separate broadcast team for those games. Joel Meyers called the games the first year while Don Criqui called them the second. When the Saturday night action became infrequent, Westwood One opted to not have a specific team to cover those matchups.
As of 2021, Westwood One carries all late season Saturday doubleheaders, with few exceptions mainly due to exclusivity (e.g the 49ers-Cardinals matchup during Week 16 of the 2020 season, as the game was exclusive to Amazon Prime Video).
Former Sunday doubleheader coverage
Prior to 2018, The NFL on Westwood One featured two games each week from the Sunday afternoon lineup, with one beginning at 1:00 pm and one at 4:25 pm. Westwood One marketed these games as "tripleheaders" when also including the Sunday Night Football broadcasts.
During the 2013 season, due to the rescheduling of the San Diego Chargers–Oakland Raiders Week 5 game to 8:25 pm PDT, the network had obtained the rights to broadcast that game nationally, forming a quadrupleheader. The "quadrupleheader" process would continue on Week 8 of the 2014 season, during Weeks 4, 7 and 8 of the 2015–16 seasons and during weeks 4 & 8 of the 2017 season, all of which are due to the network carrying the NFL International Series games in England on those weeks (all with 9:30 am EST (2:30 pm local time) start times).
Broadcast teams
Westwood One employed two separate broadcast teams for the Sunday doubleheader. Over the years, the lead announcers included Harry Kalas, Howard David, Dave Sims, and Bill Rosinski among others. Analysts included Tony Boselli, Jack Ham, and Rod Woodson.
NFL Films narrator Scott Graham hosted all studio segments for the Sunday games on Westwood One, having taken this position once previous host Tommy Tighe moved to ESPN Radio. In addition to his studio duties, Graham would also provide play-by-play on certain games. In such cases, either Jason Horowitz replaced him in the studio or Graham did the studio segments on-site. After Jim Gray’s departure just before the 2021 season, Graham hosted the pre-game/halftime for that season’s Super Bowl alongside Willie McGinest.
Playoff coverage
For the first two rounds of the playoffs, often the regular broadcast teams are mixed, due to Boomer Esiason's unavailability. During the wild card and divisional weekends, there are four games, therefore four separate crews are needed. Some of the other established crews call the less-popular games. For instance, in 2007, Dick Enberg and Dennis Green (from the Thursday night crew) called one of the wild card games, and Marv Albert called games alongside Jim Fassel from the Sunday doubleheader team. In 2009, the teams were even more mixed – for example, Marv Albert called an opening round game with Dennis Green and a divisional playoff game with Warren Moon.
Typically, the first time the main crews are together comes during Conference Championship weekend, since Boomer Esiason has commitments with The NFL Today. When he joined the CBS studio show, the crew traveled to the site of the AFC Championship Game every year; this meant the Monday night crew would be exclusively responsible for calling the game. CBS has not chosen to travel to the sites of the AFC Championship Game from 2006 to 2015, so Esiason stays behind in New York with the NFL Today panel. In the first of those two seasons Marv Albert called the 2007 game in Indianapolis alongside Sam Wyche.
In 2008, neither Albert nor Esiason was available on championship weekend, so Dave Sims and Bob Trumpy moved to the AFC Championship Game in New England while Bill Rosinski took Albert's place alongside Jim Fassel for the NFC Championship Game in Green Bay. For 2009, Albert returned to the booth for Championship Sunday, calling the NFC Championship Game alongside Fassel with Dave Sims and Dennis Green responsible for the AFC Championship Game. The 2010 Conference Championship Games saw Kevin Harlan and Warren Moon call the AFC Championship Game while Sims and James Lofton called the NFC championship Game.
The broadcast teams have stayed together throughout the playoffs; this was made simpler with the addition of a permanent backup analyst for Monday Night Football.
For 2016, Harlan and Esiason called the AFC Championship Game, as CBS will be traveling to the 2016 AFC Championship Game in Denver for the first time since 2006, allowing Esiason to work both his NFL Today and radio duties on-site. While Kevin Kugler and James Lofton will be calling the NFC Championship game.
For the 2019 playoffs, NBC's Mike Tirico and ESPN's Brian Griese called the Saturday AFC wild card game, owing to the reduction of Westwood One to three announce teams for the primetime games in the regular season, who then covered the remainder of Wild Card Weekend's four games.
Due to the expanded playoffs in 2021, which resulted in six games during Wild Card Weekend, Westwood One called in many of its backup announcers to cover the full slate of games. For the first tripleheader on Saturday, John Sadak and Ross Tucker call Colts-Bills, Ryan Radtke and Mike Holmgren call Rams-Seahawks, and Kevin Harlan and Ron Jaworski call Buccaneers-Washington. On Sunday, Brandon Gaudin and Rod Woodson call Ravens-Titans, Kevin Kugler and James Lofton call Bears-Saints, and Kevin Harlan and Tony Boselli call Browns-Steelers.
Other programming
Westwood One, in addition to its game coverage and highlight show on Sundays, Mondays, and Thursdays, offers to affiliate stations four different NFL-related programs during the season leading up to the Super Bowl. The first to premiere is Fantasy Football Forecast, originally an hour-long weekly program hosted by Kevin Kugler and James Lofton regarding fantasy leagues. This program premieres in late August and runs until the final week of the season and is now a two-minute feature hosted by Jason Horowitz.
A second program, NFL Insider, runs from the beginning of the season through to the Super Bowl, is a program hosted by Scott Graham, where he provided analysis of the week, present highlights of the previous week's action, and interview players and coaches.
Scott Graham and Mike Golic host an NFL preview show every week (appropriately called NFL Preview), where they analyze each game in depth and provide information about what players and other factors will play roles in the upcoming week. This program runs through Super Bowl Sunday and is thirty minutes in length, but runs for an hour leading into the Super Bowl.
A live radio version of The NFL Today runs every Sunday morning before the main CBS version during the season, hosted by Amber Theoharis alongside rotating analysts.
Warner also hosts a weekly podcast The Kurt Warner QB Podcast (named after Warner himself), where he and Kevin Harlan analyze and review quarterback plays throughout the season.
During the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic, the network also re-broadcast select NFL postseason games from past seasons, including Super Bowl I, Super Bowl XLII, and Super Bowl LIV.
Under the NFL's 2022 contract with Westwood One, it will also provide coverage of other "tentpole" events such as the NFL draft combine, NFL Draft, the schedule release, and the NFL Honors.
Announcers
2020 adjustments
As mentioned above, the Sunday NFL broadcasts have been affected due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the move of Kevin Kugler to Fox television for the season. Thus, Westwood One is employing a different arrangement that will feature different broadcasters from week to week based on geography. This arrangement was then extended to Monday and Thursday night broadcasts for select games.
In Week 2, Westwood One's lead college football voice Ryan Radtke called the matchup between the New England Patriots and the Seattle Seahawks. Mike Holmgren, former Seahawks coach and sometimes guest analyst on Westwood One broadcasts, served as color commentator.
In Week 3, Madden NFL commentator Brandon Gaudin is the play-by-play announcer for both the Thursday (Dolphins-Jaguars; with Derek Rackley) and Sunday night (Packers-Saints; with Rod Woodson) games. Ian Eagle and Tony Boselli, the Thursday Night Football crew, called the Monday night game (Chiefs-Ravens).
In Week 5, Kevin Harlan and Ben Leber called the Thursday Night game (Buccaneers-Bears).
In Week 6, Sunday/Thursday night pregame host Scott Graham called one game of an impromptu Monday night doubleheader (Chiefs-Bills, which was postponed from the originally scheduled Thursday night), alongside Ross Tucker.
In Week 8, Brandon Gaudin and Tony Boselli called the Thursday night game (Falcons-Panthers). Regular substitute Tom McCarthy (also a play-by-play announcer for the Philadelphia Phillies) and Ross Tucker called the Sunday night game (Cowboys-Eagles). Ian Eagle and Ron Jaworski, a former Monday Night Football analyst for ESPN, called the Monday night game (Buccaneers-Giants).
In Week 9, Ryan Radtke and Rod Woodson called the Thursday night game (Packers-49ers). Brandon Gaudin and Derek Rackley called the Sunday night game (Saints-Buccaneers).
In Week 12, Kevin Harlan and Ron Jaworski called the Monday night game (Seahawks-Eagles). Kenny Albert, who normally calls NHL games for the network, and Anthony Becht called a Wednesday afternoon game (Ravens-Steelers, which was originally scheduled as the Thanksgiving night game but was postponed multiple times).
In Week 13, Scott Graham and Ross Tucker called a Tuesday night game (Cowboys-Ravens, which was originally scheduled as a Thursday night game)
In Week 14, CBS Sports' Spero Dedes and Terrell Davis called the Thursday night game (Patriots-Rams). Tom McCarthy and Ross Tucker called the Sunday Night game (Steelers-Bills).
In Week 15, Ryan Radtke and Kurt Warner called the Thursday night game (Chargers-Raiders). Radtke and Rod Woodson called the first Saturday game (Bills-Broncos) while former Sunday doubleheader voice John Sadak and Shaun O'Hara called the second game (Panthers-Packers). Tom McCarthy and Ross Tucker called the Sunday night game (Browns-Giants).
In Week 16, Scott Graham and Ross Tucker called the Christmas Day game (Vikings-Saints). During the Saturday tripleheader, John Sadak and Jim Miller called the first game (Buccaneers-Lions) while Ryan Radtke and Rod Woodson called the last game (Dolphins-Raiders); Westwood One did not produce a feed of the 49ers-Cardinals matchup. Brandon Gaudin and Ben Leiber will call the Sunday night game (Titans-Packers); Tom McCarthy and Ross Tucker will call the Monday night game (Bills-Patriots).
Availability
For the Conference Championship games and the Super Bowl, most affiliate radio stations of the participating teams' networks must accept the feed from Westwood One. Only the flagship stations (in both English and other languages) can transmit the team's local radio broadcast, although the local broadcasts are also available on Sirius XM and NFL Game Pass. An exception is made for the Green Bay Packers because they technically have flagships in two separate cities, WTAQ-AM-FM and WIXX in Green Bay and WRNW in Milwaukee. If the local Westwood One affiliate is not the same as the corresponding affiliate of the team, the Westwood One station retains broadcast rights and the team's station must switch to alternate programming (for example, KSPN in Los Angeles aired an alternate feed of ESPN Radio on January 20, 2008 when the San Diego Chargers played in the AFC Championship Game, as exclusive rights belonged to KLAC, the Chargers' L.A. affiliate. The same situation occurred in 2011 with WAPL as part of the Packers example above; although that station is licensed to Appleton south of Green Bay, the station transmits from the same site as WIXX, but as it is an 'out-of-market' station according to NFL rules, carried the Westwood One call rather than the Packers home call during the NFC Championship Game and Super Bowl XLV).
For all other weeks, within 75 miles of a team's stadium, only stations the team or its flagship station contracts with can carry those games, regardless if the team is home or away. Thus, any competing station that carries Westwood One broadcasts cannot air those games- for instance, any time the New York Jets are playing on Sunday or Monday nights, their games do not air on New York City's Westwood One affiliate, WFAN, as exclusive rights to the game broadcast lie with the Jets' flagship WEPN-FM (In the case of the Sunday doubleheaders, most stations can opt for an alternate national broadcast from the Sports USA Radio Network or, beginning in 2009, Compass Media Networks.) This rule applies to Toronto, Canada whenever the Buffalo Bills play nationally. (However, in the case of Toronto, the same station affiliates with both the Bills radio network and Dial Global, which means the only difference is which broadcast team the station uses). For a time before the most recent moves of the Los Angeles Chargers and Rams, the rule applied to the Los Angeles market, but it was relaxed in 2008 and all national radio broadcasts were available in that market on KLAC (Dial Global) and KFWB (Sports USA Radio) until the Rams returned to the market on KSPN in 2016.
The NFL on Westwood One was not available on the NFL Game Pass (formerly Audio Pass) subscription service, though the network's prime time and playoff broadcasts became available beginning in the 2009 NFL season as a result of a new broadcast contract. All prime time and playoff broadcasts are carried on Sirius XM NFL Radio. Officially, games could not be streamed on internet radio by affiliates per NFL rules.
In 2022, it was announced that Westwood One games will now be able to be streamed for free via their affiliates' digital platforms, as well as the NFL mobile app.
Current terrestrial affiliates
This is an incomplete list of NFL on Westwood One Sports terrestrial± affiliates across the United States. Programming is subject to local blackouts, their own game broadcasts for their local teams, and other station programming.
Notes
External links
American sports radio programs
Westwood One
Westwood One
National Football League on the radio
CBS Radio programs
CBS Radio Sports
1970s American radio programs
1980s American radio programs
1990s American radio programs
2000s American radio programs
2010s American radio programs
Westwood One |
4058823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20the%20United%20States%20in%20fiction | Supreme Court of the United States in fiction | Like many institutions that draw public interest, the Supreme Court of the United States has frequently been depicted in fiction, often in the form of legal drama. While early depictions of the Supreme Court in fiction tended to be reverential, over time depictions became more critical and melodramatic. In some instances, real decisions rendered by real courts are dramatized, as in Gideon's Trumpet and the seminal trial in The People vs. Larry Flynt. Other depictions are purely fictional, but center on realistic issues that come before the court. Despite the comparative dearth of material on the Supreme Court in popular culture as compared to other branches of government, such depictions are "the primary source of the public's knowledge about the legal system as a whole, including the Supreme Court".
Reactions to different media
Court-centered fiction has been distinctively more successful in some media than others. For example, author Anthony Franze explained in an essay in The Strand the allure of writing fictional novels set in the Supreme Court, noting that as a location it has "an air of mystery", as well as interesting characters, a unique language, history, and tradition, and that it provides "a backdrop of unparalleled stakes".
On the other hand, television series centered on dramatizing the happenings of the court have proven to be short-lived, and have tended to receive overall negative critical reaction. One reason that has been suggested is that the Supreme Count is a court of appeals, whereas most legal drama portrays trial courts. Appeals may appear "bookish" in contrast to the theatrical storytelling of trials, especially juries. Furthermore, American audiences are not very knowledgeable about or interested in the Supreme Court.
Literature
Fictional accounts of the Supreme Court began with literary works. Of these it has been noted by Maxwell Bloomfield that "the earliest glimpses of the Court in American fiction occur as set pieces in satirical travelogues", with characters visiting the United States Capitol (which initially housed the Supreme Court), wherein "the furniture is described in greated detail than the Justices, who are pictured as emblems of republican virtue: aged, wise, and serene beings who are capable of listening to boring arguments for days without murmur". Bloomfield describes as representative of these works the 1822 George Watterston comic novel The L— Family at Washington; or, A Winter in the Metropolis, which provides descriptions of the courtroom and Justices Marshall and Washington, stating of the court, "its organization is as perfect as it can be, so far as it concerns its independence, the most important and excellent principle in the constitution of all judiciary establishments". An uncharacteristically negative depiction for its time was presented in the 1836 Nathaniel Beverley Tucker novel, The Partisan Leader, set in 1849 and depicting a corrupt Martin Van Buren using "the servile Judge [Philip] Baker of the Supreme Court" as a tool through which to exercise power. Early depictions of the court demonstrated a lack of knowledge of its procedures and internal administration.
This was generally the tenor of mentions of the court in literature throughout the 19th century, a notable exception being the 1897 novel Waiting for the Signal by Henry O. Morris, in which the court is criticized as a tool for the wealthy to exercise power. In the novel, "through its subservience to corporate wealth the Court unwittingly starts a revolution" by deeming labor organizations illegal under the Sherman Antitrust Act, leading to the writing of a new constitution. In 1901, the court decided the Insular Cases, issuing convoluted and deeply divided opinions with the net effect that the Constitution did not follow the flag. American journalist and humorist Finley Peter Dunne, through his cartoon character, Mr. Dooley, took advantage of the opportunity to puncture the court's ivory-tower reputation, writing "no matther whether th' constitution follows th' flag or not, th' Supreme Court follows th' iliction returns. The 1907 novel The Radical, by Isaac Kahn Friedman depicted a justice as having been "inexorably conditioned by his socioeconomic background" to find laws prohibiting child labor unconstitutional. The 1910 Robert Herrick novel, A Life for a Life, "portrayed the Justices as ancient logic-machines, programmed to respond only to the legal formulae of a preindustrial age".
In the 1937 musical, I'd Rather Be Right, with a book by Moss Hart and George S. Kaufman and lyrics by Lorenz Hart, President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempts to balance the budget to help Peggy Jones (Joy Hodges) and her boyfriend Phil (Austin Marshall), who needs a raise in order for them to get married. The Supreme Court justices intercede and declare each of Roosevelt's attempted solutions unconstitutional, ultimately declaring even the constitution itself unconstitutional, and deeming the court itself to be the only thing still constitutional.
Several novels and plays produced in the 1960s and 1970s presented character studies of fictional Supreme Court justices, including the 1963 Andrew Tully novel, Supreme Court, the 1966 William Woolfolk novel, Opinion of the Court, the 1972 Jay Broad play, A Conflict of Interest, the 1973 Henry Denker novel, A Place for the Mighty, the 1979 Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee play, First Monday in October, and the 1979 Walter F. Murphy novel, The Vicar of Christ. Maxwell Bloomfield describes the "common format" of these works as follows:
In The Vicar of Christ, the main character, Declan Walsh, follows a particularly improbable course. Beginning as a decorated war hero in the Korean War, he" becomes successively dean of a law school, chief justice of the Supreme Court, a Trappist, monk, and finally pope". In addition to the legal and operational dimensions, Bloomfield notes that these works tend to introduce some kind of romantic or sexual tension or scandal that humanizes the judges, and that the stories often involve judges at odds coming together to defend the institution of the court from external criticism.
More recent literature involving the Supreme Court has tended to come in the genre of legal thrillers and murder mysteries, such as Murder in the Supreme Court (1982), by Margaret Truman, The Pelican Brief (1992), by John Grisham, and The Tenth Justice (1997), by Brad Meltzer. These works tend to begin with the murder of someone connected to the Court—typically a justice or an important Court employee. As the mystery is unraveled, this turns out to be part of a much larger conspiracy to influence the outcome of a decision with national implications. The Pelican Brief in particular popularized the concept that nefarious forces might plot to remove a justice from the court for the purpose of changing the outcome of a matter before it. Christopher Buckley, in his 2008 novel, Supreme Courtship, presents a less common genre, a romantic comedy in which "his protagonist, the folksy television judge Pepper Cartwright, not only joins the Supreme Court but also marries its unhappy Chief Justice, Declan Hardwether, giving the novel the traditional comedic ending of marriage".
Film
Among the earliest films with a focus on a justice of the Supreme Court is the 1942 film, The Talk of the Town, starring Cary Grant, Jean Arthur, and Ronald Colman. In the film, Colman plays distinguished law professor Michael Lightcap, who has just learned that he is to be nominated to the Supreme Court. Grant plays Leopold Dilg a radical fugitive who takes refuge at the home of Jean Arthur's character, Nora Shelley, which is being rented by Lightcap. The film sets up a comedic love triangle with Dilg and Lightcap competing for Shelley's affection, and culminates with Lightcap being appointed to the court. An examination of the film in the context of reviewing court-related fiction notes that in addition to the romantic contest between the male leads, there is a philosophical one between Lightcap as "a Supreme Court nominee who views the law as a rational construct distinct from what he dismisses as the 'small emotions' of ordinary life, and Leopold Dilg, a vibrant, iconoclastic activist who believes that Lightcap must be 'thawed' before he can be trusted to join the Court". This emotional reform is demonstrated when Shelley visits Lightcap in his chambers and he tells her that his dream of 20 years has been realized, and suggests that Shelley should marry Dilg. Both Dilg and Shelley attend court at the first seating of Lightcap as an associate justice.
The 1981 film version of the play, First Monday in October, presented a story about the first woman on the Supreme Court. The film came out the year Sandra Day O'Connor became the first woman on the court. The film was based on a Broadway production which had opened in 1978, and starred Jane Alexander as the central Justice Ruth Loomis. In the film, "the conservative new appointee Ruth Loomis and the venerable liberal lion Dan Snow, spar over the law", but "appear to be sliding toward a romantic relationship in the manner of conventional Hollywood comedies". The film, however, "chooses instead to have Ruth and Dan discover that their jurisprudential disagreements are a vital source of judicial strength rather than a prelude to romance", with Snow convincing Loomis not to resign from the court over unethical conduct revealed to have been engaged in by her deceased husband.
In 1980, the workings of the court were portrayed in the television film, Gideon's Trumpet, dramatizing the case of Gideon v. Wainwright, which secured the right to counsel for the indigent. A 1991 television film, Separate but Equal, "celebrated the Court's decisions ending segregation" in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education, and the 1996 film, The People vs. Larry Flynt portrays the court in a positive light in its decision protecting the First Amendment rights of pornographer Larry Flynt in parodying Jerry Falwell. The court is thus presented as "defender of the Constitutional rights of even unpopular causes or despicable characters".
The 2013 HBO television film, Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight, provided a partly fictionalized depiction of the Supreme Court's deliberations in the case of Clay v. United States, in which the court threw out the criminal conviction of Muhammad Ali for refusing to report for induction into the United States military during the Vietnam War. The film was based on the 2000 book Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight: Cassius Clay vs. the United States of America by Howard Bingham and Max Wallace. Hank Stuever of The Washington Post commented that the film, focused as it was on the behind-the-scenes legal discussion of the Supreme Court's justices and law clerks, and depicting one of Justice Harlan's law clerks (a character that was "a fictional composite of several clerks") as playing a central role in the court's decision to free Ali, was at times "too much like a substandard episode of The Paper Chase" and "more Wikipedia entry than story, as characters speak to one another in long paragraphs of legal exposition". The Post did have positive comments about the lead performances of Christopher Plummer as Justice John Marshall Harlan II, and Frank Langella as Chief Justice Warren E. Burger. Christopher Howse of The Daily Telegraph said the film "was worth watching in the comfort of the home, but if it had been shown in a cinema, it would hardly have been worth stirring from the fireside for". Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times also commented on the excellent performances of the cast, while concluding that "[t]he legal wrangling of eight old white men behind closed doors simply pales in comparison" to Ali's part of the story.
Loving is a 2016 American biographical romantic drama film which tells the story of Richard and Mildred Loving, the plaintiffs in the 1967 U.S. Supreme Court (the Warren Court) decision Loving v. Virginia, which invalidated state laws prohibiting interracial marriage.
The 2018 film, On the Basis of Sex, depicts the circuit court ruling in Moritz v. Commissioner, which the Supreme Court refused to take up. The final scene shows Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg climbing the steps of the Supreme Court building.
Television
Supreme Court-centered TV series
Unlike novels and films presenting accounts of the Supreme Court, television series focusing on it as a subject have failed to gain an audience, and have consequently been short-lived. Two television series presenting fictionalized versions of the Supreme Court debuted in 2002, First Monday and The Court. First Monday starred Joe Mantegna and James Garner, with Mantegna portraying a fictional Joseph Novelli, a moderate and potential swing vote recently appointed to a Supreme Court evenly divided between conservatives and liberals. Garner was the conservative Chief Justice. The series lasted for thirteen episodes before its cancellation. The Court starred Sally Field as newly-appointed Justice Kate Nolan, depicted as struggling her way through the political aspects of her occupation. The Court was cancelled after three episodes, with several more produced but never aired. Both series, aired in the wake of the controversial 2000 Bush v. Gore decision, portrayed the court as divided between camps of differing political ideologies, and shaken up by a newly appointed justice at the center.
A 2010 series, Outlaw, starred Jimmy Smits as the fictional Cyrus Garza, a Supreme Court justice who resigns from the bench to start his own law firm, as a way to more directly promote the ends of justice. Much like its predecessors, the show was placed on hiatus after three of its eight produced episodes were broadcast, and was never brought back.
TV series with Supreme Court-related storylines
More successful fictional depictions of the Supreme Court have occurred as individual episodes of more acclaimed TV series, with appearances and storylines tailored to the tenor of the series. In courtroom drama series, this is typically in the form of cases culminating in arguments before the court. In political drama series, plotlines have tended to focus more on the appointment of justices as a political exercise, and on machinations involving the personal lives and predilictions of justices or nominees.
Boston Legal
In Boston Legal, Alan Shore and Denny Crane argue two cases before the Supreme Court during the series. In "The Court Supreme", Shore argues for overturning the death penalty sentence of a mentally handicapped man convicted of raping a young girl, which was based heavily on the 2008 case Kennedy v. Louisiana. In the series finale "Last Call", Shore returns to the Court to argue for Crane being allowed access to an experimental drug for Alzheimer's disease.
Designated Survivor
In the political thriller drama Designated Survivor, the majority of the Supreme Court is killed when the United States Capitol is destroyed in a terror attack in the pilot episode. In the episode The Ninth Seat (S01E17), President Tom Kirkman (Kiefer Sutherland) faces struggles when appointing the ninth and final member of the new Supreme Court, and elects to temporarily keep the Court at an even 8-member capacity. In the episode Run (S02E22) Chief Justice Peter Koeman (Keith Dinicol) warns President Kirkman to not have his staff try and influence court decisions.
House of Cards
In House of Cards (Season 3), President Frank Underwood (Kevin Spacey) is approached by Associate Justice Robert Jacobs (Jonathan Hogan) who requests he be allowed to retire due to having started to develop alzheimers. However, Underwood expresses his desire for Jacobs to remain on the court until he has passed groundbreaking job creation legislation. Underwood later tries to discourage his political rival, Solicitor General Heather Dunbar (Elizabeth Marvel) from running against him by offering her Jacob's place on the court, but she announces her candidacy before he can formally nominate her. Another named member of the court is Associate Justice Moretti (Kris Andrews). The court is shown to be composed of three women and six men, two of whom are African-American.
How To Get Away With Murder
How to Get Away with Murder (Season 4) features a Supreme Court session in episode 13, in which the protagonist, Annalise Keating (Viola Davis), brings a class action suit against the Federal Government for not providing effective public legal counsel, thus violating the 6th Amendment. This episode is also part of the crossover event between the same-universe TV show Scandal, and also features Olivia Pope (Kerry Washington). The court is composed of Chief Justice Peter Montgomery (Jesse D. Goins), Associate Justice Mark Spivey (Tom Irwin), Associate Justice Helen Bass (Cathy Ladman), Associate Justice Alberto Gutierrez (Ruben Pla), Associate Justice Strickland (Denis Arndt) and two other unnamed justices.
Madam Secretary
Madam Secretary (Seasons 2, 3 and 4) features occasional appearances of Chief Justice Wilbourne (Morgan Freeman), a close friend of Secretary of State Elizabeth McCord (Tea Leoni). Freeman also serves as an executive producer for the show. The name is retconned, with Freeman being credited as "Chief Justice Frowley" in his first appearance.
Picket Fences
In the Picket Fences episode "May It Please the Court", broadcast on 18 November 1994, defense attorney Douglas Wambaugh (played by Fyvush Finkel) and District Attorney John Littleton (played by Don Cheadle) engaged in oral arguments before the Court (with actors playing the real justices); Supreme Court oral argument veteran Alan Dershowitz guest starred as himself, advising Wambaugh on strategy for addressing the Court. The case dealt with the admissibility of a murderer's confession.
Political Animals
Political Animals (2012 miniseries) features Associate Justice Diane Nash (Vanessa Redgrave), the first openly gay member of the court. She serves as a friend and mentor to Secretary of State Elaine Barrish (Sigourney Weaver).
Salvation
In season two of the suspense sci-fi drama series Savlation, there is a politically related Supreme Court subplot. After the brief incapacitation and later reinstatement of President Pauline Mackenzie (Tovah Feldshuh), Vice President Monroe Bennett (Sasha Roiz), who previously served as Acting President, argues his power was illegally revoked and submits a claim at the Supreme Court. The court is split 4-4 when a suicide bomber attacks the United States Supreme Court Building, incapacitating Chief Justice Martin Cheng (Hiro Kanagawa), the remaining swing vote. Cheng later recovers, and casts his vote 5-4 in favour of Mackenzie. Another named judge is Associate Justice Praeger (Corina Akeson).
Scandal
The series Scandal (Season 2) features Associate Justice Verna Thornton (Debra Mooney) as a primary antagonist for the first half of the second season. Aware that President Fitzgerald Thomas Grant III (Tony Goldwyn) ascended to the presidency through voter fraud in Defiance County, Ohio she attempted to have him assassinated. Suffering with terminal cancer, she was pressured by Vice President Sally Langston (Kate Burton) to give up her seat, which she refused. She is eventually suffocated in hospital by President Grant so she cannot reveal the truth about his election, with her death being made to look like the result of the cancer.
Shooter
The drama series Shooter (based on the 2007 film of the same name) contains a Supreme Court related subplot in Season 3. A secretive government cabal named Atlas pushes for Judge Ray Brooks (Michael O'Neill) to be appointed the next Chief Justice, as they can manipulate him to be their swing vote with evidence of war crimes he committed whilst serving in the Vietnam War. When the conspiracy is discovered, several members of the court are targeted, including Associate Justice Gibson (Rhea Perlman) and Associate Justice Romero Dominguez (Castulo Guerra).
The Outer Limits
In the 1995 Syfy science fiction revival series The Outer Limits, the episode Final Appeal (S06E021) focuses on the Supreme Court in the year 2076. They are hearing the final appeal of the conviction of Dr. Theresa Evans (Amanda Plummer), a time traveller for whom the death penalty is sought for bringing advanced technology into the world after such technology has been banished. In this future setting, there are only 5 justices: Chief Justice Haden Wainwright (Charlton Heston), Associate Justice Earl Clayton (Robert Loggia), Associate Justice Gretchen Parkhurst (Cicely Tyson), Associate Justice Kendall Woods (Swoosie Kurtz) and Associate Justice Oliver Harbinson (Hal Holbrook). The court ultimately votes 3-2 to acquit Evans.
The West Wing
The West Wing involved frequent discussions or depictions of fictional past and present Supreme Court justices. Two episodes ("The Short List" in 1999, and "Celestial Navigation" in 2000) center on the nomination of "Roberto Mendoza," played by Edward James Olmos, as the first Hispanic Justice. At the opening of the episode "Celestial Navigation", Mendoza has been arrested for drunk driving and resisting arrest. Sam Seaborn stresses that Mendoza doesn't drink alcohol, telling C. J. Cregg that Mendoza was arrested for "driving while being Hispanic". The sergeant on duty tells Sam that Mendoza's driving was faulty, and that he wasn't sure that Mendoza hadn't been drinking alcohol. Sam responds by informing the officers that Mendoza has a chronic illness that would render any significant drinking fatal. Mendoza expresses frustration at how he'd been treated by the police, having been searched and handcuffed in front of his wife and nine-year old son. Mendoza vowed to use the criminal justice system to acquit himself, instead of letting the White House get him out, but is persuaded that he could make a much bigger difference on the Supreme Court, and that he would be unable to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate if the story circulates. Mendoza agrees to be released and the officers' apologize to Mendoza and to his son, with the incident remaining off the record.
Writing for the Daily Bruin, Alex Driscoll praised the focus on Mendoza's being racially profiled. Driscoll writes that while Mendoza was released quietly and quickly, many cases of a victim being racially profiled do not have the same outcome. She praises Sorkin for providing attention to the point that race can matter more than guilt or innocence in determining how a suspect is treated by police, and notes that most suspects in this case will not have powerful members of the U.S. government to bail them out, that forms of protest similar to Mendoza's refusing of a breathalyzer test have spread across the United States.
A third episode, "The Supremes" in 2004, dealt with the issue of preserving ideological balance on the Court. The President makes a deal with the Republican Congress to simultaneously appoint a very liberal judge "Evelyn Baker Lang" (played by Glenn Close) as the Court's first female Chief Justice, and a very conservative judge, "Christopher Mulready" (played by William Fichtner) as an Associate Justice. The 2000 episode "Take This Sabbath Day" also opened with a scene depicting the Court's main chamber.
Veep
The comedy series Veep (Season 6) sees former President Stuart Hughes nominated to a vacant position on the Supreme Court by President Laura Montez (Andrea Savage) after the death of Associate Justice Tenny. Hughes becomes the second person after William Howard Taft to serve as both President and as a Supreme Court justice.
References
Further reading
Laura Krugman Ray, "Judicial Fictions: Images of Supreme Court Justices in the Novel, Drama, and Film", 39 Arizona Law Review 151 (1997)
Fiction
Fiction about law |
4058858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fools%20Garden | Fools Garden | Fools Garden (until 2003 known as Fool's Garden) is a German band formed in 1991 in the city of Pforzheim. The founders of the group and the only permanent members are vocalist Peter Freudenthaler and guitarist Volker Hinkel. In 1993, bassist Thomas Mangold, keyboardist Roland Röhl and drummer Ralf Wochele were invited to join Fool's Garden for recording of the first studio album Once in a Blue Moon.
The band became famous worldwide in 1995 owing to the release of their third studio album Dish of the Day and, in particular, the song "Lemon Tree", which entered numerous music charts around the world and topped five of them. However, Fool's Garden was never able to repeat the success of their only hit. A series of failures to replicate the commercial success of Dish of the Day in 1997, 2000 and 2003 resulted in tension and disagreement amongst the band's members, and dramatically discredited its reputation in the eyes of record label executives. Consequently, Mangold, Röhl, and Wochele left Fool's Garden in 2003, but a year later new musicians joined the band. To signify the change, it was decided to remove the apostrophe from the band's name on their next album, Ready for the Real Life. Due to the problems caused by the lack of a label ready to work with Fools Garden, the members of the band founded their own company Lemonade Music in 2004.
Fools Garden's musical style has been characterized as pop rock, soft rock, Britpop and some other genres. Critics have noted the influence of such artists as The Beatles, Sting, and The Who. The group may be classified as a one-hit wonder.
Since its formation in 1991, the band has released 9 studio albums, received 12 music awards, and played over a thousand live performances. The bands's total sales have exceeded 6 million copies. Up to the present, Fools Garden continues concert activity and gives performances all over the world. The band performs both in complete line-up and as a duo (Hinkel/Freudenthaler) or a trio (Hinkel/Freudenthaler/Holz).
Background
In 1987, Volker Hinkel and Claus-Dieter Wissler founded the music project called Magazine. Together they recorded two songs: "W. A. R." (this song was dedicated to the Gulf War) and "A Time of Life". Later in 1991, Hinkel entered the University of Stuttgart, where he became acquainted with Peter Freudenthaler, who studied multimedia technology. Prior to starting his studies at the university, Peter Freudenthaler had already participated in several musical groups and worked as a piano tuner. Having learned that Freudenthaler also composed music, Hinkel asked him for recordings of his songs ("Sandy" and "Tell Me Who I Am"), and later invited him to Magazine. Hinkel reworked Freudenthaler's arrangement of "Lena", which was the first work of the Hinkel/Freudenthaler duo.
Despite being Germans, the musicians made the decision to write songs in English, as they felt that English was more suitable to their music and the performers who inspired them sang in English as well.
Together they rearranged their compositions and recorded them on a compact cassette. Via Steffen Koch (who became the band's producer for the next few years), this cassette got to Gunter Koch. He listened to Magazine's songs, appreciated them and agreed to collaborate with the band on following recordings. Being inspired by the performance of Oasis, Blur and The Beatles, the musicians chose to play Britpop, despite the fact that it was extremely difficult to achieve any commercial success playing such music, since dance music and techno were especially popular in Germany in those years.
After a while, Hinkel and Freudenthaler discovered a newspaper advertisement, in which it was proposed to record an album for 130 DM. This is how Magazine was recorded. In addition to the songs recorded on the promo cassette, the album included two songs written by Hinkel with Claus Wissler, as well as a cover version of the song "I Am the Walrus" by The Beatles. This limited edition album was the precursor for the promo album Fool's Garden - Man in a Cage (simply abbreviated as Fool's Garden) released in 1991. They also decided to include a cover version of the song "Cry Baby Cry", which was sung by Volker Hinkel, as well as the songs "Scared" and "No Flowers By Request", which Hinkel recorded with Claus Wissler. In order to perform the recorded material live, it was decided to invite bassist Thomas Mangold, keyboardist Roland Röhl and drummer Ralf Wochele, and rename the band to Fool's Garden. According to Peter Freudenthaler, the name "Fool's Garden" was the most consistent with the band's philosophy and suited the description of its members.
The newly formed band played their first gig in 1991 — Fool's Garden performed as the opening act for Sidney Youngblood in Böblingen.
History
Early career and first successes (1991–1994)
The eponymous promo-album, which was dedicated to John Winston Lennon, got no recognition. There were only five copies ever produced. The band's first singles "Careless Games / Tell Me Who I Am" and "Once in a Blue Moon / Spirit '91" were released in 1992. Due to the lack of the opportunity to rehearse and record songs in a professional studio, the members of the young band were forced to meet several times a week in the living room of Volker Hinkel's parental home. In the same year, Fool's Garden first appeared on radio, television (TV channels SWR 3 in Stuttgart and Tele 5 in Munich) and began performing their first concerts in Pforzheim, which made them famous in their region.
In 1993, the band decided to re-record the songs from the promo CD and release the first full-length studio album Once in a Blue Moon. It was originally released by the group independently on the Town Music label with a circulation of one thousand copies. The CDs were sold mainly at concerts, sent to local radio and TV stations, and were also given away for free. To promote the new material, Fool's Garden immediately embarked on an extended concert tour throughout Baden-Württemberg and adjoining Bavaria. As Peter Freudenthaler recalled, at that time the band mainly performed in small municipal halls in front of a small audience. According to him, only 20 people came to the first Fool's Garden concert in Munich. It is also worth noting that on Fool's Garden and Once in a Blue Moon, the lead vocals were equally divided between Peter Freudenthaler and Volker Hinkel.
The album Once in a Blue Moon turned out to be a commercial failure, resulting in Town Music label suffering heavy losses and even ending up on the verge of bankruptcy. The company's management was going to cancel the contract with the band, but after a series of negotiations, Steffen Koch managed to convince the head of Town Music to retain the partnership with Fool's Garden until the next studio album was released. Moreover, despite all the efforts of the band and its producer, large companies did not dare to work with Fool's Garden.
Fool's Garden achieved their first major success in 1994. The German branch of fashion retailer C&A used "Wild Days", the first single from the band's upcoming studio album for a TV commercial. The song "Wild Days" won a competition from over 700 applicants. Also, the single "Wild Days" became the first release of the group to enter the music charts: the song reached #59 in the German chart (where it lasted 13 weeks) and #37 in Austria. In the same year, Fool's Garden made their first guest appearances in the German interregional newspaper Sonntag aktuell. Wolle Kriwanek, the author of the article, predicted a major success for Fool's Garden after listening to their songs, which just happened a year later.
Worldwide commercial success: "Lemon Tree" and Dish of the Day (1995–1996)
In April 1995, a single with the song "Lemon Tree" was released. It became a real hit and got high positions in many European charts. The atmosphere reminiscent to the one of The Beatles' songs, retro sounding in the style of the 1960s, perfect English pronunciation and melancholic lyrics let the song to gain recognition from millions of listeners around the world. Freudenthaler composed it when he was waiting for his girlfriend at home. There were 45 cover versions of the song recorded, and it has also been translated into 40 languages. Due to the lack of support from the major record label, Fool's Garden were forced to record, release and promote new releases on the small Town Records label almost independently.
Having noticed the success of Fool's Garden, Intercord, which had previously refused to cooperate with the band, signed a contract with them in November 1995. Intercord CEO Robert Collisch believed that the biggest benefit to Fool's Garden was that they were a real band, not just a project. The album Dish of the Day was released in December 1995, containing the songs "Lemon Tree" and "Wild Days". According to Intercord's report, Dish of the Day became a bestseller in Europe with over 600,000 copies sold and over 1,100,000 copies worldwide. The album entered many charts throughout Europe. Both "Lemon Tree" and Dish of the Day sold best in Austria and Switzerland. Fool's Garden's songs were played on radio stations around the world, from San Diego to Jakarta. The song also enjoyed success in the UK, where it peaked at #61 on the UK Singles Chart, and the remix version also entered the chart, peaking at a higher #26. According to Intercord, the band had great potential to play internationally. Due to Intercord, "Lemon Tree" and Dish of the Day achieved particular success in Southeast Asia: the song received the "Song of the Year" award from Metro Broadcast Corporation Ltd. in Hong Kong, and Taiwanese singer Tarcy Su has recorded covers in Mandarin and Cantonese Chinese. The album received gold certification in Thailand, platinum certification in Singapore, Taiwan and double platinum one in Malaysia.
Between March and May 1996, Fool's Garden had played about 50 concerts with an approximate audience of 700 people at each concert. In the summer of the same year, the quintet participated in 14 open-air concerts, performing as an opening act for the German pop rock band Pur, however already in the autumn Fool's Garden began touring as headliners. Between the 14th and 16 June 1996, Fool's Garden performed as headliners at the Open Flair music festival with such famous German performers as Marla Glen, Selig and Jazzkantine, and on 5 July, the band performed with Joan Osborne, Suede, Blur and Iggy Pop at the Midtfyns Festival in Ringe, Denmark. In the same year, Intercord reissued the album Once in a Blue Moon, however, despite the excitement around the band after the success of "Lemon Tree", the album neither entered the charts nor received any certification. Also in 1996, Fool's Garden's music first appeared in German cinema: the song "Wild Days" was included on the soundtracks for the film "Regular Guys" and the TV series "Freunde fürs Leben".
Worldwide tour and release of Go and Ask Peggy for the Principal Thing (1997–1999)
The success of 1995-1996 brought the band a number of awards, including ECHO, Goldene Stimmgabel, Goldene Europa, Bambi and R.SH Gold.
Following the commercial success of "Lemon Tree" and Dish of the Day, the band embarked on a worldwide concert tour, playing over 100 shows around the world. The number of listeners at the concerts reached up to 80,000. Fool's Garden have played in Europe outside Germany, North America, South Africa, and Asia, where it has achieved the greatest success. Touring in Italy and Spain was also successful. According to Thomas Mangold and Roland Röhl, at that time the members of the band had an income of about 1,500 Deutsche Mark per month. This allowed them to quit their regular jobs and take up professional musical careers.
After returning from the world tour, the musicians began working on a new album. Owing to the fact that Fool's Garden members became professional musicians and stopped spending time on regular work, new material was prepared very quickly: the songs were composed just in two months, and the process of recording took only six months - it began in January 1997 and lasted until July. Recording and mixing took place at Maryland and Hinkelstone Studio. The third album, Go and Ask Peggy for the Principal Thing, was released on 8 September 1997. Three months before the official release in order to promote the disc, a single with the song "Why Did She Go?" was released, which managed to stay on the German singles chart for 9 weeks, reaching #76. The song has also been suggested to be used for an automobile advertisement. Another notable song is "Probably", which was recognized as the group's second major success after "Lemon Tree". The single with the song peaked at #86 in the German chart, staying there for 8 weeks. Also "Probably" received serious support from radio stations and in 1997 almost entered the top 50 most played songs in Europe. In the same year, "Probably" was featured on the soundtrack for the TV series Kommisar Rex.
Despite Intercord's hopes that the new album will sell out in large numbers on the wave of the popularity of the previous platinum album Dish of the Day, Go and Ask Peggy for the Principal Thing did not repeat the success of its predecessor. It took only #44 in Germany and #50 in Switzerland. According to the Russian musical agency Zvuki.Ru, the reason for such failure was "absence of a title hit." In 1998, Fool's Garden performed at the German Cultural Days in Singapore.
Commercial failures and line-up changes (2000-2003)
Three years later, on 5 June 2000, Fool's Garden released their next studio album For Sale, which was produced by James Herter, on the Seven Days Music label. The name "For Sale" reflected the situation in the band at that time — after the breakup of the Intercord/EMI label, the band was literally put up for sale. The first single "Suzy" stayed on the German singles chart for 8 weeks, reaching #75. After the release of the album, the band arranged a promotional tour in Germany and also organized an autograph session in Munich. On 18 June, Fool's Garden performed in Singapore at the Radio Music Awards. Also on 24 July, the band performed in Ulm at a concert organized annually by the local radio station Radio 7. For Sale was released all over the world: in Europe, South Africa, Mexico, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Japan and the Philippines. Despite the vast geographic variety of the release and the band's efforts to promote the new material, the album turned out to be a commercial failure, it also did not achieve chart success: For Sale took #84 on the German albums chart, staying with this result for only 1 week. An attempt to release something similar to the biggest hit of the group "Lemon Tree" also failed — for 3 weeks in the German singles chart the song "It Can Happen" could not rise above #86.
In 2001, Fool's Garden signed a contract with another record label Polydor. In September of the same year, the band celebrated their 10th anniversary with a two-day party in Pforzheim, which featured many well-known German bands. The proceeds from this event were donated to charity through the Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy Foundation. Also in 2001, the band began work on their next studio album. The new CD 25 Miles to Kissimmee was ready to be released in early 2002, but due to delays on the part of Polydor Records, the album was not released until 17 January 2003. Due to another unsuccessful album, tension and disagreements occurred between the musicians. As a result, on 19 April of the same year, rumors appeared in the press that Fool's Garden had disbanded. Bassist Thomas Mangold, keyboardist Roland Röhl and drummer Ralf Wochele left the band. After leaving Fool's Garden, Thomas Mangold and Roland Röhl started an advertising agency and a print shop for production of CD and DVD covers in Merklingen. Mangold continued his musical career playing bass with many different bands. Ralf Wochele got a job as a music teacher at a school, and was also accepted into the band called CoverUp, in which he still participates.
Hinkel and Freudenthaler decided to pursue their musical careers as a duo. However, they faced a number of problems in the further promotion of the album 25 Miles to Kissimmee, as due to the breakup of the band Polydor refused to cooperate further with Fool's Garden. Therefore, the remaining members of the band formed their own label Lemonade Music. Soon, guitarist Gabriel Holz, bassist Dirk Blümlein and drummer Claus Müller were invited to the group for live performances. The last two musicians have collaborated with Volker Hinkel since 2002 on his solo project Hinkel, in particular on the album Not a Life-Saving Device. Changes in the line-up were also marked in the name of the band: from that time on, it became known as Fools Garden (without an apostrophe).
New line-up and musical style (2004–2013)
Volker Hinkel, Peter Freudenthaler and new musicians recorded the album Ready for the Real Life, which was released in the autumn of 2005. As soon as the work on the album was completed, Blümlein, Holz and Müller were invited to Fools Garden as permanent members. For the purpose of promoting the album, the single "Does Anybody Know? / Welcome Sun" was released in the summer of 2005. Critics noted a change in band's musical style: Fools Garden moved away from Britpop and switched to guitar-based melodic rock. The new musical style allowed the band to enter the airplay of radio stations again and the songs from Ready for the Real Life to become the soundtracks for various films, TV shows and commercials. On 3 July 2005, the band played their biggest concert, performing at the festival dedicated to the 750th anniversary of Kaliningrad. In total, the concert attracted over 100,000 listeners. Also in 2005, Fools Garden was honored with the Ravensburger Kupferle Award. In 2007 Gabriel Holtz left the band and returned to his native Neukölln.
In 2008–2009, Fools Garden released two new EPs, Napster Session 2008 and Home, as well as a compilation album High Times - The Best of Fools Garden and a live album Best Of Unplugged - Live. The compilation also contained a new song "High Time", which was released as a single. The song reached high positions in the charts of listeners of various radio stations, for example, Hessischer Rundfunk.
In 2011, the band celebrated their 20th anniversary by performing at a charity concert with the Pforzheim Chamber Orchestra. In the same year, Fools Garden began writing material for a new release, which was recorded in the first half of 2012 in England. In July of the same year, the new single "Innocence" was presented to a number of radio stations, and in August it reached number one on the SW3 listeners' chart. A video clip was also filmed for the song, which the band members created on their own. The seventh album Who Is Jo King? was released on 14 September. The cover artwork was created by Klaus Voormann, known for designing the cover for The Beatles Revolver in 1966. This explains the noticeable similarity between the two covers.
In early 2013, the second single from Who Is Jo King? "Maybe" was released. In the same year, Fools Garden performed at the German Festival at the Brandenburg Gate.
Second line-up change (2014–present)
The band's line-up changed again in 2014–2015. First of all, Gabriel Holz returned to Fools Garden in the autumn of 2014. In early 2015, keyboardist Torsten Kiefer joined the band, whereas in the early summer of the same year, drummer Claus Müller left the group and was replaced by Jan Hees. In 2015, Fools Garden performed cover versions of ten 1990s hit songs by various artists such as Depeche Mode, Annie Lennox, the Backstreet Boys, Bruce Springsteen, No Doubt and Madonna in their usual unique style for the third season of the RTL 90s-themed music show "Formula 1". For ten consecutive weeks, Fools Garden performed each song under the moderation of Peter Illmann. It was decided to release these cover versions on an album called Flashback.
At the end of 2016, Fools Garden together with the German jazz singer Karl Frierson recorded a new song "New World", which was released in early 2017. In the same year, the 10-episode documentary "25 Years to New World" was released on the band's official YouTube channel.
In April 2018, Fools Garden released their next album Rise and Fall, which was recorded at the band's own studio in Neuhausen. It was the first time when Gabriel Holz participated in composition of all the songs, along with Peter Freudenthaler and Volker Hinkel. It's the band's first album since 2000's For Sale to enter the German charts, reaching #97 between 7 and 13 May 2018. Maxazine named the album "the best since Dish of the Day and successor Go and Ask Peggy for the Principal Thing", and Musikreviews.de called Rise and Fall "the best album since 1995." To promote the new material, Fools Garden embarked on an extensive concert tour across Germany. Peter Freudenthaler and Volker Hinkel also expressed their desire to do a concert tour in the UK someday.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Fools Garden organized the online festival on Instagram called "Garden Festival". It was hold on 1 May 2020, and was also associated with a fundraising campaign organized by the Rotary Club Pforzheim. In the summer of the same year, Peter Freudenthaler, Volker Hinkel and Jan Hees took part in the recording of songs "ABCD" and "La-rissa" of the Italian music project La Crisi Di Luglio. At the moment the band is working on a new album. The first song "Outta Love" recorded in electro-pop genre was released on 25 September.
On 24 November 2022 it was announced that BMG Rights Management had acquired the recordings catalog of Fools Garden.
Musical style, influence and legacy
General characteristics and development
Critics classify Fools Garden's musical style as fusion of pop rock, soft rock, alternative rock, rock and roll, bubblegum pop, indie pop, Britpop, and post rock. Various sources also highlighted the elements of psychedelic rock, music hall, baroque pop, punk rock, power pop, indie rock, electronic rock, dream pop, dance music, synth-pop and new wave in the band's sound.
Russian newspaper Kommersant wrote that listeners usually learn about Fools Garden due to plays on retro-oriented radio stations (the vast majority includes the song "Lemon Tree"), but over the period of its existence the band has released many good albums. It was also mentioned that the band's style has similarities with both dance music and rock. In another article of the same newspaper, it was noted that the group has an attitude towards "old-fashioned pop-rock", but the band's material is quite diverse: "there are things that are heavier and softer, there are ballads and fierce songs, sometimes Freudenthaler even uses autotune." The clear influence of psychedelic rock has been noted in the songs "And You Say", "Suzy", "Rainy Day", "Noone's Song" and "Northern Town", and the author of the website Zvuki.Ru also mentioned that Fool's Garden play songs that fans of melodic rock may adore.
Joerg Hellwig, head of marketing at Intercord, told Billboard that Fool's Garden's music is "colorful guitar pop with a British touch and clear references to this genre's great tradition, which was perfected by The Beatles and have never been surpassed." The band members tried to avoid the use of electro elements and other effects and relied on acoustics to try to achieve a natural sound of the music. By the same edition, the band's style was characterized as Middle of the Road. A critic from Music & Media, describing the musical style of Dish of the Day, noted that the sound of Fool's Garden is based on the style of The Beatles, but the sound of guitars is closer to rock, and the song "Lemon Tree" was described as a mixture of circus music and bubblegum pop of the late 60s with signature melodies. In a review by Danish magazine Gaffa on the next album, Go and Ask Peggy for the Principal Thing, Lars Nielsen wrote that the release continues the "light airy melody" of its predecessor. In an interview for Billboard on the release of For Sale, the band's producer Steffen Koch noted that the band's songs have matured, with a more rock emphasis, while maintaining a Beatlesque sound. The songs in 25 Miles to Kissimmee were mostly melodic rock ballads. After the line-up change, Fools Garden moved away from Britpop and on the following album Ready for the Real Life they switched to "guitar-oriented rock". The style of the song "Cook It a While" was compared to the US West Coast rock. The album Who Is Jo King? was characterized by a strong bias towards indie pop, while certain elements of dance and electronic music started to be introduced into the band's sound. On their latest album Rise and Fall, Fools Garden returned to their original style, while continuing to experiment with sound. For example, the song "Still Running" was completely recorded in synth pop style.
Influence on the group's style
The Beatles were noted by many critics as the main artist to impact on the style of Fool's Garden. The typical Beatles' retro atmosphere and melancholic lyrics were observed in the sound of the band's songs. Both Peter Freudenthaler and Volker Hinkel have frequently named The Beatles as their main source of inspiration and creative ideas. Fool's Garden's musical style has been repeatedly described as being based on the work of The Beatles but with a heavier sound of guitars. In 2012, in the Russian talk show "Profilaktika", Freudenthaler and Hinkel were asked who was the most important person in Fools Garden, and both of them instantly replied 'Beatles.' The similarity in sound with the British inspirers turned out to be so strong that many listeners mistakenly attribute the authorship of the song "Lemon Tree" to them. In addition to the Fab Four, Fool's Garden' style was also compared with the sound of Blur and Simple Minds. The members also ranked Oasis, The Who and Coldplay as influential artists.
Lev Gankin from the Kommersant newspaper found "Lemon Tree" similar to the songs of Paul McCartney, stating "The romantic minor of verses, followed by a lively major in the choruses - something similar can be heard in countless McCartney hits, starting with the old "All My Loving". Also, according to other reviewers, the style of "Lemon Tree" was influenced by Sting and Jellyfish in terms of harmony and instrumental parts. Another example of Paul McCartney's influence on the band's style is the song "Probably".
The song "Suzy" has a borrowing from Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven": Robert Plant's vocal wail at the end of the original song was transformed into a synth riff in the bridge of "Suzy". Brian May from Queen was named as the source of inspiration for Volker Hinkel in writing guitar solos. The spread of elements of electronic music in the sound of recent albums is thought to be influenced by Moby and A-ha. Different critics describe several songs as being influenced by The Kinks, Pink Floyd, Fury in the Slaughterhouse, U2 and Eagle-Eye Cherry.
The members of Fools Garden also told they adore the music of Pat Metheny, Pete Townshend, Heintje Simons, Status Quo, Noel Gallagher, Half Moon Run, AC/DC, The Rolling Stones, Scorpions and Udo Lindenberg.
Appraisal
Fool's Garden are considered the followers of the Britpop wave that swept the world in the 90s, and the most prominent representatives of the German Britpop scene. The band is also one of the most iconic German performers on the international music scene along with the Scorpions, E-rotic, Fun Factory and Mr. President. Wolfgang Spahr, the German Bureau Chief of Billboard, presented Fool's Garden the "Ambassador Award" for great success in Asia in the 1996's final issue.
Fool's Garden have been recognized as one of the most famous and typical one-hit wonders. However, despite the fact that, in addition to "Lemon Tree", Fools Garden no longer released commercially successful singles, various sources also highlight other quite popular songs: "Wild Days", "It Can Happen", "Why Did She Go?", "Innocence", "Probably", "Suzy", "Closer", "Dreaming" and "Does Anybody Know?". In the interview for Frankfurter Allgemeine, Peter Freudenthaler stated that he thought about many songs that they would become hits, but this never happened.
In 2012, Alexander Rusakov, in his book "Who is Who, or MUZPROSVET in Global Contemporary Popular Music", put Peter Freudenthaler on #792 in the rating of 1000 best musicians of global contemporary popular music for participation in Fool's Garden. The band was mentioned to play the fundamental role in the formation of modern retro-rock trends. In the magazine Novyi Ochevidets, the song "Lemon Tree" was named the main German hit of the 90s. Frontman Peter Freudenthaler said in an interview for the Chas newspaper that Fool's Garden is "the third German band after the Scorpions and Modern Talking, which has gained worldwide popularity".
The band's songs can be found many times in popular culture. In the mid-1990s, Applause Inc., which owns the rights to the Smurfs franchise, released a compilation album Smurfenhits!, containing the song "Lemon Tree", recorded with the voice of the Smurfs, which bolstered sales for the company. Also, references to Fool's Garden and the songs "Lemon Tree" and "Rolling Home" can be found in modern fiction. During the 1996 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships, the song "Lemon Tree", being at its peak of popularity, sounded at every match of the Czech national team, thereby becoming a kind of symbol of the Czech national team. It is noteworthy that in this championship Czechs won a gold medal for the first time in history.
Band members
Current members
Peter Freudenthaler — lead and backing vocals, keyboards, composer (1991—present)
Volker Hinkel — guitar, lead and backing vocals, composer (1991—present)
Dirk Blümlein — bass guitar, backing vocals (2003—present)
Gabriel Holz — guitar, backing vocals, composer (2003—2007; 2014—present)
Thorsten Kiefer — keyboards (2015—present)
Jan Hees — drums, percussion (2015—present)
Former members
Claus-Dieter Wissler — composer (1991—1995)
Thomas Mangold — bass guitar, backing vocals (1991—2003)
Ralf Wochele — drums, percussion, backing vocals (1991—2003)
Roland Röhl — keyboards, backing vocals (1991—2003)
Claus Müller — drums, percussion, backing vocals (2003—2014)
Timeline of members
Discography
Studio albums
Fool's Garden (1991)
Once in a Blue Moon (1993)
Dish of the Day (1995)
Go and Ask Peggy for the Principal Thing (1997)
For Sale (2000)
25 Miles to Kissimmee (2003)
Ready for the Real Life (2005)
Who Is Jo King? (2012)
Flashback (2015)
Rise and Fall (2018)
Captain... Coast Is Clear (2021)
Live albums
Best Of Unplugged - Live (2009)
Compilation albums
High Times - The Best of Fools Garden (2009)
The Lost Tapes Vol. 1 (2018)
EPs
Home (2008)
Awards and nominations
References
Bibliography
External links
Fanclub websites
Band's fanclub
Official German Fanclub of Fools Garden
Other pages
Official website
Official Italian website
History of the band in Munzinger Archive
Advertising agency of Thomas Mangold and Roland Röhl
Hinkelstone Productions
Fools Garden on Spotify
Fools Garden on SoundCloud
Lemonade Music
German rock music groups
Musical groups established in 1991
Musical groups from Baden-Württemberg
1991 establishments in Germany |
4059023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search%20engine | Search engine | A search engine is a software system that finds web pages that match a web search. They search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular information specified in a textual web search query. The search results are generally presented in a line of results, often referred to as search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of hyperlinks to web pages, images, videos, infographics, articles, and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories and social bookmarking sites, which are maintained by human editors, search engines also maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler. Any internet-based content that cannot be indexed and searched by a web search engine falls under the category of deep web.
History
Pre-1990s
A system for locating published information intended to overcome the ever-increasing difficulty of locating information in ever-growing centralized indices of scientific work was described in 1945 by Vannevar Bush, who wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly titled "As We May Think" in which he envisioned libraries of research with connected annotations not unlike modern hyperlinks. Link analysis would eventually become a crucial component of search engines through algorithms such as Hyper Search and PageRank.
1990s: Birth of search engines
The first internet search engines predate the debut of the Web in December 1990: WHOIS user search dates back to 1982, and the Knowbot Information Service multi-network user search was first implemented in 1989. The first well documented search engine that searched content files, namely FTP files, was Archie, which debuted on 10 September 1990.
Prior to September 1993, the World Wide Web was entirely indexed by hand. There was a list of webservers edited by Tim Berners-Lee and hosted on the CERN webserver. One snapshot of the list in 1992 remains, but as more and more web servers went online the central list could no longer keep up. On the NCSA site, new servers were announced under the title "What's New!".
The first tool used for searching content (as opposed to users) on the Internet was Archie. The name stands for "archive" without the "v". It was created by Alan Emtage, computer science student at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The program downloaded the directory listings of all the files located on public anonymous FTP (File Transfer Protocol) sites, creating a searchable database of file names; however, Archie Search Engine did not index the contents of these sites since the amount of data was so limited it could be readily searched manually.
The rise of Gopher (created in 1991 by Mark McCahill at the University of Minnesota) led to two new search programs, Veronica and Jughead. Like Archie, they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher index systems. Veronica (Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to Computerized Archives) provided a keyword search of most Gopher menu titles in the entire Gopher listings. Jughead (Jonzy's Universal Gopher Hierarchy Excavation And Display) was a tool for obtaining menu information from specific Gopher servers. While the name of the search engine "Archie Search Engine" was not a reference to the Archie comic book series, "Veronica" and "Jughead" are characters in the series, thus referencing their predecessor.
In the summer of 1993, no search engine existed for the web, though numerous specialized catalogs were maintained by hand. Oscar Nierstrasz at the University of Geneva wrote a series of Perl scripts that periodically mirrored these pages and rewrote them into a standard format. This formed the basis for W3Catalog, the web's first primitive search engine, released on September 2, 1993.
In June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably the first web robot, the Perl-based World Wide Web Wanderer, and used it to generate an index called "Wandex". The purpose of the Wanderer was to measure the size of the World Wide Web, which it did until late 1995. The web's second search engine Aliweb appeared in November 1993. Aliweb did not use a web robot, but instead depended on being notified by website administrators of the existence at each site of an index file in a particular format.
JumpStation (created in December 1993 by Jonathon Fletcher) used a web robot to find web pages and to build its index, and used a web form as the interface to its query program. It was thus the first WWW resource-discovery tool to combine the three essential features of a web search engine (crawling, indexing, and searching) as described below. Because of the limited resources available on the platform it ran on, its indexing and hence searching were limited to the titles and headings found in the web pages the crawler encountered.
One of the first "all text" crawler-based search engines was WebCrawler, which came out in 1994. Unlike its predecessors, it allowed users to search for any word in any webpage, which has become the standard for all major search engines since. It was also the search engine that was widely known by the public. Also, in 1994, Lycos (which started at Carnegie Mellon University) was launched and became a major commercial endeavor.
The first popular search engine on the Web was Yahoo! Search. The first product from Yahoo!, founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994, was a Web directory called Yahoo! Directory. In 1995, a search function was added, allowing users to search Yahoo! Directory. It became one of the most popular ways for people to find web pages of interest, but its search function operated on its web directory, rather than its full-text copies of web pages.
Soon after, a number of search engines appeared and vied for popularity. These included Magellan, Excite, Infoseek, Inktomi, Northern Light, and AltaVista. Information seekers could also browse the directory instead of doing a keyword-based search.
In 1996, Robin Li developed the RankDex site-scoring algorithm for search engines results page ranking and received a US patent for the technology. It was the first search engine that used hyperlinks to measure the quality of websites it was indexing, predating the very similar algorithm patent filed by Google two years later in 1998. Larry Page referenced Li's work in some of his U.S. patents for PageRank. Li later used his Rankdex technology for the Baidu search engine, which was founded by him in China and launched in 2000.
In 1996, Netscape was looking to give a single search engine an exclusive deal as the featured search engine on Netscape's web browser. There was so much interest that instead, Netscape struck deals with five of the major search engines: for $5 million a year, each search engine would be in rotation on the Netscape search engine page. The five engines were Yahoo!, Magellan, Lycos, Infoseek, and Excite.
Google adopted the idea of selling search terms in 1998 from a small search engine company named goto.com. This move had a significant effect on the search engine business, which went from struggling to one of the most profitable businesses in the Internet.
Search engines were also known as some of the brightest stars in the Internet investing frenzy that occurred in the late 1990s. Several companies entered the market spectacularly, receiving record gains during their initial public offerings. Some have taken down their public search engine and are marketing enterprise-only editions, such as Northern Light. Many search engine companies were caught up in the dot-com bubble, a speculation-driven market boom that peaked in March 2000.
2000s–present: Post dot-com bubble
Around 2000, Google's search engine rose to prominence. The company achieved better results for many searches with an algorithm called PageRank, as was explained in the paper Anatomy of a Search Engine written by Sergey Brin and Larry Page, the later founders of Google. This iterative algorithm ranks web pages based on the number and PageRank of other web sites and pages that link there, on the premise that good or desirable pages are linked to more than others. Larry Page's patent for PageRank cites Robin Li's earlier RankDex patent as an influence. Google also maintained a minimalist interface to its search engine. In contrast, many of its competitors embedded a search engine in a web portal. In fact, the Google search engine became so popular that spoof engines emerged such as Mystery Seeker.
By 2000, Yahoo! was providing search services based on Inktomi's search engine. Yahoo! acquired Inktomi in 2002, and Overture (which owned AlltheWeb and AltaVista) in 2003. Yahoo! switched to Google's search engine until 2004, when it launched its own search engine based on the combined technologies of its acquisitions.
Microsoft first launched MSN Search in the fall of 1998 using search results from Inktomi. In early 1999, the site began to display listings from Looksmart, blended with results from Inktomi. For a short time in 1999, MSN Search used results from AltaVista instead. In 2004, Microsoft began a transition to its own search technology, powered by its own web crawler (called msnbot).
Microsoft's rebranded search engine, Bing, was launched on June 1, 2009. On July 29, 2009, Yahoo! and Microsoft finalized a deal in which Yahoo! Search would be powered by Microsoft Bing technology.
active search engine crawlers include those of Google, Sogou, Baidu, Bing, Gigablast, Mojeek, DuckDuckGo and Yandex.
Approach
A search engine maintains the following processes in near real time:
Web crawling
Indexing
Searching
Web search engines get their information by web crawling from site to site. The "spider" checks for the standard filename robots.txt, addressed to it. The robots.txt file contains directives for search spiders, telling it which pages to crawl and which pages not to crawl. After checking for robots.txt and either finding it or not, the spider sends certain information back to be indexed depending on many factors, such as the titles, page content, JavaScript, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), headings, or its metadata in HTML meta tags. After a certain number of pages crawled, amount of data indexed, or time spent on the website, the spider stops crawling and moves on. "[N]o web crawler may actually crawl the entire reachable web. Due to infinite websites, spider traps, spam, and other exigencies of the real web, crawlers instead apply a crawl policy to determine when the crawling of a site should be deemed sufficient. Some websites are crawled exhaustively, while others are crawled only partially".
Indexing means associating words and other definable tokens found on web pages to their domain names and HTML-based fields. The associations are made in a public database, made available for web search queries. A query from a user can be a single word, multiple words or a sentence. The index helps find information relating to the query as quickly as possible. Some of the techniques for indexing, and caching are trade secrets, whereas web crawling is a straightforward process of visiting all sites on a systematic basis.
Between visits by the spider, the cached version of the page (some or all the content needed to render it) stored in the search engine working memory is quickly sent to an inquirer. If a visit is overdue, the search engine can just act as a web proxy instead. In this case, the page may differ from the search terms indexed. The cached page holds the appearance of the version whose words were previously indexed, so a cached version of a page can be useful to the website when the actual page has been lost, but this problem is also considered a mild form of linkrot.
Typically when a user enters a query into a search engine it is a few keywords. The index already has the names of the sites containing the keywords, and these are instantly obtained from the index. The real processing load is in generating the web pages that are the search results list: Every page in the entire list must be weighted according to information in the indexes. Then the top search result item requires the lookup, reconstruction, and markup of the snippets showing the context of the keywords matched. These are only part of the processing each search results web page requires, and further pages (next to the top) require more of this post-processing.
Beyond simple keyword lookups, search engines offer their own GUI- or command-driven operators and search parameters to refine the search results. These provide the necessary controls for the user engaged in the feedback loop users create by filtering and weighting while refining the search results, given the initial pages of the first search results.
For example, from 2007 the Google.com search engine has allowed one to filter by date by clicking "Show search tools" in the leftmost column of the initial search results page, and then selecting the desired date range. It is also possible to weight by date because each page has a modification time. Most search engines support the use of the Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT to help end users refine the search query. Boolean operators are for literal searches that allow the user to refine and extend the terms of the search. The engine looks for the words or phrases exactly as entered. Some search engines provide an advanced feature called proximity search, which allows users to define the distance between keywords. There is also concept-based searching where the research involves using statistical analysis on pages containing the words or phrases you search for.
The usefulness of a search engine depends on the relevance of the result set it gives back. While there may be millions of web pages that include a particular word or phrase, some pages may be more relevant, popular, or authoritative than others. Most search engines employ methods to rank the results to provide the "best" results first. How a search engine decides which pages are the best matches, and what order the results should be shown in, varies widely from one engine to another. The methods also change over time as Internet usage changes and new techniques evolve. There are two main types of search engine that have evolved: one is a system of predefined and hierarchically ordered keywords that humans have programmed extensively. The other is a system that generates an "inverted index" by analyzing texts it locates. This first form relies much more heavily on the computer itself to do the bulk of the work.
Most Web search engines are commercial ventures supported by advertising revenue and thus some of them allow advertisers to have their listings ranked higher in search results for a fee. Search engines that do not accept money for their search results make money by running search related ads alongside the regular search engine results. The search engines make money every time someone clicks on one of these ads.
Local search
Local search is the process that optimizes the efforts of local businesses. They focus on change to make sure all searches are consistent. It is important because many people determine where they plan to go and what to buy based on their searches.
Market share
Google is by far the world's most used search engine, with a market share of 90.6%, and the world's other most used search engines were Bing, Yahoo!, Baidu, Yandex, and DuckDuckGo.
Russia and East Asia
In Russia, Yandex has a market share of 62.6%, compared to Google's 28.3%. And Yandex is the second most used search engine on smartphones in Asia and Europe. In China, Baidu is the most popular search engine. South Korea's homegrown search portal, Naver, is used for 62.8% of online searches in the country. Yahoo! Japan and Yahoo! Taiwan are the most popular avenues for Internet searches in Japan and Taiwan, respectively. China is one of few countries where Google is not in the top three web search engines for market share. Google was previously a top search engine in China, but withdrew after a disagreement with the government over censorship, and a cyberattack. But Bing is in top three web search engine with a market share of 14.95%. Baidu is on top with 49.1% market share.
Europe
Most countries' markets in the European Union are dominated by Google, except for the Czech Republic, where Seznam is a strong competitor.
The search engine Qwant is based in Paris, France, where it attracts most of its 50 million monthly registered users from.
Search engine bias
Although search engines are programmed to rank websites based on some combination of their popularity and relevancy, empirical studies indicate various political, economic, and social biases in the information they provide and the underlying assumptions about the technology. These biases can be a direct result of economic and commercial processes (e.g., companies that advertise with a search engine can become also more popular in its organic search results), and political processes (e.g., the removal of search results to comply with local laws). For example, Google will not surface certain neo-Nazi websites in France and Germany, where Holocaust denial is illegal.
Biases can also be a result of social processes, as search engine algorithms are frequently designed to exclude non-normative viewpoints in favor of more "popular" results. Indexing algorithms of major search engines skew towards coverage of U.S.-based sites, rather than websites from non-U.S. countries.
Google Bombing is one example of an attempt to manipulate search results for political, social or commercial reasons.
Several scholars have studied the cultural changes triggered by search engines, and the representation of certain controversial topics in their results, such as terrorism in Ireland, climate change denial, and conspiracy theories.
Customized results and filter bubbles
There has been concern raised that search engines such as Google and Bing provide customized results based on the user's activity history, leading to what has been termed echo chambers or filter bubbles by Eli Pariser in 2011. The argument is that search engines and social media platforms use algorithms to selectively guess what information a user would like to see, based on information about the user (such as location, past click behaviour and search history). As a result, websites tend to show only information that agrees with the user's past viewpoint. According to Eli Pariser users get less exposure to conflicting viewpoints and are isolated intellectually in their own informational bubble. Since this problem has been identified, competing search engines have emerged that seek to avoid this problem by not tracking or "bubbling" users, such as DuckDuckGo. However many scholars have questioned Pariser's view, finding that there is little evidence for the filter bubble. On the contrary, a number of studies trying to verify the existence of filter bubbles have found only minor levels of personalisation in search, that most people encounter a range of views when browsing online, and that Google news tends to promote mainstream established news outlets.
Religious search engines
The global growth of the Internet and electronic media in the Arab and Muslim World during the last decade has encouraged Islamic adherents in the Middle East and Asian sub-continent, to attempt their own search engines, their own filtered search portals that would enable users to perform safe searches. More than usual safe search filters, these Islamic web portals categorizing websites into being either "halal" or "haram", based on interpretation of the "Law of Islam". ImHalal came online in September 2011. Halalgoogling came online in July 2013. These use haram filters on the collections from Google and Bing (and others).
While lack of investment and slow pace in technologies in the Muslim World has hindered progress and thwarted success of an Islamic search engine, targeting as the main consumers Islamic adherents, projects like Muxlim, a Muslim lifestyle site, did receive millions of dollars from investors like Rite Internet Ventures, and it also faltered. Other religion-oriented search engines are Jewogle, the Jewish version of Google, and SeekFind.org, which is Christian. SeekFind filters sites that attack or degrade their faith.
Search engine submission
Web search engine submission is a process in which a webmaster submits a website directly to a search engine. While search engine submission is sometimes presented as a way to promote a website, it generally is not necessary because the major search engines use web crawlers that will eventually find most web sites on the Internet without assistance. They can either submit one web page at a time, or they can submit the entire site using a sitemap, but it is normally only necessary to submit the home page of a web site as search engines are able to crawl a well designed website. There are two remaining reasons to submit a web site or web page to a search engine: to add an entirely new web site without waiting for a search engine to discover it, and to have a web site's record updated after a substantial redesign.
Some search engine submission software not only submits websites to multiple search engines, but also adds links to websites from their own pages. This could appear helpful in increasing a website's ranking, because external links are one of the most important factors determining a website's ranking. However, John Mueller of Google has stated that this "can lead to a tremendous number of unnatural links for your site" with a negative impact on site ranking.
Comparison to social bookmarking
Technology
Archie
The first web search engine was Archie, created in 1990 by Alan Emtage, a student at McGill University in Montreal. The author originally wanted to call the program "archives", but had to shorten it to comply with the Unix world standard of assigning programs and files short, cryptic names such as grep, cat, troff, sed, awk, perl, and so on.
The primary method of storing and retrieving files was via the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). This was (and still is) a system that specified a common way for computers to exchange files over the Internet. It works like this: Some administrator decides that he wants to make files available from his computer. He sets up a program on his computer, called an FTP server. When someone on the Internet wants to retrieve a file from this computer, he or she connects to it via another program called an FTP client. Any FTP client program can connect with any FTP server program as long as the client and server programs both fully follow the specifications set forth in the FTP protocol.
Initially, anyone who wanted to share a file had to set up an FTP server in order to make the file available to others. Later, "anonymous" FTP sites became repositories for files, allowing all users to post and retrieve them.
Even with archive sites, many important files were still scattered on small FTP servers. These files could be located only by the Internet equivalent of word of mouth: Somebody would post an e-mail to a message list or a discussion forum announcing the availability of a file.
Archie changed all that. It combined a script-based data gatherer, which fetched site listings of anonymous FTP files, with a regular expression matcher for retrieving file names matching a user query. (4) In other words, Archie's gatherer scoured FTP sites across the Internet and indexed all of the files it found. Its regular expression matcher provided users with access to its database.
Veronica
In 1993, the University of Nevada System Computing Services group developed Veronica. It was created as a type of searching device similar to Archie but for Gopher files. Another Gopher search service, called Jughead, appeared a little later, probably for the sole purpose of rounding out the comic-strip triumvirate. Jughead is an acronym for Jonzy's Universal Gopher Hierarchy Excavation and Display, although, like Veronica, it is probably safe to assume that the creator backed into the acronym. Jughead's functionality was pretty much identical to Veronica's, although it appears to be a little rougher around the edges.
The Lone Wanderer
The World Wide Web Wanderer, developed by Matthew Gray in 1993 was the first robot on the Web and was designed to track the Web's growth. Initially, the Wanderer counted only Web servers, but shortly after its introduction, it started to capture URLs as it went along. The database of captured URLs became the Wandex, the first web database.
Matthew Gray's Wanderer created quite a controversy at the time, partially because early versions of the software ran rampant through the Net and caused a noticeable netwide performance degradation. This degradation occurred because the Wanderer would access the same page hundreds of times a day. The Wanderer soon amended its ways, but the controversy over whether robots were good or bad for the Internet remained.
In response to the Wanderer, Martijn Koster created Archie-Like Indexing of the Web, or ALIWEB, in October 1993. As the name implies, ALIWEB was the HTTP equivalent of Archie, and because of this, it is still unique in many ways.
ALIWEB does not have a web-searching robot. Instead, webmasters of participating sites post their own index information for each page they want listed. The advantage to this method is that users get to describe their own site, and a robot does not run about eating up Net bandwidth. The disadvantages of ALIWEB are more of a problem today. The primary disadvantage is that a special indexing file must be submitted. Most users do not understand how to create such a file, and therefore they do not submit their pages. This leads to a relatively small database, which meant that users are less likely to search ALIWEB than one of the large bot-based sites. This Catch-22 has been somewhat offset by incorporating other databases into the ALIWEB search, but it still does not have the mass appeal of search engines such as Yahoo! or Lycos.
Excite
Excite, initially called Architext, was started by six Stanford undergraduates in February 1993. Their idea was to use statistical analysis of word relationships in order to provide more efficient searches through the large amount of information on the Internet.
Their project was fully funded by mid-1993. Once funding was secured. they released a version of their search software for webmasters to use on their own web sites. At the time, the software was called Architext, but it now goes by the name of Excite for Web Servers.
Excite was the first serious commercial search engine which launched in 1995. It was developed in Stanford and was purchased for $6.5 billion by @Home. In 2001 Excite and @Home went bankrupt and InfoSpace bought Excite for $10 million.
Some of the first analysis of web searching was conducted on search logs from Excite
Yahoo!
In April 1994, two Stanford University Ph.D. candidates, David Filo and Jerry Yang, created some pages that became rather popular. They called the collection of pages Yahoo! Their official explanation for the name choice was that they considered themselves to be a pair of yahoos.
As the number of links grew and their pages began to receive thousands of hits a day, the team created ways to better organize the data. In order to aid in data retrieval, Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com) became a searchable directory. The search feature was a simple database search engine. Because Yahoo! entries were entered and categorized manually, Yahoo! was not really classified as a search engine. Instead, it was generally considered to be a searchable directory. Yahoo! has since automated some aspects of the gathering and classification process, blurring the distinction between engine and directory.
The Wanderer captured only URLs, which made it difficult to find things that were not explicitly described by their URL. Because URLs are rather cryptic to begin with, this did not help the average user. Searching Yahoo! or the Galaxy was much more effective because they contained additional descriptive information about the indexed sites.
Lycos
At Carnegie Mellon University during July 1994, Michael Mauldin, on leave from CMU, developed the Lycos search engine.
Types of web search engines
Search engines on the web are sites enriched with facility to search the content stored on other sites. There is difference in the way various search engines work, but they all perform three basic tasks.
Finding and selecting full or partial content based on the keywords provided.
Maintaining index of the content and referencing to the location they find
Allowing users to look for words or combinations of words found in that index.
The process begins when a user enters a query statement into the system through the interface provided.
There are basically three types of search engines: Those that are powered by robots (called crawlers; ants or spiders) and those that are powered by human submissions; and those that are a hybrid of the two.
Crawler-based search engines are those that use automated software agents (called crawlers) that visit a Web site, read the information on the actual site, read the site's meta tags and also follow the links that the site connects to performing indexing on all linked Web sites as well. The crawler returns all that information back to a central depository, where the data is indexed. The crawler will periodically return to the sites to check for any information that has changed. The frequency with which this happens is determined by the administrators of the search engine.
Human-powered search engines rely on humans to submit information that is subsequently indexed and catalogued. Only information that is submitted is put into the index.
In both cases, when you query a search engine to locate information, you're actually searching through the index that the search engine has created —you are not actually searching the Web. These indices are giant databases of information that is collected and stored and subsequently searched. This explains why sometimes a search on a commercial search engine, such as Yahoo! or Google, will return results that are, in fact, dead links. Since the search results are based on the index, if the index has not been updated since a Web page became invalid the search engine treats the page as still an active link even though it no longer is. It will remain that way until the index is updated.
So why will the same search on different search engines produce different results? Part of the answer to that question is because not all indices are going to be exactly the same. It depends on what the spiders find or what the humans submitted. But more important, not every search engine uses the same algorithm to search through the indices. The algorithm is what the search engines use to determine the relevance of the information in the index to what the user is searching for.
One of the elements that a search engine algorithm scans for is the frequency and location of keywords on a Web page. Those with higher frequency are typically considered more relevant. But search engine technology is becoming sophisticated in its attempt to discourage what is known as keyword stuffing, or spamdexing.
Another common element that algorithms analyze is the way that pages link to other pages in the Web. By analyzing how pages link to each other, an engine can both determine what a page is about (if the keywords of the linked pages are similar to the keywords on the original page) and whether that page is considered "important" and deserving of a boost in ranking. Just as the technology is becoming increasingly sophisticated to ignore keyword stuffing, it is also becoming more savvy to Web masters who build artificial links into their sites in order to build an artificial ranking.
Modern web search engines are highly intricate software systems that employ technology that has evolved over the years. There are a number of sub-categories of search engine software that are separately applicable to specific 'browsing' needs. These include web search engines (e.g. Google), database or structured data search engines (e.g. Dieselpoint), and mixed search engines or enterprise search. The more prevalent search engines, such as Google and Yahoo!, utilize hundreds of thousands computers to process trillions of web pages in order to return fairly well-aimed results. Due to this high volume of queries and text processing, the software is required to run in a highly dispersed environment with a high degree of superfluity.
Another category of search engines is scientific search engines. These are search engines which search scientific literature. The best known example is Google Scholar. Researchers are working on improving search engine technology by making them understand the content element of the articles, such as extracting theoretical constructs or key research findings.
See also
References
Further reading
Bing Liu (2007), Web Data Mining: Exploring Hyperlinks, Contents and Usage Data. Springer,
Bar-Ilan, J. (2004). The use of Web search engines in information science research. ARIST, 38, 231–288.
External links
Search engine software
History of the Internet
Internet terminology
Computer-related introductions in 1993
Canadian inventions |
4059265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes%20hamata | Nepenthes hamata | Nepenthes hamata is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sulawesi, where it grows at elevations of 1400–2500 m above sea level.
The specific epithet hamata is derived from the Latin word hamatus, meaning "hooked". It describes the appearance of the highly developed peristome teeth of this species.
Botanical history
Early history and formal descriptions
Nepenthes hamata was first encountered by Western explorers many decades before its formal description and recognition by science. Dutch botanist Pierre Joseph Eyma collected herbarium material of this species as early as 1938; this would later be used to designate a type specimen.
In 1984, two formal descriptions of this species were published in close succession: Shigeo Kurata described it under the name N. dentata in The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, while John R. Turnbull and Anne T. Middleton called it N. hamatus in the journal Reinwardtia.
As explained in the introduction to his describing paper on N. dentata, Kurata first became aware of the species more than a decade earlier, on a 1972 visit to Herbarium Bogoriense:
The name N. dentata was first published in Kurata's 1976 guide, Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu, where it was included in a table of all Nepenthes species known at the time and asterisked with the note "Not yet established".
Questions over nomenclatural priority
The formal descriptions of N. dentata by Kurata and N. hamatus by Turnbull and Middleton were published almost concurrently, leading to uncertainty over which name held nomenclatural priority. A similar situation surrounded the publication of N. eymae / N. infundibuliformis and N. glabrata / N. rubromaculata, which were described by the same three authors.
Nepenthes hamata (emended with a feminine suffix to match the gender of Nepenthes) gained greater currency and was said to have been published 21 days prior to N. dentata. However, in 1994 Matthew Jebb wrote that the "priority of this name over N. dentata [...] is in fact in serious doubt, since the 'preprinted' Reinwardtia issue was technically not 'freely available' in terms of the Botanical Code". Taxonomist Jan Schlauer determined that the publication of Turnbull and Middleton's paper preceded Kurata's formal description of N. dentata in The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, but came after Kurata's article about the species in the Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society. While some authors referred to the species as N. dentata in the following years, the name N. hamata enjoyed greater popularity and has for this reason been retained in all major monographs on the genus.
In the years following its description, some authors considered the two taxa as separate species and there was even speculation among growers that N. hamata represented a hybrid involving the "true" species, N. dentata. Schlauer considers N. dentata to be a heterotypic synonym of N. hamata.
Type material
The type specimen of N. hamata is J.R.Turnbull & A.T.Middleton 83121a, which was collected from the west ridge of Mount Lumut, Central Sulawesi (at the coordinates ), at an altitude of 1850–1900 m, on September 19, 1983. In their description of the species, Turnbull and Middleton indicated that the type material had been deposited at Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), the herbarium of the Bogor Botanical Gardens. However, Martin Cheek and Matthew Jebb were unable to locate it there and, referring collectively to the type material of N. hamata, N. glabrata, and N. infundibuliformis (which were all described by Turnbull and Middleton in the same paper), wrote that "[n]one of these collections has been found at the herbaria they cite".
An early collection by Dutch botanist Pierre Joseph Eyma, designated as Eyma 3572, represents the type material of N. dentata. The specimens of this series were taken from a site on the north spur of Mount Lumut, between bivouacs II and III, on September 3, 1938. Both the lectotype and isotype are deposited at Herbarium Bogoriense (BO).
In addition to the herbarium specimens of N. hamata mentioned here, a number of others have appeared in the literature.
Horticultural interest
Nepenthes hamata remained very rare in cultivation until around 1996. Its scarcity and striking appearance made it particularly desirable to collectors, and individual plants commanded prices of approximately US$300–400 during this time. The significant commercial value of the species encouraged wild collection by both local and foreign plant hunters. Beginning in 1995, Ch'ien Lee oversaw a Nepenthes artificial propagation program at Malesiana Tropicals, a company based in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Seeds of N. hamata, which had been collected in the wild by Lee, were used to multiply plant material in vitro in the company's tissue culture laboratory. By 2001, Malesiana Tropicals had a sales inventory of more than 500 individuals of the species, supplying both hobbyists and commercial growers as well as botanical gardens and researchers. The increased supply led to a sharp fall in prices. The price of N. hamata was predicted in 2001 to stabilise at roughly $50 per plant, greatly limiting the incentive for wild collection. The species however remains highly sought-after and is still somewhat of a horticultural rarity.
Discovery of "red hairy hamata"
In early 2005, Ch'ien Lee announced the discovery of a new form of N. hamata with an exceptionally dense indumentum:
In response to subsequent speculation about the plant's taxonomic status, Lee wrote that it "merely represents a geographical variant of N. hamata". It was informally known as N. hamata "red hairy" or simply "red hairy hamata" (often abbreviated as 'RHH'). In 2020, this taxon was described as a species in its own right: N. diabolica. Like the type form of N. hamata, N. diabolica has been raised to flowering size in cultivation and used to make hybrids with other Nepenthes species.
Later developments
British geographer Stewart McPherson published an updated description of the species in his 2009 monograph, Pitcher Plants of the Old World. The book also covered the closely related undescribed taxon N. sp. Sulawesi, which McPherson had observed with Greg Bourke in 2007. Nepenthes sp. Sulawesi was described as N. nigra in McPherson's 2011 work, New Nepenthes.
Description
Nepenthes hamata is a strong climber. The stem, which may be branched, reaches a maximum length of around 7 m. It is terete to obtusely trigonous and varies in diameter from up to 3 mm in rosettes and short stems, to 4–5 mm in climbing stems. In the former, the internodal length is typically up to 6 mm and in the latter 3.5–6 cm.
Leaves
Leaves are sessile and chartaceous in texture. The shape of the lamina (leaf blade) is variable: it may be linear, lanceolate, or slightly elliptic.
In the case of rosettes and short stems, the lamina is typically oblanceolate to oblong-elliptic and measures up to 7.5 cm in length by 2.5 cm in width. It has an acute apex and does not exhibit a peltate tendril attachment. The laminar base is amplexicaul, clasping the stem and giving it a subperfoliate appearance. Auricles may be present, although their level of development varies. The lamina may be slightly decurrent down the stem, but not prominently so.
Laminae produced on climbing stems are predominantly oblong-elliptic in shape, but may rarely be lanceolate. They are larger than those borne on shorter stems, but nonetheless relatively short, measuring 5–15 cm in length by 1.8–4 cm in width. The laminar apex may be acute to obtuse, while the base is abruptly contracted and clasps the stem; it may be decurrent for up to 1.5 cm in some populations. Two (rarely up to four) longitudinal veins are present on either side of the midrib. They are restricted to the outer third to half (rarely up to two-thirds) of the laminar surface. Pinnate veins are inconspicuous; they are patent and branching.
Pitchers
Rosette and lower pitchers are only produced for a short time before the plant transitions into a scrambling vine (although they may be produced later on offshoots from the original stem). They grow up to 18 cm high by 5 wide. They are ovate in the basal fifth to half of the pitcher cup, being bulbous to varying degrees in this portion, often narrowly so. The pitcher is narrower in the upper part and may be cylindrical or slightly infundibular towards the orifice. The boundary between these two portions is often delineated by a pronounced hip. The ventral face of the pitcher is flattened. A pair of wings up to 16 mm wide runs down the ventral surface of the pitcher cup. These wings bear densely packed filiform fringe elements up to 19 mm long, which commonly exceed the width of the wings themselves. These filaments are often arranged in pairs, spaced around 2 mm apart, and are usually branched dichotomously once or twice. The waxy zone of the inner surface is well developed.
The pitcher mouth is often distinctly rhomboid in shape, but may also be oval or elliptic. It has a highly oblique insertion and is concave when viewed in profile. The mouth rises at the rear to form a tapered neck, which may be held upright or be inclined forward over the pitcher orifice. The species is noted for having possibly the most developed peristome in the genus. It is cylindrical to slightly flattened, glossy, rigid, and up to 5 mm wide (excluding the teeth). It consists of expanded ribs up to 6 mm high and spaced up to 5 mm apart. The entire flanges can measure up to 15 mm in length, although their size and number differ between populations (a typical number being approximately 20 on each side of the orifice). These flanges form exceptionally long, incurved teeth at the inner edge of the pitcher orifice. The teeth are sickle-shaped (falcate) and extend approximately 7 mm into the interior, as measured from the inner edge of the peristome to the tooth apex. The outer edge of the peristome is entire, with the recurved flanges extending for around 2 mm past the rim. The teeth of the neck may assume a dagger-like shape and measure up to 10 mm by 2 mm. These uppermost teeth are often noticeably splayed forward.
The pitcher lid or operculum is elliptic to ovate and measures up to 6 cm in length by 5 cm in width. It is held roughly horizontally and often has upturned margins. The apex is rounded, whereas the base is occasionally cordate or subcordate. No appendages are present on the lower surface, but multicellular filiform appendages may be found on the upper surface, though this feature is often unstable and may be absent altogether. These 'hairs' or 'tentacles' are up to 20 mm long and may be branched. They arise from the ends of the lid veins and may number as many as 45 on each side of the lid. They are mainly restricted to the outer margins of the lid, where they are around 3 rows deep. The lower surface of the lid bears sparsely distributed nectar glands in the form of shortly elliptic, bordered pits. These are very small and inconspicuous, measuring only 0.1–0.2 mm in diameter. A spur up to 9 mm long is inserted near the base of the lid. It may be simple or repeatedly branched to the point of being fasciculate. The herbarium material examined by Cheek and Jebb exhibited spurs that were basally 5-branched, with each branch being secondarily ramified.
Upper pitchers are similar in shape to their terrestrial counterparts, though usually more elongated, growing to 7–25 cm in height by 1.2–6 cm in width. The basal fifth to third of the trap is ovate, narrowing and becoming cylindrical to slightly infundibular above. As in lower pitchers, a conspicuous hip often marks the boundary between these two parts. In most cases, a pair of narrow ribs is present in place of the wings, although fully developed fringed wings are sometimes encountered. The peristome is often even more developed in aerial traps, with longer and more widely spaced teeth, which curve completely outwards in some populations. These teeth are usually 12–16 mm long by 2–3 mm high, and spaced 2.5–6 mm apart. Upper pitchers resemble lower ones in most other respects.
Inflorescence
Nepenthes hamata has a racemose inflorescence. The male inflorescence is 8–15 cm long, of which the peduncle constitutes 2.4–10 cm and the rachis up to 8 cm. The peduncle has a basal diameter of around 3 mm. Flowers are borne solitarily on ebracteate pedicels measuring 10–15 mm in length by 0.1–0.3 mm in width. The pedicels number around 22 per inflorescence. Tepals are elliptic, reflexed, and 1.5–3 mm long by 1–1.5 mm wide. Androphores are 1–2.5 mm long and bear anther heads measuring 0.6–0.8 mm by 0.8–1.4 mm. One infructescence was measured at 8.5 cm long by roughly 5 cm wide (fruits included), with a peduncle measuring 6.5 cm in length and having a basal diameter of 2.25 mm. Fruits number around 15 per infructescence and bear valves 19–20 mm long by 3.5–4.5 mm wide. As in most Nepenthes species, the seeds are filiform. They are around 8 mm long by 0.4–0.6 mm wide.
Indumentum
The extent of the indumentum is highly variable. Most populations are predominantly glabrous, having soft orange to brown hairs only on developing pitchers, tendrils, and the underside of the midrib.
Despite the variation between populations, no infraspecific taxa of N. hamata have been described.
Ecology and conservation
Nepenthes hamata is endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, where it has been recorded primarily from the eastern portion of Central Sulawesi province (including large parts of the East Peninsula). The species has a known altitudinal distribution of 1400–2500 m above sea level.
Nepenthes hamata may grow terrestrially or as an epiphyte. It is found in lower and upper montane mossy forest and among scrub vegetation on mountain ridges and summits. In such habitats it experiences high relative humidity and often partially shady conditions. It is known to occasionally form natural hybrids with N. glabrata and N. tentaculata. The wild cross with N. glabrata was first reported by Ch'ien Lee in December 2006.
The conservation status of N. hamata is listed as Least concern on the IUCN Red List, based on an assessment carried out in 2018. In 2009, Stewart McPherson wrote that the species is "widespread" across its range and that most populations are "remote and not generally threatened at present". Nepenthes hamata is known from at least two protected areas (Lore Lindu National Park and Morowali Nature Reserve), although the full extent of its range is unknown and it is likely to occur on a number of as yet unexplored peaks. McPherson emphasised the need to monitor populations of specific variants, particularly the red hairy form (now known as N. diabolica), because "[l]oss of diversity [...] may become a legitimate concern in the future as a result of collection pressures".
Related species
Nepenthes hamata belongs to what has been called the "Hamata group", which also includes four other closely related species from Borneo and Sulawesi: N. glabrata, N. muluensis, N. murudensis, and N. tentaculata. More recently, N. nigra has joined this group of related taxa. In their 2001 monograph, "Nepenthaceae", Martin Cheek and Matthew Jebb also suggested a close relative in the Sumatran species N. adnata.
Nepenthes hamata is very closely allied to N. tentaculata. It shares with this species the multicellular filiform appendages of the upper lid, as well as the general form of its laminae and pitchers. Nepenthes hamata clearly differs from N. tentaculata in the development of its peristome, which bears exaggerated flange-like extensions; N. tentaculata lacks conspicuous teeth altogether.
In their 2001 monograph, Martin Cheek and Matthew Jebb wrote that although the available herbarium material of N. hamata (around seven collections at the time) showed wide variation in peristome development, with some specimens appearing "very close to N. tentaculata", this did not represent a continuum of intergrades between N. hamata at one extreme and N. tentaculata at the other, but rather was due to a combination of lower and upper pitchers (the latter having more highly developed peristome teeth).
Notes
a.Other published specimens of N. hamata include Lack & Grimes 1783 (includes an infructescence and female flowers) and Lack & Grimes 1784 (includes a climbing stem with an upper pitcher and male inflorescence). Both of these specimens, along with Eyma 3573, are illustrated in a line drawing by Camilla Speight in Martin Cheek and Matthew Jebb's 2001 monograph, "Nepenthaceae".<p>A 2001 review of the Nepenthes material deposited at Herbarium Bogoriense found seven sheets of N. hamata within its collections. These specimens had been collected in montane forest at 1800–1900 m.
References
Further reading
Flísek, J. 2003. Věčně hladová kráska Nepenthes hamata. Trifid 2003(1): 35–37. (page 2, page 3)
Meimberg, H., A. Wistuba, P. Dittrich & G. Heubl 2001. Molecular phylogeny of Nepenthaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid trnK intron sequence data. Plant Biology 3(2): 164–175.
Meimberg, H. 2002. Ph.D. thesis, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich.
Meimberg, H., S. Thalhammer, A. Brachmann & G. Heubl 2006. Comparative analysis of a translocated copy of the trnK intron in carnivorous family Nepenthaceae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(2): 478–490.
External links
Photographs of N. hamata at the Carnivorous Plant Photofinder
Carnivorous plants of Asia
hamata
Endemic flora of Sulawesi
Plants described in 1984 |
4059625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohit%20Sharma | Rohit Sharma | Rohit Gurunath Sharma (born 30 April 1987) is an Indian international cricketer and the current captain of India national cricket team in all formats. Considered one of the best batsmen of his generation. Sharma is known for his timing, elegance, six-hitting abilities and leadership skills. He plays as a right-handed batsman for India national cricket team in international cricket, Mumbai Indians in IPL and for Mumbai in domestic cricket. Sharma also captains Mumbai Indians and the team has won 5 titles under his leadership. With India, Sharma was a member of the team that won the 2007 T20 World Cup, and the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, where he played in the finals of both tournaments. Rohit is one of four players to have played in every edition of the ICC T20 World Cup, from the inaugral edition in 2007 to the latest one in 2022
Sharma currently holds the world record for the highest individual score (264) in a One Day International (ODI) match and is the only player to have scored three double-centuries in ODIs and also holds the record for scoring most hundreds (five) in a single Cricket World Cup, for which he won the ICC Men's ODI Cricketer of the Year award in 2019. Sharma has received two national honours, the Arjuna Award in 2015 and the prestigious Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna in 2020. Under his captaincy, India won the 2018 Asia Cup and the 2023 Asia Cup, the seventh and eighth time the country won the title, both in ODI format as well as the 2018 Nidahas Trophy, their second overall and first in T20I format.
Outside cricket, Sharma is an active supporter of animal welfare campaigns. He is the official Rhino Ambassador for WWF-India and is a member of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). He has worked with PETA in its campaign to raise awareness of the plight of homeless cats and dogs in India.
Early life
Sharma was born on 30 April 1987 in Bansod, Nagpur, Maharashtra into a Telugu-Marathi family. His mother, Purnima Sharma, is from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. His father, Gurunath Sharma, worked as a caretaker of a transport firm storehouse. Sharma was raised by his grandparents and uncles in Borivali because of his father's low income. He would visit his parents, who lived in a single-room house in Dombivli, only during weekends. He has a younger brother, Vishal Sharma.
Sharma joined a cricket camp in 1999 with his uncle's money. Dinesh Lad, his coach at the camp, asked him to change his school to Swami Vivekanand International School, where Lad was the coach and the cricket facilities were better than those at Sharma’s old school. Sharma recollects, "I told him I couldn't afford it, but he got me a scholarship. So for four years I didn't pay a penny, and did well in my cricket". Sharma started as an off-spinner who could bat a bit before Lad noticed his batting ability and promoted him from number eight to open the innings. He excelled in the Harris and Giles Shield school cricket tournaments, scoring a century on debut as an opener.
Youth and domestic first-class career
Sharma made his List A debut for West Zone against Central Zone in the Deodhar Trophy at Gwalior in March 2005. Batting at number eight, he scored 31 not out as West Zone won by 3 wickets with 24 balls remaining. Cheteshwar Pujara and Ravindra Jadeja made their debuts in the same match. It was Sharma's unbeaten innings of 142 in 123 balls against North Zone at the Maharanna Bhupal College Ground in Udaipur in the same tournament that brought him into the limelight. He visited Abu Dhabi and Australia with the India A squad and was then included among India's 30-member probables list for the upcoming ICC Champions Trophy tournament, although he did not make the final squad.
Sharma made his first-class debut for India A against New Zealand A at Darwin in July 2006. He scored 57 and 22 as India won by 3 wickets. He made his Ranji Trophy debut for Mumbai in the 2006–07 season and scored 205 off 267 balls against Gujarat. Mumbai went on to win the tournament with Sharma scoring a half-century (57) in his second innings in the final against Bengal.
Sharma has spent his entire domestic first-class career at Mumbai. In December 2009, he made his highest career score of 309 not out in the Ranji Trophy against Gujarat. In October 2013, upon the retirement of Ajit Agarkar, he was appointed team captain ahead of the 2013–14 season.
International career
Test matches
In November 2013, during Sachin Tendulkar's farewell series, Sharma made his Test debut at Eden Gardens in Kolkata against West Indies and scored 177, the second-highest score on debut by an Indian to Shikhar Dhawan (187). He followed it up with 111 (not out) in the second Test at his home ground, the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai.
Having been out of the Test team since 2017–18, Sharma went on the 2018–19 tour of Australia after he had earned a recall earlier. Chief selector M. S. K. Prasad said the reason for his recall was that his natural game suited the bouncy Australian pitches. Sharma played in the first Test in Adelaide, scoring 37 and 1 in an Indian victory. During the first Test, he sustained a minor injury which saw him miss the second Test in Perth. He recovered for the Boxing Day third Test at Melbourne and scored 63 (not out) to help India total 443/7 and win both the Test and the series. After the third Test, Sharma had to return to India for the birth of his daughter.
In October 2019, in the third Test against South Africa, Sharma scored his 2,000th run and his first double century in Tests. He made 212 in the first innings of the match. Sharma was named as vice-captain of India's Test team during the tour of Australia in 2020, replacing Cheteshwar Pujara.
Sharma had a successful home series against England in 2021. Instrumental in his team's comeback after a defeat in the first Test at Chennai, he scored a century, one that The Guardian termed "deserves to be considered one of the greatest this century." He put on 167 runs with Ajinkya Rahane for the fourth wicket while making 161 runs in an innings that included 18 fours and two sixes. India went on to win the Test by 317 runs. He top-scored for his side in both innings of the low-scoring third Test in Ahmedabad with scores of 66 and 25 contributing to his team's win. Sharma finished the series aggregating 345 runs, the most for India, at an average of 58. He went on to score his first overseas Test century on 4 September 2021 with an innings of 127 against England at The Oval, also reaching the milestone of 3,000 runs in Test cricket.
Sharma was appointed captain of India's Test team in February 2022, succeeding Virat Kohli, ahead of a two-match series against Sri Lanka. Sunil Gavaskar praised his leadership and Chetan Sharma, India's chairman of selectors, said: "We will groom future captains under him".
2015, 2019 and 2023 Cricket World Cups
In March 2015, Sharma made his first appearance in the Cricket World Cup and played in eight matches for India in the 2015 tournament in Australia. India reached the semi-final stage where they were defeated by Australia. Sharma scored 330 runs in the tournament with one century, a score of 137 in the quarter-final against Bangladesh.
On 15 April 2019, Sharma was appointed vice-captain of India's squad for the 2019 World Cup in England. In the opening match against South Africa, he scored 122, including his 12,000th run in international cricket. He followed it up with centuries against Pakistan, England and Bangladesh. In the match against Sri Lanka, hitting yet another century, he became the first batsman to score five centuries in a single World Cup tournament, and equalled Tendulkar's record for the most centuries (6) in all World Cup matches. Sharma totalled 648 runs in the tournament to finish as the leading run-scorer and win the ICC's Golden Bat award, the third Indian player to do so.
On 8 October 2023, during the ICC Cricket World Cup, Sharma was entrusted with the captaincy responsibilities for the Indian team in a match against Australia. This significant moment marked the first time he captained the Indian side in the Cricket World Cup. What set this particular event apart was that at that time, he had become the oldest player to lead the Indian team in the tournament, showcasing his maturity and experience as a cricketer.
On 11th October 2023, during a match against Afghanistan in the Cricket World Cup 2023, Sharma achieved a milestone by surpassing the legendary Sachin Tendulkar's record for the most centuries in World Cup history. With a display of batting prowess, Sharma notched his seventh century, breaking the record in this World Cup encounter. This achievement underscored his ability to rise to the occasion on the world stage, and it cemented his reputation as one of India's finest cricketing talents.
Other one-day international matches
Sharma made his full international debut in a one-day match against Ireland in Belfast on 23 June 2007. This was part of the 2007 Future Cup competition which also involved South Africa. He was number seven in the batting order but did not bat as India won the game by 9 wickets.
He scored his maiden ODI half-century (52) against Pakistan at Jaipur on 18 November 2007 and was selected for the Indian squad going to the 2007–08 Commonwealth Bank Series in Australia. In that series, he scored 235 runs at an average of 33.57 with 2 fifties, including 66 in the first final at Sydney when he partnered Sachin Tendulkar for most of India's successful run chase. After that, however, his ODI performances suffered a downturn and he lost his middle-order position to Suresh Raina. Later, Virat Kohli took his position as the reserve batsman. In December 2009, following his triple century in the Ranji Trophy, he was recalled to the ODI team for the tri-nations tournament in Bangladesh as Tendulkar opted to rest in the series.
He scored his maiden ODI century (114) against Zimbabwe on 28 May 2010 and followed it up with another century in the next match of the tri-series against Sri Lanka on 30 May 2010 by scoring 101 not out. He had a run of poor form in South Africa just before the 2011 World Cup and as a consequence he was left out of India's squad for the tournament.
Sharma was recalled to the limited-overs squad for the tour of the West Indies in June and July 2011. In the first match at Queen's Park Oval, he scored 68 (not out) from 75 balls with three fours and a six. In the third match at the Sir Vivian Richards Stadium in Antigua, he scored a match-winning 86 off 91 balls after India had been reduced to 92 for 6.
He had a disastrous loss of form in 2012 and scored only 168 runs in the whole calendar year at the very low average of 12.92 with just a single half-century. Even so, his captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni showed faith in him, and his career was revived in 2013. Dhoni decided to move him up the batting order to open the innings with Shikhar Dhawan in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. The pairing was a success and India won the competition, defeating hosts England in the final.
His good form continued and, later in the year against Australia, he scored 141 (not out) in Jaipur. He followed that with 209 off 158 balls in Bangalore and established a then-world record for the most sixes (16) in a one-day international innings (since beaten by Eoin Morgan of England with 17). On 13 November 2014, playing against Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens in Kolkata, Sharma broke the world record for the highest score in a one-day international innings with 264 from 173 deliveries.
In December 2017, India's captain Virat Kohli was rested for the series against Sri Lanka, in preparation for India's tour to South Africa, which began in the first week of January 2018. In his place, Sharma was appointed team captain and India under his leadership won the series 2–1, their eighth consecutive series win since defeating Zimbabwe in June 2016. Sharma also hit his third ODI double-century in this series, scoring 208 (not out) to extend his record of most ODI double-centuries by a player.
In September 2018, in the absence of many top players including regular captain Virat Kohli, Sharma led India to win the 2018 Asia Cup, where they defeated Bangladesh in the final.
On 12 January 2019, in the opening match against Australia at the Sydney Cricket Ground, Sharma scored 133 but it was in vain as India lost by 34 runs. It was his 22nd century in one-day internationals. At Delhi on 13 March 2019, in the fifth and final match of a home series against Australia, Sharma scored 56 including his 8,000th run in one-day internationals. It was his 200th innings. In 2019, he scored the most runs in ODIs by any batsman, with 1,490 runs in the calendar year, including 7 centuries.
In November 2020, Sharma was nominated for the ICC Men's ODI Cricketer of the Decade award.
In July 2022, Sharma became the first Indian captain to lead their team to both T20I and ODI series wins in England. He became the 3rd Indian captain to win an ODI series in England, and the first since 2014.
Twenty20 international matches
Sharma was included in the Indian squad for the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 and made his mark by scoring an unbeaten 50 from 40 deliveries against hosts South Africa in the quarter-finals. This enabled India to win the match by 37 runs and they went on to defeat Pakistan in the final, when Sharma scored 30 (not out) from 16 deliveries.
On 2 October 2015, during the South African tour of India, Sharma scored 106 in the first Twenty20 international at HPCA Stadium in Dharamshala. With that, he became the second Indian cricketer to have scored centuries in all three formats of international cricket.
In December 2017, in a series against Sri Lanka, Sharma scored the joint-fastest T20I century, in 35 balls, ending with 118 from 43 deliveries, equaling the record of David Miller. This was also his second century in Twenty20 internationals.
On 8 July 2018, during a series in England, Sharma became the second Indian batsman, after Virat Kohli, to score 2,000 runs in a Twenty20 international career. He was the fifth batsman worldwide to achieve the feat; the others besides Kohli were Brendon McCullum, Martin Guptill and Shoaib Malik. He also scored his third T20I century during this series, equaling the then-record for most T20I centuries, held by Colin Munro.
In March 2018, he led Team India to win the Nidahas Trophy under his captaincy. In November 2018, in a series against West Indies, he scored his fourth T20I century, creating a new record for the most centuries by a player in T20I cricket.
In November 2019, in the opening match of the series against Bangladesh, Sharma became the most-capped cricketer for India in T20Is, playing in his 99th match. In the next match of the series, he became the first male cricketer for India to play in 100 T20Is.
In November 2020, Sharma was nominated for the ICC Men's T20I Cricketer of the Decade award.
In July 2022, Sharma became the first captain in T20I history to lead their team to 14 consecutive victories.
With his participation in the 2022 T20 World Cup in Australia, Sharma became the only Indian cricketer to have played in every edition of the tournament since its inception in 2007.
On 27 October 2022, Sharma broke the record for most sixes by an Indian batsman in T20 World Cups, previously held by Yuvraj Singh, hitting his 34th six against Netherlands at Sydney Cricket Ground.
Indian Premier League
Sharma joined the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2008 when he was signed by the Deccan Chargers franchise, based in Hyderabad, for the sum of US$750,000 a year. In the 2011 auction, he was sold for US$2 million to the Mumbai Indians. He scored his only IPL century in the 2012 tournament with 109 (not out) against the Kolkata Knight Riders. Under his leadership, Mumbai has won the IPL in 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019 and 2020; they also won the former Champions League Twenty20 competition in 2013.
Sharma has been one of the most successful players in the IPL as captain since 2013 of the Mumbai Indians, who have won the tournament five times under his leadership. He is currently (March 2022) one of six players who have scored 5,000 career runs in the competition. Sharma has 5,611 runs with one century and 40 half centuries and is the third-highest run scorer after Virat Kohli (6,283) and Shikhar Dhawan (5,784).
Playing style
Sharma is an aggressive batsman but plays with style and elegance. He is usually an opening batsman in limited overs cricket, but has played most of his Test cricket as a middle-order batsman. In limited overs cricket, Sharma is widely recognised as one of the format's most outstanding batsmen. And for his attacking batting and six hitting abilities he often referred as Hitman.
Sunil Gavaskar considers Sharma to have a batting style similar to those of Virender Sehwag and Viv Richards. In his column for The Times of India in November 2018, Gavaskar said:
While Sharma is not a regular bowler, he can bowl right arm off spin. He usually fields in the slips and has said this is a part of his game which he works very hard on for improvement.
Achievements
Sharma clinched the world record for the highest ever individual score in a one-day international match, with a remarkable 264 against Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens, Kolkata, on November 13, 2014. He is the only player to have scored three double-centuries in this form of international cricket. In January 2020, Sharma was named as the ODI Player of the Year by the International Cricket Council (ICC). During the 2019 World Cup, Sharma became the only batsman to scored five centuries in a single edition of the Cricket World Cup.
On 5 October 2019, during a Test match against South Africa, Sharma became the first batsman to score two centuries in a match on his first appearance as an opening batsman. In the same series, he broke Shimron Hetmyer's record for the highest number of sixes in a Test series.
On 11 October 2023, Sharma achieved a historic feat during the 2023 Cricket World Cup match against Afghanistan team, when he surpassed the record previously held by Chris Gayle for the most international sixes (553). His powerful and elegant batting style, coupled with his consistency, allowed him to reach this milestone with 556 sixes, overtaking Gayle's record.
On 14 October 2023, Sharma achieved a milestone in the world of cricket by becoming the first Indian to complete 300 sixes in the 50-overs format. This feat occurred during a highly anticipated India-Pakistan match at Narendra Modi Stadium, in front of more than 1 lakh enthusiastic fans. The Indian skipper's ability to consistently clear the boundary ropes with his powerful and elegant Strokeplay has made him a dynamic force in limited-overs cricket. This achievement further solidifies his status as one of India's premier batsmen and a cricketing legend.
On the 22nd of October 2023, during a thrilling encounter against New Zealand, Rohit Sharma, fondly known as the 'Hitman,' etched his name in the annals of cricket history. In a remarkable feat, he became the first Indian batter to smash 50 One Day International (ODI) sixes in a single calendar year. This incredible display of power-hitting is a testament to Rohit's batting prowess and his ability to dominate the limited-overs format. With each mighty swing of his bat, Rohit Sharma continues to redefine the boundaries of achievement and captivate cricket enthusiasts around the world, solidifying his status as one of the most prolific and electrifying batters in the game.
National honours
2015 – Arjuna Award
2020 – Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna
Sporting honours
ICC Men's ODI Cricketer of the Year: 2019
ICC Men's ODI Team of the Year: 2014 (12th man), 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
ICC Men's ODI Team of the Decade: 2011–2020
ICC Men's T20I Team of the Decade: 2011–2020
ICC Men's Test Team of the Year: 2021
For his achievements on India's tour of England in 2021, Sharma was selected by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in its 2022 edition.
Outside cricket
Personal life
Sharma married his longtime girlfriend, Ritika Sajdeh on 13 December 2015. They have one child, a girl born on 30 December 2018. He is a practitioner of the meditation technique Sahaj Marg.
He practices an eggetarian diet.
Commercial endorsements
Sharma has been sponsored by several brands including CEAT and the Swiss watchmaker Hublot. In his career, Sharma has endorsed many other brands including Maggi, Fair and Lovely, Lay's, Nissan, energy drink Relentless, Nasivion nasal spray, Aristocrat by VIP Industries, Adidas and Oppo mobiles.
Philanthropy
Sharma engages in numerous philanthropic activities, promoting various causes such as animal welfare, health, and children. He is particularly vocal about the protection of animals and has supported various initiatives and organisations to promote the cause.
In February 2015, Sharma joined People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) to support sterilisation of homeless cats and dogs. When supporting the cause Sharma said, "Sterilisation is important because I feel that if we can stop (the homeless-animal crisis), there will be control of population among the street dogs".
In September 2015, along with Hollywood actors Matt LeBlanc and Salma Hayek, Sharma joined an anti-poaching campaign in Kenya to save the wild animals of Africa including the last surviving northern white rhinoceros. When joining the campaign Sharma said, "I have been a member of PETA and when I was informed about the cause, I thought it is my duty to join the anti-poaching drive. That's what got me to Nairobi. I was fascinated to have a look at Sudan (the last northern white rhino) and the sniffer dogs who catch hold of the poachers".
In November 2017, Sharma in a video on social media said that he had agreed with an online store to merchandise mobile phone covers and other items that would use his name and ODI jersey no. 45. Sharma also told his Twitter followers: "All proceeds from your purchases would go to an animal charity of my choice".
In 2018 on "World Rhino Day", Sharma was announced as the WWF-India Rhino Ambassador. Ravi Singh, the CEO and Secretary General of WWF-India, said "We welcome Rohit into the WWF family". After taking a pledge for the cause of rhino conservation, Sharma said, "My love for rhinos sparked when I first heard about Sudan, the last male northern white African rhino who died this year thus leading to the inevitable extinction of the entire species and that broke my heart. As the world and I mourned for my fallen friend Sudan, I researched the best way for me to help prevent something like this happening and the best way I know how is to create awareness. After getting in touch with WWF I learnt that 82% of the world’s rhinos reside in India and I am honoured to be WWF-India’s rhino ambassador to spread awareness and do my bit to contribute to the protection and survival of the rhino and help make this world a better place for them."
References
External links
Rohit Sharma biography
Rohit Sharma at Wisden
1987 births
Living people
Cricketers at the 2015 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 2019 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers from Mumbai
Cricketers from Nagpur
Cricketers who made a century on Test debut
Deccan Chargers cricketers
India Green cricketers
India One Day International cricketers
India Red cricketers
India Test cricketers
India Twenty20 International cricketers
Indian Hindus
Indian cricketers
Indian philanthropists
Marathi people
Mumbai Indians cricketers
Mumbai cricketers
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Recipients of the Khel Ratna Award
Telugu people
West Zone cricketers
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
World Wide Fund for Nature
Cricketers who have acted in films |
4059685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Savannah%20%28Angola%29 | Operation Savannah (Angola) | Operation Savannah was the South African code name for their military incursion into Angola in 1975–1976. It was part of the South African Border War and arose due to the Angolan War of Independence. The operation also materially influenced the subsequent Angolan Civil War. South African forces invaded deep into Angola with the objective of driving the MPLA, Soviet and Cuban forces out of southern Angola so as to strengthen the position of UNITA, the main opponent of the MPLA and an ally of South Africa.
South Africa as well as UNITA and FNLA had been receiving material and tacit support of the United States as part of their Cold War opposition to the Soviet Union which emboldened them to pursue this incursion. South African and UNITA fortunes were overturned and their forces were compelled to withdraw due to MPLA, Cuban and Soviet pressure. Victory was claimed by the MPLA who were actively supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union, over the combined forces of UNITA, FNLA, Zaire and South Africa. For the MPLA, the victory was essential for the proclamation of independence and subsequent political control over Angola.
Background
The "Carnation Revolution" or "25 April" revolution of 1974 ended Portugal's colonial government, but Angola's three main independence forces, National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) began competing for dominance in the country.
Fighting began in November 1974, starting in the capital city, Luanda, and spreading quickly across all of Angola, which was soon divided among the combatants. The FNLA occupied northern Angola, UNITA the central south, while the MPLA mostly occupied the coastline, the far south-east and, after capturing it in November 1974, Cabinda. Negotiations for independence resulted in the Treaty of Alvor being signed on 15 January 1975, naming the date of official independence as 11 November 1975. The agreement ended the war for independence but marked the escalation of the civil war. Two dissenting groups, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda and the Eastern Revolt, never signed the accords, as they were excluded from negotiations. The coalition government established by the Treaty of Alvor soon ended as nationalist factions, doubting one another's intentions, tried to control the country by force.
Fighting between the three forces resumed in Luanda hardly a day after the transitional government assumed office on 15 January 1975.
The liberation forces sought to seize strategic points, most importantly the capital, by the official day of independence. The MPLA managed to seize Luanda from the FNLA whilst UNITA retreated from the capital. By March 1975, the FNLA was driving towards Luanda from the north, joined by units of the Zairian army which the United States had encouraged Zaire to provide.
Between 28 April and early May, 1,200 Zairian troops crossed into northern Angola to assist the FNLA.
The FNLA eliminated all remaining MPLA presence in the northern provinces and assumed positions east of Kifangondo on the eastern outskirts of Luanda, from where it continued to encroach on the capital. The situation for the MPLA in Luanda became increasingly precarious.
The MPLA received supplies from the Soviet Union and repeatedly requested 100 officers for military training from Cuba. Until late August, Cuba had a few technical advisors deployed in Angola. By 9 July, the MPLA gained control of the capital, Luanda.
Starting 21 August, Cuba established four training facilities (CIR) with almost 500 men, which were to train about 4,800 FAPLA recruits in three to six months. The mission was expected to be short-term and to last about 6 months.
The CIR in Cabinda accounted for 191 instructors, while Benguela, Saurimo (formerly Henrique de Carvalho) and at N'Dalatando (formerly Salazar) had 66 or 67 instructors each. Some were posted in headquarters in Luanda or in other places throughout the country. The training centres were operational by 18–20 October.
Military intervention
South African Defence Force (SADF) involvement in Angola, part of the interrelated South African Border War, started in 1966 when the South West African People's Organization (SWAPO) commenced an armed struggle for Namibian independence. SWAPO officials founded an armed wing, the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), which operated from bases in Zambia and rural Ovamboland.
With the loss of the Portuguese colonial administration as an ally and the possibility of new regimes sympathetic to SWAPO in Lisbon's former colonies, Pretoria recognised that it would lose a valued cordon sanitaire between South West Africa and the Frontline States. PLAN could seek sanctuary in Angola, and South Africa would be faced with another hostile regime and potentially militarised border to cross in pursuit of Namibian guerrillas.
With both the Soviet Union and the United States arming major factions in the Angolan Civil War, the conflict escalated into a major Cold War battleground. South Africa offered advisory and technical assistance to UNITA, while a number of Cuban combat troops entered the country to fight alongside the Marxist MPLA. Moscow also supplied its Angolan clients with heavy weapons. American aid to UNITA and the FNLA was initially undertaken with Operation IA Feature, but this was terminated by the Clark Amendment in October 1976. Aid would not yet return until after the repeal of the Clark Amendment in 1985. China subsequently recalled its military advisers from Zaire, ending its tacit support for the FNLA.
Cuban instructors began training PLAN in Zambia in April 1975, and the movement had 3,000 new recruits by April. Guerrilla activity intensified, election boycotts were staged in Ovamboland, and the Ovambo Chief Minister assassinated. South Africa responded by calling up more reservists and placing existing security forces along the border on standby. Raids into Angola became commonplace after July 15.
Support for UNITA and FNLA
Consequently, with the covert assistance of the United States through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), it began assisting UNITA and the FNLA in a bid to ensure that a neutral or friendly government in Luanda prevailed. On 14 July 1975, South African Prime Minister Balthazar Vorster approved weapons worth US $14 million to be bought secretly for FNLA and UNITA. of which the first shipments from South Africa arrived in August 1975.
Ruacana-Calueque occupation
On 9 August 1975 a 30-man SADF patrol moved some into southern Angola and occupied the Ruacana-Calueque hydro-electric complex and other installations on the Cunene River.
The scheme was an important strategic asset for Ovamboland, which relied on it for its water supply. The facility had been completed earlier in the year with South African funding.
Several hostile incidents with UNITA and SWAPO frightening foreign workers had provided a rationale for the occupation.
The defence of the facility in southern Angola also was South Africa's justification for the first permanent deployment of regular SADF units inside Angola.
On 22 August 1975 the SADF initiated operation "Sausage II", a major raid against SWAPO in southern Angola and on 4 September 1975, Vorster authorized the provision of limited military training, advice and logistical assistance. In turn FNLA and UNITA would help the South Africans fight SWAPO.
Meanwhile, the MPLA had gained against UNITA in Southern Angola and by mid-October was in control of 12 of Angola's provinces and most cities. UNITA's territory had been shrinking to parts of central Angola, and it became apparent that UNITA did not have any chance of capturing Luanda by independence day, which neither the United States nor South Africa were willing to accept.
The SADF established a training camp near Silva Porto (Kuito) and prepared the defences of Nova Lisboa (Huambo). They assembled the mobile attack unit "Foxbat" to stop approaching FAPLA-units with which it clashed on 5 October, thus saving Nova Lisboa for UNITA.
Task Force Zulu
Task Force Zulu was a conventional armed forces battalion of FNLA (Frente Nacional de Libertacao or National Front for the Liberation of Angola) troops that were trained by members of the South African Defence Force 1st Reconnaissance Commandos and was led by Col. Jan Dirk Breytenbach. The unit focused on marching onto an enemy position with great speed. Late during the conflict, the name of the task force was changed to Task Force Bravo after reorganization.
On 14 October, the South Africans secretly initiated Operation Savannah when Task Force Zulu crossed from Namibia into Cuando Cubango. The operation provided for elimination of the MPLA from the southern border area, then from south western Angola, from the central region, and finally for the capture of Luanda (the political faction that held Luanda would be recognized by Portugal on independence day as the official government).
According to John Stockwell, a former CIA officer, "there was close liaison between the CIA and the South Africans" and "'high officials' in Pretoria claimed that their intervention in Angola had been based on an 'understanding' with the United States". The intervention was also backed by Zaire and Zambia.
With the liberation forces busy fighting each other, the SADF advanced very quickly. Task Force Foxbat joined the invasion in mid-October. The territory the MPLA had just gained in the south was quickly lost to the South African advances. After South African advisors and antitank weapons helped to stop an MPLA advance on Nova Lisboa (Huambo) in early October, Zulu captured Roçadas (Xangongo) by 20, Sá da Bandeira (Lubango) by 24 and Moçâmedes by 28 October.
With the South Africans moving quickly toward Luanda, the Cubans had to terminate the CIR at Salazar only 3 days after it started operating and deployed most of the instructors and Angolan recruits in Luanda.
On 2–3 November, 51 Cubans from the CIR Benguela and South Africans had their first direct encounter near Catengue, where FAPLA unsuccessfully tried to stop the Zulu advance. This encounter led Zulu-Commander Breytenbach to conclude that his troops had faced the best organized FAPLA opposition to date.
For the duration of the campaign, Zulu had advanced 3,159 km in thirty-three days and had fought twenty-one battles / skirmishes in addition to sixteen hasty and fourteen deliberate attacks. Task Force Zulu accounted for an estimated 210 MPLA dead, 96 wounded and 50 POWs while it had suffered 5 dead and 41 wounded.
Cuban intervention
After the MPLA debacle at Catengue, the Cubans became very aware of the South African intervention. On 4 November Castro decided to begin an intervention on an unprecedented scale: "Operation Carlota". The same day, a first airplane with 100 heavy weapon specialists, which the MPLA had requested in September, left for Brazzaville, arriving in Luanda on 7 November. On November 9 the first 100 men of a contingent of a 652-strong battalion of elite Special Forces were flown in. The 100 specialists and 88 men of the special forces were dispatched immediately to the nearby front at Kifangondo. They assisted 850 FAPLA, 200 Katangans and one Soviet advisor.
With the help of the Cubans and the Soviet advisor, FAPLA decisively repelled an FNLA-Zairian assault in the Battle of Kifangondo on 8 November. The South African contingent, 52 men commanded by General Ben de Wet Roos, that had provided for the artillery on the northern front, had to be evacuated by ship on 28 November. MPLA-leader Agostinho Neto proclaimed independence and the formation of the People's Republic of Angola on 11 November and became its first President.
South African reinforcements
On 6 and 7 November 1975 Zulu captured the harbour cities of Benguela (terminal of the Benguela railroad) and Lobito. The towns and cities captured by the SADF were given to UNITA. In central Angola, at the same time, combat unit Foxbat had moved north toward Luanda. By then, the South Africans realised that Luanda could not be captured by independence day on 11 November and the South Africans considered ending the advance and retreating. But on 10 November 1975 Vorster relented to UNITA's urgent request to maintain the military pressure with the objective of capturing as much territory as possible before the impending meeting of the Organization of African Unity. Thus, Zulu and Foxbat continued north with two new battle groups formed further inland (X-Ray and Orange) and "there was little reason to think the FAPLA would be able to stop this expanded force from capturing Luanda within a week."
Through November and December 1975, the SADF presence in Angola numbered 2,900 to 3,000 personnel.
After Luanda was secured against the north and with reinforcements from Cuba arriving, Zulu faced stronger resistance advancing on Novo Redondo (Sumbe). First Cuban reinforcements arrived in Porto Amboim, only a few km north of Novo Redondo, quickly destroying three bridges crossing the Queve river, effectively stopping the South African advance along the coast on 13 November 1975.
Despite concerted efforts to advance north to Novo Redondo, the SADF was unable to break through FAPLA defences. In a last successful advance a South African task force and UNITA troops captured Luso on the Benguela railway on 11 December which they held until 27 December.
End of South African advance
By mid-December South Africa extended military service and brought in reserves. "An indication of the seriousness of the situation ... is that one of the most extensive military call-ups in South African history is now taking place". By late December, the Cubans had deployed 3,500 to 4,000 troops in Angola, of which 1,000 were securing Cabinda, and eventually the struggle began to favour of the MPLA. Apart from being "bogged down" on the southern front, the South African advance halted, "as all attempts by Battle-Groups Orange and X-Ray to extend the war into the interior had been forced to turn back by destroyed bridges". In addition, South Africa had to deal with two other major setbacks: the international press criticism of the operation and the associated change of US policies. Following the discovery of SADF troops in Angola, most African and Western backers declined to continue to back the South Africans due to the negative publicity of links with the Apartheid government. The South African leadership felt betrayed with a member of congress saying "When the chips were down there was not a single state prepared to stand with South Africa. Where was America? Where were Zaire, Zambia ... and South Africa's other friends?"
Major battles and incidents
Battle of Quifangondo
On 10 November 1975, the day before Angolan independence, the FNLA attempted against advice to capture Luanda from the MPLA. South African gunners and aircraft assisted the offensive which went horribly wrong for the attackers; they were routed by the FAPLA assisted by Cubans manning superior weaponry that had arrived recently in the country. The Cuban-led force shot 2,000 rockets at the FNLA. The South African artillery, antiquated due to the UN embargo, was not any match for the longer-ranged Cuban BM-21 rocket launchers, and therefore could not influence the result of the battle.
Battle of Ebo
The Cuban military, anticipating a South African advance (under the direction of Lieutenant Christopher du Raan) towards the town of Ebo, established positions there at a river crossing to thwart any assault. The defending artillery force, equipped with a BM-21 battery, a 76mm field gun, and several anti-tank units, subsequently destroyed seven to eight armoured cars, whilst they were bogged down with RPG-7s, on November 25, killing 50 enemy soldiers. The Cubans suffered no casualties.
Second in command (2IC) car manned by Lt Jaco "Bok" Kriel, Cpl Gerrie Hugo and Richard "Flappie" Ludwig scouted to the North to look for an alternative route across the river. They got bogged down but managed to dig themselves out of the mud. Unbeknown to them this happened right in front of the enemy positions. Apparently only the superb fire control of the enemy saved them from a certain demise.
Johann du Toit's troop moved forward towards the bridge after Hannes Swanepoel's troop deployed tactically and all, with the odd exception, got stuck in the mud.
The troop of Abrie Cloete also moved into the terrain and with the exception of the car of John Wahl suffered the same fate as the troop of Hannes Swanepoel. John Wahl then deployed in an excellent fire support position.
The first three vehicles got shot out. The fourth vehicle of Kees van der Linde returned fire with their co-axial Browning machine gun and pinned the enemy down. At this stage Kees van der Linde's car broke down with a fuel line problem.
Kees managed to sort this out but got wounded in his legs in the process. This vehicle managed to withdraw back to the mortar position where it broke down again and Kees got seriously wounded for the second time. The 2IC car charged into the killing zone, after a call for help from Gert Botha and started the rescue attempt which saved the lives of at least eight more armoured members by drawing the fire away from them as the enemy would have shot the vehicles again and again. In the process they got shot out by various anti tank weapons. The first shot hit them on the muzzle-brake, the second took off the anti aircraft Browning and wounded Jaco Kriel over the top of his head and he sat down stunned for a minute or two. The car was thus useless as the co-axial Browning could not be reloaded by Kriel. John Wahl then knocked out the 76 mm and saved the crew of the 2IC car in the process. The 2IC car was now useless and withdrew but loaded the wounded Volgraaf on the front of their car and transported him back to the medical post. Bok Kriel however jumped out of the car, saw that Abrie Cloete abandoned his car and ran away. He took control of this car and together with John Wahl they continued with the rescue attempts.
Over the next few hours a fierce exchange of fire took place. In the process John Wahl moved in and rescued Gert Botha. Bok Kriel also moved in and rescues Jaco Kotze. Again John Wahl moved in and rescued Giel Visser. This he did without his gunner as to make space for Giel and for all intent and purposes were thus unarmed. Lombard was killed and Bok Kriel got wounded for the second time, in his neck.
All of these actions were launched on own initiative, without any orders been given and under death defying circumstances because by then, the killing zone of the ambush was barraged by wave after wave of 122mm BM-21 multiple rocket launchers. This led to more than 80 (exact number unknown) casualties amongst the infantry which were surrogate forces in the form of FNLA and UNITA soldiers.
A SAAF Cessna 185 spotter aircraft was shot down over Ebo the following day which killed Williamson, Taljaard and Thompson. This was the first tangible South African defeat of Operation Savannah.
"Bridge 14"
Following the ambush at Ebo, the South African Battle Group Foxbat began attempting to breach the Nhia River at "Bridge 14", a strategic crossing near the FAPLA headquarters north of Quibala. This ensuing Battle for Bridge 14 accounted for the many fierce actions fought by withdrawing Cuban and Angolan forces from the river inland to "Top Hat", a hill overlooking the southern approach to the bridge. In early December, Foxbat had infiltrated the hill with two artillery observers, who directed fire on FAPLA positions from a battery of BL 5.5-inch Medium Guns. This development forced Cuban commander Raúl Arguelles to call off an intended counter-offensive and order a redeployment via Ebo, instructing his units to withdraw from the Nhia. His subsequent death in a landmine explosion caused much confusion in some sectors of the defence line, with several of the defending units overlooking Bridge 14 as a result of a series of miscommunications. Meanwhile, South African sappers started repairing the bridge on December 11 despite heavy FAPLA opposition. By morning the Cuban situation had worsened with Foxbat advancing in full force. At about 7 AM, the defending troops came under attack. Heavy artillery pounded the northern banks, wiping out several mortar positions and at least one ammunition truck. The Cubans, supported by ZPU-4s and BM-21 Grads, covered the main road with 9M14 Malyutka wire-guided missiles to deter the South African advance. However, a column of twelve Eland-90 armoured cars supported by infantry broke through, skirting the road to confuse the missile teams, who had trained their weapons on the centre of the bridge.
The Elands swiftly engaged the remaining mortars with high-explosive rounds, routing their crews. Twenty Cuban advisers were also dispatched when they attempted to overtake Lieutenant van Vuuren's armoured car in the chaos, possibly mistaking it for an Angolan vehicle. Slowing to let the truck pass, van Vuuren promptly slammed a 90mm round into its rear – killing the occupants.
It was during this engagement that Danny Roxo single-handedly killed twelve FAPLA soldiers while conducting a reconnaissance of the bridge, an action for which he was awarded the Honoris Crux. A number of other South African military personnel were also decorated for bravery at Bridge 14, some posthumously. The South Africans claimed that over 200 FAPLA/Cubans soldiers were killed, although this estimate was possibly exaggerated. However, Cuban and Angolan sources do make oblique references to a military setback on 12 December.
The events at Bridge 14 were subsequently dramatised by South Africa in the 1976 Afrikaans film Brug 14. The action was re-enacted using national servicemen. During the making of the film near Bethlehem in the OFS, Captain Douw Steyn was severely injured when a blank round from an Eland was accidentally fired and a piece of shrapnel removed his calf muscle. A useful rugby player, he went on to recover, and played one more match before hanging up the boots.
Battle of Luso
On December 10, the South African Task Force X-Ray followed the Benguela railway line from Silva Porto (Kuito) east to Luso, which they overran on the 10th December 1975. The South African contingent included an armoured squadron, supporting infantry units, some artillery, engineers, and UNITA irregulars. Their main objective was to seize the Luso airport, which later went on to serve as a supply point until the South Africans finally departed Angola in early January 1976.
Battles involving Battlegroup Zulu in the west
There were numerous unrecorded clashes fought in the southwest between Colonel Jan Breytenbach's SADF battlegroup and scattered MPLA positions during Operation Savannah. Eventually, Breytenbach's men were able to advance three thousand kilometers over Angolan soil in thirty-three days.
On a related note, Battlegroup Zulu later formed the basis of South Africa's famous 32 Battalion.
Ambrizete incident
The South African Navy was not planned to be involved in the hereunto land operation, but after a failed intervention by the South African Army in the Battle of Quifangondo, nevertheless had to hastily extract a number of army personnel by sea from far behind enemy lines in Angola, as well as abandoned guns. Ambrizete north of Luanda at was chosen as the pick-up point for the gunners involved in the defeat at Quifangondo. The frigates and went to the area, where the latter used inflatable boats and its Westland Wasp helicopter to extract 26 personnel successfully from the beach on 28 November 1975. The replenishment oiler provided logistical support to the frigates, and picked up the guns in Ambriz after they were towed to Zaire, and took them to Walvis Bay.
General Constand Viljoen, who had grave concerns at the time about the safety of both his soldiers and abandoned field guns, called it "the most difficult night ever in my operational career".
The success of this operation was exceptionally fortuitous, given that the South African Navy had been penetrated by the spy Dieter Gerhardt.
Aftermath
South Africa continued to assist UNITA in order to ensure that SWAPO did not establish any bases in southern Angola.
The FNLA had never recovered from its defeats in the north. After the South Africans had withdrawn from Angola. The FNLA had begun to disintegrate, by March 1976 the FNLA had ceased to exist in Angola.
South African order of battle
The South Africans deployed a number of Combat Groups during Operation Savannah – initially, only Combat Groups A and B were deployed, with the remaining groups being mobilised and deployed into Angola later in the campaign. There has been much dispute the overall size of Task Force Zulu. Current evidence indicates that the Task Force started with approximately 500 men and grew to a total of 2,900 with the formation of Battle Groups Foxbat, Orange and X-Ray.
Association
The Savannah Association is an association of ex-servicemen of all units who were involved in the operation. They meet annually to commemorate the operation. The insignia of the association is a caltrop.
Notes and references
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Savannah
Savannah
Savannah
Savannah
Cold War conflicts
Conflicts in 1975
Conflicts in 1976
Angola–South Africa relations
Military history of Angola
Savannah (Angola), Operation
Savannah (Angola), Operation
Savannah (Angola), Operation
CIA activities in Africa
UNITA
MPLA |
4059688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashik | Ashik | An ashik (, ; ; —all from ) or ashugh (; ) is traditionally a singer-poet and bard who accompanies his song—be it a dastan (traditional epic story, also known as hikaye) or a shorter original composition—with a long-necked lute (usually a bağlama or saz) in Turkic (primarily Turkish and Azerbaijani cultures, including Iranian Azerbaijanis) and non-Turkic cultures of South Caucasus (primarily Armenian and Georgian). In Azerbaijan, the modern ashik is a professional musician who usually serves an apprenticeship, masters playing the bağlama, and builds up a varied but individual repertoire of Turkic folk songs.
The word ashiq (, meaning "in love" or "lovelorn") is the nominative form of a noun derived from the word ishq (, "love"), which in turn may be related to the Avestan iš- ("to wish, desire, seek"). The term is synonymous with in Turkish and Azerbaijani, which it superseded during the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries. Other alternatives include saz şair (meaning "saz poet") and halk şair ("folk poet"). In Armenian, the term gusan, which referred to creative and performing artists in public theaters of Parthia and ancient and medieval Armenia, is often used as a synonym.
History
The ashik tradition in Turkic cultures of Anatolia, Azerbaijan and Iran has its origin in the Shamanistic beliefs of ancient Turkic peoples. The ancient ashiks were called by various names such as bakshy/bakhshi/Baxşı, dede (dədə), and uzan or ozan. Among their various roles, they played a major part in perpetuation of oral tradition, promotion of communal value system and traditional culture of their people. These wandering bards or troubadours are part of current rural and folk culture of Azerbaijan, and Iranian Azerbaijan, Turkey, the Turkmen Sahra (Iran) and Turkmenistan, where they are called bakshy. Thus, ashik, in traditional sense, may be defined as travelling bards who sang and played saz, an eight or ten string plucking instrument in the form of a long-necked lute.
Judging based on the Turkic epic Dede Korkut, the roots of ashiks can be traced back to at least the 7th century, during the heroic age of the Oghuz Turks. This nomadic tribe journeyed westwards through Central Asia from the 9th century onward and settled in present Turkey, Azerbaijan Republic and North-west areas of Iran. Naturally, their music was evolved in the course of the grand migration and ensuing feuds with the original inhabitants the acquired lands. An important component of this cultural evolution was that the Turks embraced Islam within a short time and of their own free will. Muslim Turk dervishes, desiring to spread the religion among their brothers who had not yet entered the Islamic fold, moved among the nomadic Turks. They choose the folk language and its associate musical form as an appropriate medium for effective transmission of their message. Thus, ashik literature developed alongside mystical literature and was refined starting since the time of Turkic Sufi Khoja Akhmet Yassawi in early twelfth century.
The single most important event in the history of ashik music was the ascent to the throne of Shah Isma'il (1487–1524), the founder of the Safavid dynasty. He was a prominent ruler-poet and has, apart from his diwan compiled a mathnawi called Deh-name, consisting of some eulogies of Ali, the fourth Caliph of early Islam. He used the pen-name Khata'i and, in ashik tradition, is considered as an amateur ashik . Isma'il's praised playing Saz as a virtue in one of his renowned qauatrains;
Bu gün ələ almaz oldum mən sazım --- (Today, I embraced my Saz)
Ərşə dirək-dirək çıxar mənim avazım --- (My song is being echoed by heavens)
Dörd iş vardır hər qarındaşa lazım: --- (Four things are required for the life:)
Bir elm, bir kəlam, bir nəfəs, bir saz. --- (Conscience, speech, respiration, and Saz.)
According to Köprülü's studies, the term ashik was used instead of ozan in Azerbaijan and in areas of Anatolia after the 15th century. After the demise of Safavid dynasty in Iran, Turkish culture could not sustain its early development among the elites. Instead, there was a surge in the development of verse-folk stories, mainly intended for performance by ashiks in weddings. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union the governments of new republics in Caucasus region and Central Asia sought their identity in traditional cultures of their societies. This elevated the status of ashugs as the guardians of national culture. The newfound unprecedented popularity and frequent concerts and performances in urban settings have resulted in rapid innovative developments aiming to enhance the urban-appealing aspects of ashik performances.
Ashugh music in Armenia
A concise account of the ashik (called ashugh in Armenian) music and its development in Armenia is given in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. In Armenia, the ashugh are known since the 16th century onward, acting as the successors to the medieval gusan art. By far the most notable of the ashugh of all was Sayat Nova (1712–95), who honed the art of troubadour musicianship to crowning refinement.
Ashik music in Iranian Azerbaijan
During the Pahlavi era Ashiks frequently performed in coffee houses in all the major cities of east and west Azerbaijan in Iran. Tabriz was the eastern center for the ashiks and Urmia the western center. In Tabriz ashiks most often performed with two other musicians, a balaban player and a qaval player; in Urmia the ashik was always a solo performer. After the Islamic revolution music was banned.{fact} Ten years later, ashik Rasool Ghorbani, who had been forced to make a living as a travelling salesman, aspired to return to the glorious days of fame and leisure. He started composing songs with religious and revolutionary themes. The government, realizing the propaganda potential of these songs, allowed their broadcast in national radio and sent Rasool to perform in some European cities. This facilitated the emergence of the ashik music as the symbol of Azeri cultural identity.
In September 2009, Azerbaijan's ashik art was included into UNESCO list of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
The foundations of ashik art
Ashik art combines poetic, musical and performance ability. Ashiks themselves describe the art as the unified duo of saz and söz (word).This duo is conspicuously featured in a popular composition by Səməd Vurğun:
Binələri çadır çadır --- (The peaks rise up all around like tents)
Çox gəzmişəm özüm dağlar --- (I have wandered often in these mountains)
İlhamını səndən alıb --- (My saz and söz take inspiration)
Mənim sazım, sözüm dağlar. --- (From you, mountains.)
The following subsections provide more details about saz and söz.
Musical instruments
Mastering in playing saz is the essential requirement for an ashik. This instrument, a variant of which is known as Bağlama, is a stringed musical instrument and belongs to the family of long-necked lutes. Often performances of ashiks are accompanied by an ensemble of balaban and qaval performers. During Eurovision Song Contest 2012 all three instruments were symbolically played as a cultural symbol of the host country, Azerbaijan.
Poetry genres
The most spread poetry genres are gerayly, qoshma and tajnis.
Ethical code of behaviour and attitude for ashiks
The defining characteristic of ashik profession is the ethical code of behaviour and attitude, which has been summarized by Aşiq Ələsgər in the following verses;
Aşıq olub diyar-diyar gəzənin ----(To be a bard and wander far from home)
Əzəl başdan pürkəmalı gərəkdi --- (You knowledge and thinking head must have.)
Oturub durmaqda ədəbin bilə --- (How you are to behave, you too must know,)
Mə'rifət elmində dolu gərəkti --- (Politeness, erudition you must have.)
Xalqa həqiqətdən mətləb qandıra --- (He should be able to teach people the truth,)
Şeytanı öldürə, nəfsin yandıra --- (To kill evil within himself, refrain from ill emotions,)
El içinde pak otura pak dura --- (He should socialize virtuously)
Dalısınca xoş sedalı gərəkdi --- (Then people will think highly of him)
Danışdığı sözün qiymətin bilə --- (He should know the weight of his words,)
Kəlməsindən ləl'i-gövhər tokülə --- (He should be brilliant in speech,)
Məcazi danışa, məcazi gülə --- (He should speak figuratively,)
Tamam sözü müəmmalı gərəkdi --- (And be a politician in discourse.)
Arif ola, eyham ilə söz qana --- (Be quick to understand a hint, howe'er,)
Naməhrəmdən şərm eyleyə, utana --- (Of strangers you should, as a rule, beware,)
Saat kimi meyli Haqq'a dolana --- (And like a clock advance to what is fair.)
Doğru qəlbi, doğru yolu gərəkdi --- (True heart and word of honour you must have.)
Ələsgər haqq sözün isbatın verə --- (Ələsgər will prove his assertions,)
Əməlin mələklər yaza dəftərə --- (Angels will record his deeds,)
Her yanı istese baxanda göre --- (Your glance should be both resolute and pure,)
Teriqetde bu sevdalı gerekdi --- (You must devote himself to righteous path.)
Ashik stories (dastan)
was the first to introduce the word hikaye into the academic literature to describe ashik stories. According to Başgöz, hikaye cannot properly be included in any of the folk narrative classification systems presently used by Western scholars. Though prose narrative is dominant in a hikaye, it also includes several folk songs. These songs, which represent the major part of Turkish folk music repertory, may number more than one hundred in a single hekaye, each having three, five or more stanzas.
As the art of ashik is based on oral tradition, the number of ashik stories can be as many as the ashiks themselves. Throughout the centuries of this tradition, many interesting stories and epics have thrived, and some have survived to our times. The main themes of the most ashik stories are worldly love or epics of wars and battles or both. In stark contrast to the conservative medium of Islamic societies where most stories take place, the heroine's rule is always as important as the hero's. In contrast to the doctrine of Islam, there is no objection to the heroine publicly singing.
In the following we present a brief list of the most famous hikayes:
Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safavid empire, is the protagonist of a major hikaye. Despite the apparent basis in history, Shah Ismail's hikaye demonstrates a remarkable transformative ability. Feared as a ruthless despot during his lifetime, Shah Ismail becomes a poetic maestro in the hikaye, with his sword replaced by his saz, which is the weapon of choice for Shah Ismail's new persona of folk hero.
The Warrior of The North. A Romantic Action Epic about bard named ashik in Constantinople in the 16th Century where he faces political and military problems and saves many people. In the end, he marries his soul mate, Nuur, but dies the same day in an attempt to save her from Hardun The Evil.
The Epic of Köroğlu is one of the most widespread of the Turkic hikayes. It is shared not only by nearly all Turkic peoples, but also by some non-Turkic neighboring communities, such as the Armenians, Georgians, Kurds, Tajiks, and Afghans. Although the hikaye's path of transmission is not yet fully understood, most researchers agree that it originated in the south Caucasus region, most likely Azerbaijan. In the Azeri version, the epic combines the occasional romance with Robin Hood-like chivalry. Köroğlu, is himself an ashik, who punctuates the third-person narratives of his adventures by breaking into verse: this is Köroğlu. This popular story has spread from Anatolia to the countries of Central Asia somehow changing its character and content. Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov has created an opera by this name, using the ashik stories and masterfully combined some ashik music with this major classical work.
Ashiq Qərib, Azeri epic, made famous by Mikhail Lermontov, is another major story of a wandering ashik who began his journeys with worldly love and attains wisdom by traveling and learning then achieving sainthood. The story of Ashiq Qərib has been the main feature of a movie with the same name by director and producer Sergei Parajanov. In early 1980s narrated and sang the story in a one-hour-long TV program, the cosset record of which was widely distributed in Iranian Azerbaijan and had a key impact on the revival of ashug music.
Aşıq Valeh is the story of a debate between (1729–1822) and Aşıq Zərniyar. Forty ashiks have already lost the debate to Aşıq Zərniyar and have been imprisoned. Valeh, however, wins the debate, frees the jailed ashiks and marries Zərniyar.
Verbal dueling (deyişmə)
In order to stay in the profession and defend their reputation ashiks used to challenge each other by indulging in verbal duelings, which were held in public places. In its simplest form one ashik would recite a riddle by singing and the other had to respond by means of improvisation to the verses resembling riddles in form. Here is an example:
Famous ashiks
21st century
, born in Sheykh Hoseynlu, has significantly contributed to the revival and development of ashik music. His book on the subject attempts to adapt the ashik music to the artistic taste of the contemporary audience.
, born in Baku (1981), is a popular professional ashik who teaches at the Azerbaijan State University of Culture and Art. She is committed to the survival of the ashik tradition.
Zulfiyya Ibadova, born in 1976, is a passionate and vibrant performer with a strong individual style. She has written a great deal of original music and lyrics, and likes combining the Saz with other instruments.
, born in 1972, is a master Saz player. He teaches at the Azerbaijan State University of Culture and Art.
20th century
Ali Ekber Chichek, Ashik Ibreti, Ashik Khanlar, Ashik Mubarak Yaafar, Muhlis Akarsu, Ashig Adalet, , Davut Sulari, , , , , Ashik Seyit Meftuni
Neshet Ertash, was born in 1938 in Kirshehir, and started playing baglama since he was 5. He died on 25 September 2012 in Izmir. The opening quatrain of his composition, Yalan Dünya, is as the following:
Hep sen mi ağladın hep sen mi yandın, --- (Did you cry all the time, did you burn all the time?)
Ben de gülemedim yalan dünyada --- (I couldn't smile too in untrue world)
Sen beni gönlümce mutlu mu sandın --- (Did you think I was happy with my heart)
Ömrümü boş yere çalan dünyada. --- (In the world which stole my life in vain")
, born in Oti Kandi in Qareh Dagh, is the legendary ashik who was exiled to Soviet Union due to his revolutionary songs during the brief reign of Azerbaijan People's Government following the World War II. Hoseyn Javan's music, in contrast to the contemporary poetry in Iran, emphasizes on realism and highlights the beauties of real life. One of Hoseyn's songs, with the title "Kimin olacaqsan yari, bəxtəvər?", is among the most famous ashugh songs.
was born in 1932 in Georgia. In early eighties Kamndar performed shortened version of famous hikayes intended for contemporary audience. These performances were effective in the revival of ashik music.
, recognized as the godfather among the masters of ashugh music, was born in 1933 in AbbasAbad. Rasool started his music career in 1952 and by 1965 was an accomplished ashik. Rasool had performed in international music festivals held in France, Germany, the Netherlands, England, Japan, China, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Australia, Azerbaijan, Serbia, Turkey and Hungary. Rasool has been awarded highest art awards of Iran, and will be honored by government during the celebration for his 80th birthday.
Ashik Mahzuni Sherif,(17 November 1940 – 17 May 2002), was a folk musician, ashik, composer, poet, and author from Turkey. His had an undeniable contribution in popularizing ashik music in intellectual circles. The opening quatrain of his composition, İşte gidiyorum çeşm-i siyahım, is as the following:
İşte gidiyorum çeşm-i siyahım --- (That's it, I go my black eyed)
Önümüze dağlar sıralansa da --- (Despite mountains ranked before us)
Sermayem derdimdir servetim ahım --- (My capital is my sorrow, my wealth is my trouble)
Karardıkça bahtım karalansa da --- (Withal my blacken fortune darkened")
Ashik Veysel (25 October 1894 – 21 March 1973). The opening quatrain of his composition, Kara Toprak ("Black earth"), is as the following:
Dost dost diye nicesine sarıldım --- (I expected for many people to be real friends)
Benim sâdık yârim kara topraktır --- (My faithful beloved is black soil)
Beyhude dolandım boşa yoruldum --- (I wandered around with no end, I got tired for nothing)
Benim sâdık yârim kara topraktır --- (My faithful beloved is black soil")
19th century
Ashik Summani, Ashig Aly, Molla Juma, Ashig Musa,
Ashiq Basti (1836–1936), is one of the most outstanding female representatives of the art of Ashig in nineteenth century Azerbaijan. She was born in the Loh village of the Kalbajar region. She had a deep knowledge of Azerbaijani folk literature and was able to recite poems of her own at these folk ceremonies. She also learned to play the saz. Basti was known to be an active member of 'Gurban Bulaghi', a famous literary gathering of her era. She fell deeply in love with a shepherd sometime between the age of seventeen and eighteen. Her first love, however, was killed by a nobleman in her presence. Having helplessly witnessed this scene, Basti was thrown into a state of mental turmoil by this tragic incident. In her poems, Basti refers to her sweetheart as Khanchoban. In her lifetime, an epic story called 'Basti and Khanchoban' was created to deal with her ill-fated love. She avenges the nobleman who had killed her beloved by cursing him in her poems. Basti lost her eyesight from her endless weeping and she grew old well before her time. She was called 'Blind Basti' and a saying was created about her: 'Even the stone was crying when Basti cried'. However, she lived a long life and died in 1936, at the age of one hundred.
Ashig Alasgar, perhaps the most renowned Azerbaijani ashik of all ages, was born in 1821 in Gegharkunik Province (Գեղարքունիքի մարզ) of the present day Armenia to an impoverished family. At the age of 14 he was employed as a servant boy and worked for five years, during which fell in love with his employer's daughter, Səhnəbanı. The girl was married off to her cousin and Alasgar was sent home. This failed love urged young Alasgar to buy a saz and seek apprenticeship with Ashik Ali for five years. He emerged as an accomplished ashik and poet and in 1850, unwillingly, defeated his master in a verbal dueling. The rest of Alasgar's productive life was spent training ashiks and composing songs until his death in 1926. Here, we present the opening verses of one of Alasgar's finest compositions, titled Deer (Jeyran). The song has been recently performed by Azerbaijan's beloved traditional singer Fargana Qasimova. Alim Qasimov offers the following commentary on this popular song: "In Azerbaijan, jeyran refers to a kind of deer that lives in the mountains and the plains. They’re lovely animals, and because their eyes are so beautiful, poets often use this word. There are many girls named Jeyran in Azerbaijan. We hope that when listeners hear this song, they’ll get in touch with their own inner purity and sincerity."
Durum dolanım başına, --- (Let me encircle you with love,)
Qaşı, gözü qara, Ceyran! --- (Your black eyes and eyebrows, Jeyran.)
Həsrətindən xəstə düşdüm, --- (I have fallen into the flames of longing,)
Eylə dərdə çara, Ceyran! --- (Help me to recover from this pain, Jeyran".)
.......
Jivani (, 1846–1909), born Serob Stepani Levonian (Սերոբ Ստեփանի Լևոնյան), was an Armenian ashugh (or gusan) and poet. Jivani's compositions mostly deal with social issues. An example:
THE mournful and unhappy days, like winter, come and go.
We should not be discouraged, they will end, they come and go.
Our bitter griefs and sorrows do not tarry with us long;
Like customers arrayed in line, they come, and then they go. ...
18th century
Sayat-Nova
Khasta Qasim, (1684–1760) was one of the most popular folk poets in Azerbaijan. Khasta, which he chose for a pen-name, means "one in pain".
Dadaloğlu
17th century
Naghash Hovnatan was an Armenian poet, ashugh, painter, and founder of the Hovnatanian artistic family. He was born in 1661 in the town of Shorot, Nakhijevan. He is considered the founder of the new Armenian minstrel school, following medieval Armenian lyric poetry.
Kul Nesîmî, Aşıq Abdulla, Sarı Aşıq
Karacaoğlan is a 17th-century Ottoman folk poet and ashik, who was born around 1606 and died around 1680. The opening quatrain of his composition, Elif, is as the following:
incecikten bir kar yağar, --- (With its tender flakes, snow flutters about,)
Tozar Elif, Elif deyi... --- (Keeps falling, calling out "Elif… Elif…”)
Deli gönül abdal olmuş, --- (This frenzied heart of mine wanders about)
Gezer Elif, Elif deyi... --- (Like minstrels, calling out "Elif… Elif…”)
Ashik Abbas Tufarganly was born in the late 16th century in Azarshahr. According to a popular ashik hikaye, known as Abbas və Gülgəz, he was a love rival of King Abbas. The facts about Ashik Abbas's life are mixed with the myths of the said hikaye. Ashik Abbas's compositions have survived and are still song by contemporary ashiks. A famous song starts as the following:
Ay həzarət, bir zamana gəlibdir, --- (Oh brothers and sisters, what have we come to:)
Ala qarğa şux tərlanı bəyənməz --- (The jay hates the eagle as never before.)
Gevherî, Turkish Ozan from Afshar tribe.
Başına bir hal gelirse canım, --- If something happens to you,
Dağlara gel dağlara, --- Come to the mountains,
Seni saklar vermez ele canım, --- She will embrace you as her own,
Seni saklar vermez ele. --- Never hands you in to the strangers.
........
16th century
Shah Ismail Khatai, (1485–1524) was the founder of the Safavid dynasty (1502–1736). Writing under the pen name of
Khatai, he produced a large volume of lyric poetry in Azerbaijani language. Khatai's poetry is graceful and polished and his language closely approaches to folk idiom:
Winter's shaken off, and spring arrives! --- Rosebuds waken, garden plot revives,
Birds all trill in aching harmony,--- Love's a thrilling flame, disturbing me.
Earth is dressed in furry, downy green, --- Whispers press the silence once serene, .......
Aşıq Qərib
Nahapet Kuchak () (died 1592) was an Armenian medieval poet, considered one of the first ashughs. He is best known for his hairens (հայրեն), "couplets with a single coherent theme." Kuchak was probably born in the village of Kharakonis, near the city of Van. He later married a woman named Tangiatun. The poet lived his entire life near the Lake Van area until his death in 1592. Kuchak was buried in the cemetery of Kharakonis St. Theodoros Church and his grave became pilgrimage site.
Pir Sultan Abdal (ca. 1480–1550) was a Turkish Alevi poet and ashik. During the time, Pir Sultan Abdal with the villagers, went against injustice, and was hanged by the Sivas governor Hızır pasha, who was once his comrade. The opening quatrain of his composition, THE ROUGH MAN, is as the following:
Dostun en güzeli bahçesine bir hoyrat girmiş, --- (The rough man entered the lover's garden)
Korudur hey benli dilber korudur --- (It is woods now, my beautiful one, it is woods,)
Gülünü dererken dalını kırmış --- (Gathering roses, he has broken their stems)
Kurudur hey benli dilber kurudur --- (They are dry now, my beautiful one, they are dry)
Ashiq Qurbani was born in 1477 in Dirili. He was a contemporary of Shah Ismail and may have served as the court musician. His compositions were handed down as gems of oral art from generation to generation and constitute a necessary repertoire of every ashik. A famous qushma, titled Violet, starts as the following:
Başina mən dönüm ala göz Pəri, --- (O my dearest, my love, my beautiful green-eyed Pari)
Adətdir dərələr yaz bənəvşəni. --- (Custom bids us pluck violets when spring days begin)
Ağ nazik əlinən dər dəstə bağla, --- (With your tender white hand gather a nosegay,)
Tər buxaq altinə düz bənəvşəni... --- (Pin it under your dainty chin.....)
15th century
Kaygusuz Abdal, was born in the late 14th century into a noble and aristocratic family of the Anatolian province of Teke and died in 1445. He traveled throughout the Middle East and eventually came to Cairo where he founded a Bektashi convent. Kaygusuz's poetry is among the strangest expressions of Sufism. He does not hesitate to describe in great detail his dreams of good food, nor does he shrink from singing about his love adventures with a charming young man. A tekerleme by Kaygusuz sounds like a perfect translation of a nursery rhyme:
kaplu kaplu bağalar kanatlanmiş uçmağa.. ---- The turturturtles have taken wings to fly ...
Imadaddin Nasimi, born 1369 and skinned alive in Aleppo in 1417, was an Azerbaijani or Iraqi Turkmen Ḥurūfī poet. His quatrains are very close to ashik bayati.
13th century
Yunus Emre (1240–1321) was one of the first Turkish poets who wrote poems in his mother tongue rather than Persian or Arabic, which were the writing medium of the era. Emre was not literally an ashik, but his undeniable influence on the evolution of ashik literature is being felt to the present times. The opening quatrain of his composition, Bülbül Kasidesi Sözleri, is as the following:
İsmi sübhan virdin mi var? --- (is The Father's name your mantra?)
Bahçelerde yurdun mu var? --- (are those gardens your home?)
Bencileyin derdin mi var? --- (is your plight just as mine?)
Garip garip ötme bülbül --- (don't sing in sorrow nightingale)
See also
Ashiqs of Azerbaijan
Aqyn
Bakshy
Dengbêj
Gusans
Khananda
Ishq
Ashik Kerib and Ashiq Qarib
Epic of Koroghlu
Epic of Manas
The Color of Pomegranates
List of Turkic-languages poets
Notes and references
Further reading
External links
Details of the film Ashik Kerib by Parajanov
Women Performers of Legend and Folk Poetry
The Poet Minstrels of Azerbaijan
"ĀŠEQ" (Iranica Encyclopedia)
"Asik" in Turkish Oral Narrative
Videos
Ashik film
Armenian music
Azerbaijani music
Turkish music
Music of Georgia (country)
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Poets
Ashiks |
4059713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Darkness%20Series | The Darkness Series | Darkness, also known as World at War, is a series of six fantasy novels by Harry Turtledove.
Though a fantasy, its general history, geography, and combatants are analogs of World War II, called the "Derlavai War" in this universe. Many of its characters are also the equivalents of historical people. Magic and other fantastic beasts, like dragons, are also stand-ins for World War II technology. Important battles in the series are also based on famous World War II battles. For example, the Battle of Sulingen is an analog to the Battle of Stalingrad.
Novels
Into the Darkness (1999)
Darkness Descending (2000)
Through the Darkness (2001)
Rulers of the Darkness (2002)
Jaws of Darkness (2003)
Out of the Darkness (2004)
World of Derlavai
Most of the action in the series takes place on the main continent of Derlavai, located in the southern hemisphere of an unnamed planet. There are also some lesser land masses and island chains mentioned in the story and on the map included in the novels. The planet also has the smaller continents of Siaulia and The Land of the Ice People.
There are only 12 independent countries: Algarve, Forthweg, Gyongyos, Jelgava, Sibiu, Kuusamo, Lagoas, Ortah, Unkerlant, Valmiera, Yanina, and Zuwayza. There are also three dependent territories (Bari, Grelz, and Rivaroli). Populations are for the most part homogeneous enough that a difference in hair color is easily enough to make one stand out. The vast majority of the members of a given Derlavaian ethnic group have the same hair and eye color combination.
All nations in the Darkness series are monarchies with the exception of Kuusamo, in which seven princes have a hereditary power-sharing arrangement. While by no means all absolute monarchies, in all of them kings (or princes in Kuusamo) seem to have the executive power. There are foreign ministers, but no prime ministers and no cabinets - a foreign minister evidently reporting directly to the King. None of the people have family names, even if they are members of the nobility. To the extent that monarchs are limited in their power, the limitation comes mainly from hereditary aristocracies which still maintain many privileges of feudal times.
The nations in the Darkness series do not have randomly invented names for their people and locations. Rather, each nation has personal and geographical names taken from a real nation on Earth. Turtledove has, however, mixed up the attributes so that any given Derlavaian kingdom is not instantly recognizable as a cognate of the countries which took part in World War II. For example, Unkerlant has Germanic (German, Low German, and Frankish) place and personal names. Forthweg has a Germanic language, Old English. Similarly, the Algarvic nations all speak Latin-derived languages: Algarve speaks Italian, Lagoas has Portuguese, and Sibiu Romanian. Kaunian languages are based on modern Baltic languages - Lithuanian is Classical Kaunian and Latvian for Valmerian and Jelgavian.
Unkerlant, though German-speaking, is an unmistakable Russia in both its culture and politics. On the other hand, Kuusamo - though playing the strategic role of the United States - has a Scandinavian culture, fitting with its Finnish language. Similarly, while politically and strategically Algarve is a clear analogue of Nazi Germany - including its committing genocide against the Kaunians/Jews - its culture seems more Italian than German, fitting with its language.
Magic
Magic in the Darkness series is not created by mages but rather harnessed by them. The mages of Derlavai gather magical power from the various power points scattered around the planet and the ley lines which link them, a recent discovery made only 200 years before the start of the books. Mages can also gather magic from human sacrifice. As such, the operation of magic is heavily reliant on location. Large, modern cities tend to be located on or near strong power points which provide the energy for the operation of the city's lighting, heating and other comforts. In addition, large power points tend to be linked to greater numbers of ley lines, which are utilised for transportation between cities and towns.
Mages
There are fundamental laws of magic, which require intense studying to master in order to become a mage. Though popular "how-to" books for the general public do exist, the spells published in them are not always reliable, and can backfire in dangerous or embarrassing ways. Professional mages are divided into "theoretical" and "practical." Theoretical mages research the relationships and underlying laws governing the behaviour of matter and energy, formulate hypotheses expressed in complicated mathematical formulas, and devise careful experiments in order to prove or disprove these hypotheses empirically. Practical mages use the theories devised by theoretical mages to make devices that can be used by the general public.
Magic and Technology
Derlavai has gone through a "Thaumaturgical Revolution" instead of an Industrial Revolution, using magic as the basis for much of its technology. Because of magic, there appears to be less of a need for mass industry. There are plants producing pottery, for example, in large amounts, but behemoths and dragons are bred on farms and clothing appears to be made by tailors instead of in factories.
On the civilian scene, magic is much less important, being limited to applications such as rest boxes (an analogue to the refrigerator which operates by slowing the effects of time on its contents), lighting (in places where such sorcerous power is available) and ley line ships, while in the military magic is involved in the production and use of almost all their weapons and supplies.
Most of the magical items in the world of Derlavai are analogues to everyday, or military, devices in our world. While the series is more concerned with military affairs than with economic ones, it seems that there are three competing ways of producing things:
By direct magic, using the law of similarity which can obviously be applied to mass production. This method is fast, but can produce inferior goods if not conducted with skill and effort.
By artisans, who work by hand and use a limited amount of magic. Each profession has some spells, and the knowledge and use of them is considered a normal part of that trade rather than a form of magecraft.
Mass production by machines, as in our world.
There is a mention of the Kuusamans rapidly building a new port in a newly conquered island by magic, which is evident from all buildings being the same (indicating that the spells made extensive use of the law of similarity). It is noted that only a country with many skilled mages could have spared the resources for such construction. In another place it is noted that printing is usually done by mechanical means, but the Valmieren resistance utilises magic for reproducing a propaganda sheet in order to avoid detection by the occupying authorities. The result of this magical duplication is readable, but the ink smudges easily as it was produced without the aid of a power point or an experienced mage.
Magical Items in the Darkness series
Crystals: Described as smooth spheres of glass, crystals are imbued with spells which allow them to be used for communication, and thus take the place of radios in the world. If operated away from a power point or ley line, they require regular recharging by some other means, which in one instance in the series involves the sacrifice of captive humans for their life energy which is used to power the crystal. Crystals can operate as videophones, showing an image of the person at the other end, as well as in audio-only mode. The emanations by which speech and images are transmitted between them are subject to interception by other mages, something at the forefront of the minds of most military planners in the series.
Eggs: The name given to the Derlavaian equivalent of bombs and shells, eggs are thin metal shells filled with magical energy which burst, or explode, when they impact a target or are triggered by an appropriate spell. A variety of uses for eggs are seen in the series. Armies launch them like shells from magically powered 'egg-tossers', which may be standalone devices or mounted on ley-line ships or behemoths. Dragons can carry eggs beneath their bellies for their fliers to drop on enemy forces or cities. Eggs may also be buried in the ground and enchanted to explode like landmines if they sense pressure, or can be buried along ley lines and set to explode if a ley line caravan passes over them, which simultaneously destroys the caravan and overloads the ley line's controlling spells. Leviathan riders also use eggs for mining enemy ships. Later in the series, the Algarvian army develops a hand held egg which can be thrown like a hand grenade; these eggs are encased in small pottery sugar bowls rather than metal shells. The reason for the term "egg" is never explicitly explained; apparently, originally armies used natural dragon eggs which are explosive in themselves, and then more powerful ones were developed by mages - but this is not explicitly stated.
Sticks: Sticks are the analogue to guns in the world of Derlavai. A stick emits a beam of energy which leaves behind a sharp scent like that of a nearby lightning strike. A soldier's stick is a large device and is activated when bare flesh such as an uncovered finger is inserted into its 'blazing hole'. The beam from a soldier's stick can burn a hole through a person with little difficulty, although they are largely ineffective against dragons and behemoths, which are not only naturally tough but also armored or painted silver to reflect beams. Smaller sticks are seen owned by civilians for blazing vermin or hunting game, or used by constables. Larger sticks, known as heavy sticks, are carried by behemoths on the battlefield, and can blaze through several men, another behemoth's armor or even take down dragons. Even larger heavy sticks can be used as fixed installations on the ground, used for air and sea defense, and carried on ley-line warships for use against ships, dragons and leviathans. Portable sticks used away from a power point or ley line require periodic recharging, which can be achieved in some unspecified way through the delivery of what is only described as 'charges' in supply wagons, or by the interventions of a mage drawing energy from a power point or sacrifice.
Rest crates: in function, much like a refrigerator or freezer, only considerably more effective. Rest crates are often mentioned as an archetypal application of modern sorcery, based on a spell used by the ancient Kaunian Empire to paralyze enemy soldiers. After counterspells were developed, it fell into disuse until modern systematic sorcery discovered that it operates by dramatically slowing the rate at which time affects objects under its influence. The rest crate, therefore, operates by slowing down the passage of time within its volume while its lid is shut. Food placed within it does not decay at a noticeable rate, but also requires no defrosting or other preparation before being used. A variant on this technique is also used by medical mages, who can slow down people suffering from serious injury in order to give them time to perform surgery, or to transport the victim to a place of treatment.
The Naantali Project
The equivalent of the Manhattan Project. The project included over a hundred mages working on a secret project for Kuusamo to create a new magical weapon. Due to the inability to hide their magical experiments, attempts were made by Algarve to disrupt it but this failed. At one point it is led by the viewpoint character Pekka.
The weapon requires grandparent and grandchild rats, rabbits or any other living creatures. Given the appropriate spells and mages able to perform them, the grandparent is pushed forward in time and the grandchild backward, killing them in the process and deriving enormous magical energy. Moreover, the mages themselves can deliver the energy to any target, by simply pointing out the spot on the globe. The magic can also create a protective spell to defend a city and deflect the magical energy hurled against it. It is speculated that using humans may make a more powerful magical explosion.
Nations
Turtledove depicts his nations as being analogous to real European nations, including as far as possible actual linguistic relationships. For example, the Derlavaian analogs of the Germanic nations are the Algarvic nations of Algarve, Sibiu, and Lagoas, but to confuse things somewhat, each uses names drawn from a different Romance language. In addition, the vast majority of the individuals belonging to each language group share the same hair and eye color; Algarvic peoples have red hair and green eyes, Kaunian peoples have blond hair and blue eyes, and the Unkerlantic peoples and most others have dark hair and eyes.
Algarve
The equivalent to Nazi Germany, ruled by King Mezentio, who is analogous to Adolf Hitler. Algarve was defeated in the Six Years' War a generation ago, which was analogous to World War I, and forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Tartus. Mezentio and his generals have spent much time and energy in preparing for a revenge on all their foes - especially the Kaunians. Located in the center of the continent, Algarve's people are characterized as red-headed and green-eyed, given to flamboyancy in word and gesture, and its males exhibit manifest macho behavior. Their typical dress includes kilts. To their enemies, Algarvians often seem arrogant and overbearing, and their conduct amply earns them the hatred of those who had the misfortune to live under their rule. While capable of great cruelty, Algarvians can also be quite generous on occasion; they doff their hats (sometimes literally) to an enemy whose conduct earned their grudging respect; and the same cultural traits which make them seem insufferably arrogant in victory also enable them to face adversity - even the certainty of imminent death - with admirable courage and fortitude. Algarvian names are drawn from Italian.
Forthweg
The equivalent to Poland. Its people are dark-haired, stocky, bearded, and prone to wearing long tunics. Part of the Kaunian Empire many centuries ago, about one-tenth of the prewar population were blond ethnic Kaunians, the only people in Derlavai to speak classical Kaunian as a birth language. Previous to Six Years' War Forthweg was partitioned between Algarve and Unkerlant, but later gained independence after that war. King Penda declared war on Algarve as part of the initial coalition against Algarve, but was attacked by both Algarve and Unkerlant and the country got re-partitioned; later, the whole is occupied by Algarve and at the end of the war is occupied by Unkerlant, which decides not to annex it outright but make it a satellite. Forthweg has a subtropical climate, with olive and citrus groves a prominent part of its agriculture. Forthwegians and Kaunians alike are extremely fond of gathering mushrooms. Forthweg's largest city as well as its capital is Eoforwic. Forthwegian names are drawn from Old English.
Gyongyos
The equivalent to Imperial Japan. Located in far-western Derlavai, it is separated from Unkerlant by a vast mountain range. Its people are described as tall, broad, and muscular, with wirey blonde hair and beards, and are the only nation described as having varying eye colors. Names in their language come from Hungarian. It is ruled by an ekrekek (emperor) instead of a king; he is seen as a direct descendant of the stars and is the person with whom the stars commune. Their religion is different from that of all other nations, distinguished by worship of the stars (those upon whom the stars shine are blessed, while those who are denied their light are cursed) and a very strong taboo against eating of the flesh of goats.
Gyongyos and Kuusamo had been fighting a war over possession of islands in the Bothenian Ocean when the Derlavian War broke out. In the second year of the war, Gyongyos attacked Unkerlant from the west, but never threatened the Unkerlant homeland in the same way Algarve did, partly because Unkerlant stretches a "fourth of the way around the world" and the valleys that Gyongyos seizes are very sparsely populated. For several years, the Kuusamans made slow headway against Gyongyos in the Bothenian theater, capturing several key islands. In the sixth year of the war, Kuusaman magic destroyed the island of Becsehely; Gyongyosian prisoners of war watched the display, but could not convince the ekrekek's government to capitulate. Kuusamo responded with a magic attack on the capital, killing the ekrekek and forcing the horrified and demoralised Gyongyosians into surrender. Another contributing factor to their ultimate defeat was the simultaneous invasion of Gyongyos by Unkerlant, a move analogous to the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria.
Jelgava
The equivalent of Spain and Portugal. Jelgava is portrayed as a smaller nation closely akin to Valmiera in language, ethnicity, and culture, and possesses colonies in Siaulia. Jelgava is dominated by an oppressive and reactionary aristocracy, and is ruled by the odious King Donalitu who was replaced by Algarvian King Mezentio's brother when the nation was occupied by Algarve (in this case, based more closely on the Napoleonic Wars than on World War II). Jelgava has a subtropical climate where olives and oranges grow, and is separated from the rest of the continent by a high mountain chain. The capital of Jelgava is Balvi.
Kuusamo
The equivalent of the United States. It occupies most of the island it shares with Lagoas. Instead of a king, Kuusamo is ruled by seven hereditary princes who share power between each other (roughly equivalent to the US federal structure). The largest city is Yliharma. Its people are East Asian in appearance and are deliberate and low-key in their work, and names in their language are taken from Finnish. While clearly filling the strategic role of the US in WWII, Kuusamo's history and culture are quite different from that of the US. Rather than a new nation created by immigrants, the Kuusamans are proud of their heritage of having been in their land before the Kaunians and the Lagoans came; a chant to this effect is recited as a ceremony before classes and before spells. Also, Kuusamian culture seems far more Scandinavian than American.
Kuusamo was involved in a war with Gyongyos over the possession of islands in the Bothenian Ocean when the Derlavian War started; they stayed neutral until the second year of the war, when Kuusamo declared war against Algarve over the massacre of Kaunians for their life force. The Algarvians retaliated with a magic strike against the capital city, killing two of the Seven Princes and destroying the princely palace in the city. Kuusaman sorcerers succeed in discovering a new method of magical energy release, first using it to counter Algarve's murder-fueled spells, and eventually, a more powerful version of the spell is used to destroy the capital of Gyongyos. Unlike in the historical World War II, the Kuusamans first demonstrate the power of the weapon for Gyongyosian captives (who are then released) but the Gyongyosian government refuses to believe in the demonstration and the spell is used to devastating effect.
Lagoas
The equivalent of Great Britain, with names drawn from Portuguese. Its capital is Setubal and it is ruled by King Vitor. It and Kuusamo share a large island off of the southeast coast of Derlavai, which is described as being considerably larger than Algarve. Its people are also Algarvic in blood and mannerisms - red-haired and wearing kilts like Algarvians - which is sometimes startling for other members of other peoples who had learned to hate Algarvians. Lagoans are, however, unique in the habit of tying their hair in ponytails - which Algarvians do not, and many of them have noticeable Kuusaman ancestry, including the viewpoint character Fernao. Lagoas joined the war against Algarve when Sibiu was invaded and underwent several air attacks from Algarvian dragons based in Valmiera. Lagoan and Kuusaman forces invaded Derlavai from the east in the fifth year of the war under the command of Kuusaman Grand General Nortano. Lagoas capital, Setubal, is described as being the wealthiest and most cosmopolitan city in the world. This is due in part to Setubal sitting at the confluence of more ley lines than any other city. Setubal has an extensive public transportation network and is described as having many unusually tall buildings.
Ortah
The equivalent of Switzerland. Isolationist, mountainous, and protected by swamps - its people are generally left alone on the political stage. Ortah is sandwiched between Algarve and Unkerlant. As a result, Ortah is invaded near the end of the war, and ends up an Unkerlanter satellite like Forthweg and Yanina. The people of Ortah are supposed to be related to the Ice People, and their language is similar to theirs, in both cases drawn from Hebrew.
Sibiu
Equivalent to Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands. It is an island chain nation off of the southern coast of Derlavai. Its people are Algarvic in blood, but it allies against Algarve. Sibiu, a member of the initial coalition, was overrun in a surprise attack by Algarve in the first year of the war, and freed in the third year of the war. It is mentioned that some 300 to 250 years in the past Sibiu fought a series of naval wars with Lagoas, over trade and control of the sea. Sibiu is named after a town in Transylvania. The capital of Sibiu is Tirgoviste. Sibian names are drawn from Romanian.
Unkerlant
The equivalent to the Soviet Union. It occupies nearly all of the western part of Derlavai. Ethnic Unkerlanters are dark-haired and stocky, clean-shaven, and wear long tunics (the tendency to be clean-shaven being what distinguishes them from the Forthwegians), but Unkerlant is apparently home to ethnic minorities such as the people of the Mamming Hills in the south, who look "more like Kuusamans than anything else." Its people are brutally treated by the paranoid and ruthless King Swemmel, analogous to Joseph Stalin. Swemmel is a hard, suspicious man who is fond of boiling his enemies alive. Swemmel defeated his brother Kyot in the Twinking's War, the equivalent to the Russian Civil War, shortly after the Six Years' War. The capital of Unkerlant is Cottbus. Names in Unkerlant are of German or pseudo-German origin.
Valmiera
Equivalent to France. It is located on the southeastern section of Derlavai. Its people are descendants of the ancient Kaunian Empire and as such are slim, blonde and blue-eyed and their dress is typically trousers and tunics. Valmiera was one of the states which declared war on Algarve in the first year of the war. The Algarvian offensive in the spring of the second year led to the defeat and occupation of the country. Activities of the Valmieran Resistance under the occupation, seen through the eyes of the character Skarnu, are closely equivalent to the French Resistance in World War II, while the collaboration of most nobles and the Valmieran police with the occupiers resembles the Vichy regime.. However, the corrupt Valmieran aristocracy is reminiscent of a much earlier period in French history, the pre-1789 Ancien Regime. Kuusaian and Lagoan victors give the Valmierans a share in the spoils after the war is over (like the British and Americans to 1945 France). Valmiera's capital is Priekule, describes as a center of high culture.
Yanina
The equivalent of Italy and Nazi Germany's other allies in general, although, strangely, their names are clearly Greek (e.g. Yanina, Patras). Allied with Algarve in the beginning of the war, its people are most noted for being incompetent militarily, though individual soldiers and dragon flyers sometimes show bravery. Also, Yanina has a colonial possession in the strategic Land of the Ice People, which it is unable to defend against Lagoas, and is being forced to pass effective conduct of the war there into the hands of the Algarvians (equivalent of Italy passing the war in North Africa to the Germans under Erwin Rommel). However, in the last phase of the war, when the Unkerlanter/Soviet army approaches its border and the Yaninan King quickly changes sides. The pom-poms which Yaninans wear on their shoes are the source of constant ridicule by members of other nations. Yaninas are described as being small, swarthy, dark-haired, and big-nosed, somewhat like Unkerlanters but shorter and less stocky. They share with the Algarvians a love for ostentatious mustaches and macho behavior; arguing is semi-humorously considered the national sport. The capital city is Patras.
Zuwayza
The equivalent of Finland. Located on a peninsula on the far northern part of Derlavai. Due to the hot climate, the people of Zuwayza typically go nude except for jewelry, sandals, and broad-brimmed hats. They are described as very dark-skinned, and Zuwayzin names are taken from Arabic. The Zuwayzi are known to use camels when fighting. Zuwayza was once ruled directly by Unkerlant but gained independence after the Six Years' War. Unkerlant attacked Zuwayza in the first year of the war and gained territory. In retaliation, Zuwayza allied with Algarve against Unkerlant. When Algarve was driven back, Zuwayza was forced to sign a separate peace, allowing Unkerlant great advantages, but preserving its independence. The Zuwayzin capital is Bishah.
The Land of the Ice People
The equivalent of North Africa located on an icy continent near the south pole. Ice People of both sexes have extensive body hair, on the order of primates. Their language is represented by Hebrew, as in Ortah. Ice People introduce themselves by describing their genealogy into the remote past ending by saying they are related to a god. Magic that works well in Derlavai will not work well in the Land of the Ice People; the Algarvians learned this to their disadvantage when they tried murdering Kaunians there. The Ice People are the only people known to worship gods, instead of spirits.
The Duchy of Bari
Roughly, the equivalent of the Rhineland or Austria. Once the southern part of Algarve, it was politically separated at the conclusion of the Six-Year war and given independence under Duke Alardo. Algarve's annexation of the region caused Valmiera, Forthweg, Jelgava, and Sibiu to attack, sparking the Derlavaian War.
The Duchy of Grelz
The equivalent of Ukraine. Located in the southern part of Derlavai. Its people are Unkerlanter but speak with a strong accent. While under Algarvian occupation, it is made into a puppet "Kingdom of Grelz" and is ruled by Mezentio's cousin Raniero. Support for the foreign king is very mixed.
The Marquisate of Rivaroli
Equivalent of Alsace-Lorraine and the Sudetenland. It is an area long disputed between Algarve and Valmiera, which was incorporated in the latter at the end of the Six Years' War. The people of Rivaroli have an Algarvian allegiance, revolting upon the approach of the Algarvian army in the early part of the war - for which they pay dearly at the war's end, being expelled en masse by the Valmierans.
Kaunians
Kaunians are both equivalents of the Roman Empire and Jews. Kaunians are characterised as on the slender and tall side, with fair skin and blonde hair. Kaunians face suspicion and prejudice, a separate and vaguely detested minority in many nations. Kaunian names (including those in Valmiera and Jelgava) are drawn from the Baltic languages.
Originally most of the continent was covered by the Kaunian Empire. When the Kaunian Empire fell thanks to the "Algarvian Irruption" - analogous to the Germanic invasions of the late Roman Empire - the Kaunians remained the dominant cultural and ethnic group in Eastern Derlavai. First they lived in independent city states and small principalities which later coalesced into the successor-states Jelgava and Valmiera. Jelgavan and Valmieran have developed to the point that their speakers don't understand the classical language unless they study it especially. Ancient Kaunian is a language of many tenses and verb forms, which makes for a language of precision. Kaunians bring this precision into play when they switch to a more modern language, generally to the disdain of others.
In the parts of Lagoas and Kuusamo which were part of the empire, Kaunians disappeared completely. In the more westward parts of the continent, in contrast, Kaunians became an ethnic minority in countries formed by the invading "barbarians": maintaining a distinct and largely separate minority culture, keeping the ancient language in more or less its original form as their daily speech, clinging to the short tunics and trousers common in the days of Empire, and frowning at the idea of mixed marriages. The wearing of trousers by the Kaunian women tends to be a distraction for other peoples, as the tight pants reveal more than the more modern knee-length tunics do. This often results in Kaunian women being regarded as sexually promiscuous - a widespread racial stereotype which is deliberately used by King Mezentio in fomenting hatred of Kaunians.
In Algarve itself, Kaunians seem, already for several generations, to be deeply assimilated in the surrounding society. They speak Algarvian, wear kilts, call themselves by Algarvian names, and their males have Algarvian-style moustaches and behave in the blatant macho way encouraged by Algarvian culture. Until their persecutions started, there were prominent Kaunian scholars at the University of Trapani.
What happens to the Kaunians in the Darkness series is the equivalent to the Holocaust, where Kaunians under Algarvian control are systematically stripped of their rights and violence against them is ignored by the authorities. Eventually, Algarve, facing a desperate stalemate against Unkerlant, begins slaughtering Kaunians en masse to fuel vast quantities of death-energy-powered sorcery in an attempt to break the impasse. Mezentio's official aim is not to exterminate Kaunians but to win the war, thus Kaunians are provided with adequate food to keep them alive until they need to be sacrificed for the war effort. Unkerlant responds to these magical attacks by sacrificing their own people to attack Algarve in the same way.
Many Kaunians do not die without any resistance. The remaining Kaunians in Eoforwic join in the uprising in the city which is the equivalent to the Warsaw Uprising. Other Kaunians use magic to make themselves look like everyone else and are able to hide in plain sight.
Late in the war, as they got desperate, and as it became obvious to the Algarvians that non-Kaunians were now far more of a worry than the thoroughly cowed blonds, the Algarvians began to display a somewhat more pragmatic, open attitude toward the Kaunians. They allowed Valmierans and Jelgavans to join their army, and they played an important role on the southern front against the Unkerlanters and in Jelgava. Their mages still defaulted toward wanting to kill Kaunians out of habit, including the soldiers fighting on their side, but Algarvian officers increasingly refused to allow this, leading the mages to turn to killing Yaninan deserters or turning to other magics.
Viewpoint characters
References
External links
Darkness page on official website
Book series introduced in 1999
Novels by Harry Turtledove
Fantasy books by series
Alternate Nazi Germany novels
Novels about dragons |
4059808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Protea | Operation Protea | Operation Protea was a military operation during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War in which South African Defence Forces (SADF) destroyed a number of South West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) bases in Angola. During the operation, which took place from 23 August to 4 September 1981, up to 5,000 SADF soldiers occupied Cunene province, Angola.
Planning
Operation Protea was launched on 23 August 1981. Its objectives were to destroy the SWAPO command and training centre at Xangongo and its logistic bases at Xangongo and Ongiva.
Xangongo, located at was the headquarters of SWAPO's "north-western front" from where it directed SWAPO units operating primarily in the Kaokoland and in western and central Ovamboland. There were also other SWAPO bases, which were used as supply depots and training bases for SWAPO recruits, sited to the south and southeast of the town.
Ongiva, a town located less than fifty kilometres north of the Angola-South West Africa border at , was an important SWAPO logistical and personnel centre which supported operations in central and eastern Ovamboland and in the Kavangoland.
Both Xangongo and Ongiva were key bases in supporting SWAPO's war effort in South West Africa, because of their location close to its border. Their destruction would undermine SWAPO's ability to conduct operations in their "north-western front" and also have a psychological impact by reinforcing the message of Operation Reindeer to SWAPO that it no longer had the luxury of sanctuaries in southern Angola.
Order of Battle.
South African forces
Brigadier Rudolf Badenhorst – Overall Commander
Task Force Alpha
Colonel Joep Joubert – TF Commander
Battle Group 10 – Commandant Roland de Vries
one Mechanised infantry company – 61 Mechanised Battalion
one Parachute company
one Armoured car squadron
one Mortar platoon
one 140mm artillery troop
one combat engineer troop
Battle Group 20 – Commandant Johan Dippenaar
one mechanised infantry company
two motorised infantry companies
one armoured car squadron – two Ratel-90 troops and two Eland-90 troops
one medium artillery troop
one 81mm mortar platoon
one field engineer troop
one assault pioneer platoon
two Protection platoons
Battle Group 30 – Commandant Chris Serfontein
three motorised infantry companies – National service units
one armoured car squadron – Eland-90
120m mortar battery – 43 Light Battery
81mm mortar platoon
Field engineer troop
two protection platoons
Battle Group 40 – Commandant Deon Ferreira
three motorised infantry companies – 32 Battalion
one armoured car squadron – Eland-90
120mm mortar battery – 41 Light Battery
four anti-tank teams
two protection platoons – 1 Platoon from B company of 202 Battalion and 1 other platoon
Combat Team Mamba (Mobile Reserve) – Commandant Johnny Coetzer
one mechanised company – 61 Mechanised
one anti-tank platoon – Ratel-90 – 61 Mechanised
two Ratel 60 sections
140mm G-2 artillery troop – 1 Medium Battery (4 Field Regiment)
Task Force Bravo
Colonel Vos Benade – TF Commander
Battle Group 50 – Commandant Frans Botes
four motorised companies – 201 Battalion
81mm Mortar platoon
Battle Group 60 – Commandant James Hills
three motorised infantry companies – 32 Battalion
one 81mm Mortar platoon
Mobile Reserve – Commandant Johnnie Coetzer
1 Parachute Battalion – two companies and one pathfinder platoon
52 Reconnaissance Regiment – one special forces team
Battle Group 30
detached from TF Alpha
Battle Group 40
detached from TF Alpha
Angolan forces
11 Brigade
based at Ongiva and is the district headquarters
two infantry battalions
two anti-aircraft battalions – 23mm guns
one tank company – T-34
one armoured-car company – BTR-23
one artillery battery – 82mm and 76mm guns
19 Brigade
based at Xangongo with elements at Humbe and Peu Peu
two infantry companies
one tank company – T-34
one armoured car squadron – BTR-23
one artillery battery
three 122mm rocket launchers
seven anti-aircraft guns
21 Brigade
based at Cahama
Soviet military advisors
based at Xangongo and Ongiva
SWAPO forces
Xangongo – 500 SWAPO regulars and 500 semi-regulars
Between Cahama and Humbe – one SWAPO battalion
Ongiva – SWAPO headquarters
Battles – Task Force Alpha
On 23 August, the SADF units left the bases and headed towards the Angolan border. On the night of 23 August, Battle Group 10 would cross at Ruacana while Battle Groups 20, 30 and 40 would cross at Ombalantu. A South African special forces team was placed in position to begin monitoring the Cahama/Xangongo highway for any enemy reinforcements. The same day the SADF left their bases, the South African Air Force (SAAF) launched a strike with various aircraft against air-defence targets in Angola at Cahama and Chibemba. This was called Operation Konyn.
Humbe
Battle Group 10 crossed into Angola at Ruacana just before midnight on 23 August and headed northwards through dense bush to their forming point which was 12 km north-west of Humbe. They arrived at their form-up point on time despite encountering obstacles not shown on their maps. At this point they found that H-Hour had been moved back one hour to 11h30 due to the eastern battle groups of Task Force Alpha encountering navigation problems on their march to Xangongo. Commandant de Vries divided his force into two combat teams, one of Ratel-20s, Ratel-90s and 81mm mortars in the attack group and the second team as a mobile reserve of Buffels and Eland-90's, with the 140 mm artillery in the rear. As Battle Group 10 followed the road south-east to Humbe, the SAAF began to bomb the town of Xangongo. The group's artillery began firing 140 mm artillery rounds at Humbe but was informed by their aerial spotter plane that the trenches close to the town seem abandoned and nor was there any enemy to the battle group's rear in the direction of Cahama. The artillery fire was ceased and their alternative target at Techiulo, that was closer, was then taken without incident as FAPLA soldiers fled on seeing the battle group arrive, leaving behind a group of Irish Catholic nuns at the mission station in the village. By 12h30 the group was heading back towards Humbe passing by the empty trenches and sighting no fleeing enemy from Xangongo, entered the empty town of Humbe. They soon left the town and positioned themselves within 3 km of the bridge over the Cunene River and Xangongo. The two combat teams of Ratel-20's and paratroopers were then sent closer to the river and began to encounter contact with FAPLA troops fleeing Xangongo. By dusk the river plain was under the battle group's control and they laagered there overnight though sporadic fire could be heard overnight from Xangongo. Apart from being woken and called to arms when a FAPLA column attempted a break-out from Xangongo via the bridge, this was taken care of by the other battle groups and they were stood down and rest of the night was peaceful for Battle Group 10. On 25 August, after gathering up enemy equipment on the river plain, Battle Group 10 crossed the bridge over the Cunene river and by 09h00 they were in Xangongo. Their mission would be to hold the town, protect the task force from FAPLA to the north-west while the other battle groups pursued their objectives in the south-east.
Xangongo
Battle Group 20, 30 and 40 crossed the border at Ombalantu into Angola just before midnight on 23 August and headed northwards through dense bush. Battle Group 40 led the way followed by 20 and 30 but was slower moving and the other groups who could not overtake to increase the pace towards the forming point. This was due to the fact the Buffel troop carriers were slower than the Ratels. By 09h15 on 24 August, these battle groups found themselves too far east due to a navigation error and lost time. After correcting their error, the air attack on Xangongo was pushed back by one hour to 12h00. The three battle groups would find their way to their forming-up point west of the town and waited for the air and artillery attack. The air attack on Xangongo began at 11h50 when four Buccaneers from 24 Squadron attacked installations and anti-aircraft sites with AS-30 missiles, one hitting a barracks while the other three failed to hit the targets due to malfunctions. At 11h54, five Canberra bombers (12 Squadron) dropped bombs, followed by dive bombing by three further waves of 8 Mirage F-1AZs (1 Squadron), 6 Mirage F-1CZs (3 Squadron) and 4 Mirage IIICZs (2 Squadron). The last wave of rocketing was carried out by eight Impalas finishing at 12h10. Then followed a twenty-minute artillery barrage of the town's defensive positions by G-2 guns and Valkiri multiple rocket launchers.
Battle Group 40 was tasked with taking the town of Xangongo, its defences and the bridge over the Cunene. The plan was to attack from two places, the north-east with Combat Team 41 and the south-east with Combat Team 42, and this began around 12h50. The teams began to assault the layers of trenches and bunkers that made up the town's defences. The fort and water tower, key targets in the town, were eventually reached and taken. The bridge was reached by the combat teams by 17h30 and was immediately prepared with demolition charges by the engineers. It was found later that FAPLA and PLAN officers and their Soviet advisors had hurriedly fled the town while FAPLA and SWAPO soldiers held their positions and fought furiously. Battle Group 40's task of mopping up in Xangongo was completed on 25 August and would now be attached to Task Force Bravo which was operating to the east against PLAN bases, setting out for the town of Evale after 26 August.
Battle Group 20 was tasked with the southern end of the town and its airfield to the west. The first trenches reached by the battle group around 13h25 were found to be empty but as they advanced further, they began to receive small arms fire and then more serious fire from 23mm anti-aircraft guns. Battle Group 20's attack on southern Xangongo was now held up by ZU-23-2 AA guns and the advance was halted as air strikes were called. Two attacks by Mirage aircraft an hour later failed to destroy the site and a third attack by artillery was not successful either. Captain Laubscher of 42 Squadron, flying an observation aircraft, had fired smoke rockets to narrow the Mirages' attack, but this failed so he decided to attempt a direct hit with smoke rockets to accurately mark the target for the Mirages. He dive bombed the target firing one smoke rocket directly into the gun position but by this time the Mirages were out of ordnance and fuel. It was later found that his smoke rocket had hit the operator of the gun. Laubscher was awarded the Honoris Crux decoration for bravery. Two and a half hours later the ground attack had resumed this time receiving limited enemy ZU-23-2 fire, attacking bunkers and trenches and eventually taking the airfield. By 18h00, Battle Group 20 was in control of its objectives, having destroyed at least four tanks and capturing vehicles, guns and ammunition. Battle Group 20's rest overnight was disturbed by an enemy truck column that advanced from the south into the group's positions and was destroyed by Ratel 90s. By the midday on 25 August, the battle group was in control of all positions south of the town but lost one soldier in the process. Later, Battle Group 20 would attack a PLAN base to the south of Xangongo towards Cuamato but this was found to be abandoned except for equipment.
On 25 August, after gathering up enemy equipment on the river plain, Battle Group 10 crossed the bridge over the Cunene river and by 09h00 they were inside Xangongo. Now based at Xangongo, Battle Group 10 was allocated to protect Task Force Alpha from a FAPLA counterattack from Cahama towards Xangongo. It was also tasked with protecting the bridge and ensuring it was ready for demolition when required. The paratroopers attached to this battle group were sent to seek out PLAN positions further north of Xangongo but all the bases were found to be abandoned. Meanwhile, the pathfinder group which had been operating around Peu-Peu was attached to the battle group. Combat Team 3 was commanded by Major Joe Weyers and would position itself close to Chicusse about 18 km south-east from Cahama on 25 August. If contact with FAPLA took place, then the plan was to stop FAPLA's movement or fight a delaying action back to Xangongo. The combat team would consist of three armoured car troops of Ratel and Eland 90s, platoon Ratel-60s, one Ratel-20 Mechanised infantry platoon, troop of 4 G-2 artillery pieces, engineer section, an unmanned aerial vehicle and 44 Parachute Brigade's pathfinder group with Colonel Jan Breytenbach. The combat team advanced north-westwards and took up positions across the Cahama/Xangongo highway with the pathfinders on the flanks to the south and guns in the rear.
Around 22h20, the artillery troop reported eight enemy vehicles heading for the combat team's rear from the south-east. The enemy artillery unit, consisting of a BTR-152 APC, BM-21 MRL's and 23 mm AA guns, passed into the combat team's laager and was ambushed and destroyed with the SADF taking three wounded and capturing two BM-21s. Mopping up continued on the morning of 26 August but around sunrise, the team was fired on by FAPLA 122 mm rockets that failed to hit their position. On 27 August, Combat Team 3 was recalled to Xangongo and then sent westwards of the town as a stopper group close to Catequero.
Two troops of Ratel-90s were later withdrawn from Combat Team 3 the same day and attached to Combat Team 2 and sent towards Ongiva via Mongua as a reserve and joined up with Battle Group 30 around 13h00. Combat Team 2 would return to Xangongo from Ongiva by 16h00 on 28 August. On 29 August, Combat Team 2, replaced Combat Team 3 as the stopper group and the former returned to Xangongo for rest. Later that day Combat Team 2 would be recalled too, as Battle Group 10 had received orders to return to SWA/Namibia on 1 September and preparations were required to return with the captured enemy equipment. On the same day Combat Team Mamba disbanded and their units rejoined Battle Group 10 and became the stopper group until 31 August. Combat Team 3 escorted an artillery group to a position north-west of Mucope on 30 August. The artillery group fired on Cahama but on their return to Xangongo, they discovered an FAPLA battle group close to Mucope and after the combat team received reinforcements from their battle group, they attacked only to find the FAPLA forces had retreated to Cahama. On 31 August, Xangongo and its bridge was handed over to UNITA and their SADF military intelligence liaison Commandant Mo Oelschig and headed for Ongiva via Mongua, collecting the remains of the Alouette that had been shot down 25 August. After spending the night at Ongiva, the underground fuel tanks at the airfield were destroyed and by 1 September, Battle Group 10 was back at base in South West Africa/Namibia.
Peu-Peu
On 24 August, at 11h05, anti-aircraft sites at Peu-Peu were attacked by four SAAF Impalas using rockets. At 11h45, attacks were continued by four Buccaneers which fired four AS-30s with only three striking a barracks. Battle Group 30 advanced to a position north-east of Xangongo and found that the FAPLA troops, tanks and artillery at Peu-Peu were preparing to support their troops in Xangongo. The South African battle group attacked first and after a short fight forced FAPLA to flee the town, destroying tanks, artillery and personnel carriers. Unable to mop-up in the town as night fell and with reports of enemy to the west, the South Africans would capture it by the following morning. FAPLA left behind up to 300 tons of ammunition, 120,000 litres of diesel and 90,000 litres of petrol. Battle Group 30 would then release a combat team to back up Battle Group 20 which had thrown in its reserve in Xangongo. Battle Group 30 was back in Xangongo on 26 August and joined Battle Group 20 for the advance to positions north of Ongiva and the attack planned for 27 August.
Mongua
Combat Team Mamba was tasked with taking the village of Mongua east of Xangongo on 25 August. This was a precursor to an attack on Ongiva on 27 August by Battle Groups 20 and 30. FAPLA maintained a mechanised force including tanks around the village whose size had been underestimated. The combat team attacked first with Valkiri rockets but soon encountered enemy trenches, 14.5mm anti-aircraft guns and 76mm artillery that held up the infantry attack and so Ratel 90s and Ratel 60 mortar teams were deployed to silence the guns. The infantry was then released to attack and clear the trenches. The team's Ratel 20s and 90s soon overran the village, destroying several T-34 tanks and forcing FAPLA to flee towards Ongiva. The SAAF lost two men when their Alouette III helicopter was shot down by 14.5mm anti-aircraft guns while providing fire support for the combat team. Combat Team Mamba would now wait until the following day to be joined by the two battle groups for the attack on Ongiva.
Ongiva
On 27 August, Battle Group 20 was tasked with the attack on the airfield at Ongiva while Battle Group 30 was tasked to attack the town itself. Battle Groups 20 and 30 departed Xangongo on 26 August, leaving the town under control of Battle Group 10, and followed the road east to Mongua. There Combat Team Mamba, which had taken the town the day before, joined them and would act as the two battle groups' reserve during the attack on Ongiva. They then headed south-east to their assembly point north of Ongiva in preparation for the attack at 07h00 on 27 August. The SAAF had made a pamphlet drop on the town warning civilians and FAPLA to leave as the South Africans' fight was with PLAN, but 11 Brigade was instructed to stay and defend. PLAN was ordered to strike the SADF in the rear but appeared to take no part in the battle during the following days.
The SAAF would open the attack on the morning of 27 August with the first rocket attack by two Mirage IIIs against anti-aircraft positions north of the runway at Ongiva. One of these Mirages was struck by a SA-7 missile but made it back to its base in SWA/Namibia with serious tail damage. The second rocket attack at 07h45 by four Mirage F-1AZs on anti-aircraft positions close to the airport also drew anti-aircraft fire from SA-7s and 57 mm guns without any hits. A third rocket attack at 07h48 by four Mirage IIIs hit targets close to the town. The fourth rocket attack at 07h52 by four Mirage IIIs hit targets close to the town, drawing anti-aircraft fire and SA-7s with no hits. 08h00 saw another attack, this time by five pairs of Canberra and Buccaneer bombers dropping bombs north of the town but on the wrong target which still seemed to silence some anti-aircraft positions. Six Mirage F-1AZs dropped airburst bombs on the airfield at 08h10 and the last attack at 08h15 was on 11 Brigade headquarters by six Mirage F-1AZs using airbursting bombs.
After bombarding the targets with artillery fire, Battle Group 20 set off for targets in and around the airfield. Battle Group 20 was divided into four combat teams. Combat Team 50 was the reserve, while Combat Team 10 hit targets south of the airfield, Combat Team 20 attacked targets south-east of the airfield and the last team 30 directly at the airfield and its installations. Combat Team 10 encountered 23mm anti-aircraft guns at its target and cleared them with artillery and infantry attacks. A counterattack by at least three T-34s was beaten off by Ratel-90s with two tanks destroyed. FAPLA then fled their positions. Combat Team 20 took the enemy positions by 15h30 but was slowed by 23mm anti-aircraft guns and RPG-7s until mortars and infantry cleared the positions. Combat Team 30 attacked the airfield from the south-east and east–west along the runway. The team met fierce fighting from FAPLA infantry and anti-aircraft guns and all movement forward by the SADF was held up for two hours despite artillery fire. The use of mortar fire against a water tower helped stop the guns receiving information on the South African positions and the airfield was taken around 14h00 with FAPLA fleeing. With Battle Group 20's control of the airfield, it secured Battle Group 30's flank for its attack on the positions in and around the town of Ongiva.
Battle Group 30 began its attack on the town defences but its advance was slowed by minefields and heavy resistance. Reports came in of the sighting of T-34 tanks from the east. The commander summoned additional anti-tank armour and Battle Group 10 detached Combat Team 2's Ratel-90 troops which were hastily sent to Ongiva, arriving around 13h00. In the meantime they attempted to slow the tanks' advance by attacking them with 120 mm mortars which had had no effect. Combat Team 2 went into action immediately but by the time action commenced, dusk was falling and they fired only to discourage the tanks advance. As night fell, all that could be seen was the flashes from the tanks and when all the Ratels fired on the position, they succeeded in destroying two tanks and ending further enemy attacks. Battle Group 30 then pulled back and laagered for the night, readying themselves for an attack the next day. On 28 August, Battle Group 30 resumed their attack on Ongiva only to find the FAPLA defences, equipment and town abandoned. By 12h08, Ongiva was under South African control
Also on the morning of 28 August, a FAPLA convoy was discovered fleeing northwards from Ongiva towards Anchanca by a company from 32 Battalion which was attached to Battle Group 60. It called in a SAAF airstrike of Mirages and Impalas which attacked the convoy followed by an attack by Alouette gunships. They succeeded in destroying tanks, trucks and armoured personnel carriers. As the 32 Battalion company moved in to mop up, they discovered the bodies of four Russians, two Soviet officers and two civilian women. One Soviet soldier, Warrant Officer Nikolai Feodorovich Pestretsov, was captured when he remained behind with his wife's body. It was later discovered that thirteen Soviet military advisors had died that day.
Battle Group 20 would begin to garrison the town, but with civilians beginning to ransack it later on 28 August, by 29 August they attempted to restore order by distributing captured food and clothing and tried to help restore utilities to the town with the help of the remaining civil servants. 30 August saw Battle Group 20 begin to prepare the captured equipment for its return to SWA/Namibia while other elements of the battle group patrolled the road from Ongiva through Namacunda to Santa Clara, clearing it of mines as this would be the route the battle groups would take to leave Angola. By 31 August, Battle Group 30 was detached from Task Force Alpha and was attached to Task Force Bravo, which was conducting operations against PLAN bases to the north-east of Ongiva, and sent to the town of Anhanca.
Aftermath
By 2 September all units were back in SWA/Namibia and Battle Group 10 resumed being called 61 Mechanised Infantry Battalion while the other battle groups disbanded. Soviet casualties stood at thirteen: nine officers and four civilians, while one soldier was captured. South African casualties included 10 dead and 64 wounded. PLAN and FAPLA casualties were high with 831 dead and 25 captured.
The following equipment, said to be between 3,000 and 4,000 tons, was captured:
6–9 T-34 tanks
3–4 PT-76 tanks
4 BRDM-2 APC
2 BM-21 MRL
25–43 ZIS-3 76 mm guns
16 ZU-23 AA guns
17 14.5 mm AA guns
13 M-55 20 mm AA guns
94–97 SA-7
240 trucks
1,800 small arms
250 tons ammunition
490 000 lt petrol
120 000 lt diesel
The end of Operation Protea did not signal the end the South African activity against SWAPO in southern Angola as Operation Protea was quickly followed up by another attack, Operation Daisy.
References
Further reading
61 Mechanised Battalion Veterans Group http://www.61mech.org.za/operations/7-operation-protea
Conflicts in 1981
1981 in Angola
1981 in South West Africa
1981 in South Africa
Cross-border operations of South Africa
Battles and operations of the South African Border War
August 1981 events in Africa
September 1981 events in Africa |
4059850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahlgren%20system | Dahlgren system | One of the modern systems of plant taxonomy, the Dahlgren system was published by monocot specialist Rolf Dahlgren in 1975 and revised in 1977, and 1980. However, he is best known for his two treatises on monocotyledons in 1982 and revised in 1985. His wife Gertrud Dahlgren continued the work after his death.
Dahlgren ranked the dicotyledons and monocotyledons as subclasses of the class of flowering plants (angiosperms) and further divided them into superorders. Originally (1975) he used the suffix -anae, as did Cronquist, to designate these, but in 1980 changed this to -florae in accordance with Thorne. In the 1989 revision, published by his wife, the alternate names Magnoliidae and Liliidae were dropped in favour of Dicotyledon and Monocotyledon, and the suffix -florae reverted to -anae (e.g. Alismatanae for Alismatiflorae).
Reveal provides an extensive listing of Dahlgren's classification. (Note the synonyms, both nomenclatural and taxonomic, for each name in the system.)
1980 system
Summary
Class Magnoliopsida (flowering plants (Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta)
Subclass Magnoliidae (dicotyledons) 24 superorders
Superorder Magnoliiflorae
Superorder Nymphaeiflorae
Superorder Ranunculiflorae
Superorder Caryophylliflorae
Superorder Polygoniflorae
Superorder Malviflorae
Superorder Violiflorae
Superorder Theiflorae
Superorder Primuliflorae
Superorder Rosiflorae
Superorder Podostemiflorae
Superorder Fabiflorae
Superorder Proteiflorae
Superorder Myrtiflorae
Superorder Rutiflorae
Superorder Santaliflorae
Superorder Balanophoriflorae
Superorder Araliiflorae
Superorder Asteriflorae
Superorder Solaniflorae
Superorder Corniflorae
Superorder Loasiflorae
Superorder Gentianiflorae
Superorder Lamiiflorae
Subclass Liliidae (monocotyledons) 7 superorders
Superorder Alismatiflorae
Superorder Triuridiflorae
Superorder Ariflorae
Superorder Liliiflorae
Superorder Zingiberiflorae
Superorder Commeliniflorae
Superorder Areciflorae
Magnoliidae (dicotyledons)
Subclass Magnoliiflorae
Superorder Magnolianae
Order Annonales
Family Annonaceae
Family Myristicaceae
Family Eupomatiaceae
Family Canellaceae
Family Austrobaileyaceae
Order Aristolochiales
Family Aristolochiaceae
Order Rafflesiales
Family Rafflesiaceae
Family Hydnoraceae
Order Magnoliales
Family Degeneriaceae
Family Himantandraceae
Family Magnoliaceae
Order Lactoridales
Family Lactoridaceae
Order Winterales
Family Winteraceae
Order Chloranthales
Family Chloranthaceae
Order Illiciales
Family Illiciaceae
Family Schisandraceae
Order Laurales
Family Amborellaceae
Family Trimeniaceae
Family Monimiaceae
Family Gomortegaceae
Family Calycanthaceae
Family Lauraceae
Order Nelumbonales
Family Nelumbonaceae
Superorder Nymphaeiflorae
Order Piperales
Family Saururaceae
Family Piperaceae
Order Nymphaeales
Family Cabombaceae
Family Nymphaeaceae
Family Ceratophyllaceae
Superorder Ranunculiflorae
Order Ranunculales
Family Lardizabalaceae
Family Sargentodoxaceae
Family Menispermaceae
Family Kingdoniaceae
Family Circaeasteraceae
Family Ranunculaceae
Family Hydrastidaceae
Family Berberidaceae
Order Papaverales
Family Papaveraceae
Family Fumariaceae
Superorder Caryophylliflorae
Order Caryophyllales
Family Molluginaceae
Family Caryophyllaceae
Family Phytolaccaceae
Family Achatocarpaceae
Family Agdestidaceae
Family Basellaceae
Family Portulacaceae
Family Stegnospermataceae
Family Nyctaginaceae
Family Aizoaceae
Family Halophytaceae
Family Cactaceae
Family Didiereaceae
Family Hectorellaceae
Family Chenopodiaceae
Family Amaranthaceae
Superorder Polygoniflorae
Order Polygonales
Family Polygonaceae
Superorder Malviflorae
Order Malvales
Family Sterculiaceae
Family Plagiopteraceae
Family Bixaceae
Family Cochlospermaceae
Family Cistaceae
Family Sphaerosepalaceae
Family Sarcolaenaceae
Family Huaceae
Family Tiliaceae
Family Dipterocarpaceae
Family Bombacaceae
Family Malvaceae
Order Urticales
Family Ulmaceae
Family Moraceae
Family Cecropiaceae
Family Barbeyaceae
Family Cannabaceae
Family Urticaceae
Order Euphorbiales
Family Euphorbiaceae
Family Simmondsiaceae
Family Pandaceae
Family Aextoxicaceae
Family Dichapetalaceae
Order Plumbaginales
Family Plumbaginaceae
Family Limoniaceae
Order Thymelaeales
Family Gonystylaceae
Family Thymelaeaceae
Order Rhamnales
Family Rhamnaceae
Superorder Violiflorae
Order Violales
Family Flacourtiaceae
Family Berberidopsidaceae
Family Aphloiaceae
Family Physenaceae
Family Passifloraceae
Family Dipentodontaceae
Family Peridiscaceae
Family Scyphostegiaceae
Family Violaceae
Family Turneraceae
Family Malesherbiaceae
Family Caricaceae
Order Cucurbitales
Family Achariaceae
Family Cucurbitaceae
Family Begoniaceae
Family Datiscaceae
Order Salicales
Family Salicaceae
Order Tamaricales
Family Tamaricaceae
Family Frankeniaceae
Order Capparales
Family Capparaceae
Family Brassicaceae
Family Tovariaceae
Family Resedaceae
Family Gyrostemonaceae
Family Bataceae
Family Moringaceae
Order Tropaeolales
Family Tropaeolaceae
Family Limnanthaceae
Order Salvadorales
Family Salvadoraceae
Superorder Theiflorae
Order Dilleniales
Family Dilleniaceae
Order Paeoniales
Family Glaucidiaceae
Family Paeoniaceae
Order Theales
Family Stachyuraceae
Family Pentaphylacaceae
Family Marcgraviaceae
Family Quiinaceae
Family Ancistrocladaceae
Family Dioncophyllaceae
Family Nepenthaceae
Family Medusagynaceae
Family Caryocaraceae
Family Strasburgeriaceae
Family Ochnaceae
Family Chrysobalanaceae
Family Oncothecaceae
Family Scytopetalaceae
Family Theaceae
Family Bonnetiaceae
Family Clusiaceae
Family Elatinaceae
Order Lecythidales
Family Lecythidaceae
Superorder Primuliflorae
Order Primulales
Family Myrsinaceae
Family Aegicerataceae
Family Theophrastaceae
Family Primulaceae
Family Coridaceae
Order Ebenales
Family Sapotaceae
Family Styracaceae
Family Lissocarpaceae
Family Ebenaceae
Superorder Rosiflorae
Order Trochodendrales
Family Trochodendraceae
Family Tetracentraceae
Order Cercidiphyllales
Family Cercidiphyllaceae
Family Eupteleaceae
Order Hamamelidales
Family Hamamelidaceae
Family Platanaceae
Family Myrothamnaceae
Order Balanopales
Family Balanopaceae
Order Fagales
Family Nothofagaceae
Family Fagaceae
Family Corylaceae
Family Betulaceae
Order Juglandales
Family Rhoipteleaceae
Family Juglandaceae
Order Myricales
Family Myricaceae
Order Casuarinales
Family Casuarinaceae
Order Buxales
Family Buxaceae
Family Daphniphyllaceae
Family Didymelaceae
Order Geissolomatales
Family Geissolomataceae
Order Cunoniales
Family Cunoniaceae
Family Baueraceae
Family Brunelliaceae
Family Davidsoniaceae
Family Eucryphiaceae
Family Bruniaceae
Family Grubbiaceae
Order Saxifragales
Family Saxifragaceae
Family Francoaceae
Family Greyiaceae
Family Brexiaceae
Family Grossulariaceae
Family Iteaceae
Family Cephalotaceae
Family Crassulaceae
Order Droserales
Family Droseraceae
Family Lepuropetalaceae
Family Parnassiaceae
Order Rosales
Family Rosaceae
Family Neuradaceae
Family Malaceae
Family Amygdalaceae
Family Anisophylleaceae
Family Crossosomataceae
Family Surianaceae
Family Rhabdodendraceae
Order Gunnerales
Family Gunneraceae
Superorder Podostemiflorae
Order Podostemales
Family Podostemaceae (including Tristichaceae)
Superorder Fabiflorae
Order Fabales
Family Mimosaceae
Family Caesalpiniaceae
Family Fabaceae
Superorder Proteiflorae
Order Proteales
Family Proteaceae
Order Elaeagnales
Family Elaeagnaceae
Superorder Myrtiflorae
Order Myrtales
Family Psiloxylaceae
Family Heteropyxidaceae
Family Myrtaceae
Family Onagraceae
Family Trapaceae
Family Lythraceae
Family Combretaceae
Family Melastomataceae
Family Memecylaceae
Family Crypteroniaceae
Family Oliniaceae
Family Penaeaceae
Family Rhynchocalycaceae
Family Alzateaceae
Order Haloragales
Family Haloragaceae
Superorder Rutiflorae
Order Sapindales
Family Coriariaceae
Family Anacardiaceae
Family Leitneriaceae
Family Podoaceae
Family Sapindaceae
Family Hippocastanaceae
Family Aceraceae
Family Akaniaceae
Family Bretschneideraceae
Family Emblingiaceae
Family Staphyleaceae
Family Melianthaceae
Family Sabiaceae
Family Meliosmaceae
Family Connaraceae
Order Rutales
Family Rutaceae
Family Ptaeroxylaceae
Family Cneoraceae
Family Simaroubaceae
Family Tepuianthaceae
Family Burseraceae
Family Meliaceae
Order Polygalales
Family Malpighiaceae
Family Trigoniaceae
Family Vochysiaceae
Family Polygalaceae
Family Krameriaceae
Order Geraniales
Family Zygophyllaceae
Family Nitrariaceae
Family Peganaceae
Family Balanitaceae
Family Erythroxylaceae
Family Humiriaceae
Family Linaceae
Family Ctenolophonaceae
Family Ixonanthaceae
Family Lepidobotryaceae
Family Oxalidaceae (including Averrhoaceae)
Family Geraniaceae
Family Dirachmaceae
Family Ledocarpaceae
Family Vivianiaceae
Family Biebersteiniaceae
Order Linales (incorporated into Geraniales)
Family Linaceae
Family Humiriaceae
Family Ctenolophonaceae
Family Ixonanthaceae
Family Erythroxylaceae
Family Lepidobotryaceae
Family Oxalidaceae
Order Celastrales
Family Stackhousiaceae
Family Lophopyxidaceae
Family Cardiopteridaceae
Family Corynocarpaceae
Family Celastraceae
Order Rhizophorales
Family Rhizophoraceae
Family Elaeocarpaceae
Order Balsaminales
Family Balsaminaceae
Superorder Santaliflorae
Order Santalales
Family Olacaceae
Family Opiliaceae
Family Loranthaceae
Family Medusandraceae
Family Misodendraceae
Family Eremolepidaceae
Family Santalaceae
Family Viscaceae
Superorder Balanophoriflorae
Order Balanophorales
Family Cynomoriaceae
Family Balanophoraceae
Superorder Araliiflorae
Order Pittosporales
Family Pittosporaceae
Family Tremandraceae
Family Byblidaceae
Order Araliales
Family Araliaceae
Family Apiaceae
Superorder Asteriflorae
Order Campanulales
Family Pentaphragmataceae
Family Campanulaceae
Family Lobeliaceae
Order Asterales
Family Asteraceae
Superorder Solaniflorae
Order Solanales
Family Solanaceae
Family Sclerophylacaceae
Family Goetzeaceae
Family Convolvulaceae
Family Cuscutaceae
Family Cobaeaceae
Family Polemoniaceae
Order Boraginales
Family Hydrophyllaceae
Family Ehretiaceae
Family Boraginaceae
Family Lennoaceae
Family Hoplestigmataceae
Superorder Corniflorae
Order Fouquieriales
Family Fouquieriaceae
Order Ericales
Family Actinidiaceae
Family Clethraceae
Family Cyrillaceae
Family Ericaceae
Family Empetraceae
Family Monotropaceae
Family Pyrolaceae
Family Epacridaceae
Order Eucommiales
Family Eucommiaceae
Order Sarraceniales
Family Sarraceniaceae
Order Cornales
Family Garryaceae
Family Alangiaceae
Family Nyssaceae
Family Cornaceae
Family Roridulaceae
Family Davidiaceae
Family Escalloniaceae
Family Helwingiaceae
Family Torricelliaceae
Family Aucubaceae
Family Aralidiaceae
Family Diapensiaceae
Family Phellinaceae
Family Aquifoliaceae
Family Paracryphiaceae
Family Sphenostemonaceae
Family Symplocaceae
Family Icacinaceae
Family Montiniaceae
Family Columelliaceae
Family Stylidiaceae (including Donatiaceae)
Family Alseuosmiaceae
Family Hydrangeaceae
Family Sambucaceae
Family Viburnaceae
Family Menyanthaceae
Family Adoxaceae
Family Phyllonomaceae
Family Tribelaceae
Family Eremosynaceae
Family Pterostemonaceae
Family Tetracarpaeaceae
Order Dipsacales
Family Caprifoliaceae
Family Valerianaceae
Family Dipsacaceae
Family Morinaceae
Family Calyceraceae
Superorder Loasiflorae
Order Loasales
Family Loasaceae
Superorder Gentianiflorae
Order Goodeniales
Family Goodeniaceae
Order Oleales
Family Oleaceae
Order Gentianales
Family Desfontainiaceae
Family Loganiaceae
Family Dialypetalanthaceae
Family Rubiaceae
Family Theligonaceae
Family Gentianaceae
Family Saccifoliaceae
Family Apocynaceae
Family Asclepiadaceae
Superorder Lamiiflorae
Order Lamiales
Family Retziaceae
Family Stilbaceae
Family Buddlejaceae
Family Scrophulariaceae
Family Myoporaceae
Family Globulariaceae
Family Plantaginaceae
Family Lentibulariaceae
Family Pedaliaceae
Family Trapellaceae
Family Martyniaceae
Family Gesneriaceae
Family Bignoniaceae
Family Acanthaceae
Family Verbenaceae
Family Lamiaceae
Family Callitrichaceae
Order Hydrostachyales
Family Hydrostachyaceae
Order Hippuridales
Family Hippuridaceae
1982 system (monocotyledons)
Summary
Six superorders
Superorder Alismatiflorae
Superorder Ariflorae
Superorder Liliiflorae
Superorder Zingiberiflorae
Superorder Commeliniflorae
Superorder Areciflorae
Details
Superorder Alismatiflorae 5 orders
Superorder Ariflorae 1 order
Order Arales
Superorder Liliiflorae 11 orders
Order Dioscoreales
Order Taccales
Order Asparagales
Family Smilacaceae
Family Petermanniaceae
Family Philesiaceae
Family Convallariaceae
Family Asparagaceae
Family Herreriaceae
Family Dracaenaceae
Family Doryanthaceae
Family Dasypogonaceae
Family Phormiaceae
Family Xanthorrhoeaceae
Family Agavaceae
Family Hypoxidaceae
Family Asphodelaceae
Family Aphyllanthaceae
Family Dianellaceae
Family Tecophilaeaceae
Family Cyanastraceae
Family Eriospermaceae
Family Hemerocallidaceae
Family Funkiaceae
Family Hyacinthaceae
Family Alliaceae
Family Amaryllidaceae
Order Liliales
Family Iridaceae
Family Geosiridaceae
Family Colchicaceae
Family Alstroemeriaceae
Family Tricyrtidaceae
Family Calochortaceae
Family Liliaceae
Family Melanthiaceae
Order Burmanniales
Order Orchidales
Order Pontederiales
Order Haemodorales
Order Philydrales
Order Velloziales
Order Bromeliales
Superorder Zingiberiflorae 1 order
Order Zingiberales
Superorder Commeliniflorae 8 orders
Superorder Areciflorae 3 orders
1985 system (monocotyledons)
Summary
Ten superorders
Superorder Liliiflorae
Superorder Ariflorae
Superorder Triuridiflorae
Superorder Alismatiflorae
Superorder Bromeliiflorae
Superorder Zingiberiflorae
Superorder Commeliniflorae
Superorder Cyclanthiflorae
Superorder Areciflorae
Superorder Pandaniflorae
Details
Liliiflorae
Superorder Liliiflorae 6 orders p. 107
Order Dioscoreales
Family Trichopodaceae
Family Dioscoreaceae
Family Taccaceae
Family Stemonaceae
Family Trilliaceae
Family Smilacaceae
Family Petermanniaceae
Order Asparagales
Family Philesiaceae
Family Luzuriagaceae
Family Convallariaceae
Family Asparagaceae
Family Ruscaceae
Family Herreriaceae
Family Dracaenaceae
Family Nolinaceae
Family Asteliaceae
Family Hanguanaceae
Family Dasypogonaceae
Family Calectasiaceae
Family Blandfordiaceae
Family Xanthorrhoeaceae
Family Agavaceae
Family Hypoxidaceae
Family Tecophilaeaceae
Family Cyanastraceae
Family Eriospermaceae
Family Ixioliriaceae
Family Phormiaceae
Family Doryanthaceae
Family Hemerocallidaceae
Family Asphodelaceae
Family Anthericaceae
Family Aphyllanthaceae
Family Funkiaceae
Family Hyacinthaceae
Family Alliaceae
Family Amaryllidaceae
Tribe Amaryllideae
Tribe Hippeastrae
Tribe Lycoridae
Tribe Stenomesseae
Tribe Eucharideae
Tribe Pancratieae
Tribe Narcisseae
Tribe Galantheae
Order Melanthiales
Family Melanthiaceae
Family Campynemaceae
Order Burmanniales
Family Burmanniaceae
Family Thismiaceae
Family Corsiaceae
Order Liliales
Family Alstroemeriaceae
Family Colchicaceae
Family Uvulariaceae
Family Calochortaceae
Family Liliaceae
Family Geosiridaceae
Family Iridaceae
Order Orchids
Family Apostasiaceae
Family Cypripediaceae
Family Orchidaceae
Ariflorae
Superorder Ariflorae 1 order p. 275
Order Arales
Family Araceae
Family Lemnaceae
Triuridiflorae
Superorder Triuridiflorae 1 order p. 287
Order Triuridales
Family Triuridaceae
Alismatiflorae
Superorder Alismatiflorae 2 orders p. 292
Order Alismatales
Family Aponogetonaceae
Family Butomaceae
Family Limnocharitaceae
Family Alismataceae
Family Hydrocharitaceae
Order Najadales
Family Scheuchzeriaceae
Family Juncaginaceae
Family Potamogetonaceae
Family Posidoniaceae
Family Zosteraceae
Family Zannichelliaceae
Family Cymodoceaceae
Family Najadaceae
Bromeliiflorae
Superorder Bromeliflorae 6 orders p. 323
Order Velloziales
Family Velloziaceae
Order Bromeliales
Family Bromeliaceae
Order Philydrales
Family Philydraceae
Order Haemodorales
Family Haemodoraceae
Order Pontederiales
Family Pontederiaceae
Order Typhales
Family Sparganiaceae
Family Typhaceae
Zingiberiflorae
Superorder Zingiberiflorae 1 order p. 350
Order Zingiberales
Family Lowiaceae
Family Musaceae
Family Heliconiaceae
Family Strelitziaceae
Family Zingiberaceae
Family Costaceae
Family Cannaceae
Family Marantaceae
Commeliniflorae
Superorder Commeliniflorae 4 orders p. 374
Order Commelinales
Family Commelinaceae
Family Mayacaceae
Family Xyridaceae
Family Rapateaceae
Family Eriocaulaceae
Order Hydatellales
Family Hydatellaceae
Order Cyperales
Family Juncaceae
Family Thurniaceae
Family Cyperaceae
Order Poales
Family Flagellariaceae
Family Joinvilleaceae
Family Poaceae
Family Ecdeiocolaceae
Family Anarthriaceae
Family Restionaceae
Family Centrolepidaceae
Cyclanthiflorae
Superorder Cyclanthiflorae 1 order p. 461
Order Cyclanthales
Family Cyclanthaceae
Areciflorae
Superorder Areciflorae 1 order p. 467
Order Arecales
Family Arecaceae
Pandaniflorae
Superorder Pandaniflorae 1 order p. 480
Order Pandanales
Family Pandanaceae
Notes
References
Bibliography
, in
Additional excerpts
system, Dahlgren |
4060020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional%20stagnation%20in%20the%20United%20States | Congressional stagnation in the United States | Congressional stagnation is an American political theory that attempts to explain the high rate of incumbency re-election to the United States House of Representatives. In recent years this rate has been well over 90 per cent, with rarely more than 5-10 incumbents losing their House seats every election cycle. The theory has existed since the 1970s, when political commentators were beginning to notice the trend, with political science author and professor David Mayhew first writing about the "vanishing marginals" theory in 1974.
The term "congressional stagnation" originates from the theory that Congress has become stagnant through the continuous re-election of the majority of incumbents, preserving the status quo.
Overview
In the 2000 Congressional Elections, out of the 435 Congressional districts in which there were elections, 359 were listed as "safe" by Congressional Quarterly. In all of these 359, there was no uncertainty as to who would win. The results a week later confirmed that very few House races were competitive. The 2000 House election resulted in a net change of only four seats (+1 for the Democrats, −2 for the Republicans and the electing of an additional independent). In total, 98% of all incumbents were re-elected.
Congressional elections are stagnant, and because of the high invincibility of House incumbents, very few districts are truly competitive, with elections shifting very few seats from one party to another. One of the most important reasons as to why incumbents are nearly unbeatable is because they normally have much better financed campaigns than their opponents. Other potential theories include the aggressive redrawing of congressional boundaries known as gerrymandering, from a more historical perspective the loss of party alignment, or the simple fact of being an incumbent.
In recent years, legislators in the U.S. Senate and in the House, have been championing the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act as a tool to combat the growing stagnation of Congress, claiming that it would revitalize elections.
History of electoral stagnation
Competition in House elections have been on the decline of several decades. As mentioned, it was more than 30 years ago when David Mayhew first commented on vanishing marginals, the decreasing number of congressional districts that were being won by close vote margins. In typical election years between 1956 and 1964, about 94 districts were decided by a margin of 10 percentage points or fewer (55%-to-45% of the vote or closer). From 1966 to 1972, the number of marginal districts dropped to about 59. Since Mayhew's observation, competition has eroded further and is now in very short supply.
One important indicator of competition is the partisan turnover of districts - the number of districts won by candidates of different parties in consecutive election years. Turnover is not essential for competition, but one would expect serious competition to result in a substantial amount of turnover. While some elections have produced a great deal of turnover, other elections have produced next to none. In general, the amount of turnover declined in the second half of the 20th century, especially in the last few decades.
The typical election in the first half of the 20th century resulted in a shift of about 55 seats between the parties (specifically the period 1900-1924 produced a median seat turnover of 53.9 seats and 1926-1950 produced a 56.1 change). Competitiveness, at least measured by the likelihood of an election changing the partisan outcome in a district, is now less than half it was throughout much of the 20th century.
Without competition, the public at large can lose interest in the processes of elections. It might be expected that a large number of citizens would come to regard the process as unresponsive and crooked, grow cynical, and stay home on election day. This is seen as one of the many potential reasons as to why the United States has one of the lowest voter turnout rates in the western world.
Reasons for stagnation
Incumbent quality
The fact that incumbents have won at least one previous election means that they have some qualities that appeal to voters. So re-election rates greater than fifty percent are not surprising. This effect can explain the re-election rates in the US Senate from 1946 to 1978, but has difficulty explaining the increase in the re-election rates from 1980 to 2010.
Incumbency financial advantage
One of the main reasons incumbents seem to have such a complete advantage over challengers is because of their significantly better financed campaigns. In the 1990s the typical incumbent in a contested election had somewhere between 83 and 93 percent of what was spent by all the candidates in the district, and these incumbents typically captured about 64 to 67 percent of the vote.
The figures should be used with discretion, however, as half the incumbents dominated spending in their area to an even greater extent. If anything, this analysis may even understate how great the incumbency campaign finance advantage predetermines the election outcome, as the analysis examines only contested elections. For instance, in the 2000 election cycle, 64 incumbents ran for reelection unchallenged because the opposition party did not even mount a nominal challenge.
Specifically for the 2000 election, incumbents spent 92.8 percent of total money and received 67.3 percent of the vote. In the elections from 1992 to 2000, there were 1,643 contested House seats in which there was a challenged incumbent. In 905 of these (55 percent of the total), the incumbents spent 84% or more of the total spending. These elections resulted in 904 victories for the incumbents, and one loss.
The single exception was the defeat of Democratic Congressman Dan Rostenkowski in the Fifth Congressional District of Illinois. Rostenkowski had already served 18 terms as a Congressman, and spent close to $2.5 million on the election compared to the $133,000 spent by his Republican opponent. Nevertheless, this financing advantage of 22:1 was unable to save him from a 52-46 percent defeat. The advantage that opponent Michael Flanagan had over Rostenkowski in this case was that he wasn't involved in a 17-count federal investigation in "misuse of personal and congressional funds, extortion of gifts and cash, and obstruction of justice." The Rostenkowski example is frequently cited in claims that money does not buy elections.
While there is a correlation between money raised and winning elections, there are some who argue there may not be a direct causation: or more simply, you cannot buy an election.
Gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is a widely used, and often legal, tactic in the United States. In the U.S., gerrymandering typically involves the "packing and cracking" method, but other tactics have also been used. However, there is little evidence that redistricting has had any substantial effect on increased congressional stagnation in the United States. While some incumbents have had success in having district lines drawn to their liking, others have had the opposite experience.
Loss of party alignment
Loss of party alignment (that voters lose their strong dedication to a specific party) was one of the first theories formulated to explain the stagnating congress, and was widely accepted to be the main cause for electoral stagnation in the 1970s. This was a theory devised following a slight lapse in party alignment of the American voters, following the Watergate Scandal, however it did not weaken very much and rebounded in the 1980s.
Advantages of incumbency
Incumbency itself
There are advantages that come with being an incumbent (in addition to being, for example, the representative from the majority party in the district, or having greater access to campaign finances). Being an incumbent lends both greater name recognition and attracts votes that would not be gained by a challenger or running in an open seat race. Various estimates have been made to sift through the, data and discern how many votes incumbency itself is worth, and although various methodologies have yielded varied results it has been estimated that prior to the mid-1960s incumbency added only a few percentage points to the incumbents' column.
There is wide agreement that since the mid-1960s, the advantage of incumbency has grown significantly. Estimates have indicated that it has increased to roughly 7 to 10 percentage points of the vote, depending on the methodology used. This indicates that the advantage of incumbency has close to quadrupled while competition and seat changes have sharply decreased. Districts have been made safer for incumbents and this has buffered these districts from the tides of national politics.
Pork barrel spending
"Pork barrel spending" is a term in American politics used to refer to congressmen or senators who use their position on Committees in the Senate or House to appropriate federal money to their own district or state, and therefore bring increased business and investment to their home area. This process is referred to as "bringing home the pork." This can be used to build up a stronger base of support, thereby solidifying their hold on the sensibilities of their constituents, using the job to secure its own continuation. Allocation of these funds is often achieved through attaching amendments providing the "pork" to bills that are not related to financial appropriations, and that are likely to be passed, thereby guaranteeing the allocation. Political commentator Michael J. Malbin has commented that Congress suffers from an "I'll support your pork if you support mine" syndrome and that it would be difficult to eliminate pork without fundamentally changing the way in which Congress appropriates funds. Some politicians take a hard-line stance against pork
An early-21st-century example of attempted pork barrel spending was the Gravina Island Bridge, a proposed Alaska bridge which attracted so much national attention as a "bridge to nowhere" that the earmark for it was removed.
Proposed solutions to the increased incumbency advantage
Congressional term limits
Applying term limits to Congressmen was proposed in the "Citizen Legislature Act" () during the 104th Congress as an amendment to the Constitution that would limit Congressmen to 6 two-year terms. This act was defeated in the House by a 227-204 margin: the 227 votes in favor were insufficient, as a proposed Constitutional amendment requires a two-thirds majority of 290 votes to be passed.
The introduction of term limits on members of Congress would prevent the electoral advantage in the long run; however, it is not certain how well it would have aided in reducing electoral advantage in House races involving an incumbent who was still eligible to run for re-election.
However, on a federal level only the Office of the Presidency has term limits imposed on it (by the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution).
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
Having been tailored to focus on issue advocacy and big businesses, BCRA forfeited its chance to focus more on congressional stagnation. BCRA was more tailored to combat the seemingly irresistible rise of political soft money, whereas the structural problems in congressional stagnation lie elsewhere. The problems of an enlarged incumbency advantage are the results of a severe imbalance in hard money contributions to the candidates and is not a consequence of a sizable influx of soft money, or third-party issue advocacy. Given the huge advantages that incumbents have, some might say that political tools like soft money and issue advocacy would benefit the underdog challenger, as it could be potentially helpful to them, and could lessen the competition. It follows that any impediment to these alternative sources might prove to work contrary to the revitalization of the political process. BCRA can be seen as such an impediment, and this was why some opponents of BCRA had labeled it as an "incumbency protection act".
Congressional Apportionment Amendment
Another possible solution would be the ratification of the original first amendment proposed to the U.S. Constitution. The Congressional Apportionment Amendment was originally proposed as the first of twelve amendments to the Constitution, and came within one state ratification of being passed in 1789–1791, but has not been ratified by any state since.
Increased incumbency advantage as a positive development
Some justifications that have been proffered, namely increased experience and stability in Congress. The long-term presence of legislators allows some to become experts in overseeing some of the highly technical aspects of government programs. Also, incumbents whose re-election is virtually guaranteed can arguably focus on actually passing productive legislation rather than on campaigning.
See also
Campaign finance reform
References
Written sources
Alford, John R., and David W. Brady. 1993. "Personal and Partisan Advantage in U.S. Congressional Elections, 1846-1990." In Congress Reconsidered, 5th ed., edited by Lawrence C. Dodd and Bruce I. Oppenheimer. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly.
Bartels, Larry M. 2000. "Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952-1996." American Journal of Political Science 44 (1): 35–50.
Campbell, James E. 2003. "The 2002 Midterm Election: A Typical or an Atypical Midterm?" PS: Political Science and Politics 36 (2): 203–207.
Campbell, James E., and Steve J. Jurek. 2003. "The Decline of Competition and Change in Congressional Elections." In The United States Congress: A Century of Change, edited by Sunil Ahuja and Robert Dewhirst. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
Cover, Albert D., and David R. Mayhew. 1981. "Congressional Dynamics and the Decline of Competitive Elections." In Congress Reconsidered, edited by Lawrence C. Dodd and Bruce I. Oppenheimer. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly.
Duncan, Philip D., and Christine C. Lawrence. 1995. Politics in America 1996: The 104th Congress. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly.
Erikson, Robert S. 1971. "The Advantage of Incumbency in Congressional Elections." Polity 3:395-405.
Gelman, Andrew, and Gary King. 1990. "Estimating Incumbency Advantage without Bias." American Journal of Political Science 34 (4): 1142–64.
Henderson, Harry. 2004. Campaign and Election Reform. New York, NY.: Facts on File.
Ferejohn, John A. 1977. "On the Decline of Competition in Congressional Elections." American Political Science Review 71 (1): 166–76.
Fiorina, Morris P. 1977. "The Case of the Vanishing Marginals: The Bureaucracy Did It." American Political Science Review 71 (1): 177–181.
Jacobson, Gary C. 2000. "Reversal of Fortune: The Transformation of U.S. House Elections in the 1990s." In Continuity and Change in House Elections, edited by David W. Brady, John F. Cogan, and Morris P. Fiorina. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
Keith, Bruce E., David B. Magelby, Candice J. Nelson et al. 1992. The Myth of the Independent Voter. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Levitt, Steven, and Catherline Wolfram. 1997. "Decomposing the Sources of Incumbency Advantages in the U.S.House." Legislative Studies Quarterly 22: 45–60.
Malbin, Michael J., Anne H. Bedlington, Robert G. Boatright et al. 2003. Life After Reform: When the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act meets politics. Lanham, Md.: Rowland & Littlefield.
Mayhew, David R. 1974. "Congressional Elections: The Case of the Vanishing Marginals." Polity. 6:295-317.
Pastine, Ivan, Tuvana Pastine and Paul Redmond. 2012. "Incumbent-Quality Advantage and Counterfactual Electoral Stagnation in the U.S. Senate." University College Dublin Economics Working Paper WP12/18.
Payne, James L. 1980. "The Personal Electoral Advantage of House Incumbents 1936-1976." American Politics Quarterly 8: 465–82.
Smith, Bradley A. 2001. Unfree Speech: The Folly of Campaign Finance Reform. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Online sources
Gerrymandering in the United States Accessed 15 February 2006
Article on Senator Coburn Accessed 26 March 2006
External links
Historical Prevalence of Reelected Representatives in the U. S. House — This TTO report provides, for each Congress from the second to the 109th, the percentage of incumbents reelected (from the preceding Congress) by state and for the aggregate total.
United States House of Representatives elections |
4060116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Chiozza%20Money | Leo Chiozza Money | Sir Leo George Chiozza Money (; 13 June 1870 – 25 September 1944), born Leone Giorgio Chiozza, was an Italian-born economic theorist who moved to Britain in the 1890s, where he made his name as a politician, journalist and author. In the early years of the 20th century his views attracted the interest of two future Prime Ministers, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. After a spell as Lloyd George's parliamentary private secretary, he was a Government minister in the latter stages of the First World War. In later life the police's handling of a case in which he and factory worker Irene Savidge were acquitted of indecent behaviour aroused much political and public interest. A few years later he was convicted of an offence involving another woman.
Background and early career
Money was born in Genoa, Italy. His father was Anglo-Italian and his mother English. He was educated privately and, in 1903, largely anglicised his name, appending "Money" for what Lloyd George's biographer John Grigg has described as "eponymous reasons". He and his English wife Gwendoline had a daughter, Gwendoline Doris, born in 1896.
Economic publications
In London, Money established himself as a journalist, becoming especially noted for his use of statistical analysis. He has sometimes been referred to as a "New Liberal" economist. From 1898 to 1902 he was managing editor of Henry Sell's Commercial Intelligence, a journal devoted to the cause of free trade, which Money further championed in his books British Trade and the Zollverein Issue (July 1902) and Elements of the Fiscal Problem (1903). These were timely given the increasingly fervent political and public debate about Imperial Preference, a cause which led Joseph Chamberlain to resign from Arthur Balfour's Conservative government in 1903. Money argued that, although nobody was proposing a true "British Zollverein or Imperial Customs Union ... an imperial nation like ours cannot afford to benefit the colonies by giving a tariff preference to their products, for ... they cannot supply them in sufficient quantities to support our industries and people". His thinking appears to have had some influence on Winston Churchill, then a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP), who crossed to the Liberal Party in 1904 ostensibly because of his Free Trade principles; however, in later correspondence with Money, Churchill probably overstated the extent of his influence.<ref>See Toye 2007, pp.27-9</ref> Even so, Churchill told Money plainly in 1914 that he was "a master of efficient statistics and no one states a case with more originality or force"
Riches and Poverty (1905)
In 1905 Money published the work for which he became most noted, Riches and Poverty. This analysis of the distribution of wealth in the United Kingdom, which he revised in 1912, proved influential and was widely quoted by socialists, Labour politicians and trade unionists. The future Labour Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, whose government from 1945-51 established the modern welfare state, recalled that, while he was working at a boys' club at Haileybury, he had spent an evening studying Riches and Poverty. Among other things, Money claimed that 87% of private property was owned by 883,000 people (or 4.4 million if families and dependents were included), while the remaining 13% was shared between 38.6 million. These and other calculations were contested at the time as taking insufficient account of age and family structures, but were frequently cited as the best available figures of their kind. Money sought also to quantify Britain's middle class and its per capita wealth, calculating that 861,000 people in 1905 and 917,000 in 1912 owned property worth between £500 and £50,000, although, allowing for four dependents per property owner, the per capita figure was less than £1,000. In general his findings pointed to the modest size of most middle class fortunes in Edwardian times, a picture broadly consistent with calculations made by Robert Giffen and Michael Mulhall in the 1880s (although Money took the view that business wealth was becoming increasingly concentrated in a few hands, whereas, towards the end of the 19th century, Giffen and others, such as Leone Levi, had concluded that such wealth was being spread more widely).
Around this time, Money sometimes shared Fabian platforms with such like-minded thinkers as Sidney Webb and H. G. Wells.
Political career
At the 1906 general election, in which the Liberal Party won a landslide victory, Money became Liberal MP for Paddington North. A future Conservative Lord Chancellor, F.E. Smith (later Lord Birkenhead), who also entered Parliament in 1906, poured sarcasm on the Free Trade aspects of Money's campaign (as he did on those of others), claiming that "with an infinitely just appreciation of his own controversial limitations, [Money] relied chiefly on the intermittent exhibition of horse sausages as a witty, graceful and truthful sally at the expense of the great German nation"
Money lost his seat at the January 1910 election, fought principally on the issue of the "People's Budget" delivered by Lloyd George as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1909, but in December 1910 was elected for East Northamptonshire in the second general election of that year. He held that seat until 1918.
Protégé of Lloyd George
Lloyd George, who became Chancellor in 1908, valued Money's ability to develop innovative ideas; in 1911 he thanked him specifically for his "magnificent service" in relation to the new national insurance scheme and the following year contributed an introduction to his study of the Act and its purpose, published as Insurance Versus Poverty. In 1912 Money was active also in following up the sinking of the , soliciting from the President of the Board of Trade (Sydney Buxton) an early breakdown of the number of passengers saved by class and gender. The figures showed, among other things, that, while 63% of first class passengers had survived, only 25% in third class had done so, including a mere 16 of 767 men in third class.
Despite Money's apparent alignment with Lloyd George, he produced various articles early in 1914 that drew attention to reductions in naval expenditure at a time when Germany was increasing such spending. He appears to have received private assistance in this regard from Churchill, who by then had a vested interest as First Lord of the Admiralty. Churchill offered Money flattering encouragement, while his office supplied him with various statistics (making clear, however, that such data were already available in published documents). In thanking Money for his articles, Churchill added that he was "keeping the proof to encourage the Chancellor [i.e. Lloyd George]"
When Lloyd George became Minister of Munitions in 1915, during the First World War, he appointed Money as his parliamentary private secretary (PPS). Money was knighted in the same year.
In December 1916 Lloyd George replaced Asquith as Prime Minister. Money was initially Parliamentary Secretary (a junior ministerial post) for both pensions and shipping in the re-organised coalition government, although he held the former portfolio for only two weeks, later claiming, rather improbably, that he had "drafted the new Pensions scheme of 1917".
Ministry of Shipping
Money's Minister (or Controller) at the new Ministry of Shipping was Sir Joseph Maclay, a Scottish shipowner who, unusually, sat in neither House of Parliament, as a result of which Money was the ministry's spokesman in the Commons (with his own PPS, Thomas Owen Jacobsen). Maclay, who was himself strong willed and very self-disciplined, at first resisted Money's appointment, describing him to Lloyd George as "very clever – but impossible, [living] in an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust of everyone – satisfied only with himself and his own views". However, Lloyd George stuck by the appointment and, in the event, the two men appear to have worked in reasonable harmony. Among Money's particular achievements was developing the policy of concentrating British merchant shipping in the North Atlantic, allowing it to be better defended against German U-boats and leaving transport of goods around the world to ships of other nationalities. By the time of the Zeebrugge raid in April 1918, the use of convoys had largely contained the threat from U-boats, with every troopship of American reinforcements over the previous two months having arrived safely.
Labour Party candidate and the Sankey Commission
After the war Money left the Liberal Party for Labour, principally over the issues of nationalisation and redistribution of wealth through taxation which, in contrast with most Liberals, he supported. He argued also that substantial investment in organisation and technology would be required to stem economic decline and regretted both the coalition's lack of commitment to free trade and intention to defer Home Rule for Ireland. Money resigned his government post shortly before the so-called "Coupon" election of 1918, in which, standing as a Labour candidate for South Tottenham, he lost by 853 votes to the Conservatives' Major Patrick Malone (who, because of local differences over his candidature, had not received the coalition coupon).
The following year Money was a member of the Royal Commission established under the Coal Industry Commission Act 1919 and led by Sir John Sankey, that examined the future of the coal-mining industry. He was one of three economists on the commission, all broadly favourable to the miners, the others being Sidney Webb and R. H. Tawney. Others were appointed from business and the trade unions. No agreement was reached and, when the commission reported in June 1919, it offered four separate approaches ranging from full nationalisation to untrammelled private ownership. The public impact of the report was such that, in Ben Travers' comic novel A Cuckoo in the Nest (1921), the Rev. Cathcart Sloley-Jones, under the illusion that he was addressing a member of parliament, "lowered his voice into a rather sinister whisper: 'What is Lloyd George's real view of the miners' report?'"
Money unsuccessfully fought the Stockport by-election for Labour in a seven-sided contest in 1920.
Later life
Money did not hold ministerial office nor sit in Parliament again after 1918. Therefore, with Lloyd George being forced out as Prime Minister in 1922, his political career was effectively over by the early 1920s. He continued to work as a financial journalist and author, and contributed views in other ways. For example, in 1926 (the year of the General Strike), he criticised as "utterly humourless" a BBC radio talk in which Father Ronald Knox offered an imaginary account of a revolution in Britain that included butchery in St. James's Park, London and the blowing up of the Houses of Parliament. He also published books of poems.
In his book, The Peril of the White (1925), Money addressed delicate issues relating to the racial make-up of colonial populations and the implications of a declining white European birth rate for their future governance. He maintained that "the European stock cannot presume to hold magnificent areas indefinitely, even while it refuses to people them, and to deny their use and cultivation to races that sorely need them". He emphasised also that "every ... act ... which denies respect to mankind of whatever race will have to be paid for a hundredfold".
By the mid-1930s, Money appeared to be showing some sympathy for the fascist dictators in Europe, regretting in particular Britain's hostility towards Benito Mussolini's Italy. Shortly before the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935, he corresponded with Winston Churchill, praising him, among other things, for the measured tone of a speech in which Churchill had maintained that the quarrel with Italy was not one with Britain, but with the League of Nations. During the Second World War Money deplored British bombing of non-military targets in Germany, citing in 1943 Churchill's own denunciation of a "new and odious form of warfare" a few months before becoming Prime Minister in 1940.
However, in terms of their public profile, these various activities paled into insignificance compared to two rather bizarre episodes involving young women that brought Money into contact with the law. In 1928 he was acquitted of indecent behaviour with a woman in London's Hyde Park in a case that became a cause célèbre and had some influence on future handling by the police of such cases. Then, five years later, he was convicted on a similar charge following an incident in a railway compartment and fined a total of 50 shillings (£2.50).
The Savidge case
On the evening of St. George's Day, 23 April 1928, Money was in Hyde Park with Irene Savidge, a radio valve-tester from New Southgate in North London. Savidge was engaged to be married. A police constable spotted the exchange of what a later social historian has described as "a rather chaste kiss". The police maintained that mutual masturbation was taking place, although Money claimed that he had been offering Savidge advice on her career. They were both arrested and charged with indecent behaviour, but the case was dismissed by the Marlborough Street magistrate, who awarded costs of £10 against the police.
At the time of his arrest, Money protested to the police that he was "not the usual riff-raff" but "a man of substance" and, once in custody, was permitted to telephone the Home Secretary, Sir William Joynson-Hicks. The police suspected that his and Savidge's acquittal was an "establishment" conspiracy, this leading the Director of Public Prosecutions, Sir Archibald Bodkin, to authorise them to detain Savidge for further questioning. Her subsequent interrogation, after she had been detained at her place of work, lasted some five hours and was conducted without a female officer being present. Lilian Wyles, one of the officers to collect her, and who expected to be present during the questioning, was told to leave by Chief Inspector Alfred C. Collins, who led the interview. Savidge was required to show the police her pink petticoat, whose colour and brevity they duly noted and at a certain point Collins caressed her knee.
Savidge complained about her treatment and there followed an adjournment debate in the House of Commons on 17 May 1928, initiated by a Labour MP, Tom Johnston. Joynson-Hicks established a public inquiry under Sir John Eldon Bankes, a retired Lord Justice of Appeal, which criticised the excessive zeal of the police, but also exonerated Savidge's interrogators of improper conduct. However, the case did lead to reforms in the way that the police dealt with female suspects and enabled a number of public figures to articulate their view that the police should primarily enforce law and order, rather than "trying to be censors of public morals".
Railway incident and conviction
In September 1933 Money was travelling on the Southern Railway between Dorking and Ewell when, as A.J.P. Taylor put it in the relevant volume of the Oxford History of England, he "again conversed with a young lady". He was summonsed for taking hold of a shop girl named Ivy Buxton and kissing her face and neck. When Money appeared before Epsom magistrates on 11 September, he was fined £2 for his behaviour and a further 10 shillings (50p) for interfering with the comfort of other passengers.
Publications
Riches and poverty (1905)
A Nation Insured (1912)
The Triumph of Nationalization (1920)
References
Sources
Daunton, Martin "Money, Sir Leo George Chiozza (1870–1944), politician and author" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Donaldson, William (2002) Brewer's Rogues, Villains & Eccentrics Grigg, John (2001) Lloyd George: War Leader 1916–1918 Harris, Jose (1993) Private Lives, Public Spirit: Britain 1870–1914 Pugh, Martin (2008) We Danced All Night: A Social History of Britain Between the Wars Taylor, A.J.P. (1965) The Oxford History of England: English History 1914–1945 Toye, Richard (2007) Lloyd George and Churchill''
External links
1870 births
1944 deaths
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Knights Bachelor
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
Writers from Genoa
Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates
Members of the Fabian Society
British politicians convicted of crimes
British economists
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom |
4060278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20patents%20under%20United%20Kingdom%20patent%20law | Software patents under United Kingdom patent law | There are four overriding requirements for a patent to be granted under United Kingdom patent law. Firstly, there must have been an invention. That invention must be novel, inventive and susceptible of industrial application. (See Patentability.)
Patent laws in the UK and throughout Europe specify a non-exhaustive list of excluded things that are not regarded as inventions to the extent that a patent application relates to the excluded thing as such. This list includes programs for computers.
Despite this, the United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office (UKIPO) regularly grants patents to inventions that are partly or wholly implemented in software. The extent to which this should be done under the current law and the approach to be used in assessing whether a patent application describes an invention has been settled by the Court of Appeal. The UK approach is quite different from that of the European Patent Office (EPO), although "there should be no significant difference in result."
Globally, the extent to which patent law should allow the granting of patents involving software (often referred to as "software patents") is controversial and also hotly debated (see Software patent debate).
Substantive law
Although it is an implicit requirement of Section 1(1) of the UK Patent Act (1977) that patents should only be granted for inventions, "invention" is not defined anywhere in the Act.
Instead, Section 1(2) Patents Act provides a non-exhaustive list of "things" that are not treated as inventions. Included in this list is "a program for a computer". However, these things are only prevented from being treated as inventions "to the extent that a patent or application for a patent relates to that thing as such".
Article 52(2) of the European Patent Convention (EPC) includes a slightly different list of non-inventions, although "programs for computers" are present. Article 52(3) EPC then states that patentability for the identified subject matter or activities is excluded "only to the extent to which a European patent application or European patent relates to such subject-matter or activities as such".
The wording of the Patents Act is slightly different from Article 52 EPC, but the UK Courts have taken the view that since the purpose of Section 1 of the Patents Act was to transpose the requirements of Article 52 EPC into UK law, any differences between the EPC and the Patents Act should be ignored. The text of the EPC itself should therefore be regarded as definitive.
Other things that are not regarded as inventions include mathematical methods, and schemes, rules and methods for performing mental acts, playing games or doing business. These additional excluded categories often overlap with the exclusion of computer programs since they may be put into practice using a computer.
Case law
Summary
The case law in the United Kingdom relating to excluded subject matter in general, and computer programs specifically, has a somewhat sporadic history. For eight years, the leading case in the UK over whether or not a patent or patent application involving the use of a computer program related to an invention, or whether it instead related to a computer program "as such" was the judgment in Fujitsu's application from 1997.
Only in 2005, in the judgment in CFPH LLC's applications, did the UK Courts again consider the issue of excluded subject matter in detail. In the meantime, the practice of the EPO and the UKIPO had diverged significantly. In some ways this judgment brought UK law closer to the practice of the EPO; but it also criticised the reliance of the EPO on paraphrasing the exclusions from patentability under the blanket heading of "technical".
Subsequently, in October 2006, the Court of Appeal heard their first case relating to the validity of computer programs in nine years and handed down their judgment on the matter of Aerotel v Telco and Macrossan's Application. This judgment reaffirmed the reasoning in Fujitsu and once again moved the practice of the UKIPO away from that of the EPO.
Court of Appeal judgments
Fujitsu's Application
Fujitsu's Application was considered by the Court of Appeal in 1997. The case in question had been refused by the UKIPO and by J Laddie on Appeal before the High Court. LJ Aldous heard the appeal before the Court of Appeal and his judgment is notable for several reasons:
It stated that the UK courts should look to the decisions of the European Patent Office for guidance in interpreting the exclusions.
It confirmed that a "technical contribution" is needed to make a potentially excluded thing patentable, proclaiming that this was a concept at the heart of patent law and referring to the European Patent Office's decision in T 208/84, VICOM.
It recognised the difficulty inherent in determining what is and is not "technical", such that each case should be decided on its own facts.
It stressed that the substance of an invention should be used to assess whether or not a thing is patentable, not the form in which it is claimed. Thus a non-patentable method cannot be patented under the guise of an apparatus.
Fujitsu's claimed invention was a new tool for modelling crystal structures on a computer. A scientist wishing to investigate what would result if he made a new material consisting of a combination of two existing compounds would enter data representing those compounds and how they should be joined into the computer. The computer then automatically generated and displayed the new structure using the data supplied. Previously, the same effect could only have been achieved by assembling plastic models by hand – a time consuming task. The claimed invention was therefore certainly new and useful, but the fact that the same task could be achieved manually in the past was the application's downfall. As claimed, the invention was nothing more than a conventional computer which automatically displayed a crystal structure shown pictorially in a form that would in the past have been produced as a model. The only advance expressed in the claims was the computer program which enabled the combined structure to be portrayed more quickly. The new tool therefore provided nothing that went beyond the normal advantages that are obtained by the use of a computer program. Thus, there was no technical contribution and the application was rejected as being a computer program as such.
Menashe v William Hill
Menashe Business Mercantile Limited v William Hill Organisation Limited was considered by the Court of Appeal in 2002. The case in question related to and a preliminary question of infringement. Questions of validity were never considered by the court.
This case is important because it considers the issues surrounding the infringement of computer-implemented inventions where the computer performing the claimed method is outside the UK, but a person inside the UK is making use of the invention.
The claimed invention required there to be a host or server computer. According to the judgment, it did not matter where the host computer was situated. It could be in the United Kingdom, on a satellite, or even on the border between two countries. Its location was not important to the user of the invention nor to the claimed gaming system. In that respect, there was a real difference between the claimed gaming system and an ordinary machine. The judge therefore believed that it would be wrong to apply the old ideas of location to inventions of the type under consideration. A person who is situated in the United Kingdom who obtains in the United Kingdom a CD and then uses his terminal to address a host computer is not bothered where the host computer is located. It is of no relevance to him, the user, nor the patentee as to whether or not it is situated in the United Kingdom.
Aerotel v Telco and Macrossan's application
The judgment in Aerotel v Telco and Macrossan's application by the Court of Appeal, passed down on 27 October 2006, relates to a patent granted to Aerotel and a patent application filed by Neal Macrossan but refused by the UKIPO and the High Court. Aerotel's patent is , and has a January 1985 priority date. Macrossan's has a December 2000 priority date.
Aerotel's patent was found to relate to a patentable invention in principle because the system as a whole was new in itself, not merely because it is to be used for the business of selling phone calls. The judge felt that this was clearly more than just a method of doing business as such. The method claims were construed as relating to a use of the new system and were also deemed to relate to a patentable invention in principle.
The claimed invention in Macrossan's application was an automated method of acquiring the documents necessary to incorporate a company. Macrossan's patent application was rejected for not being an invention since it was found to relate to a computer program as such and to a method of doing business as such. The Court's reason for this rejection was that there was no contribution made by the claimed invention that lay outside excluded subject matter.
Citing as reasons this clear divergence in reasoning between the UK courts and the European Patent Office, Neal Macrossan sought leave to appeal the refusal of his patent application to the House of Lords. Within the patent profession it was hoped that a ruling by the House of Lords would clarify the extent to which patent protection is available to computer-implemented inventions. To the disappointment of patent attorneys, the House of Lords refused leave to hear the appeal, citing the reason that the case "does not raise an arguable point of law of general public importance".
High Court judgments
After the judgement in Fujitsu's Application, the courts did not hear another case relating to the exclusions to computer programs for eight years. The judgment in CFPH's applications was the first in a flurry of UK court cases starting in 2005 involving re-consideration by the High Court of patent applications refused by the UKIPO and made many references to the practice of the EPO.
Peter Prescott QC, sitting as a Deputy Judge in the High Court, noted that the EPO decisions are prescriptive, but not binding on the UK courts. With this in mind, the EPO's reliance on the word "technical" was criticised, but the judgment went on to say that the two modes of reasoning used by the UK courts and by the EPO, although different, would usually produce identical results on the same set of facts if properly applied. Another criticism suggests that the EPO are being too strict by insisting that an invention must provide a technical contribution to be inventive since, as evidenced by the judgment in Dyson v Hoover, the commercial background to an invention may be important when determining the presence or otherwise of an inventive step.
The two patent applications in question both involved networked interactive wagering on the outcomes of events. The applications were not refused as relating to a computer program as such, because the computer program was simply a tool that was being used to implement a new set of business rules and the invention was not really about the computer program. Rather the only "advance" (defined as being those features which were novel and inventive) was found to be the new set of business rules and each application was refused as relating to a method of doing business as such. Although the judgment stressed that the reasoning used was quite different from the type that would have been applied by the EPO, the judge appeared satisfied that the EPO would have come to the same conclusion using their own reasoning.
Although briefly of great importance due to the UKIPO swiftly altering their practice to follow its recommendations, the idea in the CFPH judgment to consider whether an invention is excluded by looking at the novel and inventive advance has been disapproved by the more recent Aerotel and Macrossan judgment. This judgment therefore remains of interest only from an historical perspective.
Patent Office decisions
Decisions of the UKIPO, made by senior Hearing Officers, are not binding on the UKIPO in the way that judgments of the Courts are. Nevertheless, there are, by nature, many more Office decisions than there are court judgments. A full list is available on the UKIPO website.
UK Intellectual Property Office practice
On 2 November 2006, following the judgment in Aerotel v Telco and Macrossan's Application, the UKIPO issued a Practice Note announcing an immediate change in the way patent examiners will assess whether inventions relate to patentable subject matter. This practice is considered to be a restrictive interpretation of the judgment by patent attorneys.
One aspect of the practice change was a reversal in the UKIPO practice concerning computer program claims. For several years previously, the UKIPO had allowed claims directed to a computer program if the method performed by the computer program was itself patentable. In light of the first step of the Aerotel/Macrossan four-step test, to construe the claim, the UKIPO decided that claims to a computer program were not a permissible form of claim even if the underlying method was found to be patentable.
This practice remained in place until 7 February 2008 when, following the judgment in Astron Clinica and others' Applications, the UKIPO issued a new Practice Note stating that they would return to their previous practice of permitting claims to computer programs if claims to a method performed by running a suitably programmed computer or to a computer programmed to carry out the method were themselves allowable. This change affirmed the established practice of considering the substance of the invention over the particular way it was claimed but it was not thought that it would cause a material change in the subject matter which would be deemed patentable by the UKIPO.
Comparison of EPO with UK practice
Patents granted by the European Patent Office (EPO) may be brought into effect in the UK once certain formal requirements have been met. As soon as a European patent is granted (provided that no opposition is filed), then final authority to interpret Article 52(2) and (3) EPC rests with each national jurisdiction and any person may apply to the UKIPO or the UK courts to have a patent granted by the EPO revoked in the UK.
There is to date no supranational European system for patent litigation, so the courts of each EPC Contracting State retain the final say. They vary to some extent from one to another as to just how far the exclusion should extend.
Compared to the EPO, the UKIPO have consistently taken a very different approach when deciding whether or not to grant patents involving software. This has sometimes drawn criticism from those advocating the need for harmony across Europe. (See Proposed directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions).
The most important difference between the two offices is that the EPO will in general accept that any patent application relating to a computer-implemented method is "an invention", whereas the UKPO will reject an application on the basis that it does not describe "an invention" if the only contribution provided by the inventor is a computer program. The EPO instead only consider technical features when assessing the presence or otherwise of an inventive step and will therefore normally reject the trivial computer-implementation of a non-technical method as lacking an inventive step. The UKPO, in contrast, consider any feature, technical or not, as being capable of contributing to an inventive step. (See Software patents under the European Patent Convention, which discusses the evolving position and practice of the EPO on this issue.)
Thus, for example, a patent application describing a new computer chip used to implement a faster method for calculating square-roots was rejected as not being an invention in the UK (Gale's Application), but would probably be deemed an invention in principle by the EPO. The EPO would instead consider whether the new method of solving square roots provided a technical solution to a technical problem and would only grant the application if such a solution were inventive.
It was noted by the Court of Appeal in Aerotel and Macrossan that using the reasoning of most of the EPO case law (such as T 258/03 – Hitachi) would result in the same final conclusion as the "contribution" approach. However, the reasoning in a particular Microsoft case was held up as being flawed. The UKPO have also expressed the opinion that the end result would normally be the same. This is disputed by groups such as the Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure who consider that the EPO is consistently granting patents that would be refused by the courts in the UK and elsewhere in Europe.
See also
Software patent
Software patents under the European Patent Convention
List of UK judgments relating to excluded subject matter
References
External links
UK Intellectual Property Office practice notices and guidance
UKPO Manual of Patent Practice (May 2006) Includes case law summaries and practice guidance.
Patent applications relating to methods of doing business (April 2005) Explains UKPO practice to bring business method applications to a close quickly.
Patents Act 1977: Examining for Patentability (July 2005) Old UKPO practice following the CFPH and Halliburton judgments.
Patents Act 1977: Patentable subject matter UKIPO Practice Note of 2 November 2006 issued following the Aerotel/Macrossan judgment.
Patents Act 1977: Patentable subject matter, UKIPO Practice Note of 7 February 2008 issued following the Astron Clinica judgment.
Legal commentaries
Electronic Law Journal Software Patents After Fujitsu
Scottish Law Journal
United Kingdom patent law
United Kingdom patent law |
4060452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese%20name | Portuguese name | A Portuguese name or Lusophone name – a personal name in the Portuguese language – is typically composed of one or two personal names, the mother's family surname and the father's family surname (rarely only one surname, sometimes more than two). For practicality, usually only the last surname (excluding prepositions) is used in formal greetings.
General
The Portuguese naming system is very flexible. Portuguese law establishes the need for a child to have at least one personal name and one surname from one of the parents. The law also establishes the maximum number of names allowed: up to two personal names and four surnames. Advice from the says of this restriction that a name "may contain a maximum of six simple words or compounds, as a rule, up to two first names and four surnames"; more may be permissible in some circumstances.
Usually, the maternal surnames precede the paternal ones, but the opposite is also possible. If the father is unknown, or he has not acknowledged the child, only the mother's family name(s) is/are used. A child can receive surnames from their parents' ancestors, even if those surnames are not part of the parents' names, provided that the parents prove those names were used by their ancestors.
Some Portuguese family names are made of two words, most often not hyphenated, but are not composite names, as they were not the result of combining two family names in past generations; instead, the words constitute a single logical unit. These include toponyms (e.g. Castelo Branco), religious references (e.g. Espírito Santo, Santa Rita), or other expressions (e.g. Corte Real, Mil-Homens). In this case both words must be cited (e.g. writer Camilo Castelo Branco is never referred to as Camilo Branco).
Number of names
It is not uncommon in Portugal that a married woman has two personal names and six surnames, two from her mother's family, two from her father's family, and the last two coming from her husband. In addition, some of these names may be made of more than one word, so that a full feminine name can have more than 12 words. For instance, the name "Maria do Carmo Mão de Ferro e Cunha de Almeida Santa Rita Santos Abreu" would not be surprising in a married woman. Mão de Ferro (iron hand) and Santa Rita (after Saint Rita of Cascia) count only as one surname each. In this case, Santos Abreu would probably have come from this woman's husband. She would be typically known as Maria do Carmo Abreu (since Marian invocation names tend to stick together) and would be typically alphasorted and collated under Abreu.
In Portugal, the custom of giving a child four surnames is becoming popular, since this way a child can have each of their grandparents' surnames. For instance, the Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (also known as King Pedro IV of Portugal) (1798–1834) had the full name of Pedro de Alcântara Francisco Antônio João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim de Bourbon e Bragança, and his son, the Emperor Pedro II of Brazil, had the full name of Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga de Habsburgo-Lorena e Bragança. For the sake of simplicity, most Portuguese people use only two surnames.
For example, if José Santos Almeida and Maria Abreu Melo had a daughter, her name could simply be Joana Melo Almeida (personal name + mother's surname + father's surname). However, they could give her two personal names, for example Joana Gabriela, and combine their surnames in various ways, such as Joana Gabriela Melo Almeida, Joana Gabriela Abreu Melo Almeida (two surnames from the mother, one from the father), Joana Gabriela Abreu Santos Almeida (one name from the mother, two from the father), or even Joana Gabriela Abreu Melo Santos Almeida (two names from each parent). It would also be possible to use surnames that are not part of either parent's legal name, but which the parents would be entitled to use, i.e. a surname from a grandparent or a great-grandparent that was not transmitted to the father or the mother. This child would probably become known by her final surname, Joana Almeida. However, her parents could decide to change the order of surnames and name her Joana Almeida Melo, etc. In this case she would probably be known as Joana Melo.
In Portugal, having only one surname is rare, and it usually happens when both the parents have the same surname, to avoid repetitive combinations such as António Santos Santos (which would, however, be an acceptable legal name). In Brazil, having only one surname is common in areas with large communities of non-Portuguese immigrants.
Spelling
Portuguese names have a standard spelling, since names are considered as regular nouns, and are thus subject to the orthographical rules of the Portuguese language. The spelling of many names has evolved through times and with orthography reforms; at the same time, archaic forms of names survive, though they are considered misspellings by current spelling rules. The Acordo Ortográfico ("Orthographic Agreement"), valid in Brazil and Portugal, states on Section XI (Proper Nouns): Os nomes próprios personativos, locativos e de qualquer natureza, sendo portugueses ou aportuguesados, serão sujeitos às mesmas regras estabelecidas para os nomes comuns. ("Anthroponymic and toponymic proper nouns, if Portuguese or incorporated to the Portuguese language, are subject to the same spelling rules established to regular nouns.").
In Portugal, personal names have a standard spelling that is considered the norm (even for non-contemporary figures) and the rules are enforced by law by the 'Instituto dos Registos e do Notariado'. There is a defined list of allowed names; misspelt and archaic forms (e.g. Luiz is the archaic form of Luís), and names containing foreign letters – k, y, w – are usually not allowed. However, older people who were registered with archaic forms have continued to use them (examples include Manoel de Oliveira – the modern spelling would be Manuel). Regarding surnames, there are no legal restrictions, and as such many people continue to use archaic spellings of family names, as in Athayde or Telles (modern forms Ataíde and Teles).
In Brazil, there are no laws concerning names, and only obscene or ridiculous names are forbidden when parents report the birth of a child to the local cartório de registro civil (Civil registry). Many archaic spellings coexist with the orthographically correct, and even with fancy orthographies (Felipe [common], Philippe [archaic and traditional], Fellype [fancy]). Names of international inspiration are common, bringing with them the unusual characters "k", "w", and "y" (Katya, William), diacritics that do not match the Brazilian pronunciation (Desirée, pronounced Desirrê) or do not exist in Portuguese (Thaïs), double letters that retain their foreign pronunciation (Roosevelt) or not (Giovanni), silent letters (as in the formerly mentioned Desirée and Thaïs), and letters that are intended to sound differently from the orthographic norms (Juan, if intended to sound as in Spanish, Hannah, if the initial "h" is intended as an aspiration). Parents can make up any type of name, and suffixes with an English or French "flavour" are often used to give foreign allure to their offspring's names, such as "-son" for boys and "-elly" for girls (Deividson, Jéferson, Joeldson, Maiksson, Andrielly, Marcelly, Nadrielly, Nathyelly, etc.). This phenomenon can be easily seen in Brazilian football players' names.
Names of deceased historical figures must be spelled following the current orthographic rules: Luís de Camões (not Luiz de Camoens), Venceslau Brás (not Wenceslau Braz), Euclides da Cunha (not Euclydes da Cunha), Tomás António Gonzaga (not Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga) etc.
The particle 'de'
Prepositions that can be used in Portuguese surnames are da, das, do, dos and de, such as in Maria da Cunha, José das Neves, Joana do Rosário, Luís dos Santos, Gabriela de Sousa, etc. and mean "from" or "of." Da, dos, etc. are contractions of the preposition de and a definite article (o, as, etc.), meaning "from the" or "of the." The current convention in Portuguese is that they be written in lower case . Different from in Italian surnames, these conjunctives are part of a composite name, i.e., "Sousa" is different from "de Sousa," but both are ordered under 'S' in an alphabetical list. Therefore, one should not refer to Luiz Pereira da Silva as Mr. da Silva but rather Mr. Silva. The conjunction e (and) is also common, e.g. "Maria Costa e Silva." Most commonly this would be a composite surname.
The most well-known exception to this norm is former Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos, who is frequently referred to as President Dos Santos, even among Portuguese-speaking people and in Portuguese-language media (although, in Portugal, the forms "Presidente José Eduardo dos Santos" or "Presidente Eduardo dos Santos" are still more common). Likewise, the Anglophone media often ignores this rule when referring to Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva as Mr. Da Silva, instead of Mr. Silva, while he is mostly called Lula in Portuguese-speaking media.
The name 'Maria'
The personal name Maria (like English Mary, from Hebrew Miryam, via Latin Maria) is extremely common as a feminine personal name and even combined with masculine names. Since the turn of the 21st century, a new wave of traditional personal names has resulted in an increase in its popularity. In 2014, it was the most common girl's name in Portugal, more than twice the second-rated Matilde.
Traditionally, Maria is more common as the first part of a double-first-name combination; these may be formed by several different elements.
Religious predicates (often honouring one of the Virgin Mary's denominations):
Catholic devotion festivities: Maria da Conceição (referring to Our Lady of Conception), Maria das Dores (Our Lady of Sorrows), Maria da Assunção (Assumption of Mary), Maria da Natividade (Nativity of Mary).
A place of a Marian apparition: Maria de Fátima (Fátima), Maria de Lurdes (Lourdes), Maria de la Salete (La Salette), Maria Aparecida (common in Brazil, after Aparecida), Maria Nazaré (Nazareth).
A virtue or a nature element (many of which have lost religious associations nowadays): Maria do Céu (Heaven or Sky), Maria da Luz (Light), Maria do Mar (Sea), Maria da Graça (Grace).
The name of a saint: Maria de São José (after Saint Joseph).
Other types of combinations:
Maria paired with a different feminine personal name: Maria Madalena, Maria Teresa, Maria Antónia (or Antônia, in Brazil), Maria Gabriela, Maria Beatriz, Maria Eduarda, Maria Luiza (Luísa), Maria Fernanda, Maria Alice, Maria Carolina, Maria Dulce
Maria paired with a masculine personal name,
preceding, in female personal names: Maria João, Maria José, Maria Manuel, Maria Luís,
following, in male personal names: João Maria, José Maria, Manuel Maria, Luís Maria.
Many names that are etymologically related to Maria are also used. The most common is the name Mariana, a contraction of Maria and Ana. Other international agglutinations of Maria combinations have been introduced in more recent times. These include Marisa, Marlene, Marília and Míriam (from Hebrew).
As Maria is so widely used, women are most likely to be addressed by just the second element of their name: Conceição (Conception), Dores (Sorrows), Céu (sky/heaven), Luz (light), Lurdes (Lourdes), Fátima, Salete, Aparecida (appeared one), Madalena, Antónia, Teresa, Glória (glory), Prazeres (pleasures) etc. A woman named Maria de Jesus would be addressed as Jesus, even though the second name is masculine.
A similar thing happens with the name Ana (English Anne or Hannah), also very common in double-name combinations such as Ana Paula and Ana Carolina, especially in the younger generations. A woman called Ana Paula would be usually called 'Paula', Ana Carolina would be 'Carolina' and so on.
A similar procedure occurs with masculine names, but using a reverse order. It is not unusual to find masculine names such as João Maria, José Maria, Manuel Maria, Luís Maria etc. In this case, Maria would always be the second personal name, in honour of the Virgin Mary, and the first name would be a masculine name. This custom was fashionable among the Portuguese and Brazilian nobility and the upper classes.
Surname and marriage
In Portugal since 1977, and in Brazil since the 1970s, a woman has the option of whether or not to change her name after marriage. In Portugal, since 1977, and in Brazil, since 2002, a husband can also adopt his wife's surname. In Portugal, when this happens, usually both spouses change their name after marriage (for example, José Santos Almeida and Maria Abreu Melo could become José Santos Melo Almeida and Maria Abreu Melo Almeida or even "José Santos Almeida Melo" and "Maria Abreu Melo Almeida"). In Brazil, there is not yet a perceived pattern.
The custom of a woman adopting a different surname through marriage was not originally a Portuguese-Brazilian tradition. It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes, under French influence. After the 1940s, it became almost socially obligatory. Not doing so was seen as evidence of concubinage, particularly until the 1970s. There is no longer a distinct pattern, with both men and women being allowed to choose whether to change or not change their surname(s).
Mandatory adoption of a new combined name led to unusual combinations when the woman's surname was kept, as in the (not uncommon) case of both spouses sharing a surname. Another confusing situation occurred, for example, when a woman named Ana Lima Silva married a man named João Lima. In such a situation her name could become Ana Lima Silva Lima.
Nowadays in Portugal, a person may adopt their spouse's surname(s), but only in combination with their own birth surnames. For example, if Maria Abreu Melo marries José Santos Almeida, she could choose to become Maria Abreu Melo Almeida or Maria Abreu Melo Santos Almeida.
In Brazil, a woman may adopt her husband's surname(s) in combination or not with her own. For example, when Maria Abreu Melo marries José Santos Almeida, she could choose to become Maria Abreu Melo Almeida, Maria Abreu Melo Santos Almeida, Maria Santos Almeida, Maria Almeida, etc. The most common practice is for a woman to keep part of her birth name and use part of her husband's surname so as to avoid an overly long string of surnames. So, the most used combination from the above example would be Maria Melo Almeida.
In 2012, a circuit of the Brazilian Superior Court of Justice allowed a woman to adopt her male partner's surname while in a civil union.
Collation
When producing alphabetized lists of Portuguese names, generally the full name is used and sorted by personal names. This occurs mainly in schools or official documents, and it is usually done because many people use multiple different surname combinations in their daily life, or do not use the last surname at all. This makes it difficult to order people by the surnames they use. A typical alphabetized list may look like:
António Borges Santos
António Silva Abreu Melo
Leonor Soares Henriques Pais
Sofia Matilde Almeida Pais
However, in contexts such as a telephone directory or bibliography, the practice of using the (last) surname is preferred:
Melo, António Silva Abreu
Pais, Leonor Soares Henriques
Pais, Sofia Matilde Almeida
Santos, António Borges (or Antônio, used in Brazil)
The conjunctives and affixes preceding or following it, such as "da" and "Filho", are not used. When a full composite surname is known, it is alphabetized according to the first name even if not joined by a hyphen. In case where this is unclear, the last surname should be used. For example:
Chagas Filho, Carlos
Campos, Luís Pereira Siqueira
Sousa, Luís de
As a result of these practices it is common for lists alphabetized by surnames to contain errors when dealing with Portuguese names. Additionally, Portuguese names that have been absorbed into a different culture, such as those of English or French-speakers of Portuguese descent, are generally treated according to the practice of those languages or cultures. The Portuguese-American author John Dos Passos, for example, is referred to as having the surname Dos Passos.
Nicknames
Portuguese nicknames are usually formed by inserting the diminutive infix -inh or -it before the final vowel in the name. For example, Teresa becomes Teresinha (meaning "little Teresa"), and Carlos becomes Carlinhos ("little Carlos"). In some cases, a nickname is formed by adding zinho(a) or -zito(a) – to the actual name. For example, João becomes Joãozinho ("little João") or Sofia becomes Sofiazinha ("little Sofia").
Augmentative suffixes may be used as well, with "Marcos" becoming "Marcão" ("Big Mark"), for example.
Other practices include the repetition of a syllable (Nonô from Leonor, Zezé from José), a simple shortening of the name (Fred from Frederico, Bea or Bia from Beatriz), the contraction of the name (Manel, Mané or Nelo from Manuel), or of a fraction of it (Beto from Alberto or Roberto, Mila from Emília or Camila). A mix of shortening and adding a suffix may also occur (Leco from Leonardo). Sometimes, a foreign-language nickname is used for the corresponding Portuguese name ("Rick" for Ricardo, "Maggie" from Margarida). Most personal names have one or more standard diminutives.
Some typical Portuguese hypocoristics (the ones marked with * are almost exclusively Brazilian):
Adriana= Drica, Adri, Didi, Didica (also applicable to the male equivalent)
Afonso = Afonsinho
Alexandra = Alê*, Xana (not in Brazil, where the word is a slang term for vagina), Alex, Xanda
Alexandre = Alex, Xande, Xando, Xano, Xandinho
Alice = Alicinha, Licinha, Cinha, Lice, Lili
Alzira = Alzi
Amélia = Amelinha, Melita, Mel
Amália = Mália
Amâncio/Amância = Mâncio
Ana = Aninha, Aninhas, Anita, Anoca(s), Nita, Ninha, Nana
Anabela = Bela; Belinha; Belita
Anália = Analinha; Nália
Antônio/António = Tó, Tonho*, Tonhão*, Toni/Tonnie, Tóne, Toninho, Tonico
Augusto/Augusta = Guga, Guto/Guta, Tuto*, Gus* (for males)
Aurélio/Aurélia = Relio/Relia
Bárbara = Bá, Babá, Babi, Barbie
Beatriz = Bia/Bea, Bibi
Bernardo = Nanu; Benas; Bernas; Berna; Ben
Bruna/Bruno = Bru
Camila = Camilinha, Camilita, Mila, Miloca, Mi, Mia, Ca, Caca
Carla = Ca, Caca, Carlinha, Carlita, Carlota
Carlos = Carlinhos, Carlitos, Carlito, Cacá, Calu, Litos
Carlota = Lota
Carolina = Lininha, Lina, Carol, Cacá, Carô*
Cecília = Cilinha, Cila, Cissa, Ceci
Cláudia/Cláudio = Cau, Cacau (generally used to refer to female children), Dinha/Dinho, Claudinha/Claudinho
Cristina/e ou Cristiana/e = Cris, Cristininha, Tina, Tininha
Daiana/e = Dada, Dandinha, Dai*, Nana*
Daniel = Dani, Dan*, Dandan*
Daniela = Dani, Dandan*, Danizinha, Dandinha
Diana = Didi
Diogo = Dioguinho, Dioguito, Di, Didi, Diguinho, Digo, Diga
Eduardo = Edu, Dudu, Dado, Du
Eduarda = Duda, Dada, Du
Elisabete = Bete, Beta, Lisa, Bé, Beti, Betinha
Elvira = Elvirinha, Vira
Emília/Emílio = Emilinha/Emilinho, Mila/Milinha, Milho* (lit. "maize"), Miloca*, Mia*
Eugénia/Eugénio = Geninha/Geninho
Eugênia/Eugênio = Geninha/Geninho
Eurico = Dico
Fábio/Fabiano/a = Fabico, Biano*, Bibi*, Fabi, Bi*, Fá*
Fernando = Fefa, Fernandinho, Nando, Fê*
Fernanda = Fefa, Nanda, Nandinha, Nandita, Fê*
Filipa/Felipa = Filipinha, Lipa, Pipa, Fifi
Filipe/Felipe = Felipinho, Lipe, Pipo, Fili, Phil*
Filomena = Mena, Lumena, Filó
Francisca = Francisquinha, Chica, Chiquinha, Quica/Kika
Francisco = Francisquinho, Chico, Chiquinho, Chiquito, Quico/Kiko, Cisco
Frederico = Fred, Fredy/Freddie, Dico, Drico, Fré, Fu
Gabriel = Gabi (not in Brazil, where it is a feminine nickname), Bibo (not in Brazil, where the word is a slang term for homosexual male), Biel
Gabriela = Gabi, Gabinha, Bia*, Biela*, Bibi*
Gonçalo (a name contemporarily not common to Brazilians) = Gonçalinho, Gonça, Gonças, Gongas, Gonzo (from English influence), Gugu, Guga, Gu
Guilherme = Gui, Guigui, Guile*, Will*, Willy/Willie*, Guiga, Guibinha
Gustavo = Guto, Guga, Gugu, "Gus"
Helena/Heleno (also Elena/Eleno) = Lena/Leno, Leninha/Leninho, Leni/Lennie, Lelê (for females)
Henrique = Rique/Rick*, Riquinho*, Ique, Quique, Quico
Inês = Inesinha, Nê, Nenê/Nené, Nês, Nenoca, Inoca, Inocas, Inuecas, Nessa,
Isabel/Isabela = Bela, Isabelinha, Isabelita, Belinha, Belita, Isa, Béia, Bebel*, Bebela, Beca, Bel
Jaime = Jaiminho, Jaimito, Minho
Joana = Joaninha, Ju, Juju, Jana, Janocas, Jô*, Juca
João = Johnny, Joãozinho, Janjão, Jão, Juca, Joca, Janocas, Bão, Janeca, Jone, Jonh, Jójo
Joaquim = Quim, Joca, Jaquim, Quinzinho, Quincas
Jorge = Jorginho, Jó, Joca, Djódi*
José = Zé, Zezé, Zeca, Zezinho, Jô, Joe
Júlia = Ju, Julinha, Juju
Juliana = Ju, Juju, Juli
Laura/Lauro = Laurinha/Laurinho, Lala (for females), Lalá
Leonardo = Léo, Leozinho, Leco*
Leonor = Nonô, Nô, Léo
Letícia = Lê, Leti, Ticia
Lídia = Lídi, Li, Dida
Lígia = Lili, Lica
Liliana = Lili, Lilas, Liana*, Lana*
Lorena = Lora, Ló, Loló
Lúcia = Lucinha, Luci, Lu
Luís/Luísa = Lu, Luisinho/Luisinha, Luisito/Luisita, Lula*, Lulu; many combinations with Lu and hypocoristics of other names are possibly because Luís is a common first name in Lusophone countries
Lurdes/Lourdes = Lu, Lou, Ludi*
Madalena/Magdalena = Lena, Madá, Mady/Madie/Maddie
Magda = Magdinha, Maguinha
Manuel = Manelinho, Manelocas, Manel, Mané, Maneco, Neco*, Manu (not in Brazil, where it is a feminine nickname), Nelo, Nelito, Nelinho
Manuela = Manela, Manu, Nela, Nelita, Manocas,
Marcelo = Celo, Shelo/Chelo, Tchelo, Celim
Marcos/Marco = Marcão, Marquinhos, Marquito, Caco*
Margarida = Margaridinha, Guida, Guidinha, Maggie
Maria = Bia, Mariazinha, Maricota, Cota, Cotinha, Micas, Mia, Mimi, Mary
Mária/Mário = Marinho/Marinha, Maruca, Má*
Mariana = Marianinha, Marianita, Nita, Mari, Má*
Marlene = Leni, Mary
Marnia = Marni, Marnie
Marta = Martinha, Tata*, Má*
Micael = Micas/Mikas, Mica/Mika
Miguel = Miguelinho, Miguelito, Micas, Mike, Mígui
Nélson = Nelo, Nelinho, Nelito
Nicola/Nicolau/Nicholas = Nico/Niko/Nica, Niquito/Niquita, Lalá (for both genders), Lalau (not in Brazil, where the word is a slang term for thief)
Nuno = Nuninho, Nunito
Octávio/Otávio = Távio, Tavinho
Osvaldo = Vado, Vadinho, Valdinho, Vavá, Ósvi, Valdo
Patrícia = Pati/Paty/Páti/Patie, Pátri, Pat, Ticha/Tixa, Tiça
Paula/Paulo = Paulinho/Paulinha, Pauleta
Pedro = Pedrinho, Pedrito, Pepê, Pedrocas, Peu (particularly in Bahia)
Rafael = Rafa, Rafe, Fael
Rafaela = Rafa, Rafinha
Renata/Renato = Rê*, Renatinha/Renatinho, Nata/Nato*
Ricardo = Cado, Cadinho, Ricardinho, Rico, Rick
Rita = Ritinha, Ri
Roberto = Betinho, Berto, Beto, Tinho*
Rodolfo = Rô*, Rodas
Rodrigo = Digo, Diguinho, Rúdri, Rody, Rud/Rudy
Rosa = Ró, Rosinha, Rose*
Rui = Ruca, Ruizinho
Salvador = Sássá, Salva, Salvas, Sal
Sara = Sarinha, Sarocas
Sebastião = Sebastiãozinho, Bastião, Tião, Tão, Babá*, Sebas, Sebasti
Sofia = Pipia, Sofi, Fi*, Sô*
Susana = Susaninha, Su, Suse, Susy/Suzy
Teresa = Teresinha, Té, Teté/Tetê
Tiago = Tiaguinho, Ti, Guinho*
Tomé = Tomézinho
Vera = Verinha, Veroca, Verusca, Verita
Victor/Vítor = Tó, Vitinho, Vic
Victória/Vitória = Vivi, Vicky
Y/Iolanda = Yoyô, Ioiô, Landa
Other hypocoristics are associated with common two name combinations:
Cadu (Carlos Eduardo)
Caíque (Carlos Henrique)
Cajó (Carlos Jorge)
Gal (Maria da Graça)
Joca/Juca (João Carlos)
Jomi (João Miguel)
Malu/Milú (Maria Luísa, Maria de Lurdes, Maria Lúcia)
Maricota (Maria da Conceição)
Mazé, Mizé (Maria José)
Maju (Maria Júlia)
Miju (Maria de Jesus)
Mitó (Maria Antónia)
Tó-Jó (António Jorge)
Tó-Pê (António Pedro)
Tozé (António José)
Zeca (José Carlos)
Zeza (Maria José)
Zezé (Maria José)
A hypocoristics can receive the suffix -inho/-inha (meaning "little") giving a more intense feeling of protection or intimacy, such as Chiquinho (from Chico, the hypocoristics for Francisco), Xandinho (from Xando, for Alexandre), Zequinha (form Zeca, for José).
Brazilian-specific patterns
Children of immigrants
In Brazil, recent immigrants – especially Italians, Germans, Jews and Japanese – usually give their sons only the father's family surname. Although there is no legal restriction on this practice, assimilation usually leads to a shift toward a Portuguese pattern in succeeding generations.
Today one can find people who use two Italian surnames (like "Gardi Bianchini") or two Japanese surnames (like "Sugahara Uemura"), a practice that is unusual in Italy and nonexistent in Japan. Having two surnames from different non-Portuguese origin is also not uncommon, such as the Brazilian celebrity Sabrina Sato Rahal, of Japanese and Swiss-Lebanese descent. Particularly common are German-Italian combinations (Becker Bianchini, for instance), especially in Rio Grande do Sul.
The Spanish pattern is in many ways similar, but the father's surname usually precedes the mother's, unlike Portuguese usage. Almost all of the first Spanish-Brazilian born generation were named in order of the family surnames of the Portuguese pattern.
São Paulo State area
A specific pattern developed among the descendants of 20th-century immigrants: they use only their father's surname and two personal names, the first is a Portuguese personal name and the second one is a personal name from their father's original country.
This pattern is most used among Japanese and Syrian-Lebanese immigrants sons and grandsons. So one can find names like "Paulo Salim Maluf" where Paulo is a Portuguese personal name, Salim is an Arabic personal name, and Maluf is his father's surname; or "Maria Heiko Sugahara" where Maria is a Portuguese personal name, Heiko a Japanese personal name and Sugahara is her father's surname. This practice allows the person to be recognized as "Paulo Maluf" or "Maria Sugahara" in the large Brazilian society, and as "Salim Maluf" or "Heiko Sugahara" in their immigrant social community.
This pattern used to be quite common in São Paulo. Intermarriage has reduced this practice, but it is still commonly used when both parents belong to the same ethnic group. Younger generations tend to use both the father's and the mother's family name, thus giving four names to their children (like "Paulo Salim Lutfalla Maluf" or "Maria Heiko Sugahara Uemura").
Origin of Portuguese surnames
Before Romans entered the territory of present-day Portugal, the native people identified themselves by a single name, or that name followed by a patronym. The names could be Celtic (Mantaus), Lusitanian (Casae), Iberian (Sunua) or Conii (Alainus). The names were clearly ethnic and some typical of a tribe or region. A slow adoption of the Roman onomastic occurred after the end of the first century AD, with the adoption of a Roman name or of the tria nomina: praenomen (given name), nomen (gentile) and cognomen.
Most Portuguese surnames have a patronymical, locative or religious origin.
Surnames originating from patronymics
Patronymics are names derived from the father's personal name that, many centuries ago, began to be used as surnames. They are a common form of surnames in the lands where Portuguese is spoken and also have developed in many other languages.
In Portuguese, patronymics are surnames such as Henriques, Pires, Rodrigues, Lopes, Nunes, Mendes, Fernandes, Gonçalves, Esteves and Álvares, where the ending -es means (son of).
Some surnames that originated in this way do not end in es; instead they end in iz, like Muniz (son of Monio) and Ruiz (son of Ruy), or ins, like Martins (son of Martim).
Although most Portuguese surnames ending in -es are former patronymics, some family names with -es- endings are not patronymics, but toponymics, such as Tavares, Cortês and Chaves.
Some surnames are equal to personal names, such as Joana Fernando, or André João, in which "Fernando" and "João" are surnames. It is rather improbable that those are patronymics; more likely they originated with people with no surnames, who were given two names for the sake of enhanced individuality. One can find today in Portugal and Brazil people who still use surnames that for other people are just personal names, although they were passed from parents to sons for generations, such as Valentim, Alexandre, Fernando, Afonso (note the family name de Melo Afonso) and Antonio (note de Melo Antonio). Names like Dinis, Duarte, Garcia and Godinho were originally personal names, but today they are used in Brazil almost exclusively as surnames, although Duarte and Dinis are still common personal names in Portugal.
Matronymics (surnames derived from female personal names) are not used in Portuguese. Surnames such as "Catarino" (from Catarina) and "Mariano" (meaning related to Maria) are rather references to Catholic saints (probably originating with the practice of giving a child the name of the saint of the day in which he or she was born).
Some former patronymics are not easily recognized, for two main reasons. Sometimes the personal name that was the basis of the patronymic became archaic, such as Lopo (the basis of Lopes), Mendo or Mem (Mendes), Soeiro (Soares), Munio (Muniz), Sancho (Sanches). Also, often the personal names or the related patronymic changed through centuries, although always some resemblance can still be noted – such as Antunes (son of Antão or Antonio), Peres (son of Pero, archaic form of Pedro), Alves (from Álvares, son of Álvaro), and Eanes (from mediaeval Iohannes, son of João).
Locative surnames
A large number of surnames are locative, related to the geographical origin of a person, such as the name of a village, town, city, land, river. Such surnames like Almeida, Andrada or Andrade, Barcelos, Barros, Bastos, Braga, Beira (edge), Castelo Branco, Cintra (from Sintra), Coimbra, Faria, Gouveia, Guimarães, Lima (the name of a river, not meaning lime), Lisboa (Lisbon), Maia, Mascarenhas (a civil parish of Mirandela, Portugal), Pacheco (from village of Pacheca), Porto (Oporto), Portugal, Serpa, Leão (from León).
Some names specify a location of the family's house within the village: Fonte (by the fountain), Fontoira/Fontoura (golden fountain), Azenha (by the water-mill), Eira (by the threshing-floor), Tanque (by the community cistern), Fundo (on the lower part of the village), Cimo/Cima (on the upper part of the village), Cabo (on the far end of the village), Cabral (near the field where the goats graze). In some cases, the family name may not be a locative, but an indication of ownership.
Surnames were also derived from geological or geographical forms, such as Pedroso (stony or full of pebbles land), Rocha (rock), Souza/Sousa (from Latin saxa, a place with seixos, or pebbles), Vale (valley, dale), Bierzo (mountain), Ribeiro/Rivero (little river, creek, brook), Siqueira/Sequeira (a non-irrigated land), Castro (ruins of ancient buildings, equivalent to English Chester), Dantas (from d'Antas, a place with antas, i.e. prehistoric stone monuments or dolmens), Costa (coast), Pedreira (quarry), Barreira (clay quarry), Couto (fenced site), Outeiro (hill or hillock),Vilar/Villar (from Latin "villagio", a village), Seixas (pebbles), Veiga/Vega (banks of a river), Córdoba/Córdova (hill near the river), Padrão (rock or stone), Celanova (barn or reservoir).
Names of trees or plantations are also locative surnames, originally related to identifying a person who lived near or inside a plantation, an orchard or a place with a characteristic kind of vegetation. Names such as Silva and Matos (woods, forest), Campos (meadows), Teixeira (a place covered with yew trees), Queirós (a kind of grass), Cardoso (a place covered with cardos, i.e. with cardoons or thistles), Correia (a place covered with corriolas or correas, a kind of plant), Macedo (an apple tree garden), Azevedo (a forest of azevinho, a holly wood), Amaral (a plantation of amara, a bitter grape used to make wine), and Arruda (a place with large amounts of Rue, an ornamental plant and herb), fit this pattern.
Tree names are very common locative surnames – Oliveira/Olivera (olive tree), Carvalho (oak tree), Servia (from serba, i.e. a sort of sorbus or serbal tree), Pinheiro (pine tree), Pereira/Pereyra (pear tree), Pêro/Pero (wild apple tree), Pereiro/Do Pereyro (apple tree), Aciveiro (holly tree), Moreira (mulberry tree), Macedo/Macieira (apple tree), Filgueira/Figueira (fern tree or cyatheales), Loureiro/Laureiro (laurel tree), Parreira (grape tree). There is the case of Pereira/Pereyra which is not only a tree. In the old documentations of the Portuguese language also appears as a variant of Pedreira or Pedreiro and this means "stone quarry".
Religious surnames
Surnames with religious meanings or connotations are common. It is possible that some of these originated from an ancestor who converted to Catholicism and intended or needed to demonstrate his new faith. Another possible source of religious names were orphans who were abandoned in the churches and raised in Catholic orphanages by priests and nuns. They were usually baptized with a name related to the date near when they were found or baptized. Another possible source is when religious personal names (expressing a special devotion by the parents or the god-parents, or the child's birth date) were adopted as family names.
Religious names includes de Jesus (of Jesus), dos Reis (of the kings, from the day of the Epiphany of the Lord, the Day of the Wise Kings), Ramos (branches, from Palm Sunday, the Sunday before Easter), Pascoal (of Easter), da Assunção (of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary), do Nascimento (of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary or the Nativity of Jesus – Christmas), da Visitação (of the Visitation of the Virgin Mary), da Anunciação (of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary), da Conceição (of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary), Trindade (from Trinity Sunday), do Espírito Santo (of the Holy Ghost, from the Feast of the Holy Ghost), das Chagas (of wounds, from the Feast of the Five Wounds of Christ), Graça (grace, from Our Lady of Grace), Patrocínio (patronage, from Our Lady of Patronage), Paz (peace, from Our Lady Mediatrix of Peace), Luz (light, from Our Lady of the Divine Light), Neves (snows, from Our Lady of the Snows), Penha (cliff, bluff, from Our Lady of the Bluff of France, that in Spanish is called Nuestra Señora de Peñafrancia), das Dores (of sorrows, from Our Lady of Sorrows), Bonfim (good end, from Our Lord of Good Death), das Virgens (of the virgins martyrs), dos Anjos (of angels, from the Archangels Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel day), São João (Saint John), Santana (Saint Ann), Santos (from 'Todos os Santos', i.e. from All Hallows or All Saints day; Santos comes from the Latin sanctus, which also originated other variants, such as Sanctius, Santious, Sancti, Santis, Santi, Sante or Santé, Santiz, Santiso or Santizo and Santotis) and Cruz (Cross, the most common surname among the Belmonte Jews).
An orphan with unknown parents or a converted (Jew, African slave, or Native Brazilian) person was frequently baptized with the name of a saint, such as João Baptista (from Saint John the Baptist), João Evangelista (from Saint John the Evangelist), João de Deus (from Saint John of God), António de Pádua (from Saint Anthony of Padova), João Nepomuceno (from Saint John of Nepomuk), Francisco de Assis (from Saint Francis of Assisi), Francisco de Paula (from Saint Francis of Paola), Francisco de Salles (from Saint Francis de Salles), Inácio de Loiola (from Saint Ignatius of Loyola), Tomás Aquino (from Saint Thomas Aquinas), José de Calazans (from Saint Joseph of Calasanz), or José de Cupertino (from Saint Joseph of Cupertino). After that, they usually passed only the second personal name (Batista, Evangelista, de Deus, Pádua, Nepomuceno, Assis, de Paula, Sales, Loiola, Aquino, Calazans or Cupertino) to their sons as a surname.
A surname such as Xavier could have originated from someone baptized after Saint Francis Xavier or from the old Portuguese family Xavier.
Descriptive surnames
Some surnames are possible descriptions of a peculiar characteristic of an ancestor, originating from nicknames.
These include names like Veloso (wooly or hairy), Vergueiro (one that bends), Medrado (grown-up), Porciúncula (small part, small piece), Magro (thin), Magriço (skinny), Gago (stutterer, stammerer), Galhardo (gallant, chivalrous), Terrível (terrible), Penteado (hairdressing, the nickname of a branch of the German Werneck family whose members used to wear wigs), Romeiro (a pilgrim) Verdugo/Berdugo ("Tree branch" or 'Executioner").
Profession and occupation surnames
Portuguese surnames that originated from professions or occupations are few, such as Serrador (sawman), Monteiro (hunter of the hills or woods guard), Guerreiro (warrior), Caldeira (cauldron, i.e. cauldron maker), Cubas (wooden barrels, i.e., barrel maker or cooper), Carneiro (sheep, for a shepherd), Peixe (fish, for a fisherman or a fishmonger).
Foreign-origin surnames
Some Portuguese names originated from foreigners who came to live in Portugal or Brazil many centuries ago. They are so ancient that, despite their known foreign origin, they are an integrated part of Portuguese and Brazilian cultures.
Most of these names are Spanish, such as Toledo (a city in Spain), Ávila or Dávila (a city in Spain) and Padilha. Other common "foreign" surnames are Bettencourt or Bittencourt (from Béthencourt, French), Goulart, Goulard or Gullar (French, original meaning is glutton), Fontenele or Fontenelle (French, from fountain), Rubim (from Robin, French), Alencastro, Lencastre (from Lancaster, English), Drummond (Scottish), Werneck, Vernek or Berneque (southern German, the name of the Bavarian city Werneck), Wanderley (from van der Ley, Flemish), Dutra (from De Ultra, a Latin name meaning "from beyond" assumed by the Flemish family Van Hurtere), Brum (from Bruyn, Flemish), Bulcão (from Bulcamp, Flemish), Dulmo (from van Olm, Flemish), Acioli (Italian), Doria (Italian), Cavalcanti (Italian), Netto or Neto (Italian, not to be confused with the name suffix "Neto" ("grandson") that is used in Portuguese to distinguish a grandson and grandfather who bear the same names).
The question of Portuguese Jewish surnames
It is a popular belief that the Jews living in Portugal up to 1497, when they were forced to choose between conversion or expulsion, substituted their surnames with the names of trees that do not bear edible fruits, such as Carvalho (oak tree) and Junqueira (reed, bulrush, junk). Others say that they usually chose animal Leão (Lion); plant/vegetable Pimentel (pepper); fruit such as Figo (fig) and Moreira (berry); and tree names such as Pereira (pear tree) or Oliveira (olive tree), in this case trees that bear edible fruits. However, even these names were already used by Christians during the Middle Ages; these surnames were mostly used by the converted Jews (conversos, new Christians) during the time the Inquisition existed.
Another family name usually pointed out as denoting Jewish ancestry is Espírito Santo (Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost) and Verdugo/Berdugo (Branch of a Tree / Executioner). The rationale is that Jews would adopt as a family name an (apparently) Christian concept as a deception. In fact, they were choosing the most incorporeal Trinity person, that is, the one that offended least their (secret) Jewish faith. This theory is not totally unfounded, as there is evidence that the cult around the Holy Spirit flourished after 1496, especially among New Christians. This does not rule out that "Espírito Santo" was also adopted by faithful Christians, following the rationale of other religious surnames.
The Portuguese Jews living in Portugal up to 1497 bore personal names that could distinguish them from the Christian population. Most of these names are Portuguese versions of older Semitic (Arabian, Hebrew, Aramaic) names like Abenazo, Abencobra, Aboab, Abravanel, Albarrux, Azenha, Benafull, Benafaçom, Benazo, Caçez, Cachado, Çaçom/Saçom, Carraf, Carilho, Cide/Cid, Çoleima, Faquim, Faracho, Faravom, Fayham/Fayam, Focem, Çacam/Sacam, Famiz, Gadim, Gedelha, Labymda, Latam/Latão, Loquem, Lozora, Maalom, Maçon, Maconde, Mocatel, Mollaão, Montam, Motaal, Rondim, Rosall, Samaia/Çamaya, Sanamel, Saraya, Tarraz, Tavy/Tovy, Toby, Varmar, Verdugo/Berdugo, Zaaboca, Zabocas, Zaquim, Zaquem. Some were locative names, not necessarily specific to Jewish populations, like Catelaão/Catalão (Catalan), Castelão/Castelhão (Castilian), Crescente (crescent, from Turkey), Medina (Medinah), Romano (Roman), Romão, Romeiro, Tolledam/Toledano (from Toledo), Vallency (Valencia) and Vascos (Basque); some were patronymics from Biblical names like Abraão (Abraham), Lázaro (Lazar), Barnabé, Benjamim, Gabril (Gabriel), Muça (Moses) and Natam (Nathan); some are profession names such as Caldeirão (cauldron), Martelo (hammer), Pexeiro (fishmonger), Chaveirol (locksmith) and Prateiro (silversmith); some are nicknames such as Calvo (bald), Dourado (golden, like the German Goldfarb), Ruivo (red-headed), Crespo (curly), Querido (beloved) and Parente (family relative). A few names are not distinct from old Portuguese surnames like Camarinha, Castro, Crespim.
Some scholars proved that the converted Portuguese Jews usually chose a patronymic as their new surname and, when the conversion was not forced, they would choose to bear the surname of their godfather.
The Jewish-Portuguese community that flourished in the Netherlands and Hamburg, Germany, after their expulsion from Portugal used surnames such as Camargo, Costa, Fonseca, Pimentel, Dias, Pinto, and Silveira.
Some of the most famous descendants of Portuguese Jews who lived outside Portugal are the philosopher Baruch Spinoza (in Portugal Bento de Espinosa), the British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and the classical economist David Ricardo. Other famous members of the Portuguese Synagogue of Amsterdam bore names such as Uriel da Costa (or Uriel Acosta), Abraham Pimentel - Rabbi of the Portuguese synagogue of Amsterdam, Isaac Aboab da Fonseca, Isaac de Pinto and Menasseh ben Israel (whose original surname was Soeiro).
The Belmonte Jews (crypto-Jews from the Belmonte region in Portugal) also bear surnames that cannot be used to distinguish them from the older Catholic Portuguese families. Using tree names as surnames was not a common practice among converted or non-converted Portuguese Jews, before or after their expulsion in 1497.
Frequency
Most common surnames in Portugal and Brazil
These are some most frequent surnames in Portugal:
According to a large scale study of names extracted from various social networking websites, the most common surnames in Brazil are:
Most common names in Portugal and Brazil
According to the newspaper Público, the most common personal names in Portugal, for 105,000 children born in 2008 were:
According to the IBGE the most common personal names in Brazil in 2010 were:
According to the Certidão de Nascimento Website, the top 10 most common personal names in Brazil in 2014 were:
Brazilian names
Brazilian surnames
Giving Portuguese surnames to Afro-Brazilians and native Brazilians
Until abolition of slavery, slaves did not have surnames, only personal names. They were even forbidden to use their distinct African or Native Brazilian names and were christened with a Portuguese personal name. While slavery persisted, slaves needed to have distinct names only within the plantation (fazenda or engenho) to which they belonged.
It was a common practice to name free slaves after their former owners, so all their descendants have the Portuguese surnames of their former owner.
Indigenous people who were not slaves also chose to use their godparents' surnames as their own.
Religious names are also more common among people with African or native Brazilian ancestors than among people with only European ancestors. A slave who had just a personal name like Francisco de Assis (from Saint Francis of Assisi) could use the partial name de Assis as a surname, since the connective – de – gives the appearance of surname.
The practice of naming Afro-Brazilians with religious surnames was proved even by some indirect approaches. Medical researchers demonstrated that there is a statistical correlation between a religious name and genetic diseases related to African ancestry such as the sickle-cell disease. Due to miscegenation, the correlation exists even among white people that have religious surnames.
It was also common to name indigenous people and freed slaves with surnames which were already very common such as Silva or Costa. That is why Silva is the most common surname in Brazil.
Surnames originated from Native Brazilian words
In the years following Brazil's independence, some old Brazilians families changed their surnames to surnames derived from Tupian languages as a patriotic way to emphasize the new Fatherland. Some of these names are still spelled with Portuguese old orthography, but some are spelled according to the new rules. These names, following the old orthography, include:
Native Brazilian nations or tribes: Tupinambá, Tabajara, Carijó, Goytacaz, Guarany, Tamoyo (the name of a confederation of many tribes that fought the first Portuguese settlers);
Brazilian trees: Jatobá, Mangabeira (mangaba tree), Pitangui (pitanga tree), Sarahyba, Palmeira (palm tree), Goiabeira (guava tree);
Typical Brazilian fruits: Pitanga, Muricy, Guaraná (a Brazilian family with Dutch ancestors changed their surname from Van Ness to Guaraná);
Famous Native Brazilian chiefs: Cayubi, Tibiriçá, Paraguaçu (big river, sea, in Tupian language), Piragibe (fish's arm, in Tupian language).
Due to emigration, nowadays one can find these surnames even in Portugal.
Brazilian locative surnames
Some Brazilian surnames, like some old Portuguese surnames, are locative surnames that denote the original place where the ancestor who first used it was born or lived. Like surnames that originated from words, this practice started during the patriotic years that followed Brazil's Independence.
These are surnames like Brasil (Brazil), Brasiliense (Brazilian), Brasileiro (also Brazilian), América, Americano (American), Bahiense (from Bahia city, today called Salvador), Cearense (from Ceará State) and Maranhão (from Maranhão State)
Some of these are toponyms derived from Tupian languages such as:
Brazilian rivers: Capibaribe (Capibaras' river in Tupian language), Parahyba (from Paraíba do Sul river, not related to the northern Paraíba river, Paraíba State, or Paraíba city, today called João Pessoa);
Brazilian places: Pirassununga (snoring fish, in Tupian language), Piratininga (dried fish, in Tupian language), Carioca (from Rio de Janeiro city, originally meant white man house in Tupian language).
Due to immigration, nowadays one can find these surnames even in Portugal.
Some locative surnames derived indirectly as the result of its incorporation by the family after the Imperial nobility title of an ancestor. During the times of Emperor Pedro II, non-hereditary nobilities titles would be granted to notable persons, generally statesmen. The title (but no lordship) would be granted and named after a location, as in Europe, generally owned by the notable. At their death, the family in order to maintain the reference to the title would adopt them, to the point that many Brazilians still believe these are hereditary.
Thus surnames like:
Rio Branco (from Barão de Rio Branco, i.e., José Maria da Silva Paranhos), Jaguaribe (from Barão de Jaguaribe), Ouro Preto (from Visconde de Ouro Preto), Paranaguá (from the various Marqueses de Paranaguá as the title would be granted to more than one notable), Araripe (Barão de Araripe), Suassuna (Barão de Suassuna), etc...
Non-Portuguese surnames in Brazil
Despite the lesser variation in Portuguese surnames, immigration from other countries (mainly from Italy, Spain, Germany, France, Netherlands, Poland, Ukraine, Russia, the United Kingdom, Syria, Lebanon, Japan, United States and more recently China, Korea, Africa, Hispanic America and Haiti) increased the diversity of surnames in Brazil.
Some foreign surnames were misspelled after many generations and today cannot be recognized in their original country (the French-Swiss family name Magnan changed to Manhães after some decades). Some misspelled foreign surnames are hardly recognized by speakers of the original language such as Collor (from German Köhler), Chamareli (from Italian Sciammarelli) and Branquini (from Italian Bianchini). Sometimes, different rules of romanization were applied to Japanese and Arabic names (like Nacamura and Nakamura, Yamaguchi and Iamaguti, Sabag and Sappak, Bukhalil and Bucalil).
Thus there are extensively adapted or misspelled foreign surnames used by Brazilian descendants of non-Portuguese immigrants. Due to emigration, nowadays one can find these misspelled surnames even in their original country.
Immigrants' surnames
Although not so widely used as in the United States, immigrants used to change their surname to show assimilation or to avoid social discrimination in Brazil.
This practice was most used during World War II by Italian immigrants because Italy was an enemy country for a few years. As Italians are Catholics and were easily assimilated in the larger Brazilian society, the practice was not perceived and almost forgotten after a single generation.
The new Portuguese surname was generally chosen based on the original meaning of the foreign surname (Olivetto, Olivetti or Oliva sometimes changed to Oliveira). Sometimes the new surname had only a phonetic resemblance with the foreign one (the Italian surnames Livieiro and Salviani sometimes were changed to Oliveira and Silva.
Respectful treatment using hypocoristics
In Brazil, until the first half of the 20th century, very important people could be called in a very respectful – but not formal – way using a social or military title and a childish hypocoristics of their personal name, such as "Coronel Tonico" (Colonel Tony), "Comendador Paulinho" (Commander Little Paul), "Dona Chica" (Lady Little Frances"), Sinhá Mariquinha (Mrs. Little Mary, sinhá is a popular pronunciation of senhora, i.e. Mrs.). Although an American president could be called Bill (Clinton) or Jimmy (Carter) by the press, this practice was used in Brazil as a much more respectful treatment and never in a formal way.
Some sociologists have suggested that members of the Brazilian upper classes were often raised by slave women who called them using a hypocoristics, and that childish name continued to be used, but in a respectful way, when they grew up.
Today, this practice is not so widespread, but one can find people informally, but respectfully, called "Seu Zé" (Mr Joe, Seu is a short Mister) or "Dona Ritinha" (Lady Little Rita).
Adding personal names to surnames
In Brazil, descendants of famous people sometimes use a surname composed of both the personal name and the surname of their ancestor, like Ruy Barbosa, Vital Brasil, Miguel Pereira and Lafayette Rodrigues families. Such practice allows them to be easily recognised by other people as descendants of their famous ancestor. Such a pattern is rare.
Personal names
Personal names of foreign origin
In Portugal, newborn children can only be named from a list of personal names permitted by Civil Law. Names are required to be spelt according to the rules of Portuguese orthography and to be a part of Portuguese-language onomastic (traditionally names in Portugal were based on the calendar of saints). Thus in Portugal the personal names show little variation, as traditional names are favoured over modern ones. Examples of popular Portuguese names are António, João, José, Francisco, Pedro or Manuel (for men) and Maria, Ana, Isabel, Teresa or Joana (for women). In recent decades there has been a popularity rise for ancient historical names such as Gonçalo, Bernardo, Vasco, Afonso, Leonor, Catarina or Beatriz. If one of the parents is not Portuguese or has double citizenship, foreign names are allowed, as long as the parents present a document proving the requested name is allowed in their country of origin. In the past, immigrant children who were born abroad were required to adopt a Portuguese name in order to become Portuguese citizens – an example is tennis player Michelle de Brito, whose legal name is Micaela. This practice no longer applies.
In Brazil, there is no legal restriction on naming a newborn child, unless the personal name has a meaning that can humiliate or embarrass those who bear it.
Brazilians living far from the big cities or lower-class people are prone to create new personal names, joining the names of the parents or classical names, changing the spelling of foreign names or even using foreign suffixes that – they may believe – give a sophisticated or modern sound to the new name (e.g. Maurren – from Maureen -, Deivid – from David, Robisson).
Foreign surnames are also widely used as personal names such as Wagner, Mozart, Donizetti, Lamartine, Danton, Anderson, Emerson, Edison, Franklin, Nelson, Wilson, Washington, Jefferson, Jensen, Kennedy, Lenin, Newton, Nobel, Rosenberg, Alextricia (combination of Alexander and Patricia) and Ocirema (Americo in reverse). Originally these names showed the political, artistic or scientific admiration of the parents who first used them to name their sons. (See also Spelling section of this article).
Personal names originating from Native Brazilian names
During the reign of the second Emperor, Dom Pedro II, the Native Brazilian was used as the symbol of the Empire. At this time, Brazilian people started to use Native Brazilian names as personal names. Some are among the most popular until nowadays.
These are names like Araci, Caubi, Guaraci, Iara, Iberê, Ioná, Jaci, Janaína, Jandira, Juçara, Juraci, Jurema, Maiara, Moacir, Moema, Ubiratã, Ceci, Iracema, Peri and Ubirajara (the last four taken from José de Alencar's works).
Recently, Brazilians have started to use other personal names of Native Brazilian origin like Rudá (love, after Rudá, god of love in Tupi-Guarani mythology), Cauã and Cauê (hawk), although their use connotes the hippie culture.
Indexing
According to the Chicago Manual of Style, Portuguese and Lusophone names are indexed by the final element of the name, and this practice differs from the indexing of Spanish and Hispanophone names. Yet the male lineage (paternal grandfather's) surname is still the one indexed for both Spanish and Portuguese names.
See also
Portuguese alphabet
Nogueira Ferrão
Spanish naming customs
Notes
External links
Direcção Geral de Registos e Notariados – Nomes admitidos – List of first names admitted by law (Portugal)
NampediA Blog – Rhythm of Renewal in Brazilian Names – article about Brazilian names
Portugal and Czech popular surnames
Names by culture
Name, Portuguese |
4060580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korat%20Royal%20Thai%20Air%20Force%20Base | Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base | Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base is a base of the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) in northeast Thailand, approximately 200 km (125 mi) northeast of Bangkok and about 4 km (2.5 mi) south of the centre of the city of Nakhon Ratchasima in the Nakhon Ratchasima Province (also known as "Khorat" or "Korat"), the largest province in Thailand.
During the Vietnam War, from 1962 to 1975, Korat RTAFB was a front-line facility of the United States Air Force (USAF) in Thailand.
During the 1980s and early-1990s, the airfield was jointly operated as a civil airport for Nakhon Ratchasima. This ended with the opening of Nakhon Ratchasima Airport in the early-1990s.
Units
Korat RTAFB is the home of the 1st RTAF Wing, consisting of three (101, 102, 103) squadrons. The airfield has a single 9,800 + foot runway with a single, full-length parallel taxiway.
102 Squadron flies 15 F-16A-15ADF and one F-16B-15ADF Fighting Falcon air defense airplanes acquired from the USAF and delivered to the RTAF in 2003 and 2004. These airplanes were acquired under the code name "Peace Naresuan IV".
103 Squadron flies eight F-16A and four F-16B acquired under the code name "Peace Naresuan I", five F-16A (of six delivered) under the code name "Peace Naresuan XI", and three F-16A and four F-16Bs acquired from the Republic of Singapore Air Force and delivered in late 2004. All F-16s are the block 15 version.
A detachment of 1 UH-1H Iroquois helicopters from 203 Squadron, Wing 2 is also based at Korat.
Cope Tiger
Korat RTAFB is a major facility for the Cope Tiger exercises, an annual, multinational exercise conducted in two phases in the Asia-Pacific region.
Cope Tiger involves air forces from the United States, Thailand, and Singapore, as well as U.S. Marine Corps aircraft deployed from Japan. US naval aircraft have also been involved in Cope Tiger. The flying training portion of the exercise promotes closer relations and enables air force units in the region to sharpen air combat skills and practice interoperability with US forces. Pilots fly both air-to-air and air-to-ground combat training missions.
Participating American aircraft have included the A-10 Thunderbolt II, F-15C/D Eagles, F-15E Strike Eagles, F/A-18A/C Hornets, F/A-18E/F Super Hornets, F-16C/D Fighting Falcons, E-3B/C Sentry Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS) aircraft, KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft, C-130H Hercules airlift aircraft and HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters.
Thai Forces fly F-16A/B Fighting Falcons, F-5E Tigers and ground attack L-39's, and Alpha Jets of 231 Squadron. Singaporean forces fly F-5Es, F-16C/D Fighting Falcons, KC-130B Hercules, E-2C Hawkeye, CH-47SD Chinooks and AS-532UL Cougars.
More than 1,100 people participate, including approximately 500 US service members and 600 service members from Thailand and Singapore.
Over the last few years, Cope Tiger has widened to include CSAR (Combat Search and Rescue) assets and in 2007 for the first time RTAFB Udon Thani was also used as a base during this exercise. These included a C-130E Hercules from 36 Airlift Squadron, 374 Airlift Wing (based at Yokota AB, Japan) in 2006, and a G-222 and a C-130H from the RTAF in 2007.
Since the 1980s United States Marine Corps F/A-18C Hornet fighters have used Korat as a base during Cobra Gold exercises.
History
The origins of Korat Air Base dates back to the Japanese Occupation of Thailand during World War II. The Japanese Army established facilities on the land later used to build Korat Air Base, and a small support airfield was established there for logistics support of the facility and for the Japanese occupation forces in the area. After the end of the war, the facilities were taken over by the Thai government as a military base. Various Japanese facilities were used by the RTAF (including the airfield control tower) until the 1960s.
In 1961, the Kennedy administration feared a communist invasion or insurgency inside Thailand would spread from the Laotian Civil War. Political considerations with regards to the communist threat led the Thai government to allow the United States to covertly use five Thai bases for the air defense of Thailand and to fly reconnaissance flights over Laos under a "gentleman's agreement" with the United States. An advisory force of Army personnel was sent to Thailand and their first reports indicated that significant infrastructure improvement in the country would be needed in order for US forces to land in the Gulf of Siam and move north to the expected invasion areas along the Mekong River between Laos and Thailand.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers were deployed and established a headquarters at the RTAF airfield that later became Korat RTAFB. The first facilities were built on the north side of the runway (). They included a hospital, some barracks and some warehouses for equipment that was flown in using the existing runway. Under the agreement, United States forces using Thai air bases were commanded by Thai officers. Thai air police controlled access to the bases, along with USAF Security Police, who assisted them in base defense using sentry dogs, observation towers, and machine gun bunkers. The Geneva Accords of 1962 ended the immediate threat, but both Camp Friendship and Korat RTAFB were developed as part of the buildup of forces in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War.
The USAF mission at Korat RTAFB began in April 1962, when one officer and 14 airmen were temporarily assigned to the existing base as the joint US Military Advisory Group (JUSMAG). The army was engaged in the construction of Camp Friendship. Once completed, army forces moved into Camp Friendship, turning the facilities north of the Korat RTAFB runway over to the Thai armed forces.
South of the existing runway, construction of a large air base was begun to support a full USAF combat wing. In July 1964, approximately 500 airmen and officers were deployed to begin construction, and the completion of essential base facilities was completed by October 1964, although due to its primitive nature, the air force living area was known for several years as "Camp Nasty" in counterpoint to the Army facility at Camp Friendship. The army retained a portion of the aircraft parking ramp for logistical support of Camp Friendship. The APO for Korat RTAFB was APO San Francisco, 96288
US advisory forces
The first USAF units at Korat were under the command of the US Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Korat was the location for TACAN station Channel 125 and was referenced by that identifier in voice communications during air missions. The mission of the USAF at Korat was to conduct operations in support of US commitments in Southeast Asia: North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. During the Vietnam War, pilots from Korat RTAFB primarily flew interdiction, direct air support, armed reconnaissance, and fighter escort missions.
In mid-June 1964 2 HU-16s of the 33d Air Rescue Squadron were deployed to Korat to act as airborne rescue control ships in support of Yankee Team bombing operations over Laos. They would remain at Korat until June 1965 when they were moved to Udorn RTAFB and then to Da Nang Air Base in South Vietnam and replaced at Korat by HC-54s.
In response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident on 31 July 1964, the 6441st Tactical Fighter Wing at Yokota Air Base, Japan deployed 8 F-105D Thunderchiefs of the 36th Tactical Fighter Squadron to Korat on 9 August and commenced operations the following day. The 36th TFS remained at Korat until 29 October then returned to Japan. It was replaced by the 469th Tactical Fighter Squadron, also flying F-105Ds, which was deployed from the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing. From 30 October through 31 December 1964, F-105s from the 80th Tactical Fighter Squadron were deployed from the 41st Air Division, Yokota AB, Japan.
On 14 August 2 HH-43Bs were deployed to Korat to provide base search and rescue. In mid-1965 this unit was redesignated Detachment 4 38th Air Rescue Squadron.
In December 1964, the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron deployed to Korat from Kadena AB, Okinawa. The 44th would rotate pilots and personnel to Korat on a Temporary duty assignment (TDY) basis from 18 December 1964 – 25 February 1965, 21 April–22 June 1965 and 10–29 October 1965.
The 44th TFS returned to Kadena AB, Okinawa and assignment to the 18th TFW, but on 31 December 1966, it became only a paper organization without aircraft. The high loss rate of the F-105s in the two combat wings at Korat and Takhli RTAFB required the squadron to send its aircraft to Thailand as replacement aircraft. The 44th remained a "paper organization" until 23 April 1967, when it returned to Korat, absorbing the personnel, equipment and resources of the 421st TFS.
6234th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional)
In April 1965, the 6234th Air Base Squadron was organized at Korat as a permanent unit under the 2d Air Division to support the TDY fighter units and their operations. This squadron was in existence until the end of April when it was discontinued and the 6234th Combat Support Group, the 6234th Support Squadron, and the 6234th Material Squadron were designated and organized as a result of a 3 May 1965 Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) special order.
The 6234th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional) was activated in April 1965 as part of the 2d AD with Colonel William D. Ritchie, Jr. as commander. The wing had responsibility for all air force units in Thailand until permanent wings were established at other bases.
Known deployed squadrons to Korat attached to the 6234th TFW were:
67th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) February–December 1965
12th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) February–August 1965
357th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) 12 June-8 November 1965 when it was reassigned to Takhli RTAFB.
469th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) remained on TDY at Korat until 15 November 1965 when it was permanently assigned to the 6234th.
68th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4C Phantom II) 25 July - 6 December 1965. This was part of the first deployment of the Phantom II to Southeast Asia, with two other squadrons (47th and 431st TFS) deploying to Ubon RTAFB. The squadron specialized in NIGHT OWL (night strike and flare) tactics and this was their main mission at Korat.
421st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) 20 November 1965 on.
Wild Weasel Detachment (former 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron) (F-100F Super Sabre) November 1965 – July 1966.
On 3 April 1965 the 67th TFS launched the first unsuccessful US airstrike against the Thanh Hóa Bridge.
In 1965, the 6234th TFW and its subordinate units operating F-100s, F-105s, and F-4Cs flew 10,797 sorties totalling 26,165 hours. The wing's efforts merited the Presidential Unit Citation in March 1968.
388th Tactical Fighter Wing
After a series of TDY deployments of F-105s to Korat, on 14 March 1966 the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing was activated and on 8 April was organised to replace the provisional PACAF 6234th TFW which was inactivated.
By 1967, Korat RTAFB was home to as many as 34 operating units and about 6,500 USAF airmen. Korat also housed components of the RTAF and a detachment of No. 41 Squadron RNZAF New Zealand Bristol Freighters. The annual cost for base operations and maintenance was about US$12,000,000. The monthly average expenditure for munitions was on the order of US$4,360,000.
F-105 Thunderchief operations
The 388th TFW initially consisted of two F-105 Thunderchief squadrons, the 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron and the 469th Tactical Fighter Squadron. On 15 May 1966 the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was permanently attached to the 388th. The 421st and 469th Tactical Fighter Squadrons flew single-seat F-105Ds, while the 44th flew the two-seat F-105F.
Also on 15 May, an F-4C Phantom II squadron, the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron and an F-105F squadron, the 13th Tactical Fighter Squadron were deployed and permanently attached to the 388th from the 347th TFW, Yokota AB, Japan and Kadena AB, Okinawa.
The 388th TFW lost 48 aircraft in combat during 1967. Seven others were lost due to non-combat reasons. Forty-three pilots and electronic warfare officers (EWO) were listed as killed (KIA) or missing in action (MIA). Fifteen were rescued.
In March 1967 F-105s from the 388th TFW carried out the first attacks on North Vietnam's Thái Nguyên ironworks, destroying its power plant on 16 March. On 11 August 1967 388th TFW F-105s participated in the first attack on the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi which successfully destroyed one span of the bridge.
The high attrition rate of F-105Ds in Southeast Asian operations soon became a problem. The conversion of USAFE units to the F-4D Phantom enabled some of the European-based F-105Ds to be transferred to Southeast Asia, but this was not sufficient to offset the heavy attrition rate. On 23 April 1967, the 421st TFS was re-designated the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron. In October 1967 the 44th TFS absorbed the mission and makeup of 13th TFS. The 13th was transferred to Udorn RTAFB to become an F-4D Phantom unit. Its aircraft and personnel were absorbed by the 44th TFS. With these re-organizations, the 44th TFS possessed both D and F model Thunderchiefs. The squadron's primary mission became one of flying escort to the wing's regular strike force to suppress anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) and surface-to-air missile (SAM).
On 22 December 1967 President Lyndon Johnson visited Korat RTAFB, spending the night at the base.
Wild Weasels
The Wild Weasel concept was originally proposed in 1965 as a method of countering the increasing North Vietnamese SAM threat, using volunteer crews. The mission of the Wild Weasels was to eliminate SAM sites in North Vietnam.
In early 1966, standard F-105Ds with no special electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment accompanied F-100 Wild Weasel I aircraft equipped with basic ECM equipment. In general, the F-100 would identify the SAM site and the F-105Ds would fly the strike. The mission gradually evolved with the addition of new weapons and ECM equipment until the F-4 replaced the F-100 and the F-105D was replaced by the more capable and specialized two-place F-105F and G models.
F-105F/G Wild Weasel SAM Anti-Radar squadrons assigned to the 388th TFW were:
13th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 15 May 1966 (F-105F)
Activated at Korat, aircraft being deployed from the 41st Air Division in Japan
Inactivated October 1967, aircraft assigned to 44th TFS.
Designation reassigned to 8th TFW, Udorn RTAFB and reequipped with F-4Ds.
Detachment 1, 12th Tactical Fighter Squadron
Formed with F-105Fs transferred from inactivating 333d, 354th and 357th TFS at Takhli RTAB 24 September 1970, aircraft at Korat in TDY status from 18th TFW, Kadena AB, Okinawa
Re-designated: 6010th Wild Weasel Squadron and PCS to 388th TFW: 1 November 1970
Re-designated: 17th Wild Weasel Squadron: 1 December 1971 – 15 November 1974
F-105G November 1970 – December 1974
Detachment 1, 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron
TDY from George Air Force Base California, F-105G, 2 January – 5 September 1973
The tactics employed on the Iron Hand missions were primarily designed to suppress the SA-2 SAM and gun-laying radar defenses of North Vietnam during the ingress, attack, and egress of the main strike force. In the suppression role, AGM-45 Shrike missiles were employed to destroy, or at least harass, the SA-2 and/or fire control radar which guided the SA-2 missiles.
On 23 April 1967 the 44th TFS's primary mission became one of flying escort to the wing's regular strike force to suppress AAA and SAM fire as a Wild Weasel squadron.
The 12th TFS was equipped with the F-105G and was temporarily reassigned to Takhli in June 1967. The detachment returned to its main unit at Korat and the 44th TFS was returned to Korat in September 1970 from the 355th TFW to the 388th TFW when the decision was made to consolidate the units of the Wild Weasel mission. With their return, the 6010th Wild Weasel Squadron was formed. The squadron was redesignated the 17th Wild Weasel Squadron on 1 December 1971.
In February 1972, the 67th TFS returned on temporary duty to Korat from Kadena AB, this time being equipped with the EF-4C aircraft. The EF-4C was the initial Wild Weasel version of the Phantom. It was a modified version of the F-4C, designed in parallel with the F-105G Wild Weasel program. The EF-4Cs suffered from certain deficiencies which limited their combat effectiveness. For example, they were unable to carry the standard ARM. Consequently, the EF-4C was seen only as an interim Wild Weasel aircraft, pending the introduction of a more suitable type. In February 1973, after the end of combat operations in Vietnam, the 67th TFS with its EF-4C Wild Weasels were withdrawn and returned to Kadena.
F-4 Phantom II operations
In mid-1968 it was decided to make the 388th an F-4 wing, and also to equip the 388th with the new F-4E and the F-105s would be transferred to Takhli and all of the F-105s in the fighter-bomber mission would be consolidated there. The Wild Weasels would remain at Korat along with the F-4s in their specialized mission.
On 17 November 1968, an F-4E squadron from Eglin AFB, Florida, replaced the single-seat F-105D Thunderchiefs of the 469th TFS. The new Phantom squadron, the first E-models in Thailand, retained the designation 469th TFS.
On 10 May 1969, the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred organizationally to the 347th TFW at Yokota AB, Japan, but it remained attached to the 388th TFW at Korat. It was re-equipped with F-4Es on 5 July.
On 15 October 1969, the F-105-equipped 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred and reassigned to the 355th TFW at Takhli RTAFB.
On 12 June 1972, the 35th Tactical Fighter Squadron flying F-4Ds was deployed from the 3rd TFW, Kunsan Air Base, South Korea, in a "Constant Guard" redeployment to support operations over North Vietnam during Operation Linebacker. They remained until 10 October 1972 when they returned to Korea.
College Eye Task Force
An expansion of combat operations from Korat initiated with the arrival of EC-121 Warning Stars of the College Eye Task Force (later designated Det 1, 552d Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing) from Ubon RTAFB and EC-121R Batcats of the 553rd Reconnaissance Wing. The initial College Eye support team personnel arrived at Korat on 20 September 1967. Less than a month later, on 17 October the first seven EC-121D aircraft redeployed from Ubon, followed two days later by the arrival of the Batcat EC-121Rs.
The EC-121Ds provided airborne radar coverage and surveillance in support of aircraft flying combat operations. Combat reconnaissance missions of the 552d resumed on 25 November 1967. These missions normally required the aircraft to be on station for eight hours. Including transit time to and from station, an average flight was typically about 10 hours, and the force ranged between five and seven aircraft at any one time.
The mission of the 20 EC-121Rs was to detect and interdict the flow of supplies from North Vietnam down the Ho Chi Minh Trail to the People's Army of Vietnam and Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. Their primary objective was to create an anti-vehicle barrier. If the vehicles could be stopped, then a major quantity of enemy supplies would be halted.
In November 1970, the 553d RW was inactivated. The 554th RS transferred to Nakhon Phanom RTAFB to operate QU-22 Baby Bats, while the 553rd RS remained at Korat with 11 Batcats until December 1971, when it returned to Otis AFB, Massachusetts.
Det. 1 remained at Korat until June 1970, when it left Thailand. It returned in November 1971, now known as Disco, after North Vietnamese MiGs threatened B-52s and other aircraft operating in southern Laos. It remained at Korat, supporting Operation Linebacker, Operation Linebacker II and other USAF operations, until 1 June 1974, when it returned to McClellan AFB, California.
B-66 Destroyer operations
EB-66s were transferred to Takhli RTAFB in late November 1965 and were used as electronic warfare aircraft, joining strike aircraft during their missions over North Vietnam to jam enemy radar installations. They were not Wild Weasel aircraft, since they did not have the means to attack radar installations directly.
In September 1970, the 42nd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron, which flew EB-66s, transferred to Korat from Takhli. The EB-66C/E flew radar and communications jamming missions to disrupt enemy defenses and early warning capabilities.
On 2 April 1972, an EB-66C Bat 21 was shot down over South Vietnam near the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone during the Easter Offensive. Lt Col. Iceal Hambleton was the only crewmember able to eject, which set into motion an 11 1/2-day search and rescue operation.
Airborne command and control mission
On 30 April 1972 the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron (ACCS) was assigned to the 388th TFW from Udon RTAFB and began flying missions in its EC-130E Hercules aircraft, which were equipped with command and control capsules.
The 7th ACCS played an important role in the conduct of air operations. The squadron had a minimum of two aircraft airborne 24 hours a day directing and coordinating the effective employment of tactical air resources throughout Southeast Asia. Its aircraft functioned as a direct extension of ground-based command and control authorities, the primary mission was providing flexibility in the overall control of tactical air resources. In addition, to maintain positive control of air operations, the 7th ACCS provided communications to higher headquarters. The battle staff was divided into four functional areas: command, operations, intelligence, and communications. Normally, it included 12 members working in nine different specialties. Radio call signs for these missions were Moonbeam, Alleycat, Hillsboro and Cricket.
A-7D Corsair II
On 29 September 1972, the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing, based at Myrtle Beach AFB South Carolina, deployed 72 A-7D Corsair II of the 353rd, 354th, 355th and the 356th Tactical Fighter Squadrons to Korat for a 179-day TDY. By mid-October, 1,574 airmen from Myrtle Beach had arrived as part of "Constant Guard IV".
In addition to strike missions during Operations Linebacker and Linebacker II, A-7Ds of the 354th assumed the combat search and rescue "Sandy" role from the A-1 Skyraider in November 1972 when the remaining Skyraiders were transferred to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force.
In March 1973 A-7D aircraft were drawn from the deployed 354th TFW squadrons and assigned to the 388th TFW as the 3d Tactical Fighter Squadron. Some TDY personnel from the 354th TFW were assigned to the 388th and placed on permanent party status.
The 354th TFW Forward Echelon at Korat also became a composite wing. Along with the Myrtle Beach personnel, elements of the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing from Davis-Monthan AFB Arizona were deployed to support the A-7D aircraft, being replaced by A-7Ds from the 23d Tactical Fighter Wing from England AFB. These airmen rotated on 179-day assignments (the limit for TDY assignments) to Korat from these continental United States bases until early 1974.
In March 1972 the 39th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron moved to Korat from Cam Ranh Air Base. The unit was dissolved on 1 April being temporarily redesignated Detachment 4, 3rd Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group before being redesignated as the 56th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron on 8 July and absorbing the HH-43 detachment at Korat.
1973 operations in Laos and Cambodia
The Paris Peace Accords were signed on 27 January 1973 by the governments of North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States with the intent to establish peace in Vietnam. The accords effectively ended United States military operations in North and South Vietnam. Laos and Cambodia, however, were not signatories to the Paris agreement and remained in states of war.
The US was helping the Royal Lao Government achieve whatever advantage possible before working out a settlement with the Pathet Lao and their allies. The USAF flew 386 combat sorties over Laos during January and 1,449 in February 1973. On 17 April, the USAF flew its last mission over Laos, attacking a handful of targets requested by the Laotian government.
In Cambodia the USAF carried out a massive bombing campaign to prevent the Khmer Rouge from taking over the country.
Congressional pressure in Washington grew against these bombings, and on 30 June 1973, the United States Congress passed Public law PL 93-50 and 93-52, which cut off all funds for combat in Cambodia and all of Indochina effective 15 August 1973. Air strikes by the USAF peaked just before the deadline, as the Khmer National Armed Forces engaged a force of about 10,000 Khmer Rouge encircling Phnom Penh.
At 11:00 15 August 1973, the Congressionally-mandated cutoff went into effect, bringing combat activities over the skies of Cambodia to an end. A-7 and F-4s from Korat flew strike missions sometimes less than 16 km (10 mi) from Phnom Penh that morning before the cutoff. The final day marked the conclusion of an intense 160-day campaign, during which the USAF expended 240,000 tons of bombs. At Korat, two A-7D pilots from the 354th TFW returned from flying the last USAF combat mission over Cambodia.
Consolidation and inactivation
With the end of active combat in Indochina on 15 August 1973, the USAF began drawing down its Thailand-based units and closing its bases.
The 388th TFW entered into intensive training program to maintain combat readiness and continued to fly electronic surveillance and intelligence missions. The F-4 and A-7 aircraft practiced bombing and intercept missions in western Thailand. A large exercise was held on the first Monday of every month, involving all USAF units in Thailand. Commando Scrimmage covered skills such as dogfighting, aerial refuelling, airborne command posts and forward air controllers. The A-7D aircraft were pitted against the F-4 aircraft in dissimilar air combat exercises. These missions were flown as a deterrent to North Vietnam as a signal that if the Paris Peace Accords were broken, the United States would use its air power to enforce its provisions.
A drawdown of forces in Thailand was announced in mid-1974. With the closure of Takhli RTAFB the 347th Tactical Fighter Wing and 428th Tactical Fighter Squadron and the 429th Tactical Fighter Squadron each equipped with the F-111 were moved to Korat on 12 July 1974. Later that month, the 16th Special Operations Squadron equipped with AC-130 Spectre gunships was moved to Korat from Ubon RTAFB.
On 15 March 1974, the EB-66s of the 42nd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron were sent to AMARC and the squadron was inactivated.
The 354th Tactical Fighter Wing ended its rotating deployments to Korat on 23 May 1974 and returned its A-7D squadrons (353rd and 355th TFS) and aircraft to Myrtle Beach Air Force Base.
The EC-130s and personnel of 7th ACCS were transferred to the 374th Tactical Airlift Wing at Clark Air Base, Philippines on 22 May 1974.
The 552nd AEW&C returned to McClellan AFB California in June 1974, ending the College Eye mission.
On 15 November 1974, the F-105F/G's of the 17th WWS were withdrawn and transferred to the 562d TFS/35 TFW at George Air Force Base, California.
The wars in Cambodia and Laos, however continued. With the political changes in the US during 1974, and the resignation of President Nixon, the air power of the United States at its Thailand bases did not respond to the collapse of the Lon Nol government to the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia during April 1975 nor to the takeover of Laos by the Pathet Lao. Ultimately, the North Vietnamese invasion of South Vietnam during March and April 1975 and the collapse of the Republic of Vietnam also was not opposed militarily by the US.
The only missions flown were aircraft of the 388th TFW providing air cover and escort during Operation Eagle Pull, the evacuation of Americans from Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Operation Frequent Wind the evacuation of Americans and at-risk Vietnamese from Saigon, South Vietnam.
On 14–15 May 1975, aircraft assigned to Korat provided air cover in what is considered the last battle of the Vietnam war, the recovery of the SS Mayaguez after it was hijacked by the Khmer Rouge.
With the fall of both Cambodia and South Vietnam in April 1975, the political climate between Washington and the government of PM Sanya Dharmasakti had soured. Immediately after the news broke of the use of Thai bases to support the Mayaguez rescue the Thai Government lodged a formal protest with the US and riots broke out outside the US Embassy in Bangkok. The Thai government wanted the US out of Thailand by the end of the year. The USAF implemented Palace Lightning, to withdraw its aircraft and personnel from Thailand.
On 30 June 1975, the 347th TFW F-111As and the 428th and 429th TFS were inactivated. The F-111s were sent to the 422d Fighter Weapons Squadron at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. The 347th became an F-4E wing at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia.
In late 1975, there were only three combat squadrons at Korat, consisting of 24 F-4Ds of the 34th TFS, 24 A-7Ds of the 3rd TFS, and six AC-130H "Spectre" aircraft of the 16th Special Operations Squadron. The 34th TFS shut down, and flew their aircraft to Hill AFB, Utah, in December of that year.
The 16th Special Operations Squadron transferred to Hurlburt Field, Florida on 12 December 1975
The 3rd Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred to Clark AB, Philippines on 15 December
On 23 December 1975, the 388th TFW and its remaining squadron, the 34th TFS, transferred to Hill AFB, Utah.
After the departure of the 388th TFW, the USAF retained a small flight of security police at Korat to provide base security and to deter theft of equipment until the final return of the base to the Thai Government.
The USAF officially turned Korat over to the Thai Government on 26 February 1976.
Other major USAF units assigned
Det. 17, 601st Photo Flight (MAC), (HQ - 600th Photo Squadron)
1974th Communications Squadron and Group (Tenant AFCS)
1998th Communications Squadron (Tenant AFCS)
American Forces Thailand Network (Tenant AFRTS)
Detachment 7, 6922 Security Wing
RTAF use after 1975
After the US withdrawal in 1976, the RTAF consolidated the equipment left by the departing USAF units in accordance with government-to-government agreements, and assumed use of the base at Korat. The American withdrawal had quickly revealed to the Thai Government the inadequacy of its air force in the event of a conventional war in Southeast Asia. Accordingly, in the 1980s the government allotted large amounts of money for the purchase of modern aircraft and spare parts.
Thirty-eight F-5E and F-5F Tiger II fighter-bombers formed the nucleus of the RTAF's defense and tactical firepower. The F-5Es were accompanied by training teams of American civilian and military technicians, who worked with members of the RTAF.
In addition to the F-5E and F-5F fighter-bombers, OV-10C counter-insurgency aircraft, transports, and helicopters were added to the RTAF inventory. In 1985 the United States Congress authorized the sale of the F-16 fighter to Thailand.
By the late 1980s, Korat, Takhli, and Don Muang RTAFB outside Bangkok, which was shared with civil aviation, were the primary operational holdings of the RTAF. Maintenance of the facilities at other bases abandoned by the United States (Ubon, Udorn) proved too costly and exceeded Thai needs and were turned over to the Department of Civil Aviation for civil use. Nakhon Phanom and U-Tapao were placed under the control of the Royal Thai Navy. Nonetheless, all runways on the closed or transferred airfields were still available for military training and emergency use.
Camp Friendship (United States Army)
Adjacent to Korat RTAFB to the south was United States Army Camp Friendship. It was a separate facility which pre-dated Korat RTAFB.
Camp Friendship was the home of Headquarters, United States Army Support, Thailand (USARSUPTHAI), part of the Army Military Assistance Command Thailand (MACTHAI). The facility was initially set up as a forward operating base for equipment storage of the 25th Infantry Division, which would have deployed to Thailand in the event of invasion. The USAF would be able to airlift the division into Korat where they could pick up their equipment and move into battle.
The host unit was the 44th Engineer Group (Construction), part of the 9th Logistics Command. It was a large facility (larger than Korat RTAFB) complete with support offices, barracks for about 4,000 personnel, enlisted, NCO, and officer clubs, a motor pool, a large hospital, athletic fields, and other facilities. It was assigned APO San Francisco 96233.
Its mission was to build roads and a support (logistics) network in support of US Army and USAF operations in Thailand by executing the troop construction portion of the military construction program, performing engineer reconnaissance, and accomplishing civil action projects as resources permitted. The group constructed the Bangkok By-Pass Road, a 95 km asphalt highway between Chachoengsao and Kabin Buri, which was opened in February 1966. For their performance in the construction of this road (now Route 303), the 809th Engineer Battalion (Construction) and the 561st Engineer Company (Construction) were awarded Meritorious Unit Commendations.
As soon as the Bangkok bypass road paving was completed, Company B moved to Sattahip to begin construction of Camp Vayama, a 1,000-man troop cantonment area which would eventually become part of a vast port and logistical complex. Joined by Company C in the later part of May, construction continued. In August, the main portion of Company C was moved to Sakon Nakon where it built a troop cantonment area, a special forces camp, and a POL tank farm at Nakom Phanom (NKP) in support of the air force.
On 3 January 1967, Company C returned to Phanom Sarakam to begin work on the "inland road", a 122-kilometer, all-weather highway which would connect the Port of Sattahip with the Bangkok bypass road. Upon its completion, the inland road became a vital contribution to the economic development of Thailand and served as an important link in the supply and communication lines between the Gulf of Siam and northeast Thailand.
In 1970, the 44th Engineer Group was inactivated in Thailand as part of the draw down of United States forces in Southeast Asia. Camp Friendship closed as a separate facility in 1971 and much of the facility was turned over to the Royal Thai Army. After its closure, the USAF retained some barracks and personnel support facilities. The 388th Tactical Fighter Wing used those parts of Camp Friendship for overflow of personnel assigned or deployed to it until the USAF turned Korat Air Base over to the RTAF in early 1976.
Today, Camp Friendship is a Royal Thai Army artillery base. Some of the old US facilities are still in use, and some new construction has also been erected.
Major organizations assigned to Camp Friendship were
HHC 9th Logistics
HHC USARSUPTHAI
HQ 809th Engineer Battalion
HQ USARSUPTHAI Liaison
US Embassy Attache Office
USARSUPTHAI
USASTRATCOM SIG Battalion
USASCCCCA
7th Airlift Platoon
7th MAINT Battalion, Direct Support 1965–71
9th Logistical Command HHD Logistics Support 1963–70
9th Logistics Pad 55/56
13th MP Company, Separate 1969–73
21st MED Depot Medical 1967–70
28th Signal Company
31st MED Field Hospital 1962–70
33rd Transportation TC
35th Finance Sec Disb
40th MP Battalion, Military Police Support 1967–70
41st ORD Company, Direct Ammunition Support 3/1966-9/1966
44th Engineer Group, HHC/HHD Construction 1962–70
46th Special Forces (SF)
55th Signal Company
57th MAINT Company, Direct Support 1963–71
57th Ordinance Company DS
70th Aviation Detachment
93rd Psyops Co
128th Medical Battalion
133rd MED Group, HHD Medical Support 1968–70
172nd Transportation Detachment
219th MP Company, Physical Security 1966–71
256th AG Company Personnel 1967–71
258th Transportation Detachment
260th Transportation Company TC
270th Transportation Detachment
270th Ordnance Detachment
281st MP Company
291st Transportation Company TC
313th Transportation Company TC
331st Sup Co (SUP-DEP) *1964–66*
331st Supply Depot
379th Signal Battalion
428th MED Battalion, HHD Medical Support 1966–68
442nd Signal Battalion 1967–71
501st Field Depot
513th MP Det
519th Transportation Battalion
528th Engineer Detachment (Utilities) *change (28 August 2011)
538th Engineer Battalion, Construction 1965–70
558th Supply Company
561st Engineer Company (Construction)
590th Supply & Service (DS)
590th QM Company (DS) 1964–65
593rd EN Company, Construction 6/1963-8/1963
597th MAINT Company, Direct Support 1966–69
697th EN Company, Pipeline Construction Support 1965–69
720th Military Police Battalion
738th Engineer Support Company, Supply Point *1963–65*
809th Engineer Battalion
999th Engineer Battalion
See also
United States Air Force in Thailand
United States Pacific Air Forces
Seventh Air Force
Thirteenth Air Force
References
Bibliography
Endicott, Judy G. Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History, 1999. CD-ROM.
Glasser, Jeffrey D. The Secret Vietnam War: The United States Air Force in Thailand, 1961–1975. McFarland & Company, 1998. .
Martin, Patrick. Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History, 1994. .
Logan, Don. The 388th Tactical Fighter Wing: At Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1972. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1997. .
USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present
The Royal Thai Air Force (English Pages)
Royal Thai Air Force – Overview
External links
Official site of 1st Wing, RTAF
Photos Of Camp Friendship – US Army Support Command, Thailand
My 1966–67 photos on base and off base action.
Retaking The Mayagüez – The final battle of the Vietnam War
Official Royal Thai Air Force Website
Hill AFB, Utah. Home of the 388th FW
The Vietnam War Years of Korat Royal Thai Air Base website
Korat Air Base Thailand and Camp Friendship 1965–1970 (Video)
Life on Korat AFB (Video)
Royal Thai Air Force bases
Buildings and structures in Nakhon Ratchasima
Closed facilities of the United States Air Force in Thailand
1955 establishments in Thailand |
4060824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg%20U-Bahn | Nuremberg U-Bahn | The Nuremberg U-Bahn is a rapid transit system run by Verkehrs-Aktiengesellschaft Nürnberg (VAG; Nuremberg Transport Corporation), which itself is a member of the Verkehrsverbund Großraum Nürnberg (VGN; Greater Nuremberg Transport Network). The Nuremberg U-Bahn is Germany's newest metro system, having begun operation in 1972, although the Nuremberg-Fürth route (U1) uses part of the right of way of the Bavarian Ludwig Railway, Germany's first passenger railway opened in 1835. The current network of the U-Bahn is composed of three lines, serving 49 stations, and comprising of operational route, making it the shortest of the four metro systems in Germany, behind Berlin, Hamburg and Munich.
In 2008, driverless and fully automated trains were introduced on the new U3 line, making it Germany's first automatic U-Bahn line.
History
Plans for a metro in Nuremberg go back to 1925, when Nuremberg graduate engineer Oscar Freytag spoke out in favor of building a metro under Fürther Straße. This was not to replace the parallel tram according to the then ideas, but complemented as a quick connection. In addition, it should be extended over the Plärrer along the Frauentorgraben to Nuremberg Central Station. At that time, however, the project failed because of the high technical complexity and the costs. The first real forerunners of a metro came in 1938 during the Nazi era, when the tram routes were buried under Allersberger Straße and Bayernstraße. These facilities, still in existence, were built to not disturb the tram by the deployment columns of the SS barracks and the masses of visitors of the rallies held on the adjacent Nazi party rally grounds in their operations.
Only after the Second World War and with the onset of the economic miracle and the increasing motorization of the population were new plans for an "underground tram" ("Unterpflasterstraßenbahn" – "sub pavement tram" in German) set up. The suggestion of the Ulm professor Max-Erich Feuchtinger to move the tram between Plärrer and main station under the earth, was rejected by the Nuremberg city council on 19 March 1958. In 1962, the city council commissioned the Stuttgart traffic scientist Professor Walther Lambert to prepare an opinion on the future of Nuremberg public transport. The "Lambert report" with the recommendation to build an underground tram was published in 1963, and so the city council voted on 24 April 1963 to go ahead and build such a system with the option of a later conversion to full metro. This would've been in line with contemporary Stadtbahn projects in Stuttgart, Hannover or the Ruhr area.
On 24 November 1965 the city council reversed its decision of 1963 and decided to build a classic metro. This was preceded by a personal statement by Hans von Hanffstengel, head of the Nuremberg city planning office, on the opinion of Professor Lambert. Hanffstengel spoke out against the "temporary" solution of an underground tram and demanded the direct construction of a full underground. He was supported indirectly by the federal government, which offered a participation in the construction costs of 50%, and the then Bavarian Prime Minister Alfons Goppel, who assured the financial equality of the Nuremberg metro plans with those of the state capital. Other reasons brought forth at the time were the claimed necessity to close the entire line during a conversion (from underground tram to metro) for a period of several years.
Planning
Initial considerations for a metro network already existed after the City Council decision of 1965, but concrete Grundnetz (starting or basic network) planning began only in the late 1960s after the adoption of the land-use plan of 1969. The first metro axis was at this time already under construction and thus included in all variants. It was to connect the newly emerging satellite town of Langwasser via the main station, the old town and the Plärrer with Fürth and follows essentially the former tram line 1. Important goals for the other lines were the connection of the destinations airport, Meistersingerhalle, Municipal Hospital (today: Klinikum Nord ) and Tiergarten, covering as much of the urban area with as few stops as possible and the easy possibility to extend the base network into new urban development zones. All these considerations eventually led to a large number of network proposals, of which the models P, Q, R and S most closely approximated the specifications.
In the model "P" all lines connect at the main railway station as a central hub, which brings the advantage of offering easy connections between all modes of transport (U-Bahn, S-Bahn, long-distance trains and Buses at the ZOB). The main drawbacks would be a potential overburdening of the single interchange station (compare Châtelet–Les Halles in Paris) and the difficulty of tunneling in several levels (for the various lines) near the center of the historic old town. Further problems were identified with the Hauptbahnhof-Plärrer main trunk line. The lines would be as follows:
U1: Langwasser – Hauptbahnhof (Main Railway Station) – Altstadt (Old Town) – Plärrer – Fürth
U2: Flughafen (Airport) – Rathenauplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Opernhaus (Opera House) – Plärrer – Gebersdorf
U3: Tiergarten (Zoo) – Hauptbahnhof – Opernhaus – Röthenbach
U4: Thon – Rathenauplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Opernhaus – Plärrer – Wetzendorf
The "Q" model is based on a new settlement axis between Nuremberg and Fürth along the Willstraße and new road tangents to be served by the U3 line. Positive effects are attributed to this network model for the development of the new settlement axis, negative could be the transfer links from the U3 to the city center and the supply of defective trains to the depots. The line network would look like this:
U1: Langwasser – Aufseßplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Altstadt – Plärrer – Gostenhof – Fürth
U2: Flughafen – Rathenauplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Steinbühl – Röthenbach
U3: Tiergarten – Aufseßplatz – Steinbühl – Schlachthof – Gostenhof – St. Johannis – Rathenauplatz – Erlenstegen
U4: Gebersdorf – Schlachthof – Gostenhof – St. Johannis – Wetzendorf
In the model "R", the three main lines intersect in the points Aufseßplatz, Hauptbahnhof and Plärrer and thus correspond to a classic network concept, which was similarly applied in Munich among other cities. An advantage would be a uniform utilization and development potential of all lines, a possible disadvantage would be unwanted settlement developments along the U3 north direction Thon and the U5 South direction Gartenstadt (urban sprawl). The lines would be as follows:
U1: Langwasser – Aufseßplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Altstadt – Plärrer – Gostenhof – Fürth
U2: Flughafen – Rathenauplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Plärrer – Gostenhof – Schlachthof – Röthenbach
U3: Tiergarten – Aufseßplatz – Steinbühl – Plärrer – Gostenhof – St. Johannis – Thon
U4: Erlenstegen – Rathenauplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Plärrer – Gostenhof – Schlachthof – Gebersdorf
U5: Gartenstadt – Steinbühl – Plärrer – Gostenhof – St. Johannis – Wetzendorf
In the model "S" all lines run independently of each other and only intersect at the stations Aufseßplatz, Friedrich-Ebert-Platz, Hauptbahnhof, Rathenauplatz, Plärrer, Steinbühl and Schlachthof. The advantage is that there are no shared sections of the route and thus delays on one line would not induce delays on others. As a disadvantage, the frequent need to change trains would make few one-seat-rides possible and make a trip e.g. from Erlenstegen to Zerzabelshof need several changes. The lines would have been as follows in this model:
U1: Langwasser – Aufseßplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Altstadt – Plärrer – Fürth
U2: Flughafen – Rathenauplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Plärrer – Schlachthof – Röthenbach
U3: Gebersdorf – Schlachthof – Steinbühl – Aufseßplatz – Tiergarten
U4: Thon – Friedrich-Ebert-Platz – Plärrer – Steinbühl – Gartenstadt
U5: Erlenstegen – Rathenauplatz – Friedrich-Ebert-Platz – Wetzendorf
In the end, the model R turned out to be the most useful of the four models in terms of urban planning, operational engineering and development possibilities. It was slightly modified and formed the basis of the "Nuremberg General Transit Plan" (GNVP) adopted on 8 September 1971 by the City Council. The planned metro network should thereafter consist of the three main lines, out of which the lines U2 and U3 should receive branching possibilities at the stations Friedrich-Ebert-Platz (direction Thon), Rathenauplatz (direction Erlenstegen), Steinbühl (direction Gartenstadt) and Schlachthof (direction Gebersdorf).
U1: Langwasser – Aufseßplatz – Hauptbahnhof – Altstadt – Plärrer – Fürth (under construction)
U2: Stein – Schlachthof – Plärrer – Hauptbahnhof – Rathenauplatz – Flughafen
U3: Wetzendorf – Friedrich-Ebert-Platz – Plärrer – Steinbühl – Aufseßplatz – Tiergarten
One point of criticism is the insufficient consideration of the territories incorporated into the GNVP on 1 July 1972 (when several suburbs were annexed into Nuremberg in the course of a Bavaria-wide redrawing of municipal boundaries), since metro planning was only slightly adapted to the new settlements.
Construction
On 20 March 1967, German transport minister Georg Leber and Nuremberg Oberbürgermeister ("Lord Mayor") Andreas Urschlechter (both SPD) had the honour of "striking the first blow" for the new metro. This was done in Bauernfeindstraße when they triggered the pile driver.
On 1 March 1972, the first stretch of the system opened, U1 Langwasser Süd to Bauernfeindstraße. Over the next few years, further stretches of U1 were opened. Uniquely, the metro was built "from the outside in", starting in the rather outlying area of Langwasser before reaching the historical core and the central train station.
On 28 January 1984, Nuremberg's second U-Bahn line, U2, went into service between Plärrer and Schweinau. This line, too, underwent further extensions, eventually even reaching the airport in 1999.
Expansions of the metro were often accompanied with the closure of nearby tram lines, which was initially not opposed by most of the city's population. The original plans of the 1960s had called for the complete abandonment of the tram network if and when the metro was fully built out. However, in the 1990s a change of course became apparent and the decision to shut down the tram network was officially reversed. Nonetheless, in the course of the construction of the northern branch of U3, further shutdowns of trams occurred along Pirckheimerstraße – however, the tracks are still operational for non-revenue movements of trams or in case of interruptions on the rest of the network and it is variously debated to restart revenue service on those tracks.
In 2004, 6 Munich A cars were bought by VAG to supplement its own rolling stock fleet. However, owing to the divergence in specifications between the Nuremberg and Munich systems, it turned out that the old Munich stock could not be coupled with Nuremberg stock. As a result, it was not possible to compose trains using both types, although they can at least run on the same tracks. VAG left the Munich stock in its old white and blue Munich livery, reasoning that it was not worth repainting in Nuremberg livery, given that it was approaching the end of its service life.
On 4 December 2004, a new section of U1 opened in Fürth, stretching from Stadthalle station to Klinikum station and allowing a further interchange with S1 (Nuremberg S-Bahn). On 8 December 2007, U1 was further extended to Fürth Hardhöhe.
On 14 June 2008, the newest U-Bahn line, U3, opened for service. U3 was first extended in 2011 with Kaulbachplatz and Friedrich Ebert Platz (interchange for Tram line 4) opening on 11 December. U3 was extended again in 2017 with Klinikum Nord and Nordwestring being the latest stations to open on its northern branch on 22 May. The latest station to open was on 15 October 2020, Großreuth bei Schweinau, along the southern branch of U3. Further extensions along the same branch with tentative names "Kleinreuth" and "Gebersdorf" are already planned or under construction.
Network
The U-Bahn network comprises three lines, covering about of network route of which is operational route. The network serves 49 stations which can all be reached by lift. The system uses "firm tracks" (i.e. rails fastened to a solid trackbed, rather than to sleepers on ballast) in almost all tunnels, although not at Langwasser Mitte (U1) and the adjoining tunnel up to just before Gemeinschaftshaus. Also, ballast is still used on the inbound track, at the entrance to Schoppershof station (U2).
U1
Fürth Hardhöhe ←→ Langwasser Süd
Within Fürth there are seven U-Bahn stations: Stadtgrenze (partly within Nuremberg, partly within Fürth – indeed the station's name means "city boundary" – but assigned to and run by Nuremberg), Jakobinenstraße, Fürth Hauptbahnhof, Rathaus, Stadthalle, Klinikum and Hardhöhe. U1 is the oldest line of the system, the longest line and the only one to cross the city boundary.
Between Nuremberg Plärrer and Fürth Hauptbahnhof it reuses the right of the Bavarian Ludwig Railway, which operated there between 1835 and 1922. Afterwards the route was operated as an express tram between 1927 and 1981, when it was converted to metro.
Since 2010 it has been the only line in the system to be driver-operated. Some portions of U1 are above ground and exposed to the outdoor elements. The motion detection system fitted to the U2/U3 lines cannot be used as the outdoor elements can trigger the false alarm.
U2
Nuremberg Airport ←→ Röthenbach
In 1984, a new section on the line U2 named Plärrer–Schweinau began operation. At first the trains ran by day as line U21 (not to be confused with the later U21) by way of Weißer Turm and Lorenzkirche to Aufseßplatz or Langwasser Süd. Since 1988, the line has run as U2 by way of Opernhaus to Hauptbahnhof (Nuremberg Main Railway Station). After further extensions in 1990, 1993 and 1996, U2 reached its current terminus at the airport in 1999.
In September 2009 the first driverless trains ran in passenger service on line U2. Four out of the eight trains in service on the line moved to automatic control, with the aim of full automation by January 2010. As of 2018 automation of lines 2 and 3 is complete.
U3
Großreuth ←→ Nordwestring
The latest U-Bahn line, U3, was opened on 14 June 2008. This line uses the U2 tunnel between Rathenauplatz and Rothenburger Straße and diverts north of Rathenauplatz to the northwest and south of Rothenburger Straße to the southwest of Nuremberg. The U3 line has fully automatic operation without drivers.
Each of the stations along U3 route has tubes resembling yellow fluorescent light tubes running the length of the platform. These tubes emit radar waves and monitor the track for any fallen obstacles. If an object or person falls into the track, automatic brakes on trains are triggered.
On 30 October 2008, the first accident resulting in a death occurred at Rathenauplatz station. A passenger fell onto the track as a driverless train approached the platform. The train was unable to halt in time because of the short distance to the fallen passenger and limitations of its braking system. Even if the same incident had occurred with a manually operated train, the driver would not have been able to halt in time either.
The U3 line was extended from Maxfeld to Kaulbachplatz and Friedrich-Ebert-Platz stations on 11 December 2011. The further extension to Klinikum Nord and Nordwestring stations started service to the new terminus station on 22 May 2017. The southern extension towards Großreuth opened in October 2020. Further extensions towards Gebersdorf are under construction along the Southern end of the line and already shown with dashed lines or a lighter color on official schedules and network plans.
Former services
To increase passenger capacity on the central parts of the metro, additional trains were scheduled which reversed before the line terminus and ran through only the central areas of Nuremberg. While those shorter runs still operate, they are no longer differentiated by line number but only by the display of their final destination (e.g. a train that would have been signed "U21" prior to 2017 is now simply an U2 direction "Ziegelstein")
U11
Eberhardshof ↔ Messe
U11 service ran on the U1 line between Eberhardshof and Messe most of the day, adding passenger capacity between Nuremberg main station, the car-free main shopping district and the Plärrer.
U21
Röthenbach → Ziegelstein
U21 trains ran only from Röthenbach to Ziegelstein on the U2 line. Since the single-track tunnel between Ziegelstein and Flughafen (Airport) could only accommodate a train frequency of 400 seconds at the time (or roughly one train every 6 minutes), only every second train during the day ran to the airport, while the other trains reversed at Ziegelstein. On their way back all trains were designated as U2 since they all run to Röthenbach, and their origin – Ziegelstein or Flughafen – was meaningless to passengers. U2 trains terminating at Ziegelstein are still operated but signaled as U2 to passengers.
Further extensions
In 2020 press coverage called into question any extensions beyond the section of U3 to Gebersdorf already under construction and scheduled to open in 2025
U1
Fürth Kieselbühl
With Fürth Hardhöhe station, the U1 has reached its provisional terminus after 40 years. Whether Fürth Kieselbühl station, northwest of Hardhöhe, is still to be built depends mainly on the financial power of the city of Fürth and on the development of this district. The area is designated in the land use plan as a commercial area. If the area were to be developed in the future, an extension of the metro could take place in connection with the construction of a park-and-ride facility. However, the city of Fürth has rejected various plans for developing the area currently filled with home supply and grocery stores.
Nuremberg University
With the decision in 2017 that Nuremberg should become a university city, policy planning for a metro station University was determined. The metro stop is projected in the Brunecker Straße industrial area, between Hasenbuck and Bauernfeindstraße stations, where the university and the new urban quarter of Lichtenreuth are planned.
Branch Scharfreiterring
Further discussion refers to a possible branch of the metro from Scharfreiterring station to Klinikum Nürnberg-Süd. Intermediate stops could possibly be Thomas-Mann-Straße and Gleiwitzer Straße.
U2
With the route to the airport/Flughafen station in use, the part of the U2 within Nuremberg has been completed. A possible extension towards the new tram terminus "Am Wegfeld" is not deemed sensible.
Marienberg
When the extension from Ziegelstein to the airport was built, provisions were made for a future infill station at Marienberg to serve a potential new commercial and/or housing development. The section between Ziegelstein and Airport is by far the longest stretch between two stops in the entire network.
Branch northeast station (Nordostbahnhof)
To better serve the industrial development at Nordostpark (currently only served by buses) a branch of U2 eastward from Nordostbahnhof has been proposed.
Branch Hohe Marter
Another proposal for a branch off of U2 would branch at the second to last stop in the southerly direction, Hohe Marter, in a roughly southeasterly direction toward the neighborhood of Eibach. While Eibach is already served by the S-Bahn, the stop is out of the way of most development. Further extensions of such a branch towards Reichelsdorf have thus far failed to reach a benefit cost ratio above 1.0 and are thus unlikely to get the federal money that is widely seen as precondition for construction.
U3 Nord (Northern branch)
The northern branch (U3 Nord) diverts from the U2 tunnel north of Rathenauplatz to run west under the northern quarters of Nuremberg. This branch consists of 5 stations, of which three stations (Maxfeld, Kaulbachplatz and Friedrich-Ebert-Platz) have been completed until December 2011. The last two stations (Klinikum Nord and the terminus station Nordwestring) have been completed in December 2016 and were opened for service in May 2017, thus completing this branch. In 2018, the local SPD proposed to extend the U3 to a proposed housing project in Wetzendorf However, a subsequent study showed that it was extremely unlikely such an extension would achieve a benefit cost quotient anywhere near 1.0
U3 Süd (Southern branch)
The southern branch (U3 Süd) diverts from the U2 tunnel south of Rothenburger Straße and runs to the west as well. Three stations of this branch (Sündersbühl Gustav-Adolf-Straße and Großreuth) have been completed. The terminus of this branch, to be opened around 2025 or later, will be Gebersdorf near the former station Fürth Süd of the abandoned Bibertbahn railway at a busy street intersection south of Fürth's city limits. Further expansion beyond that is under consideration on the right of way of the abandoned Bibertbahn railway into Zirndorf and possibly beyond. A new station called "Großreuth bei Schweinau" started service on 15 October 2020 marking the latest extension of the network. Further extensions are planned along this branch with construction already underway for a new station "Kleinreuth" and a further station tentatively called "Gebersdorf" planned roughly at the site of the former "Fürth Süd" station along the abandoned :de:Bibertbahn.
Possible U4
Since the earliest plans (see above) called for more than two fully fledged "main lines" with two branches (U3 South and North) branching from them, there have been discussions of a third "main line" or another branch similar to U3. However, the financial situation of Nuremberg would only allow for such a line to be constructed with federal or state funds. Federal funds are conditional on a "benefit cost quotient" which is calculated according to standardized measures and has to reach a value above 1.0 (i.e. "benefits" need to exceed "costs") and thus far (2020) most proposals have not reached this threshold. In general the local CSU has been in favor of a new U4 whereas the SPD and the Greens tended to be more skeptical about new metro construction. As Nuremberg has had a SPD mayor for most of its postwar history – excepting the 1996–2002 period in office of Ludwig Scholz (CSU) and the period during which Andreas Urschlechter (formerly SPD) ran as an independent – the debate about a new U4 has been mostly theoretical. However, in the 2020 municipal elections the office of Lord Mayor was won by CSU-candidate Marcus König who had campaigned on the promise of metro extensions. Which route such a metro would take is not entirely clear, but proposals to serve Zerzabelshof ("Zabo") are among the more frequent ones.
Extensions to the Landkreis Fürth
Possible extensions to the U2 and U3 are currently in competition with each other. For cost reasons, only one of the two projects will be implemented.
Extension of the U2 from Röthenbach to Stein was part of the network plans dating from the 1970s. A profitability study from 1994 reported a cost-benefit factor of 0.33, thus not reaching the target of at least 1 that was required for funding, although that study examined only the subsection from Röthenbach to the planned end point in Deutenbach. In 1997, the Zweckverband Verkehrsverbund Greater Nuremberg (ZVGN) commissioned the engineering firm Intraplan Consult to carry out another study, this time for the section from Nuremberg Hauptbahnhof to Deutenbach. This study yielded a cost-benefit factor of 1.7 at an estimated total construction cost of 159.01 million euros (311 million D-Mark) On that basis, the extension of the U2 was decided by the Nuremberg City Council. The Stein authorities were also in favour of the construction, in order to reduce traffic on the B14 road, but could not afford their share of the construction costs (over 1 million D-Mark) and the operating costs. The automation of the U2, which has since commenced, would provide a new opportunity for extension to the neighboring city, which both cities are still interested in. With this in mind, ZVGN prepared a new study to investigate the impact of automatic operation on operating and maintenance costs. After the U3 extension to Zirndorf was rejected by referendum, the mayor of Stein, Kurt Krömer, called for a rapid investigation of the U2 extension parallel to the remaining U3 extension in the direction of Oberasbach / Leichendorf, to avoid missing the opportunity of obtaining subsidies under the Municipal Transport Financing Act that would expire in 2013.
When the results of the study were presented on 23 September 2013, however, the conclusion was that the chances of a benefit-cost indicator of at least +1.0 were small.
In 2013, the plans for the extension to Stein were shelved by the traffic committee of the Fürth rural district council. there was criticism because the profitability study examined only the new section from Stein to Röthenbach, not up to Plärrer in Nuremberg.
Current political planning includes only one additional station, "Schloss Stein " (Stein Castle).
In the press conference held on 23 March 2010 it was announced that there would be no extension of the U3 to Oberasbach. According to the report, neither of the two alternatives (a tunnel under the Rothenburger Straße to Oberasbach Süd with a cost-benefit factor of 0.44 or an above-ground route following the old Bibertbahn railway to Oberasbach Nord with a negative cost-benefit factor of −0.04) achieved the legally required 1.0.
Rolling stock
The Nuremberg U-Bahn currently uses four classes of trains. Its DT1 vehicles are largely the same design as the A cars found on the Munich U-Bahn, and both transport companies once lent each other trainsets as reserve rolling stock for major events (such as the Munich Olympics) at the time when both systems were quite new. Such swaps are now no longer possible, as the rolling stock on each system have developed in ways that would require modification for use on the other system. The newer Nuremberg trains (the DT3, for example) are incompatible with the Munich system.
Current rolling stock
VAG Class DT1 (built between 1970 and 1984)
VAG Class DT2 (built between 1993 and 1994)
VAG Class DT3 (built between 2004 and 2011)
VAG Class G1 (under construction since 2017, in service since 2019)
ATC and driverless trains
The ATC system is derived from Deutsche Bahn's Linienzugbeeinflussung (LZB), with additional parts added for door control and other safety systems. It works by transmitting data from the train to the interlocking station through two cables installed in the track between the rails. About one year after the U3 line has entered service, it is intended to convert U2 line to full ATC operations; however, during the first year there will be mixed traffic of ATC-run driverless DT3 units on U3 courses and conventionally run DT1 and DT2 units on U2 and U21 courses between Rathenauplatz and Rothenburger Straße. This has not been done anywhere before and therefore the ATC system had to be specifically designed and developed to allow for this mixed operation mode. All train operations will be automated, including normal operation, coupling and uncoupling of two DT3 units in storage tracks as well as at platforms, moving trains from and to storage tracks as well as reversing trains at platforms and in storage tracks.
Day-to-day operations will be handled rather like those of Docklands Light Railway, with service employees riding in some trains to watch out for disruptive passengers and unusual occurrences and to supply information to passengers. Unlike the DLR however, not every train will be accompanied by a service employee, and again unlike the DLR, service employees have no task in the actual operation of the train. Hence the grade of automation is mixed between GoA 3 – Driverless, and GoA 4 – Unattended Train Operation (UTO). Doors close automatically, supervised by light barriers and pressure-sensitive door edges. Only in the case of service disruptions will a service employee take over the task of driving the train. For this purpose, all service employees are fully trained drivers.
There were many reasons for choosing an automated, driverless system:
First was the demand to reduce operation cost by eliminating the driver. There will be no layoffs even after the full conversion of the U2 line to ATC operations, since existing drivers will be trained as service employees, but no new personnel will be hired for the operation of the new line. VAG expects to improve line safety and passenger satisfaction by this change, since former drivers who were behind a door and busy with the operation of the train are now becoming service employees. They now become available to passengers inside the carriages and on platforms to look out for disruptions and possible crime, thus increasing the subjective security, and to supply information and answer questions, helping passengers find their way.
Another reason was the improved capacity of the U2 tunnel that was needed to accommodate the U3 traffic. Current metro lines in Nuremberg are built for a train frequency of 200 seconds or 3 minutes (sole exception: Ziegelstein-Flughafen: 400 seconds), which is already fully used on the U1 during the day and on the U2 during morning rush hour. With the new ATC system in place, additional (virtual) blocks will exist between stationary block signals, thus increasing line capacity to a train frequency of 100 seconds. However, these new blocks can only be used by ATC-operated trains since they are virtual and have no stationary signal associated with them that can be observed by a driver-operated train without ATC equipment. Thus the increased line capacity can only be effectively used after the U2 has been converted to full ATC operation.
For the creation of a new ATC system accommodating mixed ATC and non-ATC traffic federal grants and subsidies were awarded, offsetting some of the additional cost.
ATC-controlled trains in storage tracks can be activated instantly, making it possible for the line controller to put additional trains into passenger service at a moment's notice when they observe an unexpected increase in passenger numbers.
Passenger safety
All DT3 units are equipped with passenger intercom panels near every door in addition to the standard emergency brakes and emergency door release handles. Controllers can access CCTV cameras in every unit from the control centre through a Wireless LAN link installed in all tunnels that are used by DT3 trains. Flame-retardant materials are used wherever possible. Temperature sensors and smoke detectors are spread throughout every unit in the passenger space and in every underfloor machinery compartment to detect possible fires as early as possible. Circuit integrity retaining electrical cables (cables that can keep their insulation for a certain time in the presence of fire) are used to allow a unit to proceed to the next station in case of a fire. German regulations mandate that all metro trains must not stop inside a tunnel after the emergency brake has been pulled or if any other hazard like a fire is detected, but instead should proceed to the next station if possible to ease rescue operations. Since the longest travel time between two stations on the Nuremberg U-Bahn is about 3 Minutes (between Ziegelstein and Flughafen) and most stations are less than 60 seconds apart, this is deemed a superior option to stopping inside a tunnel, where evacuation, rescue and firefighting attempts would be much more difficult than on a station platform.
German regulations mandate some means to stop a train if a person or large object should fall onto the track. Installing doors between track and platform (like on Paris's Météor Line) would have been the superior solution, but since 6 stations which were already in full operation (the section Rathenauplatz to Rothenburger Straße) needed to be converted, fitting doors to the platform edges would have led to severe service disruptions and station closures. Another problem would have been that the conventionally run trains would have had to be stopped within an area of a few centimeters by the driver, which would have been difficult. Therefore, platform doors were out of the question. After tests with laser light barriers (from the station ceiling to the platform edge) at Plärrer, a combination of CCTV cameras overlooking the track bed and radio frequency barriers between from under the platform edge to the opposing wall were chosen and installed at all stations served by U3. The RF barriers will detect persons and objects falling onto the track. In such a case the ATC will stop any approaching trains on that track immediately and alert the control centre, from where an operator can visually inspect the trackbed at the platform over CCTV and then take the appropriate action.
Technical problems leading to a 2-year delay
Construction of the line started in 2003, with the DT3 units ordered in the same year, and opening of the initial line segment from Maxfeld to Gustav-Adolf-Straße had been scheduled for early 2006 to be operational for the 2006 FIFA World Cup.
Initially it was thought by Siemens and VAG that development, testing and certification of the ATC components could be conducted during those 3 years in parallel to the construction of the line, at first in simulations and, after the first DT3 units had been delivered, on a test track at the Langwasser Depot, and that the new line could enter service immediately after the tunnels and stations were built. However, in 2005 news was published that ATC development was not progressing as planned and that the opening would have to be postponed by one year to late 2006 or early 2007. In fall 2006 the responsible parties had to admit that the ATC system would still not be ready by the already postponed date at the end of 2006 and that the opening of the line would have to be postponed again. At that point, Siemens appointed a new project manager. The new U3 line finally opened on 14 June 2008.
To Siemens this delay is a major embarrassment, since the company hopes to sell this ATC system to other metro operators around the world who wish to gradually convert their existing metro lines to ATC operation, allowing for mixed operations on line segments used by ATC and non-ATC operated trains during interim periods.
Conversion of the U2 for ATC operation
After the initial segment of the U3 had entered service and all problems concerning the ATC system had been sorted out, work commenced on the conversion the existing U2 to ATC operation. Full ATC operation of the U2 begun in January 2010 and on the shared section of track between Rathenauplatz and Rothenburger Straße the interval between trains on that tunnel segment reduced to 100 seconds. (See above)
See also
List of Nuremberg U-Bahn stations
List of driverless trains
Trams in Nuremberg
List of metro systems
References
External links
VAG Nuremberg official site
VAG Nürnberg official site
Implementation of an automated metro in Nuremberg
Page on U-Bahn and S-Bahn in Nuremberg
Page on local transport in Franconia
pics from Nuremberg underground
Nuremberg U-Bahn Map
Proposed railway lines in Germany
Underground rapid transit in Germany
U-Bahn
1972 establishments in West Germany
Railway services introduced in 1972
Automated guideway transit |
4061083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotta%20Schelin | Lotta Schelin | Charlotta Eva Schelin (born 27 February 1984) is a Swedish former professional footballer who most recently played as a striker for FC Rosengård of the Damallsvenskan. She made her debut for the Sweden national team in March 2004 and was appointed joint captain alongside Caroline Seger in October 2012. Schelin has represented her country in the 2005, 2009, 2013, and 2017 editions of the UEFA Women's Championship, as well as the 2007, 2011, and 2015 FIFA Women's World Cups. She also played at the Olympic football tournaments in 2004, 2008, 2012 and 2016.
In October 2014, Schelin became Sweden's all time record goalscorer by scoring her 73rd international goal in a friendly defeat by Germany.
Schelin began her senior club career with Kopparbergs/Göteborg FC (then known as Landvetter FC) in 2001. She developed into a prolific goalscorer in the Damallsvenskan then made a lucrative transfer to Lyon in 2008, rejecting a competing offer from the American Women's Professional Soccer league. During her eight-season stay at Lyon, she won eight consecutive Division 1 Féminine titles, five Coupes de France Féminine, three UEFA Women's Champions Leagues and was the top goalscorer in the 2012–13 and 2014–15 Division 1 Féminine seasons. In 2013, she became the first foreign UNFP Player of the Year. In 2016, she returned to Swedish football with FC Rosengård, departing Lyon as the French club's all time record goalscorer with 225 goals in 225 appearances. She has been awarded Diamantbollen (the Diamond Ball), given to the Swedish player of the year, a record five times, including four consecutive times from 2011 to 2014.
On 30 August 2018, she announced her retirement due to chronic head and neck pain resulting from an injury suffered while playing for FC Rosengård in 2017.
Early life
Although Schelin was born in Stockholm, her family moved away from the capital when she was two years old. With her father Kjell and mother Nina, she grew up in Kållered outside Gothenburg and began to play football for Kållereds SK along with her older sister, Camilla. She has also played for Hällesåkers IF and Mölnlycke IF. Schelin was also adept at sports including table-tennis, track and field, and snowboarding before opting to focus on football full-time. As a teenager, she developed problems with her spine and was advised to stop playing the sport. Schelin went through intensive strength training and recovered by the time she turned 17. She credited her sister and former teammate Camilla and Tina Nordlund as important role models for her.
Club career
Göteborg FC
In 2001, when she was 17 years old, Schelin made her debut in the Damallsvenskan for Landvetter FC, now known as Göteborg FC. Her debut season yielded eight goals in 19 appearances. After an injury in August 2002, she was out of the league for almost a year and a half, returning in June 2003. In 2004 Schelin was named Breakthrough Player of the Year after netting 14 goals in 15 games for Göteborg. In 2006, Schelin scored 21 goals in 21 league games. At the end of season Fotbollsgalan, she was named Forward of the Year, Player of the Year and Top Goalscorer. She was also shortlisted for the 2006 FIFA World Player of the Year and was recognised by Swedish referees with a special award for her sporting treatment of opponents and officials. In 2007, she retained her top scorer title by scoring 26 league goals. Despite persistent interest from leading Damallsvenskan clubs including Umeå IK and Linköpings FC, Schelin opted to stay at her hometown team. She ultimately played in over 120 league matches with Göteborg, establishing herself as one of the club's most prominent players.
Lyon
After the re-branding and re-launch of the new United States-based league, Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), Schelin declared that she would be interested in playing in the league. However, after the 2008 Summer Olympics, Schelin announced that she would instead be joining Division 1 Féminine club Olympique Lyonnais in France. Upon signing her contract, it was reported by Göteborgs-Posten that Schelin would be earning over 1 million kr (US$160,000) per year. The move to France was criticised in Sweden, as, although Lyon were a well-resourced club, the overall standard of the Division 1 Féminine was considered much weaker than the Damallsvenskan. On 24 September 2008, Schelin's American transfer rights were drafted by the Saint Louis Athletica in the 2008 WPS International Draft. She declined the chance to join WPS, citing her contract with Lyon as the primary reason. Saint Louis signed Schelin's compatriot Sara Larsson instead.
Schelin arrived in Lyon in poor condition, after a thigh injury disrupted her 2008 spring season with Göteborg and migraines and stomach aches afflicted her at the 2008 Olympic Games. When she told Lyon's coach Farid Benstiti that she could also play on the wing, he shook his head and replied that he had signed her to score goals. Alongside Brazil's Kátia Cilene Teixeira, Schelin formed a productive attack for Lyon as the club defended its French title and reached the 2008–09 UEFA Women's Cup semi-final, where they lost to FCR 2001 Duisburg. The following season, Schelin was afflicted by injuries and was ruled out of Lyon's 2010 UEFA Women's Champions League Final defeat by Turbine Potsdam with ligament damage.
Schelin did play in the 2011 final, as Lyon avenged the previous year's defeat to beat Turbine Potsdam 2–0 at Craven Cottage and secure their first continental title. She had scored nine times on Lyon's route to the final, including twice in the semi-final, to bring about what she termed "the proudest moment" of her career. Lyon won a domestic double in 2011–12 and retained their European title by beating Frankfurt 2–0 in the 2012 final at the Olympic Stadium in Munich. In 2012–13 Schelin was in the best form of her career and finished as Division 1 Féminine top scorer with 24 goals in 16 appearances. She was also named French Player of the Year for the first time, but missed out on a third successive Champions League winner's medal when Lyon lost the final 1–0 to Wolfsburg at Stamford Bridge. In May 2013 she signed a new three-year contract with Lyon, reportedly worth an annual 2 million kr.
In 2013–14 Schelin contributed 12 league goals to another domestic double but Lyon lost to Turbine Potsdam in the Champions League round of 16. Her form had slumped after a breakdown in her working relationship with coach Patrice Lair. She rebounded the following season, scoring Lyon's 1000th Division 1 Féminine goal in a 7–0 home win over Rodez on 16 November 2014. Her second goal in the same match drew her level with Sandrine Brétigny as Lyon's all-time record scorer. She finished 2014–15 as Division 1 Féminine top scorer with 34 goals in 21 games, but Lyon were upset by French rivals Paris Saint-Germain in the Champions League round of 16.
Towards the end of another successful season in 2015–16, Lyon announced that Schelin would depart the club at the end of her contract. Her final game for the club was the 2016 UEFA Women's Champions League Final; in which she scored in the penalty shootout win over Wolfsburg. With Lyon Schelin won eight consecutive Division 1 Féminine titles, five Cups and three Champions Leagues. She left as the team's all-time record goalscorer with 225 goals in 225 appearances. Schelin's 41 goals for Lyon in the UEFA Women's Champions League left her fourth in the competition's all-time top scorer list. She held the record for Champions League goals for a single club, since Anja Mittag (49), Conny Pohlers (48) and Marta (46) all accrued their totals with more than one club.
Rosengård
On 8 June 2016, Schelin was presented as a player for Swedish champions FC Rosengård, of Malmö. She rejected an offer to rejoin Göteborg FC because they were unable to offer Champions League football. Schelin made her Rosengård debut slightly earlier than expected, substituting in for the injured Nataša Andonova after 22 minutes of a league fixture against Djurgårdens. Schelin scored a 90th-minute goal to salvage a 2–2 draw.
International career
In March 2004 Schelin scored twice on her debut for the Swedish under-21 team, in their 6–0 win over the full Republic of Ireland national team in Dublin. She previously scored three goals in six appearances for Sweden's under-16 team and two goals in seven appearances for the under-18s.
Schelin made her senior national team debut for Sweden on 16 March 2004; a 3–0 Algarve Cup defeat by France. In the fifth place play-off against China, Schelin was praised for scoring in Sweden's penalty shootout win after a 1–1 draw. She had been called into the squad as a replacement for Sara Johansson who had flu. Schelin retained her place and represented her nation at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. Throughout this period, Schelin endured injuries to the groin and hamstring, which required extensive rest. She was selected by coach Marika Domanski-Lyfors for UEFA Women's Euro 2005 in North West England. She entered play as a second-half substitute but failed to score as Sweden lost 3–2 to rivals Norway in extra time of the semi-final in Warrington.
Schelin was a key player in the 2006 edition of the Algarve Cup; leading Sweden to their third-place finish. She scored the only goal in the bronze medal victory over France. After overcoming her injury problems, Schelin was awarded the Diamond Ball as the country's best female football player. That same year, she was named the Forward of the Year in the Damallsvenskan. Schelin's success brought her to mainstream attention in her country and she was rewarded with selection to attend the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup draw in China on behalf of Sweden.
At the World Cup in China, Schelin scored two goals in three matches (one start) but Sweden unexpectedly failed to progress out of their group. After that failure some experienced players retired and coach Thomas Dennerby gave Schelin and other younger players a more prominent role in the team. Back in China the following year for the 2008 Beijing Olympics, she contributed three goals in four games but the Swedes lost 2–0 to Germany in the quarter-final.
Schelin helped Sweden to a bronze medal position at the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup in Germany and was named in the All-Star Team. She featured in Sweden's 3–1 semi-final defeat to eventual winners Japan in Frankfurt. Sweden secured third place by beating France 2–1 in Sinsheim, Schelin scoring her second goal of the tournament. Third place also ensured Sweden's qualification for the 2012 Olympic football tournament in London. Dennerby kept Schelin in Sweden's Olympic squad for London, where they lost to France in the quarter-finals. Schelin scored twice in four matches but felt Dennerby's emphasis on defence had left her isolated in Sweden's attack.
In October 2012, new national team coach Pia Sundhage decided that Schelin and Caroline Seger would share the captaincy. Sundhage named Schelin in the squad for UEFA Women's Euro 2013, which Sweden hosted. Schelin finished as the tournament top scorer with five goals but was disappointed when Sweden lost 1–0 to Germany in the semi-final. She criticised the decision of Swiss referee Esther Staubli, who disallowed her equalising goal for a very questionable foul on Germany's centre-back Annike Krahn. Schelin's goal against Germany in October 2014's 2–1 home friendly defeat was her 73rd goal for Sweden, which broke the national record previously set by Hanna Ljungberg.
Schelin arrived at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup suffering from persistent knee pain. In Sweden's opening game she was unable to make any impression on Nigeria's defence, as the Africans recovered from 3–1 down to draw 3–3. In the team's 4–1 second round loss to Germany, goalkeeper Hedvig Lindahl made several saves to prevent an even heavier defeat for the disorganised Swedes.
With 165 caps and 84 goals, Schelin was the most experienced member of Sweden's 18-player squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics. When the team suffered a record 5–1 defeat by hosts Brazil in the second match, Schelin scored the late consolation goal and tried to lift the spirits of her demoralised teammates. In the quarter-final against the United States, captain Schelin had an extra-time goal incorrectly ruled out for offside and the match finished 1–1. She scored in Sweden's penalty shootout win. Sweden reached the gold medal match, but lost 2–1 to Germany. Schelin was disappointed by the defeat but proud to win a silver medal.
Matches and goals scored at World Cup & Olympic tournaments
Matches and goals scored at European Championship tournaments
International goals
Style of play
In June 2015 Schelin described herself as "not a typical center-forward" as she likes to drop deep or go wide in order to find space: "I always think of the collective because the danger can come from all players. Even if I do not score, I pass, I run to attract defenders. In the end, I want to win." She attributes her unselfish play to her upbringing in communal Swedish culture. After moving to Lyon, her instinct to pass to better-placed teammates annoyed her coach Farid Benstiti, who wanted her to concentrate on converting chances herself. Sweden's former coach Thomas Dennerby felt that Schelin became more comfortable on the ball after moving to Lyon, but retained her pace and ability in one-on-one situations.
Schelin is capable of playing as a winger. But when Dennerby deployed her wide in the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup, her Göteborg coach Martin Pringle called for her to be given a more central role: "she is too good a player to play out there". China's coach Shang Ruihua highlighted Schelin as Sweden's best player ahead of the countries' opening match at the 2008 Summer Olympics: "Schelin has fast pace and excellent technique, and few defenders could keep up with her." Although tall and slender, she is also physically strong; England captain Steph Houghton rated Schelin as the "toughest opponent" of her career.
As a tall, skilful and prolific Swedish forward, Schelin has frequently drawn comparison with the contemporary male footballer Zlatan Ibrahimović. Former Denmark national team manager Peter Bonde branded Schelin "the female Zlatan" in 2005. In December 2013, Ibrahimović made an outspoken rejection of any comparison: "I was asked [by Swedish media] in the summer who was the better player, me or Lotta Schelin. You're kidding me, right? When I've broken all these records, this goal record, the goals in the national team, who shall I compare it to? Shall I compare it to whoever has the record, or the ladies?" Schelin's national team coach Pia Sundhage described his comments as sad and boring. Johanna Frändén, a journalist specialising in coverage of Ibrahimović, noted Schelin's contrasting temperament: "She is polite, charming, she does not have the same arrogance".
Personal life
Schelin came out publicly as a lesbian in August 2018. She has been married to her wife Rebecca since 2018.
Statistics
Club
Updated 21 May 2018
Honours
Club
Lyon
Division 1 Féminine: Winner 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
Coupe de France Féminine: Winner 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
UEFA Women's Champions League: Winner 2010–11, 2011–12, 2015–16
International Women's Club Championship: Winner 2012
Valais Women's Cup: Winner 2014
FC Rosengård
Svenska Cupen: Winner 2016
Country
Sweden
2007 FIFA Women's World Cup: Group stage
2011 FIFA Women's World Cup: Third place
2015 FIFA Women's World Cup: Round of 16
2004 Summer Olympics in Athens: Fourth place
2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing: Quarter-final
2012 Summer Olympics in London: Quarter-final
2016 Summer Olympics in Rio: Runner-up
UEFA Women's Euro 2005: Semi-finals
UEFA Women's Euro 2009: Quarter-final
UEFA Women's Euro 2013: Semi-finals
UEFA Women's Euro 2017: Quarter-final
Algarve Cup (Participated from 2004 to 2015): Winner 2009
Sweden U19
UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship: Group stage 2002
Sweden U17
Nordic Cup: Runner-up 2001
Individual
2004: Sweden Breakthrough Player of the Year
2006: Diamantbollen Winner, Forward of the Year, Won the Swedish Premier Division, MVP of Kopparbergs/Göteborg FC.
2006: Topscorer in Damallsvenskan
2007: Topscorer in Damallsvenskan
2011: FIFA Women's World Cup All Star Team
2011: Diamantbollen Winner, Forward of the Year
2012: Diamantbollen Winner
2013: Best player in France
2013: Topscorer in Division 1 Féminine
2013: Golden Boot UEFA Women's European Championship
2013: UEFA Women's European Championship All Star Team
2013: UEFA Best Women's Player in Europe Award Third place
2013: Diamantbollen Winner, Forward of the Year
2014: Diamantbollen Winner, Forward of the Year
2015: Topscorer in Division 1 Féminine
All-Time Top Scorer Sweden women's national football team with 88 goals.
In popular culture
Television and film
Schelin featured in the Sveriges Television documentary television series The Other Sport from 2013.
In 2021 Schelin participated in the Swedish version of the South Korean game show Masked Singer as Jokern (The Joker).
References
Match reports
External links
(archive 1, archive 2)
(archive 1, archive 2)
Player French football stats at statsfootofeminin.fr
Profile at Olympique Lyonnais
pre-2004 Olympic tournament interview with Lotta Schelin at SVT's open archive
1984 births
Living people
Footballers from Stockholm
Footballers from Gothenburg
Swedish women's footballers
Women's association football forwards
BK Häcken FF players
Olympique Lyonnais Féminin players
FC Rosengård players
Damallsvenskan players
Division 1 Féminine players
Olympic footballers for Sweden
Sweden women's international footballers
Footballers at the 2004 Summer Olympics
2007 FIFA Women's World Cup players
Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players
Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics
2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players
Footballers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
FIFA Women's Century Club
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for Sweden
Olympic medalists in football
Swedish expatriate women's footballers
Swedish expatriate sportspeople in France
Expatriate women's footballers in France
Lesbian sportswomen
Swedish LGBT footballers
Swedish lesbians |
4061331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TVRI | TVRI | TVRI (, Television of the Republic of Indonesia), legally ( Public Broadcasting Institution Television of the Republic of Indonesia) is an Indonesian national public television network. Established on 24 August 1962, it is the oldest television network in the country. Its national headquarters is in Gelora, Central Jakarta.
TVRI monopolized television broadcasting in Indonesia until 24 August 1989, when the first commercial television station RCTI went on the air. Alongside RRI, TVRI was converted from a state-controlled broadcaster under government department into an independent public broadcaster on 18 March 2005, becoming the first public broadcaster in the country.
TVRI currently broadcasts throughout the country with three national channels as well as 33 regional stations. As of 2020 it has 361 transmitters; making it the network with the largest terrestrial coverage than any other television network in the country. Its funding primarily comes from annual state budget approved by the parliament, advertisement, and other services.
History
1962–1975: The idea and initial broadcast
The initial idea to establish a television station in Indonesia was put forward by then Minister of Information Maladi as far as 1952. The argument at the time is that it would be useful for the socialization of the upcoming 1955 general election, but the idea was deemed as too expensive by the cabinet.
The plan to organize the first television broadcast finally began to materialize when in 1961, the Indonesian Government decided to include the television mass media project in the IV Asian Games development project under the IV Asian Games Project Affairs Command (KUPAG). On July 25 1961, the Minister of Information issued Decree of the Minister of Information of the Republic of Indonesia (SK Menpen) No. 20/SK/M/1961 concerning the formation of the Television Preparatory Committee (P2TV). This institution is chaired by RM Soetarto, head of the State Film Directorate. Apart from Soetarto, there were also his representatives, namely RM Soenarjo and 7 committee members, and they worked together with the Ministry of Information to prepare television broadcasts in Indonesia. To learn more about television, the President then sent Soetarto to New York and Atlanta, United States.
On 23 October 1961 at 09.30, President Sukarno who was in Vienna, Austria sent a telex to Maladi to immediately prepare a television project with the following targets:
Building a studio at the former AKPEN (Information Academy) in Senayan, which is now the location of the LPP TVRI head office. This location was chosen because it was close to the Bung Karno Sports Arena, so it was more practical for broadcasting the Asian Games event. Before occupying this location, other locations that had been studied as TVRI studios included the PFN Jatinegara Building, the Topography Bureau Building, the RRI transmitter in Kebayoran, and several other places.
Built two transmitters: 100W and 10 kW with a tower 80 meters high. Built in the TVRI Senayan complex, initially this tower was planned to be above the Hotel Indonesia or the former Perfini Building. The second transmitter was completed on 22 August 1962 and was ready for operation a few hours before the start of the IV Asian Games.
Preparing the equipment (programs and personnel). Specifically, the equipment supply comes from NEC (Japan), after going through selection from other providers, such as Siemens (West Germany), RCA (United States), and Marconi (England). Apart from NEC, another Japanese company involved in the preparation of TVRI was NHK, which trained prospective employees and provided technical assistance for the broadcast. This training was carried out for TVRI employees who generally had no experience in television at that time, because they came from RRI, PFN, as well as ITB students.
On August 17 1962, TVRI began conducting trial broadcasts of the 17th Indonesian Independence Day event from the grounds of the Merdeka Palace, Jakarta, in black and white format and supported by a backup transmitter with a power of 100W. The TVRI broadcast complex was completed in less than a year and was inaugurated on 23 August 1962 by the chairman of P2TV.
TVRI was formed based on the Decree of the Minister of Information of the Republic of Indonesia No. 20/SK/VII/61, then it became part of the Bureau of Radio and Television under the Asian Games IV Organizing Committee for the IV Asian Games that year. TVRI broadcast its first test transmission on the Independence Day celebrations from the Merdeka Palace on 17 August 1962. TVRI went on air, airing the 1962 Asian Games opening ceremony on 24 August. Throughout the Games TVRI aired every event of the meet especially those involving Indonesian athletes; live broadcasts were held from the morning to evening and delayed broadcasts were held from 20:45 until 23:00 WIB when it signed off for the night. With TVRI's presence, Indonesia became the sixth country in eastern Asia to introduce television, behind Japan, the Philippines, Thailand, China and South Korea. During the Asian Games, Matsushita awarded a contract from the Indonesian Ministry of People's Industry for the installation of television sets, worth $3 million.
TVRI began broadcasting advertisements starting March 1963. Later on 20 October, the Yayasan TVRI (TVRI Foundation) was formally created as the official governing authority for the station with President of Indonesia as chairman. The foundation experienced several changes and lasted until late 1990s.
Two years later, the first regional TVRI station opened in Yogyakarta. Later, many regional TVRI stations were opened, including stations and studios in Bandung, Semarang, Medan, Surabaya, Makassar, Manado, Batam, Palembang, Denpasar and Balikpapan. In the succeeding years, TVRI aired as a network carrying programming from Jakarta supplemented by opt-out broadcasts from the regional stations.
1975–1998: Under the New Order
In 1974, eight years after President Suharto took office, TVRI became a part of the Department of Information, with the status as a directorate. Its role was to inform the public about government policies. A year after, a decree instituted TVRI a dual status, as a part of the TVRI Foundation and a part of the directorate. In 1976, it began to be broadcast all over Indonesia via Palapa satellite.
The first colour television signal was transmitted via satellite transmission in 1979. The first colour news bulletins were Berita Nasional (National News), Dunia Dalam Berita (The World in News), breaking events segments on Laporan Khusus (Special Report) and Berita Terakhir (Latest News).
TVRI in the late 1970s and 1980s became a well-defined mass media component of the Department of Information, in early years it generating income from advertising slots. After enjoying income from advertisements for years, President Suharto in his speech abolished the advertisement on TVRI in 1981 in order to "better directing television to help the development programs and avoid negative effects that do not support the spirit of development". This policy would later be revoked after the reform era. In 1982 TVRI Tower was officially opened to broadcast a wider signal.
During the era, the government-backed TVRI progressively established television production studios and television stations in many provinces across the country. As of 1998, all provinces in Indonesia had their own TVRI regional station or production studio; including East Timor.
It was decided in February 1981 that television commercials were to be banned by April, with TVRI scheduled to lost 20 billion rupiahs ($64 million) a year. With the ban, TVRI eyed the creation of programming for rural audiences.
In the 1980s the decision was made to split TVRI into two channels - Channels 6 and 8 - the latter as a test service for Jakarta and West Java viewers as well as in other areas wherein network-produced programs and foreign imports would be shared between the two channels.
On the Channel 8 basis TVRI launched its second channel TVRI Programa Dua (TVRI Programme Two) in 1989 to attract Jakarta urban audience, with a single English-language news program Six Thirty Report for half an hour that began at 18:30 WIB; later Programa Dua became a local channel under the name TVRI Jakarta. However, in the same year TVRI lost its monopoly when the government's sixth Five Year Plan allowed private television networks, channels, and stations to begin broadcasting, the first commercial television network being RCTI.
In 1994, TVRI launched its teletext service TVRI-Text, in partnership with PT Pilar Kumalajaya, about four months after RCTI launched the first teletext in the country.
1998–2006: Transformation and restructurization
After the start of the reform era, especially in 2000, TVRI's status was changed. Under a service corporation (Perusahaan Jawatan or Perjan) form, it became responsible firstly to the Ministry of Finance and was then turned into a limited company under the authority of the State Ministry of State-Owned Enterprises for organizational matters and Ministry of Finance for financial matters. Under this arrangement, TVRI broadcasts in accordance with the principles of public television such as independent, neutral and public interest-oriented. Later in 2002, the status of TVRI changed again to a limited company (Perseroan Terbatas or PT), still under the two ministries.
The enactment of the Act No. 32/2002 on Broadcasting designated TVRI, along with RRI, as the public broadcasting institution (Lembaga penyiaran publik or LPP) and were removed from any direct governmental control. TVRI was given a transition period of 3 years from PT to public broadcasting form. The status then reaffirmed by Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah) No. 13/2005. TVRI officially became LPP on 18 March 2005.
2006–present: Modernization and rebranding
Following the government plan to introduce digital television in Indonesia, TVRI launched its digital broadcasting on 21 December 2010. Initially launched in Jakarta, Surabaya and Batam, TVRI also launched two digital terrestrial channels, which were the first of its kind in Indonesia: TVRI 3 (currently TVRI World) and TVRI 4 (currently TVRI Sport). The launch was attended by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and Minister of Communications and Information Technology Tifatul Sembiring.
In 2017, the TVRI board of supervisors installed a well-known television figure, Helmy Yahya as the chief director and Apni Jaya Putra (former programming director at Kompas TV and employer of SCTV, RCTI and SUN TV) as the news and programming director. During the leadership of Helmy Yahya and Apni Jaya Putra, TVRI began to remodel its programming on a large scale.
On 29 March 2019, at the concert special Menggapai Dunia (Reaching the World), TVRI adopted its new logo as a part of the rebranding efforts. The new logo was actually decided to be released in the fourth quarter of 2018, but for several reasons, it was postponed to the end of March 2019. At the same time, all TVRI regional stations have changed their logo in front of their respective studios.
In August 2019, TVRI together with two national private networks (Metro TV and Trans7) and Ministry of Communication and Information Technology officially launched digital television broadcasts for border regions in Nunukan Regency, North Kalimantan. With the launch, the government hoped that people in all regions of Indonesia can watch television with high quality.
A proposed new Broadcasting Act currently in the making, replacing Act No. 32/2002, would merge TVRI with RRI into RTRI (Radio Televisi Republik Indonesia, Radio [and] Television of the Republic of Indonesia).
Structure
TVRI is designated as public broadcasting institution per Act No. 32 of 2002 on Broadcasting, which defined as a "legal entity established by the state, independent, neutral, not commercial, and has the function to provide services for the public benefit". Its duty, according to Government Regulation No. 13 of 2005, is "to provide the healthy information, education and entertainment services, (maintain) social control and unity, and preserve the nation's culture for the whole public benefit by organizing television broadcast that reaches all parts of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia".
TVRI organization structure consists of five Board of Supervisors (Dewan Pengawas) appointed by the People's Representative Council (DPR) and six Board of Directors (Dewan Direksi) appointed by the Board of Supervisors. Both are sworn in by the President, serve for five years and renewable once.
According to article 15 of the Broadcasting Act, TVRI is funded by several sources such as broadcasting fees, annual state budget (drafted by the government and approved by the DPR), community contribution, and advertisement, as well as other legal efforts related to its broadcasting operation. In fact, as of today the broadcasting fee is yet to be implemented, and for "other legal efforts" TVRI is asked to generate "non-tax state revenue" by various funding sources besides annual state budget; such as website ads, training service, professional certification, assets rent, program production, multiplexing service, and programming royalty. Previously, "television fee" has existed to supplement TVRI funding besides the government budget until the 1990s, but later abolished.
As of 2018 TVRI has approximately 4,300 employees, with an estimated 1,800 of whom being based in Jakarta. 90% of its employees are civil servants under Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, though the network is not a part of the ministry.
Services
Channels
TVRI currently operates three national channels and a dedicated regional channel:
TVRI: The main channel of TVRI, it broadcasts information and educational content as well as entertainment for 24 hours a day.
TVRI regional station: The channel hosts TVRI regional stations by their respective on-air names. In Jakarta, TVRI Jakarta serves as a local station in both analog (until 2022) and digital terrestrial broadcast. See #Regional stations for lists.
TVRI World: The channel broadcasts TVRI programming in English subtitle that targeted for international audience, previously known as TVRI Kanal 3.
TVRI Sport: The channel broadcasts sports programming as well as simulcasting live sports events from the TVRI main channel in high definition.
Regional stations
TVRI has 33 regional stations covering all provinces of Indonesia, shown below in their native names and broadcast area:
A former regional station for East Timor, TVRI Dili, ceased operation in 1999. East Timor national broadcaster RTTL currently takes its place.
Online services
TVRI currently maintain two online services. TVRI Klik, launched in 2018, is the primarily online streaming service for all TVRI channels, as well as its regional stations. TVRI VoD is the network's video-on-demand service. Both services could be accessed from their dedicated Android and iOS apps as well as their website.
Besides TVRI Klik, the channels and regional stations streaming service can also be found on the network's official website, YouTube, and other social media where available.
TVRI has its own news portal on TVRINews.com. The portal, which is active as far as 2014, has undergone several changes since.
Others
TVRI has an educational center called Pusat Pendidikan dan Pelatihan TVRI (Pusdiklat TVRI, TVRI Educational and Training Center) which provides television skill training.
TVRI also manages Studio Alam TVRI (literally "TVRI Natural Studio"), an outdoor studio in Sukmajaya, Depok, West Java. It is a green open space which is used for the production of several TVRI shows, and is also used as a recreational area.
Criticism and controversies
Structural problems
Corruption scandals
In 2008, former TVRI President Director, Sumita Tobing was arrested due to alleged corruption in the procurement of 50 cameras worth 5.2 billion rupiah. She was found guilty in 2012, and imprisoned for 1 year and 6 months in 2014.
In 2013, TVRI Director of Finance Eddy Machmudi Effendi was sentenced to 8 years 6 months in prison due to a scandal involving Director of News and Programming Irwan Hendarmin and Indonesian senior comedian Mandra, regarding purchasing of programs.
Broadcasting of political events
On 6 June 2013, TVRI aired a delayed broadcast of the Muktamar Khilafah (Caliphate Conference) organized by Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia (HTI) in Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, Jakarta. The Indonesian Broadcasting Commission (KPI) Commissioner, Idy Muzayyad assessed that TVRI as a public broadcasting institution was "experiencing national disorientation" by broadcasting this event because "HTI's ideology is questioning the state ideology and nationalism, as well as rejecting democracy"; but HTI spokesperson Ismail Yusanto says that "TVRI is a public broadcaster, and HTI is also a part of the public" and the broadcast is "a part of the public's right to be broadcast and heard". TVRI was subsequently warned by KPI that they could face sanctions for the broadcast.
Later on 15 September, TVRI aired a delayed broadcast of the Democratic Party convention for more than 2 hours, the political party of which was founded by the incumbent president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. The broadcast again caused KPI sanctioning, due to the violation of political independence principle according to the law. However, TVRI directors secretary manager Usi Karundeng said that the network was never intervened or paid for by the party.
Dismissal of Helmy Yahya and internal chaos
On 6 December 2019, Helmy Yahya was temporarily dismissed as President Director for the 2017-2022 period by the TVRI Board of Supervisors led by Arief Hidayat Thamrin and replaced by acting President Director Supriyono. According to news sources in almost all mass media on 16 January 2020, Helmy Yahya was officially dismissed from his position by the board permanently and unilaterally, citing the "expensive" purchase of broadcast rights for the Premier League from Djarum-owned premium multi-platform network, Mola TV, a problem during Siapa Berani quiz show, and various other problems. Despite public pushback against the dismissal, the board continued to refuse Helmy Yahya's opposition to his dismissal until the election for the new president director to replace him.
On 17 January, 4,000 TVRI employees declared a motion of no confidence to the Board of Supervisors. One day before, the board's room was sealed. As of 27 March 2020, another three directors (including News (Editor in Chief) and Program Director Apni Jaya Putra) were also temporarily dismissed for less than a month by the TVRI Board of Supervisors regarding the Helmy Yahya case. On 13 May, all of them (including Apni) were permanently dismissed.
On 27 May 2020, the TVRI Board of Supervisors appointed Indonesian advertising practitioner, journalist, and filmmaker/film director Iman Brotoseno as the new President Director for the remainder of the 2017–2022 period, replacing Helmy Yahya. The appointment caused controversy thanks to his endorsement of incumbent president Joko Widodo in the 2019 election, but he stated that he "would be independent and impartial". He was also criticized for his past posts on Twitter which included Indonesian colloquial terms for pornography and porn films.
On 5 October 2020, the Board of Supervisors Arief Hidayat Thamrin was ultimately dismissed by first commission of People's Representative Council. However, Arief was suspended from power since 11 May.
Identity
List of logos
List of slogans
Menjalin Persatuan dan Kesatuan (Weaving Unity and Oneness, 1962–2001)
Makin Dekat Di Hati (Going Closer to The Heart, 2001–2003)
Semangat Baru (New Spirit, 2003–2012)
Saluran Pemersatu Bangsa (The Nation's Unifying Channel, 2012–2019)
Media Pemersatu Bangsa (The Nation's Unifying Media, 2019–present)
See also
Television in Indonesia
Radio Republik Indonesia, the Indonesian public radio network
Antara, the Indonesian news agency
Public broadcasting in Indonesia
References
Further reading
Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia (1999) Indonesia 1999: An Official Handbook (No ISBN)
Schwartz, Adam (1994) A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s, Allen & Unwin.
External links
TVRI Video On-Demand
TVRI Klik
1962 establishments in Indonesia
Publicly funded broadcasters
Public broadcasting in Indonesia
Mass media companies of Indonesia
Television companies of Indonesia |
4061450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stig%20Bergling | Stig Bergling | Stig Svante Eugén Bergling, later Stig Svante Eugén Sandberg and Stig Svante Eugén Sydholt, (1 March 1937 – 24 January 2015) was a Swedish Security Service officer who spied for the Soviet Union. The Stig Bergling-affair, one of Sweden's greatest spy scandals, began when he was arrested in Israel in 1979 by Israeli counterintelligence and in the same year in Sweden was sentenced to life imprisonment for aggravated espionage. He escaped in 1987, with the assistance of his then–wife Elisabeth Sjögren during a conjugal visit, and fled to Moscow. Bergling's escape was a major embarrassment for Sweden's liberal prison system and prompted the resignation of the justice minister.
Bergling lived for several years in the Soviet Union, Hungary and Lebanon until, for health reasons, he voluntarily returned to Sweden in 1994. He continued to serve his sentence until 1997, when he was paroled. During the last years of his life, Bergling lived in a Stockholm nursing home and had been diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease. He died there on 24 January 2015, at 77 years old.
Early life
Bergling's father, who came from a wealthy home in Sala, was an engineer and worked with general insurance at an insurance company. Bergling's mother, who came from a working class home in Falun, had a strictly religious upbringing and worked as a secretary during Bergling's upbringing. Bergling had a younger sister. He attended ,a private school in Östermalm, Stockholm, and then attended Östra Real. In 1957, he did his military service as a coastal ranger at the Vaxholm Coastal Artillery Regiment (KA 1) in Vaxholm. He also became a reserve officer and advanced to the rank of lieutenant in the "Blocking Battalion Bråviken" where Bergling was responsible for security matters. The battalion had – in the event of war – the task to defend the inlet to Oxelösund and its surroundings.
Säpo, Fst/Säk and overseas service
In 1958 he began working at Östermalm police station at the same time as . Forsberg was the man who was to become the head of the Swedish counterintelligence and later be one of the men who disclosed Bergling. After some time, Bergling started working within radiopolisen and then the utlänningsroteln ("alien department"). After having worked as a police officer for 10 years, Bergling was employed in 1969 at the Swedish Security Service (Säpo) and worked at the Bureau II, the surveillance unit, the unit engaged in counterintelligence against Soviet Union agents in Sweden. In 1971, Bergling was on temporary leave from Säpo and began working at the Defence Staff's Security Department (Fst/Säk). In his new role as a liaison officer between the Säpo and the Defence Staff, he participated in the work to map the Soviet diplomats' activities in Sweden. Meanwhile, at Fst/Säk, Bergling copied a binder with classified documents. The binder contained the so-called fortification code, or FO code (Fortifikationskoden), the top-secret list of Sweden's defence facilities, coastal artillery fortifications, mobilization stores, command centers and radar stations. Bergling needed the information for his work at the Defence Staff, some times for long periods of time and it was impractical for him to return the original every day. He got permission from one of his superiors to obtain a copy of it. When Bergling was later to return it, he became angry with one of his superiors, Bengt Wallroth (later Director-General of the National Defence Radio Establishment) who started arguing and criticizing him. Bergling disliked the Defence Staff and Wallroth and instead of destroying the copy he kept it and put it in a safe deposit box at Erik Dahlbergsgatan in Stockholm.
Alongside the work home in Sweden, Bergling served several times in various UN battalions around the world. Bergling was a reserve officer in the Swedish Coastal Artillery, and in 1968 he was stationed in Cyprus as a military police chief. In November 1972 he came to the Middle East as a UN observer, at first in Israel and the following year in Lebanon. At that time, GRU officer Alexander Nikiforov was working as military attaché in the Soviet Embassy in Beirut. Bergling was in need of money and went to the Soviet Embassy and offered Nikiforov the copied binder with secret information. In November 1973, Bergling switched duty tour in Lebanon with a Belgian major so he could go to Stockholm and retrieve the binder. He flew from Stockholm via Budapest to Beirut and on the 30 November 1973, he sold the copied binder with the documents to the Soviets. Bergling received 3,500 dollars for it and was later told, after the binder had been examined in Moscow, that "we already have this information, ours is just a bit older."
Bergling stayed as an UNTSO observer another year in the Middle East and returned home in January 1975, and was then back at the Security Service and the so-called "Russian Division" (Ryssroteln) where he previously worked. Bergling's contact, Alexander Nikiforov, had realized that as a newly acquired Soviet agent, Bergling would be able to do more good in Sweden. Back at Säpo, Bergling was instructed by the Soviets to investigate what the Soviet intelligence men did wrong. The errors were reported by Bergling to Moscow who called them back home. To get in touch with the Soviets he wrote letters with "invisible writing", which was done with the help of carbon paper. The writings were then presented with a special liquid. He got messages back using a shortwave radio.
However, it was not in the Middle East where Bergling was trained as a spy but in East Germany. As an employee of the Security Service, he was not allowed to go to the Eastern Bloc countries so the trips to his employers in East Berlin were made in the greatest secrecy. To get into East Berlin, Berling had to go through the Berlin Wall at a special door at Friedrichstraße. It was an ordinary door in the house next to the Friedrichstraße station entrance. His liaison officer went ahead and then Berling could go straight out through a small door and suddenly he found himself in the station on the western side. It was, however, not just the work at the Security Service that gave Bergling the opportunity to conduct espionage. As a Swedish military reservist, he served several times in connection with various military unit exercises all around Sweden. In the autumn of 1975 he was stationed at the top secret coastal artillery battery "OD" (Femöre battery) in Oxelösund which at that time was an important part of the Swedish coastal defence and protection against the Soviet Union in the east. As a high ranking staff officer and head of the Section II of the Defence Staff, Bergling had access to the safe and had the opportunity to look through the documents when he was duty officer by himself.
Bergling suspected and arrested
In March 1976, Bergling was placed at the surveillance division at Säpo, and then got a unique insight into the ongoing projects, which had the purpose of exposing the Soviet intelligence officers and to recruit its own Soviet informers. As Bergling increasingly revealed more to his Soviets employers, suspicions also increased at Säpo that something was not right, and that it had a mole in the organization. Bergling soon became a suspect and Säpo began to follow him. At this time, the civilian Soviet secret service KGB also had a mole high up in its own organization; Oleg Gordievsky, who for some years had regularly provided the Western Bloc with information. Through contacts with his military colleagues at the GRU, Gordievsky understood that they had an agent placed in Säpo in Sweden. This information was communicated by Gordyevsky to the west through his regular contacts with the British MI6. Meanwhile, in 1976, Bergling's Swiss fiancee reported him for assault. At the same time she informed about her suspicions that he was a spy. Nothing happened except that police interrogated the woman.
In 1977, Bergling applied for a new UN service and was deployed to Suez. Säpo had then received information regarding Bergling's contacts with an identified GRU officer in the Middle East. Bergling was in Jordan when he decided to fly back to Sweden. However, there were no flights to Sweden from Jordan, so Bergling went to Israel instead. On 12 March 1979, Bergling was arrested by the Israeli counterintelligence and security service Shin Bet at the passport control at Ben Gurion Airport after the Israelis had been informed by Säpo. Säpo believed, however, that they themselves could not arrest him because their information would not have been useful in a Swedish court. At the same time, Säpo bureau chief informed the Israelis that Bergling had intended to return to Israel. The arrest of Bergling occurred therefore independently by Israel, and the reason for this was that Shin Bet needed to find out if Bergling also had conducted espionage on Israeli interests during his time in the Middle East. He got to choose where the interrogations would take place – in a prison or in a luxury hotel. Bergling got half an hour to decide and chose the luxury hotel. After seven days of interrogation, Bergling was put on a flight to Copenhagen where he was met by staff from the Danish secret service. They brought him to Helsingborg where he was met by old colleagues from Säpo and then taken to Stockholm. All in all, Bergling had earned 67,000 SEK on his spying.
Prosecution, in prison and conjugal visits
Bergling was detained in custody in March 1979 and defended by the lawyer . On 7 December 1979, he was sentenced in Sweden to life imprisonment for aggravated espionage and aggravated unauthorised dealing with secret information for handing out the fortification code (FO code) – the list of Sweden's defence installations, coastal artillery fortifications and mobilization stores. He was also accused of having handed over the Supreme Commander's war planning of the Soviets – planning on how the Swedish Armed Forces should act at different levels in a war situation. These were documents that had even greater secrecy than the binder that Bergling handed to the Soviets in Beirut. Bergling said that he simply did not know where these documents were and that he would never had the time to copy the documents without being detected. Also, in his defence, Oleg Gordievsky (the Western agent in the KGB) reported to the West that Bergling handed out the fortification code, but never said anything about the Supreme Commander's war planning documents. The Stockholm District Court cleared him of these charges. Bergling's then fiancee was sentenced to three months in prison for accessory to espionage.
After the verdict, Bergling was subjected to, for reasons of national security, a very strict solitary confinement. The then government under Minister for Justice Håkan Winberg decided on 10 January 1980 of certain restrictions for Bergling under the penal law (kriminalvårdslagen). Letters to and from Bergling were reviewed by Säpo and were kept. Visits and phone calls could be banned if they were detrimental to national security. Regulations regarding Bergling's treatment in prison was entrusted to the National Prison and Probation Administration (Kriminalvårdsstyrelsen) to consult with the National Police Board on the application. It was the National Police Board's Security Department that would account for the safety assessment and determine what considerations of national security demanded in the form of restrictions. On 12 June 1980, Bergling offered himself to be replaced by Raoul Wallenberg, but the Soviet Union did not respond. According to information from there, Wallenberg died in prison in 1947.
Bergling was in solitary confinement for 39 months in Kumla Prison before he ended up in mental health care, first in in Katrineholm and then in Västervik in 1982. In 1983, he was not considered to be in need of any additional care and the same year he came to . In Norrköping Prison, he had, at an early stage, been given permission to receive visits. A childhood friend, Elisabeth Sandberg, was coming to greet Bergling more often. The relationship developed, and while in prison Bergling change his name to Eugén Sandberg – Sandberg was his mother's maiden name – in connection with the marriage to Elisabeth Sandberg. They married in prison on 1 March 1986, the day after prime minister Olof Palme was murdered. They had resumed their acquaintance through correspondence during his prison time. She was at that time care assistant in the home care services in Spånga, divorced with four children. During the numerous visits in Norrköping and conjugal visits in her residence in Rinkeby the opportunity to plan an escape was given to them.
From the beginning of 1985, Bergling was granted a total of 15 supervised or accompanied conjugal visits. In July 1985, the government rejected Bergling's request for pardon. Six months later his request for repeal of the special restrictions was also rejected. After he, in October 1985 smuggled out a letter, where he told of advanced escape plans, the accompanied conjugal visits were ceased. Until May 1987, he was only admitted supervised conjugal visits. In March 1987, he applied again for pardon and that the special restrictions be lifted. The government rejected the pardon application on August 27. According to the Supreme Commander's opinion, it would take more time before the most important actions to reduce the harmful effects of Bergling espionage were completed. There was also, according to the Supreme Commander, a real risk that Bergling still had knowledge that, if it came to the hands of some foreign power, would bring harm to the national security. Somewhat later the Ministry of Justice remitted the petition to amend the regulation of Bergling to the relevant authorities. On 24 September 1987, the Director General of the National Prison and Probation Administration, , submitted a memorandum on Bergling to the Ministry of Justice. He also informed that the National Prison and Probation Administration, in view of the government's rejection of pardon and the reasons for it, opposed easing of the regulations for Bergling. On 24 September, the National Prison and Probation Administration Department Manager Clas Amilon decided, without having been informed of Larsson's consultation response to the Ministry, to grant Bergling a new accompanied conjugal visit with the same arrangement as in July when he visited Gröna Lund in Stockholm – including a restaurant visit. The accompanied conjugal visit that began in the morning of 5 October 1987 was the first after the government's rejection of the pardon in August.
Escape from prison
On 6 October 1987, while on conjugal visit from Norrköping Prison, he and his wife, Elisabeth, managed to escape. Bergling had been planning the escape from prison for three years. On Monday morning, 5 October, Bergling left prison on a conjugal visit with a prison overseer. They had met his wife during the day and later in the evening, all three had eaten dinner together at restaurant Stallmästaregården. The prison overseer had left the couple in his wife's apartment in Rinkeby at about 23:00 in the evening and would return 13:00 the day after. The only surveillance Bergling had was Säpo's surveillance team in a car in front of the house. The wife had arranged three rental cars that would serve as escape vehicles. The first one was parked in front of the house to attract the surveillance team. At midnight, he put plans into action. First, his wife left the apartment disguised and passed Säpo's surveillance car. Then, Bergling went down into the garage of the house dressed in jogger outfit and went out of the gate. There was a fog and the surveillance team could not see him.
The plan now was to meet at the second escape vehicle, which was in a parking lot in Rinkeby, one kilometer away. Before he could reach the second car, Säpo's surveillance car had stopped behind it because it checked on all the cars in the area. His wife went off to get to the third escape vehicle parked in Djursholm. Bergling ran over towards Tensta and reached E18, where he found a vacant taxi. He ordered the taxi to Djursholms Ösby and ran from there the last bit to Djursholm square. He met up, as planned, with his wife Elisabeth at the third escape vehicle, an Opel Ascona, which had been parked just 50 meters from where the previously convicted spy Stig Wennerström lived.
From Djursholm they made their way further north to Grisslehamn where Ålandsfärjan departed at 09.00. They made their way through Eckerö in Åland to the Soviet Consulate in Mariehamn, where they arrived at 13:00, at the same time as the prison overseer knocked on the door of the apartment in Rinkeby. From here the couple were instructed to take the ferry to Naantali in to mainland Finland and on to the Soviet Embassy in Helsinki. They stayed there for a week. In the suburb area of Tapiola in Espoo, the police found the couple's escape vehicle. It took more than 10 hours before the Swedish authorities issued an official alert for Bergling. Bergling was now transported in the trunk of a diplomatic car to the Finnish–Soviet border crossing station Vaalimaa and his old clients.
The Government Offices were informed of Bergling's escape during the afternoon of 6 October 1987, by a telephone message from Director General of the National Prison and Probation Administration to the Minister of Justice Sten Wickbom. Approximately at 16.00 the Justice Minister had spoken to the Director General, and half an hour later with , the director of the police security department. The Justice Minister and his colleagues was, throughout the night of Wednesday, until at 05:30 in the morning, working in the department. They had had regular contact with, primarily Säpo. At his first contact with the security department at 16:30, the Justice Minister Wickbom asked if the official alert (rikslarm) had been issued and got the answer that no such alert had been issued, but it would immediately be. The official alert was first issued at 22:14, nearly 24 hours after the prison overseer had left the couple in the apartment in Rinkeby.
Political consequences
On 8 October 1987, the Government decided to assign the Chancellor of Justice to the task of investigating the circumstances surrounding the conjugal visit Bergling had been granted, the security that had occurred and responsibilities associated with it and the responsible authorities' actions during the time of his dissenting. On 19 October 1987, the Chancellor of Justice reported his assessment. The National Police Board's security department and staff could not be responsible for the deviation but instead the National Prison and Probation Administration's client department. Concerning the subsequent handling of the issue regarding the notification of the fugitive once it was clear that Bergling has fled, the Chancellor of Justice meant that the "arrest warrant and the official alert was delayed in an unacceptable manner" and that the responsibility for this lay with the officers at Norrköping Police Department.
Justice Minister Wickbom was forced to resign after Bergling's escape. Wickbom had claimed that he had not been informed that Bergling had been granted regular conjugal visits and that his escape was a result of a series of mix-ups between the police and the prison service. The information about Bergling's conjugal visit was at the Department of Justice at the time of the escape, though he had not seen it. Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson said he accepted Wickboms departure, but praised his courage in his decision to resign. On 20 October 1987 the Director General of the National Prison and Probation Administration , the State Secretary , the Information Officer at the Ministry of Justice Björn Fougelberg and the political adviser to the former minister Pär Nuder all resigned.
Time abroad and the return to Sweden
Under the alias of Ivar and Elisabeth Straus, they lived in Moscow for a while. From the start, the Soviets did not trust Bergling suspecting him as a Säpo (double) agent. The escape had been too easy and the GRU thought it was prearranged. Again and again Bergling has to show how Elisabeth's house looked like and how they could run away from Säpo. Because of the questions the Soviets asked after they arrived in Moscow, he understood that there would be no intelligence work in for him. Bergling received 500 rubles per month, which was more than most senior Soviet state and party officials earned.
1988-89 they lived in the Hungarian capital Budapest before they moved back to Moscow. However, in autumn of 1990, as the Soviet Union was collapsing, they were moved to Lebanon. There, Bergling was active under the name of Ronald Abi and pretended to be a British agricultural engineer while he worked as a security consultant for Walid Jumblatt at the end of the civil war. Jumblatt was head of the Progressive Socialist Party, a Druze-based party and ally of the Soviet Union. He first lived in Jumblatt's home in Moukhtara in the Chouf Mountains before he got his own house. In Lebanon, Bergling got 5,000 dollars every six months, they lived rent free, got cars almost for free and they got pocket money from Jumblatt himself. Jumblatt later apologized to Sweden for having protected a convicted spy for four years but had done so at the request of his former friends in the Soviet Communist Party.
On 2 August 1994, Bergling called the Säpo from Cyprus. He was then ill with Parkinson's disease, his wife had cancer and longed for her children. They wanted to go home to Sweden. When Bergling said who he was, he was at first not believed. After a few checks Säpo realised that it actually was Bergling. The day after the couple returned voluntarily to Sweden and Bergling was arrested at Stockholm Arlanda Airport. On returning home, Bergling's own mother didn't know if he was alive. Bergling spent three years in prison until his release due to health reasons on 17 July 1997. The final time in Asptuna Prison. The last time at Asptuna Prison he spent in his room because he was ostracised and bullied by other prisoners. On one occasion he was attacked and stabbed by a fellow prisoner who thought he disturbed him when he was cleaning. Bergling received a blow over the ear, but no serious injuries. During the end of the prison term, his then wife became acutely ill with chronic cancer. Bergling did not get to the hospital in time, before she died on their wedding day. The following year, Bergling married the psychologist Elisabeth Robertson, 20 years his junior.
Later life and death
On 8 October 2003, Bergling met for the first time before an audience , the former head of the Swedish counterintelligence, in a meeting in Akademiska Föreningen's premises in Lund.
In the middle of 2006, Bergling became a member of the Swedish Left Party, but he later left the party in September the same year, disappointed at the outcome of the elections according to Aftonbladet. In 2008 Bergling pronounced in media his support for the FRA law.
In 1992 he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and moved around, at the end of his life, using a wheelchair or a mobility scooter. In 2004 he divorced a Polish woman whom he had been married to twice. Bergling had an adult son which his ex-wife's new husband adopted. The son was adopted when he was a year and a half old. Bergling lived from October 2012 in .
In March 2013 Bergling was suspected to have shot a nurse in the face with an airsoft gun. The incident occurred when the nurse was in Bergling's room to help him with some practical details. According to Bergling himself, he had felt provoked by the keeper and then brought up an airsoft gun and fired the gun into the wall. The police investigation was later discontinued and Bergling's airsoft gun, which had been seized by the police, was returned. Bergling died from Parkinson's disease on 24 January 2015. He was buried on 7 May 2015 at Kungsholms Cemetery in Kungsholmen, Stockholm.
Personal life
In his first marriage, Bergling was married 1961–1965 to Marianne Rinman (1941–2009), daughter of diploma engineer Kurt Rinman. In his second marriage, from 1965–1973, he was married to Kyllikki Kyyrö (born 1934); in his third, he was married in 1986 to Elisabeth Sjögren (also named Lillemor Geuken and Elisabeth Sandberg) (1940–1997); and in his fourth (from 1998–2002) and fifth (from 2003–2004), to psychologist Helena Smejko (also named Elisabeth Robertsson) (born 1955), a native of Poland.
Enemy's Enemy
In the novel Enemy's Enemy (1989) by author Jan Guillou, Carl Hamilton gets the task from his clients to go to Moscow and kill the spy Stig Bergling (in the book called Stig Sandström) who has escaped during his conjugal visit, killed his wife and went to Moscow to work for the Russians. The surname Sandström was taken from Sune Sandström, the then head of Säpo. Bergling wasn't murdered or killed his wife, but later returned to Sweden to serve the remainder of his sentence for espionage. In the 2006 edition of Enemy's Enemy, Guillou writes:
”One morning he [Bergling] phoned me from Hall Prison and woke me up. He felt that he was entitled to a dedicated copy of the book. I could only agree and wrote truthfully that this is the most remarkable dedication I have ever written. One must say that I got off cheaply.”
Bibliography
Notes
References
Footnotes
Print
Further reading
External links
Radio documentary about Stig Bergling on P3 Dokumentär
1937 births
2015 deaths
Swedish people convicted of spying for the Soviet Union
People convicted of treason against Sweden
Swedish Coastal Artillery officers
Neurological disease deaths in Sweden
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Defectors to the Soviet Union
1979 in international relations
Swedish police officers
Military personnel from Stockholm
20th-century Swedish military personnel
20th-century Swedish criminals |
4061643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Saitoti | George Saitoti | George Musengi Saitoti, E.G.H. (3 August 1945 – 10 June 2012) was a Kenyan politician, businessman and American- and British-trained economist, mathematician and development policy thinker.
As a mathematician, Saitoti served as Head of the Mathematics Department at the University of Nairobi, pioneered the founding of the African Mathematical Union and served as its vice-president from 1976 to 1979.
As an economist, Saitoti served as the Executive Chairman of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1990–91, and as President of the African Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States in 1999–2000, at the crucial phase of re-negotiating the new development partnership agreement to replace the expired Lomé Convention between the ACP bloc and the European Union (EU). His book The Challenges of Economic and Institutional Reforms in Africa influenced practical policy directions on an array of areas during the turbulent 1980s and 1990s.
Saitoti joined politics as a nominated Member of Parliament and Minister for Finance in 1983, rising to become Kenya's longest-serving Vice-President, a proficient Minister for education, Internal Security and Provincial Administration and Foreign Affairs. Few recognise him as a "reformist", but his recommendations as the Chair of the KANU Review Committee, popularly known as the "Saitoti Committee" in 1990–91, opened KANU to internal changes and set the stage for the repeal of Section 2A and Kenya's return to pluralist democracy. Saitoti left KANU and joined the opposition, becoming a kingpin figure in the negotiations that led to the "NARC Revolution" in 2002. As Minister for Internal Security and Provincial Administration, Acting Minister for Foreign Affairs and key member of the National Security Advisory Committee (NSAC), he later worked closely with the national Ministry of Defence to see through the Operation Linda Nchi against the Al-Shabaab insurgent group. In addition, rival factions had for decades invoked the infamous Goldenberg fraud to knock Saitoti out of politics, but the legal courts cleared him of the scandal in July 2006. Saitoti's dual heritage as a Maasai with Kikuyu family members predisposed him to a pan-Kenyan vision, but also denied him a strong ethnic base unlike his competitors. As one of Kenya's most experienced, unassuming and shrewd politicians, Saitoti was billed as a front-runner in the race to succeed President Mwai Kibaki.
Early life and education
George Saitoti was born on 3 August 1945 and brought up in Maasailand, where he spent his childhood herding cattle in line with the Masai culture, and attending school. He attended Ololua Primary School, Kajiado where he acquired his basic education in the 1950s. Between 1960 and 1963, he secured a place at Mang'u High School in Thika where he attained his high school education. He joined the ranks of Mang'u High School's highly decorated alumni including Kenya's third President, Mwai Kibaki, former Vice-President Moody Awori, Catholic Archbishop Ndingi Mwana-a-Nzeki, the late Environment Minister John Michuki, the late Trade Unionist and former Minister for Justice and Constitutional Affairs, Tom Mboya, and late Cardinal Maurice Michael Otunga.
Saitoti was one of the recipients of the Kennedy Airlift scholarships in 1963 at the age of 18. This was a scholarship program started by Tom Mboya and William X. Scheinmann and supported by the John F. Kennedy foundation and the African American Students Association to address the educational needs of newly independent Kenya. Through this program, hundreds of East Africans studied in the United States of America and Canada. Saitoti studied at Brandeis University between 1963 and 1967 where he was a mathematician. During his time there, he was on the Wien Scholarship, specialising in Mathematics and Economics. His colleagues at the time remember that he enjoyed spending time in Cholmondeleys (the coffeehouse in the Castle) and excelled at high jump, ranking as one of the best in New England. In 1988, Saitoti received the first Brandeis Alumni Achievement Award, the highest honour the university bestows upon its graduates.
Saitoti later moved to the United Kingdom where he acquired a Master of Science (MSc) degree in mathematics from the University of Sussex, Brighton. He enrolled for his doctoral studies at the University of Warwick where he acquired his PhD in mathematics in 1972; writing his dissertation under the supervision of professor Luke Hodgkin in the area of algebraic topology under the topic: Mod-2 K-Theory of the Second Iterated Loop Space on a Sphere.
Academic career
Upon his graduation, Saitoti returned to Kenya in 1972, commencing a career as a Mathematics lecturer at the University of Nairobi. One of his contributions was the institutionalisation of Mathematics as a discipline in Africa. During the first Pan-African Conference of Mathematicians held in Rabat, Morocco, in 1976, Saitoti was involved in the creation of the African Mathematical Union (AMU). He was elected the AMU's vice-president, a post which he held on up to 1979. By 1983, Saitoti's academic career was on the rise as associate professor and Head of the Mathematics Department.
Outside the academy, Saitoti received several public appointments. On 3 November 1972, the Minister of Labour appointed him as the chairman of the Agricultural Wages Council (AWC). On 4 September 1979, the Minister for Tourism and Wildlife, John Ogutu, also appointed him as a committee member of the Natural Sciences Advisory Research Committee (TNSARC) chaired by professor S. O. Wandiga. In September 1983, he was appointed chairperson of the board of directors for the Rift Valley Institute of Science and Technology. He also served in other public capacities as chairman of Mumias Sugar Company and the Kenya Commercial Bank.
Development thinker
Top decision-makers in government had recognised Saitoti as a policy thinker and technocrat, of whom the KANU desperately needed to fix its institutions, politics and the economy. His seminal book, The Challenges of Economic and Institutional Reforms in Africa was widely praised by leading officials as providing practical policy proposals to deal with the various challenges facing Kenya and Africa.
The book drew from Saitoti's experience as a seasoned scholar, consultant and experienced policy-maker/thinker, presenting a rigorous and multidisciplinary analysis of strategies for poverty alleviation, sustainable development, poverty reduction, combating HIV/AIDS and peace diplomacy. Saitoti also emphasised the importance of institutional reforms and sound public policies to sustainable economic growth in Africa.
Political career
Long before joining mainstream politics, Saitoti had a stint in the legislative duties. From 1974 to 1977, he represented Kenya in the defunct (since-revived) East African Community as a member of the East African Legislative Assembly.
Dual ancestry and politics of diversity
In October 1983, President Daniel arap Moi nominated Saitoti as a member of parliament and subsequently appointed him to the Cabinet as Minister for Finance. He held the position until 1989. During the 1988 general elections, Saitoti entered competitive politics and won the Kajiado North parliamentary seat that was previously held by Philip Odupoy. Prior to the tenure of Adupoy and Saitoti, the Kajiado North multi-ethnic constituency was held by the popular politician, John Keen, another half-Maasai who champion a nationalist vision and worked over the years to ensure the advancement of his mother's people.
For more than 25 years, professor George Saitoti has represented Kajiado North since 1988, recapturing the seat in consecutive elections in 1992, 1997, 2002 and 2007. Building on John Keen's legacy of a cosmopolitan constituency, Saitoti transformed Kajiado North into Kenya's most ethnically integrated multi-ethnic legislative area that also provided a safe haven to Kenyans, forcibly displaced by the 1991–2008 cycles of ethnic violence in neighbouring areas.
The area is also ranked among the top ten wealthiest, economically dynamic and fastest growing regions in Kenya. According to figures released by the Government of Kenya in 2009, Kajiado North has had an average poverty index of 10.66 per cent for the last three years, making it one of the richest constituencies in Kenya (see table 1).
Kenya's sixth Vice-President
After the 1988 General Election, President Moi appointed Saitoti as Kenya's sixth vice-president. Saitoti became Kenya's longest sitting vice-president serving for 13 years under President Daniel arap Moi between May 1989 and January 1998 and again between April 1999 and August 2002 (see table 2). At the same time, he served as Minister for Finance.
In 1990–1991, Saitoti was the Executive Chairman of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In 1999–2000, Saitoti also served as president of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States, becoming instrumental in helping negotiate a new development partnership agreement to succeed the previous Lomè Convention that expired in February 2000 between the ACP and the European Union.
The hallmarks of Saitoti tenure as vice-president were efficiency, sobriety and loyalty as President Moi's most trusted lieutenant. Even when President Moi dithered in naming a new deputy after the 1997 elections, Saitoti was still his favoured choice 14 months down the line. The same traits of efficiency, patience and loyalty would make him one of President Mwai Kibaki's trusted Ministers.
Reforming KANU'S one-party system
When Saitoti was appointed vice-president on 1 May 1989, KANU was back-pedaling on re-democratizing the country. At the same time, the party was fragmented over the succession divide between a sit-tight "KANU-A" and a more pro-change "KANU-B" led by Saitoti. The new vice-president was, therefore, compelled to walk the tightrope between being the face of change in the ruling party and remaining loyal to his principal who, after re-election as president in 1988, had amended the constitution to increase his power to dismiss judges and widened police powers.
On New Year's Day 1990, the vocal cleric Rev. Timothy Njoya called on all Africans to demand a multiparty system of government. Following the Saba Saba riots on 7 July 1990, President Moi announced the formation of the KANU Review Committee under the chairmanship of Prof George Saitoti, popularly known as the Saitoti Committee.
The Saitoti Review Committee
The Saitoti Review Committee was mandated to investigate the party's internal electoral and disciplinary conduct. The committee traversed the country collecting people's opinions on the party, astounding foe, friend and critics alike and offering a rare forum for direct criticism and outbursts.
In January 1991, KANU's executive committee adopted the recommendation by George Saitoti, that critics of the party cease being expelled but suspended for one or two years.
The recommendations of the report were open for debate during the National Delegates Conference at Karasani in Nairobi. President Moi backed the adoption and implementation of the report in toto, against what many speakers at the conference had expected. This opened the reforms gates, eventually setting the stage for the repeal of Section 2A in 1991 that returned Kenya to back to a multiparty system of government. The Saitoti Review Committee thrust the party on the reform path, but also widened internal ideological schisms between "KANU-A" conservatives and "KANU-B" pro-reformers over the Moi succession question.
KANU'S war on Saitoti
Saitoti was in the eye of a nasty succession storm that rocked KANU before and after the 1997 elections. Maasai purists led by Minister William Ole Ntimama and senior Maasai elders 're-Kikuyunized' Saitoti's dual ancestry, amplifying his Kikuyu family linkages as a scheme to weaken his political base and to challenge his status as a Maasai elder.
Despite his steadfast loyalty to KANU and President Moi, Saitoti was frequently ignored, humiliated and frustrated by the party and its top echelons. Around the same time Foreign Affairs Minister Robert Ouko was murdered in February 1990, Saitoti claims that attempts were made on his life. After the 1997 general elections, he was dropped as vice-president, although no replacement was appointed. Even as President Moi reappointed him in April 1999, on the roadside in Limuru, Kiambu he made a scathing remark to the effect that: "I've given back Prof Saitoti the seat of Vice-President, hopefully now your sufurias (pots) will be full of food." Months before the general elections of 2002, Saitoti's name was deleted from the list of KANU delegates and his ascendancy to the presidency blocked by 'unknown' party members.
On 18 March 2002, when KANU held its national delegates conference at the Kasarani sports complex, the move to block Saitoti from the succession game was manifest. The meeting amended the party constitution to allow for the merger between KANU and Raila Odinga's National Development Party (NDP) to create the "New KANU". But it also introduced four new positions of party vice-chairmen primarily to water down Saitoti's position as vice-president and Moi's most likely successor as president.
The National Rainbow Coalition (NARC)
It was clear that Moi did not even want him as one of the four vice-chairmen posts reserved for Uhuru Kenyatta, Kalonzo Musyoka, Katana Ngala and Musalia Mudavadi. Moi told Saitoti to his face that he was not "presidential material". As a "Maasai-Kikuyu," Saitoti lacked the ethnic numbers he needed in the political horse-trading in Moi's power game. Instead, Moi finger-pointed as his heir Uhuru Kenyatta, perceived to have a large ethnic base as a pure-bred Kikuyu with the "Kenyatta" mystique.
Saitoti gracefully bowed out of the race, living to fight another day, but not without his famous line: There comes a time when the nation is much more important than an individual.
But the KANU-NDP marriage came to a tragic end when Moi named Uhuru rather than Raila Odinga as his successor. In August 2002, Odinga left KANU to defeat Moi's "use and dump game," and joined a group of KANU rebels" coalesced around the "Rainbow Alliance" lobby that later transformed itself into the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Saitoti also walking out of KANU and became a key LDP figure. In October 2002, LDP joined the National Alliance of Kenya (NAK) of Mwai Kibaki, Charity Ngilu and Wamalwa Kijana to form the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). Saitoti became a member of the NARC Summit, the highest organ of the coalition.
The "NARC revolution"
When the NARC flag-bearer, Mwai Kibaki, decisively defeated KANU and Uhuru Kenyatta, Saitoti was appointed to the Ministry of Education. He was the man in charge of implementing NARC's flagship and globally acclaimed free primary education in Kenya.
The Kibaki stalwart
After 2004, as the NARC consensus crumbled, Saitoti left the agitating LDP camp and threw his lot behind President Kibaki. He canvassed for the government-sponsored draft Constitution, which lost to a combined KANU-LDP campaign during the November 2005 referendum. During the 2007 elections, Saitoti defended his Kajiado North parliamentary seat on the Party of National Unity (PNU) ticket, Kibaki's re-election vehicle, launched three months to the election on 16 September 2007.
The courts ordered a vote recount in Kajiado North, but Saitoti beat his closest competitor, Moses Ole Sakuda with close to 20,000 votes. Saitoti blamed his re-election glitch on intrigues of power by KANU forces within the PNU campaign which underwrote his rivals to knock him out of politics and potentially out of the 2012 Presidential elections. But he had remained reticent about it.
Saitoti's traits of patience, efficiency and loyalty to Kibaki paid off. On 8 January 2008, he was appointed Minister of State for Internal Security and Provincial Administration in the Office of the President, a position previously occupied by a Kibaki confidant, John Michuki. Saitoti retained the Internal Security docket even after President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga established the power-sharing government that ended the 2008 post-election crisis. Between October 2010 and August 2011, Saitoti was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs on an acting capacity after the incumbent, Moses Wetangula, stepped aside to allow investigations on alleged corruption.
Cabinet sub-committee on ICC
In July 2009, Saitoti was appointed to head a special cabinet sub-committee formed to oversee the affairs of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in Kenya. Members of this bi-partisan committee include; George Saitoti, Mutula Kilonzo and Moses Wetangula (PNU) and James Orengo, Otieno Kajwang and Amason Kingi (ODM). (Following a cabinet reshuffle in April 2012, Eugene Wamalwa and Prof. Sam Ongeri have replaced Kilonzo and Wetangula). The role of the sub-Committee as a liaison and co-ordination body between the ICC and the Kenyan government took a center-stage from December 2010 when the ICC Chief Prosecutor, Luis Moreno Ocampo, indicted six prominent Kenyans for alleged crimes against humanity relating to the 2008 post-election violence.
As the Minister of Internal Security and the chairman of the and security matters, Saitoti is the guarantor of the government's commitment to the ICC process. Arising from this, several analysts have claimed the suspects' fate lie with the sub-committee. Saitoti came out strongly criticising the invocation of President Kibaki in the ICC debate, calling for sobriety from politicians. Saitoti has maintained a legal interpretation on whether the suspects can vie for presidency in the coming elections, stressing that only the constitution can bar or let them free to enter the race.
PNU party politics
On 19 December 2008, President Mwai Kibaki who was unanimously endorsed as Party Leader at the PNU National Delegates Conference (NDC) held at Kasarani sports complex in Nairobi. In accordance with the Political Parties Act (2008), Saitoti was elected PNU chairman, becoming the second-in-command in the party hierarchy since he lost as KANU Vice-President in the battle for the Moi succession in March 2002. His elevation, however, complicated coalition politics and raised the stakes for the Kibaki succession in PNU. Other presidential hopefuls, Uhuru Kenyatta and Kalonzo Musyoka, shunned the party and embarked on consolidating their respective parties.
In November 2010, Musyoka, Kenyatta and Saitoti signed a protocol to form and transform the PNU Alliance into a common political vehicle for the 2013 presidential race. But the imperative to comply with the Political Parties Act (2011) forced them to abandon the Alliance and shift attention to their respective parties.
Goldenberg scandal
Saitoti was both Vice-President and Finance Minister at the height of the 1991–1993 Goldenberg scandal. Even though his own culpability in the fraud has never been established, for decades the Goldenberg has become the proverbial Sword of Damocles used against Saitoti in intra-elite power wars. In early 1999, Raila Odinga as a presidential contender to succeed Moi as president, sued Saitoti and others over alleged role in the Goldenberg scandal. Three months after his re-appointment as vice-president on 3 April 1999, Otieno Kajwang', a Raila ally, moved a private member's motion of no confidence in the vice-president for his alleged role in the Goldenberg fraud. Saitoti survived the onslaught.
The Goldenberg spectre returned to haunt Saitoti in the wake of the fierce political infighting between the LDP/KANU faction and Kibaki supporters in NARC that followed the 2005 referendum. On 3 February 2006 a report by the Goldenberg Commission of Inquiry, chaired by Justice Samuel Bosire, recommended that George Saitoti should face criminal charges for his involvement in the Goldenberg scandal. On 13 February 2006, Saitoti voluntarily stepped aside from his ministerial docket to pave way for investigations into the allegations.
However, on 31 July 2006, a three-judge bench headed by Justice Joseph Nyamu issued a certiorari order clearing Prof Saitoti of any wrongdoing, expunging his name from the Bosire Commission Report and issuing an order on permanent stay of prosecution against Saitoti.
In dismissing the 23 paragraphs of the report, the High Court bench cited three inter-related errors of commission and omission by the Bosire Commission:
The inquiry into the Goldenberg fraud had created a pyramid of noticeable bias, discriminatory treatment of evidence, submissions and factual errors that undermined the pursuit of justice and fairness.
The factual flaws, biased and unprofessional handling of evidence by Inquiry led to wrong findings. The Inquiry's claim that Prof Saitoti illegally approved the 15 per cent ex-gratia payments as additional payment over and above the 20 per cent export compensation allowed at the time under the law were factually wrong. Indeed, the customs refunds, which Saitoti was accused of approving, were actually passed by Parliament.
Long delay and wrong findings by the Goldenberg inquiry denied Prof. Saitoti any conceivable chance fair trial and justice.
On 15 November 2006, President Kibaki reappointed Saitoti back to Cabinet.
In April 2012, the vetting board found Justice Samuel Bosire unfit to serve in the judiciary citing fails as the Chairman of the Goldenberg Commission of Inquiry. He ignored a High Court Order to summon retired President Daniel arap Moi, Musalia Mudavadi and Nicholas Biwott as witnesses. The vetting board also accused Justice Nyamu of undermining public confidence in the courts for issuing a permanent stay of prosecution against Saitoti.
Linda Nchi
Starting October 2011, Saitoti worked closely with national Minister of Defence Mohamed Yusuf Haji to see through Linda Nchi, a coordinated operation in southern Somalia between the Somali military and the Kenyan military against the Al-Shabaab group of insurgents. The mission was officially led by the Somali army, with the Kenyan forces providing a support role. In early June 2012, Haji signed another agreement re-hatting Kenya's deployed military forces in Somalia under the AMISOM general command.
The Kibaki succession race
In November 2011, Saitoti confirmed that he was in the race to succeed President Kibaki, who is set to retire after the next general election. Saitoti reiterated his candidature in January 2012, continuing to tour Kenya, with meet-the-people excursions to the Rift Valley, Eastern and Central provinces.
It appeared to be history repeating itself in the battle for the soul of the Kikuyu between, Saitoti, a Maasai with Kikuyu kith and kin, and Uhuru Kenyatta, a thorough-bred Kikuyu. Uhuru is widely thought as the presumptive successor to President Kibaki, but Saitoti was emerging also, as a likely candidate. In the event that Uhuru's run for the presidency is thwarted by the confirmed charges by the ICC, it remains a too-up as to whether Saitoti would have benefited from the spin-off.
Private life
Saitoti was a businessman who had interests in agriculture, horticulture, real estates, hospitality and pastoralism.
Saitoti's family life received little publicity. His wife, Margaret Saitoti, was with him when the High Court dropped charges in the 16-year Goldenberg case. His brother, Ronald Musengi, has been a banking executive with the Kenya Commercial Bank. In February 2012, Ronald Musengi applied to be a member of the National Police Service Commission.
Death
Saitoti died on Sunday 10 June 2012 at around 9:00 am when a Eurocopter AS350 helicopter belonging to the Kenya Police Air Wing registration 5Y-CDT, carrying him and the Assistant Minister for Internal Security, Joshua Orwa Ojode, crashed in the Kibiku area of Ngong forest, killing them and four others. He was buried on 16 June in Kajiado North constituency. After the Maasai elders agreed to abandon the traditional burial rites and embrace the Catholic way, fifty bulls were slaughtered at the funeral in accordance with Maasai tradition. Al Shabaab militias and drug traffickers are the main suspects for the disaster. Investigations have not yet found anyone guilty. Saitoti was to table a ministerial statement in Parliament.
List of publications
Saitoti, G. (2005). "Keynote address given during the official opening of the sub-regional seminar for TIVET policy makers and UNESCO UNEVOC Center Coordinators". Nairobi, Kenya.
(2004). "Education in Kenya: Challenges and policy responses". Paper presented at the Council on
Foreign Relations, Washington D.C.
(2003) "National conference on education and training, Meeting the challenges of education and training during 21st century". Nairobi.
(2003). "Reflections on Africa Development", Journal of Third World Studies.
Saitoti, G. and KANU Review Committee(2002), Report of the KANU Review Committee, 1990. The Committee, Nairobi.
(2002).The Challenges of Economic and Institutional Reforms in Afric. Ashgate Publishers Limited.
(1985). i mathematica, Politechnika Warszawska Technical.
"A remark on Mod 2 K-Theory fundamental classes". Ann. Fac. Sci. Univ. Nat. Zaïre (Kinshasa)Sect. Math.-Phys. 3 (1977), no. 1, 61–63.
"Homology of a differential algebra". Publ. Math. Debrecen 23 (1976), no. 3-4, 235—237.
"K-Theory fundamental classes". Demonstration Math. 8 (1975), No. 4, 365–377.
A note on the homology of a differential graded algebra. Nigerian Journal of Science. 8 (1974), no. 1-2,127–130.
Loop spaces and K-theory. Journal of London Mathematics Society''.(2) 9 (1974/75), 423–428.
Positions
Member, National Security Committee (NSAC), Kenya. (2008 – death)
Chairman, Cabinet Sub-committee on ICC, Kenya. (2009 – death)
Chairman, Party of National Unity (PNU) (2008 – death)
Acting Minister for Foreign Affairs (October 2010 – August 2011)
Minister of State for Provincial Administration and Internal Security (January 2008 – death)
Minister of Education (November 2006 – January 2008)
Minister of Education (7 December 2005 – 13 February 2006)
Minister of Education (January 2003 – November 2005)
Vice-President (3 April 1999 – 30 August 2002)
Minister for Planning and National Development (December 1997 – April 1999)
Vice-President (1 May 1989 – 8 January 1998)
Minister of Finance (1983–1988)
Vice-President, African Mathematical Union (1976–1979)
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182239/http://www.parliament.go.ke/MPs/members_saitoti_prof_g.php
Research
Goldenberg a tough test for the maths don
1945 births
2012 deaths
Members of the National Assembly (Kenya)
Vice-presidents of Kenya
Brandeis University alumni
Alumni of the University of Warwick
National Rainbow Coalition politicians
Government ministers of Kenya
Interior ministers of Kenya
Party of National Unity (Kenya) politicians
Kenya African National Union politicians
Kenyan mathematicians
Alumni of Mang'u High School
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Kenya
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 2012
Victims of helicopter accidents or incidents
Maasai
Kikuyu people
Ministers of Finance of Kenya
United Democratic Forum Party politicians
Burials in Kenya |
4061738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Farrell%20%28United%20States%20Army%20officer%29 | Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer) | Major General Thomas Francis Farrell (3 December 1891 – 11 April 1967) was the Deputy Commanding General and Chief of Field Operations of the Manhattan Project, acting as executive officer to Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr.
Farrell graduated from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute with a degree in civil engineering in 1912. During World War I, he served with the 1st Engineers on the Western Front, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the French Croix de guerre. After the war, he was an instructor at the Engineer School, and then at the United States Military Academy at West Point. He resigned from the Regular Army in 1926 to become Commissioner of Canals and Waterway for the State of New York from 1926 to 1930, and head of construction and engineering of the New York State Department of Public Works from 1930 until 1941.
During World War II he returned to active duty as Groves' executive officer in the Operations Branch of the Construction Division under the Office of the Quartermaster General. He went to the China-Burma-India theater to help build the Ledo Road. In January 1945, Groves chose Farrell as his second-in-command of the Manhattan Project. Farrell observed the Trinity test at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range with J. Robert Oppenheimer. In August 1945, he went to Tinian to supervise the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Afterwards he led teams of scientists to inspect the effects of the atomic bombs.
In 1946 he was appointed chairman of the New York City Housing Authority. He subsequently worked as a consultant for the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority on projects such as the Cross Bronx Expressway. He was a member of the evaluation board for Operation Crossroads, and was an advisor to Bernard Baruch, the United States representative on the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. During the Korean War, Farrell returned to active duty once more, serving with the Defense Production Administration, and then with the Atomic Energy Commission as its Assistant General Manager for Manufacturing. He oversaw a vast increase in the Commission's production capabilities before retiring again in 1951. From 1960 to 1964, he worked on the preparations for the 1964 New York World's Fair.
Early life
Thomas Francis Farrell was born on 3 December 1891 in Brunswick, New York, the fourth of nine children of John Joseph Farrell Sr., a farmer, and his wife Margaret née Connolly. Farrell was raised on the family's farm, where his father had an apple orchard, and raised pigs and dairy cattle. The children helped with the farm chores, and delivering the milk, but none stayed on as adults. Farrell graduated from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1912. His first professional job was working on the New York State Barge Canal. Seeing Irish workers being mistreated by bosses made him a staunch supporter of organized labor. He worked on the Panama Canal from 1913 to 1916.
Farrell joined the Corps of Engineers Officers Reserve Corps in 1916. He married Maria Ynez White in 1917 before departing for France with the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). He joined the 1st Engineers with the rank of second lieutenant, and departed from Hoboken, New Jersey on the USAT Finland on 6 August as the assistant supply officer with the rank of first lieutenant. He became a captain and regimental supply officer in October, and subsequently, with the rank of major, commanded the 2nd Battalion from January to May 1918, Company F from May to July, and finally the 1st Battalion from July 1918.
Farrell participated in the Battle of Cantigny, the Aisne-Marne Offensive, the Battle of Montdidier-Noyon and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. The 1st Engineers' main role was maintenance of the roads and construction of bridges in the 1st Division area, although detachments also employed Bangalore torpedoes to clear paths through barbed wire. However, during the Argonne battle, Farrell's 1st Battalion was committed to the line as infantry. For his leadership in the action that followed, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. His citation read:
Farrell was also awarded the Croix de guerre with palm for his actions, and the 1st Battalion received a citation from Major General Charles Summerall, the commander of V Corps. After the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, the 1st Engineers participated in the occupation of the Rhineland, with Farrell's 1st Battalion basing itself at Ebernhahn. The 1st Engineers returned to the United States in August and September 1919. After the war, Farrell joined the Regular Army. He served as an instructor at the Engineer School at Camp A. A. Humphreys from 1921 to 1924, and then at the United States Military Academy at West Point until 1926.
Farrell resigned from the Regular Army in 1926, but remained in the reserves. The Governor of New York, Al Smith, appointed Farrell as Commissioner of Canals and Waterway for the State of New York. He was head of construction and engineering of the New York State Department of Public Works from 1930 until 1941. He was considered as a possible candidate to replace Frederick Stuart Greene as Superintendent of Public Works, but Greene did not retire. The Great Depression led to a vast expansion of public works activity, both nationally and in New York. Major projects in New York included the 1939 New York World's Fair at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, as well as the construction of LaGuardia Airport.
World War II
Construction in the United States
Farrell returned to active duty in February 1941 with the rank of lieutenant colonel to act as then-Colonel Leslie R. Groves Jr.'s executive officer in the Operations Branch of the Construction Division under the Office of the Office of the Quartermaster General. At this point, the US Army was about to embark on a national mobilization, and it was the task of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps to prepare the necessary accommodations and training facilities for the vast army that would be created. The enormous construction program had been dogged by bottlenecks, shortages, delays, spiralling costs, and poor living conditions at the construction sites. Newspapers began publishing accounts charging the Construction Division with incompetence, ineptitude, and inefficiency. Farrell and Groves worked out new, simplified procedures for centralized procurement that provided the flexibility needed to get projects done on time with the accountability that such enormous expenditures demanded. He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his services.
China-Burma-India
In September 1943, the Chief of Army Service Forces, Lieutenant General Brehon B. Somervell, created a special India Committee to coordinate activities in the China-Burma-India theater with those of Army Service Forces back home. Farrell, now a colonel, was appointed to the committee to oversee construction. The creation of a line of communications from India to China would be the largest engineer undertaking of the war. A number of new units were trained in the United States specifically for the task. In a reorganization later that year, Farrell became Chief Engineer of the Services of Supply in the China-Burma-India theater. In December he also became head of its Construction Division.
Farrell, who was promoted to brigadier general in January 1944, organized his command into two divisions and six districts. He was in charge of the work inside India; construction of the Ledo Road itself was the responsibility of Colonel Lewis A. Pick. In addition to this work, Farrell had to support Operation Matterhorn, the deployment of B-29 bombers to China and India, which involved the construction and expansion of a series of air bases. The B-29s required runways that were almost twice the size of those for the older B-17s, and he was forced to divert his resources to construct a oil pipeline to the Matterhorn airfields.
To bridge the fast-following rivers of northern Burma, Pick and Farrell selected the H-20 Portable Steel Highway Bridge. Production of these had been discontinued in favor of the Bailey bridge, but Farrell's technical arguments won out and the Corps of Engineers had to reinstate production of the H-20. In view of these difficulties, Farrell obtained Bailey bridges from British sources. In the end, all the major bridges beyond the Irrawaddy River would be Baileys. He also made the decision, controversial in Washington, to shift the terminus of the oil pipeline from Calcutta to Chittagong in order to avoid crossing the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers, and the dangers of concentrating too many vulnerable installations in the Calcutta area. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal.
Manhattan Project
In December 1944, the Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, ordered Groves, now the Director of the Manhattan Project, to find a deputy. Stimson was concerned about what would happen if Groves became incapacitated. "You can have any officer in the Army," Stimson told Groves, "no matter who he is, or what duty he is on." Groves told Colonel Kenneth Nichols, the commander of the Manhattan District, that his first choice would be Farrell. Nichols replied: "He would be my first choice too." "Site Y" was the code name for the remote Los Alamos County, New Mexico facilities that housed the main group of researchers and was responsible for final assembly of the bombs.
Farrell was briefed on the physics of the atomic bomb by Robert Oppenheimer, and he made several extended tours of the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range, which had been chosen as the site for the Trinity test. On signing a receipt for the plutonium from Oak Ridge, Farrell commented:
Farrell observed the Trinity (nuclear test) with Oppenheimer from the control dugout located from the test tower. He initially said to a fellow officer The long-hairs have let it get away from them. In his report on the test to President Truman on 21 July 1945, Farrell stated: .
Farrell assumed special responsibility for combat operations. He served on the target committee, acting as its chairman when Groves was absent. In July 1945, Farrell arrived on Guam to coordinate the project with the local commanders. One of his tasks was to brief General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, which he did on July 26. Farrell was joined by Rear Admiral William R. Purnell, who represented the Military Liaison Committee, and Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta. They became, informally, the "Tinian Joint Chiefs", with decision-making authority over the nuclear mission.
Farrell notified Groves that the Little Boy bomb would be ready for use on or about 3 August, weather permitting. In the space of a week on Tinian, four B-29s crashed and burned on the runway. Parsons became very concerned. If a B-29 crashed with a Little Boy, the fire could cook off the explosive and detonate the weapon, with catastrophic consequences. Parsons raised the possibility of arming the bomb in flight with Farrell, who agreed that it might be a good idea. Farrell asked Parsons if he knew how to do it. "No sir, I don't", Parsons conceded, "but I've got all afternoon to learn." After the bombing of Hiroshima on 6 August, Farrell, along with Generals Carl Spaatz, Nathan Twining, Barney Giles and James H. Davies, debriefed Parsons, the aircrews and the observers, and sent Groves a detailed report.
Farrell brought forward the date for the next attack because good weather was only predicted until 9 August. He signed the Fat Man bomb, "To Hirohito, with love and kisses, T. F. Farrell." The bomb was loaded on the B-29 Bockscar. During pre-flight inspection, a fuel pump was found to be faulty, meaning that of fuel in the bomb bay tank could not be used, although it would have to be carried. Farrell took the difficult decision to continue the mission, in view of the worsening weather. This was only the first of a number of problems that faced the mission crews that day, but the mission was carried out successfully.
The surrender of Japan on 14 August precluded further attacks. Groves had already directed Farrell to prepare teams to inspect the effects of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Farrell had begun assembling the required personnel and equipment. Farrell arrived in Hiroshima by air on 8 September as part of a group, equipped with portable geiger counters, that was headed by himself, and also included Brigadier General James B. Newman, Jr from the US Army Air Forces, Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator, and Colonel Stafford L. Warren, the head of the Manhattan District's Medical Section. They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October. They were greatly impressed by both the damage done by the atomic bombs, and the extensive Japanese preparations for the Allied invasion that had been planned prior to the surrender.
Post-war
Farrell was promoted to the rank of major general in October 1945. He remained Deputy Commander of the Manhattan Project until he retired from active service in April 1946. He was appointed chairman of the New York City Housing Authority by Mayor William O'Dwyer on Robert Moses's recommendation. In the aftermath of the war, providing public housing, especially for returning veterans, was a major priority for the city. Unlike other projects of the time, New York City public housing was not racially segregated. Writing in 1950, Farrell declared, "New York's public housing projects demonstrate that Negroes and whites can live together."
He served as a member of the evaluation board for Operation Crossroads, and was an advisor to Bernard Baruch, the United States' representative on the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. In 1950, during the Korean War, Farrell returned to active duty with the Army once more, and served with the Defense Production Administration. In July 1951, he was transferred to the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the successor organization to the Manhattan Project, where he became the Assistant General Manager for Manufacturing. In this role, he oversaw a vast increase in the Commission's production capabilities. The construction of new reactors at the Hanford and Savannah River Sites would eventually triple the production of nuclear weapons.
Farrell left the AEC and active duty Army again in February 1952. He subsequently worked as a consultant for the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority on projects such as the Cross Bronx Expressway. From 1960 to 1964, he worked on the preparations for the 1964 New York World's Fair at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park.
His children were Thomas, Barbara, Peter, Patricia, and Stephen. Thomas graduated from West Point in the class of 1942, received the Silver Star Medal and the Distinguished Service Cross, and reached the rank of captain before being killed at Anzio on 25 February 1944. An Army port repair ship, the Thomas F. Farrell Jr., was named in his honor. Peter graduated from West Point in the class of 1950. He served with the Army in the Vietnam War, where he commanded the 6th Battalion, 56th Air Defense Artillery during the Tet Offensive. He retired from the Army in 1978 with the rank of colonel. Farrell's daughter, Barbara Vucanovich, was the first woman from Nevada to be elected to the United States House of Representatives, serving from 1983 to 1997. His granddaughter, Patricia Dillon Cafferata, served as Nevada State Treasurer from 1983 to 1987. Farrell died at Saint Mary's Hospital in Reno, Nevada, on 11 April 1967. His wife Ynez had died the year before. Ironically, the man who had spent a lifetime building things was principally remembered for the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
In popular culture
He was portrayed by Henry O'Neill in The Beginning or the End, a docudrama about the Manhattan Project.
Notes
References
Further reading
Vogel, Steve (2007), The Pentagon—A History: The Untold Story of the Wartime Race to Build the Pentagon—and to Restore It Sixty Years Later, New York: Random House.
External links
Annotated Bibliography for Thomas Farrell from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Story of the Ledo Road
General Thomas Farrell expresses his views at North Field base in Tinian Island, in World War II
Farrell's report of the Trinity bomb test
Generals of World War II
1891 births
1967 deaths
Manhattan Project people
United States Army generals of World War II
United States Army generals
People from Brunswick, New York
Military personnel from New York (state)
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute alumni
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
People associated with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Military Academy faculty
United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel |
4062006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%20Mills | Matt Mills | Matthew Claude Mills (born 14 July 1986) is an English retired professional footballer who played as a defender. He spent most of his career in the English EFL Championship, in which he played for Leicester City, Reading, Bolton, Nottingham Forest, Doncaster Rovers and Barnsley. He retired from professional football in 2020.
Born in Swindon, Mills started his youth career with the academy of Swindon Town before switching to the Southampton Academy in 1999. He turned professional in 2002 and had loan stints with Coventry City and AFC Bournemouth during his time with Southampton. In 2006, Mills signed with Manchester City. However, his playing time was limited due to injuries.
After loan deals with Colchester United and Doncaster Rovers, he signed permanently with the latter in 2008. After one season, Mills joined Reading for a fee believed to be around £2 million. In May 2011, he captained the club in the Championship play-off final defeat against Swansea City, where he also found the net. After rejecting an offer from Wolverhampton Wanderers, Mills signed with Leicester City in the same year and was appointed as the club captain. In 2012, he switched to Bolton Wanderers. Mills finished third in voting for the club's player of the 2014–15 season. He switched to rival Nottingham Forest in 2015. After having spent three seasons with Forest, he joined Barnsley, Pune City and Forest Green Rovers before announcing his retirement from professional football.
Mills has been capped at the national youth level and featured eight times for the England under-19. His younger brother Joseph Mills plays for Forest Green Rovers. In February 2009, football pundit and former Leicester City player Steve Claridge described Mills' style of play as that of "an old-fashioned centre-half who relishes the physical side of the game".
Club career
Southampton
Born in Swindon, Wiltshire, Mills started his youth career at Swindon Town in 1999 before joining Southampton at the age of fourteen. Having progressed through the Southampton Academy, and then the reserves, Mills signed his first professional contract with the club in 2002.
To gain first team experience, Mills was loaned out to Coventry City for one month on 18 September 2004. On the same day, he made his Coventry City debut, just hours after signing the paperwork for him to play later in the afternoon, in a 0–0 draw against Rotherham United. Mills made three more starts, including scoring an own goal, in a 2–1 loss against Ipswich Town on 3 October 2004, in what turned out to be his last appearance. Mills then returned to his parent club and made four appearances. Coventry City sought to extend his loan period for a second month, but Southampton turned them down.
On 21 February 2005, Mills was loaned out again for a month joining AFC Bournemouth. The following day, he made his Bournemouth debut the next day, making his first start and playing 90 minutes, in a 1–1 draw against Torquay United. This was followed up by scoring his first goals, coming against Tranmere Rovers and Swindon Town. His performance and form at the club led them to extend his loan twice, eventually lasting to the end of the 2004–05 season. In the last game of the season, he scored his third goal for the club, in a 4–2 loss against Bradford City. At the end of the 2004–05 season, Mills made twelve appearances and scored three times in all competitions.
After his loan spell at Bournemouth came to an end, Mills was among many youngsters to be in the first team squad ahead of the 2005–06 season. However, Mills remained out of the first team for almost half of the season until he finally made his Southampton debut, where he made his first start, in a 3–0 loss against Watford on 26 December 2005. After making three more appearances, Mills' future at Southampton was in doubt, as his contract was set to expire in the summer attracting interest from Manchester City.
Manchester City
Mills ultimately signed a three-and-a-half-year deal with Manchester City on 31 January 2006. There he linked up again with Manchester City's reserve manager Steve Wigley, who had worked with him during his spell in charge of Southampton's Academy, an opportunity Mills said he could not turn down.
Mills was immediately assigned to the club's reserves. However, while playing in the reserves, he suffered an ankle injury that saw him sidelined for weeks. Mills made his Manchester City debut, where he came on as a substitute for Danny Mills in the 84th minute, in a 2–0 loss against Chelsea on 25 March 2006. Two weeks later on 8 April 2006, Mills made his first starts for the club, playing in the right–back position, in a 2–1 loss against Tottenham Hotspur. At the end of the 2005–06 season, he went on to make two appearances for Manchester City.
At the start of the 2006–07 season, Mills suffered an ankle injury but then recovered and made his first appearance of the season, in a 4–0 win over Wigan Athletic on 21 October 2006. However, his first team opportunities was limited and was loaned out to Colchester United on a one–month loan on 26 January 2007. He made his debut for the club on 30 January 2007, starting the whole game and keeping a clean sheet, in a 1–0 win over Preston North End. His performance and form at Colchester United led them to extend his loan spell for twice, resulting in him making nine appearances. Mills returned to his parent club on 23 March 2007 after they recalled him.
Doncaster Rovers
On 17 August 2007, Mills joined Doncaster Rovers on a six-month loan deal, linking up with manager Sean O'Driscoll for the second time in his career. He made his debut for the club on 25 August 2007, where he came on as a substitute in the 83rd minute for Gareth Roberts, in a 2–1 loss against Bournemouth. Mills then scored two goals in two matches for Doncaster Rovers between 29 September 2007 and 2 October 2007 against Cheltenham Town and Walsall. Since joining the club, he quickly became a first team regular for the side for the next seventeen matches, helping Doncaster Rovers keep a total of five clean sheets. On 21 November 2007, Mills had his loan spell at Doncaster Rovers terminated and returned to his parent club after he sustained a knee injury.
It was then announced on 14 January 2008 that Mills joined the South Yorkshire club for the second time on a loan deal for the rest of the season. He was part of the starting eleven once again, playing in the centre–back position. Mills helped Doncaster Rovers keep four consecutive clean sheets between 29 January 2008 and 12 February 2008. However, in a match against Huddersfield Town on 5 April 2008, he received a straight red card, as the club drew 2–2. After returning to the starting line–up against Leyton Orient, Mills scored his third goal for Doncaster Rovers in a follow–up match, as the club beat Luton Town on 26 April 2008. He then helped Doncaster Rovers win promotion to the Championship, beating Leeds United at Wembley Stadium in the League One play-off final on 25 May 2008. At the end of the 2007–08 season, Mills went on to make forty–one appearances and scoring three times in all competitions.
Mills expressed a desire to join Doncaster Rovers after winning promotion at Wembley, and was expected to sign in the close season. After two months of speculation about his future, and his move to Doncaster Rovers was in doubt after a change of manager at Manchester City, he was eventually unveiled as Doncaster Rovers' record signing when he inked a three-year contract with Doncaster on 30 July 2008. Doncaster Rovers paid £300,000 for his services (the then highest transfer fee paid by the club).
Mills' first game after signing for Doncaster Rovers on a permanent basis came in the opening game of the season against Derby County and kept a clean sheet, in a 1–0 win. Following the match, he was named Championship Team of the Week. In a follow–up match against Cardiff City, Mills set up the opening goal of the game, as the club drew 1–1. Since joining Doncaster Rovers, he continued to regain his first team place, playing in the centre–back position. Mills then helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 15 November 2008 and 25 November 2008. However, he was sent–off for a straight red card in the 20th minute, in a 2–1 loss against Crystal Palace on 13 December 2008. After serving a one match suspension, Mills returned to the starting line–up against Nottingham Forest on 26 December 2008, as Doncaster Rovers won 4–2. He, once again, helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 20 January 2009 and 27 January 2009. Despite missing five matches, Mills finished his first full season at Doncaster Rovers, making 45 appearances in the 2008–09 season. For his performance, he was named the club's Player of the Year.
In the summer of 2009, Mills attracted the interest of a number of bigger clubs including Birmingham City and Newcastle United. However, on 10 June 2009 Nottingham Forest put in an offer of £2,000,000 for Mills which was rejected by Doncaster Rovers. A later offer from fellow Championship side Reading was accepted, however, and Mills left Doncaster in August 2009.
Reading
On 5 August 2009, Mills was officially unveiled as a Reading player, signing a three-year contract under manager Brendan Rodgers. The exact transfer fee was undisclosed, however it is believed to be somewhere in the region of £2 million.
Mills made his debut for Reading debut, starting the whole game, in a 5–1 win against Burton Albion in the first round of the League Cup. In a follow–up, he made his league debut for the club, starting the whole game, and keeping a clean sheet, in a 0–0 draw against Swansea City on 18 August 2009. Four days later on 22 August 2009, Mills scored his first goal for Reading, in a 3–1 loss against Sheffield United. However, Mills found his first team opportunities limited and was placed on the substitute bench, and for tactical reasons, according to Managers Rodgers. He also found his own injury concern along the way. Nevertheless, Mills' second goal came on 17 October 2009, in a 3–1 loss against West Brom. By January, he soon regained his first team place, dispatching a place from Alex Pearce and Darren O'Dea. Mills' performance was then praised after showing impressive display after helping the club beat Liverpool in the third round replay of the FA Cup on 13 January 2010. However against his former club, Doncaster Rovers on 7 February 2010, he was sent–off in the 80th minute for handball, resulting a penalty to the opposition team, as Reading won 2–1. After serving a one match suspension, Mills returned to the starting line–up against Crystal Palace on 17 February 2010, where he captained the club in the absence of Ívar Ingimarsson, as they won 3–1. Mills captained in a follow–up match against Blackpool, as Reading lost 2–0. After Reading's 1–0 win in March 2010 against Queens Park Rangers, Mills was seen making an apparent obscene gesture to his own supporters, for which he apologised. Manager Brian McDermott attributed his gesturing to passion, saying that Mills' actions would not dampen the player's relationship with his supporters—describing Mills' form as "inspirational". However, he was sent–off for the second time this season, coming against Ipswich Town on 3 April 2010 after a two footed challenge in the 30th minute, as the club lost 2–1. After serving a four match ban, Mills returned to the starting line–up and resumed his captaincy against Watford, as Reading lost 4–0 on 24 April 2010. In the absence of Ingimarsson, he captained the club in the remaining matches of the season. Mills appeared in 30 matches and scored two goals in all competitions for Reading during the 2009–10 season.
Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Mills announced his intention that he would be focusing on his fitness instead of being Reading captain. However, Mills eventually continued to remain as the club's captain in the absence of Ingimarsson. During a 2–1 loss against Scunthorpe United in the opening game of the season, he suffered an ankle injury that saw him miss one match. After returning to the starting line–up against Nottingham Forest on 21 August 2010, Mills scored twice in the League Cup 2nd Round 3–3 draw against Northampton Town. This was followed up by scoring the winner in a 2–1 win away at Leicester City just three days later where he also made a last-ditch goal line clearance, ensuring the Man of the Match award. Since returning from ankle injury, he continued to be in a first team regular, playing in the centre–back position for the side throughout the 2010–11 season. Mills was then sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 1–0 win against Ipswich Town on 28 September 2010. On 30 October 2010, he scored his fourth goal of the season, coming against his former club, Doncaster Rovers, in a 4–3 win. It wasn't until on 1 March 2011 when Mills scored the winning goal against Everton in a 1–0 victory to take Reading through to the FA Cup Quarter-finals. In a follow–up match against Ispwich Town, he suffered a groin injury in the 16th minute and was substituted, as the club won 3–1. Following the match, it was announced that Mills was out for a month. He previously was sidelined on two occasions prior to suffering a groin injury. It wasn't until on 12 April 2011 when Mills returned to the starting line–up against Scunthorpe United and helped Reading keep a clean sheet, winning 2–0. Following his return, he helped the club go on a surging run, resulting in them qualifying for the playoffs. Mills played in both legs of the play–offs against Cardiff City, as Reading won 3–0 to reach the finals. On 30 May 2011, in the Championship play-off final against Swansea City, he captained the Royals and scored a header from a corner kick on 57 minutes and got booked in their 4–2 defeat at Wembley Stadium. Mills went on to make forty–five appearances and scoring six times in all competitions in the 2010–11 season.
Ahead of the 2011–12 season, it was expected that Mills was becoming Reading captain. However, he was linked a move away from the club, with Bolton Wanderers, Stoke City and Wolverhampton Wanderers wanted to sign him. But Mills was keen on staying at the club. On 1 July 2011, however, it was expected that he would be leaving Reading after both parties failed to agree on a new contract.
Leicester City
On 7 July 2011, Mills signed a four-year contract with Leicester City which would earn him £25,000 every week (£1.3m/year) for an undisclosed fee and was later confirmed as club captain for the 2011–12 season, reuniting with his former Manchester City manager, Sven-Göran Eriksson. He had rejected an offer from Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers to join Leicester. Describing him as a "solid centre half," Ian Stringer of BBC Radio Leicester selected him as the club's key player for the 2011–12 season.
Mills made his league debut for Leicester City, captaining the side, as they won 1–0 over Coventry City at the Ricoh Arena on 6 August 2011. He since captained the club in a number of matches, as well as, establishing himself in the starting eleven. Mills then helped Leicester City keep four consecutive clean sheets between 17 September 2011 and 1 October 2011. In a follow–up match on 16 October 2011, however, he was sent off in the 55th minute of a 2–0 defeat at Birmingham City for a two-footed tackle on Morgaro Gomis. After serving a three match ban, Mills returned to the starting line–up against Burnley, as the club won 3–1 on 1 November 2011. Six weeks after his first red card for Leicester City, he was sent–off for the second time for a professional foul on Aaron McLean, in a 2–1 loss against Hull City on 3 December 2011. After serving a two match suspension, Mills returned to the starting line–up against Ipswich Town on 26 December 2011, as the club drew 2–2. He scored his only goal for Leicester City in a 2–0 win over Southampton at St Mary's Stadium on 24 January 2012.
In February 2012, reports surfaced of an alleged bust up with new manager Nigel Pearson, which Mills denied. He then lost the captaincy and was relegated to training with the club's youth academy. He did not travel for the 1–0 victory against Derby County on 23 February 2012, which prompted questions over his future at the club. Mills was later informed by phone that he was allowed to leave Leicester. But, despite being linked with league rivals Leeds United and West Ham United, Mills refused to leave on loan as it would have been "very disrespectful for the fans". Though this move away from the club did not materialise, he never played for Leicester again and went on to score once in thirty–one appearances in all competitions.
Bolton Wanderers
On 4 July 2012, Mills signed a three-year contract with Bolton Wanderers for an undisclosed fee. On joining the club, he said: "This deal has worked out perfectly for me, mainly because Bolton are a fantastic club. Speaking to the manager, I have got the vibe of what the place and club is about and the ambitions of getting back into the Premier League." Upon joining Bolton Wanderers, Mills was given the number four shirt for the new 2012–13 season,
Mills made his debut for the club in a 2–0 home victory over Derby County on 21 August. He scored his first goal on 15 September, in a 2–1 win against Watford. Since joining Bolton Wanderers, Mills quickly became a first team regular, playing in the centre–back position. However, he picked up an upper thigh injury and was substituted in the 85th minute, as the club drew 2–2 against Huddersfield Town on 8 December 2012. Initially out for two to three weeks, Mills was sidelined for four to five months. It wasn't until on 2 April 2013 when he made his first appearance for the club, coming on as a 90th-minute substitute for goal scorer Chris Eagles to ensure a 1–0 victory against Huddersfield Town. Following his return, Mills, however, was unable to reclaim his starting position due to the form of Craig Dawson, Tim Ream and Zat Knight who had each occupied the centre-back position in his absence. At the end of the 2012–13 season, he went on to make twenty–one appearances and scoring once in all competitions.
In July 2013, after Mills was linked with a move to Leeds United to reunite with his former Reading manager Brian McDermott, Bolton manager Dougie Freedman confirmed that Leeds had made an inquiry about Mills' availability. Freedman stated that he would like Mills to stay at the club, but if Mills wanted to leave he would let him go provided the right offer came in.
At the start of the 2013–14 season, Mills made his return to the first team in the second round of League Cup against Tranmere Rovers and was one of the two players to convert the penalty successfully, as Bolton Wanderers lost 4–2 in the penalty shoot-out after playing 120 minutes. Since making his return to the first team, Mills won his place back in the side and partnered either David Wheater and Tim Ream. His pairing in the central defence with Ream and Wheater was praised by Manager Freedman. During a 3–2 loss against Wigan Athletic on 15 December 2013, he was penalised for handball that saw the opposition team successfully converted the penalty. After the match, Manager Freedman criticised the referee over the handball decision, while Mills was critical of the decision, saying: "The ball came over my head and I'm facing my own goal, I got a push in my back and the referee gave a corner. All of a sudden I see he has given a penalty because the linesman on the other side of the pitch has seen the ball intentionally hit my hand. I haven't got eyes in the back of my head but how does he change his mind? I'm gutted for the fans, obviously." It wasn't until on 11 January 2014 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 1–1 draw against Nottingham Forest. However, Mills was sidelined when he suffered a minor knee problem during a match against Watford on 22 February 2014. After being sidelined for a month, Mills made his first team return, where he assisted Jermaine Beckford to score the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 win over Barnsley on 12 April 2014. He later finished the 2013–14 season, making 35 appearances and scoring once in all competitions.
Ahead of the 2014–15 season, Mills was named as Bolton Wanderers' vice-captain to Jay Spearing. He continued to establish himself in the starting line–up, forming a centre–back partnership with Ream and Dorian Dervite. Mills scored his first goal of the season on 23 August 2014, in a 2–1 loss against Brighton & Hove Albion. Three days later on 26 August 2014, he captained the club for the first time this season, starting the whole game, and helped the side play 120 minutes, as they won 3–2. Once again, Mills captained Bolton Wanderers for the second time against Chelsea in the second round of the League Cup and scored his second goal of the season, in a 2–1 loss. He then scored the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 win over Birmingham City on 18 October 2014. In the absence of Spearing following his injury, Mills played his first match as captain in the league and scored in a 3–0 win over Cardiff City on 4 November 2014. Following this, he was given the captaincy for the next two months, as the club have been battling in the relegation zone. During which, Mills helped Bolton Wanderers keep four consecutive clean sheets between 29 November 2014 and 19 December 2014. It wasn't until on 27 January 2015 when he scored and set up a goal for Liam Trotter, in a 4–2 loss against Rotherham United. A week later on 4 February 2015, Mills played as a striker following the club's emergency crisis against Liverpool, as they lost 2–1. However, he suffered an injury that saw him sidelined for weeks. It wasn't until on 21 February 2015 when Mills returned to the starting line–up against Nottingham Forest, only to be sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 4–1 loss and served a one match suspension. Following his return, he continued captaining Bolton Wanderers for nine matches. However, Mills suffered two separate injuries that saw him sidelined for the rest of the 2014–15 season. Mills finished the 2014–15 season, making forty–one appearances and scoring five times in all competitions.
Following this, he finished third with 17 per cent behind Josh Vela and Ream in voting for Bolton's Player of the Season. Despite being offered a new contract by Manager Neil Lennon, Mills, however, were among thirteen players to be released by the club in May 2015. His release was explained as part of the club's cut costing measures.
Nottingham Forest
On 1 July 2015, Mills signed for Nottingham Forest as a free agent, re-uniting with former Bolton manager Dougie Freedman in the process. On joining the club, he was given the number five shirt ahead of the new season.
Mills made his Nottingham Forest debut in the opening game of the season, in a 1–0 loss against Brighton & Hove Albion. He then captained his first match as the club's player, following Henri Lansbury's injury, on 29 August 2015, in a 2–1 loss against Cardiff City. Following his debut, Mills started each of Nottingham Forest's first eight matches of the season, scoring twice, before an injury sustained shortly after equalizing against Middlesbrough on 19 September 2015, forcing him to miss the club's next away match Huddersfield Town. He returned to the starting eleven in Nottingham Forest's next game at home to Hull City on 3 October 2015, but received a straight red card from referee Nigel Miller in the 87th minute of the game following an aerial challenge with Hull's on-loan Arsenal striker Chuba Akpom, as the club lost the game 1–0. After serving a three match suspension, he returned to the starting line–up as captain against Sheffield Wednesday on 31 October 2015, as Nottingham Forest lost 1–0. Since returning to the first team, Mills regained his first team place, playing in the centre–back position and resumed his captain duties in the absence of Chris Cohen and Andy Reid. On 5 December 2015, he scored twice in a 3–0 defeat of Fulham, with a third headed effort in injury time hitting the crossbar. Following his performance, Mills was named Team of the Week. Having played an integral role in an unbeaten December for the club, he was nominated for the SkyBet Championship Player of the Month Award on 7 January 2016, but lost out to Adam Clayton. Five days later on 12 January 2016, just after the announcement, he scored his fifth goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Birmingham City. Mills followed up with the next four matches by helping the club keep four consecutive clean sheets between 16 January 2016 and 6 February 2016. In his first season at Nottingham Forest, he made forty-two appearances and scoring five times in all competitions.
Mills made his first appearance of the 2016–17 season in Forest's opening match—a 4–3 defeat of Burton Albion under the new management of Philippe Montanier. He continued to regain his first team place, playing in the centre–back position. It wasn't until on 14 September 2016 when Mills scored his first goal of the season in a 2–2 draw against Rotherham United. One month later, he was red-carded in a 3–1 defeat against Newcastle United. Manager Montanier said that the fourth official had exaggerated the decision. After the match, Mills served a one match suspension. Mills was previously sidelined due to injury, suspension and tactical change earlier in the 2016–17 season. After the departure of Montanier, and the sale of regular captain Henri Lansbury, Mills was installed as captain by caretaker manager Gary Brazil, having previously captained six out of the seven last matches for Nottingham Forest. However, he only lasted fifty-five minutes in Brazil's first game, being substituted after a groin injury that was later reported would sideline him for two months. It wasn't until on 4 April 2017 when Mills returned to the starting line–up against Wolverhampton Wanderers, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 loss. However, his return was short–lived when he suffered a knock during a match against Blackburn Rovers on 14 April 2017 and was substituted as a result and missed two matches as a result. It wasn't until on 29 April 2017 when Mills returned to the starting line–up against Queens Park Rangers, coming on as a 62nd-minute substitute, as the club lost 2–0. At the end of the 2016–17 season, he went on to make thirty appearances and scoring once in all competitions.
At the start of the 2017–18 season, Mills continued to regain his first team place for the side, playing in the centre–back position. Following the absence of Michael Mancienne, he captained Nottingham Forest for the first time in the 2017–18 season, starting the whole game, in a 2–1 win against Middlesbrough on 19 August 2017. Mills went on to captain five matches for the club in the next six matches. This lasted until he was sidelined for one match, due to suspension. After serving a one match suspension, Mills found himself out of the starting line–up for the next two months, being placed on the substitute bench and only made one appearances between those time. It wasn't until on 9 December 2017 when he made his first start for Nottingham Forest, starting the whole game, in a 3–2 win against Bolton Wanderers. However, his return was short–lived when Mills suffered a back injury that saw him substituted at half time, in a 2–1 loss against Bristol City on 16 December 2017. It wasn't until on 7 January 2018 when he returned to the first team from injury, coming on as a late substitute, in a 4–2 win against Arsenal in the third round of the FA Cup. However, Mills was told by new Manager Aitor Karanka that he can leave Nottingham Forest after being deemed surplus of requirements. On 31 January 2018, Mills terminated his contract with the club by mutual agreement. By the time he left Nottingham Forest, he went on to make fifteen appearances in all competitions.
Barnsley
On 31 January 2018, Mills signed with Barnsley for the remainder of the season.
Three days later, he made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 defeat against Queens Park Rangers. After making two more starts for Barnsley, Mills, however, was sidelined for a month with ankle injury. It wasn't until on 21 April 2018 when he returned to the starting line–up against Leeds United, as the club lost 2–1. Following this, Mills was involved in Barnsley's first team, as they were relegated from the EFL Championship.
At the end of the 2017–18 season, he went on to make four appearances for the side. Following this, Mills was released by Barnsley at the end of the 2017–18 season.
Pune City
On 21 August 2018, Mills joined Indian Super League club Pune City.
He made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in a 1–1 draw against Delhi Dynamos in the opening game of the season. It wasn't until on 21 November 2018 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–1 win against Jamshedpur. Mills then captained twice for Pune City, coming against Kerala Blasters and Goa on 7 December 2018 and 11 December 2018. However, he suffered a calf injury that saw him out for weeks. It wasn't until on 20 February 2019 when Mills returned to the first team, coming on as a 61st-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw against NorthEast United. Having established himself in the centre–back position, he went on to make seventeen appearances in all competitions.
Forest Green Rovers
On 31 May 2019, League Two club Forest Green Rovers announced that they had signed Mills as a player-coach in advance of the 2019–20 season. Upon joining the club, he was able to link up with his younger brother, Joseph and was given a number shirt.
Mills made his Forest Green Rovers debut, starting the whole game, and helped the club keep a clean sheet, in a 1–0 win against Oldham Athletic in the opening game of the season. He then started in the next five matches for Forest Green Rovers before being sent–off for a second bookable offence against Bradford City on 24 August 2019 and then suffered a hamstring injury during a 2–0 loss against Newport County on 31 August 2019. After being sidelined for weeks, it wasn't until on 28 September 2019 when Mills returned to the starting line–up against Salford City and kept a clean sheet, as the club won 4–0. However, his return was short–lived when he suffered a hamstring injury in the 10th minute and was substituted, as Forest Green Rovers won 3–1 against Crawley Town on 5 October 2019. It wasn't until on 12 November 2019 when Mills returned to the starting line–up against Walsall, captaining the club, as they lost 6–0. Following this, he regained his first team place, playing in the centre–back position. However, Mills soon lost his first team place and was demoted to the substitute bench. This lasted until the season came to a premature end due to the global pandemic COVID-19. At the end of the 2019–20 season, he went on to make twenty–one appearances in all competitions.
Following this, Mills was released by Forest Green Rovers when his contract expired. He then announced his retirement from playing professional football in July 2020.
International career
Mills was called–up by the England under-19 level and helped the side qualify for the European Under-19 Championship in March 2005. Mills helped the national side to the final, which they lost to the France under-19s. He made a total of eight appearances for the team between 2004 and 2005.
Personal life
Born in Swindon, England, Mills and his family lived just 10 minutes from the town's County Ground until he left when he was 14. He was educated at Bradon Forest Secondary School in Purton, near Swindon.
Mills' youngest brother, Joseph, was a trainee at Southampton. He now plays for Forest Green Rovers, where he was joined by Matt in May 2019. His other brothers, Jon-Paul and Jamie both play for Hellenic Football League side Witney United.
The former Hollyoaks and Prisoners' Wives actress Emma Rigby was formerly Mills' girlfriend. In 2014, he married Jade Elliott, daughter of former Leicester City and Scotland defender Matt Elliott, and together they have two daughters, Lyla and Aria.
Career statistics
Honours
Doncaster Rovers
Football League One play-offs: 2008
Individual
Doncaster Rovers Player of the Year 2008–09
References
External links
Matthew Mills profile at Reading F.C.
1986 births
Living people
Footballers from Swindon
English men's footballers
England men's youth international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Southampton F.C. players
Coventry City F.C. players
AFC Bournemouth players
Manchester City F.C. players
Colchester United F.C. players
Doncaster Rovers F.C. players
Reading F.C. players
Leicester City F.C. players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Barnsley F.C. players
Forest Green Rovers F.C. players
English Football League players
Indian Super League players
FC Pune City players
Association football coaches
Forest Green Rovers F.C. non-playing staff
English expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in India
English expatriate sportspeople in India |
4062296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wonderful%20Wizard%20of%20Oz%20%28TV%20series%29 | The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (TV series) | The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, known in Japan as , is a Japanese anime television series adaptation based on four of the original early 20th century Oz books by L. Frank Baum. In Japan, the series aired on TV Tokyo from 1986 to 1987. It consists of 52 episodes, which explain other parts of the Oz stories, including the events that happened after Dorothy returned home.
One of the TV series' writers, Akira Miyazaki, also wrote for the 1982 anime film of the same Japanese name. The series was also the final adaption of the series before the source material entered the public domain in 1989.
Many of the series' staffers, such as director Hiroshi Saitō and character designer Shūichi Seki, also worked on Nippon Animation's World Masterpiece Theater, so that the look and narrative style of the series feel similar to a WMT anime even though Nippon Animation itself was not involved in the production.
Plot
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is split into four distinct parts, or story arcs, each loosely based on different Oz books originally written by L. Frank Baum.
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (episodes 1 to 17)
The first story arc is an adaptation of the first Oz book, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). It follows the adventures of Dorothy, an orphan girl living out in the gray prairies of Kansas with her Aunt Em, her Uncle Henry and her dog Toto. One day, after Em and Uncle Henry leave Dorothy and Toto alone in order to travel into town, a tornado appears, uproots the farmhouse, with Dorothy and Toto inside, and transports it to the Land of Oz.
In Oz Dorothy meets the Good Witch of the North, who tells her that she just killed the Wicked Witch of the East, as her house landed directly on top of her, and by doing so she freed the Munchkins from slavery. She also tells her that the only person able to send her back home is the Wizard of Oz. Dorothy is given the Silver Shoes of the Wicked Witch of the East and sent off along the Yellow Brick Road towards the Emerald City to see the Wonderful Wizard of Oz in hope of getting back to Kansas.
On her way to the Wizard, Dorothy meets the Scarecrow, made entirely of straw and lacking a brain, the Tin Woodman, made entirely from metal and lacking a heart, and the Cowardly Lion who wishes to become brave. Along their journey, the group comes to a large ditch in the road, and the Lion provides transportation by jumping across while the others sit on his back. The group then enters a dark forest and become trapped at the edge of a steep canyon, while being chased by the Kalidahs (animals with the bodies of bears and the heads of tigers). The Lion and the Scarecrow distract them as the Tin Man cuts down a tree which enables the group to cross the opening of the canyon. After escaping the Kalidahs, the Scarecrow gets caught in the middle of a river on a pole which cuts them off from the Yellow Brick Road, but luckily Mrs. Crane (an actual crane) saves him. A deadly field of poppies puts Dorothy, Toto and the Lion to sleep, but they manage to escape with the help of the Mouse Queen, and her subjects, whom the Tin Man rescued from a wildcat. They arrive at the Emerald City the next day, and thanks to the Good Witch of the North's kiss (on Dorothy's forehead) they are let in.
Once they are in the Emerald City, they request to see the Wizard of Oz. The Wizard grants an individual audience to each of them in a dark reception hall and changes his appearance with each one of them—he meets Dorothy, as a Giant Head; the Scarecrow, as a lovely angel-like lady; the Tin Man, as a terrible beast; and the Lion, as a ball of fire. He tells them that he will help them only if they kill the Wicked Witch of the West.
The friends then set off on a quest for the castle of the Wicked Witch of the West. Meanwhile, the Wicked Witch of the West is busy forcing the Winkies (her slaves) to build her a new fortress which she will use to conquer the Land of Oz. As she senses the friends coming, and confirms it by seeing them in her magic mirror, she sends out wolves, crows and an army of her Winkie Soldiers—which Dorothy and her friends easily beat. The friends meet an old Winkie, the former Mayor, who fills them in on the Wicked Witch of the West. The Witch uses her Golden Cap to command the Winged Monkeys, ordering them to bring her the Lion and kill the rest. As the group near the witch's castle, the Winged Monkeys attack who manage to destroy the Scarecrow (by emptying his body) and the Tin Man (by dropping him from a great height). They are, however, unable to harm Dorothy due to the Good Witch's kiss and are forced to take her along with the captured Lion. The Wicked Witch of the West keeps the Lion locked in a cell intending to use him to pull her carriage. She decides to spare Dorothy and keep her as her personal cook upon seeing she has the magic shoes and tries various tricks to get them off her feet, to no avail. Dorothy eventually tips a large water jar upon the Witch, and all her evil work dies with her as she melts away. The grateful Winkies then help Dorothy find her friends and restore them. Soon the friends are together again, and Dorothy discovers the Wicked Witch's Golden Cap. Her friends make her promise that she will not use the cap to summon the Winged Monkeys, as the idea terrifies them.
As the group spends a few days relaxing in the Witch's castle with their new Winkie friends, they are visited by a boy named Tip and his guardian, Mombi. Mombi is a witch in training and upon hearing that her old friend the Wicked Witch of the West is dead, she decides to steal the Golden Cap from Dorothy. She transforms herself into a large gray cat and attempts to steal the cap while Dorothy is sleeping. Her plot is thwarted by the Cowardly Lion. Tip explains Mombi's plot and apologizes to Dorothy. Dorothy uses the Golden Cap, against her friends' wishes, to have the Winged Monkeys transport Tip and Mombi back to their distant home.
Before the group leaves Winkie-Land, the Winkies declare the Tin Man as their king. As they make their way back to the Emerald City they become lost in an enormous forest and struggle against a monstrous spider. The animals of the forest are thankful that the Lion defeated the Monster Spider and make him king to show their gratitude. Dorothy uses the Golden Cap to call the Winged Monkeys who then take her and her friends back to the Emerald City.
They return to the Emerald City to find the Wizard not only invisible but still unwilling to grant their wishes, asking them to return later. However Dorothy and her friends refuse to be turned away again and start to argue with the Wizard as Toto reveals the Wizard is actually a normal man. The Wizard reveals he is actually a traveling magician from Nebraska who was accidentally swept away to Oz in his hot air balloon, and decided to pretend to be a Wizard as it was only the fear of a powerful magician that stopped the two Wicked Witches from taking over the whole land. He soon realizes that Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion already possess what they desire and gives them items that they believe grant their wishes (Scarecrow's head is filled with sawdust and nails, Tin Man is given a wooden heart and Lion is given colored water that he is told represents courage) but cannot think of how to get Dorothy home. Scarecrow hits upon the idea to use the Wizard's hot air balloon to get Dorothy back to Kansas, and the Wizard agrees saying he will go back with her having tired of life in Oz. Before he leaves, he makes Scarecrow the King of Oz however Toto escapes from Dorothy's arms to chase a mouse and they miss the balloon's launching.
Dorothy is devastated, but remembers she has the Golden Cap and can summon the Winged Monkeys and order them to take her home. Summoning them, Dorothy is told they cannot cross the boundaries of Oz and has wasted her last wish but it is suggested she visits Glinda, the Good Witch of the South. She decides to head there straight away, and despite already having had their wishes granted and kingdoms waiting for them to rule the Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion decide to travel with her still and ensure that she gets home. On their way to see Glinda they encounter a fighting tree, and a country full of miniature living people and animals made entirely of china. They are then nearly crushed by a pack of Hammer-Heads, but are rescued by a group of gnomes who help them escape through a series of caves. They, at last, reach the palace of Glinda who agrees to see them.
Glinda, who is kind and caring, listens to Dorothy's stories of her adventures and tells her that she will be able to return home. Before she does so, she requests that the Golden Cap be turned over to her. Useless to her now, Dorothy happily agrees and Glinda tells her that she intends to use it to return Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion to their respective kingdoms so they don't have to face the dangers they encountered travelling to her again. She then tells Dorothy that she has had the power to return home since her first day in Oz through the magic shoes, and by clicking the heels together three times they will do whatever she commands. Despite this new knowledge, Dorothy and her friends agree it was a good thing she didn't know as they would never have met each other. After bidding a tearful farewell to her Tin Man, Lion and Scarecrow (who tells Dorothy that he feels they will meet again), Dorothy tells the shoes to return her home and they do just that, lifting her into the sky. Landing in Kansas, she wakes up to see her farmhouse in the distance. There, she is reunited with Aunt Em and Uncle Henry.
The Marvelous Land of Oz (episodes 18 to 30)
The second story arc is an adaptation of the second Oz book, The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904). Aunt Em and Uncle Henry are nearly finished building their new farm-house (after the former one was taken away by the cyclone) when Toto and Dorothy suddenly appear. Dorothy tells them of her adventures in Oz, but even though they find it hard to believe her, they are delighted that she has returned home.
Dorothy searches for one of her magic shoes, which fell off on the journey home, but is unable to find it. Later, when the family goes shopping for supplies in town, a circus being prepared has Dorothy reunited with the Wizard of Oz. Eventually, Aunt Em finds the other shoe, and Dorothy eagerly and carelessly uses both shoes to return to Oz, leaving Toto and the shoes in Kansas, but also leaving Aunt Em and Uncle Henry believing her.
Dorothy arrives back to the Land of Oz and is reunited with Tip, who is making a pumpkin-man to scare Mombi. It works, but Mombi tries out the Come-Alive Powder, and Jack Pumpkinhead comes to life. Mombi, who mistakes Dorothy for a witch, schemes to steal her powers and turn her into stone, but the children and Jack escape, with Mombi chasing after them. Later, they come across a wooden saw horse and decide to bring it to life with the Come-Alive Powder they have stolen from Mombi. They run on ahead with Jack to Emerald City, where they are reunited with King Scarecrow of Oz.
Dorothy and Tip meet General Jijnur who, with her All-Girl Army, plans to overthrow King Scarecrow and become Queen of the Emerald City. After the Gate-Guardian is defeated by Jinjur's army, Dorothy and Tip warn Scarecrow of the Invasion, and the friends make their escape, just as Mombi arrives at Emerald City. As Mombi joins General Jinjur in her plot to overthrow Oz, the friends go on to the West (despite the Saw-Horse's broken leg accident) and ask the Tin Man for help. Mombi uses her magic to surround the friends with a field of Sunflowers, which thanks to Jinjur doesn't last long. The Mouse Queen is called upon to help her friends with their mission and gives them her Secret Weapon. After more magic tricks, like a giant cliff-like wall and a circle of fire, the friends finally return to Emerald City and find it in bad shape—all the men are doing the hard work while the women can do whatever they want. In the Throne Room Jinjur, Mombi and the Army surround Dorothy & her friends, but is no match for the Mouse Queen's Secret Weapon. Jinjur attempts to attack, while Scarecrow decides for them to escape using the Come-Alive Powder.
Jack uses the Wizard's old tricks to distract and scare the girls as his friends put together and bring to life a Moose-Bed (a canopy bed with a stuffed Moose head attached). Once everything is together, the friends narrowly escape and head off to Glinda in the South. But Mombi causes the Moose-Bed and his passengers to drift away into a valley of mist, mountains and cliffs, where they are encountered, captured and eventually manage to escape one of several giant dragons. They arrive at Glinda's castle and Glinda is aware of their dilemma. Although she is willing to help free the Emerald City of Mombi and Jinjur, Glinda informs the group she will not restore Scarecrow as king having recently discovered that his claim to the throne is illegal. She tells everyone that the King of Oz died just before the Wizard arrived and it was believed that he had left no heir to the throne, bringing to an end the royal lineage. However Glinda has discovered that he did father a child just before he died; a girl named Ozma who disappeared soon after as she was removed by the Wizard due to him not wishing to lose the power he had gained by becoming ruler. Watching through Glinda's crystal ball, the group learns that the Wizard left Ozma with none other than Mombi. Scarecrow is not upset about no longer being king, having quickly tired of the position and the group decides to return to the Emerald City (accompanied by Glinda) to oust Jinjur and find out from Mombi what she did with Ozma.
Upon returning to the Emerald City, Glinda frightens Jinjur and her army into surrendering and orders Mombi to cooperate with Dorothy and her group before leaving while the Gump and the Sawhorse are left at the gate. When Scarecrow arrives, he announces that Jinjur will soon no longer rule the city but he also renounces the throne, informing then all that Princess Ozma is alive and he intends to organize a search for her. However, with Glinda gone Jinjur and Mombi take back their intention to co-operate a try a "disguise" trick which does not last long—the friends look for Mombi throughout the palace and find Jinur and Mombi arguing with each other, breaking off their 'teamwork', only to have Mombi transform herself into a dragon. Glinda appears and chases after the escaping Mombi-Dragon and easily triumphs over her.
Using her magic, Glinda has Mombi reveal what she did to Ozma. Mombi reveals that, in order to prevent anyone from finding Ozma she used a magic spell to transform her into a boy. Everyone realized the startling truth... Tip is really Ozma. Tip becomes scared at the thought, but everyone assures him that he is really Ozma and was meant to rule and will do a fine job of it. When Glinda offers Tip the choice to remain as he is or have Mombi's spell broken, Tip bravely agrees to breaking the spell and he transforms into Princess Ozma. Glinda the removes Mombi's powers and orders her and Jinjur to return to their homes and lead quiet lives which they both agree to. She then offers Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tinman and Jack a reward for their help. Tin Man asks to return to the West as does Scarecrow and will now live with Tin Man in his palace. Jack wishes to remain with Princess Ozma while Dorothy asks to return to Kansas. Glinda agrees and transports Dorothy, Scarecrow and Tin Man to their homes, and as she disappears Dorothy bids her old and new friends farewell and promises to see them again. (It is unknown what happens to the Sawhorse and the Gump, they probably could've went off on their own to have more adventures)
Ozma of Oz (episodes 31 to 41)
The third part of the series is an adaptation of the third Oz book, Ozma of Oz (1907). It starts with Uncle Henry, Aunt Em, Dorothy and Toto sleeping peacefully in their Kansas beds, but as Dorothy's Magic Shoes start glowing, causing the Shoes to transport Dorothy back to Oz, leaving Toto & her Magic Shoes in Kansas. She arrives in the Land of Ev, where a trio of Wheelers rudely wakes her up and accuses her of being a witch. Dorothy escapes the Wheelers, and finds a little mechanical robot called Tik-Tok which she winds up. She learns that Tik-Tok was on a secret mission, given to him by Princess Langwidere, to free the prince of Ev, but he got himself into trouble with the Wheelers. Then, rather than he protecting Dorothy, Dorothy defends Tik-Tok from the Wheelers and accompanied by him goes off to meet Princess Langwidere.
Langwidere locks Dorothy and Tik-Tok in the dungeon. As Dorothy and Tik-Tok ask Mr. Mouse to get help from Oz, Princess Langwidere greets Ozma, Scarecrow, Tin Man and Jack Pumpkin head. Mr. Mouse gets Lion to come to Ev and inform his friends of Dorothy's imprisonment. It is then suggested that while Ozma and Jack would return to Oz, Dorothy and Tik-Tok with the accompany of Dorothy’s friends would go to Nomeland to rescue Princess Langwidere's brother, the Prince of Ev from the Nome King. The group crosses a dangerous Desert, which consists of a sandstorm, funny looking plants, a giant beetle and only one oasis in the entire sandy waste.
They come across giant bones and a ship. While the group decides to rest in the ship for the night, they meet Billina, a Talking Hen (who acts like a Rooster), who was once the Nome King's chicken. She tells them the way to Nomeland, before giving Tik-Tok an egg. On the way to Nomeland, the friends travel through rocky caverns where they encounter and manage to escape one of two Rock Giants and a Ruined City. They arrive at the Gateway which leads down into the Nome King's Underground Kingdom. After walking alongside a River of Flowing Lava, as well as crossing over it, they walk through an Ornament Hallway and meet the Nome King.
Knowing why they are here he tells them of his power and that if they would want to free the Prince, they would have to play his Guessing Ornament Game. After Tik-Tok mistakenly turns into an ornament first, Kaliko tricks the Lion, the Tin Man and the Scarecrow in their guesses, turning them into ornaments. Dorothy, however, tricks the two Nomes into revealing the Prince of Ev and restores her friends. But when they try to leave, they end up getting trapped where Nome King & Kaliko scare them with pouring giant-tubs of lava, until they see and are terrified by the egg which Tik-Tok has secretly hidden.
With the Prince of Ev, the group tries to leave, but the Nome King isn't going to make it easy for them—he tries to drown them in a river of lava and catapults them with giant boulders. When it is finally decided that they have to follow the underground river for the way out, the Nome King, Kaliko and the Nomes attack them again with flying boulders. Fortunately, this attack gives the friends an opening to escape. They thank Billina for her help, but then the ship and the surrounding sand begins to sink by the Nome King again, but once Lion saves Scarecrow from being lost they are all finally free and safe from the Nome King, despite his displeasure. The friends then decide that it is time to go home. (It is unknown if Tik-Tok and Billina have decided to move to Oz)
The Emerald City of Oz (episodes 42 to 52)
The fourth and final story arc of the series is an adaptation of the sixth Oz book, The Emerald City of Oz (1910). Continuing on directly from the last story arc, the Nome King is now planning his revenge. Meanwhile, Dorothy is still in Oz. She and Scarecrow has been busy chasing Ozma around the Emerald City, which takes them into a Secret Chamber. Even in the darkness, Ozma discovers a door which reveals to them the Heart of the Emerald City and the history of Oz, proving to Ozma that she must prepare a coronation to be Queen of Oz. Back at the underground kingdom of the Nomes, an Invasion specialist named Guph suggests that in order to conquer the Emerald City they must make a tunnel which will take them to the Emerald City. Along with Guph's Giant Dirt-Devouring Worm, the Nomes make the tunnel and pass underneath the 'Deadly' Desert.
In the meantime, Scarecrow discovers a small box in the Wizard's Chamber which transports Dorothy and Ozma into a world where they meet Miss Cuttenclip the Paper Queen and Mr. Fuddles the Puzzle Man who creates a door which returns the girls back to Oz. As everybody gets everything ready, Dorothy and Ozma practice her magic powers by making a Giant Paper Bird come to life, so that they can ride it in the sky whenever they wish. Knowing the Nomes' fear and weakness, Guph also enlists the help of the monstrous Growleywog to ensure their victory. Practicing for the Coronation, Ozma's magic reveals where to find the Fountain of the Water of Oblivion, an important part of the Coronation.
Growleywog emerges in the West and starts devouring areas of the country. The terrified Winkies tell their King the Tin Man of the monster, and Dorothy also learns of the news. As the Tin Man battles Growleywog, Dorothy borrows the Magic Bird and tries to solve the problem without ruining any plans for Ozma. Underground, the Worm's failed attempt to go any further unto the emerald city gets Guph and the Nome King into an argument.
Nome King & his Army attempts to charge Emerald City, but Scarecrow's wondering of where and looking for Dorothy forces them back into the tunnel. After Dorothy manages to find the Winkie Timsmith to help her rescue Tin Man from the Growleywog, Guph sneaks into the Emerald City, going along the many stairs and doors, only to lose his memory in the Palace. Dorothy meets a pleasant Guph the next morning and the Nome King is worried. Ozma's Coronation is a success—despite Dorothy's exhaustion—and afterwards Tin Man talks to Ozma, the Lion and the Scarecrow on how to deal with Growleywog, which at that time is rejoined by the Nomes.
That night, Growleywog leads the Nomes in invasion of the Emerald City. As the Tin Man thwarts some of the Nomes, Scarecrow tells Dorothy his plan for a rescue. The friends do their best in scaring and attacking the Nomes with eggs, while the Lion watches over Ozma in her room, but their attempts are foiled and all seems lost for Dorothy and Scarecrow, but a voice comforts Dorothy, promising that all will be well. The next morning everybody is imprisoned by the Nome King and Dorothy wakes up to find herself alone in the Emerald City with the Growleywog and Guph, who has regained his memory but still protects her. Ozma uses her magic to save her people and trick the Nome King and his followers into defeat. Back in Oz, Glinda appears and congratulates Ozma on a job well done as the Nomes, Growlewog and Worm return home. Dorothy tells Glinda she knows it was her voice she heard, and realizes it is time to go home. However she is not sad, as she knows that she will be able to return to Oz anytime she wants thanks to Ozma's magic. Dorothy bids goodbye to her friends promising to return soon, and is then sent back to Kansas where she reunites with Aunt Em, Uncle Henry and Toto.
Comparison with the original stories
The major change from the book in the second story arc was that the Woggle-Bug wasn't present, and Dorothy was incorporated into the story (she was not present in the original novel The Marvelous Land of Oz which that story arc is based upon). The other major change is that Glinda, who in the novel abhors transformations, transforms herself into an eagle to fight with Mombi, who has taken the form of a dragon (she became a gryphon in the novel, and was chased into the Deadly Desert by Glinda riding aboard the Saw-Horse). Another change is that unlike in the book, the Gump is mute and uses body language to communicate.
Many scenarios from the third story arc were either loosely based on the original stories, moved around and even left out. The Nome King, designed as short and plump, is closer to Baum/Neil's original cheeky book version, except for the fact that he, Kaliko and the Nomes all have tall pointy hats. While the book originally had an Iron Giant with a Hammer, this animated version has two Rock Giants. The Wheelers are changed from many mischievous well-dressed people with wheels-instead-of-hands-&-feet to 3 little hairy cave-like men wearing beanies that move around on stone wheels like uni-cycle, with short tempers and loud gruff voices. Instead of heads, Princess Langwidere changes her hats, which 'match' her moods.
Though still based on the books, the stories of the third and fourth arcs strayed heavily from their source material. Characters were renamed and bore no resemblance to how they appeared in the books (i.e. The Prince of Ev, Princess Langwidere, Lord Kaliko, The Growleywog, General Guph, Giant Worm), or simply were not present at all. The plot was changed a lot too—the characters can freely walk across the Deadly Desert unharmed, Billina does not even come from Kansas. the original books have the Nomes all illustrated fat bodies with skinny arms & legs, Guff looks like a small Chinese man with long whiskers and there is Growleywog, which was put instead of an army of tall skinny but strong malicious-looking men, which was designed as a big fat growling monster. A major plot theme from The Emerald City of Oz—Aunt Em and Uncle Henry coming to Oz—never happens at all. Dorothy also leaves Oz once again to go home to Kansas in the end.
Characters
Dorothy Gale: Dorothy is the main heroine of the series. She lives with her Uncle Henry and Aunt Em on a farm in Kansas. Dorothy travels to Oz in a cyclone where she makes many new friends and shows great bravery. Dorothy wishes to return home to Kansas, so as not to worry her uncle and aunt, from the first moment she arrives in Oz.
Toto: Dorothy's small Cairn Terrier dog, who barks on whomever he sees. He was given to Dorothy by Uncle Henry as a present.
Scarecrow: The Scarecrow used to stand in the middle of a large corn field in the Munchkin Country and was supposed to frighten the crows (but failed at this task), until he met in Dorothy on her way to the Emerald City. The "brainless" Scarecrow joins Dorothy on her journey in the hope that The Wizard will give him a brain. Even though he does not believe it yet, the Scarecrow already has a sharp brain full of brilliant ideas, and he proves this throughout the whole journey.
Tin Man: Originally a human, the Wicked Witch of the East transformed him into a Tin Man made entirety out of tin. She also took his heart from him so that he would not be able to ever love again. Since he is made entirety from metal, the Tin Man gets rusty quickly when in contact with water. One day, whilst chopping down trees in the forest it started to rain, and he was stuck in middle of the forest for more than a whole year until Dorothy and the Scarecrow met him by coincidence and helped him out. The "heart-less" Tin Man wants to be able to love again and therefore joins Dorothy on her journey in the hope that The Wizard will give him a heart. Soon becomes Ruler of the Winkies after the Wicked Witch of the West is melted.
Cowardly Lion: The lion previously lived in the large forest situated in Munchkin Country. The Cowardly Lion was always cowardly, fearing everything. The Cowardly Lion joins the gang on the journey to the Emerald City in the hope that The Wizard will give him some courage. Even though he doesn't know it, throughout the journey the Cowardly Lion proves to be very brave and courageous, and all he needed was to boost his self-confidence.
Tip / Princess Ozma: The little mischievous boy Tip was first introduced in an episode of the first story arc, and played a prominent role in the second, accompanying Dorothy on her second adventure in Oz. At the end of The Marvelous Land of Oz, he was actually Princess Ozma, heir to the throne of Oz. When the previous King of Oz disappeared, the Wizard of Oz became the caregiver of his daughter, Princess Ozma. The wizard wanted to rule the Emerald City without any disturbances, so he gave the Princess Ozma to Mombi who had always wanted children of her own. Mombi pitied the little baby and did not want the princess to suffer from growing up with her, and therefore transformed her into a baby boy and named her Tip. Dorothy met Tip for the first time at Mombi's. Tip was very connected to Mombi—he knows that under the scary exterior hides a warm, loving, humane mother who gave him a warm home and love throughout all the years. The gang went to Mombi because they were trying to figure out what happened to Princess Ozma, since they wanted to her, as the true ruler of the Oz's Throne, to become the ruler of the Emerald City. After investigating Mombi, she tells them her biggest secret, which had she sworn never to tell—Tip is actually Princess Ozma. Glinda removes the spell that was cast upon Princess Ozma, and she becomes the new ruler of Oz. Princess Ozma is very mischievous, and is somewhat of a tomboy—she likes to climb on trees and play soccer. She thinks Dorothy is much more worthy of being the ruler of Oz than her. Princess Ozma is considered to be a good ruler by the citizens of Oz and is very popular.
Jack Pumpkinhead: Jack Pumpkinhead was introduced in The Marvelous Land of Oz, and was created by Tip as a way of scaring Mombi. Jack was brought to life with the Powder of Life.
The Sawhorse: The Sawhorse was also introduced in The Marvelous Land of Oz, and brought to life using the Powder of Life. He accompanies Dorothy, Tip and Jack on their journey to the Emerald City to see the Scarecrow.
The Gump: The Gump was also introduced in The Marvelous Land of Oz, and brought to life using the Powder of Life. He doesn't talk, but he can understand his friends and he is able to fly, thanks to the craftsmanship of Dorothy and her crew.
Billina: Billina is a chicken introduced in Ozma of Oz, when she is inhabiting a ship in the desert. Billina plays an important role in the escape of Dorothy and her friends by giving them one of her eggs—unbeknownst to her, eggs are poisonous to Nomes. She takes a liking to Tik-Tok.
Tik-Tok: Tik-Tok is a mechanic robot that plays a prominent role in Ozma of Oz. He was previously the best friend of the Prince of Ev, and meets Dorothy during her first encounter with the Wheelers in the Land of Ev. Tik-tok joins Dorothy and Co on their journey into the Nome King's kingdom to find the Prince of Ev.
Paper Bird: A big origami bird brought to life by Ozma.
Allies
Uncle Henry and Aunt Em: The sister of Dorothy's mother, Aunt Em adopted Dorothy, after her mother's death. While Uncle Henry works on the farm to provide the family, Aunt Em works at home and takes care of the farm's animals and of Dorothy. Later, when Dorothy returns home to Kansas with the help of her magic shoes, Aunt Em and Uncle Henry refuse to believe Dorothy's tales of her adventures in Oz, dismissing them as hallucinations.
Good Witch of the North: The Good Witch of the North appears in the first episodes of the show, when Dorothy arrives for the first time in Oz, mistakenly killing the Wicked Witch of the East, so the Good Witch of the North comes to thank her. She is very clumsy and confused all of the time—she is actually convinced that Dorothy is a good witch herself, who has come a long distance in order to help the nation munchkins that was suffering from the evil witch's rulership. The Good Witch of the North rules the northern country and had great powers in the past, but nowadays her powers have weakened. She is not able to help Dorothy return home and she never heard of Kansas, therefore she sends Dorothy to the great Wizard of Oz who lives in the Emerald City to help her get back home. She gives Dorothy a basket of food, the shoes of the Wicked Witch of the East, and her famous signature kiss. The Good Witch of the North is known for her powers of healing. She has the ability to easily cure every sick person and to prevent diseases with the help of her magic powers. She also has the ability to give a protective kiss—which turns whoever receives it to be protected from all bad. Dorothy receives the kiss in the second episode, and since then no one can hurt her, even though many villains try throughout the series—they all fail due to the powerful kiss.
Munchkins
Guardian of the Gates
The Wizard of Oz: The Wizard lives in the Emerald City and was reputed to have the biggest and greatest magic powers in all of Oz. All the inhabitants of Oz fear him and his powers. He is the ruler of the Emerald City, the capital of Oz, and from there he controls the entire country. No-one has ever seen his face. When Dorothy and her friends arrive the Emerald City, they are able to meet with the Wizard due to the a kiss that the Good Witch from the North gave Dorothy. The Wizard promises to fulfill their requests on condition that they kill the Witch of the West. The courageous gang manage to kill the Wicked Witch of the West, endangering their own lives the process. When they return to the Wizard, he is not interested in seeing them and tries to postpone meeting them. When they gang bursts into the big hall, they find out that he is just a man that has been deceiving everyone with tricks. He was the announcer in a circus and worked in a Hot air balloon, until one day the rope which was holding the balloon loosened up and the balloon carried him all the way to Oz. The people of the Emerald City thought that he was a great wizard because he came down from the skies—and he let them believe it. Unfortunately the Wizard is not able to help Dorothy return to Kansas. Dorothy meets the Wizard again in Kansas, before she returns to Oz for the second time. It is later revealed that after the King of Oz died the Wizard removed Princess Ozma, his only heir, and turned her over to Mombi so he wouldn't lose the power he had gained.
Glinda the Good Witch of the South: Glinda features throughout the whole series. Initially, Dorothy and her friends travel to Glinda so that she can help Dorothy return to Kansas. Glinda instructs Dorothy on how to use her magic shoes to return to Kansas, and makes Scarecrow the King of Oz, Tin Man the ruler of the Winkies and Lion the king of the forest. Glinda also plays a role in the later story arcs, helping to transform Tip into Ozma.
Queen of the Field Mice: The Queen first met the gang whilst they were passing through the deadly poppy field, which puts Dorothy, Toto and Lion into a deep sleep. The Scarecrow and the Tin Man are immune, and are in the process of dragging them out of the field when they see the queen of the Field Mice being chased by a big cat. The Tin Man, helps her and rescues her immediately from the cat. The queen, owing her life to the gang, asks them if there is anything that she and the field mice could to do for them in return. With the mice's help, Dorothy, Lion and Toto are taken out of the poppy field. Since that incident, the gang became good friends with the Queen of the Field Mice, and the Field Mice help the gang from time to time throughout the series.
The Prince of Ev: The Prince of Ev is the descendant to a dynasty of kings who used to rule Oz. The prince grew up with Tik-tok, a robot built especially for him. The prince grew up, and enjoyed exploring the kingdom and its neighboring kingdoms over the years, until one day, on one of his tours with Tik-tok in the desert, the prince disappeared without leaving a trace. Tik-tok returned to the royal palace to inform his parents, hoping they would obtain their boy. With time it became clear that the Nome King kidnapped him. The prince bothered the Nome King, because prince was tall, a fact which irritated the king. Therefore, the Nome King kidnapped the Prince of Ev and cast a spell over him that would prevent him from growing any more. The Prince of Ev's parents became very sad. With their son was gone, their lives was filled with great sorrow and they did not want to rule the country any more—so they dismissed themselves of the kingship. Their daughter, Princess Langwidere, became the ruler of Ev. Dorothy and her gang, on a mission from Ozma, eventually find out that the prince was transformed into an iron sculpture by the Nome King. The King agrees to free the prince from the spell only if they enter one-by-one into a room full of iron sculptures, and each guess which of the sculptures is the prince of Ev, and touch it. Whomever would failed to find him would also transform into an iron sculpture.
Villains
Wicked Witch of the East: The Wicked Witch of the West's sister who Dorothy crushed with her house at the beginning of the show. Dorothy 'inherits' the witch's magical shoes.
Wicked Witch of the West: Hated in all of Oz, the Wicked Witch of the West has conquered all of the western part of Oz, ruling it and transforming all of the inhabitants into her slaves. She has magical powers even stronger than Glinda's, and frightens the Wizard of Oz, inspiring him to get rid of her. He sends Dorothy, the Scarecrow, the Tin Man the Cowardly Lion to destroy her. The witch is forcing the Winkies to build a new fortress for her which she will use to conquer Oz. She seeing the gang of four coming in a magic mirror and sends out wolves, crows and an Army of her Winkie Soldiers out to attack them—but Dorothy's friends are easily able to beat them. The witch acts cruelly to those who try to rebel her and those dare to disobey her, she transforms into a sculpture of stone. When she notices Dorothy's shoes, the witch realises that she would be able to gain back all of the powers that she had lost by the means of the formidable shoes, and conspires to steal them. No one has knowledge of the witch's weakness—she would dissolve in water. The Witch uses her last command of the Golden Cap to call the Winged Monkeys, who manage to take apart the Scarecrow and Tin Man, capturing the Lion (who she wants to harness to her carriage). Dorothy and Toto are also spared, thanks to the Good Witch's kiss, and the monkeys bring her to the witch's fortress where Dorothy is forced to be the Witch's slave. The witch claims that her powers are much stronger than the Good Witch of the North, and therefore the Good Witch's kiss is insignificant to her. However, the truth is that the witch is petrified of the combination of the good witch's kiss and Dorothy's shoes. Dorothy and the lion eventually manage to escape and hide from the witch. When the witch discovers their hide out, she gets very angry and turns the lion into a stone sculpture and threatens Dorothy and Toto that she will turn them into stone too if Dorothy does not hand over her shoes. The witch almost ends up burning Toto with her witchcraft, and so Dorothy surrenders and gives the witch one shoe, promising to give the other after she would frees Toto from the flames. Toto jumps into a large vat of water, and splashes water on the Wicked Witch of the West, melting her.
Winged Monkeys: The Winged Monkeys are introduced in the first quarter of the series, when the Wicked Witch of the West uses the Golden Cap to call them to destroy Scarecrow, Tin Man, Dorothy and Toto, and to bring the Lion back to her palace. After Dorothy destroys the Wicked Witch of the West, she takes the Golden Cap. She uses the Golden Cap three times. She then gives the Golden Cap to Glinda the Good Witch of the South, who uses the Winged Monkeys to return Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion to their new homes. The Winged Monkeys do not feature in the subsequent three quarters of the series.
Hammerheads: Mean armless creatures with hard, flat heads who come out the ground like worms. They do not allow anyone in their land and never even apologize for their harmful actions.
Mombi: Mombi is a witch took care of Princess Ozma, after changing her into a boy named Tip.
General Jinjur: General Jinjur and her four woman army staged a revolt against, and temporarily took control of, the Emerald City in the second story arc.
Princess Lulu: The Prince of Ev's sister, and the current ruler of Ev. She possesses many different hats, which will change her mood depending on which one is wearing. Princess Lulu requested from Princess Ozma to help find her brother—the throne of the kingdom does not interest her and she only wants the Prince of Ev to return and become the ruler of the country. Princess Ozma sends the Tin man, the Scarecrow, Dorothy, the Lion and Tik-tok on an expedition in the land of Ev to find the Prince of Ev. Known as Langwidere in the book.
Wheelers: Small hairy people who move on wheels, seen first in a group of three. There are very mean when they meet Dorothy. Tik-Tok is after one of their hats, they don't like him either so Dorothy protects him from the Wheelers and forces them to leave.
Nomes: The Nomes are immortal rock fairies who dwell underground. They hide jewels and precious metals in the earth, and resent the "upstairs people" who dig down for those valuables.
The Nome King: The Nome King is the ruler of the Nome kingdom, located in the Deadly Desert. He has tried to conquer all of Oz before to gain control of the Emerald City—but has thus far failed due to the warm climate of the desert, and the strong sun light which exhausted all of the Nomes. The Nome King is of very short stature, and tries to make up for it by proving to everyone how big of a ruler he is—he dried out the whole sea until there was only a big desert left (because it made him feel small), and he kidnapped the Prince of Ev. After Dorothy and her friends rescue the prince from the Nome King in Ozma of Oz, the King is enraged and plots his revenge by conquering Oz and ruling the Emerald City of Oz with the help of General Guph and a Giant Worm (in The Emerald City of Oz). The nomes use the worm to dig a tunnel under the Deadly Desert towards the Emerald City.
Lord Kaliko: Lord Kaliko is the Nome King's 'sidekick', often offering advice to the King.
General Guph: The General of the Nome Army. He has a giant worm that can eat rock but not iron, and secretly planned to overthrow the Nome King after they conquered the Emerald City. Among the first to drink the water from the Fountain of Oblivion.
The Growleywog: The Growleywog joins the Nomes in their attempt to conquer the Land of Oz. According to Guph, he likes eggs. Fought the Tinman in the Winkie Country and managed to get him rusted.
Voice actors
Music scores
Japanese
The music score is by K.S. Yoshimura and Takao Naoi. The opening song is called "Fanshii Gaaru (ファンシーガール lit. Fancy Girl)" and is sung by Satoko Yamano. The ending song is called "Mahō no Kureyon (魔法のクレヨン lit. Magical Crayon)", and is sung by the Japanese vocalists Kumiko Ōsugi and Ema Ōsugi. An excerpt of instrumental music from the series has been used as an opening theme by a few of the other international dubs, such as the Polish and Hebrew ones.
North American English version
The North American version uses one piece of theme music for the episodic format, and four pieces of theme music for the highly edited movie format. The first song is "Searching for a Dream", used for the 52 episode TV version and first film. It changes the original Japanese animation into a CGI opening. The second opening song is "Listen to You Heart", used for the second film arc. The third song is "Taste the Rain", used for the third film release, and the fourth is "Close Your Eyes", which is used for the final film release. All songs were created and performed by musical group, The Parachute Club. The ending song is a shortened version of "Searching For a Dream", which plays while showcasing clips from the series.
Episodes
International release
To give it a secondary market, episodes of the show were later re-edited into four films and released in the U.S. on VHS and Laserdisc (and later DVD), in which major plots and storylines are removed in favour of cutting each story-arc down into their retrospective book-canon story.
In 1987, HBO purchased the rights to the series and dubbed it into English. Production for the English version was done by the Montreal-based studio Cinar (now WildBrain). Actress Margot Kidder was hired as narrator, and the musical band The Parachute Club provided songs for the series, which aired in the U.S. both in its original weekly episodic form and as a four-part miniseries edited from the TV episodes. This English version attempted to completely occlude the show's Japanese origins, going so far as to remove all Japanese names and studios from the credits and to credit key aspects of the animation to Westerners, which applied primarily to the CGI opening sequence. The English dub of the series formerly aired in the U.S. on the Cookie Jar Toons block on This TV.
In 2004, the latin american publisher Distrimax bought the rights to the four heavily edited resume movies and re-dubbed them, being titled "El magnífico mago de Oz", "El maravilloso mundo de Oz", "Ozma de Oz", and "La ciudad Esmeralda de Oz". Also, an Indonesian version was broadcast by Spacetoon in 2009.
Discotek Media released the English-language version of the series on SD Blu-ray and DVD for North America on August 29, 2017. They have also released the original Japanese-language version of series on SD Blu-ray on June 25, 2019. It has also been reported to be seen early-morning on This TV's Cinar children's Wildbrain programming block Cookie Jar Toons, which has since dissolved due to the breakup of the two companies. All 52 episodes were at one time available for instant streaming on Netflix.ca. The show aired in Australia and the United Kingdom several times in the early 1990s in the full episodic format on the ABC, Channel 4 and ITV channels respectively. It also aired around the same time in India on the Doordarshan channel. The full original Japanese version is available for purchase at YesAsia. In Mexico, IC Group have released the first 26 episodes in a collection of four DVDs under the name of El Mago de Oz. A series of French-dubbed DVD sets of the whole series are available in France.
The show has been aired in several countries outside of Japan and has been dubbed in English, Spanish, Italian, Indonesian and many other languages.
References
External links
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz at DHX Media
The Wonderful Wizard Of Oz (Heb/English)
1986 anime television series debuts
1987 Japanese television series endings
Japanese children's animated fantasy television series
Animated films based on The Wizard of Oz
Australian Broadcasting Corporation original programming
Channel 4 original programming
Discotek Media
Adventure anime and manga
Fantasy anime and manga
ITV children's television shows
Television shows based on children's books
Television shows based on American novels
Animated television series based on The Wizard of Oz
Animated television series about orphans
Animated television series about lions
TV Tokyo original programming
Television series by Cookie Jar Entertainment
Wizards in television |
4062863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content-addressable%20storage | Content-addressable storage | Content-addressable storage (CAS), also referred to as content-addressed storage or fixed-content storage, is a way to store information so it can be retrieved based on its content, not its name or location. It has been used for high-speed storage and retrieval of fixed content, such as documents stored for compliance with government regulations. Content-addressable storage is similar to content-addressable memory.
CAS systems work by passing the content of the file through a cryptographic hash function to generate a unique key, the "content address". The file system's directory stores these addresses and a pointer to the physical storage of the content. Because an attempt to store the same file will generate the same key, CAS systems ensure that the files within them are unique, and because changing the file will result in a new key, CAS systems provide assurance that the file is unchanged.
CAS became a significant market during the 2000s, especially after the introduction of the 2002 Sarbanes–Oxley Act which required the storage of enormous numbers of documents for long periods and retrieved only rarely. Ever-increasing performance of traditional file systems and new software systems have eroded the value of legacy CAS systems, which have become increasingly rare after roughly 2018. However, the principles of content addressability continue to be of great interest to computer scientists, and form the core of numerous emerging technologies, such as peer-to-peer file sharing, cryptocurrencies, and distributed computing.
Description
Location-based approaches
Traditional file systems generally track files based on their filename. On random-access media like a floppy disk, this is accomplished using a directory that consists of some sort of list of filenames and pointers to the data. The pointers refer to a physical location on the disk, normally using disk sectors. On more modern systems and larger formats like hard drives, the directory is itself split into many subdirectories, each tracking a subset of the overall collection of files. Subdirectories are themselves represented as files in a parent directory, producing a hierarchy or tree-like organization. The series of directories leading to a particular file is known as a "path".
In the context of CAS, these traditional approaches are referred to as "location-addressed", as each file is represented by a list of one or more locations, the path and filename, on the physical storage. In these systems, the same file with two different names will be stored as two files on disk and thus have two addresses. The same is true if the same file, even with the same name, is stored in more than one location in the directory hierarchy. This makes them less than ideal for a digital archive, where any unique information should only be stored once.
As the concept of the hierarchical directory became more common in operating systems especially during the late 1980s, this sort of access pattern began to be used by entirely unrelated systems. For instance, the World Wide Web uses a similar pathname/filename-like system known as the URL to point to documents. The same document on another web server has a different URL in spite of being identical content. Likewise, if an existing location changes in any way, if the filename changes or the server moves to a new domain name service name, the document is no longer accessible. This leads to the common problem of link rot.
CAS and FCS
Although location-based storage is widely used in many fields, this was not always the case. Previously, the most common way to retrieve data from a large collection was to use some sort of identifier based on the content of the document. For instance, the ISBN system is used to generate a unique number for every book. If one performs a web search for "ISBN 0465048994", one will be provided with a list of locations for the book Why Information Grows on the topic of information storage. Although many locations will be returned, they all refer to the same work, and the user can then pick whichever location is most appropriate. Additionally, if any one of these locations changes or disappears, the content can be found at any of the other locations.
CAS systems attempt to produce ISBN like results automatically and on any document. They do this by using a cryptographic hash function on the data of the document to produce what is sometimes known as a "key" or "fingerprint". This key is strongly tied to the exact content of the document, adding a single space at the end of the file, for instance, will produce a different key. In a CAS system, the directory does not map filenames onto locations, but uses the keys instead.
This provides several benefits. For one, when a file is sent to the CAS for storage, the hash function will produce a key and then check to see if that key already exists in the directory. If it does, the file is not stored as the one already in storage is identical. This allows CAS systems to easily avoid duplicate data. Additionally, as the key is based on the content of the file, retrieving a document with a given key ensures that the stored file has not been changed. The downside to this approach is that any changes to the document produces a different key, which makes CAS systems unsuitable for files that are often edited. For all of these reasons, CAS systems are normally used for archives of largely static documents, and are sometimes known as "fixed content storage" (FCS).
Because the keys are not human-readable, CAS systems implement a second type of directory that stores metadata that will help users find a document. These almost always include a filename, allowing the classic name-based retrieval to be used. But the directory will also include fields for common identification systems like ISBN or ISSN codes, user-provided keywords, time and date stamps, and full-text search indexes. Users can search these directories and retrieve a key, which can then be used to retrieve the actual document.
Using a CAS is very similar to using a web search engine. The primary difference is that a web search is generally performed on a topic basis using an internal algorithm that finds "related" content and then produces a list of locations. The results may be a list of the identical content in multiple locations. In a CAS, more than one document may be returned for a given search, but each of those documents will be unique and presented only once.
Another advantage to CAS is that the physical location in storage is not part of the lookup system. If, for instance, a library's card catalog stated a book could be found on "shelf 43, bin 10", if the library is re-arranged the entire catalog has to be updated. In contrast, the ISBN number will not change and the book can be found by looking for the shelf with those numbers. In the computer setting, a file in the DOS filesystem at the path A:\myfiles\textfile.txt points to the physical storage of the file in the myfiles subdirectory. This file disappears if the floppy is moved to the B: drive, and even moving its location within the disk hierarchy requires the user-facing directories to be updated. In CAS, only the internal mapping from key to physical location changes, and this exists in only one place and can be designed for efficient updating. This allows files to be moved among storage devices, and even across media, without requiring any changes to the retrieval.
For data that changes frequently, CAS is not as efficient as location-based addressing. In these cases, the CAS device would need to continually recompute the address of data as it was changed. This would result in multiple copies of the entire almost-identical document being stored, the problem that CAS attempts to avoid. Additionally, the user-facing directories would have to be continually updated with these "new" files, which would become polluted by many similar documents that would make searching more difficult. In contrast, updating a file in a location-based system is highly optimized, only the internal list of sectors has to be changed and many years of tuning have been applied to this operation.
Because CAS is used primarily for archiving, file deletion is often tightly controlled or even impossible under user control. In contrast, automatic deletion is a common feature, removing all files older than some legally defined requirement, say ten years.
In distributed computing
The simplest way to implement a CAS system is to store all of the files within a typical database to which clients connect to add, query, and retrieve files. However, the unique properties of content addressability mean that the paradigm is well suited for computer systems in which multiple hosts collaboratively manage files with no central authority, such as distributed file sharing systems, in which the physical location of a hosted file can change rapidly in response to changes in network topology, while the exact content of the files to be retrieved are of more importance to users than their current physical location. In a distributed system, content hashes are often used for quick network-wide searches for specific files, or to quickly see which data in a given file has been changed and must be propagated to other members of the network with minimal bandwidth usage. In these systems, content addressability allows highly variable network topology to be abstracted away from users who wish to access data, compared to systems like the World Wide Web, in which a consistent location of a file or service is key to easy use.
Content-addressable networks
History
A hardware device called the Content Addressable File Store (CAFS) was developed by International Computers Limited (ICL) in the late 1960s and put into use by British Telecom in the early 1970s for telephone directory lookups. The user-accessible search functionality was maintained by the disk controller with a high-level application programming interface (API) so users could send queries into what appeared to be a black box that returned documents. The advantage was that no information had to be exchanged with the host computer while the disk performed the search.
Paul Carpentier and Jan van Riel coined the term CAS while working at a company called FilePool in the late 1990s. FilePool was purchased by EMC Corporation in 2001 and was released the next year as Centera. The timing was perfect; the introduction of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in 2002 required companies to store huge amounts of documentation for extended periods and required them to do so in a fashion that ensured they were not edited after-the-fact.
A number of similar products soon appeared from other large-system vendors. In mid-2004, the industry group SNIA began working with a number of CAS providers to create standard behavior and interoperability guidelines for CAS systems.
In addition to CAS, a number of similar products emerged that added CAS-like capabilities to existing products; notable among these was IBM Tivoli Storage Manager. The rise of cloud computing and the associated elastic cloud storage systems like Amazon S3 further diluted the value of dedicated CAS systems. Dell purchased EMC in 2016 and stopped sales of the original Centera in 2018 in favor of their elastic storage product.
CAS was not associated with peer-to-peer applications until the 2000s, when rapidly proliferating Internet access in homes and businesses led to a large number of computer users who wanted to swap files, originally doing so on centrally managed services like Napster. However, an injunction against Napster prompted the independent development of file-sharing services such as BitTorrent, which could not be centrally shut down. In order to function without a central federating server, these services rely heavily on CAS to enforce the faithful copying and easy querying of unique files. At the same time, the growth of the open-source software movement in the 2000s led to the rapid proliferation of CAS-based services such as Git, a version control system that uses numerous cryptographic functions such as Merkle trees to enforce data integrity between users and allow for multiple versions of files with minimal disk and network usage. Around this time, individual users of public-key cryptography used CAS to store their public keys on systems such as key servers.
The rise of mobile computing and high capacity mobile broadband networks in the 2010s, coupled with increasing reliance on web applications for everyday computing tasks, strained the existing location-addressed client–server model commonplace among Internet services, leading to an accelerated pace of link rot and an increased reliance on centralized cloud hosting. Furthermore, growing concerns about the centralization of computing power in the hands of large technology companies, potential monopoly power abuses, and privacy concerns led to a number of projects created with the goal of creating more decentralized systems. Bitcoin uses CAS and public/private key pairs to manage wallet addresses, as do most other cryptocurrencies. IPFS uses CAS to identify and address communally hosted files on its network. Numerous other peer-to-peer systems designed to run on smartphones, which often access the Internet from varying locations, utilize CAS to store and access user data for both convenience and data privacy purposes, such as secure instant messaging.
Implementations
Proprietary
The Centera CAS system consists of a series of networked nodes (typically large servers running Linux), divided between storage nodes and access nodes. The access nodes maintain a synchronized directory of content addresses, and the corresponding storage node where each address can be found. When a new data element, or blob, is added, the device calculates a hash of the content and returns this hash as the blob's content address. As mentioned above, the hash is searched to verify that identical content is not already present. If the content already exists, the device does not need to perform any additional steps; the content address already points to the proper content. Otherwise, the data is passed off to a storage node and written to the physical media.
When a content address is provided to the device, it first queries the directory for the physical location of the specified content address. The information is then retrieved from a storage node, and the actual hash of the data recomputed and verified. Once this is complete, the device can supply the requested data to the client. Within the Centera system, each content address actually represents a number of distinct data blobs, as well as optional metadata. Whenever a client adds an additional blob to an existing content block, the system recomputes the content address.
To provide additional data security, the Centera access nodes, when no read or write operation is in progress, constantly communicate with the storage nodes, checking the presence of at least two copies of each blob as well as their integrity. Additionally, they can be configured to exchange data with a different, e.g., off-site, Centera system, thereby strengthening the precautions against accidental data loss.
IBM has another flavor of CAS which can be software-based, Tivoli Storage manager 5.3, or hardware-based, the IBM DR550. The architecture is different in that it is based on hierarchical storage management (HSM) design which provides some additional flexibility such as being able to support not only WORM disk but WORM tape and the migration of data from WORM disk to WORM tape and vice versa. This provides for additional flexibility in disaster recovery situations as well as the ability to reduce storage costs by moving data off the disk to tape.
Another typical implementation is iCAS from iTernity. The concept of iCAS is based on containers. Each container is addressed by its hash value. A container holds different numbers of fixed content documents. The container is not changeable, and the hash value is fixed after the write process.
Open-source
One of the first content-addressed storage servers, Venti, was originally developed for Plan 9 from Bell Labs and is now also available for Unix-like systems as part of Plan 9 from User Space.
The first step towards an open-source CAS+ implementation is Twisted Storage.
Tahoe Least-Authority File Store is an open source implementation of CAS.
Git is a userspace CAS filesystem. Git is primarily used as a source code control system.
git-annex is a distributed file synchronization system that uses content-addressable storage for files it manages. It relies on Git and symbolic links to index their filesystem location.
Project Honeycomb is an open-source API for CAS systems.
The XAM interface was developed under the auspices of the Storage Networking Industry Association. It provides a standard interface for archiving CAS (and CAS like) products and projects.
Perkeep is a recent project to bring the advantages of content-addressable storage "to the masses". It is intended to be used for a wide variety of use cases, including distributed backup, a snapshotted-by-default, a version-controlled filesystem, and decentralized, permission-controlled filesharing.
Irmin is an OCaml "library for persistent stores with built-in snapshot, branching and reverting mechanisms"; the same design principles as Git.
Cassette is an open-source CAS implementation for C#/.NET.
Arvados Keep is an open-source content-addressable distributed storage system. It is designed for large-scale, computationally intensive data science work such as storing and processing genomic data.
Infinit is a content-addressable and decentralized (peer-to-peer) storage platform that was acquired by Docker Inc.
InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), is a content-addressable, peer-to-peer hypermedia distribution protocol.
casync is a Linux software utility by Lennart Poettering to distribute frequently-updated file system images over the Internet.
See also
Content Addressable File Store
Content-centric networking / Named data networking
Data Defined Storage
Write Once Read Many
References
External links
Fast, Inexpensive Content-Addressed Storage in Foundation
Venti: a new approach to archival storage
Associative arrays
Computer storage devices |
4063117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blend%20word | Blend word | In linguistics, a blend—sometimes known, perhaps more narrowly, as a blend word, lexical blend, portmanteau ( or ; pl. portmanteaux), or portmanteau word—is a word formed, usually intentionally, by combining the sounds and meanings of two or more words. English examples include smog, coined by blending smoke and fog, as well as motel, from motor (motorist) and hotel. The component word fragments within blends are called splinters.
A blend is similar to a contraction, but contractions are formed, usually non-intentionally, from words whose sounds gradually drift together over time due to them commonly appearing together in sequence, such as do not naturally becoming don't. A blend also differs from a compound, which fully preserves the stems of the original words. The 1973 Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation explains that "In words such as motel, boatel and Lorry-Tel, hotel is represented by various shorter substitutes – otel, tel, or el – which I shall call splinters. Words containing splinters I shall call blends". Thus, at least one of the parts of a blend, strictly speaking, is not a complete morpheme, but instead a mere splinter or leftover word fragment. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a blend, of star and fish, as it includes both words in full. However, if it were called a "stish" or a "starsh", it would be a blend. Furthermore, when blends are formed by shortening established compounds or phrases, they can be considered clipped compounds, such as romcom for romantic comedy.
Classification
Blends of two or more words may be classified from each of three viewpoints: morphotactic, morphonological, and morphosemantic.
Morphotactic classification
Blends may be classified morphotactically into two kinds: total and partial.
Total blends
In a total blend, each of the words creating the blend is reduced to a mere splinter. Some linguists limit blends to these (perhaps with additional conditions): for example, Ingo Plag considers "proper blends" to be total blends that semantically are coordinate, the remainder being "shortened compounds".
Commonly for English blends, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another:
breakfast + lunch → brunch
Much less commonly in English, the beginning of one word may be followed by the beginning of another:
teleprinter + exchange → telex
American + Indian → Amerind
Some linguists do not regard beginning+beginning concatenations as blends, instead calling them complex clippings, clipping compounds or clipped compounds.
Unusually in English, the end of one word may be followed by the end of another:
Red Bull + margarita → bullgarita
Hello Kitty + delicious → kittylicious
A splinter of one word may replace part of another, as in three coined by Lewis Carroll in "Jabberwocky":
chuckle + snort → chortle
slimy + lithe → slithy
They are sometimes termed intercalative blends; these words are among the original "portmanteaus" for which this meaning of the word was created.
Partial blends
In a partial blend, one entire word is concatenated with a splinter from another. Some linguists do not recognize these as blends.
An entire word may be followed by a splinter:
dumb + confound → dumbfound
fan + magazine → fanzine
A splinter may be followed by an entire word:
Brad + Angelina → Brangelina
American + Indian → Amerindian
An entire word may replace part of another:
adorable + dork → adorkable
disgusting + gross → disgrossting
These have also been called sandwich words, and classed among intercalative blends.
(When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe.)
Morphonological classification
Morphonologically, blends fall into two kinds: overlapping and non-overlapping.
Overlapping blends
Overlapping blends are those for which the ingredients' consonants, vowels or even syllables overlap to some extent. The overlap can be of different kinds. These are also called haplologic blends.
There may be an overlap that is both phonological and orthographic, but with no other shortening:
anecdote + dotage → anecdotage
pal + alimony → palimony
The overlap may be both phonological and orthographic, and with some additional shortening to at least one of the ingredients:
California + fornication → Californication
picture + dictionary → pictionary
Such an overlap may be discontinuous:
politician + pollution → pollutician
beef + buffalo → beefalo
These are also termed imperfect blends.
It can occur with three components:
camisade + cannibalism + ballistics → camibalistics
meander + Neanderthal + tale → meandertale
The phonological overlap need not also be orthographic:
back + acronym → backronym
war + orgasm → wargasm
If the phonological but non-orthographic overlap encompasses the whole of the shorter ingredient, as in
sin + cinema → sinema
sham + champagne → shampagne
then the effect depends on orthography alone. (They are also called orthographic blends.)
An orthographic overlap need not also be phonological:
smoke + fog → smog
binary + unit → bit
For some linguists, an overlap is a condition for a blend.
Non-overlapping blends
Non-overlapping blends (also called substitution blends) have no overlap, whether phonological or orthographic:
California + Mexico → Calexico
beautiful + delicious → beaulicious
Morphosemantic classification
Morphosemantically, blends fall into two kinds: attributive and coordinate.
Attributive blends
Attributive blends (also called syntactic or telescope blends) are those in which one of the ingredients is the head and the other is attributive. A porta-light is a portable light, not a 'light-emitting' or light portability; light is the head. A snobject is a snobbery-satisfying object and not an objective or other kind of snob; object is the head.
As is also true for (conventional, non-blend) attributive compounds (among which bathroom, for example, is a kind of room, not a kind of bath), the attributive blends of English are mostly head-final and mostly endocentric. As an example of an exocentric attributive blend, Fruitopia may metaphorically take the buyer to a fruity utopia (and not a utopian fruit); however, it is not a utopia but a drink.
Coordinate blends
Coordinate blends (also called associative or portmanteau blends) combine two words having equal status, and have two heads. Thus brunch is neither a breakfasty lunch nor a lunchtime breakfast but instead some hybrid of breakfast and lunch; Oxbridge is equally Oxford and Cambridge universities. This too parallels (conventional, non-blend) compounds: an actor–director is equally an actor and a director.
Two kinds of coordinate blends are particularly conspicuous: those that combine (near) synonyms:
gigantic + enormous → ginormous
insinuation + innuendo → insinuendo
and those that combine (near) opposites:
transmitter + receiver → transceiver
friend + enemy → frenemy
Blending of two roots
Blending can also apply to roots rather than words, for instance in Israeli Hebrew:
(, 'hint') + (, 'light') → (, 'traffic light')
(, 'tower') + (, 'light') → (, 'lighthouse')
Mishnaic Hebrew: (, 'push') + Biblical Hebrew: (, 'dig') → (, 'bulldozer')
Israeli שלטוט shiltút 'zapping, surfing the channels, flipping through the channels' derives from
(i) (Hebrew>) Israeli שלט shalát 'remote control', an ellipsis – like English remote (but using the noun instead) – of the (widely known) compound שלט רחוק shalát rakhók – cf. the Academy of the Hebrew Language's שלט רחק shalát rákhak; and
(ii) (Hebrew>) Israeli שטוט shitút 'wandering, vagrancy'. Israeli שלטוט shiltút was introduced by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in [...] 1996. Synchronically, it might appear to result from reduplication of the final consonant of shalát 'remote control'.
Another example of blending which has also been explained as mere reduplication is Israeli גחלילית gakhlilít 'fire-fly, glow-fly, Lampyris'. This coinage by Hayyim Nahman Bialik blends (Hebrew>) Israeli גחלת gakhélet 'burning coal' with (Hebrew>) Israeli לילה láyla 'night'. Compare this with the unblended חכלילית khakhlilít '(black) redstart, Phœnicurus (<Biblical Hebrew חכליל 'dull red, reddish'). Synchronically speaking though, most native Israeli-speakers feel that gakhlilít includes a reduplication of the third radical of גחל √għl. This is incidentally how Ernest Klein explains gakhlilít. Since he is attempting to provide etymology, his description might be misleading if one agrees that Hayyim Nahman Bialik had blending in mind."
"There are two possible etymological analyses for Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár 'bank clerk, teller'. The first is that it consists of (Hebrew>) Israeli כסף késef 'money' and the (International/Hebrew>) Israeli agentive suffix ר- -ár. The second is that it is a quasi-portmanteau word which blends כסף késef 'money' and (Hebrew>) Israeli ספר √spr 'count'. Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár started as a brand name but soon entered the common language. Even if the second analysis is the correct one, the final syllable ר- -ár apparently facilitated nativization since it was regarded as the Hebrew suffix ר- -år (probably of Persian pedigree), which usually refers to craftsmen and professionals, for instance as in Mendele Mocher Sforim's coinage סמרטוטר smartutár 'rag-dealer'."
Lexical selection
Blending may occur with an error in lexical selection, the process by which a speaker uses his semantic knowledge to choose words. Lewis Carroll's explanation, which gave rise to the use of 'portmanteau' for such combinations, was:
Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious." Make up your mind that you will say both words ... you will say "frumious."
The errors are based on similarity of meanings, rather than phonological similarities, and the morphemes or phonemes stay in the same position within the syllable.
Use
Some languages, like Japanese, encourage the shortening and merging of borrowed foreign words (as in gairaigo), because they are long or difficult to pronounce in the target language. For example, karaoke, a combination of the Japanese word kara (meaning empty) and the clipped form oke of the English loanword "orchestra" (J. ōkesutora, ), is a Japanese blend that has entered the English language. The Vietnamese language also encourages blend words formed from Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. For example, the term Việt Cộng is derived from the first syllables of "Việt Nam" (Vietnam) and "Cộng sản" (communist).
Many corporate brand names, trademarks, and initiatives, as well as names of corporations and organizations themselves, are blends. For example, Wiktionary, one of Wikipedia's sister projects, is a blend of wiki and dictionary.
Origin of the term portmanteau
The word portmanteau was introduced in this sense by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871), where Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the coinage of unusual words used in "Jabberwocky". Slithy means "slimy and lithe" and mimsy means "miserable and flimsy". Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the practice of combining words in various ways, comparing it to the then-common type of luggage, which opens into two equal parts:
In his introduction to his 1876 poem The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll again uses portmanteau when discussing lexical selection:
In then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. According to the OED Online, a portmanteau is a "case or bag for carrying clothing and other belongings when travelling; (originally) one of a form suitable for carrying on horseback; (now esp.) one in the form of a stiff leather case hinged at the back to open into two equal parts". According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD), the etymology of the word is the French , from , "to carry", and , "cloak" (from Old French , from Latin ). According to the OED Online, the etymology of the word is the "officer who carries the mantle of a person in a high position (1507 in Middle French), case or bag for carrying clothing (1547), clothes rack (1640)". In modern French, a is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like.
An occasional synonym for "portmanteau word" is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending "Frankenstein" and "word".
Examples in English
Many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch (breakfast + lunch) was introduced as a "portmanteau word". In 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia.
Some city names are portmanteaus of the border regions they straddle: Texarkana spreads across the Texas-Arkansas-Louisiana border, while Calexico and Mexicali are respectively the American and Mexican sides of a single conurbation. A scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger (a tigon is a similar cross in which the male is a tiger).
Many company or brand names are portmanteaus, including Microsoft, a portmanteau of microcomputer and software; the cheese Cambozola combines a similar rind to Camembert with the same mould used to make Gorgonzola; passenger rail company Amtrak, a portmanteau of America and track; Velcro, a portmanteau of the French (velvet) and (hook); Verizon, a portmanteau of (Latin for truth) and horizon; Viacom, a portmanteau of Video and Audio communications, and ComEd (a Chicago-area electric utility company), a portmanteau of Commonwealth and Edison.
Jeoportmanteau! is a recurring category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy! The category's name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy and portmanteau. Responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together.
Portmanteau words may be produced by joining proper nouns with common nouns, such as "gerrymandering", which refers to the scheme of Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry for politically contrived redistricting; the perimeter of one of the districts thereby created resembled a very curvy salamander in outline. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander.
Oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UK's two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. In 2016, Britain's planned exit from the European Union became known as "Brexit".
The word refudiate was famously used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, conflating the words refute and repudiate. Though the word was a gaffe, it was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys "Word of the Year" in 2010.
The business lexicon includes words like "advertainment" (advertising as entertainment), "advertorial" (a blurred distinction between advertising and editorial), "infotainment" (information about entertainment or itself intended to entertain by its manner of presentation), and "infomercial" (informational commercial).
Company and product names may also use portmanteau words: examples include Timex (a portmanteau of Time [referring to Time magazine] and Kleenex), Renault's Twingo (a combination of twist, swing and tango), and Garmin (portmanteau of company founders' first names Gary Burrell and Min Kao). "Desilu Productions" was a Los Angeles–based company jointly owned by actor couple Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball. Miramax is the combination of the first names of the parents of the Weinstein brothers.
Name-meshing
Two proper names can also be used in creating a portmanteau word in reference to the partnership between people, especially in cases where both persons are well-known, or sometimes to produce epithets such as "Billary" (referring to former United States president Bill Clinton and his wife, former United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton). In this example of recent American political history, the purpose for blending is not so much to combine the meanings of the source words but "to suggest a resemblance of one named person to the other"; the effect is often derogatory, as linguist Benjamin Zimmer states. For instance, Putler is used by critics of Vladimir Putin, merging his name with Adolf Hitler. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaus to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to "...giv[e] people an essence of who they are within the same name." This is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life "supercouples". An early known example, Bennifer, referred to film stars Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez. Other examples include Brangelina (Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie) and TomKat (Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes). On Wednesday, 28 June 2017, The New York Times crossword included the quip, "How I wish Natalie Portman dated Jacques Cousteau, so I could call them 'Portmanteau.
Holidays are another example, as in Thanksgivukkah, a portmanteau neologism given to the convergence of the American holiday of Thanksgiving and the first day of the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah on Thursday, 28 November 2013. Chrismukkah is another pop-culture portmanteau neologism popularized by the TV drama The O.C., merging of the holidays of Christianity's Christmas and Judaism's Hanukkah.
In the Disney film Big Hero 6, the film is situated in a fictitious city called "San Fransokyo", which is a portmanteau of two real locations, San Francisco and Tokyo.
Other languages
Modern Hebrew
Modern Hebrew abounds with blending. Along with CD, or simply (), Hebrew has the blend (), which consists of (, 'phonograph record') and (, 'light'). Other blends in Hebrew include the following:
(, 'smog'), from (, 'fog') and (, 'soot')
(, 'pedestrian-only street'), from (, 'sidewalk') and (, 'street')
(, 'musical'), from (, 'theatre play') and (, 'singing' [gerund])
(, 'lighthouse'), from (, 'tower') and (, 'light')
(, 'rhinoceros'), from (, 'horn') and (, 'nose')
(, 'traffic light'), from (, 'indication') and (, 'light')
(, 'thong bikini'), from (, 'string') and (, 'bikini')
Sometimes the root of the second word is truncated, giving rise to a blend that resembles an acrostic:
(, 'orange' (fruit)), from (, 'apple') and (, 'gold')
(, 'potato'), from (, 'apple') and (, 'soil' or 'earth'), but the full (, 'apple of the soil' or 'apple of the earth') is more common
Irish
A few portmanteaus are in use in modern Irish, for example:
Brexit is referred to as (from , "Britain", and , "leave") or (from , "England", and , "out")
The resignation of Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) Frances Fitzgerald was referred to as (from , "goodbye" and Tánaiste)
, an Irish-language preschool (from , "infants", and , "band")
The Irish translation of A Game of Thrones refers to Winterfell castle as (from , "winter", and , "exposed to winds")
(from English jail and , "Irish-speaking region"): the community of Irish-speaking republican prisoners.
Icelandic
There is a tradition of linguistic purism in Icelandic, and neologisms are frequently created from pre-existing words. For example, 'computer' is a portmanteau of 'digit, number' and 'oracle, seeress'.
Indonesian
In Indonesian, portmanteaus and acronyms are very common in both formal and informal usage.
A common use of a portmanteau in the Indonesian language is to refer to locations and areas of the country. For example, Jabodetabek is a portmanteau that refers to the Jakarta metropolitan area or Greater Jakarta, which includes the regions of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi).
Malaysian
In the Malaysian national language of Bahasa Melayu, the word jadong was constructed out of three Malay words for evil (jahat), stupid (bodoh) and arrogant (sombong) to be used on the worst kinds of community and religious leaders who mislead naive, submissive and powerless folk under their thrall.
Japanese
A very common type of portmanteau in Japanese forms one word from the beginnings of two others (that is, from two back-clippings). The portion of each input word retained is usually two morae, which is tantamount to one kanji in most words written in kanji.
The inputs to the process can be native words, Sino-Japanese words, gairaigo (later borrowings), or combinations thereof. A Sino-Japanese example is the name for the University of Tokyo, in full . With borrowings, typical results are words such as , meaning personal computer (PC), which despite being formed of English elements does not exist in English; it is a uniquely Japanese contraction of the English . Another example, , is a contracted form of the English words and . A famous example of a blend with mixed sources is , blending the Japanese word for and the Greek word . The Japanese fad of egg-shaped keychain pet toys from the 1990s, Tamagotchi, is a portmanteau combining the two Japanese words tamago (たまご), which means "egg", and uotchi (ウオッチ) "watch". The portmanteau can also be seen as a combination of tamago (たまご), "egg", and tomodachi (友だち), which means "friend".
Some titles also are portmanteaus, such as Hetalia (ヘタリア). It came from Hetare (ヘタレ), which means "idiot", and Italia (イタリア) which means Italy. Another example is Servamp,
which came from the English words Servant (サーヴァント) and Vampire (ヴァンパイア).
Portuguese
In Brazilian Portuguese, portmanteaus are usually slang, including:
Cantriz, from cantora (female singer) and atriz (actress), which defines women that both sing and act.
Aborrescente, from aborrecer (annoy) and adolescente (teenager), which is a pejorative term for teenagers.
Pescotapa, from pescoço (neck) and tapa (slap), which defines a slap on the back of the neck.
In European Portuguese, portmanteaus are also used. Some of them include:
Telemóvel, which means mobile phone, comes from telefone (telephone) and móvel (mobile).
Cantautor, which means Singer-songwriter, and comes from cantor (singer) and autor (songwriter).
Spanish
Although traditionally uncommon in Spanish, portmanteaus are increasingly finding their way into the language, mainly for marketing and commercial purposes. Examples in Mexican Spanish include from combining "coffee shop" and "bookstore", or 'telethon' from combining and . Portmanteaus are also frequently used to make commercial brands, such as "chocolleta" from "chocolate" + "galleta." They are also often used to create business company names, especially for small, family-owned businesses, where owners' names are combined to create a unique name (such as Rocar, from "Roberto" + "Carlos", or Mafer, from "María" + "Fernanda"). These usages help to create distinguishable trademarks. It is a common occurrence for people with two names to combine them into a single nickname, like Juanca for Juan Carlos, Or Marilú for María de Lourdes.
Other examples:
Cantautor, which means Singer-songwriter, and comes from cantante (singer) and autor (songwriter).
Mecatrónica and Ofimática two Neologisms that are blends of mecánica (mechanical) with electrónica (electronics), and oficina (office) with informática (informatics) respectively.
Espanglish, interlanguage that combines words from both Spanish (Español) and English.
Metrobús, blend of metro (subway) and autobús.
Autopista, blend of automóvil (car) and pista (road, tracks).
Company names and brands with portmanteaus are common in Spanish. Some examples of Spanish portmanteaus for Mexican companies include: The Mexican flag carrier Aeroméxico, (Aerovías de México), Banorte (Bank and North), Cemex (Cement and Mexico), Jumex (Jugos Mexicanos or Mexican Juice), Mabe (from founders Egon MAbardi and Francisco BErrondo), Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos or Mexican Oil), Softtek (portmanteau and stylization of Software and technology), and Telmex (Teléfonos de Mexico). Gamesa (Galletera Mexicana, S.A. or Mexican Biscuit Company, Inc.) and Famsa (fabricantes Muebleros, S.A.) are examples of portmanteaus of four words, including the "S.A." (Sociedad Anónima).
Many more portmanteaus in Spanish come from Anglicisms, which are words borrowed from English, like módem, transistor, códec, email, internet or emoticon.
A somewhat popular example in Spain is the word , a portmanteau of (cockerel and elephant). It was the prize on the Spanish version of the children TV show Child's Play () that ran on the public television channel of (TVE) from 1988 to 1992.
Portmanteau morph
In linguistics, a blend is an amalgamation or fusion of independent lexemes, while a portmanteau or portmanteau morph is a single morph that is analyzed as representing two (or more) underlying morphemes. For example, in the Latin word , the ending is a portmanteau morph because it is used for two morphemes: the singular number and the genitive case. In English, two separate morphs are used: of an' animal. Other examples include → and → .
See also
Abbreviation
Acronym and initialism
Clipping (morphology)
Conceptual blending
Amalgamation (names)
Hybrid word
List of geographic portmanteaus
List of portmanteaus
Phonestheme
Phono-semantic matching
Portmanteau sentence
Syllabic abbreviation
Wiktionary category:English blends
Notes
References
External links
1870s neologisms
Word coinage |
4063362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Old%20Brightonians | List of Old Brightonians | This is a List of Old Brightonians, notable former students – known as "Old Brightonians" – of the co-educational, public school, Brighton College in Brighton, East Sussex, United Kingdom.
Academia, education and literature
Edward Carpenter (1844–1929), socialist writer and campaigner for homosexual rights
Robert H. Crabtree (born 1948), Organometallic Chemist, Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, Yale University, creator of Crabtree's catalyst
Andrew Gamble (born 1947), Professor of Politics, University of Sheffield and then University of Cambridge, Fellow of the British Academy
Francis Llewellyn Griffith (1862–1934), Egyptologist and pioneer of Nubian archaeology, first Professor of Egyptology, University of Oxford
George Bagshawe Harrison (1894–1991), Shakespearean scholar, Professor of English, Queen's University, Ontario and the University of Michigan, editor of the Penguin Shakespeare 1937–59, member of the Roman Catholic International Commission on English in the Liturgy
Sir Richard Jolly (born 1934), development economist, Assistant Secretary-General United Nations, Director Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex 1972–81
Ewart Mackintosh (1893–1917), First World War poet, MC
Michael Roberts (1908–1996), historian of Sweden, Professor of History at Queen's University Belfast, Fellow of the British Academy
Sir Sydney Roberts (1887–1966), Dr Johnson scholar, Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge, Secretary of Cambridge University Press and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, Chairman British Film Institute
John Alfred Ryle (1889–1950), physician and Regius Professor of Physic, University of Cambridge 1935–45, physician to King George V
Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976), philosopher and Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy, University of Oxford, declined a knighthood in 1965
Ian Serraillier (1912–1994), novelist, children's writer and poet
Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky of Tilton (born 1939), Professor of Political Economy, University of Warwick, created a life peer (changed whip from SDP to Conservative to cross-bencher)
Leonard Strong (1896–1958), writer and poet, Director of Methuen Ltd
Architecture, building and engineering
Sir Francis Fox (1844–1927), civil engineer, responsible for Mersey Railway Tunnel and the Snowdon Mountain Railway, consultant engineer for the Simplon Tunnel, consultant engineer in the restoration of Exeter Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, Peterborough Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral and Winchester Cathedral
Charles Fraser-Smith (1904–1992), missionary, farmer, creator of gadgets for SOE during World War II and as such the model for Q in Ian Fleming's James Bond stories
Sir Thomas Graham Jackson (1835–1924), architect and architectural historian, Master of the Art Workers' Guild 1896, RA
Business
Sir Hugo Cunliffe-Owen (1870–1947), civil engineer, Chairman of British American Tobacco
Cuthbert Heath (1859–1939), insurance pioneer at Lloyd's of London
Sir Arthur Pease, Bt. (1866–1927), coal magnate, Second Civil Lord of the Admiralty
David Quayle (1936–2010), co-founder of B&Q
Sir George Reeves-Smith (1863–1941), managing director of the Savoy Company
Community and philanthropy
Frederick Nicholas Charrington (1850–1936), Temperance worker and social reformer
Mervyn Cowie (1909–1996), conservationist, founding Director of the Kenya National Park Service
Alsager Hay Hill (1839–1906), social reformer on poor law and unemployment issues
Ken Stevens (1922–2005), chief executive The Scout Association
Entertainment, media and the arts
John Castle (born 1940), actor
Dave Clarke (born c.1969), techno producer and disc jockey
Tom Conway (1904–1967), actor
Peter Copley (born 1962), composer and cellist
Roland Curram (born c.1932) actor and novelist
Wilfrid de Glehn (1870–1951), impressionist painter, RA
Simon Dee (1935–2009) (real name Cyril Henty-Dodd), radio disk jockey and television presenter, Sixties celebrity and inspiration for Austin Powers
Rose Elinor Dougall (born 1986), musician, former member of The Pipettes
Tim Hadcock-Mackay, TV shows presenter
Christopher Hassall (1912–1963), writer and librettist
Tony Hawks (born c.1960), comedian and author
Gavin Henderson (born c.1947), Principal of Trinity College of Music and Chairman of Youth Music
McDonald Hobley (1917–1987), actor, TV and radio presenter, TV Personality of the Year 1954
Sir Michael Hordern (1911–1995), actor
Menhaj Huda (born 1967), film producer and director
Selwyn Image (1849–1930), designer, illustrator and poet, joint founder of the Century Guild, Master of the Art Workers' Guild 1900, Slade Professor at Oxford 1910 and 1913
Graham Kerr (born 1934), author, chef and television presenter, known as "The Galloping Gourmet"
Bruce Lester (1912–2008), actor
Miles Malleson (1888–1969), actor, playwright and scriptwriter
Peter Mayle (born 1939), writer. He has written that he loathed the school.
Tamzin Merchant (born 1987), actress
Leonard Merrick (1864–1939), writer
David Nash (born 1945), sculptor, RA
Laurie Penny (1986–present), journalist
Sir Edward Poynter (1836–1919), painter, art educator and President of the Royal Academy
George Sanders (1906–1972), actor. Won Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor 1950. He said in his biography that he hated the school.
Bijan Sheibani (born 1979), award-winning theatre director
Chris Terrill (born 1952) Anthropologist, adventurer and multi award-winning documentary maker including Royal Television Society award for Innovation for Soho Stories (1997), Emmy for Ape Trade (1992)
John Warner (1924–2001), actor
John Worsley (1919–2000), artist and illustrator, World War II official war artist and creator of Albert RN, President Royal Society of Marine Artists
Vera Filatova (born 1982), Actress
Dakota Blue Richards (born 1994), Actress
Chloé Zhao (born 1982), filmmaker, won Academy Award for Best Director 2021
Medicine and science
Leslie Collier (1920–2011), virologist, Director of the Lister Institute laboratories, Professor of Virology at the University of London 1966–88
Sir Ronald Hatton (1886–1965), horticulturist, Fellow of the Royal Society
John Alfred Ryle (1889–1950), physician and Regius Professor of Physic, University of Cambridge 1935–45, physician to King George V
Sir George Savage (1842–1921), psychiatrist
Military
Lieutenant-Colonel Leonard Berney (1920-2016), Bergen-Belsen concentration camp liberator
Alfred Carpenter (1847–1925), naval officer, commander Marine Survey of India, piloted the Burma Field Force up the River Irrawaddy in 1885 (awarded DSO), Albert Medal (Challenger Scientific Expedition)
Air Commodore Lionel Charlton (1879–1958), Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force officer, Air Attache Washington 1919–22, as Chief Air Staff Officer Iraq Command in 1924 he resigned in protest at the policy of policing by bombing civilian targets, in retirement a successful author of children's fiction, wrote a series of influential books on air defence 1935–38
Brigadier-General Frank Crozier (1879–1937), commander of the British Mission to Lithuania, 1919–20, commander of the Black and Tans, 1920–21, military author and co-founder of the Peace Pledge Union
Air Marshal Sir Humphrey Edwardes Jones (1905–1987), inaugural Commander-in-Chief, RAF Germany
Colonel Sir George Malcolm Fox (1843–1918), Inspector of Gymnasia and sword designer
Admiral Sir Herbert Heath (1861–1954), Rear-Admiral Commanding 2nd Cruiser Squadron at Jutland in 1916, Second Sea Lord
General Sir William Peyton (1866–1931), commanded Western Frontier Force against the Senussi 1916, Military Secretary to Sir Douglas Haig 1916–18, commanded 40th Infantry Division July 1918 – March 1919 in France and Flanders, Military Secretary to Secretary of State for War 1922–26, Commander-in-Chief Scottish Command 1926–30
General Sir Harry Prendergast (1834–1913), Victoria Cross, Indian Army soldier, commander of the Burma Field Force 1885–86
Major-General Sir Herbert Stewart (1843–1885), army staff officer, commanded the Desert Column to relieve Khartoum, mortally wounded at Abu Klea
General Sir Cecil Sugden (1903–1963), Quartermaster-General to the Forces and Master-General of the Ordnance
Lieutenant-General Sir Francis Tuker (1894–1967), Indian Army officer and military historian, commander 4th Indian Division, 1941–44
Politics, public service and the law
Robert Alexander, Baron Alexander of Weedon (1936–2005), barrister, banker, politician and Chancellor of the University of Exeter
Sir Edmund Barnard (1856–1930), Chairman of the Metropolitan Water Board, Chairman of Hertfordshire County Council, Liberal MP for Kidderminster, Cambridge polo blue
Sir Max Bemrose (1904–1986), Chairman of Bemrose Corporation, Chairman National Union of Conservative and Unionist Associations, High Sheriff of Derbyshire
Keith Best (born 1949), lawyer and politician, Conservative MP for Anglesey and Ynys Mon 1979–87 (resigned and prosecuted for fraud), Director Prisoners Abroad 1989–93, chief executive Immigration Advisory Service, Chairman Conservative Action for Electoral Reform, Chairman of the Executive Committee World Federalist Movement
Andrew Cayley CMG QC FRSA (born 1964), barrister specialising in international criminal law, public international law and international arbitration. Formerly Senior Prosecuting Counsel at the ICTY and ICC and the UN International Chief Co-Prosecutor of the Khmer Rouge Tribunal in Cambodia and currently the United Kingdom's Director of Service Prosecutions.
Sir John Chilcot (1939–2021), Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland Office, 1990–97
Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton (1845–1915), Indian civil servant, Chief Commissioner of Assam, President of the Indian National Congress and Liberal MP for Nottingham East 1906–10
Eric Gandar Dower (1894–1987), air pioneer and Conservative MP for Caithness and Sutherland 1945–50
William Fuller-Maitland (1844–1932), cricketer and politician, Oxford blue, played for the MCC, the Gentlemen, I Zingari and Essex, Liberal MP for Breconshire 1875–95
Alan Green (1911–1991), Conservative MP for Preston South 1955–64 and 1970–74, Financial Secretary to the Treasury 1963–64
Sir Thomas Erskine Holland (1835–1926), Chichele Professor of International Law and Diplomacy, University of Oxford and legal historian
Francis Hughes-Hallett (1838–1903), soldier and politician, Colonel Royal Artillery, Conservative MP for Rochester 1885–89 (resigned in a sex scandal)
Sir Clement Kinloch-Cooke (1854–1944), barrister and politician, MP Devonport (Conservative) 1910–23 and Cardiff East (Unionist) 1924–29, created baronet
Augustus Margary (1846–1875), Chinese Consular Service officer and explorer in China
Sir Hubert Murray (1861–1940), Lieutenant-Governor of Papua New Guinea
Denzil Roberts Onslow (1839–1908), Conservative MP for Guildford 1874–85, played cricket for Cambridge University, Sussex and the MCC
Herbert Pike Pease, 1st Baron Daryngton (1867–1949), Liberal Unionist and then Unionist MP for Darlington, Assistant Postmaster-General, Privy Councillor and Ecclesiastical Commissioner
Charles Campbell Ross (1849–1920), banker and politician, Conservative MP for St Ives 1881–85
Sir Walter Shaw (1863–1937), judge, Chief Justice of the Straits Settlements
Arthur Wellesley Soames (1852–1934), Liberal MP for South Norfolk 1898–1918, son of the Brighton College founder William Aldwin Soames
George Hampden Whalley (1851–1917), Liberal MP for Peterborough 1880–83 resigned and declared bankrupt, imprisoned for theft, emigrated to Australia, and vanished
Religion
Timothy Bavin (born 1935), Anglican priest and Benedictine monk, Bishop of Johannesburg and then Portsmouth
John Neville Figgis (1866–1919), Anglican priest, member of the Community of the Resurrection, church historian, theologian and political theorist
Cecil Horsley (1906–1953), Anglican priest, Bishop of Colombo 1938–47 and then Gibraltar 1947–53
Wilfrid John Hudson (1904–1981), Anglican priest, Bishop of Carpentaria 1950–60 and then coadjutor Bishop of Brisbane 1960–73
Frederick Meyer (1847–1929), Baptist minister and evangelist, social reformer, President of the Baptist Union, dubbed "archbishop of the free churches"
Arthur Stretton Reeve (1907–1981), Cambridge rowing blue (1930) and Anglican priest, Bishop of Lichfield 1953–74
Sport
Gordon Belcher (1885–1915), cricketer (son of Thomas Belcher, headmaster of the College)
Tom Campbell Black (1899–1936), aviator, joint winner London-Melbourne Centenary Air Race 1934, awarded Britannia Trophy 1934
William Churchill (1840–1907), cricketer
Holly Colvin (born 1989), England cricketer
Maurice Conde-Williams (1885–1967), naval officer and cricketer, played for the Royal Navy and Devon
George Huth Cotterill (1868–1950), England footballer, Corinthian 1886–98, Cambridge football blue 1888–91, played cricket for Sussex 1886–90
Clare Connor (born 1976), England cricket captain
John Cressy-Hall (1843–1894), cricketer
Freya Davies (born 1995), England cricketer
Robert Dewing (1863–1934), cricketer
Harry Freeman (1887–1926), cricketer
Joe Gatting (born 1987), former footballer for Brighton and Hove Albion, current cricketer for Sussex
Leslie Gay (1871–1949), England footballer, England cricketer 1894–95, Cambridge blue, Hampshire and Somerset
Leslie Godfree (?–?), tennis player, won Men's Doubles at Wimbledon 1923 and Mixed Doubles 1926 (finalist 1924 and 1927)
Chris Grammer (born 1984), cricketer
Sam Grant (born 1995), cricketer
Duncan Hamilton (1920–1994), racing driver
John Hart (born 1982), Wasps rugby union player
Geoffrey Hett, (1909–88), fencer, Captain Cambridge University Fencing 1930, British Foil Team 1936 Olympics, author of a standard work on Fencing
Carl Hopkinson (born 1981), cricketer
Bazid Khan (born 1981), Pakistan cricketer
Alex King (born 1975), England and Wasps rugby union player
Richard Kirwan (1829–1872), cricketer
'Hopper' Levett (1908–1995), England, Kent and MCC cricketer (wicket-keeper)
Gordon Lyon (1905–1932), cricketer
Matt Machan (born 1991), Sussex cricketer
Laura Marsh (born 1986), England cricketer
Ralph Oliphant-Callum (born 1971), played first-class cricket for Oxford University
Denzil Roberts Onslow (1839–1908), played cricket for Cambridge University, Sussex and MCC, Conservative MP for Guildford 1874–85
Jonathan Palmer (born 1956), racing driver
Ollie Phillips (born 1982), England and Newcastle Falcons rugby union player
Matt Prior (born 1982), England cricketer
Malcolm Waller (born 1984) Zimbabwe Cricket player
George Colin Ratsey (1906–1984), sailmaker and sailor, silver medal 2-man Star class 1932 Olympics, Prince of Wales Cup winner (14 ft dinghies) 1939, Prince Philip Cup winner (Dragon class) 1959, in the crew for two British attempts at the America's Cup 1934 and 1958
Major Ritchie (1870–1955), tennis player, gold medal men's singles 1906 Olympics, silver medal men's doubles 1906 Olympics, bronze medal men's indoor singles 1906 Olympics, Wimbledon doubles champion 1906 and 1910, Irish singles champion 1907, German singles champion 1903–06 and 1910, British Davis Cup team 1910
Henry Soames (1843–1913) Hampshire cricketer, son of the Brighton College founder William Aldwin Soames
Kelvin Tatum (born 1964), British speedway captain
Sarah Taylor (born 1989), England cricketer
Claude Wilson (1858–1881), England footballer
Sammy Woods (1867–1931), Somerset cricketer, played cricket for both Australia and England; and England rugby player and captain
Jordan Turner-Hall (born 1988), England and Harlequins rugby union player
Harry Leonard (born 1992), Scotland and Rosslyn Park professional rugby union player
Ollie Richards (born 1992), England rugby union player
Ross Chisholm (born 1990), Harlequins professional rugby union player
James Chisholm (born 1995), Harlequins professional rugby union player
Todd Gleave (born 1995), Gloucester Rugby professional rugby union player
Charles Ward (1838–1892), cricketer
Calum Waters (born 1996), Harlequins professional rugby union player
Marcus Smith (born 1999), Harlequins professional rugby union player
Leonard Stileman-Gibbard (1856–1939), cricketer
Notable Brighton College staff
Grant Allen (1848–1899), novelist, author of The Woman Who Did (1896)
Thomas Belcher (1847–1919), cricketer and headmaster of Brighton College 1881–92
Rt Rev. Christopher Butler (1902–1986), Benedictine monk, Abbot of Downside Abbey 1946–66, Council Father at the Second Vatican Council, Auxiliary Bishop of Westminster
Bertie Corbett (1875–1967), played association football for Oxford, the Corinthians and England, played hockey for England, played cricket for Buckinghamshire and Derbyshire
Rt Rev. Henry Cotterill, Vice-Principal of Brighton College 1846–51, Principal of Brighton College 1851–56, Bishop of Grahamston, South Africa 1856–71, Coadjutor Bishop of Edinburgh 1871–72, Bishop of Edinburgh 1872–86
Rodney Fox, Headmaster of King Edward's School, Witley, Chairman of the Governors of Ryde School, Isle of Wight
Jack Hindmarsh (1927–2009), Professor at Trinity College of Music
Frank Harris (c. 1856–1931), notorious author, traveller, intriguer and fantasist
Walter Ledermann, Professor of Mathematics at the University of Sussex 1965–78
Professor George Long (1800–1879), classical scholar, inaugural Professor of Ancient Languages at the University of Virginia, inaugural Professor of Greek at University College London, Professor of Latin at University College London, co-founder and Honorary Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society
James Wainwright, Warden of Trinity College, Glenalmond
Frederick Madden (1839–1904), numismatist, Secretary and Bursar of Brighton College 1874–88. Chief Librarian, Brighton Public Library 1888–1902
References
External links
Brighton College
Brighton College Alumni
Brighton and Hove-related lists
Lists of people by English school affiliation |
4063504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normie%20Rowe | Normie Rowe | Norman John Rowe (born 1 February 1947) is an Australian singer and songwriter. He rose to national prominence in the mid-1960s as a pop star and teen idol, backed by The Playboys. His 1965 double A-side "Que Sera Sera"/"Shakin' All Over" was one of the most successful Australian singles of the decade.
Born in Melbourne, Rowe was inspired by rock and roll as a teenager and began performing while still in high school, leaving his job to become a professional entertainer. He was signed by local label Sunshine, where he released his biggest hits. He was credited for his bright and edgy tenor voice and dynamic stage presence, and was named "King Of Pop" by Go-Set in 1967 and 1968. Many of his most successful recordings were produced by Nat Kipner and later by Pat Aulton, house producers for the Sunshine label. Rowe's string of consecutive top ten singles in the mid-1960s made him the most popular solo performer of the era, although attempts to break into the United Kingdom were unsuccessful.
Rowe was drafted for National Service in late 1967. His subsequent tour of duty in Vietnam, which lasted from 1968 to 1970, effectively ended his pop career, and his reputation was affected by the anti-war movement and stigma around returning soldiers. Unable to recapture the musical success he enjoyed at his peak in the 1960s, he pursued a career in theatre and television, including a role on Seven Network soap opera Sons and Daughters. In 1991, he was involved in a physical fight on live television with Ron Casey after the latter made remarks about Rowe's service in Vietnam.
Biography
Early life: 1947–1964
Rowe was born and raised in Northcote in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. He was drawn to music early in life. He began singing with his local church choir in Melbourne while at primary school. He was hooked on rock and roll music even before his teens and Col Joye became one of his early idols and inspirations. He took up guitar and formed his first amateur band, The Valiants, whilst attending Northcote High School. They performed once a month at Alphington Methodist Hall. He concentrated on singing and made his first stage appearance as a lead vocalist in a music school concert, aged 14.
By luck, the show was compered by top Melbourne radio DJ Stan Rofe. Rofe was impressed by Rowe's talent and arranged for him to work with local dance promoter Kevin McClellan. He began performing regularly at Melbourne dances and discos, backed by instrumental groups like The Thunderbirds, The Impostors and finally The Playboys, who became his permanent band until 1967.
After leaving high school at the end of 1962, Rowe had joined the Postmaster-General's Department (PMG) on 14 January 1963 (later split in 1975 into Telecom Australia and Australia Post). He worked as a trainee technician, but in late 1964 his long hair became an issue with his employers and, in the face of a "cut it or quit" ultimatum, he left the PMG to become a professional entertainer. Working on the Melbourne dance circuit, he became a popular attraction and it was not long before he was picked to become a regular on Melbourne pop TV shows like Teen Scene and The Go!! Show. According to music historian Ed Nimmervoll, EMI apparently had the chance to sign him but turned him down, claiming that he could not sing. He was signed to a recording deal with the independent label Sunshine which included a management deal with the Ivan Dayman organisation.
Music career
Sixties stardom
Rowe's first single, released in April 1965, was a brooding "beat" arrangement of George Gershwin's "It Ain't Necessarily So" (from Porgy & Bess) a choice suggested by Stan Rofe. It was a Number 1 hit in Melbourne and a Top Ten hit in most other capitals cities (No. 6 in Sydney, No. 5 in Adelaide, No. 3 in Brisbane), even though Sydney pop station 2SM (then owned by the Catholic Church) banned it because of its supposedly sacrilegious lyrics. The inspiration for Rowe's version was apparently a 1963 version by the United Kingdom band Ian and the Zodiacs. Some references cite the source as a version by The Merseybeats, but that band never recorded "It Ain't Necessarily So". The name of the Ian & The Zodiacs' album This Is Merseybeat has apparently been confused with the name of the band The Merseybeats.
Rowe's first LP was released in July 1965. His second single (also apparently discovered while trawling through Rofe's vast record collection), released in August, was a cover of Ben E. King's "I (Who Have Nothing)". It became his second Top 10 hit (No. 10 in Sydney, No. 6 in Adelaide, No. 4 in Melbourne) (and a Number 23 in Brisbane).
Although Rowe's third single, "I Confess" / "Everything's Alright", was apparently withdrawn before or soon after release, the next single became the biggest hit of his career. The A-side was a cover of "Que Sera Sera" (best known from the Doris Day original), which was given a "Merseybeat" treatment (in the manner of The Beatles' "Twist & Shout"). Paired with a powerful version of the Johnny Kidd & The Pirates' classic "Shakin' All Over", the single became a double-sided No. 1 hit in most capitals (#1 Sydney, #1 Melbourne, #1 Brisbane, #1 Adelaide) in September, charting for 28 weeks and selling in unprecedented numbers—rock historian Ian McFarlane reports sales of 80,000 copies while 1970s encyclopedist Noel McGrath claimed sales of 100,000, and it is reputed to be the biggest-selling Australian single of the 1960s. Normie scored another first in October by having three hit singles in the Melbourne Top 40 simultaneously.
An oft-repeated story that the whistle used in the arrangement was an innovation by the record's producer appears to be unfounded because very similar arrangements, complete with whistle, had been recorded on earlier versions by Earl Royce & The Olympics (UK, 1964) and by The High Keys (USA, 1963).
Rowe's success continued through late 1965 and into the first half of 1966, during which time he scored another three consecutive Top Ten singles. "Tell Him I'm Not Home" (Nov. 1965) – a cover of a song originally recorded by Chuck Jackson in 1963—was a Top 5 hit in most mainland capitals, reaching #4 in Sydney, #2 in Melbourne, #2 in Adelaide and #1 in Melbourne It was followed by his version of Burt Bacharach and Hal David's "The Breaking Point" (b/w "Ya Ya", Feb. '66) which became his second double-sided hit, a number #1 in Brisbane and making the Top Ten in all mainland capitals, peaking at #9 in Adelaide, #8 in Sydney, #2 in Melbourne and Perth, #1 in Brisbane
"Pride & Joy" (June 1966) was also Top Ten in most state capitals. This single is also notable for its B-side, a cover of "The Stones That I Throw", written by Robbie Robertson, a song originally recorded in 1965 by Levon & the Hawks, later known as The Band. He appeared in the 1966 musical comedy film Don't Let It Get You. Mid-year he joined The Easybeats, Bobby & Laurie and MPD Ltd on "The Big Four" national tour that played to huge crowds around the country.
United Kingdom: 1966–1968
Rowe was by this time the most popular solo performer in Australia, so in August 1966 he left to try his luck in the UK. In preparation, he revamped the line-up his backing band "the Playboys". Several members opted to stay in Australia for family reasons, so Rowe replaced them with bassist Brian Peacock and guitarist Rod Stone, both from the ex-New Zealand band The Librettos, which had recently split.
Arriving in London ahead of his band, Rowe engaged one Ritchie Yorke as his London agent and began to record with producers Trevor Kennedy and John Carter, using the cream of London's session musicians, including Big Jim Sullivan, Jimmy Page, John Paul Jones, famed drummer Clem Cattini, and vocal group The Breakaways. The sessions produced several strong new recordings including "Ooh La La", "It's Not Easy", "Mary Mary", "Turn on the Love Light" and "Can't Do Without Your Love". Despite his absence in London, Rowe's run of chart success in Australia continued—his next single, "Ooh La La" / "Ain't Nobody Home" (Nov. 1966) was another double-sided hit in Melbourne and a Top 5 hit in most capitals, reaching #2 in Sydney, and #4 in Brisbane and Adelaide.
Up to this time there was no national pop chart in Australia, with most pop radio stations and newspapers in state capitals and major cities publishing their own competing charts. However, on 5 October 1966 Go-Set magazine, which had been launched in February, began publishing its first weekly national Top 40, compiled by Ed Nimmervoll. "Ooh La La" / "Mary, Mary" debuted at #6 on the new Go-Set chart on 7 December 1966, and reached #1 in the 21 December chart, hence becoming Rowe's first official national #1 hit. It stayed at #1 for two weeks before being briefly supplanted by The Easybeats' "Friday on My Mind" on 4 January, but returned to the top for the next two weeks.
While "Ooh La La" was at #1 in Australia, Rowe's next single, the ballad "It's Not Easy" was also climbing the chart. It debuted at #17 in the Go-Set chart in the last week of December 1966, and reached the Top 10 in the second week of January. Through the end of January and into February, Rowe achieved a 'first' for an Australian popular recording artist by having two of the top three singles simultaneously for three consecutive weeks. Rowe worked in England for ten months and toured with acts including Julie Driscoll, Brian Auger & The Trinity, The Spencer Davis Group, Kiki Dee, Gene Pitney and The Troggs. High hopes were held for a British breakthrough, and in the early months of 1967 the pages of Go-Set featured predictions of his imminent UK stardom, though it never materialised.
The new Playboys lineup arrived in London in December; Normie flew home for Christmas, which coincided with the release of "It's Not Easy" / "Mary Mary", and he returned to England in January. In March 1967 the group embarked on a tour of the UK supporting The Troggs, Gene Pitney and Sounds Incorporated. The same month, Phil Blackmore left the group for family reasons and returned to Australia; he was replaced by English organist Trevor Griffin. Rod Stone left in mid-1967 (returning to Australia, after which he joined band The Groove) and he was replaced by former Adam Faith sideman Mick Rogers. At the end of 1966, Normie Rowe was voted Australia's best male singer in the inaugural Go-Set Pop Poll.
Meanwhile, The Playboys secured a one-off single deal with Andrew Loog Oldham's Immediate Records label, releasing the single "Sad" / "Black Sheep RIP" in August. Written by Brian Peacock, "Sad" is now considered a 'freakbeat' classic and has been widely anthologised, appearing on the British collection Chocolate Soup For Diabetics Vol III, Raven Records' Kicks and Rhino's Nuggets II. In June, Normie Rowe & The Playboys travelled to North America, supporting Roy Orbison on a US tour, and along with The Seekers he represented Australia in performance at Expo '67 in Montreal. He returned to Australia in July, where he appeared as a special guest at the national finals of the 1967 Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds.
Rowe had more national chart success in late 1967 with the Graham Gouldman song "Going Home" (b/w "I Don't Care") – assumed to be about the Vietnam War, but really about a migrant's return to Australia from Britain—which debuted at #22 in the Go-Set chart in late April and stayed in the national Top Ten until the end of May, peaking at #7 in the second week of May. "Sunshine Secret" / "But I Know", and another single, "Turn Down Day" charted in Melbourne. But in September 1967 any questions about his career future were dramatically stalled when he received his call-up notice for national service. Interviewed by the media, Row
National Service: 1968–1970
Rowe was inducted into the army in February 1968, although he continued to perform part-time until leaving for Vietnam in January 1969. He continued to make television appearances; on 19 October 1968, he appeared on ATV-0's Uptight with a cropped haircut. He also began working with a new backing band, Nature's Own, who also regularly backed Johnny Farnham and other members of the Sunshine roster. His only charting record during this period was the ballad "Penelope", written by former Playboys member Brian Peacock.
Rowe's basic training at Puckapunyal was extensively covered by the Australian media. In Vietnam, Rowe rose to Corporal and was Crew Commander of an armoured personnel carrier. He was discharged from the army in February 1970. Rowe's final minor hit was "Hello", written by Johnny Young and released in May 1970; he subsequently released an album with the same name. Rowe was later revealed to have inspired the song "Smiley", written by Johnny Young and recorded by Ronnie Burns, whose version was a major hit in Australia in 1969 and 1970. The Hello album marked the end of his Sunshine contract, although the label had been taken over by Festival several years earlier after it got into financial problems. Normie signed to Festival in 1971, for whom he cut three singles. "Que Sera Sera" was re-released in January 1971 and on 6 March he married his girlfriend Sue Powlesland.
His time in Vietnam effectively ended his pop music career, and in his absence Ronnie Burns and John Farnham (then billed as Johnny Farnham) replaced him as King of Pop. The strong anti-war sentiment of the period affected him, and like many Vietnam vets, Normie suffered considerably because of his service. Normie has said that he was treated like a pariah by the very people who had been buying his records and screaming at his concerts only a couple of years before. One of the people Normie remembers fondly from this period, who stuck by him and gave him encouragement in tough times, was Meteors drummer Stewie Speer. Normie remembers that Stewie would often wear "King Normie" and "We Love Normie" badges on his jacket.
Variety
Although his pop career was now effectively over, Rowe was able to fall back on the training from his dance hall days and he began to concentrate on a varied career playing the club and hotel circuit as well as making TV performances, where he became a popular attraction on variety programs like The Don Lane Show and The Mike Walsh Show. He continued to record through the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. He switched to the Astor Records label in 1975 and had considerable success with the single "Elisabeth", which won the "Best Song" category at that year's Tokyo Music Festival.
Theatre and television
In the 1980s Rowe began to expand his career into acting and musical theatre. He studied at the Sydney's famous Ensemble Theatre and took roles on stage and TV, including an extended role in the TV soapie Sons & Daughters. In 1987 he won great acclaim in his central role of Jean Valjean in Cameron Mackintosh's Sydney production of the musical Les Misérables.
Among other musical roles in the 1980s and 1990s, Rowe played the lead role on the recording, and in the world premiere concerts of a new Australian musical, Cyrano de Bergerac, which he helped develop, played Daddy Warbucks in Annie, Freddie Trumper (the American) in Chess, and Juan Perón in Evita. One of the highlights of his career was his appointment as a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for services to Vietnam veterans, the entertainment industry and the community. Normie has had a long association with many charity and community groups, with his major concern being the welfare of children. He is a long-serving member of Variety Clubs of Australia, for which he is now a National Ambassador, and he has won several awards for his work with them, including 1996's 'Heart and Soul of Variety' award.
Rowe remained a popular attraction at clubs, corporate functions and on the "rock-&-roll revival" circuit in the 1990s. He also kept up regular appearances on TV variety shows. This led to one infamous incident in 1991 that briefly took him back into the headlines. During a forum on republicanism on the Midday Show with Ray Martin he was involved in an on-air melée with Sydney journalist and talkback-radio host Ron Casey. Notorious for his highly controversial comments on immigration and other issues, Casey enraged Normie with his remarks about his service in Vietnam and Normie confronted Casey by shoving him. Casey flew out of his chair and punched Rowe hard enough to knock Rowe backwards. In 1998, Casey and Rowe re-united, filming a TV commercial for Bushell's tea where the Midday incident was reflected upon.
Personal life
Rowe has also had to endure other public hardships, including family problems involving his teenage daughter, which resulted in a great deal of intrusive and unwelcome publicity and the end of his marriage to his first wife, Sue. In October 1979 Normie's son, Adam John Rowe, died after being accidentally knocked down by a motorist while he was riding his bicycle home from his school fete when he was 8 years old. Unknown to many, Normie also has another son who was born in November 1965 in Melbourne who has remained anonymous to this day.
2002–current
In 2002, Rowe received national acclaim for his performance in the Long Way to the Top concert tour, Rowe's most recent album, Missing in Action, includes his own version of Ronnie Burns hit "Smiley".
Rowe portrayed former Prime Minister, Harold Holt, in the telemovie The Prime Minister is Missing, which was first broadcast on ABC TV on 23 October 2008.
In 2009 Rowe participated in a video interview that is on display in "The Shrine of Memories World War II memorial" in ANZAC Square, Brisbane as part of an installation art titled Enshrining the Vestiges – Speaking Stones by artist Natalie Billing. In October 2010, Rowe's 1965 album, Ain't Necessarily So, was listed in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums.
Normie Rowe was one of the lead acts in the reunion of the 'Go Show' concerts held in Melbourne and Adelaide during Feb 2011.
In 2011 (2 April) Rowe was a guest on episode 115 of SBS show RocKwiz where he performed Shakin' All Over and a duet with Georgia Fields of The Beatles song All I've Got to Do.
In January 2012, Normie appeared in a television advertisement for Coles Supermarkets promoting their products to the reworked tune of "Shakin All Over".
In 2015, he told Noise11.com about his being drafted as a political ruse to help the popularity of Harold Holt, the Australian Prime Minister whose death by drowning in December 1967 was never confirmed. Apparently, he was contacted by the son of a military officer who was at the time the military attache to Prime Minister Harold Holt. The officer told this story just before he died to his son who, in turn, told Normie that his dad was in Harold Holt's office when the PM was struggling with popularity and the anti-war movement. So the officer said to Harold Holt "what you need is an Elvis Presley, so get Normie Rowe called up"..
In June 2017, Normie wrapped filming for a short film titled 'Holt' in June 2017 where he, ironically,
played the titular Harold Holt for the third time. Filming took place in Queensland around Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast.
Charity
In 2009, Rowe became a Patron of Kidney Health Australia, the not-for-profit peak body promoting good kidney health through education, advocacy, research and support.
Discography
Albums
1965 – It Ain't Necessarily So, But It Is Normie Rowe (Sunshine released July 1965 QL 31734/Calendar re-release late 1965 R 66–73)
1965 – Normie Rowe a Go Go (Sunshine QL 31802)
1965 – A Wonderful Feeling (Sunshine QL 31871/Calendar R66-335)
1966 – Normie's Hit Happenings (Sunshine QL 32198/Calendar R66-553)
1966 – So Much Love From Normie Rowe (Sunshine QL 32144)
1968 – Everything's Alright (Universal UP 768) (Compilation of Rowe's first two LPs)
1969 – Normie's Top Tunes (Universal)
1973 – Hello (Sunshine L 25093)
1974 – Out of the Norm
1970 – Normie Rowe's Greatest Hits (Harlequin L 25138)
2007 – Missing in Action
1974 – Come Hear My Song (Summit SRA 250152)
1975 – Normie's Hit Tunes (Summit SRA 249 9020)
2000 – The Early Anthology (Festival D46111) Double CD
EPs
Singles
Awards and nominations
ARIA Music Awards
The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Rowe was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2005.
|-
| ARIA Music Awards of 2005
| himself
| ARIA Hall of Fame
|
Go-Set Pop Poll
The Go-Set Pop Poll was coordinated by teen-oriented pop music newspaper, Go-Set and was established in February 1966 and conducted an annual poll during 1966 to 1972 of its readers to determine the most popular personalities.
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1966
| rowspan="2"| himself
| Australian Acts: Male Vocal
| style="background:gold;"| 1st
|-
| International Acts: Male Vocal
| style="background:silver;"| 2nd
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1967
| rowspan="2"| himself
| Australian Acts: Male Singer
| style="background:silver;"| 2nd
|-
| International Acts: Male Singer
| style="background:tan;"| 3rd
|-
| 1968
| himself
| Australian Acts: Top Male Singer
| style="background:gold;"| 1st
|-
| 1969
| himself
| Australian Acts: Top Male Singer
| 4th
|-
| 1970
| himself
| Australian Acts: Top Male Singer
| 5th
|-
King of Pop Awards
The King of Pop Awards were voted by the readers of TV Week. The King of Pop award started in 1967 and ran through to 1978.
|-
| 1967
| himself
| King of Pop
|
|-
| 1968
| himself
| King of Pop
|
|-
References
Biographical references:
Ian McFarlane: Australian Encyclopedia of Rock & Pop (Allen & Unwin, 1999)
Noel McGrath: Australian Encyclopedia of Rock (Outback Press, 1978)
Ed Nimmervoll: "Normie Rowe" archived from the original on 27 July 2012 at HowlSpace website, retrieved 24 January 2014
Discography references:
Vernon Joyson: Dreams, Fantasies and Nightmares from Far Away Lands: Canadian, Australasian and Latin American Rock and Pop, 1963–75 (Borderline Books, 1999)
Rate Your Music – Normie Rowe
External links
Normie Rowe official website
Normie Rowe (entry in the Australian National Film and Sound Archive)
"Rock Snaps: The Laurie Richards Collection" – includes several photographs of Normie taken at the height of his mid-1960s fame
1947 births
ARIA Award winners
ARIA Hall of Fame inductees
Australian male singers
Australian military personnel of the Vietnam War
Australian monarchists
Australian pop singers
Cabaret singers
Living people
Logie Award winners
People educated at Northcote High School
Singers from Melbourne
Members of the Order of Australia |
4063663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RecordTV | RecordTV | RecordTV (), formerly known as Rede Record, is a Brazilian free-to-air television network. It is currently the second largest commercial TV station in Brazil, and the 28th largest in the 2012 world ranking. In 2010, it was elected by the advertising market as the fifth largest station in the world in revenues and the eighth largest network in physical structure. In June 2021, it ranked second among the most watched channels in the country in the National Television Panel, behind only TV Globo.
As the main member of the media company Grupo Record, the network is headquartered in São Paulo, where most of its programming is also generated at the Dermeval Gonçalves Theater, and has a branch in Rio de Janeiro, where its telenovelas and other formats are produced at the Casablanca Estúdios (RecNov) complex. Its national coverage is achieved by retransmission from 111 stations, 15 of which are owned by the company and 96 of which are affiliate stations.
The station was inaugurated in the city of São Paulo on September 27, 1953, by businessman Paulo Machado de Carvalho, owner until then of a radio conglomerate, through a concession obtained in November 1950, the year television was launched in Brazil. TV Record was the fourth station to operate in the country after TV Tupi São Paulo (1950), TV Tupi Rio de Janeiro (1951) and TV Paulista (1952).
During the 1960s, the channel became popular, even leading in audience, with the exhibition of music festivals such as MPB and Jovem Guarda. In this period, Record headed the Rede de Emissoras Independentes (REI), a chain that integrated stations from various locations in Brazil. In the 1970s, the businessman and TV host Silvio Santos acquired half of the channel's shares through a partnership with Machado de Carvalho. In 1989, Record, after being under unfavorable financial situation in the second half of that decade, was sold to Bishop Edir Macedo, founder and leader of the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God.
The new acquisition spurred major investments in the structure of the station, which in the 1990s formed its national network with purchases of channels and affiliations, resulting in its positioning, from 2007 to 2015, as the country's second largest network in audience and revenues until it was overtaken by SBT. As of 2012, both stations began to intensely dispute point tenths and take turns in the IBOPE ranking.
History
Background
Only two months after the arrival of television in Brazil, businessman and communicator Paulo Machado de Carvalho got a permit to operate a new TV channel in the city of São Paulo on November 22, 1950, being granted channel 7 paulistano. At the time, Paulo and his family already owned a large conglomerate of radio stations and took advantage of the name of his then Rádio Sociedade Record to baptize his first television channel; it was decided that the new station would be called TV Record.
To set up the station, modern equipment was provided from the United States that was installed in its studios on Miruna Avenue, in the Moema neighborhood, South Zone of São Paulo. Before going on the air, the channel made some experimental broadcasts months before its inauguration, showing the choir of the Escola Normal Caetano de Campos and the orchestra of the São Paulo Public Force.
Launch and first years
The channel went on air on September 27, 1953, at 8:53 pm. In the first image to be shown by the station, the artist couple Blota Júnior and Sônia Ribeiro descended a staircase and announced the launch of Record. After Blota made a speech, a show started with Dorival Caymmi, Inezita Barroso, Adoniran Barbosa, Isaura Garcia, Pagano Sobrinho, Randal Juliano, Enrico Simonetti's orchestra and several dancers. This musical attraction was presented by Sandra Amaral and Hélio Ansaldo.
In its early operations, the station aired musical (among which, with celebrities such as Nat King Cole, Charles Aznavour, Ella Fitzgerald and Marlene Dietrich), sports, theater, humorous and informative programs. In 1954, the first serial produced in Brazil, Capitão 7, starring Ayres Campos and Idalina de Oliveira, went on the air, remaining until 1966. In 1954, the program Mesa Redonda was created, hosted by Geraldo José de Almeida and Raul Tabajara. In 1955, Grande Gincana Kibon went on the air, being presented for sixteen years.
1959-67: Emissoras Unidas
Early growth
With the rapid growth of his new media vehicle, Paulo Machado de Carvalho joined his brother-in-law João Batista do Amaral to establish a partnership between São Paulo's TV Record and Rio's TV Rio (then channel 13 in Rio de Janeiro), originating the Rede Unidas de Televisão (or Rede das Emissoras Unidas). With the creation of the new network, a link was built between the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo that allowed the connection via UHF signal between Record and TV Rio. It was through this link that TV Record broadcast the Brazilian Turf Grand Prix, directly from the Jockey Club in Rio de Janeiro; the link between the two stations also made it possible to exchange productions between them. With this, Emissoras Unidas would get affiliates and retransmissions throughout Brazil under the leadership of the headquarters of TVs Rio and Record.
Regular programming and pioneering in Brazilian television
In 1958, the first regular program produced by Record and TV Rio was launched, Show 713, an attraction in which the screen was divided in half, with each side belonging to each station. The program featured interviews, news reports and musical numbers from the two stations' hometowns. Record ended the 1950s by inaugurating its Teatro Record on Rua da Consolação, which would later be used for musical presentations and program recordings.
The station entered the 1960s by pioneering the inauguration of the new federal capital Brasilia, becoming the only TV station outside the new city to broadcast the event, which included interviews with several Brazilian politicians at the time, including then-president Juscelino Kubitschek.
Fires and prestiged attractions
The station's headquarters in Moema would come to suffer a fire in May 1960, causing Rede Unidas to air more attractions from the co-generator TV Rio while Record recovered. It was the first of a series of six fires that Machado de Carvalho family's channel would face, the most serious being in July 1966, where several reels of archival tapes were lost. Despite these bad times, the station managed to achieve great prestige by showing several attractions during the 1960s, especially music programs such as O Fino da Bossa and the classic MPB Festivals where several renowned artists such as Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso, Chico Buarque, Elis Regina, among others, performed amidst the strong military dictatorship in the country.
Competition
With the emergence of TV Globo and the growth of its rival TV Tupi, Record sees its audience gradually decrease. However, the station was able to launch a few more audience hits, such as Família Trapo with Ronald Golias and Jô Soares, and the news program Repórter Esso. The Teatro Record in Consolação suffers a fire that forces Record to transfer the São Paulo headquarters to Augusta Street, closer to downtown São Paulo.
1969-89: Decline
The founding of REI and the participation of Silvio Santos
Due to disagreements between the directors of TV Rio and Record (because the Rio de Janeiro channel had acquired productions from Tupi, which was then a rival of the Machado de Carvalho family station), the Emissoras Unidas was extinguished in 1967. Later, however, the two stations reconnected and founded the Rede de Emissoras Independentes, which became known by the acronym REI. Immediately after this, businessman Silvio Santos acquires half of Record and uses it to show some of his programs (since the entertainer had lost space on other television channels). Despite initially not agreeing, the former owners of Record end up accepting the agreement for Silvio to co-operate the station.
By this time, TV Record had considerably lost its audience to TV Tupi, Rede Globo, and the recently established Rede Bandeirantes, owned by João Saad. Shortly afterwards, TV Rio was disconnected from the Emissoras Independentes, leaving REI with only Record as its sole channel. REI would later broadcast the 1970 FIFA World Cup directly from Mexico, marking the first World Cup to be transmitted by Record. The channel also brings its casts of artists, particularly the famous comedian and animator, Chacrinha.
However, due to the decline that was gradually affecting Record, the channel decided to sell its theater in Rua Augusta in downtown São Paulo. Meanwhile, Silvio Santos inaugurates a new TV channel in Rio de Janeiro called TVS and starts to exchange productions of this channel with Record, ending with the simulcast premiere of Programa Silvio Santos on TVS and Tupi in 1976 ending a 10-year stinct with Globo. In 1978, Paulo Machado de Carvalho acquired concessions to operate two more television channels for TV Record: channel 4 in Franca and channel 7 in São José do Rio Preto, making it a statewide network. Two years later, with Tupi's shutdown, Programa Silvio Santos, by now produced in Sao Paulo, moved to Record.
Concessions and the departure of Santos
Silvio Santos won some concessions from the former broadcaster from the federal government and founded his own television network, SBT, in 1981, on part of the former Rede Tupi stations and studios. The businessman and entertainer, together with Paulo Machado, starts managing channel 9 in Rio de Janeiro (which had also won the bidding process), which was transformed into TV Record Rio de Janeiro in 1982, becoming the channel's fourth TV station (since the other two stations in the countryside of the state already existed, besides the headquarters in São Paulo). Both stations belonged to the now relapsed Rede de Emissoras Independentes, which until then had a very low audience. It was the channel's next attempt to go national.
After SBT was founded, in 1981, TV Record São Paulo became a second plan for Silvio Santos, but the Machado de Carvalho family, co-owners of the channel, insisted on investing in the small station. In 1983, the program Especial Sertanejo premiered hosted by Marcelo Costa promoting Brazilian country music while journalism remained the station's flagship with the premiere of Jornal da Noite, which scored a victory for the network with a 2-hour broadcast nationwide - more than the competition. In 1985, SBT was nationally consolidated when it debuted its national network programming via satellite for all of Brazil, through Brasilsat, Embratel's exclusive channel. In 1986, Record broadcast its second World Cup in a pool with SBT directly from Mexico. In 1987, at the same time that Programa Silvio Santos stopped being shown on Record (and started being shown only by SBT), Silvio Santos stopped injecting 70% to 80% of his participation in TV Record of São Paulo, and thus forced the Machados, thru Paulo, to give up Channel 9, which later rebranded to TV Copacabana with a tourism approach.
The end of REI and ostracism
In the year 1989, the then-Rede de Emissoras Independentes that still continued to be led by TV Record de São Paulo succumbs to its crisis and is extinguished. With this, the channel fell into ostracism and Record became a local station again, leaving only the station in São Paulo and the other two in the interior of the state, since channel 9 in Rio de Janeiro had become TV Corcovado, which would later be owned by CNT to become CNT Rio de Janeiro.
Sale to Edir Macedo
With Record already suffering a serious crisis and on the verge of bankruptcy, Silvio Santos convinces Paulo Machado de Carvalho to put the station up for sale. Until that time, besides the very low audience, the channel had annual revenues of $2.5 million, but had debts that exceeded $20 million.
Soon after learning about the sale of the channel, the leader of the UCKG, Edir Macedo, became interested in buying Rede Record. At the time, he was in the United States and learned about the sale of the station from his lawyer Paulo Roberto Guimarães. Macedo appointed pastor Laprovita Vieira to be the intermediary of the purchase of Record. Laprovita had a meeting with Demerval Gonçalves, representative of Silvio Santos and Paulo Machado de Carvalho, at the station's old headquarters in the Moema district of São Paulo; the negotiation was quick. Besides TV Record, Edir Macedo also acquired Rádio Record, which, like the television channel, was in bad shape and also belonged to Machado de Carvalho's family and to Grupo Silvio Santos.
A meeting was held with lawyers from both parties, which was attended by Laprovita, Edir, Silvio Santos and his partner Paulo Machado de Carvalho. The requested amount was accepted by both parties, both Edir Macedo and Silvio Santos' representative. Days later, Silvio Santos regretted the sale, but he was aware of Record's precarious situation and had no other way out, since both he and Paulo Machado de Carvalho were still unable to pay Record's debts. Some creditors threatened to file for bankruptcy for the chaotic situation the channel was in.
After the sale, it was rumored that Record would become a channel with completely religious programming which would be used by UCKG, founded by Edir Macedo. However, this did not actually happen, but until today, the station shows some evangelical programs, especially in the early morning hours. The new directors of the station after the purchase, together with Macedo, decided to continue the station's commercial activities.
The deal led to the creation of Central Record de Comunicação (now Grupo Record) in 1989, which became the main media conglomerate controlled by Macedo himself, which today includes, besides RecordTV and Rádio Record, the portal R7, Record Entretenimento, and later Record News.
1990-2007: Growth and investment
Restructuring
After its sale, TV Record went through drastic changes: a new visual identity was presented in July 1990 and a reformulation in its programs that managed to recover its lost audience. The station started its national expansion when it began transmitting its signal via the BrasilSat A2 satellite, also distributing its programming to satellite dishes. The channel became Rede Record and began to acquire its own stations, affiliates and retransmitters for renewed expansion. In 1992, Record finally resumed broadcasts to Rio de Janeiro for the first time since 1986-87.
In 1995, the station moved to its current headquarters in Barra Funda by acquiring the CBI Studios, which was very modern for its time. During this period, the company hired several artists to fill its programming grid, with several artists such as Eliana, Raul Gil, Gilberto Barros, Ratinho, Milton Neves and others becoming famous. Record was able to reach third place in the national audience, surpassing Band and the struggling Rede Manchete.
New slogan and further expansion
In 2004, the network decided to bet on a new phase aiming for more ratings. With the slogan On the way to leadership, Record begins to expand its attractions by producing renowned programs, new vignettes, and telenovelas that became popular. Among the successes of this new phase, the productions A Escrava Isaura, Prova de Amor, Vidas Opostas and Caminhos do Coração (which was divided into three seasons due to its huge audience) stand out.
On September 27, 2007, Record News, the first free-to-air news channel on Brazilian television, was inaugurated, occupying the signal of the former Rede Mulher, though it was already owned by Grupo Record 13 years prior. On the day of the foundation of Record News, the governor of the state of São Paulo José Serra, the mayor of the city of São Paulo Gilberto Kassab, the then president of Record Alexandre Raposo, the owner Edir Macedo and the president of the Republic Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva were present. The inauguration ceremony of the new channel was broadcast by Rede Record inside Jornal da Record, as well as Record News itself.
Competition with Globo and SBT
In 2007, Rede Record was able to overtake SBT to become the second largest Brazilian television station, only remaining behind Rede Globo. However, in some programs, it was able to overtake Globo. In cities such as Goiânia, Belém, and Fortaleza, its news magazine, Domingo Espectacular, surpassed Rede Globo's Fantástico, and Record's morning news program, Fala Brasil, was able to surpass Bom Dia Brasil in São Paulo. On December 11, 2009, Record managed to top first place in Rio during the broadcast of The Elite Squad.
2010-15: Redesign
Helicopter crash and rescue
In early 2010, a RecordTV helicopter crashed inside the Jockey Club in São Paulo after suffering a breakdown. The aircraft was in that region to cover a robbery that had occurred in the Morumbi neighborhood, South Zone of São Paulo. The pilot of the helicopter, Rafael Delgado Sobrinho, died on the spot and cameraman Alexandre Silva de Moura "Borracha" was taken in serious condition to hospital; the two occupants were rescued by Globocop from TV Globo. Rede Record lamented the incident at the time and closed that night's Jornal da Record quietly with a moment of silence in honor of their deceased colleagues.
Olympic broadcast
In 2012, Record exclusively broadcast the 2012 Olympic Games in London and the unprecedented 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. It was the first time that its rival Rede Globo was left out of the Olympics, though them and Rede Record, along with Rede Bandeirantes, would broadcast the Summer Olympics in 2016.
Reformulation and loss to SBT
In 2013, Record underwent a reformulation, which eventually resulted in the change of the broadcaster's top command. Alexandre Raposo was eventually fired and in his place Luiz Cláudio Costa came from TV Record Brasília to the position of president. Another important change in command was that of Honorilton Gonçalves, by Marcelo Silva in the position of vice president of Record. After spending 2012 without much profitability, the company hired a consulting service to reformulate its market strategies.
In 2014, SBT (which always held the second place position in Brazilian television until 2007) was able to take back second place, which shrunk Rede Record's position down to third place for the first time since 2007. However, Rede Record managed to keep its position as one of the top three Brazilian television networks.
2016-present: Rebranding and current affairs
To mark a repositioning of the brand, Rede Record, on the night of November 24, 2016, during the broadcast of Jornal da Record, presented to the public its new visual identity. The news program showed a report on the change in the brand and the station's slogan, which is now "Reinventing is our brand". The station's name was also changed to RecordTV. The change occurs to consolidate RecordTV's image as an avant-garde and multiplatform station, linked to the television of the future and to reaffirm that its performance goes beyond the borders of Brazil and reaches more than 150 countries with its signal. In addition, products such as soap operas and miniseries are exported to countries on all continents.
Teledramaturgy
Telenovelas
The first telenovela produced and aired by Record was the 1954 novella A Muralha. Between 1954 and 1977, the channel had produced seventy-eight telenovelas. In this first period, still in the era of Silvio Santos and Paulo Machado de Carvalho, the highlights were Os Deuses Estão Mortos and As Pupilas do Senhor Reitor, the latter being, according to Unicamp, the soap opera with the highest audience in Record's history. The last production of the network in this first phase was Meu Adorável Mendigo of 1974, a plot that closed the teledramaturgy core in the network, which was dismantled and the professionals dismissed after this period. In 1977, however, the network aired O Espantalho, a partnership with Ivani Ribeiro, who had started at the channel in 1954. Between 1999 and 2004, eight additional telenovelas were unassumingly produced, originating from Record's partnerships with independent companies.
On May 10, 2004, Herval Rossano was hired as general director of teledramaturgy and began to guide the network in restructuring, promoting investment in the purchase of state-of-the-art equipment, new studios and expansion of the team, in addition to the acquisition of a cast of rising authors and new qualified actors. The director presented the proposal of seven plots by different authors before the choice of which one would restart dramaturgy at the network was made. Besides the debut telenovela of this new phase, A Escrava Isaura, several other productions stood out, such as Vidas Opostas, Prova de Amor, Amor e Intrigas, Chamas da Vida and Caminhos do Coração.
In 2015, the plot Os Dez Mandamentos, the first biblical telenovela of the network and of Brazil, was produced. Os Dez Mandamentos was an immediate success and made history in Brazilian television. With the soap opera, the network broke an audience record by surpassing Globo's main soap opera for the first time in 40 years. With the success of the soap opera, Record TV decided in October 2015 that the 8:30 PM time slot would be dedicated only to biblical productions. The soap opera was also broadcast in several countries (such as in Argentina by Telefe).
On January 19, 2021, with the launch of the soap opera Gênesis, Record managed to beat its competitor in two capitals and make one of the most followed productions in the world.
On the morning of October 8, 2022, Record was the subject of a ransomware attack affecting many of the broadcaster's systems. The attack led to a disruption of programming, with its Saturday morning program Fala Brasil replaced by reruns of Everybody Hates Chris until operations were restored. SBT and TV Cultura had also faced ransomware attacks the same day.
Miniseries and series
Record TV has so far aired more than 20 series, serials and miniseries in its different phases, since the 1950s. Also, since the restart of the network's teledramaturgy core in October 2004, besides telenovelas, some series and miniseries have been produced, mostly with a biblical or police theme.
Programs
Revenue
According to Rede Record's vice president, in 2010, Rede Record had revenues of 2.7 billion reais, exactly 25% more than in 2009. In 2011, the network had revenues of 3.5 billion reais, and 1.72 billion reais in 2012.
Coverage
RecordTV currently has 15 owned-and-operated stations and 96 affiliated stations, for a total of 111 stations. It was one of the pioneers of digital television in Brazil.
International coverage
Created in 2002, Record Internacional is present in 150 countries and carries programs that are successful in Brazil. Record Internacional contains six channels that carry a digital signal around the world, and 17 stations. The station is also an affiliate of CNN International.
In Africa, RecordTV broadcasts to Mozambique, Uganda, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau and Madagascar. In Mozambique, TV Miramar, which is part of Record International, has 10 stations and has several local programs, which were successful. Additionally, the station also broadcasts to all of Asia, and this coverage is done by two satellites: Asiasat 2 and JSAT.
In the United States, coverage is provided by the NSS-806 and EchoStar satellites and is distributed by Comcast and the Dish Network. In Europe, RecordTV is the only Brazilian television channel available without any subscription fees. Coverage reaches all countries on the continent.
Controversies
Edir Macedo's control of Rede Record
The sale of Record in 1989 to businessman Edir Macedo is still controversial; the Federal Police conducted an investigation in which they discovered that part of the money used by Macedo for the purchase of the station consisted of interest-free loans from his Universal Church. The leader of the UCKG was sentenced to pay a fine for not having declared this money. In 1992, the station's studios, still located in Moema, suffered another fire in which several documents related to the sale of Record were lost, causing the transaction to owe more satisfactory explanations.
That same year, Edir Macedo was arrested shortly after holding a service at the Templo Maior of the Universal Church in the Santo Amaro neighborhood of São Paulo on charges of charlatanism, stelionism, and injury to popular belief. The then-new owner of Record was jailed for 11 days and was released for lack of evidence, later getting rid of the charges. In late-1995, Macedo was once again the target of controversy when he appeared in a video recorded in 1990 by a former member of the UCKG and aired on TV Globo, where the spiritual leader appeared teaching other pastors to convince believers to donate money to his church. With the video becoming viral on the Internet, Macedo tried to petition the courts to have copies of the Globo report removed from YouTube, but had his request denied.
Money laundering
In 2008, the UCKG was accused of money laundering and its members, including Edir Macedo, were charged for gang formation. The case gained notoriety, mainly, because it was heavily aired again by Rede Globo in its national news program, Jornal Nacional. In response, In Jornal da Record, Rede Record presented several old accusations that Globo had alleged links in the result of the 1989 presidential elections and the military dictatorship. The case was later dismissed and Record again criticized Globo for not reporting Edir Macedo's innocence.
According to the Forbes magazine, Edir Macedo is the richest pastor in Brazil, with a net worth estimated in January 2013 at almost two billion reais. The Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and Edir Macedo contested and stated in a note that, although Rede Record is owned by him, Macedo would not be remunerated or participate in profits or any other financial resources coming from the station and that they would be reinvested in Record. His only sustenance would come from the church through the "per diem" paid to pastors and bishops by the institution and from the copyrights of the books he authored.
In 2007, the Folha de S.Paulo newspaper pointed out that Macedo was the largest holder of concessions in the Brazilian media, with 23 television stations, including Rede Record, and 40 radio stations, and that the conglomerate's financial extension, registered in the then tax haven of Jersey Island, would serve for "money laundering" of tithes received by the UCKG.
Relationship with the Universal Church
According to the investigation, at least 50 companies, such as radio and TV stations (especially Rede Record), printers and tourism agencies controlled directly or indirectly by members of the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God are benefited by donations made by believers of the UCKG throughout the country.
The Universal Church, along with Rede Record and Folha Universal, the main media outlets linked to the UCKG, have also had numerous editorial conflicts with several other media outlets in Brazil, among them the UOL portal, the Veja magazine, the Folha de S.Paulo newspaper and especially Rede Globo. Edir Macedo stated to IstoÉ's website that the Rio de Janeiro broadcaster is one of Universal's biggest enemies.
"Chute na santa" incident
At dawn on the holiday of October 12, 1995, the day of Our Lady of Aparecida, celebrated by Catholics, the program O Despertar da Fé, produced by the Universal Church, was aired on Rede Record. During the broadcast, the televangelist, Sérgio von Helder, kicked and hit an image of the Saint that he had bought. In addition to assaulting the image, Sergio stated that "God could not be compared to such an ugly, horrible and disgraceful 'doll'."
The following day, the incident was reported by Rede Globo during Jornal Nacional, causing great national repercussion. The fact was widely criticized not only by Catholics, but also by other religious groups, being reported as religious intolerance. At the time, Edir Macedo even offered space on Record to some Catholic leaders as an apology, but they refused. Later, Macedo claimed that he was suffering religious persecution from the media, especially from TV Globo, saying that Roberto Marinho's network had turned him into a "monster".
Accusations of political bias
As in previous governments, Edir Macedo positioned himself as pro-government when Bolsonaro came in first place in the polls in the 2018 elections. The Folha de S.Paulo newspaper found out, together with other journalists from RecordTV, that conflicts were occurring in its journalism editorial line to favor Bolsonaro from politically biased information. Until that moment, neither the station nor the journalism sector officially supported the politician. Due to this, that same year, the director of Jornal da Record resigned.
Writing for The Intercept Brasil, João Filho questioned the increased inflow of public money to RecordTV and other stations in which the owners appear on Bolsonaro's side. Before the current administration, more money was spent on the broadcasters from their audience, but the method was canceled without reason.
On January 15, 2020, it was revealed by Folha de S.Paulo that Fabio Wajngarten, head of the Social Communication Secretariat of the Presidency of the Republic (SECOM), received, through a company of which he is a partner, money from TV stations and advertising agencies that have contracts with Jair Bolsonaro's government. Among them are Rede Bandeirantes and RecordTV. Such fact entered the analysis of Reporters Without Borders, which analyzes Bolsonaro's attacks directed at the press.
In June 2020, a survey released by Agência Pública confirmed that RecordTV, alongside other evangelical broadcasters and pastors supporting the government, received the most advertising funds from SECOM, at a total of 30 million reais. RecordTV also received money to publicize the "Positive Agenda", an advertisement to convey a favorable image of the government to the population. Another pro-government marketing piece broadcast on the station was "Amazon Day", after the Bolsonaro government received international criticism with the burning in the Amazon.
According to a survey done by Poder360, Bolsonaro granted 102 exclusive interviews to media outlets, even though he claimed to dislike the press. Band was the most attended, followed by RecordTV, SBT and Jovem Pan.
Commenting on how the news outlets of RecordTV reported on Marcelo Crivella's arrest, Ricardo Feltrin, a columnist for UOL, pointed out that the journalism of RecordTV lacks credibility because it is linked to the UCKG.
Subliminal political propaganda
In October 2020, the electoral judge Luciana Mocco Moreira Lima prohibited RecordTV from continuing to make political propaganda with the use of subliminal advertising. A subliminal advertisement for Mayor Marcelo Crivella, a candidate for reelection in the city of Rio de Janeiro and who is the nephew of the Edir Macedo, was circulated by the station and on its website. In the campaign, Record presented its new WhatsApp number, which ended with 1010, 10 being the party number of the politician. The judge recalled that a similar fact occurred in 2014, in the election for mayor of Rio de Janeiro, in which a vignette was suspended by the Electoral Justice, which advertised Psalm 22, when the number of Crivella, at the time, was also 22.
Spreading of misinformation
According to Radar To Facts, on February 26, 2021, RecordTV and other media outlets have helped drive misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic by posting interviews with doctors on YouTube defending drugs with no proven effectiveness or with criticism of wearing masks.
Awards
ExxonMobil Journalism Award
2005: Esso Special for Telejournalism, granted to Leandro Cipoloni, Antonio Chastinet, Steve Ribeiro, Luiz Mendes and Paulo Nicolau, for the report "Imbroglione - The Phantom Citizen".
2008: Esso Special of Telejournalism, awarded to André Felipe Tal, Ricardo Andreoni, Jorge Valente and Marcelo Zanini, for the report "Dossiê Roraíma: Pedofilia no Poder"
2020: King of Spain, awarded for the third time to the broadcaster, but this time for the report "A Besta", from Câmera Record.
References
External links
official website
RecordTV
Portuguese-language television networks
Television networks in Brazil
Television channels and stations established in 1953
Mass media in São Paulo
1953 establishments in Brazil |
4063971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaminski%20Brigade | Kaminski Brigade | Kaminski Brigade, also known as Waffen-Sturm-Brigade RONA, was a collaborationist formation composed of Russian nationals from the territory of the Lokot Autonomy in Axis-occupied areas of the RSFSR, Soviet Union on the Eastern Front.
It was founded in late 1941 as auxiliary police with 200 personnel. By mid-1943 it had grown to 10,000–12,000 men, equipped with captured Soviet tanks and artillery. Bronislav Kaminski, the unit's leader, named it the Russian National Liberation Army ().
After the Wehrmacht lost the Battle of Kursk in August 1943, RONA personnel retreated to the territory of Byelorussia, especially to the Lepel area of Vitebsk, where they participated in German security operations, committing numerous atrocities against the civilian population . The unit was absorbed into the Waffen-SS in June 1944. After Operation Bagration (June to August 1944), the RONA retreated further west, and by the end of July 1944, the remains of the Kaminski unit (3 to 4 thousand—some sources estimate 6 to 7 thousand) assembled at the SS training camp at Neuhammer (now Świętoszów). On the base of the Kaminski unit, SS leaders planned to form an SS division – the 29th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS RONA (1st Russian).
The Warsaw Uprising began on the same day that Heinrich Himmler signed an order for the establishment of the division (1 August 1944). The division formation was never implemented and part of the brigade was sent to Warsaw, where the unit again committed numerous atrocities. On 18 August 1944, Kaminski was killed in unknown circumstances. By August 27, 1944, having found the brigade too undisciplined and unreliable, the German commanders removed it from Warsaw. The unit was sent to Slovakia, and deployed against Slovak partisans. After the end of October 1944 the brigade was disbanded and the remaining personnel absorbed into General Andrey Vlasov's Russian Liberation Army.
History
In Russia
In October 1941, the Nazi Germany military advance into the Soviet Union reached Lokot area near the city of Bryansk and captured it on October 6, 1941. In November 1941, an engineer at the local alcohol plant, Bronislav Kaminski, and a local technical school teacher, Konstantin Voskoboinik, approached the German military administration with proposals to assist them in establishing a civil administration and local police. The Lokot area was, before the beginning of the war on the Eastern Front, designated for the incarceration of people forbidden to return to their previous homes in major cities of the Soviet Union – as Kaminski himself was. Voskoboinik was appointed by the Germans as starosta of the "Lokot volost" and head of the local militia unit.
The militia headed by Voskoboinik began with 200 men, and was to assist the Germans in conducting their different activities, which included murders of civilians loyal to or accused of loyalty to the Soviet authorities or Soviet partisans. By January 1942 militia numbers were increased to 400–500.
During a targeted raid under the command of Alexander Saburov on January 8, 1942, Voskoboinik was mortally wounded. After his death Kaminski took over command and expanded the militia.
In co-operation with German forces, the militia began anti-partisan operations and by the spring of 1942, its number increased to 1,400 armed personnel. The estimated number of Soviet partisans in this area was as high as 20,000 – they controlled almost the entire rear area of Army Group Center's area of operations.
In mid-March 1942, Kaminski's representative assured the German Second Panzer Army at Orel that Kaminski's unit was "ready to actively fight the guerillas" and to carry on a propaganda campaign against "Jew-Bolshevism" and Soviet partisans. Thereafter, commander of 2nd Army Generaloberst Rudolf Schmidt appointed Kaminski as mayor of the Army Rear Area 532 with its center in the town of Lokot. On 19 July 1942, after approval from Commander of Army Group Centre,Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, Schmidt and 532 Area commander Volksdeutsche, Kaminski received a certain degree of autonomy and nominal self-rule and self-governing powers under the supervision of Major von Veltheim and Colonel Rübsam.
Kaminski was made a chief major of the Autonomous Administration of Lokot (comprising eight raions) and brigade commander of the local militia.
Starting in June 1942, Kaminski's militia took part in the major action codenamed Operation Vogelsang as a part of Generalleutnant Werner Freiherr von und zu Gilsa's Kampfgruppe (taskforce) Gilsa II. This unit included one Panzer regiment from 5th Panzer Division, elements of 216th Infantery Division, the Kaminski militia, and elements of the Hungarian 102nd Light Division and 108th Light Division. The militia, serving as guides, scouts and translators, stayed with Kampfgruppe Gilsa II until it was disbanded in October 1942. The official results of this operation, the first major one where Kaminski's troops participated, were 1,193 alleged partisans killed, 1,400 wounded, 498 captured, 12,531 civilians "evacuated". The Kampfgruppe suffered 58 killed and 130 wounded from a strength of over 6,500.
Russian National Liberation Army
Kaminski now decided to give his militia an official title. He decided on the Russian National Liberation Army (Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya, RONA). In autumn 1942 Kaminski ordered an obligatory draft into the militia of all able-bodied men. Units were also reinforced from the "volunteers" drafted among Soviet POWs at nearby Nazi concentration camps. From 1941 on, due to lack of fuel and minor mechanical failures, Kaminski's unit was ordered to collect abandoned Soviet tanks and armored cars, and by November 1942, his unit was in possession of at least two BT-7 tanks and one 76 mm artillery system.
Due to the lack of military dress and boots (some units were barefoot), the Germans provided used uniforms for Kaminski's brigade, sufficient for only 4 battalions.
By late 1942, the militia of the Lokot Autonomy had expanded to the size of a 14-battalion brigade, close to 8,000 armed men. From November 19, 1942 till December 1942, Lokot was inspected under the orders of Alfred Rosenberg.
As of January 1943, the brigade numbered 9828 men; the armoured unit of the brigade had one heavy KV-II, two medium T-34, 3 BT-7 and 2 BT-5 light tanks and 3 armored cars (BA-10, 2 BA-20).
In the spring of 1943, the brigade's structure was reorganized – there were 5 regiments created with 3 battalions each, an anti-aircraft battalion (3 AAA guns and 4 heavy machineguns), and an armoured unit. A separate "guard" battalion was created; brigade strength was estimated up to 12,000 in total.
Prior to Operation Citadel, the massive offensive to destroy the Kursk salient, in May–June 1943 the brigade took part in Operation Zigeunerbaron ("Gypsy Baron") together with other German units.
This operation was followed by similar operations – Freischütz and Tannhäuser. The brigade, together with other units under German command, was involved in action against partisans and also took part in reprisal operations against the civilian population.
In the summer of 1943, the brigade began to suffer major desertions due in part to the recent Soviet victories and to the efforts of the partisans to "turn" as many of Kaminski's troops as possible. As a part of these efforts, several attempts on Kaminski's life were made. Each time, Kaminski narrowly avoided death and punished the conspirators with execution. Several German officers passing through Lokot reported seeing bodies hanging from gallows outside Kaminski's headquarters. Fearing a breakdown in command, a German liaison staff was attached to Kaminski's HQ to restructure the brigade and return stability to the unit.
At this time the strength of the unit was estimated at up to 8,500 men. The armoured unit of the brigade had one heavy KV-II, four medium T-34, 3 [[BT tank[BT-5 light tanks]]wl, one T-37 amphibious tank, one armoured car (BA-10) and two armoured carriers.
After the failure of Citadel, the Soviet counter-offensives forced the brigade, along with their families, to flee with the retreating Germans. On July 29, 1944, Kaminski issued orders for the evacuation of property and families of RONA brigade members and Lokot authorities. Up to 30,000 persons (10-11,000 of them brigade members) were transferred by the Germans to the Lepel area of Vitebsk in Belarus by the end of August 1943. According to post-war Soviet estimates up to 10,000 civilians were killed during the existence of the Kaminski formation.
In Belarus
The brigade finally settled in the Lepel area of Vitebsk. This area was overrun by partisans, and the brigade was involved in heavy combat in this area for the rest of the year.
During the retreat, desertions from the brigade increased greatly, and the entire formation seemed close to disintegration. When the commander of the Second Regiment, Major Tarasov, decided to join the partisans with all his regiment (he was offered amnesty if his entire regiment joined the partisans), Kaminski flew to Tarosov's headquarters and, according to one account, strangled him and 8 others in front of his men. Despite the threat of repercussions up to 200 men deserted within the following two days. By the beginning of October 1943 the brigade had lost 2/3 of its personnel, while still being in possession of 12 tanks (8 of them T-34's), one 122-mm, 3– 76 mm and 8 45 mm artillery systems.
On January 27, 1944, Himmler rewarded Kaminski's "achievements" by decorating him with the Iron Cross 2nd Class and on the same day the Iron Cross 1st Class.
On February 15, 1944, Kaminski issued an order to relocate the brigade and administration further west to the Dzyatlovo area of West Belarus.
Volksheer-Brigade
At this point, the brigade's ranks were replenished by the addition of police forces from Belarus. In March 1944, the brigade was renamed Volksheer-Brigade Kaminski. Starting on April 11, 1944, it was attached to SS-Kampfgruppe von Gottberg, which also included the notorious Dirlewanger Brigade, and participated in a series of anti-partisan operations: Regenschauer (up to 7,000 partisans reported as killed), Frühlingsfest (7,011 partisans reported as killed and 1,065 weapons captured) and Kormoran (7,697 partisans reported as killed and 325 weapons captured). During these operations local civilians were shot as "suspected partisans" or deported as slave laborers, their villages burned down.
Waffen-Sturm-Brigade
In June 1944, the brigade was absorbed as part of the Waffen-SS. With its transfer to the Waffen-SS, the brigade was renamed Waffen-Sturm-Brigade RONA, and Kaminski was given the rank of Waffen-Brigadeführer der SS, as the only man with such rank.
As a result of the Operation Bagration, anti-partisan activities of the brigade were halted and its personnel (3,000-7,000, sources vary) collected at the SS training camp Neuhammer and plans were made for a non-German SS division, and the structure was laid down for the 29.Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS (russische Nr.1) based on the brigade by an order issued August 1, 1944. On the same day, Kaminski received a new rank of Waffen-Brigadeführer and General-Major of Waffen-SS.
In Warsaw
The Warsaw Uprising, which started on August 1, 1944, changed Himmler's plans and, on August 4, 1944, a combat ready regiment of the brigade was ordered to assist the efforts in crushing the uprising. SS-Gruppenführer Heinz Reinefarth was placed in charge of Kampfgruppe Reinfarth, a pacification unit which consisted of the Kaminski Brigade along with the Dirlewanger Brigade, several other Ordnungspolizei and SS rear area units. Himmler personally requested Kaminski's assistance, and the latter obliged by gathering a task force of 1,700 unmarried men and sending them (some sources state they had four T-34 tanks, one SU-76 and a few artillery pieces) to Warsaw as the mixed regiment under field command of Kaminski's chief-of-staff, SS-Sturmbannführer Ivan Frolov. Frolov in 1945 stated that regiment had up to 1600 men and seven artillery pieces and four mortars.
Kaminski volunteers were first given the task of clearing the Ochota district defended by only 300 poorly armed Poles. Their attack was planned for the morning of August 5, but when the time came, Kaminski's men could not be found. After some searching, they were found looting abandoned houses in the rear. The attack finally got underway shortly before noon and it went poorly, with the brigade advancing only 275 meters before nightfall. The men had neither training for nor prior experience in urban combat. For many it was the first time they had even seen a major city and they fought poorly while suffering high casualties. At the same time, thousands of Polish civilians were killed by the RONA SS men during the events known as the Ochota massacre; many of the victims were also raped. In the middle of the month, the Kaminski was moved north to the Wola sector, but it fared no better in combat there than in Ochota. In one incident, a sub-unit had stopped their advance to loot a captured building on the front line and was consequently cut off and destroyed by the Poles.
By August 27, the German commanders decided the brigade was too undisciplined and unreliable. In almost a month of fighting, the brigade had still not achieved any of its major objectives. The German commander in Warsaw, SS-Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, stated in post war trials that the unit "had no military combat value whatsoever, with both officers and soldiers having not even a hint of tactical understanding. "I saw Kaminski's men removing entire cartloads of stolen jewellery, gold watches, and precious stones. The capture of a liquor supply was more important for the brigade than the seizure of a position commanding the same street. Each assault was instantly stopped, because after taking the objective over, units dispersed into loose, plundering hordes." Kaminski himself was involved in the looting in Warsaw, claiming he was collecting for his "Russian Liberation Fund". Major General Günter Rohr, commander of Warsaw's southern sector, demanded that the brigade be removed from his command. Bach-Zelewski agreed as the troublesome unit was slowing his efforts to suppress the uprising. As soon as replacement units were available, the Kaminski was pulled out of the line after losing about 500 men in combat during the fighting in Warsaw.
The RONA volunteers, now decimated and infamous even among the SS, were then assigned to the Kampinos Forest to help seal off Warsaw. During their stay in the forest, the unit's artillery battery and one of its infantry battalions were suddenly attacked by 80 Polish partisans led by Lieutenant Colonel "Dolina" (Adolf Pilch) while stationed at the emptied village of Truskaw. Nearly 100 Russian and German SS-men died in the midnight assault. The remnants of the battalion, which was mostly drunk at the time of the attack, fled in disarray, abandoning their weapons as they fled. In Truskaw, the 1st Regiment lost its entire artillery and much of the stolen merchandise from the city. According to some Polish sources, 250 RONA troops were killed during the night of September 2–3 in the , and 100 more in the on the village of Marianów the next night. A captured diary of the Kaminski brigade soldier, Ivan Vashenko, (killed at Truskaw) was published in Poland in 1947.<ref> Dziennik Iwana Waszenko — Dzieje Najnowsze, zesz. 2, 1947, p. 324—335</ref>
At the time of the Warsaw actions, Kaminski was called to Łódź to attend a leadership conference. He never reached it. Officially, Polish partisans were blamed for an alleged ambush in which Kaminski and a few RONA officials (including brigade chief-of-staff Obersturmbannführer'' Ilya Shavykin) were killed. Some sources say he was placed in front of a military tribunal and then shot by a firing squad, others that he was shot when he was captured by the Gestapo.
The death of Kaminski and the unreliability of his troops as a combat unit brought the plans to expand the Kaminski Brigade to a division to an end. After Kaminski's death, his unit was placed under the command of the SS-Brigadeführer and Generalmajor der Polizei Christoph Diehm.
In Slovakia
As the front line approached again, the remnants of the brigade and accompanying civilian refugees were due to be evacuated to Hungary, but the start of the Slovak National Uprising left it stranded in railway trains near Racibórz in southern Poland.
From September 27, 1944 the brigade was under overall command of SS-Gruppenführer . In October, after inspection of the brigade personnel in the Raum Kattowitz, the Germans decided to absorb the remnants of Kaminski's brigade into General Andrey Vlasov's Russian Liberation Army.
Dissolution
From November 1944, remnants of the brigade (some sources estimated its strength at up to 2,000) forwarded into the military training camp Münsingen, with a formation of the 600. Infanterie-Division (russisch) as part of Andrey Vlasov's Russian Liberation Army. The former RONA were used to form one of the division's regiments.
Accompanying civilians were sent to work in Pomerania.
After the war
After the end of World War II in Europe, some of the former RONA and Lokot personnel were repatriated by Western Allies to the Soviet Union. At the end of 1946 a Military Court of the USSR handed death sentences to Ivan Frolov and several others. In the 1950s and 1960s in the USSR, dozens of other former members were found, some of them also convicted and sentenced to death. The last member of Lokot/RONA personnel to be prosecuted was Antonina Makarova, who was responsible for at least 168 executions, but likely about 1500 executions. Makarova was arrested in 1978. She was convicted of treason, sentenced to death, and executed in 1979.
Ranks and insignia
The ranks from May 1943 to June, 1944 were:
In 1942 – white arm bands with a St. George's cross. From May 1943 – arm-badge
white shield with red borders with black St. George's cross. In the upper part a yellow abbreviation "POHA". Some sources noted that the Nazi swastika also appeared on the brigade banner.
Commanders
See also
List of German divisions in World War II
List of Waffen-SS divisions
Ranks and insignia of the Waffen-SS
Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Untermenschen in SS Uniforms: 30th Waffen-Grenadier Division of Waffen SS Leonid Rein The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 1556–3006, Volume 20, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 329–345
Bishop C. Zagraniczne formacje SS. Zagraniczni ochotnicy w Waffen-SS w latach 1940–1945. Warszawa, 2006
GEORG TESSIN Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1939–1945 VIERTER BAND: Die Landstreitkräfte 15–30 VERLAG E. S. MITTLER & SOHN GMBH. – FRANKFURT/MAIN 1970
GEORG TESSIN Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1939–1945 SECHSTER BAND: Die Landstreitkräfte 71-13 0 BIBLI O VERLAG OSNABRÜCK 1972
Russian collaborators with Nazi Germany
Warsaw Uprising German forces
Waffen-SS brigades
Belarusian collaborators with Nazi Germany
Security units of Nazi Germany established in 1941
Security units of Nazi Germany disestablished in 1944 |
4063979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20emergency | Dental emergency | A dental emergency is an issue involving the teeth and supporting tissues that are of high importance to be treated by the relevant professional. Dental emergencies do not always involve pain, although this is a common signal that something needs to be looked at. Pain can originate from the tooth, surrounding tissues or can have the sensation of originating in the teeth but be caused by an independent source (orofacial pain and toothache). Depending on the type of pain experienced an experienced clinician can determine the likely cause and can treat the issue as each tissue type gives different messages in a dental emergency.
Many emergencies exist and can range from bacterial, fungal, or viral infections to a fractured tooth or dental restoration, each requiring an individual response and treatment that is unique to the situation. Fractures (dental trauma) can occur anywhere on the tooth or to the surrounding bone, depending on the site and extent of the fracture the treatment options will vary. Dental restoration falling out or fracturing can also be considered a dental emergency as these can impact function in regards to aesthetics, eating and pronunciation and as such should be tended to with the same haste as loss of tooth tissue. All dental emergencies should be treated under the supervision or guidance of a dental health professional in order to preserve the teeth for as long as possible.
By contrast, a medical emergency is often more precisely defined as an acute condition that presents an immediate threat to life, limb, vision, or long-term health. Consequently, dental emergencies can rarely be described as medical emergencies in these terms. Some define a dental emergency in terms of the individual's willingness to attend for emergency dental treatment at any time at short notice, stating that persons who are fussy about when they are available for treatment are not true emergency cases. There are often divergent opinions between clinicians and patients as to what constitutes a dental emergency. E.g. a person may suddenly lose a filling, crown, bridge, etc. and although they are completely pain-free, still have great cosmetic concerns about the appearance of their teeth and demand emergency treatment on the basis of perceived social disability.
Dental Pain
Pain is described as 'an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. It is one of the most common reasons patients seek dental treatment and many diseases or conditions may be responsible for the cause.
Odontogenic pain
Odontogenic pain is pain associated with the teeth, originating in the dental pulp and/or the peri-radicular tissues. The following table shows the different classifications of pulp status.
Peri-radicular pain
Peri- radicular pain can be of pulpal origin, most commonly due to disease in the pulp extending into the peri-radicular tissues but can also be of periodontal origin due to periodontal disease. Apical periodontitis is acute inflammation of the periodontal ligament surrounding the tooth. This can be caused by inflammatory mediators from irreversibly inflamed pulp, bacterial toxins from necrotic pulp, restorations that have not been property contoured and in some cases, from treatments such as endodontic treatment. There is both an acute and chronic form of this condition. Acute apical periodontitis features include moderate to severe pain, usually stimulated by touch and pressure and may also include spontaneous pain. The chronic form of the condition can be asymptomatic but may also include pain from surrounding tissues when stimulated. Apical abscess is an extension of apical periodontitis where the bacteria have infiltrated the peri radicular tissues and are causing a severe inflammatory response; there is also an acute and chronic form of this condition. An acute apical abscess can cause facial swelling and can cause other systemic consequences such as a high temperature and feelings of malaise. In some cases this condition can be life-threatening when the inflammation compromises the airway; this is termed Ludwig's Angina. A chronic apical abscess can be asymptomatic as the pressure from the inflammation is being drained through a sinus tract; a draining sinus can usually be seen clinically. A periodontal abscess is a localised inflammation affecting the periodontal tissues. It is caused by bacteria pre-existing in a periodontal pockets, traumatic insertion of bacteria or foreign body or can occur after periodontal treatment. This condition has a rapid onset, is stimulated by touch and involves spontaneous pain. It is important to note that an apical abscess may drain through the periodontal pocket giving a false interpretation of periodontal abscess or a periodontal abscess may appear at the apex of the tooth giving a false interpretation of apical abscess; a tooth may also have both lesions at one point in time.
Dental Trauma
Dental trauma refers to an injury on hard and soft tissues of the oral cavity and face. This includes the teeth and surrounding tissues, the periodontium, tongue, lips and cheeks. It is more prevalent with children between 8– 12 years of age but can still happen to anyone. The prognosis of the tooth is worse the longer it is out of the mouth.
The following is a list of dental trauma affecting different surfaces of the teeth and periodontium.
Injuries to the hard dental tissues and the pulp
Injuries involving periodontal tissues
Dental barotrauma and barodontalgia. A sudden incapacitation of diver or aviator due to barometric-induced tooth fracture or toothache, respectively, may be life-threatening to the individual and the airplane passengers.
Restorative emergencies
Lost or broken filling
A fractured, ditched or dislodged filling that is broken or lost may cause discomfort or sharp pain due to jagged edges. There can be aesthetical concerns if the filling is in a visible area. Patients need to be aware of the sharp edges and ensure their tongue does not constantly apply pressure around that area, as it can cause cuts to the tongue. However, in some cases the result of the loss of a filling can cause irritation to the side of the cheek and potentially lead to an ulcer. Sharp edges can easily be dealt with by levelling the filling or tooth edges from your local dentist during the emergency appointment. Hypersensitivity issues may also arise, short sharp pain caused by exposed underlying dentine, after the deterioration of the filling material.
Reasons for the deterioration of a restoration vary in different cases, the cause may be underlying caries or it could be occlusal trauma, caused from natural dentition during mastication. The longevity of restorative materials could also be a factor; the survival rates of amalgam are usually 10–15 years, composite 7 years, while gold and ceramic fillings have over a 20-year longevity.
During the emergency appointment the dentist will need to take a set of radiographs to assess for any underlying caries, bone loss or possible abscess. The clinical examination will detect the reasons behind the failure of the restoration. Upon treatment the dentist will provide options on the tooth's prognosis, these may include a new restoration, extraction, root canal or placement of a crown. The tooth prognosis includes the tooth's vitality and restorability.
Crack, fracture and mobility
A crack, fracture and the mobility of a tooth are all interrelated as the pain and symptoms experienced from a tooth that has been cracked are very similar to that of a tooth that has been fractured.
A tooth crack is defined as an incomplete fracture of enamel or dentine and therefore is not usually associated with noticeable mobility.
The cause of a tooth crack can be by excessive force applied to a healthy tooth or physiologic forces applied to a weakened tooth. The teeth most commonly involved are usually the lower molars, followed by the upper premolars and molars. The condition is extremely common in the age range of 30–60 years.
A diagnosis of a cracked tooth is extremely difficult. Careful history and assessment of the symptoms presented needs to be taken into account; radiographs and certain tests will be conducted in the dental office. Most common symptoms are cold sensitivity, sharp pain when using force to chew, these pain results from the release of pressure and are very important indicators of a cracked tooth. However, the symptoms may differ from various patients, subject to the depth and orientation of the crack.
Broken crown
Crowns can become broken by a fracture, non-retentive preparation, secondary caries, weak cement, excessive occlusal forces, decementation or loosening of the crown. The consequences of a crown becoming loose include the risk of ingestion and less likely, inhalation. The management of the loose crown includes immediate recementation or a replacement crown, depending on the assessment conducted by the dentist.
The factors that are taken into consideration in making this decision include the strength of the temporary crown to be placed and occlusal forces. Thus, a thorough occlusal examination is of paramount importance, strength of the cement, a strong alternative of cement should be considered. The occlusion assessment should also include the static and functional occlusion as well as the possible presence of Para functional habits, such as clenching or bruxism.
Management includes cleaning all the cement and residues, to carefully inspect for any underlying caries or fractures. Details that need to be assessed include margins, gingivae and contact points; occlusion needs to be checked in both ICP and in lateral and protrusive excursions, before the crown can be re-cemented. Stronger cement should be used than the original such as resin cements, especially in cases of heavy occlusal forces.
In some cases, immediate reconstruction of the abutment may be deemed inappropriate, if the underlying structure is deemed deficient due to caries or a fracture then this issue needs to be addressed. The treatment plan may vary with the addition of a root canal treatment or a temporary crown for the reconstruction of a new crown.
Fracture of a porcelain veneer or a porcelain-fused-to-metal crown
Immediate management includes a chair side repair of the fractured veneer with composite material. Bonding composite to the exposed metal will involve achieving macro mechanical retention by making grooves and notches or abrading the surface.
Bonding material back onto exposed porcelain involves abrading, hydrofluoric acid etching and silanating then followed by a conventional bonding procedure. Composite patch will remain a temporary solution as the longevity of composite restorations is not predictable as well as the colour of composite is not as stable as porcelain for aesthetical reasons.
Broken denture
A fracture can involve any damage to the denture. Any type of repair to the denture is much less ideal then making a new one. The ratio of fracture to a denture is a 1:3 ratio of the upper to lower.
The most common reason for fracture in a denture; is accidental dropping of the denture in the case of the lower denture, and improper fitting and stability of the denture in the upper denture.
Techniques to prevent denture from being broken:
Use a basin of water in the sink, to help prevent the denture from breaking if happens to fall on a hard surface.
Hold the denture in non-dominant hand with a firm, but gentle grasp.
Do not use any powdered or abrasive cleaners, including most regular toothpastes, they are too abrasive and produce scratches on the denture surface.
Avoid excessive scrubbing as this can damage the denture.
Dry denture and place in a plastic container stored some where safe over night.
Individuals should not continue to wear a broken denture and seek the help of their dentist as soon as possible.
Broken or loose implants
Implant success is relatively high, the rate of implant survival is between 85 and 95%, although it is not uncommon for emergency management of a failing implant or one of its components. The failure is most likely due to infection of the implant. It is highly recommended to visit or refer patient to the specialist who provided the implant.
Late failures that occur with implants are usually due to moderate to severe bone loss, mostly located in the posterior areas of teeth and involve a multi-unit prosthesis. A fracture or decementation of a post or loosening of the abutment screw of an implant could be the result of dissolved cement, secondary caries, use of a weak post, or excessive occlusal forces.
Oral home care needs to remain at a high standard, brushing twice a day for the duration of two minutes with the use of fluoridated tooth paste. Interdental cleaning once a day using either floss, interdental brushes, wood sticks. Regular dental appointments every 6 months to maintain gingival health, professional cleans, radiographs to examine the bone loss and the implant status. All the following is needed to prolong the longevity of the implant and reduce the risk of peri-implantitis.
Acute oral medical and surgical conditions
An acute condition may be defined as a suddenly presenting disorder, usually with only a short history of symptoms, but with a degree of severity that causes significant disruption to the patient.
Types of acute conditions
Orofacial swelling
A swelling is a transient abnormal enlargement of a body part or area not caused by proliferation of cells but by accumulation of fluid in tissues. It can occur throughout the body (generalized), or a specific part or organ can be affected (localized). A swelling may arise intra-orally or externally around the face, jaws and neck and can be caused by trauma (hematoma, swelling due to fracture, TMJ dislocation), infection or inflammation. Swelling can occur in the gums, palate, lips, buccal space, etc. It can happen due to periodontal problems, infection, abscess, cysts, allergic reaction (anaphylactic shock), salivary gland tumour, inflammation or obstruction of salivary gland.
Cellulitis
Bacterial infection in the oro-facial region can lead to abscess and swelling. The rapid spread of this infection through connective tissue spaces, is often referred to as cellulitis. The clinical features of cellulitis are a painful, diffuse, brawny swelling. The overlying skin is red, tense and shiny. There is usually an associated trismus, cervical lymphadenopathy, malaise and pyrexia. Cellulitis usually develops
quickly, over the course of hours, and may follow an inadequately managed or ignored local dental infection. If the infection spreads to involve the floor of mouth and pharyngeal spaces, then the airway can be compromised. Initially, the floor of the mouth will be raised and the patient will have difficulty in swallowing saliva; this
pools and may be observed running from the patient's mouth. This sign indicates the need for urgent management. Cellulitis involving the tissue spaces on both sides of the floor of mouth is described as Ludwig's angina Such presentations require immediate attention.
Localised dental abscesses may be appropriately treated by intra-oral drainage via tooth extraction, opening of root canals and/or intra-oral incision and drainage. Wherever there are signs of spreading cervico-facial infection or significant systemic disturbance, however, patients should be referred urgently further management.
Pericoronitis
Pericoronitis is defined as inflammation in the soft tissues surrounding the crown of a partially erupted tooth. The acute form is characterised by severe pain, often referred to adjacent areas, causing loss of sleep, swelling of the pericoronal tissues, discharge of pus, trismus, regional lymphadenopathy, pain on swallowing, pyrexia, and in some cases spread of the infection to adjacent tissue
spaces.
Blistering disorders of oral mucosa (see vesiculobullous disease)
oral ulceration
Disturbed orofacial sensory or motor function
Trismus
Trismus may be defined as inability to open the mouth due to muscle spasm, but the term is frequently used for limited movement of the jaw from any cause and usually refers to temporary limitation of movement. Trismus can occur as a result of temporomandibular joint disorder, infection, cancer therapy, complicated extraction, arthritis, complication from a mandibular block and fractures.
Hemorrhage
Whilst haemorrhage from the oro-facial region may present spontaneously, particularly from gingival tissue as a result of a bleeding diathesis or a haematological abnormality such as leukaemia, the most common cause is in response to trauma or a post-operative haemorrhage following dental extraction.
Bony pathology, e.g. Infection of an odontogenic cyst
Cysts can be common lesions found in the jaw. They are defined as cavities filled with fluid or semi-fluid content, created from the resorption of bone. They can wholly or partly be lined by epithelium and connective tissue. They are not to be confused with abscesses, which are cavities filled with pus. Cysts can cause root resorption of adjacent teeth, tooth mobility and can be associated with mandibular fracture. Cyst would usually require surgical management if indicated.
Post-extraction pain and infection, or dry socket
Following a tooth extraction, if a blood clot forms inadequately in the socket or it is broken down, a painful infection may develop which is often referred to as a ‘dry socket’. It is clinically characterized by a putrid odor and intense pain that radiates to the ear and neck. Pain is considered the most important symptom of dry socket. It can vary in frequency and intensity, and other symptoms, such as headache, insomnia, and dizziness, can be present.
Pre-disposing factors to dry socket include smoking, traumatic extraction, history of radiotherapy and bisphosphonate medication.
A dry socket can be managed by irrigating the socket with chlorhexidine or warmed saline to remove debris followed by dressing of the socket with bismuth iodoform paraffin paste and lidocaine gel on ribbon gauze to protect the socket from painful stimuli.
If pus is seen in the socket and there is localised swelling and possibly lymphadenopathy, it has become infected and can often be managed as in dry
socket, but usually antibiotics should be prescribed. A radiograph is useful to see if there is a retained root or bony sequestrum, which could be the cause of the infection. Clearly, if one or both is present, further treatment is indicated.
Postoperative swelling
Mild inflammatory swelling may follow dental extractions but is unusual unless the procedure was difficult and significant surgical trauma occurred. More significant swelling usually indicates postoperative infection or presence of a haematoma. Management of infection may require systemic antibiotics or drainage. A large haematoma may need to be drained.
Orthodontic emergencies
Orthodontic emergencies can be classified as urgent problems relating to the maintenance of orthodontic appliances, or excessive pain caused by orthodontic appliances. General dental practitioners should be able to manage orthodontic emergencies, including referral to an orthodontist when necessary.
Loose removable appliance
Removable active appliance are used by dentist to tip teeth using screws, springs and bows of various types to correct malocclusion. The appliance can be taken out for cleaning and for adjustments made by orthodontists. If the appliance is loose in an emergency situation, the dentist can adjust the retentive component of the appliance to increase the retention of the appliance by using Adams pliers.
Fractured removable appliance
Suppose the appliance breaks, the orthodontist should be alerted as soon as possible. The wearer should not use the appliance as it could cause trauma and could pose a significant risk of airway obstruction if the wearer accidentally inhales.
Loose or fractured fixed appliance (wire or band)
There are many components to the fixed appliance which have a potential to break off if the patient chews on hard or crunchy food. Wearers should wear a mouth guard over the appliance if when playing contact sports. If one of the components is loose or comes off, the user must call the orthodontist right away. If the component is loose the dentist as an emergency treatment can cover the component with orthodontic relief wax. If the component breaks off, then the dentist can use a pair of tweezers to remove it making sure to protect the airway at all times.
Loose or Lost Ligature
Ligatures are small elastics or wires which aim to secure the archwire firmly within the brackets on the teeth. If a ligature becomes loose or lost, this can render the appliance less effective as the forces on that particular tooth are reduced. In this case, a loose elastic can be re-positioned with tweezers, ideally by an orthodontist however general dental practitioners are also able to do so. If a wire ligature becomes loose, it should be secured or replaced only by a trained orthodontist and in the meantime, if causing irritation, orthodontic relief wax should be used over any sharp ends. The patient should avoid replacing the wire ligature themselves if it is lost and should seek an appointment with their orthodontist.
Lost separator/spacer
Separators, also known as orthodontic spacers, are usually placed between posterior teeth to open up contact point prior to placing metal orthodontic bands. The separators should ideally be kept in place until the patient's next appointment in order for the orthodontic band to fit. If the separator is lost, the orthodontist should be informed and he/she can advise for a next appointment for the patient.
Protruding archwires
The archwire in fixed orthodontic appliances should be flat against the tooth, however if the wire is protruding it can cause irritation to the surrounding soft tissues. Wire benders or a dental flat plastic can be used to bend the wire into place, or if this is not possible, the protruding wire can be covered with wax. If there are significant problems, the wire can be clipped using distal end cutters, being careful to avoid inhaling or ingesting wire fragments. As a last resort measure, the whole wire and ligatures can be removed.
De-bonded bracket
De-bonded brackets, if left untreated, can result in irritation of lip and cheek in short term. If a bracket de-bonds from the tooth, the de-bonded bracket can be removed from the archwire by initially removing the ligature holding it in place. Alternatively, orthodontic wax relief can be used to secure the de-bonded bracket to the adjacent bracket as a temporary measure to prevent irritation of lip and cheek. However, it is essential to inform the orthodontist as soon as possible so that appropriate actions are taken to address the de-bonded brackets immediately.
Allergic/hypersensitivity reactions
The most common allergy in orthodontics is to nickel. Nickel is found in multiple orthodontic components, such as nickel-titanium (NiTi) archwires and stainless steel brackets. If patients are previously exposed to nickel, for example with nickel-containing jewellery, the re-exposure with orthodontic components are more likely to lead to a Type IV delayed hypersensitivity immune response. This response is usually delayed for a few days or weeks. In this case, the orthodontist must be informed immediately to make arrangements for patient to receive nickel-free components. However, such immune response to nickel is rare, as it is believed that the oral mucosa requires a much higher concentration to illicit a response compared to the skin.
Airway obstruction
When a small removable appliance or a loose component obstructs a patients airway a true medical emergency arises. If the object is visible, recline the patient and attempt to remove it while otherwise encouraging the patient to cough the object out. If this is not immediately successful call for help and an ambulance. Follow the guidelines for 'choking/aspiration' in the 'Medical Emergencies and Resuscitation' document provided by the Resuscitation Council UK.
Ingested or aspirated component
It is not unheard of to ingest an orthodontic component or appliance, usually being asymptomatic causing no harm to the patient. No treatment is required except for monitoring stools to ensure the component has passed safely. If however the patient is having symptoms of pain or vomiting, the component may be lodged in the oesophagus or oropharynx. In such situations the patient must be sent to hospital.
If the component is more than 5 cm long the patient should always be sent to A&E as there is a higher risk of obstruction or perforation of the gastrointestinal tract so removal may be advised instead of allowing the component to pass naturally. When sending a patient to hospital the referral letter must contain details regarding the components size, shape, flexibility, radio-opacity as well as information about the incident for example when it was swallowed.
Aspiration of an orthodontic component which was unable to be removed must be referred to A&E for chest radiographs and subsequent removal of the component. The referral letter again must include details as described above.
Treatments
The treatment is cause-related. For example, oil of cloves, which contains eugenol, can be used to treat dental pain; a drop can be applied with a cotton swab as a palliative . After wisdom tooth extraction, for example, a condition known as dry socket can develop where nerve endings are exposed to air. A piece of sterile gauze or cotton soaked in oil of cloves may be placed in the socket after careful cleaning with saline to relieve this form of pain .
Over-the-counter topical anesthetics containing active ingredients such as benzocaine or choline salicylate may be applied directly to the gum in order to deaden sensation.
Analgesics such as aspirin, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and ibuprofen are also commonly used; aspirin and ibuprofen have the additional benefits of being anti-inflammatories. Ice and/or heat are also frequently applied . A dentist may prescribe an anti-inflammatory corticosteroid such as Dexameth for pain relief prior to treatment.
References
Dentistry
Emergency medicine
Headaches
Medical emergencies
Pain
Orthodontics |
4064078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMLW-TV | WMLW-TV | WMLW-TV (channel 49) is an independent television station licensed to Racine, Wisconsin, United States, serving the Milwaukee area. It is owned by Weigel Broadcasting alongside CBS affiliate WDJT-TV (channel 58) and two low-power stations: Telemundo affiliate WYTU-LD (channel 63, which is simulcast over WMLW-TV's fourth digital subchannel) and Class A MeTV owned-and-operated station WBME-CD (channel 41, which WDJT-TV simulcasts on its second digital subchannel). The stations share studios in the Renaissance Center office complex on South 60th Street in West Allis (with a Milwaukee postal address), while WMLW-TV's transmitter is located in Milwaukee's Lincoln Park.
Even though WMLW-TV is licensed as a full-power station, it shares spectrum with WBME-CD, whose broadcasting radius does not reach all of southeastern Wisconsin. Therefore, the station is simulcast in 16:9 widescreen standard definition on WDJT-TV's third digital subchannel in order to reach the entire market. This relay signal can be seen on channel 58.3 from the same Lincoln Park transmitter facility.
History
As WJJA
The station first signed on the air on January 27, 1990, as WJJA, operating as an affiliate of the Home Shopping Network (HSN). The station was founded by the late Joel Kinlow, a Milwaukee area minister who died on June 7, 2016; his estate and children continue to own Elm Grove-based WGLB (1560 AM). The WJJA calls stood for Joe, Joel and Arvis, all members of the Kinlow family that owned and operated WJJA as one of the few outright minority-owned and run stations in the United States. By 1995, WJJA had dropped HSN programming for The Military Channel (a network unrelated to the Discovery Networks-owned cable and satellite known by that name from 2005 to 2014). Kinlow dropped that network the following year, and returned to HSN, eventually affiliating with Shop at Home in 2001.
When CBS-affiliated WITI (channel 6) switched to Fox in December 1994, Kinlow decided not to affiliate with CBS when approached by the network with an offer to become an affiliate. Kinlow claimed he wanted to maintain his staff while continuing to give broadcasting experience and training to many different people beyond those usually hired to operate a television station. He felt the station could accomplish this better without the responsibilities and obligations of serving as a major network affiliate. The CBS affiliation eventually wound up on WDJT.
Throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s, WJJA continued to air Shop at Home programming, while also airing FCC-required educational programming, local church services, public domain sitcoms, and other programs relevant to local residents of Racine and Milwaukee, mostly during the morning hours. Its cable coverage at the time was usually limited to Milwaukee, Racine, Kenosha, Walworth and Waukesha counties under must-carry provisions, with the remainder of the market unable to watch it outside of over-the-air reception.
On May 16, 2006, Shop at Home parent E. W. Scripps Company announced that the network would suspend operations, effective June 22 of that year. However, the network's liquidation sale ended one day early on June 21, and WJJA switched to Jewelry Television in the meantime. Shop at Home resumed operations on June 23 after Jewelry Television purchased some assets relating to that network, and began to air a split schedule of programming, with JTV in the morning and afternoon hours, and Shop at Home during the evening hours. Shop at Home eventually shut down again in March 2008, and WJJA's last month under Kinlow ownership featured a 24-hour schedule of Jewelry Television programming.
On August 1, 2007, Weigel Broadcasting announced its intention to purchase WJJA. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted approval for the transfer in mid-September 2007, though the license and financial transfers between the two parties, along with the poor condition of the station's transmitter tower in the southeastern Milwaukee County suburb of Oak Creek took months longer to settle before Weigel could take full control of the station.
As WBME-TV (MeTV Milwaukee)
On April 21, 2008, Weigel assumed full control of the station, and at 12:30 p.m., Jewelry Television was replaced by a test card and color bars. Later that afternoon, it became the full-power Milwaukee home of MeTV (a format focused on classic television programs that was first introduced on one of Weigel's Chicago stations, WWME-CA, now an owned-and-operated station of the MeTV network, in 2005). Weigel immediately filed to change the station's call letters to WBME-TV; this became official on April 29, 2008.
MeTV was originally launched in Milwaukee on WDJT digital subchannel 58.3 on March 1, 2008, at 5 a.m., with an episode of Route 66. MeTV had full cable coverage throughout the market on Time Warner Cable and Charter Communications, requiring a digital cable receiver in order to watch the station as it launched on channel 201 of both cable providers. This simulcast continued while technical issues were worked out as WBME transitioned to Weigel's West Allis studios, and Weigel eventually received carriage on both DirecTV and Dish Network on the basic tier of all of those services, as it is allowed to assert must-carry status with those providers. The station had asserted must-carry status with Time Warner Cable years earlier under Kinlow's ownership and is carried on that system on channel 19, while Weigel and Charter came to an agreement to launch the station on its basic tier in late August 2008; the station airs on that provider on channel 20, or a different position depending on market (such as channel 19 in Sheboygan).
The station activated a new digital transmitter on the Weigel tower in Milwaukee's Lincoln Park on October 20, 2008 to better serve the entire market, while the analog signal continued to transmit from Oak Creek until the end of analog television service on June 12, 2009. On October 30, the simulcast on WDJT-DT3 ended to make way for This TV, a new network from Weigel and MGM Television focusing on movies and classic television series, leaving MeTV to broadcast exclusively on WBME, confining the signal to within the inner ring of the Milwaukee metro area. MeTV has been successful in Milwaukee on WBME, outrating daytime programs seen on the Sinclair Broadcast Group duopoly of WVTV (channel 18) and WCGV-TV (channel 24) as of September 2011.
On November 22, 2010, Weigel announced that they would take the MeTV concept national and compete fully with the Retro Television Network and Antenna TV, while complementing its successful sister network This TV (Weigel would transfer the ownership stake it held in that network to Tribune Broadcasting in November 2013, eight weeks before that company assumed ownership of WITI). As of December 15, 2010, WBME-TV carries most of the national feed of MeTV. However the station since coming under Weigel ownership also carries a public affairs program called Racine & Me, which airs weekend mornings on WMLW and WBME, and deals with topics and community calendar events relevant to the station's city of license. The station also carries some different educational and informational programming such as Green Screen Adventures (which is broadcast on the national MeTV network) to meet the FCC's mandated E/I thresholds. A locally programmed MeToo subchannel was originally expected to be added as a subchannel, but was later set aside for Weigel's other national subchannel concepts.
Channel 49 becomes WMLW-TV
On August 7, 2012, WMLW and WBME swapped channel allocations. The WMLW callsign (whose "-CA" suffix was changed to a "-TV" suffix with the swap) and its syndicated and brokered programming inventory moved from low-power channel 41 to full-power channel 49, while the WBME calls and MeTV programming moved to low-power channel 41 as WBME-CA. The switch to the full-power channel 49 signal allowed WMLW to begin broadcasting its programming in high definition for the first time. The swap also resulted in WBME taking over the 58.2 subchannel that WDJT-TV previously utilized to relay WMLW's signal as a low-power station. WMLW retained Racine & Me on the channel 49 schedule under the same title, with a move to Saturday mornings and upgrade to HD telecasts.
In September 2013, WMLW's main channel and subchannel feeds moved exclusively to Time Warner Cable's digital tier as that provider begins the transition to an all-digital system by 2015, requiring a QAM-compatible television or a DTA set-top box to view the station.
On September 15, 2014, WMLW changed its on-air brand to "The M" (" ... and The M means Milwaukee."), in imitation of Chicago sister station WCIU-TV, "The U".
Programming
Syndicated programming on WMLW-TV includes a daily block of court shows through the morning and afternoon, along with Modern Family, Young Sheldon, The Big Bang Theory, The Neighborhood, Black-ish and Dateline. If Wheel of Fortune or Jeopardy! is displaced by WDJT due to sports or breaking news coverage, the episodes are instead carried on WMLW at their regularly scheduled time. Previously, the station used to broadcast classic sitcoms and dramas before the rise of Weigel's MeTV format, but slowly removed most of them from its lineup by the fall of 2008 with the full launch of the MeTV Milwaukee iteration for mostly new or recent programs.
From September 2004 to December 28, 2008, WMLW also carried the children's programming block offered by Fox, 4Kids TV (formerly Fox Kids and later, FoxBox), due to Fox affiliate WITI declining to carry the block, taking over for WCGV-TV when that station chose not to continue carrying it. WMLW aired the 4Kids lineup on Sunday mornings at 8:00, one day and one hour later than its usual Saturday timeslot for most of the Central Time Zone, and did not pick up the replacement Weekend Marketplace infomercial block from Fox at the start of 2009, which remains unseen in the Milwaukee market, though WITI took the new Xploration Station block from Fox in September 2014.
The station currently carries a three-hour block of syndicated E/I programming on Saturday mornings (along with Weigel's Green Screen Adventures) to fulfill the station's E/I programming requirements. The majority of the station's paid programming airs early on weekdays, Saturday morning and most of Sunday morning.
Sports programming
To attract cable providers during its days as a non-must carry low-power station, WMLW formerly pursued a strong sports lineup to lure them to carry the station, though this has been drawn down as most college and professional teams in the area have partnered with Fox Sports Wisconsin and formerly, Spectrum Sports instead, along with streaming services such as ESPN+. Currently the station's sports output is limited to the WIAA basketball and hockey tournaments, which are produced by Allen Media Group for a statewide broadcast network. Additionally, the station carries a postgame show for any Green Bay Packers games carried by channel 58 through CBS, using WDJT's sports staff, along with other sports analysis shows under the title SportsZone.
Prior to 2011, the station aired Labor Day coverage of the US Open tennis tournament from CBS, because of WDJT's commitment as the local "Love Network" affiliate for the annual Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon, along with the first three hours of the show in prime time so WDJT could carry CBS programming; this ended when MDA decided to pursue other formats for the telethon (a six-hour show on the night before Labor Day, then a two-hour network broadcast on ABC).
From 2008 to 2012, the men's final for each US Open that year (all delayed to Monday afternoon due to weather conditions on Saturday or Sunday afternoons and in 2011, earlier days) was aired on WMLW; as the second Monday in September is traditionally the debut date for new and returning syndicated programming, WDJT passed along the tennis coverage in order to launch their new series, though in 2011 most of WDJT's syndicated programming moved up their season starts to a day later to compensate. The 2013 men's final was pre-scheduled in advance for the second Monday in September, and WMLW again carried it in lieu of WDJT. In 2014, however, all syndicated programming on WDJT moved their premiere dates to the Tuesday after, allowing WDJT to carry the men's final for the first time in six years without preempting any new programming; this turned out to be the last year CBS would have to work around the issue with the tournament's move entirely to ESPN in 2015 (and the tournament's main stadiums eventually receiving retractable roofs).
In August 2016, WMLW sublicensed two games produced by the Green Bay Packers preseason television network from WTMJ-TV, which could not air those games due to NBC's coverage of the 2016 Summer Olympics (the network disallows any preemptions of Olympic coverage), giving the station its first telecasts of any Packers games. WMLW carried the second and third games of the Packers' 2016 preseason against the Cleveland Browns and Oakland Raiders, both home games at Lambeau Field (as WYTU-LD carries its own Spanish-language production of the games, this also meant that WMLW aired two different versions of the same game on the same channel space, in English and Spanish).
Milwaukee Brewers
From 2007 until the end of the 2011 season, WMLW was the over-the-air broadcaster of the Milwaukee Brewers' regular season baseball games (along with a Brewers/Cubs spring training game), the first time the team aired its non-nationally televised games on broadcast television locally since Fox Sports Wisconsin (now Bally Sports Wisconsin) became the team's exclusive broadcaster in 2005. Several of the games in the package were aired on WMLW due to Fox Sports Wisconsin's contractual priority to carry Milwaukee Bucks basketball and prevent programming conflicts inside of the Milwaukee market.
The telecasts were produced by Fox Sports Wisconsin and simulcast on that network outside of the Milwaukee market, retaining the network's on-air appearance (except for WMLW microphone flags and a lack of the FSBREWERS bug in the upper right-hand corner, and adaptation of graphics to fit WMLW's 4:3 frame rather than FSN's usual 16:9-optimized presentation), while WMLW/WDJT sold ad time during the games. A few games were added to the WMLW package every year depending on early-season weather postponements and the team's standing in the pennant race later in the season. After the games, a WDJT-produced postgame show called The Final Out aired.
This arrangement was discontinued after the 2011 season due to several factors, including the Brewers wanting to maintain a full schedule of games in high definition, and Fox Sports Wisconsin desiring to maintain near-full exclusivity over telecasts for their own network, along with the 2011 NBA lockout allowing Fox Sports Wisconsin to add the rights for the 15-game package to their schedule in lieu of the loss of sixteen Bucks games due to the stoppage. Fox Sports Wisconsin also launched a second "plus" channel statewide to deal with Bucks/Brewers conflicts in April 2012, making a licensing deal with a second broadcaster unnecessary.
Spanish sister station WYTU continues to carry several Sunday home Brewers games a year with Spanish-language play-by-play, though under a separate production and announce team which uses Bally Sports Wisconsin's camera positions.
Other previous sports rights
Previously, the station carried ESPN Plus's regional college football and basketball packages for the Big Ten Conference, which included Wisconsin Badger games, until 2007, when the new Big Ten Network launched in late August 2007, as part of a ten-year exclusivity deal between the Big Ten Conference, ABC and ESPN went into effect. All non-network Badger sporting events now air on the Big Ten Network, though the Badger Sports Report remains a part of WMLW's schedule.
Other rights included the Marquette Golden Eagles, using coverage originated from ESPN Plus when Marquette was a member of the "old" Big East Conference by their Big East Network, including contractually-obligated carriage of Big East football, despite Marquette's lack of a program in that sport. Coverage was shared with TWCSC. The station also carried Milwaukee Panthers men's and women's basketball from either a local announcer team and camera crew or coverage from ESPN Plus or the Horizon League's internal broadcasting unit. As of the 2013–14 season, the "new" Big East Conference chose a rights deal which mainly consists of coverage on Fox Sports 1, with some other games carried by Fox Sports Wisconsin, while UW-Milwaukee sports are exclusive to TWCSC. The station also formerly carried the sports talk show Sidelines from Madison's TVW.
Newscasts
In September 2008, WMLW-CA began to air The Daily Buzz, a program previously unseen in Milwaukee as Sinclair Broadcast Group, until their acquisition spree began in 2012, did not air the morning show on any of its stations; the station dropped the program in September 2010 and replaced it with the Canadian talk program Steven and Chris. The Daily Buzz returned to the station's schedule in September 2012, with the broadcast of the 6 a.m. hour of the program, before being removed once again in September 2013 to make way for the Weigel-produced First Business, which moved from WDJT to WMLW when that station expanded its weekday morning newscast to 4:30 a.m., along with Right This Minute and a move of Tyler Perry's Meet the Browns to the 6 a.m. hour. The Daily Buzz eventually began to air on WCGV in September 2014 until its unexpected April 2015 termination. First Business ended on December 26, 2014. Business First with Angela Miles, a syndicated program using most of the same personnel as First Business, was launched in the fall of 2015 and is carried by WVTV locally.
In October 2007, when Fox affiliate WITI could not air its own 9 p.m. newscast in its regular time slot because of its broadcast of the 2007 World Series, WDJT's news department decided to test out a 9 p.m. newscast to air WMLW on those nights. The program, titled CBS 58 News at 9 on WMLW, became a permanent part of WMLW's schedule on January 1, 2008. The show initially featured the same anchors as channel 58's 5 and 10 p.m. newscasts (though its anchors are part of WDJT's reporting staff), although WITI has since solved the pre-emption problem by using that station's Antenna TV subchannel and live webstream to air its primetime newscast on nights when it is subject to preemption. Some breaking news coverage from WDJT is simulcast on WMLW, along with severe weather alerts. With the conversion to high definition in August 2012, WMLW's newscast immediately also began to be carried in HD that same day. On January 18, 2015, the 9 p.m. newscast was expanded to a full hour, displacing Inside Edition to the early morning hours.
Beginning in September 2014, WMLW began to carry newscasts in the 5 p.m. hour on weekends, carried either alone or in a simulcast with WDJT depending on whether CBS Sports coverage of golf, the NFL or SEC college football on WDJT would pre-empt them otherwise. On February 3, 2020, a one-hour 7 a.m. extension of WDJT's morning news was added on WMLW on weekdays, allowing local competition in that hour against WITI's market-leading morning newscast. It was then expanded to two hours as of April 26, 2021.
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
During its time on WDJT-DT3, MeTV served as a multicast channel in March 2008 for an NCAA men's basketball tournament game in standard definition besides the one being aired in high definition on WDJT's main signal. Subsequently, This TV took over simulcasting duties for the 2009 tournament.
In early January 2009, Weigel added its Telemundo affiliate, WYTU-LP (channel 63) to WBME's digital signal as subchannel 49.4. Although WYTU has its own digital signal on UHF channel 17, it has a limited range as a low power television station to the inner ring of the Milwaukee suburbs, and placing the station on WBME's full-power signal allows it full-market coverage. The channel 17 signal was converted to high definition before the 2012 Summer Olympics, with WMLW-DT4 remaining in standard definition.
On December 31, 2009, Weigel switched WYTU-LP to WBME's schedule on analog channel 63. The analog signal eventually went off the air by January 2013, with the license canceled the next month.
On August 8, 2011, the backers of Bounce TV and Weigel announced that both WBME and WWME would be charter affiliates of the network, which is targeted to African-American viewers. It launched on September 24 with the network's preview reel before its September 26 premiere on 49.2. The channel was added to Charter systems in the area on October 5, 2011; it was converted to a widescreen presentation in late June 2018. WMLW was also a charter station of Movies!, a 24-hour movie network co-owned by Weigel and Fox Television Stations on May 27, 2013 (WBND-LD in South Bend, Indiana is the only other Weigel-owned station that carries the network; Fox-owned WPWR-TV in Chicago carries Movies! in that market); Charter began carrying the network on July 24, 2013. However Movies! moved to WISN-DT2 on August 4, 2014, as part of a new agreement for Weigel's subchannels between them and WISN's owner, Hearst Television. From then until September 29, WMLW-DT3 carried a simulcast of This TV from WDJT-DT3. On that day, the channel space was used to launch a new Weigel network concept, Heroes & Icons, which carries mostly police dramas and westerns targeted towards men.
On March 3, 2015, Weigel moved This TV to WMLW's third subchannel in order to consolidate their owned subchannel networks onto WDJT, and shuffled H&I onto WDJT-DT3.
On May 15, 2021, Bounce TV became exclusive in the market to stations owned by sister operations Scripps and Ion. WMLW had been airing Bounce TV in a simulcast with WTMJ-DT2 and WPXE-DT2 since March 1, 2021. On that date, WMLW-DT2 began to carry Movies!, which returned it to carriage by Spectrum for the first time since the 2018 spectrum switch bumped it to WYTU-LD2, and after former affiliate WISN-DT2 switched to the True Crime Network.
Analog-to-digital conversion
WMLW-TV's digital television transmitter in Lincoln Park is currently running on a lower effective radiated power. The station (as WBME-TV) shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 49, on June 12, 2009. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 48. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former UHF analog channel 49. Weigel delayed the conversion for all of its full-power stations to digital to June 12 in the wake of the DTV Delay Act, although the possibility the station would go digital-only earlier than that remained due to the condition of the Oak Creek analog tower. Weigel oddly expressed interest in maintaining channel 49's analog tower for an additional month in order to use it to provide nightlight programming after the June 12 date, but WBME's analog service from Oak Creek did end on June 12 as WITI (channel 6) instead provided nightlight programming.
In some areas of the market on days with strong tropospheric propagation across Lake Michigan, the signal of WHME-TV from South Bend, which is also on digital channel 48, can overwhelm WMLW's lower power signal, while WMLW causes interference with the former station. WHME has thus filed a tentative construction permit with the FCC to move back to their former analog channel, 46, though signal conflict issues with Weigel's Milwaukee operations would remain as Channel 46 also carries WDJT's digital signal.
Spectrum sale and channel sharing
On April 13, 2017, the results of the FCC's 2016 spectrum auction were announced, with Weigel successfully selling the UHF spectrum for WMLW for $69.7 million. WMLW's channels will retain their existing numbering and identification as channel 49 and being associated under the WMLW calls. On September 12, 2017, in a press announcement of the purchase by Weigel of Los Angeles station KAZA-TV, WBME-CD was announced as the new home of WMLW and its subchannels, effectively reversing the August 2012 channel swap.
Sinclair, Weigel Broadcasting, and Milwaukee PBS all decided on a switch date of January 8 for their various local spectrum moves, and WMLW will move to WBME-CD's bandwidth at 5 a.m. that morning. WMLW and Bounce will remain on their existing 49.1 and 49.2 positions, with the WYTU-LD market-wide simulcast moving to WDJT-DT4, and Decades to WMLW-DT4. This TV was moved from the channel share and onto WYTU-LD2. In addition, WMLW's main signal is now rebroadcast on WDJT-DT3 in order to serve all viewers in the market over-the-air, in a reduced standard definition simulcast which remains in widescreen format. WBME-CD will continue to carry MeTV on 41.1, along with the 58.2 market-wide simulcast. Since the spectrum auction, most of Weigel's acquisitions since 2017 have directly used WMLW's "TV-49, Inc." holding company to purchase those stations.
References
External links
Official website
Weigel Broadcasting
Independent television stations in the United States
Movies! affiliates
Heroes & Icons affiliates
MLW-TV
Television channels and stations established in 1990
1990 establishments in Wisconsin
Catchy Comedy affiliates |
4064478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933%20in%20baseball | 1933 in baseball |
Headline Events of the Year
First Major League Baseball All-Star Game, July 6 at Comiskey Park: American League, 4–2.
First Negro League Baseball All-Star Game, September 10, also at Comiskey Park: West, 11–7.
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: New York Giants over Washington Senators (4–1)
First All-Star Game, July 6 at Comiskey Park: American League, 4–2
Other champions
The Negro National League was the only Negro league operating this season. The Chicago American Giants won the pennant.
First Negro League Baseball All-Star Game, September 10 at Comiskey Park: West, 11–7
Awards and honors
Most Valuable Player
Jimmie Foxx, Philadelphia Athletics, 1B (AL)
Carl Hubbell, New York Giants, P (NL)
MLB statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
Homestead was expelled for raiding players.
Several games were included in the standings against non-League teams.
Post-season:
Indianapolis and Pittsburgh won the first half.
Indianapolis beat Pittsburgh in a one-game play-off.
Nashville and Pittsburgh won the second half.
Pittsburgh beat Nashville in a 3-game play-off.
Indianapolis and Pittsburgh tied in a one-game play-off.
Pittsburgh owner/League commissioner awarded the Pennant to Pittsburgh, over the objection of Indianapolis.
Events
As a rookie with the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League, Joe DiMaggio hit safely in 61 consecutive games, breaking the PCL record of 49 games set by Jack Ness in 1914.
January
January 7 – The Cleveland Indians trade Luke Sewell to the Washington Senators for Roy Spencer.
February
February 9 – Brooklyn Dodgers and future Hall of Fame pitcher Dazzy Vance is traded to the St. Louis Cardinals along with infielder Gordon Slade in exchange for pitcher Ownie Carroll and infielder Jake Flowers.
March
March 11 – An earthquake hits the Los Angeles area, interrupting an exhibition game between the Chicago Cubs and New York Giants. Players from both teams were forced to huddle around the center of the diamond until the tremors stopped.
March 24 – Babe Ruth, another victim of the Great Depression, takes a pay cut of $23,000 from his previous salary of $75,000.
April
April 12 – The Cleveland Indians defeat the Detroit Tigers, 4–1, in thirteen innings on Opening Day.
April 25 :
During the New York Yankees' 16–0 drubbing of the Washington Senators, speedy Yankee outfielder Ben Chapman spikes Senators' second baseman Buddy Myer, leading to a wild 20-minute brawl. 300 fans join in, and all the involved players are suspended for five games and fined $100.
Philadelphia Phillies shortstop Dick Bartell is four-for-four with four doubles in the Phillies' 7–1 victory over the Boston Braves.
May
May 16 – The Washington Senators beat the Cleveland Indians, 11–10, in twelve innings. Cleveland uses five pitchers; Washington uses six. The combined eleven pitchers used was at the time a record.
May 30 – John Stone of the Detroit Tigers becomes the first player in major league history to collect six extra base hits in a regulation length doubleheader‚ as he hit four doubles and two home runs against the St. Louis Browns.
June
June 14 - Both New York Yankees manager Joe McCarthy and first baseman Lou Gehrig are ejected from a game. McCarthy is suspended for three games. Gehrig is luckily not suspended, thus keeping his iron man streak intact.
June 16 – The New York Giants trade Sam Leslie to the Brooklyn Dodgers for Watty Clark and Lefty O'Doul.
June 17 – The Philadelphia Phillies trade Hal Lee and Pinky Whitney to the Boston Braves for Wes Schulmerich and Fritz Knothe.
July
July 2 - The New York Giants' Carl Hubbell tied an MLB record for the longest shutout when he needed 18 innings to beat the St Louis Cardinals 1–0.
July 6 – The first Major League Baseball All-Star Game was held in Comiskey Park, Chicago, home of the Chicago White Sox. The American League defeated the National League, 4–2, highlighted by Babe Ruth's third inning home run
July 19 – Rick and Wes Ferrell become the first brothers on opposing teams to hit home runs in the same game, as Wes' Indians defeat Rick's BoSox, 8–7, in thirteen innings.
July 22 – The Washington Senators and New York Yankees are tied for first with 55–32 records. Washington beats the Detroit Tigers 4–3, while the Yanks fall to the Cleveland Indians 2–1. Washington maintains sole possession of first place for the remainder of the season.
July 26 – Rogers Hornsby joins the St. Louis Browns.
July 30 – St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Dizzy Dean set a modern major league record striking out 17 Chicago Cubs batters. Besides, his battery teammate Jimmie Wilson also sets a new mark for a catcher while recording 18 putouts.
August
August 4 – For the second game in a row, the New York Giants defeat the Philadelphia Phillies 18–1.
August 14 – 1933 American League MVP Jimmie Foxx hits for the cycle, and drives in nine runs to lead the Philadelphia Athletics to an 11–5 victory over the Cleveland Indians.
August 22 – The Detroit Tigers defeat the Washington Senators 10–8, snapping Washington's thirteen-game winning streak.
August 31 – Right-handed Dutch Leonard makes his major league debut, pitching 7.1 innings and giving up three earned runs in the Brooklyn Dodgers' 10–3 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals.
September
September 1 – New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell throws a 10-inning, four-hit shutout and drives in the winning run in a 2–0 victory over the Boston Braves. Hubbell does not walk a batter and never goes as deep as a 3-2 count on any of them. It is both his 20th win and his 10th shutout of the year, while five of the shutouts are 1–0, to set a National League season-record. Braves' pitcher Fred Frankhouse is the hard-luck loser when his mates make two crucial errors in the 10th inning.
September 8 - In the second game of a double header against the Detroit Tigers, Mel Almada makes his MLB debut for the Boston Red Sox. Almada makes history as the first player born in Mexico to play in the major leagues.
October
October 1 :
At Yankee Stadium, Babe Ruth attracts 25‚000 fans as he takes the mound against the Boston Red Sox. Ruth hits a fifth-inning home run and takes a 6–0 lead into the sixth inning‚ then hangs on for a 6–5, complete-game victory. Boston pitcher Bob Kline takes the loss. The Yankees back the Babe with 18 outfield putouts. It is the final pitching appearance of his career. Ruth now has ten winning seasons in ten years as a pitcher‚ a mark that will be matched in by Andy Pettitte. Ruth's record on the mound for the Yankees is a perfect 5–0.
At 57 years old, former Washington Senators pitcher and current coach Nick Altrock takes a pinch hit at-bat in the Senators' eleven inning 3–0 loss to the Philadelphia A's.
October 3 – Mel Ott's two-run home run in the first gives the New York Giants the early lead in game one of the 1933 World Series at the Polo Grounds. They go on to win 4–2.
October 4 – A six-run sixth inning and superb pitching by Hal Schumacher carry the Giants to victory in game two of the World Series.
October 5 – Earl Whitehill shuts out the Giants in game three of the World Series, as Washington takes game three, 4–0.
October 6 – Blondy Ryan's eleventh-inning single gives the Giants the 2–1 victory in game four of the World Series.
October 7 – In Game 5 of the World Series, the Giants defeat the Senators 4–3 in ten innings, to win their fourth World Championship, four games to one. This would be the last World Series the Senators franchise would play in the nation's capital.
November
November 15 :
The St. Louis Cardinals trade Jimmie Wilson to the Philadelphia Phillies for Spud Davis and Eddie Delker.
The New York Giants trade Glenn Spencer to the Cincinnati Reds for George Grantham.
November 21 – Philadelphia Phillies right fielder Chuck Klein, who won the National League Triple Crown after hitting .368 with 28 home runs and 120 RBI, is sold to the Cubs for $125,000 and three players. Klein, who also led the NL in hits (223), doubles (44), extra bases (79), total bases (365), slugging (.602), on-base % (.422) and OPS (1.025), and finished second in runs (102) and fourth in stolen bases (15), is the only player in major league history to be traded after a Triple Crown season.
December
December 12 – The Philadelphia Athletics trade Lefty Grove, Max Bishop, and Rube Walberg to the Boston Red Sox for Bob Kline, Rabbit Warstler and $125,000. They also send Mickey Cochrane to the Detroit Tigers for Johnny Pasek and $100,000, then package Pasek with George Earnshaw, and send them to the Chicago White Sox for Charlie Berry and $20,000.
December 20 – The Washington Senators trade Goose Goslin to the Detroit Tigers for John Stone.
Movies
Elmer, the Great
Births
January
January 1 – Gene Host
January 2 – Bill Oster
January 4 – Ramón Monzant
January 6 – Lenny Green
January 6 – Lee Walls
January 8 – Willie Tasby
January 12 – Audrey Bleiler
January 15 – Bobby Durnbaugh
January 17 – Jay Porter
January 20 – Gene Stephens
January 21 – Rita Keller
January 23 – Wally Shannon
January 25 – Mel Roach
February
February 2 – Jack Reed
February 4 – Shirley Burkovich
February 10 – Jerry Davie
February 10 – Russ Heman
February 10 – Billy O'Dell
February 14 – Tom Borland
February 26 – Johnny Blanchard
February 27 – Sammy Taylor
February 28 – Bill Kern
March
March 4 – John Easton
March 6 – Ted Abernathy
March 7 – Ed Bouchee
March 11 – Ann Garman
March 11 – Jack Spring
March 15 – Dick Scott
March 20 – George Altman
March 25 – Nelson Chittum
March 27 – Don Lassetter
April
April 3 – Jerry Dale
April 3 – Renae Youngberg
April 4 – Ted Wieand
April 7 – Bobby Del Greco
April 7 – Joe Hicks
April 8 – Lloyd Merritt
April 11 – Futoshi Nakanishi
April 12 - Terry Cooney
April 12 – Charley Lau
April 22 – Bob Schmidt
April 25 – Joyce Ricketts
April 29 – Ed Charles
May
May 5 – Joe McClain
May 13 – John Roseboro
May 16 – Bob Bruce
May 18 – Carroll Hardy
May 22 – Miguel Sotelo
May 26 – Ramón López
June
June 2 – Jerry Lumpe
June 2 – Benny Valenzuela
June 4 – Arnold Earley
June 7 – Herb Score
June 9 – Jesús Mora
June 10 – Ed Palmquist
June 14 – Jim Constable
June 16 – Ken Johnson
June 18 – Taylor Phillips
June 23 – Dave Bristol
June 26 – Joe Albanese
June 26 – Gene Green
June 29 – Bob Shaw
June 30 – Dave Roberts
July
July 1 – Frank Baumann
July 8 – Al Spangler
July 9 – Ray Rippelmeyer
July 11 – Katherine Herring
July 23 – Johnny James
July 26 – Norm Siebern
August
August 10 – Rocky Colavito
August 13 – Bob Giggie
August 17 – Jim Davenport
August 19 – Walter Owens
September
September 2 – Glenna Sue Kidd
September 2 – Marv Throneberry
September 11 – Bob Davis
September 12 – Dave Stenhouse
September 14 – Fred Green
September 15 – John Fitzgerald
September 17 – Chuck Daniel
September 26 – Roy Wright
September 27 – Jerry Casale
October
October 9 – Joan Berger
October 12 – Janet Wiley
October 17 – Bob Powell
October 19 – Ossie Álvarez
October 21 – Johnny Goryl
October 22 – Ron Jackson
October 23 – Jake Striker
October 23 – Lois Youngen
October 24 – Bill Bell
October 27 – Pumpsie Green
November
November 4 – Tito Francona
November 7 – Bob Hale
November 9 – George Witt
November 11 – Ken Walters
November 16 – Minnie Mendoza
November 17 – Dan Osinski
November 17 – Orlando Peña
November 18 – Curt Raydon
November 25 – Jim Waugh
November 26 – Minnie Rojas
November 27 – Billy Moran
December
December 4 – Dick Ricketts
December 14 – Jerry Schoonmaker
December 19 – Gordie Windhorn
December 23 – Noella Leduc
December 23 – Elder White
December 31 – Ken Rowe
Deaths
January
January 2 – Kid Gleason, 66, best known as the betrayed manager of the infamous 1919 Chicago White Sox; who previously collected four 20-wins seasons as a pitcher from 1890 to 1893, with a career-high 38 victories in 1890, and later became a timely hitter and steady second baseman, hitting a .300 average four times, while helping the Baltimore Orioles win a pennant in 1895; later serving as a coach, then winning the American League pennant as a rookie manager for the White Sox in 1919, when his heart was broken by his eight players implicated in the 1919 World Series scandal.
January 4 – Hal Deviney, 39, relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox during the 1920 season.
January 14 – Jesse Hoffmeister, 60, third baseman for the 1897 Pittsburgh Pirates.
January 18 – Dan Marion, 43, pitcher who played with the Brooklyn Tip-Tops.43 in the 1914 and 1915 seasons.
January 19 – Con Starkel, 52, pitcher for the 1906 Washington Senators.
January 19 – Harry Hinchman, 54, pitcher for the Cleveland Naps in the 1907 season.
January 27 – Art Madison, 62, second baseman/shortstop who played for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1895 and the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1899.
January 31 – Beany Jacobson, 51, pitcher for the Washington Senators, St. Louis Browns and Boston Americans in the 1900s decade.
February
February 17 – Harry Smith, 59, British-born baseball player and manager, who caught from 1901 through 1909 for the Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates and Boston Doves, also managing the Doves in 1909, and later in the minor leagues in a span of five seasons from 1913 to 1917.
February 22 – Bill Shettsline, 69, manager for the Philadelphia Phillies during five seasons spanning 1898–1902, who later owned the team from 1905 to 1909.
March
March 15 – Otis Stocksdale, 61, valuable utility who played all-positions except catcher for the Washington Senators, Boston Beaneaters and Baltimore Orioles from 1893 to 1896, while helping the Orioles win the National League pennant in 1896.
March 16 – Jack Wieneke, 39, pitcher who played briefly for the Chicago White Sox during the 1921 season.
March 20 – Dan Burke, 64, catcher/outfielder who played from 1890 to 1892 for the Rochester Broncos, Syracuse Stars and Boston Beaneaters.
March 21 – Bob Black, 70, outfielder/pitcher who played for the Kansas City Cowboys of the Union Association in 1884.
March 25 – Tom Donovan, 60, outfielder for the 1901 Cleveland Blues of the American League.
March 28 – Tom McCarthy, 48, pitcher who played from 1908 to 1909 with the Cincinnati Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates and Boston Doves.
March 29 – Harry Salisbury, 77, pitcher for the 1879 Troy Trojans of the National League and the 1882 Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the American Association, who finished in the top ten in eighteen categories during the 1882 season, including wins (20), strikeouts (135), earned run average (2.63), complete games (32), and innings pitched (335).
March 29 – Ed Watkins, 55, outfielder for the 1902 Philadelphia Phillies.
April
April 2 – Joe Cross, 75, right fielder who played briefly for the Louisville Colonels during the 1888 season.
April 13 – Ody Abbott, 44, outfielder for the 1910 St. Louis Cardinals.
April 17 – Thomas Griffin, 76, first baseman for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Union Association in 1884.
April 23 – Tim Keefe, 76, Hall of Fame pitcher who posted a 342–225 record and a 2.63 ERA in 600 games, including six 30-win campaigns for the New York Metropolitans/Giants teams from 1883 to 1888, with 40-win seasons in 1883 and 1886, while leading the National League in ERA three times and strikeouts twice, with career strikeout mark (2500+) being record until 1908, also winning 19 straight in 1888, leading the Giants to their first pennant while going 4–0 with 0.51 ERA in the championship series.
April 26 – Roy Graham, 38, backup catcher who played from 1922 to 1923 for the Chicago White Sox.
May
May 1 – Bobby Mitchell, 77, National League pitcher who played for the Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Blues and St. Louis Brown Stockings in parts of four seasons spanning 1877–1882.
May 3 – Lefty James, 43, pitcher who played from 1912 through 1914 for the Cleveland Naps of the American League.
May 5 – Steve Dunn, 74, Canadian first baseman who played for the 1884 St. Paul Saints of the Union Association.
May 17 – Bill Van Dyke, 69, outfielder who played with the Toledo Maumees, St. Louis Browns and Boston Beaneaters in a span of three years from 1890 to 1893.
May 19 – Wes Curry, 73, American Association umpire for six seasons between 1885 and 1898, who previously pitched two games for the Richmond Virginians in the 1884 season.
May 20 – Billy Lauder, 59, third baseman who played four seasons between 1898 and 1903 for the Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia Athletics and New York Giants, and later coached for the Chicago White Sox.
May 21 – Charlie Osterhout76, outfielder/catcher for the 1879 Syracuse Stars.of the National League.
May 22 – Bunny Pearce, 48, backup catcher for the Cincinnati Reds from 1908 to 1909.
May 24 – Phonney Martin, 87, player/manager for the 1872 Brooklyn Eckfords of the National Association, who also played for the 1872 Troy Trojans and the 1873 New York Mutuals.
May 30 – Burley Bayer, 59, shortstop for the 1889 Louisville Colonels of the American Association.
June
June 3 – Jack O'Brien, 60, outfielder for four clubs between 1899 and 2003, who became the first player to pinch-hit in World Series history, as a member of the 1903 Boston Americans.
June 5 – Sam LaRocque, 70, Canadian second baseman for the Detroit Wolverines, Pittsburgh Alleghenys/Pirates and Louisville Colonels in parts of three seasons spanning 1888–1891.
June 13 – Gat Stires, 83, outfielder who played from 1868 to 1871 for the Rockford Forest Citys of the National Association.
July
July 2 -Tommy Dowd, 64, center fielder for seven clubs in two different leagues between 1891 and 1901, mainly for the St. Louis Browns of the National League, who posted a career average of .271 with 368 stolen bases and also managed the Browns from 1896 to 1897.
July 7 – Neal Finn, 29, second baseman who played for the Brooklyn Robins/Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies from 1930 through 193s; played his last MLB game on June 17, twenty days before his death.
July 12 – Joseph Herr, 68, National League infielder/outfielder during three seasons from 1887 to 1890 for the Cleveland Blues and the St. Louis Browns.
July 23 – Rip Williams, 51, versatile utility who played in four seasons for the Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators and Cleveland Indians between 1911 and 1918.
July 30 – Frank Allen, 44, National League pitcher who played from 1912 to 1917 for the Brooklyn Dodgers/Robins, Pittsburgh Rebels and Boston Braves.
August
August 7 – Bill Irwin, 73, pitcher for the 1886 Cincinnati Red Stockings of the American Association.
August 10 – George Mangus, 43, outfielder who played for the 1912 Philadelphia Phillies.
August 13 – Elliot Bigelow, 35, outfielder for the Boston Red Sox in the 1929 season.
September
September 3 – Ed Cartwright, 73, first baseman for the St. Louis Browns in 1890 and the Washington Senators from 1894 to 1897, who collected seven runs batted in in one inning of an American Association game in 1890, setting a major league record that would stand for 109 years until it was broken by St. Louis Cardinals' Fernando Tatís, who belted two grand slams in one inning during a 1999 game to drive in eight runs.
September 13 – Bill Brennan, 52, umpire who worked during seven seasons in the National League (1909–1913, 1921) and the Federal League (1914–1915), including the 1911 World Series, and also spent many years of umpiring in the minor leagues with the American Association and the Southern Association.
September 13 – Joe Harrington, 63, infielder for the Boston Beaneaters from 1895 to 1896, who in 1895 became the first major league ballplayer ever to hit a home run in his first at bat.
September 16 – George Gore, 76, center fielder who played 14 seasons in three leagues from 1879 to 1892, who batted a career .301 average, won the 1880 National League batting title and appeared in four World Series, while leading the league in walks three times and runs twice, and setting a single-game record with seven stolen bases.
September 22 – George Fields, 80, third baseman who played briefly for the Middletown Mansfields of the National Association during the 1872 season.
September 24 – Mike Donlin, 36, outfielder for six teams between 1899 and 1912; a superb hitter during the deadball era who topped the .300 mark in 10 of his 12 major league seasons, hitting .356 and leading the National League with 124 runs in 1905, then guiding the New York Giants with six hits in their 1905 World Series victory over the Philadelphia Athletics, while retiring with a .333 career average in 1050 games.
September 25 – Ring Lardner, 48, sports columnist and short story writer for several newspapers since 1907, mainly for the Chicago Tribune, who pioneered the satirical cynic's view of sports reporting in the early 1920s.
October
October 5 – William Veeck, Sr., 55, sports writer and baseball executive, who was president of the Chicago Cubs from 1919 until the time of his death, whose leadership led the Cubs win three National League pennants in the 1918, 1929 and 1932 seasons.
October 10 – Joe Kostal, 57, pitcher who played briefly for the 1896 Louisville Colonels.
October 13 – Al Mannassau, 67, minor league outfielder/manager during six seasons from 1890 to 1895, who later served as an umpire in the National League (1899), American League (1901), and the Federal League (1914).
October 20 – Lou Gertenrich, 58. outfielder who played with the Milwaukee Brewers and the Pittsburgh Pirates in a span of two seasons from 1901 to 1903.
October 22 – Philip DeCatesby Ball, 70, owner of the St. Louis Terriers of the "outlaw" Federal League from 1914 to 1915, and the St. Louis Browns of the American League from 1916 until his death.
October 22 – Bobby Clack, 83, English outfielder the Brooklyn Atlantics and the Cincinnati Reds from 1874 through 1876, who also served as an umpire during five games in 1876.
October 31 – Charlie Loudenslager, 52, second baseman who played in one game for the 1904 Brooklyn Superbas of the National League.
November
November 1 – Ed Scott, 63, pitcher from 1900 to 1901 for the Cincinnati Reds and Cleveland Blues.
November 2 – Lew Phelan, 69, manager for the 1895 St. Louis Browns of the National League.
November 5 – Frank Freund, 58, backup catcher for the 1896 Louisville Colonels.
November 18 – Charles Strick, 75, catcher/second baseman/centerfielder who played for the 1882 Louisville Eclipse of the American Association.
November 29 – John Humphries, 72, Canadian catcher/outfielder/first baseman who played from 1883 through 1885 for the New York Gothams of the National League and the Washington Nationals of the American Association.
December
December 7 – Fred Hoey, 68, manager for the 1899 New York Giants of the National League.
December 11 – Harry Croft, 58, National League OF/IF utility man who played in 1899 with the Louisville Colonels and the Philadelphia Phillies, before joining the Chicago Orphans in 1901.
December 17 – Charlie DeArmond, 56, third baseman for the 1903 Cincinnati Reds.
December 18 – Fred Robinson, 77, second baseman for the 1884 Cincinnati Outlaw Reds of the Union Association.
December 21 – Louie Heilbroner, 72, manager for the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1902 season.
December 22 – Nin Alexander, 75, catcher who played in 1884 for the Kansas City Unions of the Union Association and the St. Louis Browns of the American Association.
December 22 – Joe Flynn, 71, outfielder who played in 1884 for the Philadelphia Keystones and Boston Reds of the Union Association.
December 27 – Fritz Buelow, 57, fine defensive catcher during nine seasons from 1899 to 1907 for the St. Louis Perfectos/Cardinals, Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Naps and St. Louis Browns, who is regarded as the first ballplayer born in Berlin, Germany, to appear in a major league game.
December 31 – James Donnelly, 66, third baseman for the 1884 Kansas City Cowboys of the Union Association.
References |
4064666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearms%20regulation%20in%20Mexico | Firearms regulation in Mexico | Firearms regulation in Mexico is governed by legislation which sets the legality by which members of the armed forces, law enforcement and private citizens may acquire, own, possess and carry firearms; covering rights and limitations to individuals—including hunting and shooting sport participants, property and personal protection personnel such as bodyguards, security officers, private security, and extending to VIPs (diplomats, public officials, celebrities).
Mexico has extremely restrictive laws regarding gun possession.
There are only two stores in the entire country, DCAM near the capital, and OTCA, in Apodaca, Nuevo León. It also takes months of paperwork to have a chance at purchasing one legally. That said, there is a common misconception that firearms are illegal in Mexico and that no person may possess them. This belief originates from the general perception that only members of law enforcement, the armed forces, or those in armed security protection are authorized to have them. While it is true that Mexico possesses strict gun laws, where most types and calibers are reserved to military and law enforcement, the acquisition and ownership of certain firearms and ammunition remains a constitutional right to all Mexican citizens and foreign legal residents; given the requirements and conditions to exercise such right are fulfilled in accordance to the law.
The right to keep and bear arms was first recognized as a constitutional right under Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution of 1857. However, as part of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, Article 10 was changed where-by the right to keep and bear arms was given two separate definitions: the right to keep (derecho a poseer in Spanish) and the right to bear (derecho a portar in Spanish). The new version of Article 10 specified that citizens were entitled to keep arms (own them) but may only bear them (carry them) among the population in accordance to police regulation. This modification to Article 10 also introduced the so-called ...[arms] for exclusive use of the [military]... (in Spanish: ...de uso exclusivo del Ejército...), dictating that the law would stipulate which weapons were reserved for the armed forces, including law enforcement agencies, for being considered weapons of war.
In 1971, Article 10 of the present Constitution was changed to limit the right to keep arms within the home only (in Spanish: ...derecho a poseer armas en su domicilio...) and reserved the right to bear arms outside the home only to those explicitly authorized by law (i.e. police, military, armed security officers). The following year, the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives came into force and gave the federal government complete jurisdiction and control to the legal proliferation of firearms in the country; at the same time, heavily limiting and restricting the legal access to firearms by civilians.
As a result of the changes to Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution and the enactment of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, openly carrying a firearm or carrying a concealed weapon in public is virtually forbidden to private citizens, unless explicitly authorized by the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA). For purposes of personal protection, firearms are only permitted within the place of residence and of the type and caliber permitted by law.
History
Contemporary Mexican society experiences gun homicide at a higher rate than many other nations, despite strict gun laws (citation needed). Firearms have played a significant role in the History of Mexico, and the country was founded with a strong presence and adhesion to arms, though Mexico has a long history of passing gun restriction laws. Mexican Golden Age films often depicted the protagonists and antagonists as gun-slinging cowboys and charros, an example of a cultural attachment to guns which greatly differs on different sides of the border. For on the US side the citizens have a right and legally carry guns, but on the Mexican side the guns are carried in defiance of Mexican law.
It was through the means of armed combat that Mexico achieved its independence from Spain. From then on, the course of history was marked by several armed conflicts, including the American (1846–48) and French (1861–67) conflicts, as well as indigenous struggles due to the several forms of government that ruled over Mexican territory, culminating with the Mexican Revolution (1910–20) and the Cristero War (1926–29).
In 1972, the government modified Article 10 of the Constitution and enacted the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, limiting gun ownership to small-caliber handguns, heavily restricting the right to carry outside the homeplace and ending a cultural attachment to firearms by shutting down gun stores, outlawing the private sale of firearms, and closing down public shooting facilities.
In addition, the government has conducted gun-exchange programs from time to time, where citizens are encouraged to exchange any firearm (registered, unregistered, legal or illegal) for either a cash incentive or groceries, without fear of civil or criminal prosecution.
Historical legislation
Prior to the Independence of Mexico, the first official record of a restriction on the possession of firearms occurred in 1811 as the Mexican War of Independence was taking place. This restriction came about as an attempt to stop the Miguel Hidalgo-led insurgency against the Royalists of Spain. In 1812 and 1814 the Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy in Article 56 and Constitutional Decree for the Liberty of Mexican America in Article 81 prohibited appearing at Vestry meetings with weapons, but did not limit their possession or carrying on other sites such as the home.
Following Mexico's independence as the First Mexican Empire in 1822, the Political Provisional Regulation of the Mexican Empire in Article 54 made a reference to the carrying of prohibited arms (in Spanish: ...el porte de armas prohibidas...) and by 1824, following the establishment of the United Mexican States, it was declared that no person shall carry any type of weapon. The inclination to adopt a complete ban on firearms came as a precaution and attempt to prevent another armed insurrection that would put the new republic in jeopardy. After this measure, four years followed without war under President Guadalupe Victoria.
However, the results of the presidential elections of September 1828 were disputed by runner-up candidate Vicente Guerrero and he called for a revolution, provoking Congress to annul the election and elect Guerrero as president. After he took office in April 1829, civil unrest continued and he was ousted by mid-December only for two other men to serve as president before the end of the year. After Anastasio Bustamante took office in January 1830, considering the instability of the previous year, a mandate was issued that required all in unlawful possession of firearms to surrender them to the government and made it illegal to pawn or purchase them. Between 1831 and 1835, additional mandates were issued voiding all gun licenses previously issued and restricted the issuance of new firearm permits only to those deemed "peaceful, known and honest" and made acquiring a license to carry a more rigorous process.
Continuing several decades of instability, Mexico became once again a federal republic and given the important role firearms had played to establish the second republic, the Constitution of 1857 under Article 10, recognized for the first time the right for people to keep and bear arms as a constitutional guarantee. Also in 1857, another mandate was issued requiring a firearms license in order to carry lawfully. In February 1861, the Secretary of War (now the Secretariat of National Defense) issued a notice reassuring all citizens the guarantee to keep and carry firearms, and expressing that considering that under no circumstances could peaceful and lawful citizens be disarmed, only weapons exclusive of the military would be banned. In December of the same year, a mandate required all persons to surrender such banned weapons.
In 1893, new regulation on the bearing of arms was issued, recognizing the right to keep and the right to carry while regulating the issuance of licenses to carry, which conditioned that weapons only be carried in a manner that they are visible.
At the height of the Mexican Revolution, the Constitution of 1917 was enacted and Article 10, carried over from the previous constitution, was modified to define three separate things: one) it recognized the right of the people to keep and bear arms, two) it excepted from civilian possession weapons prohibited by law or reserved for the military, and three) it required that weapons carried in public be done in accordance to the law.
The 1960s were marked by a series of anti-government movements that escalated to the Tlatelolco massacre, prompting then-President Echeverría and Mexican Congress to modified Article 10 of the Constitution to its present form today, which permits private ownership of firearms within the home only. In January 1972, with the enactment of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, the legal proliferation of firearms among the population was heavily limited and restricted.
Since its conception, the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives has had several of its articles reformed in an effort to further restrict firearm ownership and their proliferation by imposing stricter rules for their acquisition and tougher penalties for violations.
Constitutional rights
Three major events mark the right to keep and bear arms as a constitutional guarantee:
Constitution of 1857
To keep and bear arms was first recognized as a constitutional right through Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution of 1857:
(original text) Artículo 10: Todo hombre tiene derecho de poseer y portar armas para su seguridad y legítima defensa. La ley señalará cuáles son las prohibidas y la pena en que incurren los que las portaren.
(translation) Article 10: Every man has the right to keep and to carry arms for his security and legitimate defense. The law will indicate which arms are prohibited and the penalty for those who would carry them.
Article 10 of the 1857 Constitution gave citizens the right to keep and bear arms, both in their homes and in public for their security and defense. Legislation was to indicate which types of weapons would be forbidden and the penalties imposed to violators.
Constitution of 1917
Sixty years later, with the introduction of the Constitution of 1917, Article 10 gives two separate definitions to the right to keep and bear arms:
(original text) Artículo 10: Los habitantes de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos tienen libertad de poseer armas de cualquiera clase, para su seguridad y legítima defensa, hecha excepción de las prohibidas expresamente por la ley y de las que la nación reserve para el uso exclusivo del Ejército, Armada y Guardia Nacional; pero no podrán portarlas en las poblaciones sin sujetarse a los reglamentos de policía..
(translation) Article 10: The inhabitants of the United Mexican States are free to possess weapons of any kind, for their security and legitimate defense, with exception of those expressly prohibited by law and that the nation reserves for the exclusive use of the Army, Navy and National Guard; but they may not carry them within populations without being subject to police regulations.
Article 10 of the 1917 Constitution still allowed citizens to keep and bear arms in the home or outside, while restricting those weapons reserved to the military but required that those who carry weapons in public, adhere to applicable police regulations.
Reform to Article 10 in 1971
Fifty-four years later, Article 10 was reformed to its actual text in force today:
(original text) Artículo 10: Los habitantes de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos tienen derecho a poseer armas en su domicilio, para seguridad y legítima defensa, con excepción de las prohibidas por la ley federal y de las reservadas para el uso exclusivo del Ejército, Armada, Fuerza Aérea y Guardia Nacional. La ley federal determinará los casos, condiciones, requisitos y lugares en que se podrá autorizar a los habitantes la portación de armas.
(translation) Article 10: The inhabitants of the United Mexican States have the right to keep arms in their homes, for security and legitimate defense, with the exception of those prohibited by federal law and those reserved for the exclusive use of the Army, Navy, Air Force and National Guard. Federal law will determine the cases, conditions, requirements, and places in which the carrying of arms will be authorized to the inhabitants.
Reformed Article 10 limited citizens' constitutional right to keeping arms in their homes only. Additionally, carrying firearms outside the home (in public) was no longer a right but a privilege federal law would regulate and authorize on a case-by-case basis. With this reform came the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, which limited civilians' legal access to a few small-caliber guns while reserving most types and calibers to the government (i.e., police and military).
Licensing and legislation
The authority in charge of the control of firearms in Mexico is the Executive Branch (Ejecutivo Federal) through the Secretariat of Interior (SEGOB) and the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA), the latter responsible for issuing licenses and running the General Directorate for the Federal Firearms Registry and Explosives Control (DGRFAFyCE).
The Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives (Ley Federal de Armas de Fuego y Explosivos) is an act of Congress and the legal framework overseeing the lawful proliferation of firearms in the country, including their import, manufacture, sale, purchase, ownership, and possession.
The Regulation of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives (Reglamento de la Ley Federal de Armas de Fuego y Explosivos) is an additional legal framework governing firearms.
The right to keep arms
In regard to the right to keep arms, Title II, Chapter II, Article 15 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) Weapons may be kept in the home for security and legitimate defense of its dwellers. Their possession imposes the duty to manifest them to the Secretariat of National Defense for their registration. For every weapon, record of its registration will be issued.
Under this clause, citizens are entitled to keep firearms of the type and calibers permitted by law for their security and defense within their home only. Every weapon must be registered with the federal government. While federal law does not set a limit, in legal practice, citizens are only allowed to keep a total of 10 registered firearms (nine long guns, one handgun) per household.
Additionally, a place of business or employment is not covered under this provision unless the place of business is the same as the place of residence (home business) and therefore it is illegal to keep or carry a firearm in a place of business, even if the business is owned by the lawful registered owner of the weapon unless the appropriate license to carry outside the home is issued by SEDENA.
The right to bear arms
In regard to the right to bear arms (carry them beyond the home), Title II, Chapter III, Article 24 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) To carry weapons, the appropriate license is required. Members of the Army, Navy and Air Force are exempted from the foregoing, in the cases and conditions stipulated by applicable laws and regulations. Members of federal, state, of the Federal District, and municipal police institutions, as well as private security services, may carry weapons in the cases, conditions, and requirements established by present law and other applicable legal provisions.Under this clause, only citizens who have been granted a license to carry can lawfully carry a firearm outside their homes. Beyond military and law enforcement members, these permits are only issued to persons who qualify such as those employed in private security firms, those who live in rural areas, or those who may be targets of crime (politicians, public officials, and wealthy citizens).
Type of firearms permitted
In regard to what type of firearms are permitted, Title II, Chapter I, Article 9 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) It may be kept or carried, under the terms and limitations established by this law, weapons of the following characteristics: Semi-automatic handguns of caliber no greater than .380 (9mm Browning, 9mm Corto, 9mm Kurz, 9mm Short, and 9×17mm). Left excepted are calibers .38 Super and .38 commander, and also calibers 9mm. [Such as] Mauser, Luger, etc., as well as similar models of the same caliber of the excepted, from other brands.
Revolvers of calibers no greater than .38 Special, left excepted is caliber .357 magnum.Land tenure owners, common land owners and farmworkers outside urban zones, may keep and carry, upon registration, one weapon of those already mentioned, or a .22 caliber rifle, or a shotgun of any caliber, except those of a barrel length shorter than 25 inches (635mm) and of caliber greater than 12 gauge (.729" or 18.5 MM).
Additionally, Article 10 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) The firearms that can be authorized to participants of shooting or hunting, to keep in their home or to carry with a license, are the following: Semi-automatic handguns, revolvers and rifles of caliber .22, rimfire ammo
Handguns of .38 caliber for Olympic shooting or other competition
Shotguns in all their calibers and models, except those with a barrel length shorter than 25 inches, and calibers greater than 12 gauge.
Triple-barrel shotguns in the calibers authorized in the preceding section, with a barrel for metallic cartridges of different caliber.
High-powered rifles, of repeating or semi-automatic function, non-convertible to full-auto, with the exception of .30 caliber carbines, rifles, muskets and carbines caliber .223, 7 and 7.62mm, and Garand rifles caliber .30.
High-powered rifles of greater caliber than those mentioned in the previous section, with special permission for their use abroad, for hunting of game bigger than those present in national wildlife.
Under these two articles, private citizens are generally restricted to semi-automatic handguns or revolvers of a caliber no greater than .380 (for home defense), rifles no greater than .22, and shotguns no greater than 12 gauge (hunting and shooting when a member of a club). Anything bigger than those calibers is considered for exclusive use of the military and strictly forbidden for civilian possession, as defined by Article 11 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives. Only citizens with collector permits may be authorized to possess firearms outside those permitted for civilian ownership.
How many firearms may be owned
In regard to how many firearms a citizen may own, neither the Constitution nor the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives say anything; however, Chapter II, Article 21 of the Regulation of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) If more than two weapons are registered for security and legitimate defense of the dwellers of a single home, those interested must justify the need.This clause is somewhat controversial among gun enthusiasts in Mexico because current federal law does not set a limit on how many firearms may be owned. However, the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA) has set its own rules (in Spanish: Disposiciones giradas por la propia Secretaría), and while neither federal firearms law nor its regulation set a limit on the amount of firearms a person may own, SEDENA has determined that only nine long guns and one handgun for hunting or shooting activities will be authorized. Consequently, those who do not belong to a hunting or shooting club, will only be authorized one handgun for home defense. If the citizen is an official member of the Mexican hunting and shooting federation they will be allowed to have more than one handgun but always with the 10 gun limit.
Transport of firearms
In regard to the transport of firearms, Title III, Chapter IV, Article 60 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) General permits for any of the activities regulated in this title, include the authorization for the transport within national territory, of firearms, objects and materials authorized, but their holders must abide by relevant laws, rules and regulation.Under this clause, anyone intending to transport a firearm outside their home must first obtain the appropriate permit from SEDENA. Those who belong to hunting and/or shooting clubs and keep registered firearms for those purposes must maintain a valid permit (renewable every year) to remove the weapons from their home to the location of relevant activities. Even those who move to a new home address must not only notify SEDENA of the change of address but must also obtain a permit to transport the weapon from the current residence to the new one. Without the appropriate transportation permit, it is illegal to transport a firearm outside the home on your person or vehicle, even if lawfully registered, unloaded and in a locked container.
Taking firearms into Mexico
In regard to bringing firearms to Mexico, Title III, Chapter III, Article 55 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) Weapons, objects and materials referred in this law imported under ordinary or extraordinary permits, must be destined precisely to the use stated in given permits. Any modification, change or transformation different from the stated purpose, requires a new permit.Additionally, Title III, Chapter III, Article 59 of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives states:
(translated) Temporary import and export of firearms and ammunition for hunting and shooting sport tourists, must be vested by the appropriate extraordinary permit, which shall indicate the conditions that must be met in accordance to the regulation of this law.Under these articles, those who intend to engage in hunting and shooting sport activities in Mexico, must first obtain the required temporary import permit from the Secretariat of National Defense prior to traveling to Mexico.
Similarly, it is possible for Mexican citizens who reside in Mexico and foreign legal residents of Mexico (FM2 holders) to import a firearm into Mexico for their security and legitimate defense, under the types and calibers permitted for home defense and after receiving the appropriate import permit from the Secretariat of National Defense. Whoever intends to import a firearm to Mexico must be able to legally acquire the firearm outside of the country. For example, a US citizen who lawfully resides in Mexico as a FM2 holder or who holds dual nationality could purchase a firearm in the United States and request permission to import the weapon to Mexico. People eligible to legally purchase a firearm in the United States and eligible to reside in Mexico are allowed to import the weapon.
The U.S. Department of State warns US citizens [and all persons regardless of citizenship] against taking any firearm or ammunition into Mexico without prior written authorization from the Mexican authorities. Entering Mexico with a firearm, or even a single round of ammunition, carries a penalty of up to five years in prison, even if the firearm or ammunition is taken into the country unintentionally. Even if the weapon is lawfully registered in one's name in the U.S. (or any other country of residence) and even when the weapon falls under the types and calibers permitted for civilian ownership in Mexico, unless the bearer has explicit authorization from the Secretariat of National Defense, it is illegal and punishable by law to enter Mexican territory with any firearm as well as to keep and carry any firearm on one's person or vehicle. These permits cannot be obtained at Mexican customs and immigration when entering Mexico, but must be obtained in advance and in possession of the bearer before any gun enters Mexico.
Sales and ownership
Private ownership of firearms is restricted to the home only. Only Mexican citizens and foreign legal residents of Mexico (FM2 holders) may purchase and keep firearms in their place of residence. The Directorate of Commercialization of Arms and Munitions (Dirección de Comercialización de Armamento y Municiones - DCAM) is the only outlet authorized to sell firearms and ammunition in the country and it is located in Mexico City near SEDENA's headquarters. The transfer of ownership and the sale and purchase of firearms between individuals is also permitted, but the transaction must receive authorization from the Secretariat of National Defense by both parties (buyer and seller) appearing in person along with the weapon, to conduct the transaction in accordance to requirements set by law.
Firearm activity authorized by law
There are generally five ways private citizens may lawfully purchase, register, own and keep firearms in the home:
For home defense (seguridad y legítima defensa)
For hunting (cacería)
For target practice (tiro)
For shooting sport competition (competencia)
For collection (colección)
For home defense, the government will authorize the sale and registration of one handgun of the types and calibers permitted by law.
For hunting, target practice or competition, the government will authorize the sale and registration of up to nine long guns (rifles or shotguns) and one handgun of the types and calibers permitted by law (must belong to a hunting and/or shooting club for these permits to be issued). Licensed sport hunting is allowed in a season and regulated by SEMARNAP (Secretariat of the Environment, Natural Resources, and Fisheries).
For collection, the government may authorize the sale and registration of an unlimited amount of firearms of any type and caliber in accordance to law and regulation.
Legal procedures to own a firearm
Private citizens wishing to acquire a firearm and ammunition are required by law to do the following:
Apply for a firearm acquisition permit from the General Directorate of the Federal Firearms Registry and Explosives Control (DGRFAFyCE) in the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA) either by mail or in person by submitting the following:
(for Mexican citizens, males under 40) Copy of liberated National Military Service card; (for females or males over 40) certified birth certificate. Foreigners must provide documentation establishing legal presence (FM2 card),
Proof of income by submitting original employment letter stating position, time of employment and salary. If self-employed or retired, proof of such status,
Criminal background check showing no convictions, issued by the state's Attorney General where applicant resides (dated no older than six months),
Copy of proof of address (any utility bill in name of applicant; if different, head of household must sign a letter authorizing firearms and ammunition in the home),
Copy of government-issued photo identification (Voter ID Card if Mexican citizen, passport and FM2 card if foreign citizen),
If weapons are requested for shooting or hunting, must submit copy of hunting and/or shooting club membership card, indicating day, month and year of the beginning and end of validation,
Copy of birth certificate. Name(s) and last names must match all other documents, and
Copy of the Unique Key of Population Registry (Clave Única de Registro de Población - CURP) Analogous to US social security card and number.
Upon being granted the firearm acquisition permit, fill out form and make payment of MX$95.00 (US$7.60) for Permit to Purchase Firearm, Accessories and/or Ammunition,
Fill out form and make payment of MX$39.00 (US$3.12) for Registration of Firearm (one form and payment per gun),
Contact the Directorate of Commercialization of Arms and Munitions (DCAM) by internet or in person to make payment of firearm.
With all receipts and documentation, along with photo ID, appear in person at DCAM to pick up firearm. A temporary transportation permit (valid for 24 to 72hrs) is granted, which permits the owner to transport the firearm from DCAM to his or her home by personal or public transportation (ground or air).
Militia
Mexico has a history of various activities and insurrection by militia and paramilitary groups dating back several hundred years that include the exploits of historical figures such as Captain Manuel Pineda Munoz and Francisco "Pancho" Villa. This also includes groups such as the Free-Colored Militia (the interracial militias of New Spain, Colonial Mexico), the Camisas Doradas, and the contemporary Self Defense Council of Michoacan.
However some of the previous examples are historical, the current official view on the existence of such militias in Mexico, when are not backed by the government, has been always label them as illegal and to combat them in a military and a political way.
Modern examples on the Mexican view on militias are the Chiapas conflict against the EZLN and against the EPR in Guerrero, where the government forces combated the upraised militias. And in a more recent case when civilian self-defence militias appeared during the Mexican war on drugs, the government regulated them and transformed the militias in to Rural federal forces, and those who resisted were combated and imprisoned.
See also
Gun politics
Smuggling of firearms into Mexico
Law of Mexico
Politics of Mexico
Index of gun politics articles
References
Further reading
External links
Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Secretariat of National Defense) Government agency overseeing the control of firearms in Mexico.
México Armado (Armed Mexico) Online forum for gun enthusiasts in Mexico.
En la mira (In sight) Online forum for hunting and shooting sport enthusiasts in Mexico.
Todo por México (All for Mexico) Online forum for military and law enforcement enthusiasts in Mexico.
La Armería (The Armory'') Spanish guide on how to purchase firearms from SEDENA.
Mexico
Law of Mexico
Sport in Mexico |
4064811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Line%20%28TRAX%29 | Blue Line (TRAX) | The Blue Line is a light rail line on the TRAX system in the Salt Lake Valley of Utah, in the United States, operated by the Utah Transit Authority (UTA). It is the first line of the TRAX system completed. The line opened on December 4, 1999, one year ahead of schedule after two years of construction. In addition to Salt Lake City, it also serves the communities of South Salt Lake, Murray, Midvale, Sandy and Draper. The line was known as the North/South Line or the Sandy/Salt Lake Line until color names were adopted for each TRAX line in August 2011. An extension of the line to Draper began service on August 18, 2013.
As of 2019, The Utah Transport Authority has begun restoring the Siemens SD 100 and 160s that run on the line, the first restored unit placed into service on April 8, 2019.
Route
The TRAX Blue Line is designated as UTA Route 701. The right of way used by the Blue Line is one of the oldest in the state of Utah. It was first built by the Utah Southern Railroad in 1871, which was acquired by the Union Pacific Railroad and became their Salt Lake to Provo line. The line became largely unused after a 1985 track-sharing agreement between the Union Pacific and the Denver and Rio Grande Western. Both companies operated parallel lines in the area and the D&RGW line became the primary freight line between Provo and Salt Lake City. The former Union Pacific line was sold to the Utah Transit Authority in 1993 to eventually become the Blue Line's right of way. Since that time the line is not used for through freight traffic, however, there are freight customers that have a direct connection to the Blue Line, due to its origins as a freight railway. The Salt Lake City Southern Railroad was formed to serve these customers and manages the freight traffic over the Blue Line.
The Blue Line starts at Draper Town Center in northern Draper. This station is northwest of the Draper City buildings, northwest of the Draper City Park, and immediately north of East Pioneer Road (East 12400 South). From this station, the Blue Line heads west-northwest to cross Draper Parkway (East 12300 South) and then northwest along the southwest side of the Porter Rockwell Trail to cross East 12000 South and then South 700 East (SR-71). Immediately after crossing South 700 East it reaches Kimballs Lane. Continuing northwest (with the Porter Rockwell Trail running along the southwest side) it runs between residential neighborhoods until it crosses East 11400 South. Upon crossing East 11400 South it leaves Draper and enters Sandy and immediately reaches Crescent View. From this station the Blue Line heads north, with Porter Rockwell Trail (Sandy Rail Trail) once again on the east side of the tracks. Continuing north through residential neighborhoods, it crosses East 11000 South and East 10600 South.
Beyond East 10600 South, the Blue Line heads north-northwest until it reaches Sandy Civic Center (the former southern terminus of the Blue Line, until August 18, 2013). This station is several blocks east of Sandy City Hall and the South Towne Center Mall. The Porter Rockwell Trail runs by the east side of this station and, as the trail heads north, it crosses over to the west of the Blue Line tracks at East 10000 South/East 9800 South and then runs north parallel to the Blue Line until it ends at East 8530 South. From Sandy Civic Center, the Blue Line heads north, crossing East 10000 South/East 9800 South (Sego Lily Drive) and, while running along the west side of South 170 East, passing the east side of both Jordan High School and the South Towne Exposition Center. Just after crossing East 9400 South the Blue Line reaches an infill station, Sandy Expo, which provides service to Rio Tinto Stadium in addition to the South Towne Exposition Center.
After Sandy Expo, the Blue Line continues north on the east side of South 150 East until it crosses East 9000 South (SR-209). Then it crosses over the East Jordan Canal and immediately reaches Historic Sandy. Following Historic Sandy, South 150 East (South Center Street) once again parallels the west side of the Blue Line until that road ends at East 8530 South. As the Blue Line continues north it crosses East 8800 South, East 8720 South (East Main Street), East 8680 South, and East 8530 South. From East 8800 South north to East 8530 South a thin strip of a park (Sandy Station Park), fits between the Blue Line and 150 East (Center Street). Beginning at East 8680 South, North 160 East also runs along the east side of the Blue Line until just after East 8500 South. Just north of East 8500 South the road still continues north along the east side of the tracks until it reaches East 8000 South, but is now designated as North 150 East. At about 8400 South, as the Blue Line leaves Sandy and enters Midvale, it begins to curve to the northwest as it crosses East 8000 South and then immediately over the Jordan Salt Lake City Canal before reaching South State Street (US Route 89).
After crossing over South State Street, but just south of West 7720 South (West Center Street), the Blue Line reaches Midvale Center. From that station it continues northwest, crossing West 7720 South and West 7500 South (6th Avenue), and then curves back toward the north until it reaches Midvale Fort Union, just south of West 7200 South. After crossing West 7200 South, it heads directly north (passing from Midvale into Murray) until it reaches the junction with the TRAX Red Line, which is immediately south of West Winchester Drive. The previous station for the Red Line is Bingham Junction, having started in the Daybreak community of South Jordan. (The Red Line also provides access to UTA's Lovendahl Rail Service Center which is located just west of I-15.) Just after the junction the two lines cross West Winchester Drive and immediately reach Fashion Place West.
From Fashion Place West, the Blue and Red lines continue north on the east side of South 300 West (Cottonwood Street) as they cross over I-215 and then cross West 6100 South and West 5900 South. Just prior to crossing over West 5400 South (SR-173/Spartan Street), the lines curve slightly to the east as they cross under Cottonwood Street (which curves more sharply to the east). At about 5150 South, the lines reach Murray Central. This station is located just west of the Intermountain Medical Center. It is one of only three joint TRAX/FrontRunner stations and one of two served by the Blue Line. The FrontRunner platform is located directly west of the TRAX platform. (The FrontRunner provides commuter rail service between Pleasant View in north Weber County through Davis County and Salt Lake County to Provo in central Utah County.)
Heading north and slightly to the east from Murray Central, the Blue and Red lines cross West Vine Street (West 5090 South) and over Little Cottonwood Creek before continuing directly north as they cross West 4800 South and the 4500 South Frontage Road. After crossing over West 4500 South (SR-266) the lines reach Murray North at about 4300 South. After crossing West Fireclay Avenue the lines curve slightly to the west as they continue north and cross over Big Cottonwood Creek. Upon crossing over Big Cottonwood Creek, the lines also leave Murray and briefly enter unincorporated Salt Lake County. Continuing north and slightly to the west, the lines cross West Central Avenue and then West 3900 South. At West 3900 South the lines leave unincorporated Salt Lake County and enter South Salt Lake. Immediately north of West 3900 South is Meadowbrook. From this station, the lines head directly north until they cross West 3300 South (SR-171) and immediately reach Millcreek. Continuing north from Millcreek the lines cross West Gregson Avenue, West 2950 South, and West 2700 South, before crossing under I-80.
From I-80 the lines continue north and cross West Haven Avenue before the junction with the TRAX Green Line. The previous station for the Green Line is River Trail, having originated in West Valley City. Just after the junction all three lines head north and reach Central Pointe, which is just south of West 2100 South (SR-201). Central Pointe is the only TRAX station served by the S Line. The S Line platform is situated just southeast of the TRAX platform. (The S Line provides streetcar service east to the Fairmont stop in the Sugar House neighborhood of Salt Lake City.)
Upon crossing West 2100 South the three TRAX lines leave South Salt Lake and enter Salt Lake City and continue north as they cross West 1700 South and West 1300 South. Just north of West 1300 South is Ballpark, which provides service to the Smith's Ballpark. (Immediately north of this station is a non-revenue track that extends northwest to South 400 West at West 900 South and then north to West 600 South.) After Ballpark the three lines continue north in the center median of South 200 West, crossing under the 900 South/I-15 on and off ramps, until they reach the next station, 900 South. This station, which is just north of West 900 South, is an infill station and the last stop before the TRAX lines reach Downtown Salt Lake City.
The three lines continue north in the median of South 200 West, crossing West 800 South, until they reach West 700 South. At West 700 South they turn east and proceed down the middle of that street for two blocks, crossing South West Temple Street (SR-270). At South Main Street, the lines turn north and continue down the center median of that street and cross West 600 South (Martin Luther King Jr Boulevard/SR-269 eastbound), pass between the Grand America Hotel and the Little America Hotel, and then cross West 500 South (Cesar E Chavez Boulevard/SR-269 westbound). Just north of West 500 South and slightly west of the Scott Matheson Courthouse, is the first station within the Free Fare Zone, Courthouse. At West 400 South (University Boulevard/US Highway 89) the Red Line turns east and heads toward Library and eventually the University of Utah while the Green and Blue lines continue north. After crossing West 300 South (West Broadway) the two lines reach Gallivan Plaza, which is just west of the Wells Fargo Center and the Gallivan Center.
Continuing in the median of South Main Street, the Green and Blue lines continue north crossing West 200 South and West 100 South before reaching City Center. This station is in the middle of the new City Creek Center commercial and residential development. At the north end of South Main Street the two lines turn west down the middle of West South Temple Street for a little more than a block before reaching the next station, Temple Square. This station is just southwest of Temple Square (home to the Salt Lake Temple, Salt Lake Tabernacle, and other notable buildings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). It is also just south of the Family History Library, about two blocks south of the LDS Conference Center, and immediately north of Abravanel Hall and the Salt Palace.
Continuing down the median of West South Temple Street the lines reach Arena (formerly Delta Center). This station is immediately north of Vivint Arena, east of the Union Pacific Depot, and south of LDS Business College. Arena was formerly the terminus of both the Sandy/Salt Lake and the old University Line. However, an extension opened on April 16, 2008, which provided access to the Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub and the new FrontRunner commuter rail train. Eventually the Sandy/Salt Lake Line was renamed the Blue Line and the University Line was renamed the Red Line and routed south. About this same time the Green Line was created and its route continued, along with the Blue Line, on to Salt Lake Central (Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub). However, with the rerouting of the Green Line to accommodate the Airport Extension, Arena became the temporary terminus of the Green Line from December 9, 2012, to April 13, 2013.
Following Arena, the two lines continue on to 400 West where they divide paths. The Green Line turns north down the middle of North 400 West towards North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe and eventually ending at the Salt Lake City International Airport, while the Blue Line turns south. Heading down the median of South 400 West, just after crossing West 100 South once again, it reaches Planetarium, which provides access to the Clark Planetarium as well as the rest of The Gateway. At West 200 South, the Blue Line turns west again and continues down the median of that street. Just after crossing 500 West it reaches Old Greek Town. After that station, it turns south again, heading down the middle of South 600 West to West 300 South. At the intersection of South 600 West and West 300 South, it shifts from the median to the west side of the street where it immediately reaches the last station on the Blue Line, Salt Lake Central (Salt Lake Intermodal Hub). From August 23, 2009, to October 31, 2009, the terminus was truncated to Arena station. Salt Lake Central provides access to the FrontRunner, as well as the Amtrak California Zephyr, and Greyhound Lines.
Park and Ride
Many TRAX stations include free Park and Ride lots, with some lots having as few as six parking spaces and others having nearly 1200. However, there are certain restrictions for all lots (for example, no 24-hour parking).
Free Fare Zone
UTA currently has a Free Fare Zone in Downtown Salt Lake City for transportation patrons that both enter and exit bus or TRAX service within the Zone. The Zone covers an area of approximately thirty-six city blocks and the boundaries are roughly North Temple, 200 East, 500 South, and 400 West. TRAX stations within the Zone include Arena, City Center, Courthouse, Gallivan Plaza (mistakenly identified as "Gallivan Center Station" on the Free Fare Zone map), Planetarium, and Temple Square. In addition, the Free Fare Zone also includes the area of the State Capitol (north to 500 North), the bus stops on 400 South between 200 East and 300 East, and three additional TRAX stations: Library, Old GreekTown, and Salt Lake Central. In June 2012 UTA revealed plans to eliminate the Free Fare Zone, but by September 2012 it announced that it would continue the Zone, but with some minor adjustments, including when and how fares are collected.
Train schedule
On weekdays the first southbound Blue Line trains (to the Draper Town Center Station) leave the Midvale Fort Union Station at about 4:30 am and the Salt Lake Central Station at about 5:45 am. The first northbound trains (to the Salt Lake Central Station) leave the Fashion Place West and the Draper Town Center stations at about 5:00 am. The last southbound train leave the Salt Lake Central at 11:28 pm and the last northbound train leaving the Draper Town Center Station at 11:40 pm. However, the last southbound train only goes as far as the Central Pointe Station; the last southbound train to the Draper Town Center Station leaves the Salt Lake Central Station at 10:43 pm. Also, the last northbound train only goes as far as the Midvale Fort Union Station; the last train to the Salt Lake Central leaves the Draper Town Center Station at 10:33 pm.
On Saturdays the first southbound trains leave the Central Pointe Station at about 6:00 am and the Salt Lake Central Station at about 7:00 am. The first northbound trains leave the Central Pointe Station at about 6:15 am and the Draper Town Station at about 6:30 am. The last southbound train leaves the Salt Lake Central Station at 11:32 pm and the last northbound train leaves the Draper Town Center Station at 11:49 pm. However, the last trains only go as far as the Central Pointe Station. The last southbound train to the Draper Town Center Station leaves the Salt Lake Central Station at 10:52 pm and the last northbound train to the Salt Lake Central leaves the Draper Town Center Station at 10:29 pm.
On Sundays the first northbound trains leave the Central Pointe Station at about 9:45 am and the Draper Town Center Station at about 10:00 am. The first southbound trains leave the Central Pointe Station at about 9:30 am and the Salt Lake Central at about 10:15 am. The first northbound trains leave the Central Pointe Station at about 9:30 am and the Draper Town Center Station at about 10:00 am. The last southbound train leaves Salt Lake Central Station at 8:12 pm and the last northbound train leaves Draper Town Center Station at 8:49 pm. However, the last trains only go as far as the Central Pointe Station. The last southbound train to the Draper Town Center Station leaves the Salt Lake Central Station at 7:52 pm and the last northbound train to the Salt Lake Central Station leaves the Draper Town Center Station at 7:09 pm.
Blue Line trains run every fifteen minutes on weekdays and every twenty minutes on weekends.
Stations
The following table lists the current stations of the Blue Line, from north to south.
Station accessibility
Unlike the Red and Green Lines, the Blue Line uses high-floor vehicles without level-boarding. All Blue Line stations have mini-high platforms and train operators may need to assist riders with their use. These ramps are not used for the Red or Green Lines. Some riders have complained they can't roll their wheelchair up the steep ramps rendering the Blue Line inaccessible to them without operator assistance, and UTA policy does not allow passengers with strollers or luggage to use access ramps, forcing them to lift those items up the stairs of the train.
Similar systems that use a mix of high-floor and low-floor vehicles, operate trains with both types of vehicles, which allow level boarding on all lines without needing mini-high platforms.
Draper extension
The first phase of an extension of the Blue Line to Draper opened August 18, 2013. Construction on the extension began in 2010 as part of UTA's FrontLines 2015 project, which also includes the West Valley extension of the Green Line, the Mid-Jordan extension of the Red Line, the southern extension of the FrontRunner commuter rail line and the Airport TRAX Line (now part of the Green Line). The first phase of the Draper extension extended the line south from Sandy Civic Center Station to the Draper Town Center Station. Eventually, two more yet to be finalized stations are planned for further on down the line, one on Highland Drive at about 13800 South and the other on 14600 South just east of I-15 (Exit 288).
See also
List of rapid transit systems
Transportation in Salt Lake City
TRAX (light rail)
TRAX Red Line
TRAX Green Line
FrontRunner
UTA MAX
S Line (formerly known as Sugar House Streetcar)
Notes
References
External links
UTA TRAX
Utah Rails, timeline of UTA Trax project
Utah Transit Authority
Rail infrastructure in Utah
Light rail in Utah
Union Pacific Railroad
Transportation in Salt Lake City
Transportation in Salt Lake County, Utah
1999 establishments in Utah |
4064853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR%20on%20Fox | NASCAR on Fox | NASCAR on Fox, also known as Fox NASCAR, is the branding used for broadcasts of NASCAR races produced by Fox Sports and have aired on the Fox television network in the United States since 2001. Speed, a motorsports-focused cable channel owned by Fox, began broadcasting NASCAR-related events in February 2002, with its successor Fox Sports 1 taking over Fox Sports' cable event coverage rights when that network replaced Speed in August 2013. Throughout its run, Fox's coverage of NASCAR has won thirteen Emmy Awards.
Background
On November 11, 1999, NASCAR signed a contract that awarded the U.S. television rights to its races to four networks (two that would hold the broadcast television rights and two that would hold the cable television rights), split between Fox and sister cable channel FX, and NBC and TBS (whose rights were later assumed by TNT) starting with the 2001 season. Fox and FX would alternate coverage of all races held during the first half of the season, while NBC and TNT would air all races held during the second half.
Beginning in 2001, Fox alternated coverage of the first and most preeminent race of the season, the Daytona 500, with Fox televising the race in odd-numbered years and NBC airing it in even-numbered years through 2006. For balance, the network that did not air the 500 in a given year during the contract would air Daytona's summer night race, the Pepsi 400. Valued at $2.4 billion, Fox/FX held the rights to this particular contract for eight years (through 2008) and NBC/TNT having the rights for six years (through 2006). Further on the cable side, in October 2002, Speed Channel – which was owned by the Fox broadcast network's parent subsidiary Fox Entertainment Group – obtained the rights to televise all of the races in the Craftsman Truck Series, a contract it bought out from ESPN.
During the first half of the season, FX served as the primary broadcaster of the Busch Series, airing all but the most prestigious races, which were instead shown on Fox. FX was also home to most of the NASCAR Cup Series night races, The Winston/All-Star Race, and the June race at Dover International Speedway.
Inclement weather policy
In the early years, should a Fox-scheduled race be rained out on their scheduled race day and rescheduled to resume the following Monday, FX would air the race and selected FOX stations would pick it up if syndicators permitted it. Rained out races now air in their entirety on the network it originally was scheduled for, unlike NBC, which puts it's rained out races to other NBCUniversal properties such as CNBC (if on a weekend) or USA Network.
Coverage on FOX Sports Net
Fox Sports Net covered the 2001 Gatorade Twin 125's at Daytona International Speedway, the only time it ever covered a race.
Contract
Contract extensions
On December 7, 2005, NASCAR signed a new eight-year broadcast deal effective with the 2007 season, and valued at $4.48 billion, with Fox and Speed Channel, which would also share event rights with Disney-owned ABC, ESPN and ESPN2, as well as TNT. The rights would be divided as follows:
Fox became the exclusive broadcaster of the Daytona 500 and also hold the rights to the first thirteen points paying races. In addition, the network carried the Sprint Unlimited and two Truck Series races (the network aired the Kroger 250 from Martinsville Speedway, and the Ohio 250 at Mansfield Motorsports Park in 2007, and the Kroger 250 from Martinsville, as well as the San Bernardino County 200 at Auto Club Speedway, in both 2008 and 2009). Fox did not air any races of what is now the Gander Outdoors Truck Series from 2010 to 2013, with all 25 races instead airing on Speed and later Fox Sports 1. Fox's 2011 coverage ended with the STP 400 at Kansas Speedway.
TNT carried six NASCAR Cup Series races during the month of June and the first half of July, including the Coke Zero 400 at Daytona. In 2013, in particular, the network aired Pocono Raceway, Michigan International Speedway, Sonoma Raceway, Kentucky Speedway, the Coke Zero 400, and New Hampshire Motor Speedway.
ESPN and ABC (through the ESPN on ABC arrangement) carried the final seventeen NASCAR Cup Series races from the Brickyard 400 through the end of the season, with the Cup Series Chase for the Championship races airing on ABC (until 2010, when ESPN took over most of the coverage, leaving ABC with the last 3 Saturday night races in their broadcasting period). The entire Nationwide season was aired primarily on ESPN2 and ESPN, with selected races on ABC, NASCAR returned to ESPN airing the first six races including Daytona, Atlanta, Las Vegas, and ESPN2 carrying Phoenix to Michigan.
Speed/Fox Sports 1 carried the Budweiser Duel races and the Sprint All-Star Race, as well as the entire Camping World Truck Series season, except for the 2 races carried each year by Fox from 2007 to 2009. After the 2009 season, all the Truck races aired on Speed/FS1 – with the exception of the 2014 Talladega race, which aired on Fox.
In October 2012, NASCAR extended its contract with Fox Sports through 2022, which allowed Fox the online streaming rights for its event telecasts; the Fox Sports contract also retains coverage of the first 13 races of the NASCAR Cup Series and exclusive coverage of the Daytona 500. On August 1, 2013, Fox Sports extended its contract by two additional years through 2024, due to NASCAR's contract with NBC Sports running through that same time, and acquired the rights to the first 16 races of the NASCAR Cup Series season, as well as the first 14 Xfinity (formerly Nationwide) Series events. As a result, Fox will broadcast the races it already covers, as well as all of the events held in June, which include the events at Pocono and Michigan with coverage ending with the Toyota/Save Mart 350 at Sonoma. Fox had previously held rights to these three races under its initial 2001–06 contract.
Under the current deal:
Fox broadcasts the first nine points races and two other races, the Coca-Cola 600 (totaling 11 races over the air), including the Daytona 500 and Busch Clash, Fox Sports 1 carries several other events, including the Bluegreen Vacations Duel, the All-Star Race and all other points races in the first half of the season that do not air on Fox (six races, four straight races after Fox's first nine races, then a break for the Coca-Cola 600, then two more race after that), plus the first half of the Xfinity Series season, with the exception of the more prestigious races, which aired on Fox from 2015 to 2018 and will be shown there in 2020–2024. They were aired on FS1 exclusively in 2012-2014 and 2019.
NBC will broadcast three regular season races, the Brickyard 400, Ally 400 and the Coke Zero Sugar 400, and five races in the NASCAR playoffs (8 races overall), with the other races in the second half being aired on USA network. However, in NBC's Olympics years, CNBC will air some Cup and Xfinity series races (CNBC did not air races during the 2020 Tokyo Olympics as NASCAR already scheduled an Olympic break). In 2022, USA Network will air the races since NBCSN will be shut down at the end of 2021. NBC also airs some races in the Xfinity Series, including some NASCAR Xfinity series playoff races.
Cup series races on NBC are a lead in to NBC Sunday Night Football (after local news and NBC Nightly News except for the final race of the season, when the race leads into SNF).
The Craftsman Truck Series remains exclusively on FS1, with 1-3 races airing on Fox.
Starting in 2013, Spanish-language network Fox Deportes airs select NASCAR Cup races either live or delayed.
Announcers
History
For its broadcasts from 2001 to 2018, Fox used a portable studio called the Hollywood Hotel for pre-race coverage. For the 2001 to 2007 races held at Daytona International Speedway, the infield media center situated next to Gatorade Victory Lane was used instead.
If the race is delayed to a Monday, the Hollywood Hotel studio was usually not used, with the exception of the 2012 Daytona 500, which was delayed by one day. This was because Myers also hosted a talk-show for Fox Sports Radio, resulting in him having to return to Los Angeles to begin the following week's shows. John Roberts filled in for Myers for this particular race, and had also filled in for Myers the previous week for the Budweiser Shootout as Myers was on bereavement leave.
However, if a Saturday night race is rained out to Sunday then the studio will be in use for the delayed coverage. Prior to 2015, if the hotel was no longer available, Jeff Hammond could be shifted to substitute for a pit reporter or analyst if necessary. For instance, Hammond did this in 2002 for the Dodge/Save Mart 350 at Sonoma Raceway to replace Steve Byrnes, as Byrnes was unable to make it due to the birth of his son Bryson. During the 2004 Dodge/Save Mart 350, the studio was not used and Myers and Hammond were located on the hillside on outdoor chairs; no explanation was given for this.
In 2011, Pizza Hut became the presenting sponsor of the pre-race show. In addition, the first segment of the telecast was moved from the hotel to a tented facility either trackside or in the infield, depending on the venue. The idea was to build a crowd around the production of the segment; this has similarities to Fox's own NFL pregame show in 2006, as well as the College GameDay football and basketball shows on ESPN.
In 2012, John Roberts filled in for Chris Myers as host for the Budweiser Shootout and the Daytona 500, as Myers was on bereavement leave following his son's death in a motorcycle accident. For the 2014 Sprint Unlimited, Michael Waltrip filled in for Darrell, who was undergoing gallbladder surgery; for Daytona 500 Practice and Pole Qualifying, the position was filled by Phil Parsons. Darrell Waltrip returned for the Budweiser Duels. In 2016, Jeff Gordon replaced McReynolds in the booth while McReynolds was reassigned as the rules and technical analyst, replacing Andy Petree.
In 2017, Dale Earnhardt Jr. joined the Fox booth as a guest color commentator for the Clash after deciding not to compete in the race as a driver. He would become a permanent color commentator for NBC in 2018 after he retired from driving full-time. With NBC's permission, Jr. returned to Fox as a guest color commentator for the GEICO 500 at Talladega in April 2022.
On June 10, 2017, the Xfinity Series race at Pocono Raceway was presented by current drivers in the Cup Series, the first time that a national sporting event was covered by currently active athletes. The presenters provided coverage from all three perspectives during the race (Hollywood Hotel studio, lap-by-lap commentary and pit road coverage). The driver commentators were Kevin Harvick (lap-by-lap), Joey Logano, Clint Bowyer (color analysts), Erik Jones, Ryan Blaney, Ricky Stenhouse Jr. (pit road), Danica Patrick and Denny Hamlin (Hollywood Hotel).
On April 28, 2018, the Sparks Energy 300, the Xfinity race at Talladega Superspeedway, was an all-drivers broadcast, the second time that a national sporting event was covered entirely by active athletes, the first being the aforementioned Pocono race. The presenters provided coverage from all three perspectives during the race (Hollywood Hotel studio, lap-by-lap commentary and pit road coverage). The booth team of Harvick, Logano and Bowyer was retained, while Ricky Stenhouse Jr. was moved to the Hollywood Hotel alongside Brad Keselowski, with Bubba Wallace replacing Stenhouse as a pit road reporter.
The studio was retired following the 2018 season due to the Charlotte studios getting redone in order to host more shows. In 2019, Fox often cut to the Charlotte studio during the race and talked to Jamie McMurray, who was new to the NASCAR on Fox team; also in 2019, Shannon Spake replaced Chris Myers as host due to Myers being moved to Fox's Premier Boxing Champions coverage, although Myers appeared on site for the Daytona 500, while Adam Alexander served as on site host for the rest of the season.
On May 25, 2019, the Alsco 300, the Xfinity race at Charlotte Motor Speedway, was an all-drivers broadcast, the third time that a national sporting event was covered entirely by active athletes, the first being the aforementioned Pocono race. The presenters provided coverage from all three perspectives during the race (Hollywood Hotel studio, lap-by-lap commentary and pit road coverage). The booth team of Harvick, Logano and Bowyer was retained, Erik Jones, Ryan Blaney, Bubba Wallace (pit road) was also retained. Brad Keselowski, Ricky Stenhouse Jr., and Chad Knaus hosted from the Charlotte studios.
In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic after the fourth race of the season Fox started using their Charlotte Studio to the maximum extent possible to avoid travel, ensure social distancing, and limit the number of staff onsite at races. The only on-air talent onsite was at most two pit reporters per race, all other talent was stationed at the Fox Studios in Charlotte.
In 2021, Myers returned to hosting the at-track portions of pre-race alongside Jeff Gordon and Clint Bowyer. Spake, McReynolds, and McMurrary host pre-race coverage from the Charlotte studios.
After the 2021 season, Gordon left Fox to work for Hendrick Motorsports full-time as the team's Vice Chairman. (He had previously worked with the team during the second half of the Cup Series season when NBC was broadcasting the races, after spending his entire full-time career with them). Fox did not replace him with one permanent color commentator and instead filled his spot with rotating guest commentators as they do in the Xfinity, Truck and ARCA Series. Retired Cup Series driver Tony Stewart was the first guest color commentator and was in the booth for the Clash, the Daytona 500 and the race at COTA.
Broadcast booth
NOTE: This is Fox's broadcast lineup for 2023
NASCAR Cup Series
Mike Joy – play-by-play announcer
Clint Bowyer – color commentator
Larry McReynolds – rules analyst (except Richmond), color commentator (Richmond and All-Star Race)
Bobby Labonte – color commentator (Martinsville)
Jamie McMurray – color commentator (All-Star Open and Sonoma)
Michael Waltrip – color commentator (Gateway)
Rotation of guest color commentators (see full list below)
Tony Stewart (Clash, Duels, Daytona 500, Fontana, Atlanta, Bristol, Talladega, Charlotte)
Danica Patrick (Las Vegas and Phoenix)
Kurt Busch (COTA and Kansas)
Guenther Steiner (COTA)
Chase Elliott (COTA)
Rusty Wallace (Dover)
Richard Petty (Darlington)
Kyle Petty (Darlington)
Carl Edwards (Darlington)
Bill Elliott (Darlington)
Darrell Waltrip (All-Star Race)
Danny McBride (Charlotte, Stage 2)
Kenny Wallace (Gateway, Stage 2)
Xfinity Series
Adam Alexander – play-by-play announcer
Michael Waltrip – color commentator (Qualifying only) (Darlington and Charlotte)
Jamie McMurray – color commentator (Charlotte and Portland)
Trevor Bayne - color commentator (Portland)
Coleman Pressley (in-race spotter analyst at Daytona, Phoenix, Atlanta, COTA, Martinsville, Talladega, Darlington and Sonoma)
Rotation of guest color commentators (see full list below)
Ryan Blaney (Daytona, Fontana, Las Vegas, and Darlington)
Austin Dillon (Daytona, and Dover)
Joey Logano (Fontana, Phoenix, Atlanta, COTA, Richmond, Martinsville, Talladega, and Dover)
Kevin Harvick (Las Vegas, Phoenix, Richmond, and Sonoma)
Daniel Suarez (Atlanta)
Brad Keselowski (COTA, Martinsville, and Talladega)
Austin Cindric (Sonoma)
Craftsman Truck Series
Adam Alexander – lap-by-lap announcer (Daytona, Bristol, Kansas, North Wilkesboro, Charlotte, Nashville)
Jamie Little - lap-by-lap announcer (Las Vegas, Atlanta, COTA, Texas, Martinsville, Darlington, Gateway and Mid-Ohio)
Michael Waltrip – color commentator
Phil Parsons – color commentator (most races)
Rotation of guest color commentators (see full list below)
Kevin Harvick - color commentator (COTA and Kansas)
ARCA Menards Series
Jamie Little – play-by-play announcer
Brent Stover - play-by-play announcer (Berlin and Elko)
Phil Parsons – color commentator
Trevor Bayne – color commentator (Mid–Ohio)
Rotation of guest color commentators (see full list below)
Austin Cindric (Daytona, Phoenix, Talladega)
Aric Almirola (Charlotte)
TBA (All Other Races)
For Xfinity, Truck and ARCA broadcasts, the guest color commentator will usually be an active Cup Series driver, if not a crew chief. Starting in 2022, they are doing this for the Cup Series as well to replace Jeff Gordon. The guest color commentators for the Cup Series have been retired Cup Series drivers and crew chiefs.
Pit reporters
Jamie Little (all Cup races)
Regan Smith (all Cup races and select Xfinity and Truck races)
Jamie Howe (Select Truck and select ARCA races)
Josh Sims (select Truck and Select Xfinity and Cup races)
Heather Debeaux (ARCA and select truck races)
Amanda Busick (select Truck races)
Larry McReynolds (Clash at the Coliseum and Duels at Daytona)
Michael Waltrip (Daytona 500 only)
Pre and post-race show
Chris Myers – on-site host (Cup Series)
Michael Waltrip – on-site analyst (Cup Series)
Shannon Spake – studio host (Cup and Xfinity Series)
Larry McReynolds – studio analyst (all Cup and Xfinity Series races and select Truck Series races)
Jamie McMurray – on-site analyst (Cup Series)
Bobby Labonte - studio analyst (Cup Series)
Kaitlyn Vincie – studio host (Truck Series)
Trevor Bayne – studio analyst (Cup, Xfinity and Trucks)
Todd Bodine – studio analyst (Truck Series races)
Former
See List of NASCAR on Fox broadcasters#Former commentators
Theme music
The original theme music for NASCAR on Fox broadcasts was in the same style as other Fox Sports properties (such as for NFL and Major League Baseball coverage) and was originally used from 2001 to 2008. In 2008, Fox introduced a new theme for its NASCAR telecasts titled NASCAR Love, performed by country singer Toby Lightman (an instrumental version was used for the opening segment).
From the 2011 Budweiser Shootout to 2015, Fox used the NFL on FOX theme song in NASCAR telecasts. In addition, country superstar Dierks Bentley unveiled a new version of his hit song "Sideways,” with new lyrics referencing NASCAR – which is played during the introduction of the pre-race show. "Sideways" was phased out entirely with the 2013 Sprint Unlimited telecast, with the Fox NFL theme music being used full-time. In addition, a new CGI introduction sequence, produced by Blur Studio, made its debut.
In 2015, the introduction sequence was eliminated in favor of intros unique to each track.
In 2016, Fox and FS1 (Cup Series only) reintroduced the original theme used between 2001 and 2008. FS1 continues to use their old theme for Xfinity Series and Truck Series.
On-screen graphics
Fox is known for being the first network to show a scoring banner across the top of the screen with scrolling text during NASCAR telecasts. In previous years when ESPN, CBS, and others owned the broadcasting rights, scoring had been displayed in a box on the top left corner. Fox was also the first network to use the unique font/styling for each car number (such as Dale Earnhardt's number 3, Jeff Gordon's 24, the Petty 43) for their on-screen graphics, as opposed to a generic font (however the banner continued to use just text). Other networks would adopt this innovation and is now commonplace for most American motorsport broadcasts.
From its debut until 2013, Fox initially used a scrolling ticker to display the current running order of drivers and other information (such as intervals and other statistics, shown on an occasionally displayed secondary line), instead of the boxes that were used by previous NASCAR broadcasters. Fox would eventually deploy the banner design across all of its sports properties, while its conventions would be adopted by fellow NASCAR broadcasters, including NBC, TNT, and later ESPN.
For the 2014 season, alongside a new corporate style, Fox replaced the scrolling ticker with a leaderboard-style sidebar occupying the right-side portion of the screen, with one section displaying the top three drivers, and a scrolling section displaying the remainder of the field of drivers. While Fox Sports president Eric Shanks justified the changes, noting that it would allow more of the field to be displayed at once and more frequently than the relatively longer ticker, the leaderboard was criticized by viewers during events leading up to the Daytona 500 (such as the Sprint Unlimited, Daytona 500 qualifying, and the ARCA series Lucas Oil 200) for obstructing too much of the screen.
In response to the criticism, Shanks stated that the layout of the leaderboard would be revised in time for the Daytona 500. The vertical leaderboard was reconfigured into a horizontal version with three columns of 3 drivers each, which could be resized into 2 longer columns of three drivers each to display intervals or other statistics (a version that was later used as the main graphic).
In the 2018 NASCAR season, NASCAR coverage adopted a new flat graphics package previously introduced during the previous NFL season. This package reintroduced a vertical leaderboard, although this time it initially occupied an opaque sidebar spanning the entire left side of the screen. The design was once-again criticized by viewers during events leading up to the Daytona 500, as the opaque sidebar reduced the amount of screen space devoted to race footage to a roughly 4:3 window, the ticker fell within overscan on some televisions, while some camera shots were not correctly framed to suit the new layout. By the Daytona 500, the graphic had been revised to remove the opaque sidebar, and make the leaderboard slightly translucent.
In 2019, during Daytona 500 qualifying, Fox introduced a new augmented reality "GhostCar," allowing for a live visualization of a previous driver's qualifying lap (such as the leader or driver on the bubble) to be overlaid into live footage of another driver's qualifying attempt. NBC had introduced the system in 2018, but only during replays. The GhostCar feature was re-introduced later in the season, when NASCAR ended its multi-car qualifying format in favor of the previous single-car format.
In 2022, Fox introduced a revamp of its on-air presentation for NASCAR (as part of a move towards dedicated graphics packages for each of Fox Sports' major properties, rather than a standard look shared by all telecasts), the package was built upon visual elements from the then-current NFL on Fox branding, including the use of stylized "comic book" illustrations of drivers.
Awards
NASCAR on Fox has won 13 Emmy Awards for its coverage, including three for Outstanding Sports Series (2001, 2005, 2007), six for Outstanding Live Event Audio Sound (2002, 2005, 2006, 2011, 2012, 2013), one for Outstanding Graphic Design (2001), five for Outstanding Technical Team Remote (2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007) and one for Promotional Announcement Episodic (2008).
Criticisms
Turn cam and "Digger"
After limited usage in 2007, the network introduced the "Gopher Cam" full-time in 2008, a camera angle from the bottom banking of a track's turn. Fox implied that it invented the technology. However, it was quickly brought to light that Terry Lingner of ESPN, along with engineer James Fishman, had developed the technology 15 years earlier under the name "Tread Cam.” However, it should be known that the devices are completely different.
"Digger," a CGI-animated gopher character that was voiced by Eric Bauza, began as a symbol of the corner camera and was later adopted as an unofficial mascot for Fox's NASCAR coverage. Beginning with the 2009 Daytona 500, Digger was extended into a series of short cartoons that aired during the pre-race show, country music superstar Keith Urban recorded the theme song for these shorts. Storylines revolved around Digger and his life beneath the infield of a fictional racetrack. Other characters include his girlfriend Annie and the track's security chief, Lumpy Wheels (respectively named after the daughter of Fox Sports president David Hill, and former track promoter Humpy Wheeler). Digger's souvenir trailer at the tracks attracted sizeable crowds of families with young children. However, the cartoon segment drew wide opposition from regular viewers of the broadcasts.
After a NASCAR town hall-style meeting at the end of May 2009, Fox Sports chair David Hill reported receiving an email from a high-ranking NASCAR official whose identity he chose to conceal, stating that Digger could have been the cause of ratings declines for Fox's NASCAR coverage. Hill said "It was because of Digger that people were turning off in droves because they couldn't stand it, I said, I'm so sorry. If I'd known, I never would have created him. I didn't realize how insidious he was. It's the biggest crock of shit I've ever heard."
Among the reasons of criticism is the purpose of the character's usage. Though it was at one time commonplace for networks to create mascots for sports coverage to incorporate an educational and entertaining element into their coverage, which was the case with Peter Puck, Digger was created purely to add entertainment to the broadcast and reach out to a younger audience. Some NASCAR fans accused Fox of dumbing down and fluffing its coverage in order to gain revenue from Digger merchandise sales.
Despite continuous outrage from the NASCAR fan community, as well as talk from the NASCAR community that the Fan Council was not pleased with the situation, Fox did not announce any plans to drop the usage of the characters, and even had posted pictures of holiday-themed versions of the Digger die-cast in 2009 and 2010. In response to the comments, in 2010, the Digger cartoon was not shown during pre-race shows and Digger appeared less often at the bottom of the screen. Throughout the 2011 season as well as the 2012 Budweiser Shootout and Daytona 500, Digger appeared very sparingly, usually only during commercial bumpers. As of the 2012 Subway Fresh Fit 500, all appearances and references to Digger were dropped entirely from Fox's NASCAR broadcasts. However, nods to it occasionally came up (for example, at the Talladega race in 2014, when Carl Edwards showed debris on his firesuit, Mike Joy commented that he hoped that nothing had happened to Digger, to which Darrell Waltrip responded, "Digger's retired").
Digger made a cameo appearance in the 2009 20th Century Fox film Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel. He also made an appearance in the Fox NFL Sunday introduction during the December 20, 2009 broadcast, in which the Chipmunks also made an appearance (20th Century Fox was then a corporate sister to the Fox network through News Corporation, 20th Century Fox was sold to the Walt Disney Company in 2019).
Commercial bias
In the starting grid for the 2001 Budweiser Shootout at Daytona International Speedway (which used 3D representations of the cars), Fox showed only the logos on the hoods of cars that had paid the network to advertise during the race. For instance, the Budweiser logo on the No. 8 car of Dale Earnhardt Jr. and The Home Depot logo on the No. 20 car of Tony Stewart were shown, but Miller Lite on the No. 2 car of Rusty Wallace was not. After outcry from some of the excluded companies, full logo graphics were restored to all cars four days later for the Gatorade Twin 125s telecast.
The computer-generated cars used initially on the starting grid and top-five standings when going to commercial break were phased out from main broadcast use, and were discontinued entirely in 2005 with the exception of the Daytona 500 starting grid (which featured the computer generated cars).
In 2012, Fox aired "In The Rear View Mirror" segments during the pre-race, showing computer-generated re-enactments of events during the 2012 season (most notably Juan Pablo Montoya's crash into a jet dryer at the Daytona 500), the intro sequence introduced in 2013 also incorporates CGI cars.
In the late 2010s and early 2020s, FOX was criticized by fans for heavily using crash footage for their ads. For example, Ryan Newman's massive accident from the previous years' Daytona 500 was used in many ads in 2021, and some fans interpreted this as a cash-grab from FOX attempting to make crashes the selling point of the events and not the racing itself.
End of the 2001 Daytona 500 and Dale Earnhardt's death
The 2001 Daytona 500, which was the first NASCAR points race ever telecast by Fox, also brought an unrelated controversy. At the end of that race, Fox concluded coverage shortly after Dale Earnhardt, who was fatally injured in a crash on the last lap of the race, was admitted to Halifax Health Medical Center in Daytona Beach, Florida. The network provided no updates on his condition at the time of the 5:15 p.m. Eastern Time sign-off (although no information was available at that time), and continued airing regular programming (with the animated series Futurama) at the moment Earnhardt's death was confirmed at a press conference held at 7:00 p.m. Eastern Time. NASCAR's other broadcast network partner, NBC, delayed a commercial break during an NBA telecast and ESPN (which aired the Craftsman Truck Series at the time) had coverage of Earnhardt's death and the aftermath that was both earlier and much more extensive. Fox News Channel and Fox Sports Net, however, did break into programming to announce the seven-time champion's passing, with Chris Myers providing reports on FSN programs. It is possible that Fox showed an on-screen crawl on the master control feed during Futurama. In addition, local affiliates may have chosen to pre-empt the episode, with anchors delivering the news live. However, none of this has ever been verified.
Shortly after the race, Hill explained to the Associated Press that the network had gone over its allotted time – as the result of an 18-car pileup on the back straightaway on lap 173 that led to the race being red-flagged for lengthy cleanup – and that continuing to cover the story would be too morbid. Producer Neil Goldberg also said Fox Sports staffers were not allowed near the crash scene.
When ESPN presented a tribute feature in remembrance of the ten-year anniversary of Earnhardt's death in 2011, it showed footage of the crash and aftermath, that looked like part of the live telecast. However, it was stamped with "WFTV,” the calls of the Cox-owned ABC affiliate in Orlando, Florida (Orlando and Daytona Beach share the same media market, and ABC's corporate parent The Walt Disney Company owns 80% of ESPN). How footage from Fox's NASCAR coverage got credited to the local affiliate of another network has not been made public, though it was likely that since none of the footage is similar to that of Fox's, the last lap was filmed by WFTV for their own local newscasts, intended originally as B-roll to add "color" to their post-race coverage of the Daytona 500.
Nielsen ratings
Top 10 races since 2011
Source:
Race broadcasts
2001–2006: Fox and FX
Cup Series
Notes
Busch Series
Notes
2007–2014: Fox
From 2007 to 2014, Fox Sports only covered the first 13 races of the Cup Series, plus the Shootout, along with select Truck Series races from 2007 to 2009. All races aired exclusively on Fox. In August 2013, Speed was rebranded as Fox Sports 1. From the start of 2013 on Speed and continuing with branding for NASCAR events on the new channel (the Duels, the All-Star Race, and Truck Series races) falling under the NASCAR on Fox banner.
Cup Series
Notes
Truck Series
2015-2024: Fox/FS1
Cup Series
Notes
Xfinity Series
Notes
Truck Series
Notes
References
External links
Fox Broadcasting Company original programming
2001 American television series debuts
2010s American television series
2020s American television series
Fox
Fox Sports original programming
Fox Sports 1 original programming
FX Networks original programming
American sports television series |
4064857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syarif%20Hidayatullah%20State%20Islamic%20University%20Jakarta | Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta | State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta (Indonesian: Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Arabic: جامعة شريف هداية الله الإسلامية الحكومية جاكرتا) is a public university in Indonesia, located in Ciputat, South Tangerang, Banten.
Campuses
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta has three campuses in walking distance.
Campus 1 is on Ir. H. Djuanda Street in Ciputat, Banten. Campus 1 (The main campus) comprises the Rectorate Building, Main Library, administrative offices, main auditorium, the guest house, the Student Center, Center for Integrated Laboratory, Bank Mandiri, BNI Bank, BRI Bank, and seven faculty buildings.
Campus 2 is on Kertamukti Street, only several hundred meters from Campus 1. It consists of the Postgraduate School, Language Centers, Syahida Inn Hotel, the Faculty Housing Complex, the Experimental Garden, sports facilities, Fathullah Mosque (the biggest mosque on campus), Syarif Hidayatullah Hospital, a student dormitory, National Information and Communication Technology (NICT), and three faculty buildings.
Campus 3 is on Tarumanegara Street, only several hundred meters from Campus 2. It consists of Faculty of Adab and Humanities and Clinic.
History
On June 1, 2007, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta celebrated its golden anniversary. For half a century, the university has carried out its mandate as an institution of learning and transmitting knowledge, a research institution that supports the process of nation building, and as an institution devoted to the community that provides programs to improve social welfare. Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta has gone through several periods: the founding, the al-Jami'ah faculty of IAIN, the IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah, and the Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
It began as an academy called ADIA (Akademi Dinas Ilmu Agama or State Academy of Islamic Sciences) from 1957 to 1960. It then became one of the faculties of IAIN Yogyakarta (1960–1963), and from 1963 on IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah. With Presidential Decree No. 31 of 2002 by Presidential (May 20, 2002), it officially became Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
Founding period
The establishment of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta is part of the historical development of Islamic schools in Indonesia, in response to the higher education needs of modern Islam that began long before Indonesia's independence. In the colonial era (Netherlands), Dr. Satiman Wirjosandjojo, one of the Muslim educated, sought to establish Luhur as an institution of higher Islamic learning. These efforts failed because of resistance from the Dutch colonial administrators.
Five years before the proclamation of Indonesian independence, the Islamic Religious Teachers Association (PGAI) in Padang founded the Islamic High School (STI). STI only ran for two years (1940–1942) because of the Japanese occupation. The Japanese occupation government promised to establish the Institute of Higher Religious Education in Jakarta. In response, Muslim leaders formed a foundation with Mohammad Hatta as chairman and Muhammad Natsir as secretary.
On July 8, 1945, the foundation established the Islamic Academy of Higher Education (STI). STI was in Jakarta and led by Abdul Kahar Muzakkar. Several other Muslim leaders were instrumental in the establishment and development of STI. They included Drs. Mohammad Hatta, KH. Kahar Mudzakkir, KH. Wahid Hasyim, KH. Mas Mansur, KH. Fathurrahman Kafrawi, and Farid Ma'ruf. In 1946, STI was moved to Yogyakarta following the move of the capital city state from Jakarta to Yogyakarta. In line with the development of a growing STI, on March 22, 1948, STI's name was changed to the Indonesian Islamic University (UII) with the addition of new faculties. In 1948, UII had four faculties:
Faculty of Religion
Faculty of Law
Faculty of Economics
Faculty of Education
The need for new recruits in civil servants for the Department of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia became an important backdrop establishment of Islamic universities. To meet this need, the Faculty of Religion separated and transformed into the State Islamic University (PTAIN). This change is based on Government Regulation (PP) no. 34 of 1950. The preamble stated that PTAIN aims to provide high-level teaching Islamic studies and become the center of the development and deepening of the Islamic religious sciences. Based on the PP, PTAIN was established on September 26, 1950. PTAIN was led by KH. Muhammad Adnan; in 1951 there were as many as 67 students. In that period, PTAIN had three departments:
Department Tarbiyah
Department Qadla (Shariah)
Department of Da'wah
Composition courses consisted of Arabic language, Introduction to Religious Studies, Islamic Jurisprudence Fiqh, Principles of Jurisprudence Usul Fiqh, Qur'anic Commentary Tafsir, Sayings of the Prophet Hadith, Theology Kalam, Philosophy Falsafa, Logic Mantiq, Ethics Akhlaq, Mysticism, Comparative Religion, OutreachDa'wah, Islamic History, History of Islamic Culture, Pedagogy, Life Science, Introduction to Indonesian Law, Principles of Public and Private Law, Ethnology, Sociology, and Economics. Students who pass the baccalaureate and doctoral earned a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Doktorandus (Drs) respectively. Academic degrees continued to be offered on this basis until the 1980s.
ADIA period (1957–1960)
The need for teachers of Islamic religion in accordance with the demands of modernity in the 1950s led to the founding of the Academy (ADIA) in Jakarta. ADIA was founded on June 1, 1957 with the aim to educate and prepare public servants for a degree to become a teacher of religion in public schools, in vocational schools, or in private religious schools. ADIA leadership was entrusted to Prof. Dr. H. Mahmud Yunus as dean and professor H. Bustami A. Gani as vice dean.
The period of study at ADIA was five years, consisting of a semi-academy of three years and two years at the college level. ADIA had three departments: Religious Education, Arabic, and Da'wah wal Ershad (Outreach and Propagation), also known as Imam Army Special Programs. The curriculum of ADIA was not very different from the curriculum of PTAIN, with some additional courses offered for the benefit of functional staff: Indonesian, Arabic, English, French, Hebrew, Pedagogy, General Science and Culture of Indonesia, History of Islamic Culture, Tafsir, Hadith, Musthalah Hadith, Fiqh, Usul Fiqh, chronicle Tasyri 'Islam, Kalam Science/Mantiq, Akhlaq Science/Mysticism, Philosophy Sciences, Comparative Religious Studies, and Education Society.
There were two main characteristics of ADIA.
In accordance with its mandate, it trained students for working for the Ministry of Religious Affairs or the institutions it oversaw at that time, including religious instruction in public schools and private religious schools.
In accordance with its mandate to prepare teachers of modern religion, the responsibility for the management and provision of ADIA budget came from the Bureau of Religious Education (Japenda) in the Department of Religion, which had the task of managing the madrasa and preparing teachers of modern Islam in public schools.
Al-Jami'ah Faculty of IAIN Yogyakarta period (1960–1963)
Within a decade, PTAIN showed encouraging progress. The number of students grew with the increasingly broad scope of learning. PTAIN students came from Indonesia and from neighboring countries such as Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, and Singapore. The rising number of students and expansion of the fields of studies demanded the expansion and additions of institutional capacities, faculties and departments as well as the composition of subjects. To meet this need, ADIA in Jakarta and Yogyakarta PTAIN were integrated into a single Islamic institution of higher education. Integration was implemented with the release of Decree President of the Republic of Indonesia No. 11 of 1960 dated 24 August 1960. Per Presidential Decree the name was changed from PTAIN to the State Islamic Institute (IAIN) al-Jami'ah al-Islamiyah al-Hukumiyah. IAIN was inaugurated by the Minister of Religious Affairs Republic of Indonesia in Building Kepatihan Yogyakarta.
IAIN with wider mandate
IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, one of the country's many IAIN, is the oldest in Indonesia. It occupies a unique and strategic position. It is a "window to Islam in Indonesia" and a symbol for the progress of national development, particularly in the field of socio-religious development.
To integrate general knowledge and science of religion with Islamic teachings, this body began to develop the IAIN concept with a broader mandate ("IAIN with Wider Mandate") toward the formation of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta. This conversion plan was intensified in the academic year 1998/1999 under the leadership of Prof. Dr. Azyumardi Azra, with the opening of departments of psychology, and Department of Mathematics at the Faculty of MT, and the Department of Economics and Islamic Banking in Faculty of Sharia. To further strengthen this conversion, in 2000 the Agrobusiness Studies Program was added, as were the Information Engineering Program in cooperation with Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) and the Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), and the Program Management and Accounting. In 2001 the Faculty of Psychology was inaugurated, as was the Dirasat Islamiyah program in cooperation with Al-Azhar University, Egypt. In addition, the university conducted a joint effort with the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) as the lender of development of modern campus and entered cooperation agreements with McGill University through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Leiden University (INIS), Al-Azhar University (Cairo), King Saud University (Riyadh), University of Indonesia, Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB), Ohio University, the Indonesian Institute of America (IIA), Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Bank Negara Indonesia, Bank Muamalat Indonesia, and other universities and institutions.
A further step toward accreditation as a UIN was made with the signing of the Joint Decree between the Minister of National Education No. 4/U/KB/2001 and Minister of Religious Affairs No. 500/2001 dated 21 November 2001. Furthermore, through its letter No. 088796/MPN/2001 dated 22 November 2001, the Director General of Higher Education Department of Education recommended the opening of 12 programs of study that included courses of social sciences and exact sciences — Information Systems, Accounting, Management, Social Economics of Agriculture / Agribusiness, Psychology, English Language and Literature, Library Science, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, and Biology.
The draft presidential decree on the amendment form that becomes Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta has also received the recommendations and considerations RI State Minister for Administrative Reform and the Ministry of Finance DG Budget Number 02/M-PAN/1/2002 dated January 9, 2002 and No. S −490/MK-2/2002 February 14, 2002. These recommendations form the basis for Presidential Decree No. 031 dated 20 May 2002 on changes from IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta to Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta period
With Presidential Decree No. 31 dated May 20, 2002, IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta officially became Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta. The opening was performed by Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia on 8 June 2002 in conjunction with the ceremony of the 45th anniversary and Lustrum the 9th and the first campus development Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta through funds by the Islamic Development Bank (IDB).
The Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (Public Health Study Program) was opened in accordance with a decree of the Minister of National Education No. 1338 / D/T/2004 Year 2004 date 12 April 2004 and the Director General of Islamic Institutions of the operating license of Public Health Study Program Undergraduate Program (S-1) at the State Islamic University (UIN) Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta Number Dj.II/37/2004 on May 19, 2004.
Rectorate and faculty
Rectorate
Rector: Prof. Asep Saepudin Jahar, M.A., Ph.D.
Vice Rector for Academic Affairs: Prof. Dr. Ahmad Tholabi, S.Ag., S.H., M.H., M.A.
Vice Rector for General Administration: Dr. Imam Subchi, M.A.
Vice Rector for Student Affairs: Prof. Ali Munhanif, M.A., Ph.D.
Vice Rector for Cooperation and Institutional Development: Din Wahid, M.A., Ph.D
Faculties and programs
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta consists of 12 faculties and one Graduate School (SPs).
Facilities
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta has four campuses. Campus I on Jl. Ir. H. Juanda Chester; Campus II on Jl. Kertamukti Chester; Campus III on Jl. Tarumanegara Chester. Education facilities available in Campus I, II, III, and IV are:
Student organizations
University Level
MPMU: Musyawarah Perwakilan Mahasiswa Universitas
SEMA-U: Senat Mahasiswa Universitas (Students' Senate Board)
DEMA-U: Dewan Eksekutif Mahasiswa Universitas (Students' Executive Board)
UKM: Unit Kegiatan Mahasiswa (Students' Activity Unit)
LDK (Lembaga Dakwah Kampus) / Campus Da'wa Institute
HIQMA (Himpunan Qari-qari'ah Mahasiswa)
LPM Institut (Lembaga Pers Mahasiswa Institut)
TEATER SYAHID
PSM (Paduan Suara Mahasiswa) / Students' Choir
FORSA (Federasi Olahraga Mahasiswa) / Students' Sport Federation
KPA-ARKADIA (Kelompok Pencinta Alam – Arti Keagungan dan Keindahan Alam)
PRAMUKA / Students' Scout
MENWA (Resimen Mahasiswa) / Students' Regiment
KMM-RIAK (Komunitas Musik Mahasiswa – Ruang Inspirasi Atas Kegelisahan) / Students' Music Community - Inspiration Room of Worries
KSR-PMI (Korps Suka Rela – Palang Merah Indonesia) / Volunteer Corps - Indonesian Red Cross
KOPMA (Koperasi Mahasiswa)
KMPLHK RANITA (Kelompok Mahasiswa Lingkungan Hidup Kemahasiswaan Kembara Insani Ibnu Batuttah)
FLAT (Foreign Languages Association)
KMF KALACITRA (Komunitas Mahasiswa Fotografi) / Students' Photography Community
Faculty level
SEMA-F: Senat Mahasiswa Fakultas
DEMA-F: Dewan Eksekutif Mahasiswa Fakultas
Distrik Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa Non Reguler
Program study level
HMJ/HMPS: Himpunan Mahasiswa Jurusan/Program Studi
Connected institutions
UIN Jakarta supervises and coordinates the following institutions:
Structural institutions
These are work units, for example, the existence of which are explicitly expressed in the structure of UIN organization. Such units are as follows:
Research Center
Social Service Center
Computer Center
Main Library
Non-structural institutions
These are institutions that are functionally recognized by the rector but are outside the organization structure of the UIN. The work units that belong to this category are as follows:
Coordinating Office of Private Islamic Higher Learning Institutions (Kopertais) of Region I
Syahid Foundation
Triguna Jaya Foundation
Civil Servants' Cooperative
Board for Islamic Community Services (BUPERDA)
Syahid Clinic
Madrasah Pembangunan
UIN Jakarta Press
Ketilang Kindergarten
Students' and Alumni organizations
Center for Languages and Cultures
Center for Women's Studies
Center for Islamic and Social Studies
Center for Human Resources Development
Center for Legal and Human Rights Consultation
Center for Environmental Studies
Center for Management Development
Center for Teaching and Learning Development
Center for the Study of Philosophy
Center for the Development of Science and Technology
Center for Applied Psychology
Center for Entrepreneurship and Economics Development
Indonesian Center for Civic Education
Research Center for Islamic Heritage and Local Project Implementing Unit
The students' organizations are intra-organizations which regulate and implement extra-curricular and scientific students' activities, as well as the development of students' interests and talents at all levels: university, faculties, and departments.
Notable people
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta has produced more than 100,000 graduates. Distinguished figures were granted the "Doctor Honoris Causa" (Dr. HC). On May 14, 2014, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta awarded Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, Doctor Honoris Causa in his outstanding legacy on political development in Asia. Notable alumni include:
Prof. Dr. Harun Nasution
Prof. Dr. Azyumardi Azra
Prof. Dr. Bachtiar Effendy
Prof. Dr. Komaruddin Hidayat
Prof. Dr. Dede Rosyada, MA
Prof. Dr. KH. Said Aqil Siroj, M.A
Prof. Dr. Nasaruddin Umar, MA
Sholeh Mahmoed Nasution
Student Admission
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University opens for registration for undergraduate program from February to July. Annually, there are various student enrollment types offered by the university as follow:
Seleksi Nasional Masuk Perguruan Tinggi Negeri/SNMPTN (National Enrollment for State Higher Education Entrance) through PDSS/Pangkalan Data Siswa Sekolah (Student Database);
Seleksi Bersama Masuk Perguruan Tinggi Negeri/SBMPTN (Joint Enrollment for State Higher Education Entrance) with Paper-based Test and Computer-based Test
Seleksi Prestasi Akademik Nasional Perguruan Tinggi Keagamaan Islam Negeri/SPAN-PTKIN (National Academic Achievement Selection for State Islamic Higher Education), through PDSS
Ujian Masuk Perguruan Tinggi Keagamaan Islam Negeri/UM-PTKIN (Admission for State Islamic Higher Education), with Paper-based Test and Electronic Selection System
SPMB Mandiri (Independent Enrollment). This enrollment is organized independently by Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University
See also
List of Islamic educational institutions
References
External links
South Tangerang
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta
Islamic universities and colleges in Indonesia
1957 establishments in Indonesia
Universities and colleges established in 1957
Indonesian state universities |
4064879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s%20Flat%20Track%20Derby%20Association | Women's Flat Track Derby Association | The Women's Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA) is the international governing body for the sport of women's flat track roller derby. It sets the international standards for rankings, rules, and competition in the sport, and provides guidance and resources to aid development of roller derby.
The organization was founded in April 2004 as the United Leagues Coalition (ULC), but was renamed in November 2005. It is registered in Raleigh, North Carolina as a 501(c)(6) Business League organization, a type of nonprofit organization.
History
In 2004, the United Leagues Coalition (ULC) was an informal electronic message board through which established leagues compared notes in order to prepare for interleague play, and exchanged information to help developing leagues.
The ULC evolved into a more formal organization in July 2005, when representatives of 20 leagues met in Chicago, Illinois to discuss establishing a governing body for women's flat-track roller derby. At the meeting, a voting system and set of goals was established, and a timeline delineated for facilitating interleague play. Among the actions from this meeting was the production of a standard track design, and an agreed ruleset. In early 2006, a track design and rules were published on the organization's fledgling website.
In November 2005, the ULC voted to change its name to the Women's Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA), with an initial membership of 22 leagues.
By early 2006, the organization had grown to 30 leagues, a cap decided upon at the July 2005 meeting. In February that year, soon after the initial membership requirements were published (and following the fragmentation of several leagues), a "multi-league per city" clause was added. Throughout the first half of the year the clause was listed as a requirement for membership, however a statement was issued in June 2006 labelling the policy as "unofficial". The WFTDA intimated that the policy was in place due to concerns about the impact on goodwill between member leagues of competition for support in the same city, and that having multiple leagues in the same city could undermine the organization's goals of fostering the development of the sport by sharing proprietary information by potentially limiting the sharing of competitive information.
Around this time, induction of new member leagues was put on hold until processes could be discussed at the second annual meeting, held in St. Paul, Minnesota in July 2006. At this meeting the membership application process, membership requirements and policies, rules, rankings and plans for tournaments were finalized. The WFTDA opened its doors to new members in September 2006, again capped at 30. This limit was reached by September 2008.
From its inception, membership of the WFTDA was only open to the US, but was opened up to leagues from Canada in February 2008. In January 2009 Montreal Roller Derby became the WFTDA's 66th member league and the first Canadian league admitted as a member and was placed in the East region. That same month, the WFTDA announced it would stop accepting applications for new membership from February until July, so that it could concentrate on internal restructuring in order to, among other things, "grow the scope" of the organization.
In May 2009, the first sanctioned international WFTDA game was played between Montreal Roller Derby and Harrisburg Area Roller Derby at the Olympic Skating Center in Enola, Pennsylvania. Shortly thereafter, in November 2009, the WFTDA opened for worldwide membership and the London Rollergirls became the first league outside North America to join as Apprentice members.
In March 2012, Bear City Roller Derby from Berlin, Germany became the WFTDA's first full member league in continental Europe. In June 2013 the Rock n Roller Queens of Bogota, Colombia became the first full member South American league. The Tokyo Roller Girls and Kokeshi Roller Dolls became the first full member leagues in Asia.
Mission statement
The WFTDA governs and promotes the sport of flat track roller derby and revolutionizes the role of women in sports through the collective voice of its member leagues around the world.
Statement About Gender
In November 2015, WFTDA issued a statement broadening its discrimination protections for gender identity to include transgender women, intersex women, and gender-expansive participants.
Anti-Racism
A statement was issued by the Board of Directors on 17 June 2020, committing the WFTDA to becoming an actively anti-racist organization, and setting the same expectation of all its partners and member leagues. This is an ongoing work plan under the auspices of the newly developed Anti-Racism Team (ART).
Organization
The WFTDA in its current incarnation began as a group of 22 leagues in November 2005, born out of the United Leagues Coalition (ULC). Membership expanded to 30 leagues by early 2006, and was held at this number by a temporary pause on new memberships until September 2006. A vote in a meeting that July opened membership to a maximum of sixty leagues; by late August 2007 WFTDA membership was up to 43 leagues, and reached the target of 60 by September 2008.
In July 2017, the WFTDA surpassed over 400 member leagues and as of March 2023, there were 443 member leagues on six continents.
New Member Program
Prospective WFTDA member leagues can apply to join the organization as long as they meet the following requirements:
Managed by at least 67% league skaters who identify as women or gender expansive, as detailed in the WFTDA Gender Statement.
51% owned by league skaters who identify as women or gender expansive, as detailed in the WFTDA Gender Statement.
Governed by democratic principles and practices.
Competitors must play by the Rules of Flat Track Roller Derby.
At least fifteen skaters who are skating at least two hours a week.
Each member league must have one charter team.
This charter team must include only skaters who identify as women or gender expansive, as detailed in the WFTDA Gender Statement.
Applications are reviewed twice yearly, in March and September.
WFTDA Apprentice Program
The Women's Flat Track Derby Association Apprentice program was opened to aspiring member leagues in July 2009, replacing its traditional membership application process. Apprentice leagues were matched with an established WFTDA mentor league, to guide the apprentice through the processes and requirements necessary to become a full member. The intention was that upon completion of the program, apprentice leagues should have had the knowledge and recommendations needed to apply for full WFTDA membership.
In June 2010, the WFTDA announced the first round of Apprentice league graduates: Demolition City Roller Derby, Garden State Rollergirls, ICT Roller Girls, London Rollergirls, New Hampshire Roller Derby, Paper Valley Roller Girls, Rockford Rage Women’s Roller Derby, Rollergirls of Southern Indiana, Silicon Valley Rollergirls, The Chicago Outfit and Wasatch Roller Derby.
In February 2019, the WFTDA announced it was replacing the Apprentice Program with a new New Member Program.
Management Structure
Leadership of the organization is via an annually elected voluntary Board of Directors, consisting of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer and four General Board Members.
The Board appoints an Officer for each of the six Pillars: Games, Membership, Marketing, Regulatory, Technology, and Officiating. These Pillars are represented by Committees made up of WFTDA League Representatives.
WFTDA employs several staff members in the organization, as well as in its for-profit subsidiary, WFTDA Insurance (WFTDI) and its broadcast company Quad Media.
Media
On 15 August 2007, the WFTDA announced it had struck a deal with the MAVTV network to record, edit and broadcast the 2007 Eastern Regional Tournament as a weekly series of 12 one-hour episodes (one episode per bout). In December 2019, an announcement was made that the WFTDA had established Quad Media, Inc. to further their goals to promote the sport of roller derby, reducing barriers to watching games and achieving excellence in the way the sport is presented.
The official WFTDA magazine fiveonfive began publication in September 2008.
Affiliations
In September 2007, the WFTDA was admitted to USA Roller Sports (USARS) as a Class V member — a national amateur roller skating organization — and a WFTDA delegate joined the USARS Board of Directors. USARS has since developed its own separate set of rules, though WFTDA leagues can play against USARS leagues and there is an insurance reciprocity agreement between the organizations.
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic the WFTDA, in consultation with epidemiologists, formed a tiered activity "ladder" in order to keep the league operating during the crisis. The plan was hailed as "the best COVID-19 plan in sports".
Restrictions on gameplay and cancellation of the annual season placed significant financial pressure on member leagues, so in July 2021 the WFTDA COVID-19 Recovery Fund was announced. This fund provides microgrants to leagues or other roller derby organizations to aid recovery from the pandemic's impact.
Rankings
WFTDA-charter teams compete for mathematically calculated rankings, and at the end of the Competitive Season (February 1 – June 30) are seeded into postseason tournaments (WFTDA Continental Cups and International WFTDA Playoffs & Championships) based on those rankings.
Post-season tournaments
International WFTDA Playoffs and Championships
Each year a series of playoffs are held, based on the June 30 rankings. While the top four teams as of June 30 get an immediate bye to Championships, the next 24 teams are seeded into two Playoff Tournaments, historically termed as Division 1, with the top three finishers at each advancing to Championships. This was down from the top 36 teams competing in three Division 1 Playoffs in 2017, when the top four finishers from each tournament advanced to Championships without any bye teams.
The Hydra Trophy is awarded annually to the top ranked team determined by the International WFTDA Championships tournament.
The 2020 Intentional Playoffs and Championships were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Continental Cups
Charter teams ranked below the cutoff for playoffs are seeded into geographically-based Continental Cups, replacing the former Division 2 system, which in 2017 saw the next 16 eligible teams compete in a single Playoff Tournament, with the winner crowned Division 2 champion. In 2018, there were two Continental Cups in North America, separated as West and East and featuring a combined total of 24 teams, and one Continental Cup in Europe featuring an additional eight teams. The 2018 announcement described the model for Continental Cups as "scalable", such that event numbers and sizes may change over time based on needs.
Teams in the WFTDA are assigned a region: North America-East, North America-West, Europe, Central/South America, Asia Pacific, and Africa. Regions without a Cup are assigned to the closest region: Asia Pacific to the North America–West Cup, South America to the North America–East Cup, and Western Australia and Africa to the European Cup.
The 2020 Continental Cups were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
WFTDA league divisions
At the start of 2013, the geographic regions were replaced with three divisions, each operating worldwide. However, foreseeing continued growth in membership, the WFTDA stated that future developments were likely to include new regional structures alongside the divisional system. The Division structure has now been replaced.
In 2013 WFTDA changed ranking systems from a regional, poll-based format released quarterly to a system based on the competitive ranking of teams using game results. When the organization did so, WFTDA introduced competitive divisions and expanded the playoff tournament structure. After the November 30 rankings release of each year, each league was placed within a competitive division for the next 12 months based on their charter team's rank. The leagues remained in their division for 12 months, no matter what their rank was in subsequent rankings releases.
Through 2016, the top 40 leagues from the November 30 rankings were placed in Division 1, the leagues ranked 41-100 (from 2015, those ranked 41-60) were put in Division 2, and through 2014 all other member leagues were grouped in Division 3.
A league's division placement determined the game play minimums for their WFTDA charter team in the following year. A Division 1 team needed to play no less than four WFTDA Sanctioned games, with at least three of those games against other Division 1 opponents and the fourth against either a Division 1 or Division 2 opponent, before June 30 of the following year. A Division 2 team needed to play a minimum of three WFTDA Sanctioned bouts, two against Division 1 or 2 opponents and the third against an opponent in any division. A Division 3 team needed to play a minimum of two WFTDA Sanctioned games against any opponents in order to maintain rankings. Division placement did not affect which playoffs a team qualified for, only minimum game play requirements. If a Division 2 or 3 team moved up the rankings into the top 40 at the time of tournament seeding that team would be invited to Division 1 Playoffs. Similarly, a Division 1 team moving down the rankings would receive an invitation befitting the team's rank at the time of seeding.
In 2017, the WFTDA adjusted the Division system and reduced the number of Playoff tournaments. The top 36 eligible teams qualified for one of three Division 1 Playoff tournaments, with 12 teams at each, and the top four at each event advanced to WFTDA Championships. The next 16 teams (ostensibly teams ranked 37 through 52, if all met eligibility requirements and accepted their invitation) competed at a single Division 2 Playoff, which included the Division 2 championship. In 2018 the Division 1 designation was effectively set aside, and play reduced to two tournaments and teams ranked fifth through 28th, with the top four advancing directly to Championships, and another 32 teams play for Continental Cups in North America and Europe, replacing the Division 2 structure.
WFTDA Geographic League Divisions
The earliest competition structure was geographical with Eastern and Western Regions delineated by the Mississippi River announced in July 2006.
In November 2008, it was announced that for the 2009 season, WFTDA member leagues would be divided into four regions, rather than two: West, South Central, North Central, and East. Each region had a tournament scheduled, followed by a national championship.
Roller Derby Certification Program for Officials
A referee certification program was initiated in July 2008.
Officials can work towards Skating (referee) and Non-Skating Official (NSO) certification at the same time. Training resources are provided by the WFTDA. The process involves registering as an Official with the WFTDA, completing online learning and tests, officiating an appropriate number and level of games for the level of certification, and gaining documentation of your officiating from other certified Officials.
The program has three certification levels, corresponding to proven performance in officiating at different levels of gameplay:
Recognized. Officials cannot currently apply for Recognized status, but may gain Recognition through application for Certification.
Level 1 – Other/Regulation Play.
Level 2 – Regulation/Sanctioned Play.
Level 3 – Sanctioned/Playoffs/Championships Play.
Rules of Flat Track Roller Derby
The Rules of Flat Track Roller Derby is the ruleset developed and published by the WFTDA, discussed and agreed by the WFTDA Rules Committee which features both WFTDA and Junior Roller Derby Association (JRDA) members. Updates are published each January.
The WFTDA ruleset is used by all WFTDA leagues, as well as MRDA and JRDA leagues. MRDA and WFTDA have worked together on developing the rules since 2014, and since 2017 have worked on a modified version of the rules for junior leagues. JRDA leagues use the WFTDA ruleset with addenda and a full set of updated JRDA rules is now published annually.
The first agreed ruleset and track design was developed in 2005 by member representatives of 20 leagues of the WFTDA-predecessor, the United Leagues Coalition (ULC), and published in 2005. In June 2008, the WFTDA Rules Committee created a Question and Answer forum to "provide definitive and final answers about the Women's Flat Track Derby Association Standard Rules. Version Two of the WFTDA Flat Track Derby Standardized Rules for Interleague Play was announced as forthcoming in mid-2006. The WFTDA Rules 4.0 were published in April 2009, with this revised ruleset becoming effective for all WFTDA sanctioned bouts on 1 June 2009.
, the Rules are published in five languages: German, English, French, Spanish, and Chinese.
References
External links
WFTDA.comWomen's Flat Track Derby Association official website
fiveonfivemag.comfiveonfive – official magazine of the WFTDA
FlatTrackStats.comstatistical aggregation of WFTDA sanctioned Roller Derby
DerbyNewsNetwork.comcomprehensive WFTDA bout data and news (archived data only, officially 'retired' since September 2014)
BloodAndThunderMag.comBlood and Thunder Magazine
Women's sports organizations in the United States
501(c)(6) nonprofit organizations
Organizations established in 2004 |
4065301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate%20Breaks%20and%20Beats | Ultimate Breaks and Beats | Ultimate Breaks and Beats (also commonly abbreviated as UBB) was a series of 25 compilation albums released from 1986 to 1991 by Street Beat Records edited by "BreakBeat Lou" Flores. Featured on the albums were tracks from 1966 to 1984 that included drum breaks.
The albums found high popularity with hip hop producers, with the release of a new volume in the series usually leading to many various hip hop records featuring samples of the breaks.
Re-releases of the LPs, some packaged in pairs for DJ scratching and mixing convenience, became available and are currently found in many record stores. CDs of some of the volumes may be found as well, including a 2-CD and DVD box set featuring nearly all of the tracks on the 25 albums.
Releases
Complete track listing, taken from Geocities.com and updated with performers' names, missing in the track lists of volumes SBR 499, SBR 500 and the first version of SBR 508.
An asterisk after a track name indicates that the song was remixed for inclusion in this compilation.
Not official
SBR 499
The Limit – "She's So Divine" (from CP-721 12" single) (1982)
Kashif – "I Just Gotta Have You (Lover Turn Me On)" (from CP-728 12" single) (1982)
Kenton Nix featuring Bobby Youngblood – "There's Never Been (No One Like You)" (from WES 22130 12" single) (1980)
Mr. Magic – "Magic's Message (There Has to Be a Better Way)" (from POS-1213 12" single) (1984)
SBR 500
Tia Monae – "Don't Keep Me Waiting" (from CART-320 12" single) (1983)
Cloud One – "Flying High" (from HS-1010 12" single) (1982)
Ednah Holt – "Serious, Sirius Space Party" (from WES 22138 12" single) (1981)
– "Let's Do It" (from S-12336 12" single) (1980)
Official start of the series
SBR 501
The Monkees – "Mary Mary"* (from More of the Monkees) (1967) Colgems Records
Wilbur "Bad" Bascomb – "Black Grass"* (from PAS-6048 7" single) (1972) Paramount Records
The Winstons – "Amen, Brother"* (from MMS-117 7" single) (1969) Metromedia Records***
7th Wonder – "Daisy Lady" (from Climbing Higher) (1979) Parachute Records
D.C. LaRue – "Indiscreet" (from The Tea Dance) (1976) Pyramid Records
Rufus Thomas – "Do the Funky Penguin" (from STA-0112 7" single) (1971) Stax Records
Note The Break on "Amen Brother" was pitch down to 33 1/3***
SBR 502
Wilson Pickett – "Get Me Back on Time, Engine #9"* (from Wilson Pickett in Philadelphia) (1970) Atlantic Records
Juice – "Catch a Groove"* (from DGD-108 12" single) (1976) Greedy Records
The Rolling Stones – "Honky Tonk Women"* (from Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2)) (1969) London Records
Funkadelic – "You'll Like it Too" (from Connections & Disconnections) (1981) LAX Records
Roy Ayers Ubiquity – "Boogie Back" (from Change Up the Groove) (1974) Polydor Records
Orchestra Internationale featuring Sal Conte – "Chella llà" (from Disco Italiano) (1974) Fiesta Records
SBR 503
Cheryl Lynn – "Got to Be Real" (from Cheryl Lynn) (1978) Columbia records
Incredible Bongo Band – "Apache" (from Bongo Rock) (1973) Pride/MGM Records
Herman Kelly & Life – "Dance to the Drummer's Beat" (from Percussion Explosion) (1978) TK Disco / Alston / Electric Cat Records
Incredible Bongo Band – "Bongo Rock"* (from Bongo Rock) (1973) Pride/MGM Records
Upp – "Give It to You" (from Upp) (1975) Epic Records
Jackie Robinson – "Pussyfooter"* (from I'm Different) (1977) Les Disques Direction Records
SBR 504
Syl Johnson – "Different Strokes"* (from TM-2242 7" single) (1967) Twilight Records
Bobby Byrd – "I Know You Got Soul"* (from I Need Help) (1970) King Records
Z. Z. Hill – "I Think I'd Do It"* (from The Brand New Z.Z. Hill) (1971) Mankind Records
Gaz – "Sing Sing" (from Gaz) (1979) SalSoul Records
Isaac Hayes – "Breakthrough" (from the Truck Turner soundtrack) (1974) Enterprise Records
Tom Jones – "Looking Out My Window"* (from "45-40035" 7" single (1968) Parrot Records ***Note: Looking Out My Window" does not appear on the 1968 LP "Help Yourself" although it does so on later cd reissues.
Dynamic Corvettes – "Funky Music Is the Thing Part 2" (from ABET-5459 7" single) (1975) Abet Records
SBR 505
Johnny "Hammond" Smith – "Shifting Gears"* (from Gears) (1975) Milestone Records
Bo Diddley – "Hit or Miss"* (from Big Bad Bo) (1974) Cadet / Chess Records
The Wild Magnolias – "(Somebody Got) Soul, Soul, Soul"* (from The Wild Magnolias) (1974) Polydor Records
Melvin Bliss – "Synthetic Substitution" (from SU-527 7" single) (1973) Sunburst Records
Freedom – "Get Up and Dance" (from Farther Than Imagination) (1979) TK Disco / Malaco Records
20th Century Steel Band – "Heaven and Hell Is on Earth" (from Warm Heart, Cold Steel) (1975) United Artists Records
Banbarra – "Shack Up Part 2" (from UAXW-734Y 7" single) (1975)
SBR 506
Please – "Sing a Simple Song" (from Please) (1975) Telefunken Records
James Brown – "Cold Sweat" (from Cold Sweat) (1967) King Records
The Cecil Holmes Soulful Sounds – "2001" (from The Black Motion Picture Experience) (1973) Buddah records
Dennis Coffey – "Son of Scorpio"* (from Electric Coffey) (1972) Sussex Records
The Magic Disco Machine – "Scratchin'"* (from Disc-O-Tech) (1975) Motown records
Fat Larry's Band – "Down on the Avenue" (from Feel It) (1976) WMot Records
Uncle Louie – "I Like Funky Music" (from "Uncle Louie's Here" - 12" Remix - MAR-434) Marlin Records (1979)
SBR 507
James Brown – "Give It Up or Turnit a Loose" (from Sex Machine (album) (1970) (Note: The original version has the guitar hook, while both the remixed version and the live version have the drum breaks.) Polydor Records
Funky Constellation – "Street Talk (Madam Rapper)" (from FUNC-369 12" single) (1979) ROTA Records
Pleasure – "Let’s Dance" (from Accept No Substitutes) (1976) Fantasy Records
John Davis and the Monster Orchestra – "I Can’t Stop" (from Night and Day) (1976) SAM Records
John McLaughlin and the Mahavishnu Orchestra – "Planetary Citizen" (from Inner Worlds) (1975) CBS Records
Funkadelic – "Good Old Music" (from Funkadelic) (1970) Westbound Records
William Ray – "You Are What You Are" (Sammy Lee Pickens) (from DMT-1001 12" single) (1977) Magic Touch Records
Discontinued (see notes below)
SBR 508
The Puppets – "The Way of Life" (from the QUS-055 12" single) (1983)
Wish & Fonda Rae – "Touch Me (All Night Long)" (from RHR 3376 12" single) (1984)
Up Front – "Infatuation" (from SC-16 12" single) (1983)
Stacye Branché – "Precious and Special" (from BO-03055 12" single) (1983)
Continued
SBR 509
Ingrid – "Easter Parade" (from POSPX-529 12" single) (1982) Polydor Records
ESG – "UFO"* (from ESG) (1981) 99 Records
Billy Squier – "Big Beat" (from The Tale of the Tape) (1980) Capitol Records
Liquid Liquid – "Cavern" (from Optimo EP) (1983) 99 Records
Mountain – "Long Red"* (from Mountain Live: The Road Goes Ever On) (1972) Windfall Records
Tyrone Thomas and the Whole Darn Family – "Seven Minutes of Funk" (from Has Arrived) (1976) Soul International Records
Note UFO by ESG was pitched down from 45rpm to 33 1/3rpm****
SBR 510
James Brown – "Funky President" (from Reality) (1974) Polydor Records
Dexter Wansel – "Theme from the Planets"* (from Life on Mars) (1976) Philadelphia International Records
Rhythm Heritage – "Theme from "S.W.A.T.""* (from Disco-Fied) (1978) ABC Records
The Jackson Five – "It's Great to Be Here"* (from Maybe Tomorrow) (1971) Motown Records
The Brothers Johnson – "Ain't We Funkin' Now" (12 inch Version ) (1978) A&M Records
La Pregunta – "Shangri La" (from GNP-12001 12" single) (1978) GNP Records
Esther Williams – "Last Night Changed It All (I Really Had a Ball)"*** ( Album version ) (1976) 'Friends & Co. Records
1 – The Lp, 45rpm and the 12" of "Last Night Changed It All" are all different versions from one another.
2 – Note: "Theme from the Planets" was recorded at 45 rpm speed on this release.
SBR 511
The Honey Drippers – "Impeach the President"* (from AL-1017 7" single) (1973) Alaga Records
The Headhunters – "God Make Me Funky" (from Survival of the Fittest) (1975) Arista Records
Lucy Hawkins – "Gotta Get Out of Here" (from S-12455 12" single) (1978) SAM Records
Orange Krush – "Action"* (from MDS-4018 12" single) (1982) Prep Street / Mercury Records
Funk Inc. – "Kool Is Back" (from Funk, Inc.) (1971) Prestige Records
Fausto Papetti – "Love's Theme"* (from 18a Raccolta) (1975) Durium Records
SBR 512
Junie – "Granny's Funky Rolls Royce" (from Freeze) (1975) Westbound Records
James Brown – "Funky Drummer"* (from King Records – 45-6290 7" single) (1969) King Records
The Mohawks – "The Champ" (from PM-719 7" single) (1968) Pama Records
Aerosmith – "Walk This Way" (from Toys in the Attic) (1975) Columbia Records
Thin Lizzy – "Johnny the Fox Meets Jimmy the Weed" (from Johnny the Fox) (1978) Mercury Records
The Soul Searchers – "Ashley's Roachclip"* (from Salt of the Earth) (1974) Sussex Records
Chicago Gangsters – "Gangster Boogie"* (from Blind Over You) (1975) Gold Plate Records
T-Connection – "Groove to Get Down" (from On Fire) (1977) Dash Records
SBR 513
Babe Ruth – "The Mexican" (from First Base) (1973) Harvest / EMI Records
Babe Ruth – "Keep Your Distance"* (from Kid's Stuff) (1976) Capitol Records
Coke Escovedo – "(Runaway) I Wouldn't Change a Thing" (from Comin' at Ya) (1976) 2 Mercury Records
Eastside Connection – "Frisco Disco" (from AFT-1001 12" single) (1978) Rampart Records
In Search Of...Orchestra – "Phenomena Theme" (from AVID-12146 12" single) (1977) AVI Records
The Meters – "Handclapping Song" (from Struttin') (1970) Josie Records
2 – "(Runaway) I Wouldn't Change a Thing" is actually two songs by Coke Escovedo put into one track: the ending of "Runaway" and "I Wouldn't Change a Thing".
SBR 514
Stanley Turrentine and Milt Jackson – "Sister Sanctified" (from Cherry) (1972) CTI Records
J. J. Johnson – "Willie Chase" (from the Willie Dynamite soundtrack) (1974) MCA Records
Kid Dynamite – "Uphill Peace of Mind" (from Kid Dynamite) (1976) Cream Records
Ralph MacDonald – "Jam on the Groove" (from Sound of a Drum) (1976) Marlin Records
Experience Unlimited – "Knock Him Out Sugar Ray" (from VMT-25 12" single) (1980) Vermack Records
Fred Wesley & The J.B.'s – "Blow Your Head" (from Damn Right I Am Somebody) (1974) People Records
SBR 515
Donald Byrd – "Change (Makes You Want to Hustle)" (from Places and Spaces) (1975) Blue Note Records
Roy Ayers – "Brother Green (The Disco King)" (from Mystic Voyage) (1975) Polydor Records
Grover Washington Jr. – "Mister Magic" (from Mister Magic) (1975) Motown Records
David Matthews – "Star Wars" (from Dune) (1977) CTI Records
John Cougar Mellencamp – "Jack and Diane" (from American Fool) (1982) Riva Records
Pleasure – "Bouncy Lady" (from Dust Yourself Off) (1975) Fantasy Records
Jefferson Starship – "Rock Music" (from Freedom at Point Zero) (1979) Grunt/RCA Records
SBR 516
Commodores – "The Assembly Line" (from Machine Gun) (1974) Motown Records
Johnny Jenkins – "I Walk On Gilded Splinters" (from Ton-Ton Macoute!) (1974) Capricorn Records
Le Pamplemousse – "Gimme What You Got"* (from Le Pamplemousse) (1976) AVI Records
Marvin Gaye – "T Plays it Cool" (from Trouble Man – the soundtrack album for the film of the same name) (1972) Talma Records
Lyn Collins – "Think (About It)"* (from Think (About It)) (1972) People Records
The Galactic Force Band – "Space Dust"* (from Spaced Out Disco) (1978) Springboard Records
Steve Miller Band – "Take the Money and Run"* (from Fly Like an Eagle) (1976) Capitol Records
SBR 517
Baby Huey – "Listen to Me" (from The Living Legend) (1971) Curtom Records
Bobbie Knight & The Universal Lady – "The Lovermaniacs (Sex)"* (from Earth Creature) (1974) Brunswick Records
The Pointer Sisters – "Yes We Can Can" (from Pointer Sisters) (1973) Blue Thumb Records
Monk Higgins – "One Man Band (Plays All Alone)" (from Dance to the Disco Sax) (1974) Buddah Records
Kool & The Gang – "N.T." (from Live at PJ's) (1971) De-Lite Records
Dyke & the Blazers – "Let a Woman Be a Woman, Let a Man Be a Man"* (from Greatest Hits) (1969) Original Sounds Records
Bram Tchaikovsky – "Whiskey and Wine" (live version from "The Girl Of My Dreams" 7" E.P.') (1979) Radar Records***note The song "Whiskey & Wine" was originally covered by the group The Motors and Bram Tchaikovsky was an original member. Their version from the album "1" is a studio recording and has no drum break***
"L.L. Bonus Beats" – Fancy – "Feel Good"* (from Wild Thing) (1974) Big Three Records BT 89502 ***note; Looped as a 1:40 min. bonus beat on vinyl edition at 45 RPM***.
SBR 518
Bar-Kays – "Let's Have Some Fun" (from Flying High on Your Love) (1977) Mercury Records
Lafayette Afro Rock Band – "Conga" (from Malik) (1976) Makossa Records
Yellow Sunshine – "Yellow Sunshine" (from ZS72511 7" single) (1973) TSOP Records
The Jimmy Castor Bunch – "It's Just Begun"* (from It's Just Begun) (1972) RCA Records
Marva Whitney – "It's My Thing" (from It's My Thing") (1969) King Records
Kay Gees – "I Believe in Music" (from Find a Friend) (1976) Gang Records
Dennis Coffey – "Ride Sally Ride" (from Goin' for Myself) (1972) Sussex Records
4 – ***Note that the intro used in the beginning of the song is taken from the group's track "Troglodyte (Cave Man)".
SBR 519
The Blackbyrds – "Rock Creek Park" (from City Life) (1975) Fantasy Records
KC and the Sunshine Band – "I Get Lifted" (from KC and the Sunshine Band) (1975) TK Disco Records
Brother Soul – "Cookies" (from LS-105 7" single) (1975) Leo Mini Records
Foster Sylvers – "Misdemeanor" (from Foster Sylvers) (1973) Pride / MGM Records
Wild Sugar – "Bring it Here" (from the TS-2004 12" single) (1981) TSOB Records
Miami – "Chicken Yellow" (from The Party Freaks) (1974) Drive Records
The Olympic Runners – "Put the Music Where Your Mouth Is" (from Put the Music Where Your Mouth Is) (1974) London Records
Lightnin' Rod – "Sport" (from Hustlers Convention) (1973) United Artists Records
SBR 520
Roy Ayers – "Lonesome Cowboy"* (from Everybody Loves the Sunshine) (1976) Polydor Records
Duke Williams – "Chinese Chicken" (from Monkey in a Silk Suit is Still a Monkey) (1973) Capricorn Records
Joe Quarterman – "I'm Gonna Get You"* (from GSF Records 6915 7" single) (1974) GSF Records
Friend & Lover – "Reach Out of the Darkness"* (from Reach Out of the Darkness) (1973) Verve Forecast Records
The Chubukos – "House of Rising Funk" (from Soul Makossa) (1973) Mainstream / Red Lion Production Records
Eddie Bo – "Hook & Sling" (from Scram Records 117 7" single) (1969) Scram Records
Bill Withers – "Kissing My Love" (from Still Bill) (1971) Sussex Records
5 – The group was called The Chubukos for the 7" single, but they were called Afrique for their LP Soul Makossa.
SBR 521
The Politicians – "Free Your Mind" (from The Politicians Featuring McKinley Jackson) (1972) Hot Wax Records
The Village Callers – "Hector" (from Live) (1967) Rampart Records
Joe Tex – "Papa Was Too"* (from ATL-70199 7" single) (1966) Dial / Atlantic Records
Sound Experience – "Devil with the Bust" (from Don't Fight the Feeling) (1974) Philly Soulville Records
James Brown – "Soul Pride" (from The Popcorn) (1969) King Records
All the People – "Cramp Your Style"* (from Blue Candle 1496 7" single) (1972) Blue Candle Records
Johnny Pate – "Shaft in Africa" (from Shaft in Africa soundtrack) (1973) ABC Records
Barry White – "I'm Gonna Love You Just a Little Bit More Baby"* (from I've Got So Much to Give) (1973) 20th Century Records
"L.L. Bonus Beats #2" – Tommy Roe – "Dizzy" (1969) ABC Records ***Note... Looped into a 1:40 min bonus beat.
SBR 522
Barrabas – "Woman" (from Barrabas) (1972) RCA Records
Creative Source – "Corazon" (from Migration) (1974) Sussex Records
Southside Movement – "Save the World" (from Movin') (1974) 20th Century Records
The J.B.'s – "The Grunt (Part 1)"* (from Food for Thought) (1970) King Records
Rufus Thomas – "Do the Funky Penguin (Part 2)"* (from STA-0112 7" single) (1971) Stax Records
Shotgun – "Dynamite (The Bomb)"* (from Shotgun) (1977) ABC Records
Gary Numan "Films" (from The Pleasure Principle)(1979) Beggars Banquet Records
SBR 523
Rufus Thomas – "The Breakdown (Part II)"* (from Stax Records 2025060 7" single) (1971) Stax Records
Jim Dandy – "Country Cooking" (from Flash Fearless Versus the Zorg Women Parts 5 & 6) (1975) Chrysalis Records
Pleasure – "Joyous" (from Joyous) (1977) Fantasy Records
Solomon Burke – "Get Out of My Life, Woman"* (from I Wish I Knew) (1968) Atlantic Records
Alphonse Mouzon – "You Don't Know How Much I Love You" (from Funky Snakefoot) (1974) Blue Note Records
Delegation – "Oh Honey" (from Promise of Love) (1977) Shady Brook Records
Freda Payne – "The Easiest Way to Fall"* (from Band of Gold) (1970) Invictus Records
SBR 524
Lowell Fulsom – "Tramp" (from Tramp) (1967) Kent / United Records
Freddie Scott – "(You) Got What I Need" (from S233 7" single) (1968) Shout Records
Lyn Collins – "You Can't Love Me, If You Don't Respect Me" (from PE-650 7" single) (1973) People Records
The Emotions – "Blind Alley" (from Untouched) (1971) Volt / Stax Records
Lonnie Liston Smith – "Expansions (Part 1)" (from Expansions) (1975) Flying Dutchman Records
Otis Redding – "Hard to Handle"* (from The Immortal Otis Redding) (1968) ATCO Records
The Grass Roots – "You and Love Are the Same" (from Feelings) (1969) ABC / Dunhill Records
Tom Scott and the L.A. Express – "Sneakin' in the Back" (from Tom Scott and The L.A. Express) (1974) Ode Records
SBR 525
Southside Movement – "I've Been Watching You" (from Southside Movement) (1973) 20th Century Records
Lou Donaldson – "Pot Belly" (from Pretty Things) (1970) Blue Note Records
Samba Soul – "Mambo #5" (from Samba Soul) (1977) RCA Records
Five Stairsteps – "Don't Change Your Love"* (from Love's Happening) (1968) Curtom Records
Lamont Dozier – "Take Off Your Make-up" (from Out Here on My Own) (1973) ABC Records
Ike White – "Love and Affection" (from Changin' Times) (1976) LAX Records
James Brown – "The Payback"* (from The Payback) (1973) Polydor Records
Oddities
There are some oddities in the collection, with releases SBR 499 and SBR 500 discontinued and now considered "unofficial", while SBR 508 was released with two different track listings. The later, alternate track listing for SBR 508 is as below.
SBR 508
Incredible Bongo Band – "Sing, Sing, Sing" (from The Return of the Incredible Bongo Band) (1974)
J. J. Johnson – "Parade Strut" (from Willie Dynamite soundtrack) (1974)
Blowfly – "Sesame Street" (from Blowfly on TV) (1974)
Manzel – "Midnight Theme" (1979) (from the Fraternity Records 3745 7" single) (1979)
Mike Curb Congregation – "Burning Bridges" (from the Kelly's Heroes soundtrack) (1970)
Freddie Perren – "Two Pigs and a Hog" (from the Cooley High soundtrack) (1975)
The Fatback Band – "Fatbackin'" (from People Music) (1973)
Jesse Green – "Flip" (from Flip) (1976)
Later volumes
Also, two later volumes were released, both as SBR 526. The first version was re-released as Strictly Breaks 1, and the second version was actually mixed and re-edited by Louis Flores.
SBR 526
Joe Tex – "You Said a Bad Word" (from the Mercury Records 6052156 7" single) (1972)
Johnnie Taylor – "Ever Ready" (from Ever Ready) (1978)
Coalkitchen – "Keep on Pushing" (from Choose Your Flavor) (1977)
Graham Central Station – "The Jam" (from Ain't No 'Bout-a-Doubt It) (1975)
Trouble Funk – "Let's Get Small" (from the RC-501 12" single)
Tony Alvon & the Belairs – "Sexy Coffee Pot" (from Atlantic Records 452632 7" single) (1969)
Hank Carbo – "Hot Pants Pt. 2" (from the A-1172 7" single) (1971)
Other notes
The earliest track on the Ultimate Breaks and Beats series is Joe Tex's "Papa Was Too", released in 1966, with the latest being Fonda Rae's "Touch Me (All Night Long)", released in 1984.
The rarest track to be included on the Ultimate Breaks & Beats series is Manzel's "Midnight Theme", originally released on a Fraternity Records 7" record in 1975, though multiple reissues have been released and the song is available on many websites, including YouTube. However, for unknown reasons, the track was the only track left off a CD of all the tracks ever released on the Ultimate Breaks and Beats albums, possibly due to copyright issues.
DJ Superix, a British DJ, is the first DJ known to have compiled every single break from every volume of Ultimate Breaks and Beats into one mix, entitled "Ultimate, Ultimate, Ultimate!", released in 2008. DJs Harry Love and MK originally released a mix CD as a tribute to the series entitled Beats Per Minute. While this CD did not feature every break, it was one of the first in the UK dedicated to be the Ultimate Breaks & Beats series.
The first ever DJ mix in tribute to Ultimate Breaks & Beats is DJ Q Bert's Demolition Pumpkin Squeeze Musik (1994). Subtitled as "A Pre-School Break Mix", DJ QBert mixed duplicate copies of UBB tracks with scratching and incorporated dialogue and samples from television, film and popular culture, notably comic books, cartoons and video games.
Other similar breakbeat compilations
Many drum break series compilation albums followed Ultimate Breaks and Beats, including:Diggin (19 volumes)Strictly Breaks (11 volumes)Dusty Fingers (17 volumes)Soul Beats (9 volumes)Super Breaks and Beats (8 volumes)Argo/Cadet Grooves (7 volumes)Drum Crazy (6 volumes)Schoolyard Breaks, Rhythm Madness, and Circuit Breaks (all 2 volumes)Breaksploitaton (2 volumes)
References
External links
Street Beat Records Discography at Discogs
Stream 'Ultimate, Ultimate, Ultimate! mix at Southern Hospitality
Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate! at Discogs
Breaks
Hip hop compilation albums
Compilation album series
1980s compilation albums
1990s compilation albums |
4065380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian%20traditional%20clothing | Serbian traditional clothing | Serbian traditional clothing, also called as Serbian national costume or Serbian dress (, plural: / ), refers to the traditional clothing worn by Serbs living in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and the extended Serbian diaspora communities in Austria, Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, North Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, United States, etc. Like any traditional dress of a nation or culture, it has been lost to the advent of urbanization, industrialization, and the growing market of international clothing trends. The wide range of regional folk costumes show influence from historical Austrian, Hungarian, German, Italian, and Ottoman Turkish presence. Nonetheless, the costumes are still a pinnacle part of Serbian folk culture. From the 19th century and onwards, Serbs have adopted western-styled clothing. This change has started in larger settlements such as cities and towns, although it was not uncommon to see rural women in traditional working costumes all the way until the end of President Josip Broz Tito's term. Today, these national costumes are only worn by some elderly in rural areas but are most often worn with connection to special events and celebrations, mostly at ethnic festivals, religious and national holidays, weddings, tourist attractions, and by dancing groups who dance the traditional Serbian kolo, or circle dance.
History
Serbian costume is also known for the variety of textures and embroidery. The jelek is a waistcoat made from wool or velvet while women's jackets are lined with fur. The peony embroidery design often found on aprons, socks and elsewhere is colored bright red, symbolising the blood lost at the Battle of Kosovo. Characteristic features of Serbian dress include opanci, footwear dating back to antiquity.
Traditional Serbian female dress consists of opanci, embroidered woolen socks that reached to the knees and nazuvice. Skirts were very varied, of plaited or gathered and embroidered linen, with tkanice serving as a belt. An important part of the costume were aprons (pregače) decorated with floral motifs. Shirts were in the shape of tunics, richly decorated with silver thread and cords was worn over the shirt. In some areas it was replaced by an upper sleeveless dress of red or blue cloth, knee-long, richly decorated and buttoned in front (zubun). Scarves and caps bordered with cords were worn as headdress. Girls also wore collars, or a string of gold coins around their throats, earrings, bracelets, and their caps were decorated with metal coins or flowers.
In medieval times, rulers, the nobility and senior churchmen brought many of their fabrics from the Republic of Ragusa. The most common fabric for ordinary Serbs was sclavina or schiavina, a coarse woolen fabric. Linen was also made within Serbia while silk was grown at the Dečani Monastery as well as near Prizren. Few secular garments have survived from the medieval period the most notable being the costume worn by Lazar Hrebeljanović at the Battle of Kosovo. More decorated vestments have survived from the period.
The typical Serbian costume consists of shirts, trousers, skirts, sleeveless coats called jeleks, ordinary coats, jubun, socks, belts and headgear, often called oglavja. The trousers are believed to hail from the pre-Slavic Balkan era, while the woolen cord ornaments have a Thracian, Illyrian origin.
The designs of civil clothes were developed from ancient times, to Roman then Byzantine, and later under Turkish (Oriental) influence, and in towns of the Pannonian area and the Adriatic coast, primarily under European influence. Under the influence of the mentioned factors certain common wearing elements within the wider cultural and geographic zones were created, such as Adriatic, Alpine, Dinaric, Morava, Pannonian, and Vardar zones (or styles) with their own particularities. In the wake of Serbia's newfound autonomy following the Second Serbian Uprising, there was a push among Serbian intellectuals from the Austrian Empire to Europeanize the Serbian city costume. The transition (which is most evident in Serbian portrait painting from the mid-19th century) to western attire took several decades and wealthy Serbian men continued to wear full Ottoman costume with turbans on formal occasions well into the 1860s.
By the late 1870s, the male Serbian urban costume favored by officials and the mercantile class (when not wearing increasingly popular Western fashion) still consisted principally of braided Turkish-cut breeches, an embroidered vest, and a striped cashmere or silk shawl, several yards in length, wrapped around the torso in which ornamental pistols and swords were placed. In winter time, this costume was complemented by a long, fur-bordered pelisse. In the southern regions of Serbia, men at the time frequently wrapped a white cloth around their fezzes, similarly to their Albanian neighbors.
Main attire
Overall traditional wear include:
Opanci shoes: Shoes most commonly worn by peasants (pl. опанци, lit. "climbing footwear"); a construction of leather, lack of laces, durable, and have horn-like ending on toes. The design of the horn-like ending indicates the region of Serbia the shoes are from. Until 50 years ago, they were usually worn in rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania and Serbia.
Šajkača cap: Easily recognisable by its design; the top looks like the letter V or like the bottom of a boat (viewed from above). It was derived from the 18th-century military cap part of the uniform worn by the Šajkaši, river troops guarding Belgrade, Danube and Sava against the Ottoman Empire, during the 16th- to 19th centuries. It subsequently spread throughout the civilian population of central Serbia, and in the 19th century it became an official part of the Serbian military uniform, first worn only by soldiers, then after 1903 it replaced the officer's French-style Kepis and Peaked caps. It would continue to be used by the Royal Yugoslav Army. It continued its use by the Chetniks in World War II, but also Serbs of the Yugoslav Partisans until it was replaced by "Titovka" cap (named after Josip Broz Tito) for soldiers and Peaked cap for officers' parade uniform. During the Bosnian war, the hat was worn by Bosnian Serb military commanders and many volunteer units in the 1990s. It is seen as a Serbian symbol. Today it is commonly seen in rural villages across Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, often worn by elderly men.
Šubara hat: A shepherd hat (Шубара, fur hat), during harsher and colder times (winter). It is in a conical or cylindrical shape predominantly of Black colour, because of the black lamb/sheep fur (woolen). It was used in the World War I by the Serbian soldiers and by the Chetniks in World War II and again during the Yugoslav Wars, usually with a cockade (kokarda) of the Serbian eagle or cross. Today, it is part of the folk attires of east and southeast Serbia.
Fez: Until the late 19th century, the fez was the most commonly worn hat among Serbs and was used by both men and women. Though associated strongly with Turkey and North Africa, the fez was the preferred choice of headwear for Balkan Christians of all classes during this time. Early uniform regulations of the Serbian civil service specified the wear of fezzes embroidered with the Serbian coat of arms. In 1850, the Russian Consul to Serbia, Dmitrii Sergeevich Levshin insisted that Serbian officials cease wearing the fez and adopt Western hats. The request was refused and Serbian uniform regulations continued to require the fez. Over time, the fez was replaced in Montenegro by the Montenegrin cap, and in most of Serbia by other forms of headwear. In regions of Southern Serbia, however, the fez remains part of the traditional folk costume.
Serbia
In Serbia, Serb folk dress are divided into several groups: Dinaric, Morava, Pannonian, and Vardar styles, all of which can also be placed under regional groups such as: Northern Serbia (which mostly includes Vojvodina), Central Serbia, Eastern Serbia, Western Serbia, and Southern Serbia (which mostly includes Kosovo and Metohija).
Northern Serbia
The Serb folk dress of Northern Serbia, or Vojvodina, are part of the Pannonian style. As part of a cultural zone with Croatia, Hungary and Romania, the attire has likeness to those in adjacent Croatian, Hungarian, Romanian provinces (there are also some small Bunjevac, German, Slovakian, and Rusyn cultural influences in areas where those minorities live). They also take some small influences from the Morava, and Dinaric styles.
Vojvodina
The fertile Plain of Vojvodina provided not only grain, but also abundantly provided raw materials for making human clothing. The Pannonian climate, with long and hot summers and very harsh and windy winters, also conditioned the way of its inhabitants. The main raw materials for the production of the old Serbian costume were vegetable fibers of mullet, flax and cotton. In addition to vegetable fibers, wool, lamb and sheep fur were used for winter clothing, which was favored by basic industries.
19th century clothing made in domestic handicrafts was of simple design. Basic linen was characterized by straight-cut pieces of clothing, the width of which was molded to the body by folding fabrics. By adopting more sophisticated tailoring in upper garments, which came to Serbian costume through the influence of urban and central and western European fashion, especially Viennese, sewing of such costume was left to the tailors. Village dressmakers introduced new fashion elements into folk costume, which influenced and contributed to the rapid loss of Serbian folk costume in Vojvodina.
The old Serbian costume in Vojvodina was formed over a long period of time, and in its features contain traces of past epochs as well as traces of received influences from other peoples with whom Serbs lived in ethnically mixed settlements. Srem has elements of central Balkan and Dinaric attire, Bačka and Banat have central European influences and styles, especially from the Baroque.
During the 19th century, men's clothing in summer and winter was made up of linen-colored white clothing, which is so characteristic with wide linen pants and shirts. Some pleated skirts were worn with them in some villages of northern Bačka and northern and central Banat. Over white clothing, men wore a black štofani vest or a velvet vest. In the spring and autumn, wool coats called doroc and raincoats were worn. Already in the second half of the 19th century, the men's folk costumes were accompanied by short or below the waist coats called bena, bekeš, and jankel.
In the winter,štofane čakšire were worn with a coat. On festive occasions in the summer, younger people wore pleated white skirts. Serbs in Bačka did not wear pants embroidered at the lower edge or pants with lace and fronclama, as how Šokci men wore. Men's skirts are embellished with details. The skirts were worn until World War I.
Shirts are decorated with white embroidery or embroidery made of gold wire. On festive occasions, special sewn embroidered vest were worn, especially embellished with gold embroidery called formeti, nedra, and plastroni. These embroidered vest could be fitted to any shirt and could always be seen under the waistcoat and coat. The shirt was worn over the pants, and where men wore regular pants, the shirt was tucked inside the pants.
The vest is most often sewn from black felt, velvet, plush but there were also vests with colorful silk brocade. Older men wore only black vests, while boys wore vests in the front richly decorated with silver or gold. The most commonly used ornament are plant motifs, horseshoes, initials and years. The richly decorated vests were meant to show the wealth of the guy who wore them.
In Banat and in the villages of northwestern Bačka, the boys used to wear ornaments across their shoulders as decoration.
In addition to the summer festive costume, lacquered leather boots, leather slippers, and slippers were worn. They covered their heads with black felt hats.
During colder days and in winter, men's costumes are complemented by warmer coats. Over the shirt is a warmer, thicker shirt, called a košuljac, as well as other long-sleeved garments sewn from cloth. In winter, a pršnjak jacket and fur coat are worn as well as a fur-lined, ducin or bundaš coat. Beside a saying, benu or jankel. Sown pants originally in white, later made in black. In the 1930s, čakšire pants on šunke were also worn exclusively with boots and came into peasant fashion under the influence of the military uniforms of the old Yugoslav army.
In winter, they wore fur coats and šubara hats. During winter they wore deep boots and opanci with obojci (type of long socks). Obojci were over time replaced with natural wool white or red socks. Bačka was also characterized by wooden footwear worn in the winter when it was mud and snow. The clogs were very wide base so that it was easy to walk on mud and snow, and to keep them warm, they put straw and hay inside. In the second half of the 19th century, city shoes were also worn.
Young women and girls split their hair into two braids that were worn freely down the back or wrapped around their heads or just on the back of their necks. On festive occasions, young women, after they were married, until they had their first child or until new young people came to the house, went with a džeg on their heads. Originally the džeg was usually made up of a black smaller triangular headscarf, it later evolved into a special sewing cap, which consisted of two parts: a cap that covered the bun and a part of hair around it and a lower part that fell down the neck. Most often they are decorated with gold embroidery, which in some places is called zlatare. In Sombor and surrounding settlements, instead of a džeg they wore a ubrđaj.
The essential parts of a woman's costume are skute and shirts. In addition to the curtains, women also wore another skirt, which in some villages was called a suknjerac. The suknjerac was worn with a top skirt made of home-made fabrics and for official occasions made from purchased factory materials. Modern skirts and just a bit longer than knee length, thought they have been significantly longer in the past.
A waist length vest, velvet or silk, usually darker in color, was most often decorated with gold lace and gold embroidery. Worn over the shirt, it was fastened to the front by fasteners or a stitched in wire.
An apron is usually worn over the skirt was usually of the same fabric and decorated in the same way as a vest. In some villages wool aprons were worn with colorful stripes and woven ornaments or floral motifs. In addition to white summer skirts, white aprons were worn with white embroidery.
Since the 1980s, two-piece silk dresses have been in vogue, whose top blouse is always worn over a skirt. Such fabrics have come under the influence of European fashion.
The women's winter clothing consisted of a kožuh, ćurak coat, bundica coat (all fur coats) and a large woolen scarf. The girls wore black plush jackets for festive occasions. The collar on the jacket was in the more affluent girls was from astrakhans (expensive lamb fur from Astrakhan, Russia) and other noble fur.
As a decoration, and also a sign of wealth, the girls wore seferine ducat jewelry around their necks.
The characteristic feminine girls' shoes were white socks and colorful slippers as well as fancy shoes. For everyday, they wore wool woven socks, the natikače or čarapci. For work they wore opanci made of leather as well as wool. During winter they wore slippers with wooden base called cokule or klompe.
During the second half of the 19th century, the costume was completely equalized with the civilian tailoring of the time, and the existing differences were only in certain details of clothing.
The ethnic groups of Srem, Bačka and Banat all have their distinctive costumes.
Clothing parts of the Serb Vojvodina folk costume:
Central Serbia
The Serb folk dress of Central Serbia are divided into two groups: the Dinaric and Morava styles, but also take some small influences from the Pannonian style.
Šumadija
The very beautiful and colorful costume of Šumadija region has been preserved and in use to a great extent, mostly due to their immediate vicinity of Belgrade.
Women braid their hair, placing their long braids around the head which is then hold by toothpick clamps and adorned by jewelry with flower motifs. The shirt is made of linen or knitted fabric. The upper part is sewn to the lower. Around the neck, around the sleeves and at the bottom of the hem, the shirt is closed and festooned with a lace of thicker cotton. A jelek vest is placed over the shirt. Long pleated skirts can be in a variety of different colors (often in a kilt like pattern), most common ones are clean white or black. Skirt embroidery is stitched at the lower parts of the dress, usually in vibrant floral patterns. The apron is the most beautiful part of the costume, every girl and woman hand-make it for themselves, which leads to many variants in terms of technique and vividness. Over the apron and shirt but and under vest a belt called a kolan is fastened. The belt tied with beads and multicolored buttons with pafts, metal buckles that close under the breast. Ducats and other jewelry cover half the breasts. In more common Šumadija dress, women wear a vibrantly colored cloth around the waist instead (commonly red). The socks are knitted and patterned in colorful wool with floral ornaments.
Men's costumes are characterized by long shirts, wide pants that narrow in the lower parts of the legs narrower (can also be čakšire), gunj vest, with an optional anterion jacket, woolen belt on the legs, opanaci with a beaked tip.The head is covered with ether a fez, šubara, or a hat (both straw or from hard cloth). After World War I, the šajkača from military uniforms has also been included and popularized.
The traditional folk attire of Šumadija has become the common modernized regional dress for Central Serbia, as well as the most commonly known folk attire from the Serbs.
Eastern Serbia
The Serb folk dress of Eastern Serbia are part of the Morava style, but also take some small influences from the Dinaric and Pannonian styles. As part of a cultural zone with Bulgaria and Romania, the attire has likeness to those in adjacent Bulgarian and Romanian provinces. Traditional shepherd attire, typical for this attire is woolen vests and capes (from sheep), walking sticks, etc.
Leskovac
The male costume consists of dark red trousers, cloth, white shirt, dark jelek (a small dark-red sleeveless embroidered jacket), and black subara (characteristic high shaggy fur cap) or a dark red fez (characteristic mediterranean cap). Women wear weaved skirts (fute), colorful aprons, white embroidered dresses, dark jelek and white veils around their heads. They wear opanci as footwear.
Pirot
The costumes of Pirot are richly decorated, male costume consists of natural-white zobun, black-red belt, black or red trousers and fes on the head. Women wear white dresses under black zobun, which has gold stripes on borders, decorated aprons and white kerchiefs around their heads. They were opanci and red socks.
Folk costume from Pirot.
Vranje
The traditional urban dress of Vranje is a mix of local tradition and oriental influences. The male costume consists of dark trousers and gunj with red stripes at the end of its sleeves, red silk belt and the black shoes. Women wear black plush skirts, white blouses and highly decorated libada embroidered with gold srma, dimije (shalwar pants), pafta around waist and tepeluk on the head.
Western Serbia
The Serb folk dress of Western Serbia are part of the Dinaric style, but also take some small influences from the Adriatic, Morava, and Pannonian styles. As part of a cultural zone with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, the attire has likeness to those in adjacent Bosnian and Montenegrin provinces.
Ivanjica
The inhabitants of this region are mainly migrants from the so-called Dinara region. In its basic characteristics the costume is similar to that of the Dinara region with additions imposed through time, by the new environment, and later influences from outside.
Regardless of the relative isolation and lack of connection in communication between the
investigated territories and other regions, change penetrated even this area and was reflected not only in daily
life but also in the adoption of new, or abandoned old, pieces of dress for practical or functional reasons.
Some dress pieces, particularly from the older costume at end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th
centuries, are recognisable in the dress of Montenegro, Herzegovina and early Bosnia from where the greater
number of the inhabitants originate.
The oldest pieces of costume are very similar to those in the place of origin e.g. male and female
shirts, female waistcoats, gunj, aljina, red cap, Mali fez with shawl, zubun, pelengiri, kabanica. After World War I, the so-called Sumadija costume (anterija, fermen) became the national costume of this
region.
The facts indicate that this national costume, in villages of the Ivanjica region, had practically
disappeared in the nineties of the 20th century, “Old” dress disappeared under the pressure of industrial,
uncontrolled production.
Mačva
There has been folk art in Mačva since ancient times, where heritage and the pursuit of identity are connected. The ethnographic culture of the people of this region is rich, diverse and creatively-aesthetically valuable. Historical heritage, economic and social factors have led to the emergence of a transitional zone of folk culture and artistic creation. Various materials were used to express the aesthetic feelings, in shaping and decorating. Folk art includes weaving, embroidery, knitting, woodworking, forging, casting and the like.
Flax and hemp have grown well in this area and have been one of the main foundations of homework.
In this area, all the techniques of weaving (square weaving, kneeling, quilting, embroidery and knitting) were developed. The sleeves, aprons, zbubins, rugs in ornamentation are dominated by geometric shapes – rhombuses, squares, crosses, stylized flowers and twigs. Besides simple rhombus, meander is one of the most popular motifs of textile folk crafts. In an elaborate scale of handicrafts, the dominant place is occupied by the manufacture of rugs, which were usually two-faced, woven on a horizontal break by two techniques – squatting and kneeling.
Lace making and embroidery here have reached high artistic levels, and the techniques have been brought to near perfection. Worthy of note are the richly decorated firs, skins and guns with multicolored leather and embroidery applications.
Folk costume plays an important role in folk life and customs. The distinctive sense of the area may include a distinct sense of decoration for clothing, especially women's folk costumes, with stylizations of plant and geometric motifs, in embroidery techniques and textile-to-textile applications. Although it suffers from certain influences and changes, the costume as well as the cultural heritage has been passed down for generations. Its aesthetic value is reflected in the relationship most represented on shirts and aprons. The folk costume used to be worn with various and rich jewelry, and gold coin was especially represented. The decoration and jewelry served as a sign of wealth, honor and social status.
Women's folk costume in this area is diverse and flamboyant. It consists of a wide embroidered shirt with ruffled sleeves, a skirt, a front and back apron, a fir and a libada decorated with shawl, knee-length socks embroidered with wool with geometric figures and a belt. The aprons are vividly embroidered, richly decorated with gold embroidery (with floral motifs dominated by vines, roses, flowers, tulips, carnations). The ornamentation on the aprons is enlivened by the harmony of colors and indicates the lush folk art. Women combed their hair in a characteristic way – in braids, which, under the nape, are crossed and wrapped around their heads, and tied with a braid at the end.
The men's costume consists of a long shirt, wide pants over which can be narrower or wider jackets, a vest of natural brown cloth, a woolen belt around the waist, short woolen socks, homemade opanci with a beaked shoe tip.
Zlatibor
Zlatibor folk costume is a combination of Montenegrin and Šumadijan. During the summer, men wore prtišta, long pants and hemp shirts, and sometimes a pelengirim made of wool. They wore a belt around their waist, with a gun and blade placed on the belt itself. On their feet they had opanci with knee-high socks and tozlucima or Kamašne (type of boots), while on head they wear šajkača or šubara. In the winter they wore a koporan coat, and on festive occasions they put on a nicer suit. The women wore wide skirts, embroidered on the bottom and white zubun, also embroidered with metal and sequins. They also wore opanci, but with a beaked tip.
Southern Serbia
The Serb folk dress of Southern Serbia, or Kosovo and Metohija, are divided into three groups: the Dinaric, Morava, and Vardar styles. As part of a cultural zone with Albania and North Macedonia, the attire has likeness to those in adjacent Albanian and Macedonian provinces, such as jelek, zubun, anterija, opanak, gunj, and fez instead of šajkača.
Kosovo and Metohija
Kosovo and Metohija are distinguished by their very diverse folk costumes, known for their richness and abundance of shapes and decorations.
Created over many years, the costumes contain elements of the various cultural influences that confronted this area during the historical epochs, such as from old Slavic and old Balkan civilizations.
Serbian costumes from Kosovo and Metohija stand out for their exceptional beauty and variety. The wealth of imagination and craftsmanship in creating basic shapes and decorative motifs are visible on jeleci, dolame, zubuni, anterije, shirts, aprons, belts, headscarves, headgear, caps, etc., made by women, girls and terzije (folk costume tailor). The ornaments are mostly general geometrical shapes, geometric plant shapes, regular plant motifs, and in rare examples animal motifs. The color is often red. Its symbolic and magical meaning – a symbol of life and health – combined with other colors like silver and gold, adds to the vibrant color harmony of these costumes.
The city's costume was under direct oriental influence. It remained in use until almost before World War II. In its overall stylistic design, it had the same features throughout Kosovo and Metohija, with slight variations in particular environments. It was worn in Prizren, Peć, Đakovica, Priština, Kosovska Mitrovica, Gnjilan and other smaller townships. City costumes were mostly made by terzije tailor masters. The city's men's costume is mainly based on the Turkish-Oriental clothing tradition, with influences from the Greek costume. Each town men wore a fez, usually darker in color and always with a black tassel. A tufted dark blue and black suit was also worn.
Female dress had the least amount of drastic changes throughout the centuries (partly due to women not traveling beyond their local areas). The necessity to move and earn money for one's family has led to strong and relatively frequent changes in traditional men's costume. The first significant changes towards the adoption of the European clothing style followed after 1829 as a consequence of the demand for change and reform of the whole social life within the Ottoman Empire, especially in the then underdeveloped urban areas. The vast rural population did not significantly modernize in terms of dressing until the Balkan wars and liberating these areas from centuries-old Turkish rule. Extremely difficult living conditions, almost daily threats to the lives of Serbian Orthodox people, will condition the development of the phenomenon labeled as mimika (mimicry) in clothing. That is why, until 1912, a white cloth suit was worn which was typical for the clothing of the Albanian male population. Since liberation – clothing was made of cloths of a dark colors. From the 1920s, elements of the Serbian military uniform have been observed in the men's folk costume of the Serbs: wearing šajkače and trousers on a bridge instead of an Old Balkan type čakšir. In North Kosovo, traders and wealthy people also wore a long red raincoat, rarely white, called a japundža. After World War II, men's traditional costumes were replaced by fully ready-made garments.
Clothing parts of the Serb Kosovo and Metohija folk costume:
Metohija
For women's folk costumes in the Metohija region, a linen shirt in the form of a straight tailored tunic with sleeves was developed, extending into bell-shaped garments with multiple studs inserted. The embroidery of perfect workmanship is located on the visible parts such as sleeves, chest with collar and the edge of the shirt. The embroidery used wool yarn, often red in multiple shades. In the Metohija region, it is almost independently represented.
Of the upper parts of the garments that are worn stand out the most beautifully shaped wide-brimmed robe known as a zubun, made of white cloth, sleeveless, long to the knees and open at full length front. The headband, which is made up primarily of tresses, tendrils, braids, worn by married women, consists of two braided wool braids that intertwine with hair or just bend past the ears. A headdress was laid on combed hair in the form of a small cap whose elongated parts fell down the back which was called a prevez.
Wrinkled aprons, usually woolen or in combination with cotton, up to a half thigh length or shorter, colored with intense red and green, are an integral part of traditional women's costume.
Various decorative forms of jewelry enriched clothing – needles, earrings (both highly richly designed or simple), and beautifully shaped headpieces in the form of tiaras. Necklaces, headbands, bracelets and rings are also common, as pafts (belt buckles). The well-known bride's ornament in the Metohija-Kosovo area was a kovanik (coin belt), made up of brass plates with polychrome stones and agates. Significant use was also made of rows of coins, as well as ornaments of multicolored beads with geometric patterns that were knitted by women.
The clothes were also complemented by opanci made of pig skin.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Serb folk dress of Bosnia and Herzegovina are divided into two groups; the Dinaric and Pannonian styles, all of which can also be placed under regional groups such as: Bosnian Krajina, East Herzegovina, Ozren, Sarajevo Field, etc. They also take some small influences from the Adriatic and Morava styles.
Bosnia
Bosnian Krajina
The costumes of the Bosnian Krajina belong to the type of Dinaric costumes that extend from western Bosnia to the Imljan, Banja Luka and Travnik regions in the east, from the slopes of Grmeč, across Potkozar to Prnjavor in the north, and to Grahovo, Glamoča, Kupresa and Bugojno in the south. However, some of the costumes in this group are classified in the group of Middle Bosnian and Posavina costumes. In such a widespread area there is a large number of variants of Serbian costumes with significant differences in the pattern of clothing, ornamentation or in the way of wearing individual pieces.
The main features of Dinaric women's costume are: long linen shirt, wool apron and belt. Shorter and longer gowns, including a woolen dress often referred to as modrina or raša, woolen socks, opanci, and a red cap with a white scarf called bošča.
The main features of the Dinaric Men's costume are: shorter linen shirt, čakšire pants, Woolen ječerma robe, cloths, socks, opanci, and red cap with or without fringe.
The linen shirt is the basic clothing item of Dinaric men's and women's costumes. As a rule, the shirt dresses on the body itself and in summer and winter. A belt cloth is tied or banded over it.
The women's shirt is extended while The men's shirt is shorter, up to the hips, usually fits into pants.
Both shirts are characterized by embroidered embellishments on the head opening, usually embroidered with wool in 4 colors, though there is also a white thread embroidery especially for men's shirts. Some parts of the embroidery are sometimes made individually and then sewn on a shirt, commonly known as ošve.
The red cap is also a common element of women's and men's costumes. Bridesmaids and groomsmen hats are obligatory decorated with coins, while married women throw a white kerchief over a cap embroidered with colorful wool over the cap.
Men sometimes wear a red woolen scarf over their hats, while those who do not wear a scarf have a black embroidered hat.
For other parts of the dinar costume, sheep's wool is used, which women washed, scratched, combed, covered with, and woven from such threads, which is left raw or dyed in blue, black or red.
Opanci are made of raw, unprocessed leather.
The dinar costume in Bosnia and Herzegovina is not complete without jewelry, which is very rich and focuses on the head, hair and chest. Jewelry is made of silver or silver alloys, while rare is made of other metals. With men, the highlights that attach to the vest or ječermu are part of the festive costume.
Women's jewelry is richer and consists of needles, braids, earrings, bracelets, rings and belt buckles. A special role in women's jewelry is played by necklace with attached coins called a đerdan. However, having lost the original role and function of framing the face, it became a long metal strip, with a series of sewn silver pieces that a girl ready to be married receives in a dowry from her parents.
Integral parts of the Serb Bosnian Krajina folk costume:
Ozren
Serb folk costume in the Ozren area is mostly made of canvas. Weaved from cotton on the flat (canvas maker). Men wear hats. Each men's bag is differently decorated.
Integral parts of the Serb Bosnian Krajina folk costume:
Sarajevo Field
Male costumes in this group are much more uniform, regardless of the specific characteristics of certain costumes. The shirts are also made of linen, without ties, with very wide sleeves, especially in Sarajevo costumes. Both male and female costumes are characterized by kerchiefs at the edge of the sleeves. Unlike the Dinaric ones, Sarajevo pants are of a much wider. Main type of jackets worn are gunjić or džoka, džemadan, gunj and čakšire. All these black cloth dresses are decorated with black, red and blue gaiters. The whole group of male costumes in eastern and central Bosnia are characterized by Fez hats. Feet are characterized by tozluci.
In female costumes, shirts are made of cotton or mixed birch, long to the ankle, with pleated wedges under the arms, which make them very wide. Zubun, as the most important robe, is not as uniform here as in Dinaric costumes. Some of the costumes in this area do not have zubun's, but short gunjiće or čerme. These are always made of black cloth, mostly decorated with red braid, or without ties, as in eastern Bosnia and Birač. The pregača apron in women's costumes was also not a common dress element. For footwear in addition to knitted opanci, leather opanci of different shapes and colors are also worn. The socks are knee-deep of length, mostly black wool, patterned in different colors, with floral motifs in eastern Bosnia, while geometric patterns are found around Sarajevo. For headdress maidens wore the typical red fezić, while women wore various forms of rolls woven from wands, with a square headscarf placed over it, mostly with without ties.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, there have been some changes to this group of costumes. The only major change is in female costumes with the use of black satin dimija in the Sarajevo area and in Bosnia Valley to Zenica. The introduction of this garment ceases the use of aprons, while all other parts remain in use. In male costumes, the changes were insignificant until World War II.
Integral parts of the Serb Sarajevo folk costume:
{|
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Male Sarajevo folk costume:
Fez hat
Krmez, a embroidered cap
Džoka or Gunjić coat
Džemadan vest
Gunj jacket
Čakšire, black trousers made of heavy cloth
Shirt
Tozluci legwarmers
Opanci
|
Female Sarajevo folk costume:
Fesić headdress
Čenar', colorful kerchiefs for the head
Džečerma or Čerma, home-made relief linen shirt
Gunjiće robed shirt
Ćurdija, richly embroidered vest
Dimija Zubun
Long white dress
Opanci
|}
Herzegovina
East Herzegovina
Herzegovina hill folk costume is in the territory of Eastern Herzegovina, ie. in the southern part of Republika Srpska and Old Herzegovina in the territory of western Montenegro, was in daily use until 1875.
Integral parts of the Serb Herzegovina folk costume:
Gacko
Traditional peasant attire. Women wear home-made linen dresses with darker embroidery around sleeves, weaved fringed apron, dark-blue zobun made of heavy cloth hemmed with dark-red narrow stripes and a cap on the head. Men’s costume consists of white trousers, long gunj, dark-red weaved belt and also a cap on the head. They wear the opanciCroatia
The Serb folk dress of Croatia are divided into several groups; Adriatic, Alpine, Dinaric, and Pannonian styles, all of which can also be placed under regional groups such as: Baranya, Dalmatia, Istra, Slavonia, etc.
Baranya and Slavonia
Folk costumes of the Pannonian area are characterized by the use of konoplje and flax.
The basic elements of a men's costume in Baranya are wide canvas shorts, which extend down to the ankles, and a linen shirt, which is worn over the pants. The upper parts of the garment consist of a sleeveless vest, most often embellished with embroidery or applications, multicolored buttons, and pieces of glass. In the cold winter months, he also wore a long white cloak of cloth with a very decorative square collar, with applied ornaments of the same material. Sheepskin raincoat as well as various fur coats with sleeves were used as winter outerwear. The everyday costume was simple, unadorned, while for festive occasions the shirts received a very nice embroidery on the chest made of red, blue or white thread, and for the most festive occasions a golden thread.
Baranya's women's costume comes in many variants, but is basically a one-piece linen shirt that covers the body from the shoulders to the ankles. It is made of several half canvases that are joined by a rich pleating on the neckline.
The number of variants that adapt the Baranya to all the needs of the seasons, canons of certain age groups and differences in economic position are underlined in two geographically specific types of Danube and Podravina costumes.
Dalmatia
For centuries, Serbs of both Orthodox and Catholic Christian denominations have lived alongside other people groups in the Dalmatia region, modern day Croatia. As such, their folk costumes share elements and similarities with folk costumes of other local ethnic groups. Italian, Croat, and Slovene design elements blended with Serb designs, creating folk costumes such as those worn by Serbs in Montenegro.
Bukovica
In Bukovica, a part of northern Dalmatia inhabited by Serbs for centuries, folk costumes of specific forms have been maintained for longer than in other areas. The continuity of identical forms from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. The work uses primarily the rich material of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade, which contains sets and individual parts of the costume from the Serbian regions of northern Dalmatia: Bukovica, Benkovac, Ravni Kotari, Knin, Cetinska and Drniška Krajina from the second half of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, written and visual sources from 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, the results of an independent field survey conducted from 1993 to 1995 in Bukovica and Ravni Kotari, as well as data obtained in interviews with indicators expelled from these areas in 1995.
Knin
Zagorje, the people of the Knin Krajina still wear what their grandfathers used to wear. That suit lasts from generation to generation. There is no end in Europe where there are as many quirky and original ways of costume as in Dalmatia. The costume is traditional, and so is the pattern or grease blue (blue), red and white, yellow, green and black.
Married on her head she wears a white canvas called bošča. Wherever she wears a colorful towel. The females, as they marry, are wearing a red cap. The married woman knits her hair in two braids and throws it across her neck. In these braids, advances, ilk, cyanics are interwoven, and girls wear caps with chains, hearts, glass beads, etc. The girls knit their hair in one braid and pull it down. The hat she wears is red-pale and shallower. They comb their hair well, smooth it with wooden combs, help with young butter or oil, through the same variety of jewelry, and even infuse money.
They are married with a home-made or shopping shirt, embroidered in wool, thin, tailored, which they themselves wrap in four different colors: blue, green, black, red, etc. For older people, extinguish colors and younger ones. The shirt is tied around the neck, down the chest and around the sleeves. The shirt is spread across her chest, under her neck, buckled and whispered with buckles and buckles, her sleeves are wide, and she is long to her ankles. Some also wear a shirt with breasts and sleeves. Above the shirt, in winter, aljina, which is made of black cloth, is embroidered on the bottom with silk, in bright colors, red-brown-blue. This embroidery is at the bottom of the dress, around the arms and neck. In summer, they only have a shirt. Above all, the modrina, which they call sadak. Sadak is made of blue cloth, made with rice, and along the rice with embroidery down the chest and along the bottom, mostly sharp. It has no sleeves, just rolls up. They also call it zubun. At the waist is the pregača apron. They make it from yarn, which they make and dye themselves. It is in folk patterns and has tassels. It reaches below the ankles. Over and around the lower torso she has a tkanicu made in a shirt and embroidered. It is also made of home-made cloth.
They usually wear a kind of knife on the side, a razor curved and folded into a cover. The shoes are worn with dyed socks from cloths that go to the ankles, which are worn underneath the "terluci". Terluci are made of white wool and embroidered with silk or wool in the front. In modern times, they have been replaced by regular woolen socks. Opanci have the sole of unstretched ox skin. They are wrapped on the upper side of the leg with sheepskin or sheepskin unbroken leather – they are tightened at the end of the sole. Some wear slippers and call them "levantine".
Men dress is more simple and without any frills. They have a heavy red cap on their head, made of scarlet, embroidered with black silk, younger men wear shallower, and older men deeper caps. They call it težačka red cap. Some also wear a Turkish-styled towel. They have a tight shirt. It is not strictly long, and if you tie it up, it is no different from the shirts for women. The colors are white and home-made. The older men wear a white embroidered necklace, while the younger men have it simply stitched. They wear a kind of vest on top of the shirt called the krožet. It is usually made of blue cloth, trimmed with a red rice. It is noticed on the chest and reaches to the hips below. On top of the krožet is a gunjac or a korporan. It is on the sleeves like a wide jacket, made with a red rice and red braid. It is made of black cloth, decorated in the front and even on the sleeves and back. They have trousers, blue "benevreke" pants.
The socks are tightly fitted, then obojci and opanci, with ox skins underneath, and a oputa from above.
In winter they wear a robe, ie. raincoat with crochet necklace called a kukuljica. The raincoat is made of large red čohe-abe, or gray cloth. Usually, the kukuljica simply stands on the shoulders, stretched out. When it is raining, they drag the bead on its head and fasten it with buckles.
On top of the woolen shirts, they attach a holders for knives, razors, pipes, and sometimes weapons. Below the gun they carry a torbak bag, which is a leather square bag, worn by a man. Both men and women bags on both shoulders, and smaller bags on one shoulder, all made from domestic wool. Some also carry zobnice, a type of woolen cloth with carpet like patterns.
Many weave rugs, aprons, blankets and various home jewelry. All with different patterns woven very nicely, and of value.
There are still older people who wear their hair in a braid called a perčin. Usually, they shave their heads in front, and they pick up the rest of their hair in a long strip and weave it into a black woolen band, then adorn it with jewelry. If there is a young daughter-in-law in the house, she combs and knits it.
Better clothes are made of finer things and with finer shoots, buckles, hooks, etc.
Integral parts of the Serb Knin folk costume:
Lika
For centuries, Serbs (both Orthodox and Catholic), Vlachs, Croats, Bunjevci and Kranjci have lived in Lika. Although they lived in the same area, the people had very distinct differences, peculiarities and specificities, both in historical, spiritual, cultural, dialect, and in terms of folk traditions. This inevitably reflected in the folk costumes of these people.
The folk costumes of the Serbian Orthodox people of Lika differs in some sense from the national costume of the Catholic people of Lika, both in color and in the names of the individual parts of which the costume consists.
The Serb Lika costumes are consist of male and female Lika costumes, each with different types of clothing for work, everyday (both contemporary and old), ceremonies, and secular use. The traditional Serb costume of Lika is much like the traditional Montenegrin folk attire.
Integral parts of the Serb Lika folk costume:
Montenegro
The folk dress of Montenegro are part of the Old Herzegovina style, exclusively worn by ancient Serbian Clans and descent, which are traditionally worn in the following areas: Morača, Cetinje and in northwestern Montenegro, region of Durmitor and Ljubišnja, the entire length of the Tara River Canyon, and in all parts of Montenegro and East Herzegovina, where autochthonous Serbian Slav Clans lived.
The ceremonial costume that became a symbol of the Serb ethnic community in Montenegro was created by Prince-Bishop Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, who also liked to wear it himself. When worn by Njegoš, the costume was described in elaborate detail: "He wore a red waistcoat, hemmed with gold; the shirt sleeves which could be seen under the sleeveless jacket were of the finest linen...; he had the weapon belt tied around his waist and the brown girdle with two guns and the long dagger stuck into it. The wide blue panes and knee socks...the fine socks and black leather shoes completed his attire."Jovan Vukmanovic, "Fizicki lik i izgled Njegosa," /The Physical Image of Njegos/ in Glasnik Etnografskog muzeja na Cetinju (Cetinje, 1963), III, 76–96. The red waistcoat, the blue panes, and the white knee socks symbolized the Serbian tricolour flag by which the Montenegro had identified itself with since 1876.
Costumes in Montenegro and in Herzegovina regions consist of:
Montenegrin cap
Shirt with collar, ie. shirt with no collar or with a small collar
Džamadan, men's jacket the red part that wears after the shirt
Dušanka the female jacket
Jaketa jacket
Kanice the female belt
Zubun the long wool coat with light green color, a common part of both men's and women's costume
Silav, a leather strap for a weapon that is placed under the pojas''
Blue pants with wide-fitting
Ankle stockings
Bjelače Woolen socks (shorts)
Opanci (leather)
Often boots are worn instead of leggings, but not worn with socks or soles.
Gallery
See also
Serbian dances
Serbian folklore
Croatian national costume
Macedonian national costume
References
Further reading
Đekić, Mirjana. Srpska narodna nošnja Kosova: Gnjilane. Kulturno-prosvjetni sabor Hrvatske, 1989.
Бјеладиновић, Јасна. "Српска народна ношња у сјеничко–пештерској висоравни." ГЕМ45 (1981).
Jovanović, Milka, and Branislav Kojić. Народна ношња у Србији у XIX веку/Narodna nošnja u Srbiji u XIX veku. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, 1979.
Милутиновић, Вера. "Српске народне ношње у околини Вршца. у: Филиповић, Миленко С., ур." Српске народне ношње у Војводини (1953): 103–123.
Бјеладиновић-Јергић, Јасна. "Компаративно одређење народне ношње српског и муслиманског становништва унутар Сјеничко-пештерске висоравни и у односу на суседне и друге области." Научна монографија: Сјеничко-пештерска висораван, Етнографски музеј, Београд (1992): 305–348.
Čulić, Zorislava, and Helena Volfart-Kojović. Narodne nošnje u Bosni i Hercegovini. Zemaljski muzej, 1963.
Јовановић, М. "Војислав Радовановић и његов допринос проучавању наше народне ношње." Гласник Етнографског института Српске академије наука и уметности (1977).
Radojičić, Dragana. "Ношња из Врчина." Гласник Етнографског института САНУ 54.1 (2006): 259–270.
External links
Traditional Attire
Serbian clothing
Culture of Serbia
Folk costumes |
4065506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine%20Idol | Philippine Idol | Philippine Idol is the first version of the Idol series in the Philippines, the 35th country in the world to air a local Idol adaptation and the sixth in Asia broadcast by ABC 5 (now TV5). Similar to the premise of original show Pop Idol, Philippine Idol aims to find the best singer in the country who can be defined as the "national" singer. Local television personality Ryan Agoncillo hosted the program. Ryan Cayabyab (musical composer), Pilita Corrales (singer, known as Asia's Queen of Songs) and Francis Magalona (rapper and producer) were also judges of the show. Agoncillo, Corrales and Magalona auditioned to be part of the program, while Cayabyab was chosen by the program's producers. Meanwhile, actress Heart Evangelista hosted the daily updates program I ♥ Philippine Idol: Exclusive. Composer Mel Villena was the show's musical director.
Mau Marcelo, an aspiring singer from Lucena City, defeated two other contenders on the show's finale to become the first Philippine Idol. FremantleMedia subsequently awarded the franchise to GMA Network and their version of the program was named Pinoy Idol, which does not recognize the results of ABC's franchise.
Production
ABC started negotiating with FremantleMedia in order to acquire a Philippine franchise of Idol in 2004, when Filipino-American Jasmine Trias placed third in [[American Idol (season 3)|American Idols third season]]. It reportedly cost millions of dollars. During the program's development stage, notable personalities in music and recording industries tried out to become Idol judges, including former Eraserheads vocalist Ely Buendia, singer-actress Pinky Marquez, and talent manager Wyngard Tracy. The chosen judges were addressed according to their agreed-upon nicknames: Cayabyab was called "Mr. C", Corrales called "Mamita", and Magalona, "Kiko".
Before it was launched, there was skepticism among the local entertainment press about Philippine Idol as singing contests are common in local television, with recent ones branded as Idol knockoffs. The Filipino culture of "westernized conservatism" was also noted, as Pinoys tend to shy away from direct criticism especially in front of cameras. Promotion began during the Finale of American Idol season 5. One of its taglines reads, "Hindi lang STAR, hindi lang SUPERSTAR, kundi PHILIPPINE IDOL" (Not just a STAR, not just a SUPERSTAR, but a PHILIPPINE IDOL). This was in reference to two singing contests being held during that time—Search for the Star in a Million on ABS-CBN and Pinoy Pop Superstar on GMA Network. Initially, the program was scheduled to begin on July 29, 2006, but ABC moved it to July 30, 2006. On its premiere, Philippine Idol registered a 7.7% rating according to an independent survey, in contrast to GMA Network's Mel and Joey at 21% and ABS-CBN's Rated K at 26.7%. ABC officials, however, were overwhelmed at the results, considering they were up against "giant networks". They also noted that ratings for Philippine Idol increased to as much as 12% towards the final 30 minutes of first episode.
Early reviews compared the show with American Idol, which was shown locally on ABC. Entertainment writers said that the local Idol franchise was not as glossy as its American counterpart, but it was able to succeed because of promising elements such as human interest, talent, and proper casting of judges and host. Meanwhile, reviews during the Finale were mixed, with Nestor Torre of the Philippine Daily Inquirer commenting that the Performance Show was phlegmatic and anticlimactic as the Final Three failed to rise up to the challenge and instead played safe, while Results Show was stretched out with one unspectacular number after another. He also noticed sound glitches, which he blamed on faulty equipment and lax personnel. In contrast, Billy Balbastro of Abante Tonite wrote that he was impressed with the show's "flow", song choices, pacing, and camera shots. He also noted that the Finale did not have melodrama and lingering shots for the sake of effects.
Auditions
The main auditions were held in three cities, each representing a major island group: Pasay (advertised as Manila) for Luzon, on June 3, 2006, in Philippine International Convention Center; Davao for Mindanao, on June 23, 2006, in Waterfront Insular Hotel; and Cebu for Visayas, on July 4, 2006, in Bigfoot Entertainment's International Academy of Film and Television. Meanwhile, Fast-Track Screenings were also held in SM Supermalls located in Baguio, Lucena, Batangas, Iloilo, and Cagayan de Oro between May and June 2006. Screenings were also held in cities without an SM Mall such as Dagupan, Ilagan in Isabela, Tacloban, and Zamboanga. Applicants were asked to fill out necessary forms and perform two songs before a set of judges, usually from local radio and music industries. Successful applicants were given a pass for the Main Auditions. ABC and its media partners Radio Mindanao Network and Manila Broadcasting Company provided free transportation, food and lodging to those who were eligible for Theater Eliminations.
The Luzon Main Auditions and Fast-Tracks yielded over 10,000 registrants,About Philippine Idol Philippine Idol Official Website, About section with Contestant no. 0001 arriving at the audition venue at 1:00 a.m., auditions starting at 9:00 a.m. The Main Auditions were composed of three stages—passing the first two stages gave the participant a blue form, allowing them to face the Idol judges about a week later. The Idol judges were so overwhelmed with the amount of talent presented to them that it was difficult for them to say "no" to hopefuls who did not pass their standards. Cayabyab exasperatedly stated during the Luzon Main Auditions,
He admitted becoming angry at times and felt like he was the anti-hero because of intense reactions from rejects who viewed the competition as a ticket out of poverty. The judges even allowed candidates to sing up to five "redemption songs" after saying "no" for the first time. After seeing the auditions, FremantleMedia supervising producer Sheldon Bailey said that she was amazed at the abundance of musical talent in the Philippines as well as the amount of touching human stories.
Theater round
The Theater Round was held between August 1 and 3, 2006, at the Cultural Center of the Philippines. A total of 169 competitors received the Gold Pass from the three main judges, 119 from Luzon and Metro Manila, 17 from Davao, and 33 from Cebu. However, only 157 showed up for the Theater Round as other Gold Passers either backed out or were allegedly "pirated" to join rival talent search Pinoy Dream Academy. They were billeted at the Bayview Park Hotel, where Gold Passers from outside Luzon arrived after a first-class trip in Super Ferry, while the Luzon contenders were picked up in selected SM Malls. The contestants were divided into 11 groups with 15 members. Each contestant performed an a cappella, after which the judges selected who would go home and advance to the next round. From 157 contestants, 84 were chosen to proceed to the group performance, with each group having three members. The list was trimmed down further to 40 contestants, each of which sang solo with a piano accompaniment. Eventually the judges selected the 24 contestants who would compete in the Semi-Final Round. The Top 24 was officially announced on August 27, 2006.
Semifinal round
The Semi-Finalists were then divided by gender, with the two groups performing alternately at SM Megamall Cinema 3 on a stage built specifically for the live shows. The viewers voted for their favorites by dialing a toll-free telephone number or sending an SMS as often as possible from the end of the show until 8:30 p.m. the following day. The four contestants of each group who received the highest number of votes entered the Finals. Ten of the remaining 16 semi-finalists then performed in a Wildcard round, with four contestants with the highest number of votes completing the Top 12 Finalists. Candidates for the Wildcard were announced after the second Semi-Finals Results Show, although it was shown on television a day later in Philippine Idol: Exclusive.
Final round
The Final Round started on September 30, 2006, in which each finalist sang one to three songs within a specified theme and received comments from each of the judges. The viewers continued to vote for their favorites until 8:30 p.m. the following day, which was shortened to two hours from the Fifth Finals Week. The finalist with the lowest number of votes was eliminated during the Results Show every week. However, there were special circumstances that did not result in eliminations during the Results Show, but then the votes were carried over the week after and eventually eliminated two finalists.Episode 17– Finals: Results Soul and RnB Philippine Idol Official Website, Recaps section The 12 Finalists also recorded a compilation album entitled Philippine Idol: The Final 12, consisting of Original Pilipino Music songs they have performed during the first Finals Week. The remaining three contenders, namely Gian Magdangal, Jan Nieto, and Mau Marcelo, competed in the Finale, instead of the usual two contestants in most Idol shows, held on December 9 and 10, 2006, at the Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City.Pangilinan, Jen M. GIAN vs. MAU vs. JAN FOR THE FINALS! Philippine Idol Official Website, Features section
Weekly themes
September 30 – OPM songs dedicated to a special someone
October 7 – Soul/R&B
October 14 – Songs from the Metropop Song Festival
October 21 – Contemporary Filipino rock
October 29 – Personal theme songs
November 5 – Dance music
November 12 – Radio hits
November 19 – Movie themes, and Broadway show tunes
November 26 – Big band
December 9 – Personal choice, Judges' and Musical director's choice, and Record company's choice
Guest judges
A guest judge was enlisted each week for five weeks beginning on October 14 while resident judge Magalona was away on a tour in Europe. Additionally, a sixth guest judge supplemented the panel on the week of Magalona's return. Each guest judge generally had expertise relating to that week's theme.
October 14 – Hajji Alejandro (interpreter of the first winning song of the Metropop Song Festival)
October 21 – Wency Cornejo (songwriter and front man of AfterImage)
October 29 – Luke Mejares (solo artist and former vocalist of South Border)
November 5 – Regine Tolentino (professional dancer, former MTV VJ and TV personality)
November 12 – Mo Twister (radio DJ and talk show host)
November 19 – Lea Salonga (Tony Award-winning singer and musical theatre performer)
Notable events
On the first Finals Week, no contestants were eliminated due to disrupted telephone and mobile phone services in many areas of Luzon, caused by Typhoon Xangsane. In the results show, finalists still went through a familiar elimination routine. Agoncillo called three contestants to an area dubbed the "Hot Spot" before revealing that no one would be eliminated and the votes would be carried over to the succeeding week. This was done because there were no official results to be announced. According to sources from the network, the votes were not yet counted at the time. ABC-5 Director for Creative and Entertainment Production Perci Intalan stated that the three finalists who were put in the "Hot Spot" (Marcelo, Armarie Cruz and Jelli Mateo) were not necessarily the Bottom Three. Intalan said, "We were not allowed to announce who the Bottom Three were because the votes will be carried over next week and it might affect the voting if people knew who the Bottom Three were." As a result, two contenders—Stef Lazaro and Drae Ybañez—were eliminated the following week. Another non-elimination occurred on the fourth Finals Week due to reports of disrupted voting (among Sun Cellular and Smart subscribers). The votes amassed for this week were carried over to Week 5. Through the rest of the results night, each of the judges picked one finalist to give an encore performance: Cornejo picked Cruz, Corrales chose Marcelo, and Cayabyab picked Magdangal.
Schedules were changed starting the Fifth Finals Week, with performances held on Sundays while elimination nights were on Mondays, as opposed to the previous arrangement of Saturday performances and Sunday eliminations. The voting time was also shortened from 21 to 2 hours. Agoncillo explained that this change was adopted (partly due to public clamor) from the voting period of American Idol. Mateo and Cruz were eliminated because of the non-elimination on the previous week.
On the Seventh Finals Week, each finalist sang a song chosen for them by a fellow Idol based on these assigned pairings: Magdangal and Nieto, Marcelo and Mendoza, Chavez and Dingle. After the night's performances, guest judge Mo Twister confidently said that Dingle would be eliminated the next night and even wagered that he would go to work in a dress for a week if his prediction proved wrong. Dingle was indeed eliminated the following night. The Big Band Week became a "mini-concert", as each of the remaining four finalists performed two song numbers with a short spiel to the audience in between. The following week featured special segments about the final three contenders: Marcelo, Magdangal, and Nieto.
Finale
Philippine Idol held its Performance Night Finale on December 9, 2006, at the Araneta Coliseum, which was dubbed The Big 3 at the Big Dome. Each of the three remaining contenders performed three songs, one personally chosen by the contestant, one by the judges and one by Sony BMG Music Philippines. Agoncillo hosted the performance night alone; he was joined the next night by Heart Evangelista. Each song was performed with Villena's "mega band" and the San Miguel Philharmonic Orchestra. The next night at the same venue, the star-studded results show was held, headlined by Magdangal, Marcelo, and Nieto together with the rest of the Final 12. The show also included performances from Cueshé, Aiza Seguerra, the SexBomb Girls, G Toengi, Hajji Alejandro, and Gary Valenciano, as well as resident judges Francis Magalona and Pilita Corrales. Ryan Cayabyab also performed his compositions by joining the finalists through his piano accompaniment. In what can be regarded as the climax of the show, the Final 12 and resident judges Corrales and Cayabyab performed a medley of songs composed by Cayabyab, including an original one which he made with finalist Miguel Mendoza entitled "Here I Am".
Marcelo was voted as the first Philippine Idol, amassing about 35.26% of the vote. The vote was a hotly contested one with the runners-up earning about 33.84% and 30.90% of the votes. It was not revealed, however, which runner-up garnered which percentage, but they each received ₱250,000. Aside from the title, Marcelo also earned a contract with Sony BMG Music Philippines, a management contract with an agency of FremantleMedia's choice, a ₱1,000,000 non-exclusive contract with ABC, and ₱1,000,000 cash prize.
Elimination chart
1 Due to the power interruptions and network problems, no elimination was held on October 1. All votes cast for the week were carried over to the following week.
2 Two contestants were eliminated this week in lieu of the non-elimination the week before.
3 Due to network problems, no contestant was eliminated. All votes cast for the week were carried over to the following week. This serves as Philippine Idol's Second Non-elimination week.
4 Two contestants were eliminated this week in lieu of the non=elimination the week before. This also marks the first Monday elimination, as performance nights were moved to Sundays, with eliminations moved to Mondays.
Kakaibang Idol
Kakaibang Idol was a special episode of Philippine Idol held on September 23, 2006, a week after the Top 12 Finalists have been named. It was an interactive reality singing competition consisting of notable auditionees who either did not pass or failed to make it through Semifinals. The program was named Kakaibang Idol (A Different Kind of Idol) because the seven contestants made an impact among viewers. The twelve finalists were present that night, but only performed at the beginning and end of the show. Likewise, Magalona, Corrales, and Cayabyab took a back seat, appearing in clips taking their "times off". Taking over jury duties that night were comedic performers Ethel Booba, Arnell Ignacio, and Tuesday Vargas. Although the event served as a breather, voting was still active, involving viewers picking the performer who should be proclaimed Kakaibang Idol. The next night, with finalists and judges present, Kenneth Paul "Yova" Alonzo—a transgender call center agent from Cebu City—was chosen by viewers as Kakaibang Idol.
I ♥ Philippine Idol: ExclusiveI ♥ Philippine Idol: Exclusive, originally Philippine Idol: Exclusive, is a thirty-minute daily program that features updates, news and behind-the-scene footages of the show. Since its premiere on August 14, 2006, a male voice talent (who also voices the plugs for ABC programs) has been facilitating the program, with appearances by Jmie Mempin who is also a production associate of Philippine Idol. Actress Heart Evangelista took over on September 4, 2006. Accordingly, Philippine Idol: Exclusive was renamed I Love Philippine Idol: Exclusive with a heart shape reflecting the new host.
Controversies
Auditions
A Fast-Track audition that was to be held at SM City Sta. Mesa was canceled, leading to complaints from hopefuls and their parents. After hours of waiting, a representative of ABC arrived and relocated each of the 160 frustrated applicants to other scheduled screening. Meanwhile, Filipinos living in Mindanao reacted negatively to what Philippine Idol judges said after a low Gold Pass turnout at the Davao Main Auditions, with Corrales (a Cebuana herself) saying that "Davao is not the place to look for an Idol" and "all the good ones are in Cebu". Corrales later clarified in the Wildcard Round that she said such a statement because of the low turnout in the Davao auditions and the even lower Gold Pass output. She added that "Davao's best talents" might have probably auditioned earlier in Manila.
Talent piracy
ABC confirmed that a Gold Passer (later identified in the show's official website as Czarina Rose Rosales) was pirated by ABS-CBN's Pinoy Dream Academy, the Philippine franchise of Star Academy. Sources said that representatives of ABS-CBN even approached a judge to "just let (some of) the contestants go". This came after news that ABS-CBN wanted to co-produce Philippine Idol with ABC, but was denied. ABS-CBN sent a letter to the Philippine Daily Inquirer, which published the said report denying the allegations. The network added that they successfully staged competitions without taking contestants from other contests and would fully respect a contestant's choice as to which competition they would join. Auditions for Pinoy Dream Academy were being held before the Theater eliminations. ABC then sent a formal letter of complaint to ABS-CBN, alleging that three Gold Passers of Philippine Idol became contestants of Pinoy Dream Academy. The latter did not comment on the letter, as neither of the three talents questioned became a finalist of that show.
Vote padding
Upon the announcement of the first four male finalists, there were viewers of the show who had negative reactions regarding its format. They were shocked, disappointed, and were left complaining as two of the contestants that were favored by the judges based on their performances failed to make the cut. Instead, two others who had rather bad reviews from the jurors took the spots.<ref name=Donsol>{{Cite news|last=Gabinete |title=Part of "Donsol, wagi sa Makuhari! |publisher=Abante |date=September 5, 2006 |url=http://www.abante.com.ph/issue/sep0506/showbiz_jg.htm |access-date=March 3, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027210751/http://www.abante.com.ph/issue/sep0506/showbiz_jg.htm |archive-date=October 27, 2007 |url-status=dead }} </ref> Viewers critical to the program concluded that it was just another "popularity contest" rather than a singing competition. Cayabyab mentioned that people should not be complacent regarding the contestants' status on the show, and advised them to keep on voting for their favorites because of the show's uncertainty. This criticism was also reflected during the Women's Semi-finals, as talent critics believed two contenders that failed to make the cut should have become finalists. Critics also noted that viewers did not take heed to the judges' remarks about performance. Torre stated in his article that the results of Philippine Idol Semi-finals revealed that viewers were not yet knowledgeable or objective enough to pick the first Idol, and pointed to the compromised voting based on "subjective campaigns" from some of the semi-finalists' backers. He later commented that the show did not affirm a contestant's popularity but "the determination and deep pockets of his supporters." This was supported on a report published by the Manila Bulletin about contestants who "buy their way to the top". Cayabyab divulged that he did not expect the way people voted and would see if that trend would continue in the coming weeks. However, he admitted that such campaigns were part of the game.
Looks over talent
During the Results Show of the Wildcard Round, Marcelo jokingly said that Philippine Idol is not a singing contest but a "pagandahan" (beauty contest), which received a thunderous applause and laughter (especially from Cayabyab). Her statement was interpreted in two ways: as a way of venting out her frustrations in the voting process or as a means of sarcasm. She later made it to the Finals. In a later interview in I ♥ Philippine Idol: Exclusive, she said that she did not mean anything. Marcelo later apologized for her remarks during the Finale's post-results show press conference. The judges were also scored by viewers for their constant comments about contestants who should lose weight, especially Marcelo. Marcelo admitted getting hurt by comments on so-called physical flaws, adding that she entered a "singing contest" not a "dancing competition". Cayabyab said that he avoids commenting on the singer's physical attributes.
Cayabyab losing cool
Cayabyab had shown signs of frustration during Results Shows where the best performers of the previous night got eliminated. He finally expressed his disgust over the results after Sajor's elimination, calling it "dreadful". He also appeared to have surrendered the prospect of finding the best singer in the contest, predicting that it would be a "lightweight competition" with contestants singing nursery rhymes.
Fate of Idol in the Philippines
Transition to Pinoy Idol
Although it had previously announced that it would, ABC did not produce a second season of Philippine Idol''' Sources stated that ABC had incurred large losses producing the first season due to lower than expected advertising revenue.
On September 16, 2007, FremantleMedia officially announced that the Idol franchise would be given to GMA Network under the name Pinoy Idol. FremantleMedia representative Geraldine Bravo said that it was "very fortunate" to find a new partner, while GMA Network's Senior Vice President for Entertainment Wilma Galvante added that both parties agreed that the network "has the experience, the resources, and the people to mount talent-search programs". Reports said that GMA was planning to treat Pinoy Idol as a completely different show, without referring to Philippine Idol as its "first season" and not recognizing Marcelo as the "first winner". Agoncillo and Cayabyab would not reprise their roles in the new Idol show as they appeared in the second season of Pinoy Dream Academy.
In an article published before Pinoy Idol's premiere, Torre gave the lapses in Philippine Idol which he hoped Pinoy Idol should not replicate, such as Agoncillo's less than effective hosting style and the somewhat scripted and less wise comments of Magalona and Corrales.
Idol Philippines telecast
The second season of Idol Philippines, the iteration produced by ABS-CBN was broadcast on TV5, along with Kapamilya Channel and A2Z. This marks the return of an iteration of the Idol franchise on the network since Philippine Idol''.
See also
List of programs aired by TV5 (Philippine TV network)
External links
Philippine Idol official website
References
Idols (franchise)
Philippine reality television series
Philippine television series based on British television series
2006 Philippine television series debuts
2006 Philippine television series endings
TV5 (Philippine TV network) original programming
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Filipino-language television shows
Television controversies in the Philippines |
4065532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ%20Church%2C%20New%20Brunswick%2C%20New%20Jersey | Christ Church, New Brunswick, New Jersey | Christ Church or Christ Episcopal Church is a historic Episcopal church in New Brunswick, Middlesex County, New Jersey.
History
In 1701 English minister Thomas Bray formed the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) to minister to the new English settlers. In 1711 a group of Anglicans were holding service in an old broken down townhouse in Piscataway that they shared with a group of Baptists. Under the influence of William Skinner, an SPG minister, in 1717 a timber frame church was built, which was completed in 1724, to replace the broken down townhouse. St. James Parish in Piscataway continued to grow, including members from higher up the Raritan River in New Brunswick. The demand was so great that a group gathered in 1742 to construct another church, to be called Christ Church, on the New Brunswick side of the River.
Although construction began in 1742, title to the land was not obtained until 1745. This was because one of the original church planners was Philip French, who was the largest land owner in New Brunswick. French did not believe in selling land, but for public buildings that would benefit the community he did provide land leases at nominal rates. For the land to build Christ Church, he charged a yearly rent of "one peppercorn a year, only if asked." The lease for the land is still on display in the Rector's office at Christ Church. Throughout the early years, Christ Church remained a mission parish. It would not receive a royal charter as an independent parish until 1761.
Pre– and post–American Revolution
While it was believed that the parish was fully behind fight for independence, the reality is that during the Revolution the parish was quite conflicted. Figures such as Col. John Neilson, and Brigadier General Anthony White did, in fact, fight on behalf of the Patriots. But the church also contained its share of Loyalists, such as John Antill, who fought with the 2nd Battalion of the New Jersey Volunteers (a Loyalist force).
One figure caught in the middle was the Rector, the Rev. Abraham Beach. Beach sympathized with the Patriots aims, but could not support rebellion as a means to the end. Moreover, as an Anglican cleric, he had taken oaths to support the Crown, and the liturgy included prayers for the King. One morning as he was preparing for service he was threatened with death if he offered such prayers, as a result of which he decided to close the church for the duration of the war. Being a faithful cleric and a moderate at heart, he continued his ministry even during the war, worshiping in the homes of sympathetic parishioners, and often deleting the prayers for the King if he thought such would offend delicate sensibilities.
Following the war, the political energies of the newly independent states were focused on forming "a more perfect union," first in the Articles of Confederation, later in the Constitution of the United States of America. The newly independent daughter churches of the Church of England also sought "a more perfect union," and foremost in the leadership was the same Abraham Beach. In the winter of 1783/84 he corresponded with William White (later the first Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church) and other clergy in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York soliciting a gathering to "consider the state of the church." He extended an invitation to meet at Christ Church May 11, 1784. The outgrowth of that meeting was a call for another meeting in October 1784 with representatives from all thirteen states to consider a general convention to manage the affairs of the newly independent church. The First General Convention met in September 1785, leading to the current shape of the church we now know: with equal voice and vote for bishops, clergy and laity, the beginnings of an American Book of Common Prayer, and our own national Constitution and Canons.
The parish acquired its first pipe organ in 1788 for $100. A choir was gathered in the early 19th century under the direction of Ann Croes, daughter of Bishop Croes. In 1826 Bishop Croes reported that "by the exertion of the ladies in the congregation the church has been furnished with a new and sweetly-toned organ, the largest in the Diocese" built by Henry Erben. A new organ by Erben replaced that instrument in 1842. In 1869 a new organ built by Levi Stuart was placed in the front of the church (now the Clarke Chapel).
19th century
The church was so comfortable financially that in 1852 the parish replaced 100-year-old structure and enlarged it, using (in part) many of the stones from the first building. Organ music has been part of parish life since the purchase of an organ in 1788, as was a volunteer parish choir, established in the early 19th century Read more here.. Under the leadership of the Reverend Elisha Brooks Joyce, successor of pastorate Alfred Stubbs, a choir of men and boys was established, replacing the paid quartet that had been established in the 1850s. Shortly after he became rector, The Rev. Joyce appointed George Wilmot, Music Supervisor of the New Brunswick Public Schools as a professional chorister in 1885, and in 1894 he established a formally vested men and boys choir. The present Christ Church music program inherits the legacy established by Wilmot. Mr. Wilmot was a composition pupil of the English composer Joseph Barnby. Other notable musicians include John W. Durham, a pupil of Alexander Guillmant. Durham served as organist in the early 20th century, and his daughter Elizabeth was (at her death) the oldest living graduate of the New Jersey College for Women (now Douglass College, Rutgers University). Miss Durham established a number of music scholarships at the Mason Gross School of the Arts, Rutgers.
The Rev. Stubbs supervised the construction of the "choir building" (Old Parish House), which was dedicated August 24, 1874. The Rev. Joyce supervised the construction of the "new" Parish House on Paterson Street in 1897, still in use today. Its construction placed the parish deeply in debt, a debt passed on to his successor, Herbert Parrish. Father Parrish was a man of substantial financial acumen, and served St Michael and Angels, Baltimore—then one of the largest Episcopal Churches in the country. The Rev. Joyce contracted tuberculosis and became a patient at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, and Parrish served as his priest. After Parrish's election as rector, he worked with William Hopkins Leupp and James Parsons to establish an "endowment fund" for the parish—he also served as the church's treasurer. By the time he left after his 13-year pastorate, the previously debt-ridden parish had an investment fund totaling $250,000, a fund that enabled the parish to survive the Depression far more easily than more financially strapped churches.
Parrish also was committed to Sunday Schools as essential to faith development. This is most clearly seen in the establishment of the Highland Park Sunday School in 1921 (supported by funding from the will of William Leupp), which in time led to the founding of All Saints Episcopal Church in Highland Park, New Jersey. He was instrumental in the development of still another Episcopal parish in New Brunswick, St. Alban's Church. Other parishes established by Christ Church include St. Mark's in Carteret (now closed), St. Paul's in Bound Brook, St. John's in Somerville, and St. John the Evangelist, also in New Brunswick.
The Modern Era
Parrish's successor, The Rev. Canon Walter Stowe, served the second longest pastorate in the church's history, 37 years (1929–66). It could also be argued that it was the second most tumultuous period (after the American Revolution). During his pastorate Stowe had to contend with the Great Depression, World War II, the Korean War, the beginnings of the Viet Nam War, the Civil Rights Movement, and the beginning of white flight to the suburbs. Due to Fr. Parrish's investment fund, the parish weathered the Depression relatively easily, but the Second World War was harder to avoid. The memorials around the building testify to the impact of the war on the parish. From all available evidence, at least 120 young men served in the war, of whom 10 never returned.
Following the war Stowe was instrumental in establishing the Episcopal chaplaincy at Rutgers. In 1949 two Episcopal members of the Rutgers' community, Clarence A. Lambelet (Professor of Engineering) and Jane Conlin (a senior at Douglass College, the Rutgers’ College for Women) set out to organize a Canterbury Club for 400 Episcopal students at Rutgers. They approached Stowe with the idea. The rector gave his backing to the plan and approached the Procter Foundation for financial support. With such support Clarence W. Sickles, a new curate, was hired for Christ Church, who began his service to both the church and the Episcopal ministry in September 1951.
The parish's second-longest serving musician, George Huddleston, arrived in 1930 and conducted the Choir of Men and Boys until his retirement in 1974. He was followed by Clifford Hill, Jr. who led the music program until 1990. Under Mr. Hill's direction, the adult choir admitted women and a Royal School of Church Music (RSCM) chorister program was established under the direction Martha Ainsworth (Para). One of the choristers from that period, T.J. Harper, is currently Associate Professor of Music and Director of Choral Activities at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles, California.
Stowe's immediate successor, Charles Gomph Newbery, came to Christ Church from All Saints Church in Princeton, but only remained three years (1966–69). Reflecting the liturgical changes that were occurring elsewhere in the church, Fr. Newbery instituted a number of changes in the worship space. A freestanding altar was installed, and the semi-circular choir stalls were built in the chancel. The Clarke Chapel was established, and the old altar moved there. The sacristy was also added. The current shape of the church is attributable to him. Given the social upheavals of the day, he also established an outreach to the neighborhood, beginning an English as a Second Language program.
The Rev. Joan Fleming served as Rector from 1993 until 2004. She exercised a regular ministry of parish visitation, and deliberately extended invitations to all, Black and white alike. She initiated the first Black Heritage Celebration in 1994—a tradition that continues to this day. She also created programming to address the heritage of all, Italian Night, International Night. Her diocesan initiative, "Unlearning Racism," was first offered at Christ Church. Under her leadership, Mark Trautman was engaged as Director of Music in 1994 and served until 2010. He incorporated jazz and gospel music, introduced the Lift Every Voice and Sing II Hymnal in 2006, and developed a full-time choral program that included annual concerts, Evensongs, Interfaith choral concerts involving city churches, as well as the Muslim and Jewish community, and many other events; he also commissioned the church's Richards, Fowkes and Company organ in 1997. Under Trautman's leadership, the choir sang at the State Theatre in New Brunswick in 2008 and 2009 with the New Brunswick Chamber Orchestra.
In 2001, the Richards, Fowkes and Company delivered its opus 12 organ to Christ Church. It is one of the most significant mechanical action pipe organs in the northeast, and is used regularly by the organ students from the Mason Gross School of the Arts at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. Recitalists from around the world have praised the instrument, and it has been recorded on a compact disc by Aart Bergwerff, organist from the Netherlands.
Area influence
Prestige
For most of the 19th and the early 20th centuries Christ Church was an establishment church. It could be described truthfully as the “Johnson and Johnson Church.” Among its members were James Wood Johnson (co-founder of Johnson and Johnson), Frederick Barnett Kilmer (father of poet Joyce Kilmer and research chemist for Johnson and Johnson), and Walter Williams (the President of Johnson and Johnson International). Other members were part of the economic and political elite (such as Nicholas Gouveneur Rutgers, President of the New Brunswick Savings Bank; Grace Wells, founder of what is now Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, and Fred DeVoe, former Speaker of the New Jersey Assembly). The present parish is less politically connected and more solidly middle class. Christ Church is also one of the first Episcopal parishes in the United States to have an organized choral program, including paid professional musicians, since the early 19th century.
Race, war, and the modern era
For much of its history Christ Church saw itself as a white church. In its earliest days, enslaved Black people were evangelized, but baptism did nothing to emancipate them. Existing parish records include 26 baptisms of known enslaved people, owned by parish members (including two rectors, Abraham Beach and John Croes). There may, of course, have been others, but records do not exist.
Blacks were members of the church but they were not seated with the whites. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, blacks were seated in the gallery, along with those who could not afford pew rents. When pew rents were abolished in the early 1920s, the decision was made to relocate the organ from the chancel to the gallery, displacing the Black members of the church. Taking that as an indication they were not particularly welcome, the displaced African American members formed their own parish, St. Alban's Episcopal Church in New Brunswick, a predominantly Afro-Anglican mission, which still exists.
The racial nature of the parish did not change much for half a century, but beginning in the mid-1970s, the composition of the church would be transformed. Blacks who moved into the city from other areas (including many from the Caribbean and African countries) joined the church. The church during this period has been described as not particularly welcoming to newcomers, but this was especially so for persons of color. Some parishioners would not shake their hands during the peace, and all but told them their place was at St. Alban's.
Two persons in particular helped to change this dynamic. The Reverend Canon Frank Carthy served with great distinction from 1970-1986, and was instrumental in making connections with the city and greater community. The Reverend Martin Gutwein, a curate under Canon Frank Carthy, had served in the Peace Corps knew the family members of some of the new members and made them feel welcome. With his acceptance, some of the veteran members of the parish invited more and more of the newcomers into existing parish ministries.
The current--and 27th rector of Christ Church is the Rev. Joanna Hollis, who has served since 2013.
Notable burials
John Croes (1762–1832) – rector of Christ Church from 1801 to 1832 and first Bishop of the Diocese of New Jersey, is buried beneath the altar in the sanctuary, but the grave of his wife, Martha is near a walkway on the west side of the church, along with his daughter, Ann, who served as the first choir director in the early 19th century.
Brigadier General Anthony Walton White – served as an aide-de-camp to George Washington in the American Revolution. His grave site is near the door to the sanctuary.
Adm. Charles Stuart Boggs (1811–1888) – Served upon the steamer "Princeton" during the Mexican–American War and was present during the Siege of Veracruz. Later ordered to the gun boat "Varuna" where he fought with distinction during the Capture of New Orleans. Promoted to rear admiral in 1870.
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Middlesex County, New Jersey
List of Episcopal churches in the United States
References
External links
Official website
http://www.richardsfowkes.com/pages/3instruments/12/12_index.php
http://www.christchurchnewbrunswick.org/new/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/CCNB.OrganHistory.pdf
Cemeteries in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Episcopal church buildings in New Jersey
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey
Religious organizations established in 1742
1742 establishments in New Jersey
Churches in New Brunswick, New Jersey
19th-century Episcopal church buildings
National Register of Historic Places in Middlesex County, New Jersey
New Jersey Register of Historic Places
Historic American Buildings Survey in New Jersey
Stone churches in New Jersey |
4065708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iggwilv | Iggwilv | Iggwilv is a fictional wizard from the Greyhawk campaign setting for the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game. She was created by Gary Gygax.
Iggwilv is characterized as a selfish, evil-aligned magic user with much power and a penchant for sexual manipulation. She is the creator of the fictional demonomicons, which later served as inspiration for a real life sourcebook of the same name. As with many Greyhawk characters, sources often contradict on exact details regarding Iggwilv.
Publication history
Creation and conception
Gygax has cited the Finnish epic Kalevala as inspiration for Iggwilv. The name of Louhi, a character in the Kalevala, is given by Gary Gygax as an alias of Iggwilv. Iggwilv debuted in Gygax's The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth (1982), "an adventure where players explored caverns once occupied by the powerful arch-mage". This adventure also introduced the Demonomicon of Iggwilv which was described as "a treatise on the powerful evil creatures of the lower planes".
The name "Tasha" and the association with laughter were created when a young girl sent Gary Gygax a letter (in crayon) asking him to create a spell involving laughter.
1st and 2nd edition
The spell, Tasha's Uncontrollable Hideous Laughter, was then included in a list of magic-user spells in Dragon #67. In 1984, Dragon #82's article on magical research added the spell book "Lore of Subtle Communication by Tasha" which had the possibility of containing a clue to one of the following spells: ventriloquism, message, comprehend languages, legend lore, and Tasha's uncontrollable hideous laughter. "Gygax provided no further context for who Tasha was, but an adventure published in Dragon #83 (about two years after Tasha's Hideous Laughter first appeared in the pages of that magazine) mentioned a 'Natasha the Dark' in an adventure exploring Baba Yaga's hut". It is unclear whether Gygax initially intended the two names to refer to the same character.
Tasha's uncontrollable hideous laughter was then included as one of the spells featured in the 2nd Edition AD&D Player's Handbook (1989).
Shannon Appelcline, author of Designers & Dragons, highlighted that "in Dragon #225 (January 1996), Robert S. Mullin talked about Iggwilv's other book, the Nethertome, and laughably changed the name of her magnum opus to The Fiendomicon of Iggwilv … because that's what TSR did in the AD&D 2e era (1989-1997)".
3rd and 3.5 edition
In Dragon #336 (October 2005), the Demonomicon of Iggwilv returned to its original name. Between 2005 and 2015, a column series titled the Demonomicon of Iggwilv was published across Dragon, Dungeon, and Dragon+ where the material was supposedly taken from the artifact it was named after.
Expedition to the Ruins of Greyhawk (2007) "revealed that Iggwilv once joined the Company of Seven, a group of famous adventurers, under the guise of Tasha. Tasha's true motivations were unclear, but the adventure spells out the connection between the two characters". Dragon #359 (September 2007), the final print issue, highlighted that "Tasha and Iggwilv were one and the same, and were also related to Baba Yaga's adopted daughter Natasha".
4th edition
Iggwilv's presence in the new "points of light" default setting was confirmed in 4th edition's Manual of the Planes (2008). Iggwilv is briefly described as Graz'zt's sometimes ally and former lover. The Demonomicon (2010) is based on Iggwilv's fictional work and presents excerpts from the text. Iggwilv's character history in 4th edition is similar to that in the World of Greyhawk. She is presented as an extremely powerful manipulator of Abyssal politics.
Dungeon #196, in a 2011 remake of the Dancing Hut adventure, "further established that Natasha the Dark would eventually become Iggwilv". Dragon #414, in a 2012 article on the history of the "Iggwilv-Graz'zt Affair", stated "she has been known by many names over the years: Natasha, Hura, then Tasha, and finally Iggwilv".
5th edition
In the Forgotten Realms adventure Waterdeep: Dragon Heist, it is noted that Tasha's hideous laughter is commonly used throughout Waterdeep as a security measure against burglars, usually coupled with a glyph of warding cast on rooftops.
Iggwilv is the narrator of the supplemental sourcebook Tasha's Cauldron of Everything (2020), however, the book "focuses on the wizard before her Iggwilv transformation, with some input from her time as the Witch Queen". "In a call with media [...], lead rules designer Jeremy Crawford pushed back on the idea that Tasha could be described by a single type of alignment, stating that her alignment was whatever suited her current plans best. That's a definite change from her previous depiction as a 'chaotic evil' sort of character, and reflects a further development of her character beyond that of the oftentimes stereotypical scheming seductress that Iggwilv was portrayed as in past adventures". In another interview, Crawford said that "Tasha is a person who is unfazed by beings of many sorts—in addition to having consorted with darker beings, she also has consorted with, you know, beings of the upper planes. Basically, Tasha, in her brilliant curiosity, is untroubled by the various moral variations in the planes of existence. If there is knowledge to be learned and power to possibly be gained, Tasha is unafraid to face it. [...] Tasha is whatever alignment suits her for the day, so I guess in that sense she is true neutral".
This book also added three new spells to the game that are attributed to Tasha: Tasha's Caustic Brew, Tasha's Mind Whip and Tasha's Otherworldly Guise.
Publication
Iggwilv has been mentioned in a variety of sourcebook and articles for the Dungeons & Dragons game. Some of her more significant appearances include:
The module Castle Greyhawk (TSR, 1988)
The module Iuz the Evil (TSR, 1993)
Living Greyhawk Gazetteer (Wizards, 2000)
A series entitled "The Demonomicon of Iggwilv" from Dragon (2005–2007)
Fiendish Codex I: Hordes of the Abyss (Wizards, 2006)
"Enemies of my Enemy." Dungeon #149 (Paizo, 2007)
Expedition to the Ruins of Greyhawk. (Wizards, 2007)
"Unsolved Mysteries of D&D." from Dragon #359 (Paizo, 2007)
"Iggwilv's Legacy: The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth" from Dungeon #151. (Wizards, 2007)
"Treasures of Greyhawk: Magic of the Company of Seven." from Dragon #359. (Paizo, 2007)
Demonomicon (Wizards, 2010)
"History Check: The Iggwilv-Graz'zt Affair" from Dragon #414. (Wizards, 2012)
Tasha's Cauldron of Everything (Wizards, 2020)
The Wild Beyond the Witchlight (Wizards, 2021)
In-universe character biography
Description
Iggwilv is said to have two forms, one of which is that of an old crone (said to be her true form), and the other, a human female of dark beauty. In the latter form, Iggwilv has long black hair and pale skin. It is said none who have seen her in her true form still live.
She has many alternate names. On Oerth she has been called the Witch Queen of Perrenland and the Mother of Witches. She is known as Louhi on one alternate Prime Material Plane world, and as Ychbilch on another. Those close to her sometimes address her as Wilva.
In the adventure Lost Caverns Of Tsojcanth, it was said that the long-dead archmage Iggwilv left her heavily guarded treasures in the caverns.
Related characters
A number of relationships exist between Iggwilv and the major characters of Greyhawk:
Iggwilv is the adopted daughter of Baba Yaga.
She imprisoned and seduced the demon lord Graz'zt, who sired her a son, Iuz.
She is also the mother of the destroyed vampiress Drelzna.
She is notorious for dealing with demons from the Abyss.
She was at one time the apprentice of Zagig Yragerne, and a member of the Company of Seven (as Tasha).
Iggwilv is a fierce enemy of the Circle of Eight.
History
According to published background, Iggwilv is said to have once been named Natasha, and it is under this name that she was "adopted" as a child by the witch Baba Yaga. Under Baba Yaga's tutelage, Natasha grew into a talented spellcaster, and soon became known as "Natasha the Dark," perhaps in contrast to another adopted daughter of Baba Yaga, Iggwilv's "sister," Elena the Fair.
Iggwilv next appeared in Ket some 300 years ago, in the 3rd century CY, where she was known as Hura. After being driven from Lopolla for plundering the Vault of Daoud (where it is assumed she acquired Daoud's Wondrous Lanthorn), Hura made her way to the Free City of Greyhawk. Now using the name Tasha, Iggwilv encountered the wizard Zagig Yragerne, who quickly (and scandalously) took her on as an apprentice. Sometime during this period (early 4th century CY), Tasha also served as a member of the Company of Seven, Zagig's adventuring band, and developed the spell Tasha's Uncontrollable Hideous Laughter. Zagig and Tasha's relationship culminated in the imprisonment the demon lord Fraz-Urb'luu. When Zagig was unaware, Tasha spoke to the imprisoned demon lord, and learned many secrets. Shortly thereafter, Iggwilv absconded with many of Zagig's magical tomes, including the Tome of Zyx, which she would later make additions to and rename The Demonomicon. As such, she is credited as the author of "The Demonomicon of Iggwilv". The "Demonomicon" includes other spells she invented such as "Dolor", "Ensnarement", "Exaction", "Imbrue", "Implore", "Minimus containment", and "Torment".
Iggwilv traveled to the Yatil Mountains, in the unclaimed wilderness near the Velverdyva River, to a twisted mountain now called Iggwilv's Horn, said to be the last resting place of the ancient mage Tsojcanth. There, using the lore and power she had stolen from Fraz-Urb'luu and Zagig, she bound Tsojcanth to her service, using him as her slave for generations.
Iggwilv next appears in the historical records of Perrenland in 460 CY. Using what she had learned (and stolen) from Zagig, Iggwilv summoned and imprisoned the demon lord Graz'zt. She managed to seduce the demon lord into helping her with her plans of conquest and went on to bear him a son, Iuz. In 480 CY, she assembled an army and attacked Perrenland from her base in the Yatils known as the Lost Caverns. It is thought that at some point during or prior to this period of conquest, Graz'zt gifted Iggwilv with a magical cloak of pit fiend hide known as Fiend's Embrace. Iggwilv's conquest of Perrenland was complete by 481 CY, and she held a firm grip on that nation until 491 CY, when Graz'zt escaped her control. Graz'zt had suggested, maliciously, that Iggwilv bind Tsojcanth to use as a living seal against the alarmingly spreading rift to the Abyss beneath Iggwilv's Horn. Iggwilv was caught off guard when Tsojcanth fought back for the first time in years. Weakened by the battle, she was doubly unable to resist Graz'zt's subsequent attack of his own. Iggwilv herself was forced to battle Graz'zt, just barely managing to slay his earthly form, banishing him to the Abyss. As a consequence of this battle, Iggwilv's beautiful form was wracked by magic and split into two hideous manifestations. Iggwilv was left shattered and powerless, enabling the native Perrenlanders to defeat her forces and regain their nation. After the loss of Perrenland, little was heard from Iggwilv for decades, and for a short while, she was presumed dead.
In the 570's, Iggwilv had two prominent clashes with the Circle of Eight, who had sent adventurers to thwart her plans. The first took place in the fabled Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth and ended with the destruction of her daughter, the vampiress Drelzna. The second regarded her plans to bring a large number of fiends to Oerth, which was thwarted by a band of adventurers (Warnes Starcoat, Agath of Thrunch, Franz Torkeep, Rowena of the Silverbrow, Reynard Yargrove, and Rakehell Chert) who recovered the Crook of Rao from a magical demiplane known as the Isle of the Ape.
She last clashed with agents of the Circle of Eight in 585 CY when Warnes Starcoat employed a band of adventurers to recover Tenser's clone from Luna. Iggwilv currently resides in a manor in the Gray Waste of Hades. Her current plans, if any, are unknown.
Reception
Iggwilv was named one of the greatest villains in D&D history in the final issue of Dragon. Iggwilv was #7 on Game Rant's "10 Must-Have NPCs In Dungeons & Dragons Lore To Make Your Campaigns Awesome" list, in which the article states that Iggwilv "becomes the person to call for anyone with the slightest interest in demonology. Her Demonomicon of Iggwilv (also a column in the Dragon magazine) highlighted her research into the many demons and terrifying magic that can be tapped from the Nine Hells. Iggwilv stands alongside Mordenkainen as one of the most powerful spellcasters not just in Forgotten Realms but the entire multiverse".
Corey Plante, for Inverse, highlighted that the Greyhawk character "is a mage who was raised by Baba Yaga, a chaotic and frightening witch with sentient teeth. A long-time frenemy of fellow wizard Mordenkainen, Tasha grew up into a powerful archmage who ruled an entire nation as its Witch Queen before transforming herself into a demi-god called Iggwilv. [...] Different aspects of her personal history have been featured in past iterations with the occasional contradiction, [...]. Tasha, a chaotic evil character who is one of the most powerful archmages in the multiverse, is the source of many legends and tall tales".
James Grebey, for SyFy Wire, highlighted that "Tasha is one of the most famous characters to come out of the game's iconic Greyhawk campaign setting" and that the character goes from "a powerful witch raised by the arch-hag Babba Yagga" to becoming "a demi-god" that "exists as both a hero and villain to would-be D&D players".
On the narration of Tasha's Cauldron of Everything (2020), Charlie Hall, for Polygon, wrote, "the voice of Tasha feels a bit out of place, as though a time traveler has returned to the Forgotten Realms with some spicy tweets to share. Ultimately, the marginalia didn't detract from the other good bits inside".
In other sources
"The Revenge of Ghorkai," a d20 adventure by Gary Gygax in The Slayer's Guide to Dragons (Mongoose Publishing, 2002), mentions a demigoddess called "The Mother of Witches." Given that Gygax created Iggwilv, and the adventure map strongly resembles the Yatil Mountains, many assume that this demigoddess is meant to be Iggwilv.
See also
World of Greyhawk
List of Greyhawk characters
Gary Gygax
Wizard (Dungeons & Dragons)
Company of Seven
References
Further reading
Baur, Wolfgang. "Enemies of my Enemy." Dungeon #149 (Paizo Publishing, 2007).
Breault, Mike, ed. Castle Greyhawk. Lake Geneva, WI: TSR, 1988.
Bulmahn, Jason, James Jacobs, and Erik Mona. Expedition to the Ruins of Greyhawk. Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast, 2007.
Dragon and Dungeon staffs. "Unsolved Mysteries of D&D." Dragon #359. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2007.
Greer, Stephen S. "Fiend's Embrace." Dungeon #121 (Paizo Publishing, 2005).
Gygax, Gary. Artifact of Evil (TSR, 1986).
Gygax, Gary. Come Endless Darkness (New Infinities, 1988).
Gygax, Gary. Dance of Demons (New Infinities, 1988).
Gygax, Gary. "From the Sorcerer's Scroll: New Magic-User Spells." Dragon #67. Lake Geneva, WI: TSR, 1982.
Gygax, Gary. Isle of the Ape (TSR, 1985).
Gygax, Gary. The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth (TSR, 1982).
Gygax, Gary. The Slayer's Guide to Dragons (Mongoose Publishing, 2002).
Gygax, Gary. Sea of Death (New Infinities, 1987).
Gygax, Gary. Unearthed Arcana. Lake Geneva, WI: TSR, 1985.
Heard, Bruce. "Spells Between the Covers." Dragon #82. Lake Geneva, WI: TSR, 1984.
Holian, Gary, and Rick Miller. "Treasures of Greyhawk: Magic of the Company of Seven." Dragon #359. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2007.
Holian, Gary, Erik Mona, Sean K Reynolds, and Frederick Weining. Living Greyhawk Gazetteer (Wizards of the Coast, 2000).
Holian, Gary and Owen K.C. Stephens. "The Demonomicon of Iggwilv." Dragon #336 (Paizo Publishing, 2005).
Jacobs, James. "Demonomicon of Iggwilv: Apocrypha." Dragon #359. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2007.
Jacobs, James. "The Demonimicon of Iggwilv: Baphomet." Dragon #341 (Paizo Publishing, 2006).
Jacobs, James. "Demonomicon of Iggwilv: Baphomet." Dragon #341. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2006.
Jacobs, James. "Demonomicon of Iggwilv: Dagon." Dragon #349. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2006.
Jacobs, James. "Demonomicon of Iggwilv: Demogorgon." Dragon #357. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2007.
Jacobs, James. "The Demonimicon of Iggwilv: Fraz-Urb’luu." Dragon #333 (Paizo Publishing, 2005).
Jacobs, James. "Demonomicon of Iggwilv: Graz'zt." Dragon #359. Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast, 2007. Available online:
Jacobs, James. "The Demonimicon of Iggwilv: Kostchtchie." Dragon #345 (Paizo Publishing, 2006).
Jacobs, James. "Demonomicon of Iggwilv: Malcanthet." Dragon #353. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2007.
Jacobs, James. "The Demonimicon of Iggwilv: Pazuzu." Dragon #329 (Paizo Publishing, 2005).
Jacobs, James. "The Demonimicon of Iggwilv: Zuggtmoy." Dragon #337 (Paizo Publishing, 2005).
Jacobs, James, Erik Mona, and Ed Stark. Fiendish Codex I: Hordes of the Abyss (Wizards of the Coast, 2006).
Marmell, Ari. "Iggwilv's Legacy: The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth." Dungeon #151. Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast, 2007. Available online:
Moore, Roger E. Greyhawk: The Adventure Begins (TSR, 1998).
Moore, Roger E. "The Dancing Hut." Dragon #83 (TSR, 1984).
Moore, Roger E. Return of the Eight (TSR, 1998).
Mullin, Robert S. Campaign Classics: Three Greyhawk Grimoires. Dragon #225 (TSR, 1996).
Sargent, Carl. From the Ashes (TSR, 1992).
Sargent, Carl. Iuz the Evil (TSR, 1993).
Stark, Ed, James Jacobs, and Erik Mona. Fiendish Codex I: Hordes of the Abyss. Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast, 2006.
Stephens, Owen K.C., and Gary Holian. "Spellcraft: The Demonomicon of Iggwilv." Dragon #336. Bellevue, WA: Paizo Publishing, 2005.
Wilson, Steve. "Grey Chrondex 4.1" (2000). Available online:
External links
Graz'zt—The Dark Prince (2015 Dungeons & Dragons article)
Lore You Should Know - Tasha (2020 Dragon Talk podcast segment) via YouTube
Fictional arcane spellcasters (Dungeons & Dragons)
Fictional characters introduced in 1982
Fictional witches
Greyhawk characters |
4065723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmfAR | AmfAR | amfAR, the Foundation for AIDS Research, known until 2005 as the American Foundation for AIDS Research, is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to the support of AIDS research, HIV prevention, treatment education, and the advocacy of AIDS-related public policy.
AmfAR is a tax-exempt corporation under Internal Revenue Code section 501(c)(3) and operates as an independent nonprofit with worldwide initiatives. amfAR was formed in New York City in September 1985 by Dr. Mathilde Krim, along with physician Dr. Joseph Sonnabend and activist Michael Callen. The organization originally began in April 1983 as the Krim-founded AIDS Medical Foundation (AMF), which sought to lessen the stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS diagnoses, as well as to increase funding to the cause. The name change came as a result of the AMF's merge with the California-based National AIDS Research Foundation, which sought to actively engage in HIV-related drug development. What resulted was a foundation that prioritized both research and development as well as policy influence. This foundation was one of the first of its kind to embody both aspects of healthcare.
AmfAR currently has three headquarters, located in New York City; Washington, D.C.; and Bangkok, Thailand. AmfAR spurs research and development through providing grants and fellowships to organizations, such as the Family Institute of Health, and individuals through the Mathilde Krim Fellowships in Basic Biomedical Research. AmfAR has provided over 3,300 grants to research teams across the world and has invested over $400 million to research aiming to effectively treat HIV and AIDS related illness. AmfAR's funds historically have gone to funding research, and as a result have helped pioneer community-based clinical research trials in the 1980s, as well as the involvement of AIDS patients in the drug approval process (see also: Denver Principles). Changes in leadership have marked changes in focus, resulting in shifts from public health outreach (needle exchange program pushes) to public education (the amfAR AIDS Handbook) to international research and outreach.
AmfAR has embarked on various national and international campaigns to spur AIDS/HIV research, create a dialogue and decrease stigma surrounding the disease. Through TREAT Asia and GMT, amfAR took international roots and began funding research and outreach on all inhabited continents. National initiatives have included the Countdown to a Cure for AIDS. The Institute for HIV Cures Research and amfAR Research Consortium on HIV Eradication (ARCHE) were both created to aid this countdown, both to help fund research as well as provide a facility at which those researcher can work. To supplement the funding of these initiatives, amfAR is funded through sources like stock donations and their annual galas, which represent the majority of their source of funding.
After Kenneth Cole stepped down as chairman, he was replaced by William H. Roedy. The current CEO Kevin Robert Frost joined amfAR in 1994 and became CEO in 2004. Together they lead 9 members of the Management Team, 25 Board of Trustees members and over 100 advisors to both their scientific and political platforms.
CharityWatch rates the Foundation for AIDS Research an "A−" grade.
Charity Navigator rates amfAR a four-star charity.
History
Origins
In the early 1980s, a group of researchers and scientists including Mathilde Krim, Ph.D., then a researcher at New York's Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, formed an informal study group to investigate the condition that came to be known as AIDS. In 1983, Krim, Dr. Joseph Sonnabend, Michael Callen, and several others launched the New York-based AIDS Medical Foundation. In Los Angeles, Dr. Michael S. Gottlieb and amfAR Founding National Chairman Dame Elizabeth Taylor spearheaded the creation of the National AIDS Research Foundation. The two organizations merged in September 1985 to become "American Foundation for AIDS Research" (AmfAR). The merged organization was launched with a $250,000 contribution from Rock Hudson shortly before his AIDS-related death in October 1985.
Leadership Under Krim
Krim's achievements during her time as the head of amfAR involved increased public education and direct political action. Primarily, Krim spearheaded the publishing of amfAR's first HIV/AIDS Treatment Directory, which provides medical professionals updated information on the treatment of HIV/AIDS, as well as clinical trials that People With AIDS (PWAs) can participate in. The publishing of this directory continued for 11 volumes until the year 2001. Following the increased involvement of AIDS activists and patients with the drug approval process, Krim (along with Elizabeth Taylor) testified before the National Institute of Health and Congress on the importance of clinical trials within community settings. These testimonies and lobbying efforts by Krim led to the first Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group, which allowed people with AIDS and HIV to actively take part in the testing needed to approve AIDS drugs. Krim further shaped the structure of amfAR's fellowships, as she impelled the first grant of money to Peter Piot for his landmark study on female-to-male AIDS transmission in Kenya."They felt that this was a disease that resulted from a sleazy lifestyle, drugs or kinky sex—that certain people had learned their lesson and it served them right," Dr. Krim told The New York Times Magazine in 1988. "That was the attitude, even on the part of respectable foundations that are supposed to be concerned about human welfare."One of Krim's final projects was her push for needle exchange programs in the face of mass stigma toward IV-drug users. Amid the 1980s "War on Drugs", Krim's thoughts on sterile needle exchange is reflected in a quote, saying, "It was a brilliant idea. It would work—the drug users would use the clean needles—and it would be inexpensive." Krim worked with the Outside In needle exchange program in Portland, Oregon in 1989, and funded trials of needle exchange programs in Tacoma, Washington, between 1989–1991. amfAR used the results of these studies, as well as a study in New Haven, Connecticut, to compile a report with the National Academy of Science which concluded that syringe exchange programs were safe and effective. Before stepping down, Krim saw the international surge of amfAR, with the creation of initiatives such as TREAT Asia, and in 2004 the TREAT Asia HIV Observational Database (the only HIV database in Asia).
In 2005, Mathilde Krim stepped down as founding chair. According to amfAR, she served as CEO from 1990 through 2004, and is described as the "heart and soul" of the organization. Charles Kaiser described Krim as "determined to prevent America from using AIDS to stigmatize homosexuals" in his book The Gay Metropolis: The Landmark History of Gay Life in America. She was widely viewed as someone who fought on the front lines against prejudices against many people with AIDS. Apart from aiding research for life saving drugs, Krim was equally a proponent of reshaping public opinion, as noted by the New York Times tributes to her and those who interacted with her.
amfAR After Krim
The year after Krim stepped down in 2004, the CDC reported that 1,000,000 Americans were living with HIV/AIDS. In an effort to reduce the stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS, amfAR's new chairman Kenneth Cole led amfAR to partner with Viacom Inc. and the Kaiser Family Foundation to launch an initiative called KNOW HIV/AIDS. This program funded an AIDS awareness campaign titled, "We All Have AIDS", which marked a more controversial tone in amfAR's new public strategy. In line with the launching of program initiatives, amfAR under Cole launched the TREAT Asia pediatric network and the MSM initiative, which was a global effort to help educate, treat and prevent HIV/AIDS in men who have sex with men.
In honor of its founding chair, amfAR launched the Mathilde Krim Fellowship in Basic Biomedical Research in 2008. The goal of this fellowship is to spur young and independent research groups who are actively searching for HIV/AIDS medical advancements. This grant has spurred discoveries such as the first recorded birth of new HIV virus particles by Dr. Nolwenn Jouvenet, as well as other developments at the pinnacle of HIV research. Other recipients of the Mathilde Krim Fellowship such as Bing Chen and Rosa Cardoso have made discoveries that have been central to the modern understanding of the HIV virus.
After Cole stepped down as chairman due to a fraud investigation surrounding money diversion, he was replaced by William H. Roedy. The current CEO Kevin Robert Frost joined amfAR in 1994 and became CEO in 2004. Together they lead 9 members of the Management Team, 25 Board of Trustees members and over 100 advisors to both their scientific and political platforms.
Headquarters and facilities
amfAR's Sheldon W. Andelson Public Policy Office is located in Washington, D.C., and is where many Rosenfield public policy fellows and employees work, as well as its management team of CEO and Board of Trustees. amfAR's original headquarters as well as their largest operations facilities is in New York City.
Institute for HIV Cures Research
In 2015 amfAR announced a collaboration with the University of California, San Francisco Medical School to create their first Institute for HIV Cures Research. This facility works to foster research and was founded with the goal of finding a cure to AIDS by the year 2020. The leaders of the institute are Paul Volberding, MD who is the head of the UCSF AIDS Research Institute; Satish Pillai, PhD who part of the Blood Systems Institute as well as Warner Greene, MD, PhD, who helps direct the program. To remark on the progress that the institute had been making since its foundation, Volberding told CBS News in 2016:To see the pace from the days that we could do very little other than watch our patients die to finding the first treatments and then working hard to make those treatments better to where we are now has been remarkable. We have a lot of different options of three or four drug combinations put together in a single pill that a person takes once a day. It's remarkably easier than it used to be.
Bangkok, Thailand headquarters
amfAR established its first international headquarters in Klongtoey, Bangkok, Thailand, in 2001 to accompany its TREAT Asia network. The headquarters establishes closer contact to its 21 adult and 20 pediatric clinics in 12 countries across East Asia. The headquarters is internationally run as well, and works to streamline the logistics of projects in TREAT Asia. Former Chairman Kenneth Cole announced that the decision to move headquarters to Thailand was due to the ability to use the government's generous resources that have been committed to treating the crisis, and have effectively reduced the HIV prevalence in the country to under 1.1% due to quick mobilization and dedicated work.
Initiatives and campaigns
National initiatives
Countdown to a Cure for AIDS
amfAR has long intended to find a scientific cure to AIDS by the year 2020, and it created the Countdown to a Cure for AIDS in February 2014 as a way of speeding up this process. The "Countdown" is an investment initiative that intends to give $100 million to scientists working to find a cure. Most grants are given through applications at the University of California, San Francisco. By the year 2017, amfAR had granted $42 million to researchers, and it gave over $3.5 million in grants to six research teams under the amfAR Research Consortium on HIV Eradication (ARCHE), and later $1.2 million to AIDS innovators. By 2016, the Countdown, along with ARCHE had granted money to 139 principal investigators and key personnel across 16 states and 9 countries.
The amfAR Institute for HIV Cure Research at the University of California, San Francisco began in 2015 as the central facility to achieve their Countdown to a Cure for AIDS by 2020. It began from a $20 million grant to UCSF. Many researchers who receive fellowships and grants from amfAR and ARCHE work at the new facilities at UCSF. Under the Countdown to a Cure for AIDS, amfAR hosts an annual HIV Cure Summit, which aims to hear from voices in the research community on breakthroughs, as well as discuss discoveries that have motivated AIDS research, such as the breakthrough with the Berlin patient, who spurred the countdown in the first place. In November 2020, amfAR signed an agreement with CytoDyn Inc. to explore the potential of its CCR-5 antagonist Vyrologix (Leronlimab) to mediate a functional HIV cure. According to Kevin Robert Frost, Chief Executive Officer at amfAR, "demonstrating that Leronlimab can functionally phenocopy CCR5 deficiency and replicate the London and Berlin patients would be a major advancement."
Global initiatives
TREAT Asia
The Therapeutics Research, Education and AIDS Training (TREAT) in Asia was founded in 2001 under the leadership of Mathilde Krim. The initiative aimed to create communication networks among Asian countries who are aiming to treat HIV, using Thailand as a model and a central headquarters for the operation. TREAT Asia is directed by Annette Sohn of the University of California San Francisco, who is a principal investigator alongside Matthew Law of the Kirby Institute at the University of South Wales. The two lead a team of 18 scientists to perform research in the area on topics such as mental healthcare access of people with HIV/AIDS in Asian countries and the effect of new drugs on children with HIV.
The TREAT Asia member countries are all partners of the US National Institutes of Health's International Epidemiological Databases to Evaluate AIDS (IeDEA) global cohort consortium. The countries include:
Australia
Cambodia
China and Hong Kong SAR
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
Singapore
South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Vietnam
There are over 60 research facilities, mostly hospitals and healthcare providers, in these countries that communicate with amfAR's headquarters in Thailand. The foundation has said that they service around 84,000 people of all ages who are affected with HIV and AIDS who otherwise were not aided before the program began.
The GMT Initiative
The GMT initiative is dedicated to providing HIV/AIDS assistance to men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender people (which they term as the collective 'gay men and transgender (GMT)'). Unlike TREAT Asia, the GMT Initiative is truly global, with recent work in regarding their mentoring model in Paraguay, Thailand, Tajikistan and Kenya and Ukraine. The GMT Initiative further aims to spur outreach to low-income individuals by providing the amfAR HIV Scholars Program with the Center for LGBT Health Research at the University of Pittsburgh. Scholarship recipients from 2015 include individuals from South Africa, Pakistan and Belize.
The GMT Initiative aims to provide mentorship training to MSM and transgender individuals in countries with low access to AIDS support. It created a mentoring model that empowers 'GMT' to connect with younger individuals with HIV/AIDS in spite of a potential homophobic and stigmatized environment in the low and middle income countries that they service.
Funding
As a 501(c)(3), amfAR files an annual 990 Form to the IRS, which is publicly accessible. The following information is garnered from their 2017 filing:
Contributions and grants
Worldwide amfAR Galas
amfAR's largest source of revenue comes from its fundraising events, large portions of that money comes from one of its annual charity event held at the Hôtel du Cap-Eden-Roc in Antibes, France, titled "amfAR's Annual Cinema Against AIDS". The gala aims to raise money through auctioning items, as well as selling a limited number of tickets. Since the first amfAR gala, the charity has raised over $210 million to support AIDS research causes. The most recent gala held in Cannes raised around $20 million at its 2016 gala, which is a marked decrease from the over $25 million it raised in the same 2016 and 2017 events. It was speculated that this decrease in funding was due to both the absence of its largest donor Harvey Weinstein, as well as the scandal surrounding the ousting of Kenneth Cole.
Celebrities frequently donate items to be auctioned off for the foundation, and past donors have included Uma Thurman, Karlie Kloss and Milla Jovovich, among others. The 25th annual gala embraced the #MeToo movement, and was chaired by 25 prominent women on stage and screen, namely: Alessandra Ambrosio, Poppy Delevigne, Linda Evangelista, Sylvia Fendi, Aileen Getty, Kate Hudson, Scarlett Johansson, Milla Jovovich, Heidi Klum, Daphna Krim (daughter of Mathilde Krim), Karolina Kurkova, Sienna Miller, Angela Missoni, Mary Parent, Katy Perry, Natasha Poly, Aishwarya Rai, Vanessa Redgrave, Joely Richardson, Carine Roitfeld, Caroline Scheufele, Irina Shayk, Lara Stone, Donatella Versace, and Michelle Yeoh. Past items auctioned have included numerous photographs by Andy Warhol, Annie Leibovitz portrait sessions, stays in fashion moguls and celebrity houses and 53-karat diamond jewelry. Heidi Klum notably donated her Bentley S3 convertible to garner one of the highest bids at €200,000.
amfAR galas have been held in cities like New York City, Milan, Los Angeles, São Paulo and Hong Kong, each garnering anywhere from €2,000,000 to €13,000,000 to support amfAR's research.
Investment Income
Though amFAR does not disclose individual donors of stocks, they publish the figure of $1,295,049 on their 990 Form to represent the interest and amount they receive through donations of stock. Further fluctuations in losses through investment and payments of investment income are accounted through the Net Gain row, indicating a net gain of $139,479 following external investments and payments.
Public health education and outreach
Syringe exchange programs
Krim's original view on needle exchange was largely affected by exposure through visits to foundational needle exchange programs:On one visit, Mathilde met a clearly pregnant woman coming to exchange syringes. Mathilde was very upset. After the woman left the exchange, Mathilde spoke to the exchange worker. "That woman should be in treatment, not exchanging syringes." "Yes," the worker replied, "but the prenatal clinics do not accept drug addicts, and the drug abuse treatment programs do not accept pregnant women."
-Don C. Des Jarlais, Ph.D.After interactions like these, Krim began work with the Outside In needle exchange program in Portland, Oregon, beginning in 1989; this program was a service program for youth who had run away. Led by Kathy Oliver, amfAR helped gain insurance support for the program, and later compiled a report that showed the effectiveness of the study: needle discard rates in Portland neighborhoods decreased as a result of the study.
Krim later used amfAR's research funding apparatus to help David Purchase begin a needle and syringe exchange program in Tacoma, Washington. He used the money granted to analyze Tacoma's syringe exchange programs. Similarly to the results found in the Portland study, Purchase found that hepatitis B, C and HIV rates were much lower for users in Pierce County who exchanged their needles than those who did not. The study also found low HIV rates among women who use the exchange for IUD injections.
amfAR AIDS Handbook
The first AIDS handbook was published in 1999 as an effort to give a "comprehensive" and "concise" description of HIV/AIDS and methods of prevention. This 496-page book was intended for the general public, as opposed to their HIV/AIDS Treatment Directory intended for medical professionals. This book was used in a study intended to see the effects of AIDS education on elementary education. The study found statistically significant increases in AIDS comprehension in students who were educated using the amfAR AIDS Handbook. The handbook stands as one of amfAR's attempts at public education for AIDS/HIV related topics.
Trans Pacific Partnership opposition
In May 2015 amfAR released a report showing that increases in intellectual property rights of pharmaceutical countries would drive up the price of some drugs that are desperately needed in the developing world, namely countries who rely on affordable antiretroviral drugs. The group says that would hamper the global fight against AIDS (and other diseases) at an unsustainable rate. This report marked the first time that amfAR involved itself in economic policy that indirectly pertained to AIDS, and its rally against Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) reached national attention as a provision of the TPP that was traditionally seen to be benign.
Controversies
Cole's chairmanship
Kenneth Cole served as the amfAR chairman for 14 years and as a board member for a total of 30 years. In 2015, following years of controversy, he stepped down and now has no involvement in the organization.
Harvey Weinstein scandal
At amfAR's 22nd annual benefit in Cannes, France, in May 2015, Harvey Weinstein made a deal with amfAR chairman Kenneth Cole: Weinstein would auction off two items (one being a sitting with a famous fashion photographer and the second being tickets to a Hollywood film awards event) on the condition that $600,000 of the proceeds raised at the auction would be donated as a charitable gift to the American Repertory Theater. The reason for this contingent was that the American Repertory Theater promised Weinstein a $1.25 million reimbursement and a $500,000 charitable donation to the play Finding Neverland, which Weinstein was producing at the theater, on the condition that third parties donate the same amount to the production.
While the arrangement raised $309,669 for amfAR and was ruled "legitimate and lawful" by the law firm Gibson, Dunn & Cutcher, investigations and public outrage ensued surrounding the charity's financial integrity. A rift formed between Chairman Kenneth Cole and CEO Kevin Robert Frost, as evidenced by an email from Frost in 2015 saying, "Nothing about this deal feels right to me, and I believe we have not done due diligence to understand exactly what this money is being directed to or why amfAR is being used to facilitate these transfers."
AmfAR's management initially refused, citing their longstanding policy against doing so, but Weinstein was persistent. He had apparently donated $2 million to ART on the condition that if he could raise more money from others before June 1, 2015, they would return the contribution. Cole and Weinstein reportedly agreed that ART and amfAR would split any money from the lots up to $1.2 million evenly, and all money above that amount would be exclusively amfAR's. Except for a last-second insert attributed to Cole noting that ART would get some of the money from one of the lots, a fashion shoot with Mario Testino, there was nothing else to indicate to bidders where their money was going. Cole told Vanity Fair later that he had always felt bullied by Weinstein, and the insert was a small act of resistance.
Weinstein demanded amFAR repay him immediately instead of waiting for the money for the lots to come in. In early 2016 the organization's board retained attorney Tom Ajamie to investigate the transaction, who concluded that Weinstein's failure to disclose all relevant information had exposed amfAR to material risks to its reputation if the deal had turned out to be illegal. The report divided the board, with several members resigning over what they saw as Cole's failures. After Weinstein found out that some of the people Ajamie talked to had shared information about his rumored history of sexual misconduct, information that became public knowledge in September 2017, Weinstein demanded that board members who had read the report sign non-disclosure agreements, leading to more resignations.
In April 2017, 19 members of the Board of Trustees contacted the Attorney General to explain that Cole had proceeded with this deal in spite of the objections of the wider executive management team, as confirmed by their spokesperson Steven Goldberg. Following legal struggles surrounding the benefit to private investors of charitable donations, Weinstein pushed amfAR to sign nondisclosure agreements that indicated no wrongdoing and no further probing. As a result, four members (Mervyn Silverman, Vincent Roberti, Arlen Andelson and Jonathan Canno) refused to sign and went to petition the Attorney General on the impropriety of Kenneth Cole. In that time two other board members had resigned.
Cole's term limit proposal
On November 13, NBC News obtained a letter signed by 60 gay rights community members calling for his resignation. This letter was signed by Greg Louganis, an Olympic diver; Larry Kramer, playwright and activist and amfAR contributor Peter Staley, among others. As a result of the scandal, Kenneth Cole stepped down as chairman after a 14-year tenure. Cole initially couched his decision to step down, along with four other board members, as the result of term limits being imposed by the amfAR Board of Trustees with his support. Later, however, the attorney general's charity bureau sent a letter to the board on February 2, which exposed a proposal by Cole which allowed him to maintain his role as chairman in spite of new term limits. The attorney general's office sent a second letter on February 6 that mandated the board update its term limits and end Cole's tenure. The attorney general allowed him to stay as a non-voting member for six months while his replacement is determined. With the calls for resignation by many on the Board of Trustees, and a mandate from New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman's office, Cole announced his decision to step down at an amfAR gala on Wednesday, February 7, 2018.
Sharon Stone's advocacy
In 1995, actress Sharon Stone began to serve as a spokesperson for amfAR. She said this resulted in a negative impact on her career causing Hollywood to blacklist her for eight years.
See also
Timeline of HIV/AIDS
Luc Montagnier - Recipient of Mathilde Krim Fellowship for Basic Biomedical Research
ACT UP
Denver Principles
People With AIDS
Management of HIV/AIDS
References
External links
Official website
HIV/AIDS activism
HIV/AIDS research organisations
International medical and health organizations
Medical and health organizations based in New York City
HIV/AIDS organizations in the United States |
4065756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriqueta%20Mart%C3%AD | Enriqueta Martí | Enriqueta Martí i Ripollés (1868 – 12 May 1913) was a Spanish child serial killer, kidnapper, prostitute and procuress of children. She was called "The Vampire of carrer Ponent", "The Vampire of Barcelona" and "The Vampire of the Raval" in the press.
Some researchers have, however, asserted that she was not a killer of children, but rather a person with mental disorders who can only be proven reliably to have abducted one young girl, Teresita Guitart. They also contend that the black legend that is attributed to her could not be demonstrated.
Early life
Enriqueta Martí was born in Sant Feliu de Llobregat in 1868. As a young woman, Martí moved from her hometown to Barcelona where she worked as a maidservant and nanny; she soon turned to prostitution, and worked in a high-class brothel. In 1895 she married a painter named Juan Pujaló, but the marriage failed. According to Pujaló, Martí's affairs with other men, her unpredictable character, and her continuous visits to houses of ill repute caused the separation. The pair reconciled and separated approximately six times. At the time of Martí's detention in 1912, the couple had been separated for five years, and had no children.
Black legend
In 1909 Martí opened her own brothel, which attracted some of the more affluent in Barcelona. Some of them had unusual desires which she accommodated for a premium. Some expressed a desire for children. To accommodate them, she dressed as a pauper during the day and frequented the poorer parts of the city. When she came across unaccompanied children she abducted them to prostitute them in her brothel. She begged and joined bread queues at the monasteries to find the most abandoned looking children. By night she attended the El Liceu, the Casino de la Arrabassada, and other places where the wealthy of Barcelona gathered likely offering her services as a procurer of children.
At the same time as she was prostituting children, she was also practicing as a witch-doctor. She claimed drinking the blood of children could cure tuberculosis, and offered creams and elixirs that could stop ageing and prolong life. The ingredients she used to make her remedies came from the remains of the children that she was killing, who ranged from 5 up to 15 years of age. She used the fat, blood, hair, and bones. For this reason, she did not have problems disposing of her victims. Martí offered salves, ointments, filters, poultices, and potions, especially to treat tuberculosis, which was highly feared at the time, and various other incurable diseases. The wealthy paid large sums of money for these remedies.
During the Tragic Week of 1909, she was arrested at her flat on Barcelona's carrer Minerva, along with a young man from a wealthy family, and accused of running a brothel that offered sexual services from children. Thanks to her contacts with Barcelona's high society using her services, she was never tried.
Over the next three years many more children disappeared, but as they were from poor families police investigations into their disappearance were minimal.
It is suspected that she kidnapped a large number of children over a span of twenty years. She was finally arrested in a flat in El Raval; more evidence was found in flats in Barcelona where she had lived previously.
Forensic experts managed to differentiate a total of twelve children with what little evidence they were able to recover. In spite of suspicions, and because Martí did not tally her activities, experts are unsure if she was Spain's deadliest killer. It is clear that she acted for many years in Barcelona. The public suspected that someone was kidnapping babies, and many children disappeared without a trace causing dread among the population.
29 carrer Ponent
On February 10, 1912, she kidnapped her last victim: Teresita Guitart Congost. For two weeks the city looked for her and there was great public indignation since the authorities had been extremely passive regarding the missing children. A suspicious neighbor, Claudia Elías, found Congost's trail. On February 17, Elías saw a girl with cropped hair looking from a casement window of a first floor flat at number 29 carrer Ponent (now Carrer de Joaquin Costa). Elías had never seen the girl. She asked her neighbor if the girl was hers but the neighbor, who was Martí, closed the window without saying a word. Elías shared this, as well as her suspicions that the little girl was Congost, with a mattress-maker down the street. She also told him of the strange life that her neighbor was leading. The mattress-maker informed a municipal agent, Jose Asens of Elías' suspicions and he, in turn, communicated this to the chief of the Ribot brigade.
On February 27, saying there had been a complaint about chickens in the flat, two Ribot agents went to look for Martí. They found her in the court of calle de Ferlandina, informed her of the accusation, then escorted her to her flat. She proved to be surprised but did not object. When the policemen entered, two girls were found in the flat. One of them was Teresita Guitard Congost, the other a girl called Angelita. After making a statement, Congost was returned to her parents. She explained how Martí took her by the hand promising her candies, covered her with a black rag, and forced her to the flat. Martí cut Congost's hair and changed her name to Felicidad, telling the child she no longer had parents and was to call her "mama" from then on. Martí fed the girl potatoes and stale bread and preferred to pinch rather than beat the child. She was prohibited from going to the windows and balconies as well as several rooms in the flat.
Congost told authorities that Martí was in the habit of leaving them alone and that one day they risked exploring the rooms that Martí forbade them from entering. They found a sack with girl’s clothes covered in blood and a boning knife also covered with blood. Congost never left the flat during her captivity.
Angelita's declaration was more frightening. Before Congost arrived at the flat, there was a five-year-old boy called Pepito. Angelita said that she secretly saw Martí, who she was calling "mom", kill him on the kitchen table. Angelita's identity was more difficult to pinpoint as she did not know her real surname but confirmed Martí’s claim that her father was called Juan. Martí maintained that Angelita was her daughter by her estranged husband Juan Pujaló. He appeared before a judge and declared that he had not lived with Martí for years, that they had not had children, and that he did not know where Angelita came from. Eventually, Martí claimed that she had taken the girl as a newborn from her sister-in-law having told her that the girl was stillborn. Enriqueta Martí Ripollés was detained and jailed in the Reina Amalia prison.
During the second inspection of the flat, detectives found the sack with the bloody clothing and the knife. They also found another sack with dirty clothes and at least thirty small human bones. These bones showed evidence of being exposed to fire. Investigators found a lounge sumptuously decorated with a cupboard with nice clothes for a boy and girl. This lounge contrasted with the rest of the flat which was austere and smelled badly. In another locked room they found the horror that Martí was hiding. In it, there were fifty pitchers, jars, and washbowls, with preserved human remains: greasy lard, coagulated blood, children’s hair, skeletons of hands, powdered bones, and pots with the potions, ointments, and salves already prepared for sale.
Investigators also went to two more flats where Martí had lived: a flat in the carrer Tallers, a third in carrer Picalqués, and a little house in carrer Jocs Florals, in Sants. In both of them they found false walls and human remains in the walls and ceilings. In the garden of the house on carrer Jocs Florals, they found the skull of a three-year-old child, and a series of bones that corresponded to 3, 6 and 8-year-old children. Some remains still had pieces of clothes whose condition indicated that Martí had habitually kidnapped children of impoverished families with insufficient means to look for their missing children. Further investigation revealed more housing in Sant Feliu de Llobregat, property of Martí's family. Here they found remains of children in vases and jars as well as books of remedies.
In Martí's flat they found curious things: an ancient book with parchment covers, a book of notes where she had written recipes and potions in elegant calligraphy, a package of letters and notes written in coded language, and a list with names of families and important figures in Barcelona. The list was very controversial since the public believed that it was a list of Enriqueta's rich clients and that, because of their wealth, they would not pay for their crimes of paedophilia or of buying human remains to treat their health. Police tried to stop the list from leaking, but rumors abounded that it was a client list of doctors, politicians, businessmen and bankers. With events of the Tragic Week in their minds, and fearing riots, authorities calmed the public with newspaper articles explaining that the list contained the names of people that Martí had begged from, and that they had been swindled by the lies and requests of the murderer.
Martí was imprisoned in the Reina Amàlia jail to await trial. She tried to commit suicide by slashing her wrists with a wooden knife. Public indignation exploded because the people wanted her to face trial and execution by the garrote. Prison authorities made it known in the press that measures had been taken to ensure that Martí would not be able to kill herself.
Martí was never tried for her crimes. She died a year and three months after her arrest at the hands of her prison mates. Her companions killed her by lynching her on one of the prison patios on May 12, 1913. Some believe the inmates were paid by Marti's wealthy clients so the details of her crimes were not revealed in a public trial. However, her death certificate gave uterine cancer as her cause of death. The untimely death robbed authorities of the opportunity to completely expose all of her secrets. She was buried secretly in a common grave in the Cementerio del Sudoeste, situated on the mountain of Montjuïc in Barcelona.
Declarations and testimonies
Martí was interrogated about the presence of Teresita Guitart in her house and explained that she had found the girl, lost and hungry, the day before in the Ronda de Sant Pau. Claudia Elías denied this because she had seen the girl in her flat several days before the arrest.
Martí was also questioned about the presence of bones, human remains, creams, potions, poultices, ointments, blood bottles, as well as the boning knife. Interrogators asked if she had subjected the bones to be burned or cooked, as forensics suggested. Martí claimed that she studied human anatomy, but under pressure from the interrogators she confessed that she was a healer and used children as raw material for the production of her remedies. She claimed to be an expert, and knew how to make the best remedies and preparations that were highly sought after by wealthy people of good social position.
During interrogation she disclosed the locations of her other flats (carrer Tallers, carrer Picalqués, Jocs Florals and her home in Sant Feliu de Llobregat), and told investigators where to look inside them. She was already known for, and confessed to, her services as a procurer for pedophiles, but out of anger at the fate that awaited her, did not name a single customer.
Investigators knew of the existence of the little boy known as "Pepito" from the testimony of Angelita and Claudia Elias. Martí claimed Pepito had been entrusted to her by a family that could not care for him. When asked for his whereabouts, she said that he had gone to the country because he had become ill, the same excuse she had used with her inquiring neighbor, Claudia Elías. Overwhelming evidence, and Angelita's testimony shattered this excuse. She was unable to refute bloody clothes in a sack, the knife, and some remnants of fresh fat, blood, and bones. These remains were those of Pepito. Nor could she identify the family that had entrusted her with the child, making it clear that the boy was another kidnapped child.
An Aragonese woman from Alcañiz recognized her as the kidnapper of her infant son, some six years earlier, in 1906. Martí displayed an extraordinary kindness to the exhausted and hungry woman after a very long journey from their land and was allowed to hold the child. Using an excuse, she moved away from the mother then disappeared. The unfortunate mother never found her son nor came to know what she did with him. It is suspected that she used the baby to manufacture her remedies.
Martí confessed that she had prostituted a girl of seventeen years in a brothel on carrer Sabadell, and had also performed abortions, but she never confessed to killing anyone.
Counter theories
For his book Barcelona 1912 (published 2014), Barcelona writer Jordi Corominas conducted an exhaustive investigation into the life of Enriqueta Martí. Reviewing the journalistic chronicles that were published at the time, he warned that many articles were based on the rough information that was available in the first days, but there was no subsequent investigative follow-ups. In the opinion of Corominas, Martí was in fact a woman devastated by the death of a child, barely ten months old, from malnutrition. In the words of Corominas: "Distressed by that situation, she kidnapped Tereseta." Maybe to find a company for Angeleta, the other girl she cared for, in the flat she shared with her grandfather. She did not have an analytical or criminal mind. Today, she would have received psychiatric care."
The facet of Enriqueta Martí as serial killer would be, for Corominas, part of an unfounded black legend to cover cases of sexual scandals involving minors by the upper classes of society and the kidnapping of children for the cure of conditions afflicting the upper classes of the time. in his words: "Enriqueta was not a murderer but rather a paradigm of a poor and desperate Barcelona that was not the one that used to go out in the media ... Many of those who came back to explain the case just read the reviews of those first days, but they stopped investigating the last traces of the story." In his book, Corominas explains that the remains of blood found in her house belonged to Enriqueta, who suffered from cancer of the uterus that caused her vaginal haemorrhages. On the other hand, the skeletal remains found were not shown to be of recently murdered children, according to Corominas they were probably extracted from some cemetery and used as magical amulets, and others were animals used for cooking, chicken and pork bones. He also considers that the existence of the "ointments" with which Enriqueta sold as medicinal remedies were not proof.
Historian Elsa Plaza spent seven years studying the case of Enriqueta Martí and has written a book, El Cielo Bajo Los Pies (The Sky Underfoot), which brings to light information about the woman herself. Plaza explains that since 1912 Barcelona has referred to Martí as a serial killer though: "Enriqueta was never formally charged with murder nor was any corpse of a child found in her home." She often went begging with other women's children because there was a network of women who helped each other. It was eventually shown that Angelita was truly her niece by her estranged husband's sister, María Pujaló. Martí's story has generally been told by men. Nobody thought that blood found in her flat could belong to Martí herself; she was shown to be dying of uterine cancer and often bled heavily. Most newspapers at the time claimed Martí was the woman who had kidnapped about 40 children from the Fifth District. When the bones found in one of Martí's houses (in carrer Picalquers) were determined to be from multiple animals instead of from children, the assembled journalists almost attacked the doctor who made the announcement. Martí's case was fodder for nascent tabloid journalism; she became the ideal scapegoat to blame for the missing children.
Shortly before Martí's arrest, police had closed a brothel in carrer Botella that prostituted children. The fine for raping a boy or a girl was fifty pesetas; a worker earned four pesetas a day. The owner was apprehended, but not the customers. In addition, Barcelona was a major producer and exporter of pornography, exporting films and pictures to the rest of Europe and to the Americas.
Plaza explains that the entire trial was staged: "They wanted to cover the misery and exploitation. The point of all was the discovery of a child brothel in carrer Botella. It is true that children disappeared. Some were sent to France, where they were exploited in glass factories outside Paris", she explains. The stolen (or sold by their parents to ease economic hardship) children were useful for: begging, illegal adoptions, child abuse, or exploitation in factories where the hard work was crippling. "We can suspect that some girls were victims of international trafficking for prostitution. Here there are not many papers on the subject, but there are in Latin America. Girls were sent to New York, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro. In 1903, the board against white slavery was created and chaired by the Infanta Isabel," Plaza notes. When Enriqueta Martí died at dawn May 13, 1913, she was attended by two inmates who asked if they could attend to the body.
Works about Enriqueta Martí
Literature
Los diarios de Enriqueta Martí by Pierrot is a novel that centers on a few supposed diaries that Enriqueta Martí wrote before beginning her murderous career. Illustrated by the author.
El misterio de la calle Poniente is a novel by Fernando Gómez. In February, 1912 the disappearance of a three-year-old girl shocked Barcelona. The investigation and, later discoveries, revealed to the public a series of macabre murders that shook a city that was recovering from the Tragic Week. The book details many prominent figures who helped to shape the story; individuals of flesh and blood, many of them incapable of being the protagonists of their own story. They converge to outline faithfully the authentic face of the merciless Enriqueta Martí, who begs by day, dresses as a marquise by night, and knows the power from the darkest side. The fresh blood is her valued goods, the children her suppliers, and a sick middle class her clients.
El Cielo Bajo los Pies is a non-fiction book by Elsa Plaza. In a case that shocked Barcelona in 1912. Enriqueta Martí, called by the derisive names "The Vampiress of Barcelona" and "The Bad Woman", was besieged by all kinds of rumors from the moment police arrested her, accusing her of making children disappear with the most aberrant intentions, from turning them into objects of pleasure for the wealthy, to making cosmetics and salves to prolong life. Martí is presented as a likely scapegoat and a number of destitute families are accused of selling their children, albeit out of economic desperation.
Barcelona Shadows, a novel by Marc Pastor. "Pastor’s humble but effective storytelling innovation is to have Death narrate the story… It sounds gimmicky, but in Pastor’s able hands (neatly translated by Mara Faye Lethem) it adds a fateful dimension… Pastor is also skilled at creating brief, crisp scenes that get into the minds not only of his detective but of two captive little girls, and other characters as well. He’s grittily insightful into the psychology of a city under stress… [a] dark, fast-moving tale." — Blogcritics
La vampira del carrer ponent o els misteris de Barcelona by Josep Arias Velasco.
Theatre
La Vampira del Raval (The Vampire of the Raval) a 2013 musical by Albert Guinovart won the Max Awards for the Performing Arts (Los Premios Max de las Artes Escénicas, Spanish) for his musical score of this piece.
Films
In the Spanish film "Diamond Flash" (2011), directed by Carlos Vermut, the character of Enriqueta is inspired by Enriqueta Martí. In the film, Enriqueta controls an organization that is dedicated to the kidnapping of children.
"The Barcelona Vampiress" or "La vampira de Barcelona" (2020), directed by Lluís Danés. In early 20th century Barcelona, little Teresa goes missing shocking the country. When police start investigating Enriqueta Martí, the "Vampiress of Raval", they cover a much more sinister affair.
Television
In episodes 20 and 35 of the first season of Cuarto Milenio, broadcast in 2006, the theme of the so-called vampiresa was discussed.
The figure was characterized in the Spanish TV series El ministerio del tiempo (episode Separadas por el tiempo played by Maria Rodriguez) as a former servant of one of the protagonists who was dismissed for theft and inadvertently discovers through time travel that she will become a serial killer who exploits children, and tries to avoid her destiny by escaping into other periods in history. Eventually, her younger self offers to not change history any more than she already has and agrees to become the woman history says she was on condition that she be allowed to die a more painless death than what was previously described in jail
See also
List of serial killers by country
List of serial killers by number of victims
References
Bibliography
External links
enriquetamarti.wordpress.com. Blog in Catalan with photos and press articles.
1868 births
1912 deaths
Burials at Montjuïc Cemetery
Child prostitution
Child sexual abuse in Spain
People from Sant Feliu de Llobregat
People murdered in Spain
Prisoners murdered in custody
Prisoners who died in Spanish detention
Serial killers murdered in prison custody
Spanish brothel owners and madams
Spanish female serial killers
Spanish murder victims
Spanish murderers of children
Spanish people who died in prison custody
Spanish pimps
Spanish prostitutes |
4065930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Africaine | L'Africaine | L'Africaine (The African Woman) is an 1865 French grand opéra in five acts with music by Giacomo Meyerbeer and a libretto by Eugène Scribe. Meyerbeer and Scribe began working on the opera in 1837, using the title L'Africaine, but around 1852 changed the plot to portray fictitious events in the life of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama and introduced the working title Vasco de Gama, the French version of his name. The copying of the full score was completed the day before Meyerbeer died in 1864.
The opera was premiered the following year by the Paris Opéra in a version made by François-Joseph Fétis, who restored the earlier title, L'Africaine. The Fétis version was published and was used for subsequent performances until 2013, when some productions and recordings began using Meyerbeer's preferred title, Vasco de Gama, for performing versions with revisions based on the manuscript score. In 2018 the music publisher Ricordi issued a critical edition of Meyerbeer's manuscript full score under that title.
Composition
The first contract between Meyerbeer and Scribe for the writing of the libretto was signed in May 1837. The starting point for the story was "Le Mancenillier", a poem by Charles Hubert Millevoye, in which a girl sits under a tree releasing poisonous vapors but is saved by her lover. The plot is also based on an unidentified German tale and a 1770 play by Antoine Lemierre, La Veuve de Malabar, in which a Hindu maiden loves a Portuguese navigator, a theme already treated by the composer Louis Spohr in his opera Jessonda.
Cornélie Falcon was originally intended for the principal soprano role of Sélika, but suffered an illness that ended her career. The loss of Falcon and reservations about the libretto caused Meyerbeer to set the project aside in the summer of 1838, when he shifted his focus to the preparation of Le Prophète.
Meyerbeer resumed work on L'Africaine (the original working title) in 1841 and completed the first draft and a piano score of the first two acts in 1843, after which he again set the project aside. The original story was set in Spain during the reign of Philip III. The protagonist was a naval officer by the name of Fernand (based on Ferdinand de Soto), who buys Sélika as a slave. While sailing for Mexico in Act 3, his ships are forced to seek shelter on the coast of Sélika's kingdom in Africa on the Niger River.
In 1851–1852, Meyerbeer and Scribe continued working on the libretto. Meyerbeer had read a French translation of Camoens's The Lusiads, an epic poem that celebrates the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da Gama. Meyerbeer and Scribe changed the setting of Acts 1 and 2 to Lisbon and of Acts 4 and 5 to India. The protagonist became Vasco da Gama, and the working title was changed from L'Africaine to Vasco de Gama.
Meyerbeer's work on L'Étoile du nord and Le Pardon de Ploërmel caused further delay, but Meyerbeer returned to the libretto in September 1855. He had intended the role of Sélika for the soprano Sophie Cruvelli, but Cruvelli's abrupt retirement from the public stage in January 1856 interrupted his plans. He began composing music for the Council Scene of Act 1 in Nice (December 1857 – April 1858). He worked on the opera almost continuously from March 1860 until a few days before his death. Scribe died on 20 February 1861, after which Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer provided German revisions that were translated into French by Joseph Duesberg. Meyerbeer himself revised Sélika's death scene in November and December 1863. He died on 2 May 1864, one day after the completion of the copying of the full score.
Since substantial revisions and excisions almost always occur during rehearsals, Meyerbeer requested the opera should not be given, if he died before it was produced. However, Minna Meyerbeer (his widow) and César-Victor Perrin (the director of the Opéra) appointed François-Joseph Fétis to edit the music for a performing version, and Mélesville to edit the libretto. Because the title L'Africaine was already well known to the general public, it was reinstated, and, to achieve consistency of this title with the Hindu references in the libretto, India was changed to Madagascar. The opera was greatly shortened, damaging some of the logic of the story.
It was during the revisions by Fétis and his collaborators, including, besides Mélesville, Camille Du Locle, Germain Delavigne, and Marie-Joseph-François Mahérault, that the name of the character Yoriko was changed to Nélusko, the name of the high priest of Brahma (Zanguebar) was removed, and the spelling of Sélica was changed to Sélika. For the required ballet, which Meyerbeer had not provided, Fétis arranged two cut numbers (Sélika's Lullaby in Act 2 and the sailors' Ronde bachique of Act 3). He also moved a duet for Sélika and Nélusko from the Act 3 finale to Act 5.
The music historian Robert Letellier has written that Fétis "on the whole reached an acceptable compromise between the presumed artistic wishes of Meyerbeer and the practical necessities of performance", but "retaining the historical figure of Vasco, as well as the Hindu religion depicted in Act 4, led to almost irreparable absurdity in the action because of the change in locations given for Acts 4 and 5 on the printed libretto in the vocal score (an island on the east coast of Africa) and in the full score (an island in the Indian archipelago)." Gabriela Cruz has published a detailed analysis of the historical context of the events of the opera and the opera setting itself.
Tim Ashley of The Guardian wrote:
Fétis's alterations consisted largely of cuts and re-orderings, the aim of which, ostensibly, was to bring the opera within manageable length, and to improve narrative clarity, though the plot, by operatic standards, isn't that difficult. ... But Fétis's changes tone down Meyerbeer's clear-minded examination of the complex relationship between colonial and sexual exploitation. He makes Sélika acquiescent by shortening or removing scenes in which she is assertive. And he prettifies her suicide, which Meyerbeer intended as troubling. We don't know what changes Meyerbeer was planning: one hopes he would have sorted out the longueurs in the first two acts. But there's no doubt that Fétis did him a grave disservice.
Performance history
The opera was premiered on 28 April 1865 by the Opéra at the Salle Le Peletier in Paris under the title L'Africaine in the performing edition undertaken by Fétis. Because of the long-running and unprecedented advance publicity, including countless reports in the domestic and international press, the production was a social and artistic sensation. The first night, attended by Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie, "provided Second Empire society with its most exalted self-presentation in terms of an opera premiere." Hourly reports on the progress of the event and its reception were relayed by telegraph to other European capitals. A bust of the composer, newly executed by Jean-Pierre Dantan, was revealed on the stage at the conclusion of the performance, and with only a few exceptions critics declared the production brilliant and the opera, Meyerbeer's masterpiece.
L'Africaine was nearly the only work presented by the Opéra until 1 November 1865. In its first year it brought in 11,000 to 12,000 francs per performance (roughly twice what was earned by other programs) and reached its 100th presentation at the Salle Le Peletier on 9 March 1866. It was given there 225 times before its first performance in a new production at the new Paris opera house, the Palais Garnier, on 17 December 1877, and reached 484 representations before it was dropped from the repertoire on 8 November 1902.
The work had its British premiere at Covent Garden Theatre, London, on 22 July 1865, and in New York on 1 December 1865. It also received its Italian premiere in 1865 in Bologna, conducted by Angelo Mariani and was staged four times at La Fenice between 1868 and 1892. It was also performed in Melbourne, Australia, in July 1866.
The opera was enormously successful in the 19th century, but along with Meyerbeer's other operas, it fell into almost complete neglect in the 20th century, except for very occasional revivals. Plácido Domingo has sung it in at least two productions: a revival at the War Memorial Opera House in San Francisco that premiered on November 13, 1973, with Shirley Verrett; and in 1977 at the Liceu in Barcelona, with Montserrat Caballé. In the 21st century, Meyerbeer's major French grand operas are again appearing in new productions in European opera houses. To mark the 150th anniversary of Meyerbeer's death, the work was performed again at La Fenice in November 2013.
In 2013, a preliminary edition by Jürgen Schläder was staged by Chemnitz Opera under the title Vasco de Gama. The production was a success with audiences and critics and won the poll of German critics award presented by Opernwelt magazine annually as "Rediscovery of the year" in 2013. This edition was also used for a production at the Deutsche Oper in October 2015, with Roberto Alagna as Vasco de Gama and Sophie Koch as Sélika. A new production of L'Africaine/Vasco de Gama was staged at the Frankfurt Opera in 2018 with Michael Spyres as Vasco de Gama and Claudia Mahnke as Selika.
Critical edition of Meyerbeer's autograph score
In December 2018, a critical edition of Meyerbeer's autograph score, edited by Jürgen Selk, was released as part of the Giacomo Meyerbeer Werkausgabe, by Ricordi, Berlin. This edition makes available, for the first time, a musical score derived directly from Meyerbeer's surviving autograph and employs the title Meyerbeer and Scribe had assigned to the work, Vasco de Gama. It also restores much of the original material that Fétis and his collaborators had altered in preparation both for the first performance and for the first publication of the work by G. Brandus & S. Dufour (1865). Among these revisions were musical alterations, cuts, tempo indications, and much of the lyrical text. Another change undertaken by Fétis and his collaborators was to change the names of “Sélica” to “Sélika” and “Yoriko” to “Nélusko.” Additionally, the High Priest of Brahma was referred to only under that title (“Le grand prêtre de Brahma”) and not as “Zanguebar.” Meyerbeer, however, used “Sélica,” “Yoriko, ” and “Zanguebar” exclusively throughout his score. The edition restores these character names to the way Meyerbeer wrote them.
Roles
Synopsis
The opera depicts fictional events in the life of the explorer Vasco da Gama ('de Gama' in the French libretto).
Place: Lisbon, at sea, and in an exotic new land
Time: late 15th century
Act 1
The council chamber, Lisbon
The beautiful Inès is forced by her father, the Grand Admiral Don Diégo, to marry Don Pédro instead of her true love, Vasco de Gama. De Gama, who is thought to have died in the expedition of Bartolomeu Dias, appears at the Grand Council saying he has discovered a new land, and displaying Sélika and Nélusko as examples of a newly discovered race. His request for an expedition is refused, causing de Gama to attack the Grand Inquisitor, who anathematises him. De Gama is then imprisoned.
Act 2
The prison
Sélika, who is in fact queen of the undiscovered land, saves de Gama, whom she loves, from being murdered by Nélusko, a member of her entourage. Inès agrees to marry Don Pédro if de Gama is freed; de Gama, not realising that Inès has made this bargain, and noticing her envy of Sélika, gives her Sélika and Nélusko as slaves. Don Pédro announces he is to mount an expedition to the new lands that were de Gama's discovery. Nélusko offers his services as pilot.
Act 3
On Don Pédro's ship
Nélusko is navigating the ship, but is secretly planning to destroy the Europeans. He sings a ballad of the legend of Adamastor, the destructive giant of the sea. Nélusko gives orders that will direct the ship into an oncoming storm. De Gama has followed Don Pédro in another ship, and begs him to change course to avoid destruction. Don Pédro refuses, and orders him to be chained. The storm breaks out. Nélusko leads the local people to kill all the Europeans on the ships and only de Gama is spared.
Act 4
Sélika's island
Sélika is met with a grand celebration and swears to uphold the island's laws, which include the execution of all strangers. De Gama is captured by priests, who intend to sacrifice him. He is amazed by the wonders of the island, and sings the most famous aria of the opera "O Paradis!" (O Paradise!). Sélika saves him by saying that he is her husband, forcing Nélusko to swear this is true. De Gama resigns himself to this new life, but hearing the voice of Inès, who is being taken to her execution, he rushes to find her.
Act 5
The island
The reunion of de Gama and Inès is interrupted by Sélika, who feels betrayed. When she realises the strength of the lovers' affection, she allows them to return to Europe, telling Nélusko to escort them to de Gama's boat. She then commits suicide by inhaling the perfume of the poisonous blossoms of the manchineel tree. Nélusko follows her into death.
Designs for the premiere
The stage designs for the original production at the Paris Opera were created by Auguste Alfred Rubé and Philippe Chaperon for Act 1 (Council Scene) and Act 2 (Dungeon Scene); Charles-Antoine Cambon and for Act 3 (Sea Scene and Shipwreck) and Act 4 (Hindu Temple); Jean-Baptiste Lavastre for scene 1 of Act 5 (Queen's Garden, not shown); and Edouard Desplechin for scene 2 of Act 5 (The Manchineel Tree). The choreography was by Louis Mérante, and the costumes were designed by and Alfred Albert. Engravings depicting the amazing sets appeared in periodicals throughout Europe. The final scene designed by Desplechin received special praise for its originality. Possibly because of advance publicity and high expectations, the Shipwreck Scene of act 3, executed by numerous stagehands, was deemed by the press to be somewhat disappointing. However, Arthur Pougin writing in 1885 identified the scene as the epitome of the company's grand opera mise en scène.
Recordings
A well known highlight from the opera is the act 4 tenor aria "Pays merveilleux ... O, paradis", which has been recorded many times.
Recordings as L'Africaine
Recording as Vasco de Gama (based on Meyerbeer's unedited version)
Lynn René Bayley, writing in Fanfare commented on this recording: "I was so angered by this performance I could almost spit nails, because neither the conductor nor the cast understand Meyerbeer style in the slightest. [...]As for the missing music, some of it is quite good and some of goes in one ear and out the other."
References
Notes
Cited sources
Arsenty, Richard, editor, translations; Letellier, Robert Ignatius, editor, introductions (2008). The Meyerbeer Libretti, Grand Opéra 4, L'Africaine, second edition. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. .
Arsenty, Richard; Letellier, Robert Ignatius (2013). Giacomo Meyerbeer: A Discography of Vintage Recordings 1889 - 1955. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. .
Chouquet, Gustave (1873). Histoire de la musique dramatique en France depuis ses origines jusqu'à nos jours . Paris: Didot. View at Google Books.
Huebner, Steven (1992). "Africaine, L " in Sadie (1992) 1: 31–33.
Letellier, Robert Ignatius (2006). The Operas of Giacomo Meyerbeer. Madison/Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. .
Letellier, Robert Ignatius (2008). An Introduction to the Dramatic Works of Giacomo Meyerbeer: Operas, Ballets, Cantatas, Plays. Hampshire, England: Ashgate. .
Meyerbeer, Giacomo; Letellier, Robert Ignatius, editor (2004). The Diaries of Giacomo Meyerbeer: 4. The Last Years, 1857–1864. Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. .
Neppi, Carla (2014). "The Composition of the Opera", translated by Susan Marie Praeder, pp. 18–19, in the CD booklet accompanying the CDs of the performance conducted by Frank Beermann. Georgsmarienhütte: CPO. .
Pitou, Spire (1990). The Paris Opéra: An Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers, and Performers. Growth and Grandeur, 1815–1914. New York: Greenwood Press. .
Sadie, Stanley, editor (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (4 volumes). London: Macmillan. .
Selk, Jürgen (2018). Giacomo Meyerbeer Werkausgabe, Abteilung 1, Bühnenwerke. Band 17: Vasco de Gama, Opéra en cinq actes, Paroles d'Eugène Scribe, Kritischer Bericht [Critical Report]. Berlin: Ricordi. .
Wild, Nicole (1987). Décors et costumes du XIXe siècle. Tome I: Opéra de Paris. Paris: Bibliothèque nationale de France. .
Wolff, Stéphane (1962). L'Opéra au Palais Garnier (1875–1962). Paris: Deposé au journal L'Entr'acte . Paris: Slatkine (1983 reprint) .Other sources'''
Rosenthal, Harold and John Warrack (eds), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera (Oxford, 1979)
Zimmermann, Reiner, Giacomo Meyerbeer'' (Berlin, 1998).
External links
L'Africaine, Italian and English libretto, J. Miles & Co. (1865)
Visual documentation of the premiere on Gallica
"L'Africaine; A lyric dramma, in five acts", Italian and English, digitized by BYU on archive.org
1865 operas
Cultural depictions of Vasco da Gama
French-language operas
Grand operas
Libretti by Eugène Scribe
Opera world premieres at the Paris Opera
Operas
Operas based on real people
Operas by Giacomo Meyerbeer
Operas completed by others
Operas set in Portugal
Operas set in the 15th century
Unfinished operas |
4066308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20sequence%20alignment | Multiple sequence alignment | Multiple sequence alignment (MSA) may refer to the process or the result of sequence alignment of three or more biological sequences, generally protein, DNA, or RNA. In many cases, the input set of query sequences are assumed to have an evolutionary relationship by which they share a linkage and are descended from a common ancestor. From the resulting MSA, sequence homology can be inferred and phylogenetic analysis can be conducted to assess the sequences' shared evolutionary origins. Visual depictions of the alignment as in the image at right illustrate mutation events such as point mutations (single amino acid or nucleotide changes) that appear as differing characters in a single alignment column, and insertion or deletion mutations (indels or gaps) that appear as hyphens in one or more of the sequences in the alignment. Multiple sequence alignment is often used to assess sequence conservation of protein domains, tertiary and secondary structures, and even individual amino acids or nucleotides.
Computational algorithms are used to produce and analyse the MSAs due to the difficulty and intractability of manually processing the sequences given their biologically-relevant length. MSAs require more sophisticated methodologies than pairwise alignment because they are more computationally complex. Most multiple sequence alignment programs use heuristic methods rather than global optimization because identifying the optimal alignment between more than a few sequences of moderate length is prohibitively computationally expensive. On the other hand, heuristic methods generally fail to give guarantees on the solution quality, with heuristic solutions shown to be often far below the optimal solution on benchmark instances.
Problem statement
Given sequences , similar to the form below:
A multiple sequence alignment is taken of this set of sequences by inserting any amount of gaps needed into each of the sequences of until the modified sequences, , all conform to length and no values in the sequences of of the same column consists of only gaps. The mathematical form of an MSA of the above sequence set is shown below:
To return from each particular sequence to , remove all gaps.
Graphing approach
A general approach when calculating multiple sequence alignments is to use graphs to identify all of the different alignments.
When finding alignments via graph, a complete alignment is created in a weighted graph that contains a set of vertices and a set of edges. Each of the graph edges has a weight based on a certain heuristic that helps to score each alignment or subset of the original graph.
Tracing alignments
When determining the best suited alignments for each MSA, a trace is usually generated. A trace is a set of realized, or corresponding and aligned, vertices that has a specific weight based on the edges that are selected between corresponding vertices. When choosing traces for a set of sequences it is necessary to choose a trace with a maximum weight to get the best alignment of the sequences.
Alignment methods
There are various alignment methods used within multiple sequence to maximize scores and correctness of alignments. Each is usually based on a certain heuristic with an insight into the evolutionary process. Most try to replicate evolution to get the most realistic alignment possible to best predict relations between sequences.
Dynamic programming
A direct method for producing an MSA uses the dynamic programming technique to identify the globally optimal alignment solution. For proteins, this method usually involves two sets of parameters: a gap penalty and a substitution matrix assigning scores or probabilities to the alignment of each possible pair of amino acids based on the similarity of the amino acids' chemical properties and the evolutionary probability of the mutation. For nucleotide sequences, a similar gap penalty is used, but a much simpler substitution matrix, wherein only identical matches and mismatches are considered, is typical. The scores in the substitution matrix may be either all positive or a mix of positive and negative in the case of a global alignment, but must be both positive and negative, in the case of a local alignment.
For n individual sequences, the naive method requires constructing the n-dimensional equivalent of the matrix formed in standard pairwise sequence alignment. The search space thus increases exponentially with increasing n and is also strongly dependent on sequence length. Expressed with the big O notation commonly used to measure computational complexity, a naïve MSA takes O(LengthNseqs) time to produce. To find the global optimum for n sequences this way has been shown to be an NP-complete problem. In 1989, based on Carrillo-Lipman Algorithm, Altschul introduced a practical method that uses pairwise alignments to constrain the n-dimensional search space. In this approach pairwise dynamic programming alignments are performed on each pair of sequences in the query set, and only the space near the n-dimensional intersection of these alignments is searched for the n-way alignment. The MSA program optimizes the sum of all of the pairs of characters at each position in the alignment (the so-called sum of pair score) and has been implemented in a software program for constructing multiple sequence alignments. In 2019, Hosseininasab and van Hoeve showed that by using decision diagrams, MSA may be modeled in polynomial space complexity.
Progressive alignment construction
The most widely used approach to multiple sequence alignments uses a heuristic search known as progressive technique (also known as the hierarchical or tree method) developed by Da-Fei Feng and Doolittle in 1987. Progressive alignment builds up a final MSA by combining pairwise alignments beginning with the most similar pair and progressing to the most distantly related. All progressive alignment methods require two stages: a first stage in which the relationships between the sequences are represented as a tree, called a guide tree, and a second step in which the MSA is built by adding the sequences sequentially to the growing MSA according to the guide tree. The initial guide tree is determined by an efficient clustering method such as neighbor-joining or UPGMA, and may use distances based on the number of identical two-letter sub-sequences (as in FASTA rather than a dynamic programming alignment).
Progressive alignments are not guaranteed to be globally optimal. The primary problem is that when errors are made at any stage in growing the MSA, these errors are then propagated through to the final result. Performance is also particularly bad when all of the sequences in the set are rather distantly related. Most modern progressive methods modify their scoring function with a secondary weighting function that assigns scaling factors to individual members of the query set in a nonlinear fashion based on their phylogenetic distance from their nearest neighbors. This corrects for non-random selection of the sequences given to the alignment program.
Progressive alignment methods are efficient enough to implement on a large scale for many (100s to 1000s) sequences. Progressive alignment services are commonly available on publicly accessible web servers so users need not locally install the applications of interest. The most popular progressive alignment method has been the Clustal family, especially the weighted variant ClustalW to which access is provided by a large number of web portals including GenomeNet, EBI, and EMBNet. Different portals or implementations can vary in user interface and make different parameters accessible to the user. ClustalW is used extensively for phylogenetic tree construction, in spite of the author's explicit warnings that unedited alignments should not be used in such studies and as input for protein structure prediction by homology modeling. Current version of Clustal family is ClustalW2. EMBL-EBI announced that CLustalW2 will be expired in August 2015. They recommend Clustal Omega which performs based on seeded guide trees and HMM profile-profile techniques for protein alignments. They offer different MSA tools for progressive DNA alignments. One of them is MAFFT (Multiple Alignment using Fast Fourier Transform).
Another common progressive alignment method called T-Coffee is slower than Clustal and its derivatives but generally produces more accurate alignments for distantly related sequence sets. T-Coffee calculates pairwise alignments by combining the direct alignment of the pair with indirect alignments that aligns each sequence of the pair to a third sequence. It uses the output from Clustal as well as another local alignment program LALIGN, which finds multiple regions of local alignment between two sequences. The resulting alignment and phylogenetic tree are used as a guide to produce new and more accurate weighting factors.
Because progressive methods are heuristics that are not guaranteed to converge to a global optimum, alignment quality can be difficult to evaluate and their true biological significance can be obscure. A semi-progressive method that improves alignment quality and does not use a lossy heuristic while still running in polynomial time has been implemented in the program PSAlign.
Iterative methods
A set of methods to produce MSAs while reducing the errors inherent in progressive methods are classified as "iterative" because they work similarly to progressive methods but repeatedly realign the initial sequences as well as adding new sequences to the growing MSA. One reason progressive methods are so strongly dependent on a high-quality initial alignment is the fact that these alignments are always incorporated into the final result — that is, once a sequence has been aligned into the MSA, its alignment is not considered further. This approximation improves efficiency at the cost of accuracy. By contrast, iterative methods can return to previously calculated pairwise alignments or sub-MSAs incorporating subsets of the query sequence as a means of optimizing a general objective function such as finding a high-quality alignment score.
A variety of subtly different iteration methods have been implemented and made available in software packages; reviews and comparisons have been useful but generally refrain from choosing a "best" technique. The software package PRRN/PRRP uses a hill-climbing algorithm to optimize its MSA alignment score and iteratively corrects both alignment weights and locally divergent or "gappy" regions of the growing MSA. PRRP performs best when refining an alignment previously constructed by a faster method.
Another iterative program, DIALIGN, takes an unusual approach of focusing narrowly on local alignments between sub-segments or sequence motifs without introducing a gap penalty. The alignment of individual motifs is then achieved with a matrix representation similar to a dot-matrix plot in a pairwise alignment. An alternative method that uses fast local alignments as anchor points or "seeds" for a slower global-alignment procedure is implemented in the CHAOS/DIALIGN suite.
A third popular iteration-based method called MUSCLE (multiple sequence alignment by log-expectation) improves on progressive methods with a more accurate distance measure to assess the relatedness of two sequences. The distance measure is updated between iteration stages (although, in its original form, MUSCLE contained only 2-3 iterations depending on whether refinement was enabled).
Consensus methods
Consensus methods attempt to find the optimal multiple sequence alignment given multiple different alignments of the same set of sequences. There are two commonly used consensus methods, M-COFFEE and MergeAlign. M-COFFEE uses multiple sequence alignments generated by seven different methods to generate consensus alignments. MergeAlign is capable of generating consensus alignments from any number of input alignments generated using different models of sequence evolution or different methods of multiple sequence alignment. The default option for MergeAlign is to infer a consensus alignment using alignments generated using 91 different models of protein sequence evolution.
Hidden Markov models
Hidden Markov models are probabilistic models that can assign likelihoods to all possible combinations of gaps, matches, and mismatches to determine the most likely MSA or set of possible MSAs. HMMs can produce a single highest-scoring output but can also generate a family of possible alignments that can then be evaluated for biological significance. HMMs can produce both global and local alignments. Although HMM-based methods have been developed relatively recently, they offer significant improvements in computational speed, especially for sequences that contain overlapping regions.
Typical HMM-based methods work by representing an MSA as a form of directed acyclic graph known as a partial-order graph, which consists of a series of nodes representing possible entries in the columns of an MSA. In this representation a column that is absolutely conserved (that is, that all the sequences in the MSA share a particular character at a particular position) is coded as a single node with as many outgoing connections as there are possible characters in the next column of the alignment. In the terms of a typical hidden Markov model, the observed states are the individual alignment columns and the "hidden" states represent the presumed ancestral sequence from which the sequences in the query set are hypothesized to have descended. An efficient search variant of the dynamic programming method, known as the Viterbi algorithm, is generally used to successively align the growing MSA to the next sequence in the query set to produce a new MSA. This is distinct from progressive alignment methods because the alignment of prior sequences is updated at each new sequence addition. However, like progressive methods, this technique can be influenced by the order in which the sequences in the query set are integrated into the alignment, especially when the sequences are distantly related.
Several software programs are available in which variants of HMM-based methods have been implemented and which are noted for their scalability and efficiency, although properly using an HMM method is more complex than using more common progressive methods. The simplest is POA (Partial-Order Alignment); a similar but more generalized method is implemented in the packages SAM (Sequence Alignment and Modeling System). and HMMER.
SAM has been used as a source of alignments for protein structure prediction to participate in the CASP structure prediction experiment and to develop a database of predicted proteins in the yeast species S. cerevisiae. HHsearch is a software package for the detection of remotely related protein sequences based on the pairwise comparison of HMMs. A server running HHsearch (HHpred) was by far the fastest of the 10 best automatic structure prediction servers in the CASP7 and CASP8 structure prediction competitions.
Phylogeny-aware methods
Most multiple sequence alignment methods try to minimize the number of insertions/deletions (gaps) and, as a consequence, produce compact alignments. This causes several problems if the sequences to be aligned contain non-homologous regions, if gaps are informative in a phylogeny analysis. These problems are common in newly produced sequences that are poorly annotated and may contain frame-shifts, wrong domains or non-homologous spliced exons. The first such method was developed in 2005 by Löytynoja and Goldman. The same authors released a software package called PRANK in 2008. PRANK improves alignments when insertions are present. Nevertheless, it runs slowly compared to progressive and/or iterative methods which have been developed for several years.
In 2012, two new phylogeny-aware tools appeared. One is called PAGAN that was developed by the same team as PRANK. The other is ProGraphMSA developed by Szalkowski. Both software packages were developed independently but share common features, notably the use of graph algorithms to improve the recognition of non-homologous regions, and an improvement in code making these software faster than PRANK.
Motif finding
Motif finding, also known as profile analysis, is a method of locating sequence motifs in global MSAs that is both a means of producing a better MSA and a means of producing a scoring matrix for use in searching other sequences for similar motifs. A variety of methods for isolating the motifs have been developed, but all are based on identifying short highly conserved patterns within the larger alignment and constructing a matrix similar to a substitution matrix that reflects the amino acid or nucleotide composition of each position in the putative motif. The alignment can then be refined using these matrices. In standard profile analysis, the matrix includes entries for each possible character as well as entries for gaps. Alternatively, statistical pattern-finding algorithms can identify motifs as a precursor to an MSA rather than as a derivation. In many cases when the query set contains only a small number of sequences or contains only highly related sequences, pseudocounts are added to normalize the distribution reflected in the scoring matrix. In particular, this corrects zero-probability entries in the matrix to values that are small but nonzero.
Blocks analysis is a method of motif finding that restricts motifs to ungapped regions in the alignment. Blocks can be generated from an MSA or they can be extracted from unaligned sequences using a precalculated set of common motifs previously generated from known gene families. Block scoring generally relies on the spacing of high-frequency characters rather than on the calculation of an explicit substitution matrix. The BLOCKS server provides an interactive method to locate such motifs in unaligned sequences.
Statistical pattern-matching has been implemented using both the expectation-maximization algorithm and the Gibbs sampler. One of the most common motif-finding tools, known as MEME, uses expectation maximization and hidden Markov methods to generate motifs that are then used as search tools by its companion MAST in the combined suite MEME/MAST .
Non-coding multiple sequence alignment
Non-coding DNA regions, especially TFBSs, are rather more conserved and not necessarily evolutionarily related, and may have converged from non-common ancestors. Thus, the assumptions used to align protein sequences and DNA coding regions are inherently different from those that hold for TFBS sequences. Although it is meaningful to align DNA coding regions for homologous sequences using mutation operators, alignment of binding site sequences for the same transcription factor cannot rely on evolutionary related mutation operations. Similarly, the evolutionary operator of point mutations can be used to define an edit distance for coding sequences, but this has little meaning for TFBS sequences because any sequence variation has to maintain a certain level of specificity for the binding site to function. This becomes specifically important when trying to align known TFBS sequences to build supervised models to predict unknown locations of the same TFBS. Hence, Multiple Sequence Alignment methods need to adjust the underlying evolutionary hypothesis and the operators used as in the work published incorporating neighbouring base thermodynamic information to align the binding sites searching for the lowest thermodynamic alignment conserving specificity of the binding site, EDNA .
Optimization
Genetic algorithms and simulated annealing
Standard optimization techniques in computer science — both of which were inspired by, but do not directly reproduce, physical processes — have also been used in an attempt to more efficiently produce quality MSAs. One such technique, genetic algorithms, has been used for MSA production in an attempt to broadly simulate the hypothesized evolutionary process that gave rise to the divergence in the query set. The method works by breaking a series of possible MSAs into fragments and repeatedly rearranging those fragments with the introduction of gaps at varying positions. A general objective function is optimized during the simulation, most generally the "sum of pairs" maximization function introduced in dynamic programming-based MSA methods. A technique for protein sequences has been implemented in the software program SAGA (Sequence Alignment by Genetic Algorithm) and its equivalent in RNA is called RAGA.
The technique of simulated annealing, by which an existing MSA produced by another method is refined by a series of rearrangements designed to find better regions of alignment space than the one the input alignment already occupies. Like the genetic algorithm method, simulated annealing maximizes an objective function like the sum-of-pairs function. Simulated annealing uses a metaphorical "temperature factor" that determines the rate at which rearrangements proceed and the likelihood of each rearrangement; typical usage alternates periods of high rearrangement rates with relatively low likelihood (to explore more distant regions of alignment space) with periods of lower rates and higher likelihoods to more thoroughly explore local minima near the newly "colonized" regions. This approach has been implemented in the program MSASA (Multiple Sequence Alignment by Simulated Annealing).
Mathematical programming and exact solution algorithms
Mathematical programming and in particular Mixed integer programming models are another approach to solve MSA problems. The advantage of such optimization models is that they can be used to find the optimal MSA solution more efficiently compared to the traditional DP approach. This is due in part, to the applicability of decomposition techniques for mathematical programs, where the MSA model is decomposed into smaller parts and iteratively solved until the optimal solution is found. Example algorithms used to solve mixed integer programming models of MSA include branch and price and Benders decomposition. Although exact approaches are computationally slow compared to heuristic algorithms for MSA, they are guaranteed to reach the optimal solution eventually, even for large-size problems.
Simulated quantum computing
In January 2017, D-Wave Systems announced that its qbsolv open-source quantum computing software had been successfully used to find a faster solution to the MSA problem.
Alignment visualization and quality control
The necessary use of heuristics for multiple alignment means that for an arbitrary set of proteins, there is always a good chance that an alignment will contain errors. For example, an evaluation of several leading alignment programs using the BAliBase benchmark found that at least 24% of all pairs of aligned amino acids were incorrectly aligned. These errors can arise because of unique insertions into one or more regions of sequences, or through some more complex evolutionary process leading to proteins that do not align easily by sequence alone. As the number of sequence and their divergence increases many more errors will be made simply because of the heuristic nature of MSA algorithms. Multiple sequence alignment viewers enable alignments to be visually reviewed, often by inspecting the quality of alignment for annotated functional sites on two or more sequences. Many also enable the alignment to be edited to correct these (usually minor) errors, in order to obtain an optimal 'curated' alignment suitable for use in phylogenetic analysis or comparative modeling.
However, as the number of sequences increases and especially in genome-wide studies that involve many MSAs it is impossible to manually curate all alignments. Furthermore, manual curation is subjective. And finally, even the best expert cannot confidently align the more ambiguous cases of highly diverged sequences. In such cases it is common practice to use automatic procedures to exclude unreliably aligned regions from the MSA. For the purpose of phylogeny reconstruction (see below) the Gblocks program is widely used to remove alignment blocks suspect of low quality, according to various cutoffs on the number of gapped sequences in alignment columns. However, these criteria may excessively filter out regions with insertion/deletion events that may still be aligned reliably, and these regions might be desirable for other purposes such as detection of positive selection. A few alignment algorithms output site-specific scores that allow the selection of high-confidence regions. Such a service was first offered by the SOAP program, which tests the robustness of each column to perturbation in the parameters of the popular alignment program CLUSTALW. The T-Coffee program uses a library of alignments in the construction of the final MSA, and its output MSA is colored according to confidence scores that reflect the agreement between different alignments in the library regarding each aligned residue. Its extension, TCS : (Transitive Consistency Score), uses T-Coffee libraries of pairwise alignments to evaluate any third party MSA. Pairwise projections can be produced using fast or slow methods, thus allowing a trade-off between speed and accuracy. Another alignment program that can output an MSA with confidence scores is FSA, which uses a statistical model that allows calculation of the uncertainty in the alignment. The HoT (Heads-Or-Tails) score can be used as a measure of site-specific alignment uncertainty due to the existence of multiple co-optimal solutions. The GUIDANCE program calculates a similar site-specific confidence measure based on the robustness of the alignment to uncertainty in the guide tree that is used in progressive alignment programs. An alternative, more statistically justified approach to assess alignment uncertainty is the use of probabilistic evolutionary models for joint estimation of phylogeny and alignment. A Bayesian approach allows calculation of posterior probabilities of estimated phylogeny and alignment, which is a measure of the confidence in these estimates. In this case, a posterior probability can be calculated for each site in the alignment. Such an approach was implemented in the program BAli-Phy.
There are free programs available for visualization of multiple sequence alignments, for example Jalview and UGENE.
Phylogenetic use
Multiple sequence alignments can be used to create a phylogenetic tree. This is made possible by two reasons. The first is because functional domains that are known in annotated sequences can be used for alignment in non-annotated sequences. The other is that conserved regions known to be functionally important can be found. This makes it possible for multiple sequence alignments to be used to analyze and find evolutionary relationships through homology between sequences. Point mutations and insertion or deletion events (called indels) can be detected.
Multiple sequence alignments can also be used to identify functionally important sites, such as binding sites, active sites, or sites corresponding to other key functions, by locating conserved domains. When looking at multiple sequence alignments, it is useful to consider different aspects of the sequences when comparing sequences. These aspects include identity, similarity, and homology. Identity means that the sequences have identical residues at their respective positions. On the other hand, similarity has to do with the sequences being compared having similar residues quantitatively. For example, in terms of nucleotide sequences, pyrimidines are considered similar to each other, as are purines. Similarity ultimately leads to homology, in that the more similar sequences are, the closer they are to being homologous. This similarity in sequences can then go on to help find common ancestry.
See also
Alignment-free sequence analysis
Cladistics
Generalized tree alignment
Multiple sequence alignment viewers
PANDIT, a biological database covering protein domains
Phylogenetics
Sequence alignment software
Structural alignment
References
Survey articles
External links
ExPASy sequence alignment tools
Archived Multiple Alignment Resource Page — from the Virtual School of Natural Sciences
Tools for Multiple Alignments — from Pôle Bioinformatique Lyonnais
An entry point to clustal servers and information
An entry point to the main T-Coffee servers
An entry point to the main MergeAlign server and information
European Bioinformatics Institute servers:
ClustalW2 — general purpose multiple sequence alignment program for DNA or proteins.
Muscle — MUltiple Sequence Comparison by Log-Expectation
T-coffee — multiple sequence alignment.
MAFFT — Multiple Alignment using Fast Fourier Transform
KALIGN — a fast and accurate multiple sequence alignment algorithm.
Lecture notes, tutorials, and courses
Multiple sequence alignment lectures — from the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics
Lecture Notes and practical exercises on multiple sequence alignments at the EMBL
Molecular Bioinformatics Lecture Notes
Molecular Evolution and Bioinformatics Lecture Notes
Bioinformatics
Computational phylogenetics
Markov models |
4066919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United%20Kingdom%20relations | Germany–United Kingdom relations | The bilateral relations between Germany and the United Kingdom span hundreds of years, and the countries have been aligned since the end of World War II.
Relations were very strong in the Late Middle Ages when the German cities of the Hanseatic League traded with England and Scotland.
Before the Unification of Germany in 1871, Britain was often allied in wartime with its dominant Prussia. The royal families often intermarried. The House of Hanover (1714–1837) ruled the small Electorate of Hanover, later the Kingdom of Hanover, as well as Britain.
Historians have long focused on the diplomatic and naval rivalries between Germany and Britain after 1871 to search for the root causes of the growing antagonism that led to World War I. In recent years, historians have paid greater attention to the mutual cultural, ideological and technological influences.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Prussia was from some time a British ally; some of the other German states had supported France.
Germany, as the German Empire, fought against the United Kingdom and its allies in World War I between 1914 and 1918. Germany, as Nazi Germany, again fought the United Kingdom and allied forces in World War II between 1939 and 1945. Germany was defeated by the United Kingdom and its allies in both wars. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Germany was occupied by the allied forces, including the United Kingdom, from 1945 to 1955. Following this, the country was divided into West Germany and East Germany.
The United Kingdom became close allies with West Germany during the Cold War, through West Germany's integration into the 'Western world'. For example, through the United States-led defence partnership, NATO, as Britain said that a Soviet incursion into Germany or a nuclear strike would be met with British fire, or nuclear retaliation. Contrastingly, relations between East Germany and the United Kingdom were poor due to East Germany being allied to the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
West Germany was a founding member of the European Communities, later to become the European Union, which the United Kingdom joined in 1973. West Germany and the United Kingdom were some of the most powerful countries in the organisation, both having significant influence on its development. Germany broadly favoured European integration, whereas the United Kingdom generally opposed it.
East and West Germany reunified following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 which marked the end of the Cold War, which led to East Germany sharing the superior relationship with the United Kingdom which it had developed with West Germany.
Through membership of the European Union, trade and cooperation with the United Kingdom significantly increased in many areas, particularly in research and development which has created enduring links between the science and university communities of Germany and the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom is the second largest consumer of German motor vehicles after Germany itself.
In a referendum on continued membership of the European Union in 2016, the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the European Union and left the bloc on 31 January 2020 after 47 years of membership. Despite a slight reduction in trade afterwards, relations still remain strong in many areas. Their joint response to the current war in Ukraine has reinforced this.
UK Government data reports 126,000 German nationals were living in the United Kingdom in 2013 and German Government data reports 107,000 British nationals living in Germany in 2016.
Historical connections
Shared heritage
English and German are both West Germanic languages. Modern English has diverged significantly after absorbing more French influence after 1066. English has its roots in the languages spoken by Germanic peoples from mainland Europe, more specifically various peoples came from what is now the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark, including a people called the Angles after whom the English are named. Many everyday words in English are of Germanic origin and are similar to their German counterparts, and more intellectual and formal words are of French, Latin or Greek origin, but German tends to form calques of many of these. English has become a dominant world language and is widely studied in Germany. German, in the 19th and the early 20th centuries, was an important language of science and technology, but it has now largely lost that role. In English schools, German was a niche language and much less important than French. German is no longer widely studied in Britain, except at the A-level in secondary schools.
Trade and Hanseatic League
There is a long history of trade relations between the Germans and the British. The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds, and its market towns dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe. It stretched from the Baltic to the North Sea in the 13th to the 17th centuries, and it included London. The main centre was Lübeck. The League facilitated trade between London and its numerous cities, most of them controlled by German merchants. It also opened up trade with the Baltic.
Royal family
Until the late 17th century, marriages between the English and German royal families were uncommon. Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, was married between 1114 and 1125 to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, but they had no issue. In 1256, Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, was elected King of Germany, and his sons were surnamed Almain. Throughout this period, the steelyard of London was a typical German business settlement. German mercenaries were hired in the Wars of the Roses.
Anne of Cleves was the consort of Henry VIII, but it was not until William III of England that a king of German origin came to reign, from the House of Nassau. Queen Anne was the consort of his successor Prince George of Denmark, from the House of Oldenburg, who had no surviving children.
In 1714, George I, a German-speaking Hanoverian prince of mixed British and German descent, ascended to the British throne, founding the House of Hanover. For over a century, Britain's monarchs were also rulers of Hanover (first as Prince Electors of the Holy Roman Empire and then as Kings of Hanover). There was only a personal union, and both countries remained quite separate, but the king lived in London. British leaders often complained that Kings George I, who barely spoke any English, and George II were heavily involved in Hanover and distorted British foreign policy for the benefit of Hanover, a small, poor, rural and unimportant country in Western Europe. In contrast, King George III never visited Hanover in the 60 years (1760–1820) that he ruled it. Hanover was occupied by France during the Napoleonic Wars, but some Hanoverian troops fled to England to form the King's German Legion, an ethnic German unit in the British army. The personal link with Hanover finally ended in 1837, with the accession of Queen Victoria to the British throne, while obtaining Heligoland from Denmark. The semi-Salic law prevented her from being on the throne of Hanover since a male relative was available.
Every British monarch from George I to George V in the 20th century took a German consort. Queen Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their daughter, Princess Victoria, married Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia in 1858, who became Crown Prince three years later. Both were liberals, admired Britain and detested German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, but Bismarck had the ear of the elderly German Emperor Wilhelm I, who died in 1888. Friedrich Wilhelm now became Emperor Fredrich III until he died only 99 days later, and Princess Victoria became Empress of Germany. Her son became Emperor Wilhelm II and forced Bismarck to retire two years later.
Wilhelm II (1888–1918)
Wilhelm, the grandson of Queen Victoria, had a love-hate relationship with Britain. He visited it often and was well known in its higher circles, but he recklessly promoted the great expansion of the Imperial German Navy, which was a potential threat that the British government could not overlook. A humiliating crisis came in the Daily Telegraph Affair of 1908. While on an extended visit to Britain, the Kaiser gave a long interview to the Daily Telegraph that was full of bombast, exaggeration and vehement protestations of love for Britain. He ridiculed the British populace as "mad, mad as March hares" for questioning the peaceful intentions of Germany and its sincere desire for peace with England, but he admitted that the German populace was "not friendly" toward England. The interview caused a sensation around Europe, demonstrating the Kaiser was utterly incompetent in diplomatic affairs. The British had already decided that Wilhelm was at least somewhat mentally disturbed and saw the interview as further evidence of his unstable personality, rather than an indication of official German hostility. The affair was much more serious in Germany, where he was nearly unanimously ridiculed. He thereafter played mostly a ceremonial role in major state affairs.
The British Royal family retained the German surname von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha until 1917, when, in response to anti-German feelings during World War I, it was legally changed to the more British name House of Windsor. In the same year, all members of the British Royal Family gave up their German titles, and all German relatives who were fighting against the British in the war were stripped of their British titles by the Titles Deprivation Act 1917.
Intellectual influences
Ideas flowed back and forth between the two nations. Refugees from Germany's repressive regimes often settled in Britain, most notably Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Advances in technology were shared, as in chemistry. Over 100,000 German immigrants also came to Britain. Germany was perhaps one of the world's main centres for innovative social ideas in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries. The British Liberal welfare reforms, around 1910, led by the Liberals H. H. Asquith and David Lloyd George, adopted Bismarck's system of social welfare. Ideas on town planning were also exchanged.
Diplomacy
The British Foreign Office at first was poorly served by a series of ambassadors who provided only superficial reports on the dramatic internal German developments of the 1860s. That changed with the appointment of Odo Russell (1871–1884), who developed a close rapport with Bismarck and provided in depth coverage of German developments.
Britain gave passive support to the unification under Prussian domination for strategic, ideological and business reasons. The German Empire was considered a useful counterbalance on the Continent to both France and Russia, the two powers that worried Britain the most. The threat from France in the Mediterranean and from Russia in Central Asia could be neutralised by a judicious relationship with Germany. The new nation would be a stabilising force, and Bismarck especially promoted his role in stabilising Europe and in preventing any major war on the continent. British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, however, was always suspicious of Germany, disliked its authoritarianism and feared that it would eventually start a war with a weaker neighbour. The ideological gulf was stressed by Lord Arthur Russell in 1872:
Prussia now represents all that is most antagonistic to the liberal and democratic ideas of the age; military despotism, the rule of the sword, contempt for sentimental talk, indifference to human suffering, imprisonment of independent opinion, transfer by force of unwilling populations to a hateful yoke, disregard of European opinion, total want of greatness and generosity, etc., etc."
Britain was looking inward and avoided picking any disputes with Germany but made it clear, in the "war in sight" crisis of 1875, that it would not tolerate a pre-emptive war by Germany on France.
Colonies
Bismarck built a complex network of European alliances that kept the peace in the 1870s and 1880s. The British were building up their empire, but Bismarck strongly opposed colonies as too expensive. When public opinion and elite demand finally made him, in the 1880s, grab colonies in Africa and the Pacific, he ensured that conflicts with Britain were minimal.
Improvement and worsening of relations
Relations between Britain and Germany improved as the key policymakers, Prime Minister Lord Salisbury and Chancellor Bismarck, were both realistic conservatives and largely both agreed on policies. There were even several proposals for a formal treaty relationship between Germany and Britain, but they went nowhere, as Britain preferred to stand in what it called "splendid isolation." Nevertheless, a series of developments steadily improved their relations down to 1890, when Bismarck was pushed out by the aggressive Wilhelm II. Coming to power in 1888, the young Wilhelm dismissed Bismarck in 1890 and sought aggressively to increase Germany's influence in the world. Foreign policy was controlled by the erratic Kaiser, who played an increasingly-reckless hand and by the leadership of Friedrich von Holstein, a powerful civil servant in the Foreign Office. Wilhelm argued that a long-term coalition between France and Russia had to fall apart, Russia and Britain would never get together and Britain would eventually seek an alliance with Germany. Russia could not get Germany to renew its mutual treaties and so formed a closer relationship with France in the 1894 Franco-Russian Alliance since both were worried about German aggression. Britain refused to agree to the formal alliance that Germany sought. Since Germany's analysis was mistaken on every point, the nation was increasingly dependent on the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. That was undermined by the ethnic diversity of Austria-Hungary and its differences with Italy. The latter, in 1915, would switch sides.
In January 1896 Wilhelm escalated tensions with his Kruger telegram, congratulating Boer President Kruger of the Transvaal for beating off the Jameson raid. German officials in Berlin had managed to stop the Kaiser from proposing a German protectorate over the Transvaal. In the Second Boer War, Germany sympathised with the Boers.
German Foreign Minister Bernhard von Bülow called for Weltpolitik (World politics). It was the new policy to assert its claim to be a global power. Bismarck's conservativism was abandoned, as Germany was intent on challenging and upsetting international order. Thereafter relations deteriorated steadily. Britain began to see Germany as a hostile force and moved to friendlier relationships with France.
Naval race
The Royal Navy dominated the globe in the 19th century, but after 1890, Germany attempted to achieve parity. The resulting naval race heightened tensions between the two nations. In 1897 Admiral Tirpitz became German Naval Secretary of State and began the transformation of German Navy from small, coastal defence force to a fleet that was meant to challenge British naval power. Tirpitz calls for Risikoflotte (Risk Fleet) that would make it too risky for Britain to take on Germany, as part of a wider bid to alter the international balance of power decisively in Germany's favour.
The German Navy, under Tirpitz, had ambitions to rival the great British Navy and dramatically expanded its fleet in the early 20th century to protect the colonies and to exert power worldwide. Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction in 1898. In 1890, to protect its new fleet. Germany traded the strategic island of Heligoland in the North Sea with Britain. In exchange, Britain gained the Eastern African island of Zanzibar, where it proceeded to construct a naval base. The British, however, were always well ahead in the naval race and introduced the highly advanced Dreadnought battleship in 1907.
Two Moroccan crises
In the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905, there was nearly war between Germany against Britain and France over a French attempt to establish a protectorate over Morocco. The Germans were upset at not being informed. Wilhelm made a highly provocative speech for Moroccan independence. The following year, a conference was held at Algeciras in which all of the European powers except Austria-Hungary (now increasingly seen as little more than a German satellite) sided with France. A compromise was brokered by the United States for the French to relinquish some of their control over Morocco.
In 1911, France prepared to send more troops into Morocco. German Foreign Minister Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter was not opposed to that if Germany had compensation elsewhere in Africa, in the French Congo. He sent a small warship, the SMS Panther, to Agadir, made saber-rattling threats and whipped up anger by German nationalists. France and Germany soon agreed on a compromise, with France gaining control of Morocco and Germany gaining some of the French Congo. The British cabinet, however, was angry and alarmed at Germany's aggression. Lloyd George made a dramatic "Mansion House" speech that denounced the German move as an intolerable humiliation. There was talk of war until Germany backed down, and relations remained sour.
Start of World War I
The Liberal Party controlled the British government in 1914 and was averse to war with anyone and wanted to remain neutral as the First World War suddenly erupted in July 1914. Since relations with Germany regarding colonies and the naval race had improved in 1914 it did not expect trouble. However Liberal Prime Minister H.H. Asquith and especially Foreign Minister Edward Grey were committed to defending France, which was weaker than Germany. The Conservative Party was very hostile to Germany as a threat both to Britain and to France. The emerging Labour Party and other socialists denounced the war as a capitalist device to maximize profits.
In 1907, the leading German expert in the Foreign Office, Eyre Crowe, wrote a memorandum for senior officials that warned vigorously against German intentions. Crowe argued that Berlin wanted "hegemony... in Europe, and eventually in the world". Crowe argued that Germany presented a threat to the balance of power as that of Napoleon. Germany would expand its power unless the 1904 Entente Cordiale with France was upgraded to a full military alliance. Crowe was taken seriously, especially because he was born in Germany. During 1914 undocumented mission, diplomat Baron Sir Tyrrell on behalf negotiate an trade agreements and military alliance with Second Reich.
In Germany, left-wing parties, especially the SPD or Socialist Party, in the 1912 German election, won a third of the vote and the most seats for the first time. German historian Fritz Fischer famously argued that the Junkers, who dominated Germany, wanted an external war to distract the population and to whip up patriotic support for the government. Other scholars, like Niall Ferguson, think that German conservatives were ambivalent about war and that they worried that losing a war would have disastrous consequences and that even a successful war might alienate the population if it was long or difficult.
In explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, Paul Kennedy, in The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914 (1980), argued Germany had become economically more powerful than Britain. Kennedy downplayed the disputes over economic trade and imperialism. There had long been disputes over the Baghdad Railway which Germany proposed to build through the Ottoman Empire. An amicable compromise on the railway was reached in early 1914 so it played no role in starting the July Crisis. Germany relied upon time and again on sheer military power, but Britain began to appeal to moral sensibilities. Germany saw its invasion of Belgium as a necessary military tactic, and Britain saw it as a profound moral crime, a major cause of British entry into the war. Kennedy argues that by far the main reason for the war was London's fear that a repeat of 1870, when Prussia led other German states to smash France, would mean Germany, with a powerful army and navy, would control the English Channel and northwestern France. British policymakers thought that would be a catastrophe for British security.
In 1839, Britain, Prussia, France, and the Netherlands agreed to the Treaty of London that guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium. Germany violated that treaty in 1914, with its chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg ridiculing the treaty a "scrap of paper". That ensured that Liberals would join Conservatives in calling for war. Historian Zara Steiner says that in response to the German invasion of Belgium:
The public mood did change. Belgium proved to be a catalyst which unleashed the many emotions, rationalizations, and glorifications of war which had long been part of the British climate of opinion. Having a moral cause, all the latent anti-German feelings, that by years of naval rivalry and assumed enmity, rose to the surface. The 'scrap of paper' proved decisive both in maintaining the unity of the government and then in providing a focal point for public feeling.
Allied victory
The great German offensive on the Western Front in spring 1918 almost succeeded. The Germans broke through into open country but outran their supplies and artillery support. By summer 1918, American soldiers were arriving on the front at 10,000 a day, but Germany was unable to replace its casualties and its army shrank every day. A series of huge battles in September and October produced sweeping Allied victories, and the German High Command, under Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, saw it had lost and told Wilhelm to abdicate and go into exile.
In November, the new republic negotiated an armistice, hoping to obtain lenient terms based on the Fourteen Points of US President Woodrow Wilson. Instead, the terms amounted almost to a surrender: Allied forces occupied Germany up the River Rhine, and Germany was required to disarm, losing its war gains, colonies and navy. By keeping the food blockade in place, the Allies were determined to starve Germany until it agreed to peace terms.
In the 1918 election, only days later, British Prime Minister Lloyd George promised to impose a harsh treaty on Germany. At the Paris Peace Conference in early 1919, however, Lloyd George was much more moderate than France and Italy, but he still agreed to force Germany to admit starting the war and to commit to paying the entire cost of the Allies in the war, including veterans' benefits and interest.
Interwar
From 1920 to 1933, Britain and Germany were on generally good terms, as shown by the Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg–Briand Pact, which helped reintegrate Germany into Europe.
At the 1922 Genoa Conference, Britain clashed openly with France over the amount of reparations to be collected from Germany. In 1923, France occupied the Ruhr industrial area of Germany after Germany defaulted in its reparations. Britain condemned the French move and largely supported Germany in the Ruhrkampf (Ruhr Struggle) between the Germans and the French. In 1924, Britain forced France to make major reductions on the number of reparations Germany had to pay.
The Dawes Plan (1924–1929) stabilised the German currency and lowered reparations payments, allowing Germany to access capital markets (mostly American) for the money it owed the Allies in reparations, although the payments came at the price of a high foreign debt. Much of the money returned to Britain, which then paid off its American loans. From 1931, German payments to Britain were suspended. Eventually, in 1951, West Germany would pay off the World War I reparations that it owed to Britain.
With the coming to power of Hitler and the Nazis in 1933, relations worsened. In 1934, a secret report by the British Defence Requirements Committee called Germany the "ultimate potential enemy against whom all our 'long range' defence policy must be directed," and called for an expeditionary force of five mechanised divisions and fourteen infantry divisions. However, budget restraints prevented the formation of a large force.
In 1935, the two nations agreed to the Anglo-German Naval Agreement to avoid a repeat of the pre-1914 naval race.
By 1936, appeasement was British effort to prevent war or at least to postpone it until the British military was ready. Appeasement has been the subject of intense debate for 70 years by academics, politicians and diplomats. Historians' assessments have ranged from condemnation for allowing Hitler's Germany to grow too strong to the judgement that it was in Britain's best interests and that there was no alternative.
At the time, the concessions were very popular, especially the Munich Agreement in 1938 of Germany, Britain, France and Italy.
World War II
Germany and Britain fought each other from the British declaration of war, in September 1939, to the German surrender, in May 1945. The war continues to loom large in the British public memory.
At the beginning of the war, Germany crushed Poland. In spring 1940, Germany astonished the world by quickly invading the Low Countries and France, driving the British army off the Continent and seizing most of its weapons, vehicles and supplies. War was brought to the British skies in the Battle of Britain in late summer 1940, but the aerial assault was repulsed, which stopped Operation Sealion, the plans for the invasion of Britain.
The British Empire was standing alone against Germany, but the United States greatly funded and supplied the British. In December 1941, United States entered the war against Germany and Japan after the attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan, which also later overwhelmed British outposts in the Pacific from Hong Kong to Singapore.
The Allied invasion of France on D-Day in June 1944 as well as strategic bombing and land forces all contributed to the final defeat of Germany.
Since 1945
Occupation
As part of the Yalta and Potsdam agreements, Britain took control of its own sector in occupied Germany. It soon merged its sector with the American and French sectors, and that territory became the independent nation of West Germany in 1949. The British played a central role in the Nuremberg trials of major war criminals in 1946. In Berlin, the British, American, and French zones were joined into West Berlin, and the four occupying powers kept official control of the city until 1991.
Much of Germany's industrial plant fell within the British zone and there was trepidation that rebuilding the old enemy's industrial powerhouse would eventually prove a danger to British security and compete with the battered British economy. One solution was to build up a strong, free trade union movement in Germany. Another was to rely primarily on American money, through the Marshall Plan, that modernised both the British and German economies, and reduced traditional barriers to trade and efficiency. It was Washington, not London, that pushed Germany and France to reconcile and join in the Schumann Plan of 1950 by which they agreed to pool their coal and steel industries.
Cold War
With the United States taking the lead, Britain with its Royal Air Force played a major supporting role in providing food and coal to Berlin in the Berlin airlift of 1948–1949. The airlift broke the Soviet blockade which was designed to force the Western Allies out of the city.
In 1955, West Germany joined NATO, while East Germany joined the Warsaw Pact. Britain at this point did not officially recognise East Germany. However the left wing of the Labour Party, breaking with the anti-communism of the postwar years, called for its recognition. This call heightened tensions between the British Labour Party and the German Social Democratic Party (SPD).
After 1955, Britain decided to rely on relatively inexpensive nuclear weapons as a deterrent against the Soviet Union, and a way to reduce its very expensive troop commitments in West Germany. London gained support from Washington and went ahead with the reductions while insisting it was maintaining its commitment to the defence of Western Europe.
Britain made two applications for membership in the Common Market (European Community). It failed in the face of the French veto in 1961, but its reapplication in 1967 was eventually successful, with negotiations being concluded in 1972. The diplomatic support of West Germany proved decisive.
In 1962, Britain secretly assured Poland of its acceptance of the latter's western boundary. West Germany had been ambiguous about the matter. Britain had long been uneasy with West Germany's insistence on the provisional nature of the boundary. On the other hand, it was kept secret so as not to antagonise Britain's key ally in its quest to enter the European Community.
In 1970, the West German government under Chancellor Willy Brandt, the former mayor of West Berlin, signed a treaty with Poland recognizing and guaranteeing the borders of Poland.
Reunification
In 1990, United Kingdom prime minister Margaret Thatcher at first opposed German reunification but eventually accepted the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany.
Since 1945, Germany hosts several British military installations in Western part of the country as part of British Forces Germany. Both countries are members of NATO, and share strong economic ties.
David McAllister, the former minister-president of the German state of Lower Saxony, son of a Scottish father and a German mother, holds British and German citizenship. Similarly, the former leader of the Scottish National Party in the British House of Commons, Angus Robertson is half German, as his mother was from Germany. Robertson speaks fluent German and English.
In 1996, Britain and Germany established a shared embassy building in Reykjavik. Celebrations to open the building were held on 2 June 1996 and attended by the British Foreign Secretary at the time, Malcolm Rifkind, and the then Minister of State at the German Foreign Ministry, Werner Hoyer, and the Icelandic Foreign Minister Halldór Ásgrímsson. The commemorative plaque in the building records that it is "the first purpose built co-located British-German chancery building in Europe".
Twinnings
Aberdeen, Aberdeenshire and Regensburg, Bavaria
Aberystwyth, Ceredigion and Kronberg im Taunus, Hesse
Abingdon, Oxfordshire and Schongau, Bavaria
Amersham, Buckinghamshire and Bensheim, Hesse
Ashford, Kent and Bad Münstereifel, North Rhine-Westphalia
Barking and Dagenham, London and Witten, North Rhine-Westphalia
Barnet, London and Tempelhof-Schöneberg, Berlin
Barnsley, South Yorkshire and Schwäbisch Gmünd, Baden-Württemberg
Basingstoke, Hampshire and Euskirchen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Bath, Somerset and Braunschweig, Lower Saxony
Bedford, Bedfordshire and Bamberg, Bavaria
Belfast and Bonn, North Rhine Westphalia
Beverley, East Riding of Yorkshire and Lemgo, North Rhine Westphalia
Biggleswade, Bedfordshire and , Erlensee, Main-Kinzig-Kreis
Birmingham and Frankfurt, Hesse
Blackpool and Bottrop, North Rhine-Westphalia
Blyth, Northumberland and Solingen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Bolton, Greater Manchester and Paderborn, North Rhine-Westphalia
Bracknell, Berkshire and Leverkusen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Brentwood, Essex and Roth bei Nürnberg, Bavaria
Bristol and Hanover, Lower Saxony
Bromley, London and Neuwied, Rhineland-Palatinate
Cambridge, Cambridgeshire and Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg
Cannock, Staffordshire and Datteln, Baden-Württemberg
Cardiff, South Glamorgan and Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg
Carlisle, Cumbria and Flensburg, Schleswig-Holstein
Chelmsford, Essex and Backnang, Baden-Württemberg
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire and Trier, Moselle
Chesham, Buckinghamshire and Friedrichsdorf, Hesse
Chester, Cheshire and Lörrach, Baden-Württemberg
Chesterfield, Derbyshire and Darmstadt, Hesse
Christchurch, Dorset and Aalen, Baden-Württemberg
Cirencester, Gloucestershire and Itzehoe, Schleswig-Holstein
Cleethorpes, North East Lincolnshire and Königswinter, North Rhine-Westphalia
Colchester, Essex and Wetzlar, Hesse
Coventry, West Midlands and Dresden, Saxony, and Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein
Crawley, West Sussex and Dorsten, North Rhine-Westphalia
Darlington, County Durham and Mülheim an der Ruhr, North Rhine-Westphalia
Derby, Derbyshire and Osnabrück, Lower Saxony
Devizes, Wiltshire and Waiblingen, Baden-Württemberg
Dronfield, Derbyshire and Sindelfingen, Baden-Württemberg
Dundee and Würzburg, Bavaria
Dunfermline and Wilhelmshaven, Lower Saxony
Durham and Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg
Ealing, London and Steinfurt, North Rhine-Westphalia
Edinburgh and Munich, Bavaria
Elgin, Moray and Landshut, Bavaria
Ellesmere Port, Cheshire and Reutlingen, Baden-Württemberg
Enniskillen, County Fermanagh and Brackwede, Bielefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia
Epping, Essex and Eppingen, Baden-Württemberg
Exeter, Devon and Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Hesse
Fareham, Hampshire and Pulheim, North Rhine-Westphalia
Felixstowe, Suffolk and Wesel, North Rhine-Westphalia
Glasgow and Nuremberg, Bavaria
Glossop, Derbyshire and Bad Vilbel, Hesse
Gloucester, Gloucestershire and Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate
Grantham, Lincolnshire and Sankt Augustin, North Rhine-Westphalia
Greenwich, London and Reinickendorf, Berlin
Guildford, Surrey and Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden-Württemberg
Halifax, West Yorkshire and Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Hammersmith and Fulham, London and Neukölln, Berlin
Hartlepool, County Durham and Hückelhoven, North Rhine-Westphalia
Havering, London and Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Rhineland-Palatinate
Hemel Hempstead and Dacorum, Hertfordshire and Neu Isenburg, Hesse
Hereford, Herefordshire and Dillenburg, Hesse
Herne Bay, Kent and Waltrop, North Rhine-Westphalia
High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire and Kelkheim, Hesse
Hillingdon, London and Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein
Hinckley, Leicestershire and Herford, North Rhine-Westphalia
Hitchin, Hertfordshire and Bingen am Rhein, Rhineland-Palatinate
Hurst Green, East Sussex and Ellerhoop, Schleswig-Holstein
Inverness, Scotland and Augsburg, Bavaria
Kendal, Cumbria and Rinteln, Lower Saxony
Kettering, Northamptonshire and Lahnstein, Rhineland-Palatinate
Kidderminster, Worcestershire and Husum, Schleswig-Holstein
Kilmarnock, Ayrshire and Kulmbach, Bavaria
King's Lynn, Norfolk and Emmerich am Rhein, North Rhine-Westphalia
Kirkcaldy, Fife and Ingolstadt, Bavaria
Knaresborough, North Yorkshire and Bebra, Hesse
Lancaster, Lancashire and Rendsburg, Schleswig-Holstein
Leeds, West Yorkshire and Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia
Leicester, Leicestershire and Krefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia
Leven, Fife and Holzminden, Lower Saxony
Lewisham, London and Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, Berlin
Lichfield, Staffordshire and Limburg an der Lahn, Hesse
Lincoln, Lincolnshire and Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Rhineland-Palatinate
Littlehampton, West Sussex and Durmersheim, Baden-Württemberg
Liverpool and Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia
London and Berlin
Loughborough and Schwäbisch Hall
Luton, Bedfordshire and Bergisch Gladbach, North Rhine-Westphalia
Maidenhead, Berkshire and Bad Godesberg, North Rhine-Westphalia
Manchester and Chemnitz, Saxony
Margate, Kent and Idar-Oberstein, Rhineland-Palatinate
Middlesbrough, North Yorkshire and Oberhausen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire and Bernkastel-Kues, Rhineland-Palatinate
Morley, West Yorkshire and Siegen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Motherwell, Lanarkshire and Schweinfurt, Bavaria
Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear and Gelsenkirchen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Northampton, Northamptonshire and Marburg, Hesse
Norwich, Norfolk and Koblenz, Rhineland-Palatinate
Nottingham, Nottinghamshire and Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg
Nuneaton and Bedworth, Warwickshire and Cottbus, Brandenburg
Oakham, Rutland and Barmstedt, Schleswig-Holstein
Oxford, Oxfordshire and Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia
Paisley, Renfrewshire and Fürth, Bavaria
Perth, Perth and Kinross and Aschaffenburg, Bavaria
Peterlee, County Durham and Nordenham, Lower Saxony
Portsmouth, Hampshire and Duisburg, North Rhine-Westphalia
Potton, Bedfordshire and Langenlonsheim, Rhineland-Palatinate
Preston, Lancashire and Recklinghausen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Prestwick, South Ayrshire and Lichtenfels, Bavaria
Reading, Berkshire and Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia
Redcar and Cleveland, North Yorkshire and Troisdorf, North Rhine-Westphalia
Reigate, Surrey and Eschweiler, North Rhine-Westphalia
Richmond upon Thames, London and Konstanz, Baden-Württemberg
Rossendale, Lancashire and Bocholt, North Rhine-Westphalia
Royal Tunbridge Wells, Kent and Wiesbaden, Hesse
Borough of Runnymede, Surrey and Bergisch Gladbach, North Rhine-Westphalia
Rushmoor, Hampshire and Oberursel, Hesse
Sheffield, South Yorkshire and Bochum, North Rhine-Westphalia
Skipton, North Yorkshire and Simbach am Inn, Bavaria
Solihull, West Midlands and Main-Taunus-Kreis, Hesse
South Tyneside, Tyne and Wear and Wuppertal, North Rhine-Westphalia
Spalding, Lincolnshire and Speyer, Rhineland-Palatinate
St Albans, Hertfordshire and Worms, Rhineland-Palatinate
St. Helens, Merseyside and Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg
Stafford, Staffordshire and Dreieich, Hesse
Stevenage, Hertfordshire and Ingelheim am Rhein, Bielefeld, Rhineland-Palatinate
Stockport, Greater Manchester and Heilbronn, Baden-Württemberg
Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire and Erlangen, Bavaria
Sunderland, Tyne and Wear and Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia
Sutton, London and Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, Berlin, and Minden, North Rhine-Westphalia
Swansea, West Glamorgan and Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg
Todmorden, West Yorkshire and Bramsche, Lower Saxony
Torbay, Devon and Hamelin, Lower Saxony
Thurso, Caithness and Brilon, North Rhine-Westphalia
Truro, Cornwall and Boppard, North Rhine-Westphalia
Uckfield, East Sussex and Quickborn, Pinneberg, Schleswig-Holstein
Wallingford, Oxfordshire and Bad Wurzach, Baden-Württemberg
Waltham Forest, London and Wandsbek, Hamburg
Wantage, Oxfordshire and Seesen, Lower Saxony
Ware, Hertfordshire and Wülfrath, North Rhine-Westphalia
Warwick, Warwickshire and Verden (Aller), Lower Saxony
Waverley, Surrey and Mayen-Koblenz, Rhineland-Palatinate
Waterlooville, Hampshire and Henstedt-Ulzburg, Schleswig-Holstein
Watford, Hertfordshire and Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate
Wellingborough, Northamptonshire and Wittlich, Rhineland-Palatinate
Weston-super-Mare, North Somerset and Hildesheim, Lower Saxony
Weymouth, Dorset and Holzwickede, North Rhine-Westphalia
Whitstable, Kent and Borken, North Rhine-Westphalia
Isle of Wight and Coburg, Bavaria
Windsor, Berkshire and Goslar, Lower Saxony
Witney, Oxfordshire and Unterhaching, Bavaria
Woking, Surrey and Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg
Wokingham, Berkshire and Erftstadt, North Rhine-Westphalia
Worcester, Worcestershire and Kleve, North Rhine-Westphalia
Workington, Cumbria and Selm, North Rhine-Westphalia
York, North Yorkshire and Münster', North Rhine-Westphalia
See also
Foreign relations of Germany
Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Anglo-German naval arms race
Causes of World War I
German entry into World War I
History of German foreign policy
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
Timeline of British diplomatic history
Anglo-German Fellowship
Anglo-Prussian alliance
Centre for Anglo-German Cultural Relations
British Forces Germany
Two World Wars and One World Cup
England–Germany football rivalry
British migration to Germany
Germans in the United Kingdom
References
Further reading
Adams, R. J. Q. British Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of Appeasement, 1935–1939 (1993)
Albrecht-Carrie, Rene. A Diplomatic History of Europe since the Congress of Vienna (1958), passim online
Anderson, Pauline Relyea. The background of anti-English feeling in Germany, 1890–1902 (1939). online
Aydelotte, William Osgood. "The First German Colony and Its Diplomatic Consequences." Cambridge Historical Journal 5#3 (1937): 291–313. online, South-West Africa
Bartlett, C. J. British Foreign Policy in the Twentieth Century (1989)
Brandenburg, Erich. From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1928) online
Carroll, E. Malcolm. Germany and the great powers, 1866–1914 : a study in public opinion and foreign policy (1938), 855pp; highly detailed diplomatic history
Dunn, J.S. The Crowe Memorandum: Sir Eyre Crowe and Foreign Office Perceptions of Germany, 1918–1925 (2012). excerpt , on British policy toward Germany
Faber, David. Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War II (2009) excerpt and text search
Frederick, Suzanne Y. "The Anglo-German Rivalry, 1890–1914," pp 306–336 in William R. Thompson, ed. Great power rivalries (1999) online
Geppert, Dominik, and Robert Gerwarth, eds. Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain: Essays on Cultural Affinity (2009)
Gifford, Prosser and William Roger Louis. Britain and Germany in Africa: Imperial rivalry and colonial rule (1967).
Görtemaker, Manfred. Britain and Germany in the Twentieth Century (2005).
Hale, Oron James. Publicity and Diplomacy: With special reference to England and Germany, 1890–1914 (1940) online.
Harris, David. "Bismarck's Advance to England, January, 1876." Journal of Modern History 3.3 1931): 441–456. online
Hilderbrand, Klaus. German Foreign Policy from Bismarck to Adenauer (1989; reprint 2013), 272pp
Hoerber, Thomas. "Prevail or perish: Anglo-German naval competition at the beginning of the twentieth century," European Security (2011) 20#1, pp. 65–79.
Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967) covers 1603–1702; pp 144–77 for Prussia; pp 178–200 for other Germany; 111-43 for Austria
Kennedy, Paul M. "Idealists and realists: British views of Germany, 1864–1939," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (1975) pp: 137–56; compares the views of idealists (pro-German) and realists (anti-German)
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860–1914 (London, 1980) excerpt and text search; influential synthesis; 600pp
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987), pp 194–260. online free to borrow
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of British Naval mastery (1976) pp 205–38.
Kennedy, Paul M. "Idealists and realists: British views of Germany, 1864–1939." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (1975): 137–156. online
Lambi, I. The navy and German power politics, 1862–1914 (1984).
Langer William L. European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 (2nd ed. 1956) online
Langer William L. The Diplomacy Of Imperialism (1890–1902) (1960) online
Major, Patrick. "Britain and Germany: A Love-Hate Relationship?" German History, October 2008, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp. 457–468.
Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War (1991); popular history
Milton, Richard. Best of Enemies: Britain and Germany: 100 Years of Truth and Lies (2004), popular history covers 1845–1945 focusing on public opinion and propaganda; 368pp excerpt and text search
Mowat, R.B. A History Of European Diplomacy 1914–1925 (1927) online
Neilson, Francis. "Bismarck's Relations With England." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 9.3 (1950): 293–306. online
Neville P. Hitler and Appeasement: The British Attempt to Prevent the Second World War (2005).
Oltermann, Philip. Keeping Up With the Germans: A History of Anglo-German Encounters (2012) excerpt; explores historical encounters between prominent Britons and Germans to show the contrasting approaches to topics from language and politics to sex and sport.
Otte, Thomas G. "'The Winston of Germany': The British Foreign Policy Élite and the Last German Emperor." Canadian Journal of History 36.3 (2001): 471–504. Negative views on Kaiser Wilhelm's mental stability.
Padfield, Peter The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900–1914 (2005)
Palmer, Alan. Crowned Cousins: The Anglo-German Royal Connection (London, 1985).
Ramsden, John. Don’t Mention the War: The British and the Germans since 1890 (London, 2006).
Reinermann, Lothar. "Fleet Street and the Kaiser: British public opinion and Wilhelm II." German History 26.4 (2008): 469–485.
Reynolds, David. Britannia Overruled: British Policy and World Power in the Twentieth Century (2nd ed. 2000) excerpt and text search, major survey of British foreign policy
Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy, 1814–1914 (1992), passim.
Rüger, Jan. The Great Naval Game: Britain and Germany in the Age of Empire (Cambridge, 2007).
Rüger, Jan. "Revisiting the Anglo-German Antagonism," Journal of Modern History (2011) 83#3, pp. 579–617 in JSTOR
Schmitt, Bernadotte E. England and Germany, 1740–1914 (1918) online.
Scully, Richard. British Images of Germany: Admiration, Antagonism, and Ambivalence, 1860–1914 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) 375pp
Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe, 1789–1914. (1938); comprehensive history online
Sontag, Raymond James. Germany and England: background of conflict, 1848–1898 (1938) online free to borrow
Sontag, Raymond James. European Diplomatic History 1871–1932 (1933) online
Taylor, A. J. P. Struggle for Mastery of Europe: 1848–1918 (1954), comprehensive survey of diplomacy
Urbach, Karina. Bismarck's Favourite Englishman: Lord Odo Russell's Mission to Berlin (1999) excerpt and text search
Weinberg, Gerhard L. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (2 vols. (1980)
Willis, Edward F. Prince Lichnowsky, ambassador of peace; a study of prewar diplomacy, 1912–1914 (1942) online
Primary sources
Dugdale, E.T.S. ed German Diplomatic Documents 1871–1914 (4 vol 1928–31), English translation of major German diplomatic documents vol 1, primary sources, Germany and Britain 1870–1890. vol 2 1890s online
Gooch, G. P., and Harold Temperley, eds. British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol. 6: Anglo-German Tension: Armaments and Negotiation, 1907–12 (1930) pp 666–761. online
Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938) online, 608pp of primary sources
Post 1941
Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. A History of West Germany. Vol. 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963. Vol. 2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991 (1993), the standard scholarly history
Berger, Stefan, and Norman LaPorte, eds. The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945–1990 (Augsburg, 2005).
Berger, Stefan, and Norman LaPorte, eds. Friendly Enemies: Britain and the GDR, 1949–1990 (2010) online review
Deighton, Anne. The Impossible Peace: Britain, the Division of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War (Oxford, 1993)
Dockrill, Saki. Britain's Policy for West German Rearmament, 1950–1955 (1991) 209pp
Glees, Anthony. The Stasi files: East Germany's secret operations against Britain (2004)
Hanrieder, Wolfram F. Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (1991)
Heuser, Beatrice. NATO, Britain, France & the FRG: Nuclear Strategies & Forces for Europe, 1949–2000 (1997) 256pp
Noakes, Jeremy et al. Britain and Germany in Europe, 1949–1990 * Macintyre, Terry. Anglo-German Relations during the Labour Governments, 1964–70: NATO Strategy, Détente and European Integration (2008)
Mawby, Spencer. Containing Germany: Britain & the Arming of the Federal Republic (1999), p. 1. 244p.
Smith, Gordon et al. Developments in German Politics (1992), pp. 137–86, on foreign policy
Turner, Ian D., ed. Reconstruction in Postwar Germany: British Occupation Policy and the Western Zones, 1945–1955 (Oxford, 1992), 421pp.
Zimmermann, Hubert. Money and Security: Troops, Monetary Policy & West Germany's Relations with the United States and Britain, 1950–1971'' (2002) 275pp
External links
Anglo-German Relations: Paul Joyce, University of Portsmouth
Anglo-German Club in Hamburg
Deutsch-Britische Gesellschaft in Berlin
Anglo-German Foundation
British-German Association
German-British Chamber of Industry & Commerce in London
German Industry in the UK
UK-German Connection
British Embassy in Berlin
German Embassy in London
Centre for Anglo-German Cultural Relations
News BBC – 'Thatcher's fight against German unity'
German Association for the Study of British History and Politics
United Kingdom
Bilateral relations of the United Kingdom |
4066922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely%20County%20of%20Gorizia%20and%20Gradisca | Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca | The Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca (; ; ), historically sometimes shortened to and spelled "Goritz", was a crown land of the Habsburg dynasty within the Austrian Littoral on the Adriatic Sea, in what is now a multilingual border area of Italy and Slovenia. It was named for its two major urban centers, Gorizia and Gradisca d'Isonzo.
Geography
The province stretched along the Soča/Isonzo River, from its source at Mt. Jalovec in the Julian Alps down to the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone. In the northwest, the Predil Pass led to the Duchy of Carinthia, in the northeast Mts. Mangart, Razor and Triglav marked the border with the Duchy of Carniola (Upper Carniola).
In the west, Mts. Kanin and Matajur stood on the border with the Friulian region, which until the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio was part of the Republic of Venice, from 1815 onwards belonged to the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia and finally to the re-established Kingdom of Italy from 1866. In the south the province bordered on the territory of the Imperial Free City of Trieste and the Margraviate of Istria.
History
Province of the Habsburg Empire
The medieval County of Görz had been acquired by the Austrian Habsburgs in 1500, when the last Meinhardiner count Leonhard died without heirs. In the period shortly after 1500, Gorizia was administered by the stadtholder (captain) Virgil von Graben. Habsburg suzerainty was interrupted briefly by the Venetians in 1508/09, before Görz was finally incorporated into the Inner Austrian territories of the Habsburg monarchy. In 1647 Emperor Ferdinand III elevated the Görz town of Gradisca to an immediate county for the descendants of privy councillor Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. After the princely House of Eggenberg had become extinct, Gradisca was re-unified with Gorizia in 1754, creating the County of Gorizia and Gradisca (; ).
During the Napoleonic Wars, the territory of Gorizia and Gradisca became the battleground on several occasions. By the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), the French dominance was established in the region, resulting in Austrian loss of the most western parts of the County. Those territorial issues were finally resolved by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 10, 1807): all Austrian territories on the right (western) bank of the Isonzo river (including the town of Gradisca d'Isonzo and the westernmost suburbs of Gorizia) were assigned to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.
The remaining territory of the County was left under the Austrian rule until 1809, when it was incorporated into the Illyrian Provinces under direct domination of the French Empire.
In 1813, Austrian rule was restored. The county was re-established in its former borders, including the former enclaves of Monfalcone and Grado, which had been under Venetian control before 1797. However, in 1816 the county was combined with the Duchies of Carniola and Carinthia, the Imperial Free City of Trieste, and the March of Istria and its associated islands (Cres, Krk, Lošinj and numerous smaller islands) to form a wider administrative unit named the Kingdom of Illyria, with the capital in Laibach. In 1849, the Kingdom of Illyria was dissolved, and the Austrian Littoral was then formed, comprising the County of Gorizia and Gradisca, Trieste and Istria. In 1861, the territory of the County gained autonomy as the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca (; ; ), a crown land within Austria-Hungary. The county had its own provincial parliament and enjoyed a large degree of self-government, although it was formally subjected to an Imperial Governor () with the seat in Trieste, who carried out the government supervision for the whole territory of the Austrian Littoral.
In 1915, Italy entered World War I against Austria-Hungary. The western part of the county was devastated by the Battles of the Isonzo, fought between the two armies. In August 1916, Gorizia was occupied by Italian troops for the first time in its history, but in November 1917 the Austro-Hungarian Army threw the Italian forces back in the Battle of Caporetto. Large numbers of the population were interned in civil camps around Austria-Hungary and Italy, while almost half of the province's territory laid in ruins.
In Spring 1918, two mass political movements emerged in the county, demanding larger autonomy within a federalized Habsburg Monarchy. The Slovenes demanded the union with other South Slavic peoples into a sovereign Yugoslav state, The two movements did not clash, since they did not contend the same territories. The only open issue was the town of Gorizia, claimed by both the Slovenes and the Friulians. An underground movement, known as Italia irredenta (Unredeemed Italy), demanded the unification of Gorizia with Italy. With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in late October 1918, a short interim period followed, in which no movement was able to establish its authority. In November 1918, the whole territory of the county was occupied by the Italian military which suppressed all political movements challenging her claims on the region.
Border region of Italy
In November 1918, the county was officially abolished and incorporated in the provisional administrative region of Julian March. With the treaties of Rapallo and Saint Germain-en-Laye of 1920, the whole territory of the county became an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy. The former Habsburg policy favouring local autonomies was replaced by a strict centralism. The Province of Gorizia was established, which had very little self-government compared to the old county. The borders of the new province were also partially changed. The new province included some areas of the former Austrian Duchy of Carniola that were assigned to Italy by the Peace Treaty (the districts of Idrija, Vipava, and Šturje). On the other hand, most of the territory in the Karst region, which had belonged to the County of Gorizia and Gradisca, was incorporated in the Province of Trieste, while the district of Cervignano was included in the Province of Udine.
In 1924, the Province of Gorizia was abolished and its territory incorporated into the Province of Friuli, whose capital was Udine, except for the administrative district of Monfalcone and the town of Grado that became part of Province of Trieste. In 1927 the Province of Gorizia was recreated with approximately the same territory, except for the district of Cervignano del Friuli which remained under the Province of Udine, and the area of Monfalcone and Grado remained part of the Province of Trieste. With the establishment of the Fascist regime, a violent Italianization of the area started. This policy was carried out in three stages: first, all public administration was Italianized, with the Slovene and German losing their previous status of official languages; second, all education (both public and private) was Italianized; third, all visual presence of Slovene and German in public was prohibited. The latter included changing names of villages, prohibition to use a language other than Italian in public, prohibition to give Slavic names to children, forcible changes of Slovenian surnames, etc. This policy was accompanied by political persecutions and intimidations. By 1927, all Slovenian organizations were outlawed, including all media, publishing houses, cultural associations, as well as financial and economic companies owned by Slovenian organizations. Only one publishing house, the Catholic Hermagoras Society, was allowed to publish books in Slovene, although only religious literature. Most Slovene intellectuals and free professionals were forced to leave the region, many of them settled in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia or emigrated to Argentina.
Between 1927 and 1943, the Province of Gorizia was an administrative territorial entity of the Fascist regime, governed by a Government-appointed prefect and the local Fascist hierarchy. All municipal autonomy was abolished and the podestà, appointed by the prefect, replaced the elected mayors. All legal political activity outside the regime became impossible and most of the civil society institutions, at least the Slovenian ones, were dismantled.
In 1927, the first militant anti-fascist organization, known as TIGR, was established. The organization, founded by local Slovenes (mostly young people of liberal, nationalist and social-democratic orientation) carried out several attacks on Italian military and administrative personnel, which further exacerbated the situations in the region. Several Slovenian cultural and political figures were imprisoned, exiled or killed, with the most famous being Lojze Bratuž.
World War II and post-war division
In 1941, with the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia, the situation became even worse. By 1942, the Yugoslav resistance penetrated in the region from the bordering Province of Ljubljana. Several important clashes between the resistance and the Italian military happened. After the Italian armistice in September 1943, Nazi Germany occupied the region, incorporating it into the Operational Zone Adriatic Coast, led by the Gauleiter Friedrich Rainer.
Already in September 1943, large portions of the region were taken over by the Communist-led Liberation Front of the Slovenian People, which established several important bases in the area, including the famous Franja Partisan Hospital. Fights between the Communist-led resistance and the Nazis were frequent. Soon, German authorities adopted a pragmatic approach regarding the local Slovenian population: public use of Slovenian was allowed again. The anti-Communist collaborationist militia called Slovene Home Guard was also allowed to establish some units in the area, although they had little success in recruiting the locals. At the same time, politically motivated assassinations were carried out by the Communist cells within the resistance movement. Among the victims, there were several Roman Catholic priests and anti-fascists opposed to the Communist ideology.
After the end of World War II in 1945, almost the entire region was liberated by the Yugoslav People's Army, but was forced to withdraw from its western part. During the forty days of Yugoslav occupation, thousands of Italians were arrested by Communist authorities; most of them were released, but several hundred of them perished in the Foibe massacres.
For two years, Gorizia and Gradisca was a contested region between Italy and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, divided by the so-called Morgan Line. The territory west of the line (including the entire Soča valley, the lower Vipava Valley and most of the Karst Plateau) were occupied by British and U.S. forces, while the east remained under Yugoslav military administration. In September 1947, the region was finally divided between the two countries: Yugoslavia got most of the rural territory of the eastern part, while all of the western lowlands and the urban center of Gorizia were left to Italy. A small portion of the Karst region between Trieste and Duino was incorporated into the Zone A of the Allied-administered Free Territory of Trieste (which became part of Italy in 1954).
Gorizia and Gradisca thus ceased to exist as a unified historical region. Its Yugoslav portion became an integral part of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia: most of its territory was included in the Goriška region, except for the Karst Plateau, which was incorporated into the Littoral–Inner Carniola Statistical Region. A new urban center, called Nova Gorica ("New Gorizia") was built between the late 1940s and in the early 1950s. The Italian portion became part of the Friuli-Venezia Giulia autonomous region, mostly included in the Province of Gorizia.
Culture
The county of Gorizia and Gradisca enjoyed a multicultural environment, where Slavic, German and Latin people lived together and the government respected the right of minorities; it wasn't uncommon for people in this area to speak three or four language.
Slovene culture
The County of Gorizia and Gradisca emerged as a major center of Slovene culture in the second half of the 19th century. Already in the early 1860s, Slovene replaced German as the major language of education and administration in the Slovene-inhabited parts of the county. Differently from Styria, Carinthia and even Carniola, there was no assimilation pressure against the Slovene culture in most of Gorizia-Gradisca, so the Slovene culture flourished. Since the 1890s, the State Gymnasium of Gorizia emerged as one of the most prestigious educational centers in the Slovene Lands: several prominent figures in Slovenian arts, sciences and politics in the early 20th century received their education in this institution. In 1913, the Gymnasium was divided into three parts, with German, Italian and Slovenian as the language of teaching. The Slovenian section of the Gymnasium of Gorizia thus became the first public high school with Slovene as the primary language of teaching.
Among the prominent figures of Slovene culture from the County of Gorizia and Gradisca were: the poets Simon Gregorčič, Alojz Gradnik, and Joža Lovrenčič, writer Julius Kugy, theologian Anton Mahnič, composer Stanko Premrl, historian Simon Rutar, painters Jožef Tominc and Saša Šantel, architect Max Fabiani, philologist Karel Štrekelj, and literary historian Avgust Žigon. Other prominent Slovenes from Gorizia-Gradisca included politicians Karel Lavrič and Anton Gregorčič, admiral Anton Haus, Roman Catholic bishop Frančišek Borgia Sedej, economist Milko Brezigar and the pioneer pilot Edvard Rusjan. Prominent Slovenes who settled in the province from other regions included politician and author Henrik Tuma, historian Franc Kos, linguist Stanislav Škrabec, and jurist, historian and politician Bogumil Vošnjak.
Friulian culture
During the 19th century Gorizia was an important and lively center for Friulian. Throughout the century, many old books were republished, new works were composed, and several political and cultural association promoting Friulian culture were founded in the region. This was also thanks to the fact that even the nobility would normally use the language, while for example in Udine and in other towns of central Friulian higher classes rather used Venetian, because Friulian was seen as the language of peasants.
The County of Gorizia and Gradisca was also important for Friulian because it is the only territory in which an official census on speakers of Friulian has been carried out: in 1857, the official Austrian census showed 48.841 Friulians, 130,748 Slovenians, 15,134 Italians and 2,150 Germans in the county. A second census in 1921, carried out shortly after the annexation to Italy gave similar results.
Throughout the 19th century, most educated Friulians gravitated towards the Italian culture. A distinct Friulian identity existed, but was weak and not well articulated. One of the most prominent Friulian poets from Gorizia-Gradisca in the 19th century, Carlo Favetti, was for example also a fervent Italian irredentist. Others, such as the conservative leader and political author Luigi Faidutti, favoured an autonomous development of Friulian culture within a multicultural framework of the Habsburg Empire. Between 1890 and 1918, the autonomist movement gained widespread support in the countryside, but remained marginal in the urban areas.
Italian culture
During the 19th century, the town of Gorizia was the only major center of Italian culture in the region. In the 17th century, Italian emerged as a second language of culture in the town, next to German. Throughout the 18th and early 19th century, Italian culture flourished in the whole region. Italian was used as a language of education and culture by many noble families, as well as in Slovene and German bourgeois families. Several renowned artists, such as architect Nicolò Pacassi, painters Jožef Tominc and Franz Caucig, Garibaldin general Ignazio Francesco Scodnik, architect Max Fabiani and author Julius Kugy were educated in a predominantly Italian cultural environment.
The emergence of the Slovene National Awakening in the second half of the 19th century meant a significant setback for the Italian culture in the region. Most families that would previously educate their children in an Italian cultural environment, switched to Slovenian. Another reason for the decrease of Italian cultural influence was the unification of Lombardy-Venetia with the Kingdom of Italy in 1866, which radically reduced the influence of Italian culture within the Austrian Empire and cut off the free cultural exchange between Gorizia-Gradisca and Northern Italy.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Italian lost its previous function as the lingua franca in the region. Gorizia remained the only important center of Italian culture in the county, although the percentage of Italian speakers in the town was in constant decrease and dropped under 50% in 1910.
Nevertheless, important figures emerged from the Italian-speaking milieu of Gorizia, such as the prominent philologist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli and philosopher Carlo Michelstaedter, both of whom were of Jewish descent. Composer Rodolfo Lipizer and painters Italico Brass and Vittorio Bolaffio also came from this community. Other minor Italian cultural centres were the towns of Grado and Monfalcone, where a dialect of Venetian was spoken. The poet Biagio Marin was the most important representative of this local Italian culture.
German culture
The German-speaking community represented only a very small portion of the population. They were mostly concentrated in the town of Gorizia, where they represented some 10% of the overall population of the city center. Nevertheless, other factors increased the importance of the German culture in the region. Until the end of World War I, German continued to enjoy the prestige acquired in previous centuries, when the great majority of the high culture in the region was linked to the German cultural sphere. Most of the local aristocracy was multilingual, but they spoke mostly German among themselves. Several important noble families resided in the county, and they were often important contributors of arts and literature. They included the Thurn und Taxis, the Lanthieri, the Attems Petzenstein, the Windischgraetz, the Coronini Cronberg and the Strassoldo. Furthermore, German had served as a lingua franca for the communication between the single ethnic groups. Until 1913, most of the high education was available only in German.
Among the most prominent members of the German-speaking community of Gorizia and Gradisca were the chemist Johannes Christian Brunnich and explorer and natural scientist Karl von Scherzer.
In the 1850s, Gorizia and Gradisca also emerged as a tourist destination for the Central European elite. Towns such as Gorizia, Grado, Aquileia, Duino, Aurisina, and Most na Soči became important tourist centers in the Austrian Riviera. Many prominent figures, belonging to the German cultural milieu, frequented these places, making an important contribution to the survival of the local German culture. These include the ethnographer and linguist Karl von Czoernig, poet Rainer Maria Rilke who wrote his famous Duino Elegies while visiting the region, and the renowned physicist Ludwig Boltzmann.
Religion
The vast majority of the population of the county was of Roman Catholic denomination. Gorizia was one of the most important centers of the Catholic Church in Austria, since it was the seats of the Archbishops of Görz, who were one of the three legal descendants of the Patriarchate of Aquileia (along with the Patriarchate of Venice and the Archdiocese of Udine). Gorizia was thus the center of a Metropolitan bishopric that comprised the Dioceses of Ljubljana, Trieste, Poreč-Pula and Krk. Several important religious figures lived and worked in Gorizia, including cardinal Jakob Missia, bishop Frančišek Borgia Sedej, theologians Anton Mahnič and Josip Srebrnič, and Franciscan friar and philologian Stanislav Škrabec. There were many important Roman Catholic sacral buildings in the area, among them the sanctuaries of Sveta Gora ("Holy Mountain") and Barbana, and the monastery of Kostanjevica. Most of the county was included into the Archbidiocese of Gorizia, with the exception of the south-western portion of the Karst Plateau (around Sežana), which was included in the Diocese of Trieste.
According to the census of 1910, there were around 1,400 members of non-Latin Catholic or non-Catholic denominations in the county, which amounted to only around 0,5% of the overall population. Among them, around 750 belonged to various Protestant denominations (mostly Lutherans), around 340 were of Jewish faith, around 180 Greek Orthodox and around 130 were Greek Catholic.
Area and population
According to the data of the last official census in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1910, the county had an area of 2918 km2 and 260,721 inhabitants, of which around 20% lived in urban areas (Gorizia, Gradisca, Monfalcone, Cormons, Cervignano, Ronchi, Grado), around 18% in semi-urban settlements (Podgora, Aquileia, Staranzano, Solkan, Šempeter, Duino, Ajdovščina, Bovec, Kobarid, Tolmin, Sežana, Kanal ob Soči) and around 62% in rural areas. Among the urban population, some 21% were ethnic Slovenes, some 8% ethnic Germans, while the rest were mostly ethnic Italians. Among the semi-urban population, some 90% were Slovenes and 10% Italians and Friulians, while in the rural population 30% were Friulians and some 70% Slovenes.
The historical demography of the region was the following one:
Subdivisions
The county was divided into five administrative or "political" districts (Kreise), which were in turn subdivided into judicial districts. The town of Gorizia had a status of an administrative district.
Administrative districts
Gorizia City (, , )
Gorizia Countryside (, , )
Gradisca d'Isonzo (, )
Monfalcone (, )
Sežana (Italian and German: Sesana)
Tolmin (, )
Judicial districts
Administrative district of Gorizia:
Gorizia
Kanal ob Soči (, )
Ajdovščina (, )
A.d. of Gradisca:
Gradisca
Cormons ()
A.d. of Monfalcone:
Monfalcone ()
Cervignano (, )
A.d. of Sežana:
Sežana
Komen (Italian and German: Comeno)
A.d. of Tolmin:
Tolmin
Kobarid (, )
Bovec (, )
Cerkno (, )
See also
History of Gorizia
Slovenian Littoral
Italia irredenta
References
Sources
Branko Marušič & Sergio Tavano, Il vicino come amico realtà o utopia? : la convivenza lungo il confine italo-sloveno (Gorizia: Mohorjeva družba, 2007).
Branko Marušič, Die Vereinstätigkeit im österreichischen Küstenland (Triest, Görz-Gradisca, Istrien) (Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2006).
Branko Marušič, Gli sloveni nel Goriziano dalla fine del medioevo ai giorni nostri (Udine: Forum, 2005).
Simon Rutar, Poknežena Grofija Goriška in Gradiščanska (Nova Gorica: Založba Branko, 1997).
Sergio Tavano, Il Goriziano nella sua vita letteraria (Udine: Società Filologica Friulana).
External links
Küstenland
Austrian Littoral
Former states and territories in Slovenia
Geographic history of Italy
Subdivisions of the Habsburg monarchy
1861 establishments in the Austrian Empire
1918 disestablishments in Austria-Hungary
Disestablishments in the Empire of Austria (1867–1918)
Austrian Circle
Subdivisions of Austria-Hungary
Gor
Province of Gorizia
History of Slovenia |
4067218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smak | Smak | Smak (; trans. The end time) was a Serbian and Yugoslav band from Kragujevac. The group reached the peak of popularity in the 1970s when it was one of the most notable acts of the former Yugoslav rock scene. The band's leader, guitarist Radomir Mihailović, nicknamed Točak ("The Wheel"), is considered one of the most influential guitarists on the former Yugoslav rock scene.
Formed in 1971 by the guitarist Radomir "Točak" Mihajlović and drummer Slobodan "Kepa" Stojanović, the band did not get a stable lineup until 1975 by which time bassist Zoran Milanović, vocalist Boris Aranđelović and keyboard player Laza Ristovski became the band's official members. However, after recording their eponymous debut album, Ristovski left and the remaining quartet recorded their subsequent albums with various keyboardists before disbanding in 1981.
After brief reunions between 1986 and 1992, the two founding members, Mihajlović and Stojanović, reestablished the band with younger musicians — vocalist Dejan "Najda" Najdanović, the second drummer Dejan "Kepa Jr." Stojanović, second guitarist Milan "Mikica" Milosavljević and bassist Vlada Samardžić. During the late 1990, the latter was replaced by the bassist Slobodan "Sale" Marković who performed with the band until 2002 when Smak disbanded once again. The remaining members from the last lineup, with the new bassist Miloš Petrović reunited in 2010, and in 2012 the default lineup of the band made a one-off reunion.
History
Formation and early career (1971–1975)
Two ambitious twenty-year-old budding musicians—guitarist Radomir "Točak" Mihailović and drummer
—met up in Stojanović's hometown Kraljevo on 23 April 1971 with a view of starting a band together. They had earlier been put in touch with one another through Predrag "Biska" Albić, Mihailović's childhood friend who had served the mandatory Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) service with Stojanović. Throughout their army stint together in Mostar, Albić kept telling Stojanović about Mihailović's exceptional guitar-playing skills and passion for rock'n'roll, eventually arranging for the two to meet. Following the introductory meeting in Kraljevo, the two musicians returned to their lives as Stojanović had already been set to go on a tour with his family orchestra—an engagement he envisioned as an opportunity to earn enough money for a new drum kit—while Mihailović went back to his hometown Čačak.
Upon getting back home, Mihailović got introduced to Zoran Milanović (bass guitar) and Slobodan "Koma" Kominac (vocals), both from Kragujevac, who asked him to join their upstart progressive rock band Gentry, an offer he accepted on condition that Stojanović become the band's drummer. During November 1971, the four met up in Kraljevo in order to officially form a band and, having been kicked out of Stojanović's family home by his grandmother who didn't appreciate the sight of four young men with long hair in her house, they went to a local restaurant and then to a nearby park where they wrote their first song, later named "Bluz u parku" ("Blues in the Park") in memory of the event.
In December 1971, the lineup was completed with the arrival of Miša Nikolić on organ. Still largely a cover band at this point, the group played youth dance halls with covers of Santana, Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, The Rolling Stones, and Jimi Hendrix. Soon after, the members decided to change the band's name. Influenced by Smak sveta (The End of the World), a Hair-inspired musical being prepared locally at the Kragujevac Theatre in dedication to the schoolchildren killed during the Kragujevac massacre, they agreed on Smak (Endtime) as their new name while the play eventually never got staged. New name Smak occasionally got referred to in jest as S.M.A.K., a supposed acronym for Samostalni Muzički Ansambl Kragujevac (Independent Musical Ensemble Kragujevac). During this period, the band members spent time writing their own material, including 22 instrumental songs — from "Biska 2" to "Biska 23", written by Mihailović as a dedication to his friend Predrag "Biska" Albić (who was 22 at the time), featuring the defined band's sound as a combination of progressive rock with jazz and blues influences.
The fact that the band's improvisations turned dances into rock concerts was the reason why their performances were becoming less popular, which eventually led vocalist Kominac to leave the band, being replaced by Slobodan "Johan" Jovanović, Mihailović's friend from Čačak. However, since the performances were the source of income for the band members, they all agreed to reunite with Kominac and go to Dubrovnik where they would perform mostly blues repertoire for two and a half months during the summer of 1972. During their stay in Dubrovnik, the band opened for Time, which had borrowed their equipment for the performance. After the Dubrovnik performances the band took a break until March 1973 when, with the new vocalist Milorad "Kimi" Petrović, Stojanović's former bandmate from the band Bluz Projekcija, Stojanović, Mihailović and Milanović decided to perform at the Požarevac Gitarijada Festival (not to be confused with Zaječar Gitarijada Festival). There, in April 1973, the band shared the first place with the local band Dijamanti, which organized the festival.
With yet another return of Kominac to the band, Smak continued performing in Kragujevac clubs, as well as making a successful appearance at the Pop Music Festival in Sanad. This lineup recorded the song "Biska II blues", which appeared on the PGP RTB various artists compilation Leteća diskoteka (Flying Discothèque), compiled by Zoran Modli in 1977. In October 1973, the musically inexperienced high tenor vocalist Boris Aranđelović, who had just returned from Australia, joined the band after auditioning with a successful performance of Deep Purple's "Child in Time". After Aranđelović's arrival, during the early 1974, the band started recording their debut single and were interested in bringing an organist into the band, offering the place to Time member Tihomir "Pop" Asanović, who turned down the offer due to his plans to form his Jugoslovenska Pop Selekcija. Eventually, the band released their debut single "Živim ja" (I'm Livin'), originally entitled "Biska 13", with "Biska 16" as the B-side, in March 1974 through PGP-RTB. "Živim ja" featured the flutist Sreten Tasić "Tasa", at the time member of the band Oliver, who by chance turned up at the studio during the recording session. During the late 1974, "Živim ja" was selected as the hit single of the year on the Veče uz radio (An Evening With the Radio) Radio Belgrade show.
Smak performed in Belgrade for the first time on November 10, 1974, during the Veče uz radio anniversary concert, alongside Bijelo Dugme, Pop Mašina and other notable bands of the time. Several days later, the band performed at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology, the first time with a guest keyboard player Laza Ristovski, a former Bezimeni and Boki Milošević Orchestra member. Ristovski officially became a member in January 1975, soon after which, Smak performed with the Hungarian band Omega in the Dom Sindikata Hall. In February of the same year, the band performed at the Rock Evening of Opatija Festival, and afterwards in Zagreb at the Kongres rock majstora (The Rock Masters Congress) concert held as the summit of the best Yugoslav guitar players. Unlike the expectation that Mihajlović would be declared the best guitarist of the event, the judges decided that the best four guitarists were Bata Kostić of YU grupa, Vedran Božić of Time, Josip Boček formerly of Korni Grupa, and Goran Bregović of Bijelo Dugme, all of whom, unlike Mihailović, were signed to Jugoton, the event's principal organizer. Shortly after, on March 16, 1975, Smak opened for the Deep Purple concert in Belgrade, performing three of their numbers: "Put od balona" (Road Made of Balloons), "Šumadijski blues" (Šumadijan Blues) and "Ulazak u harem" (Entry into the Harem).
After the performance at the Od glave do pete (From Head to Heels) television show where the band performed the instrumental "Ulazak u harem", originally composed by Točak's teacher, Dragoljub "Jarak" Jaraković but rearranged by Točak, owing to positive reactions, they decided to record the track as their follow-up single. In April 1975, the band signed the Ljubljana ZKP RTLJ and released the single "Ulazak u harem" with the track "Epitaf" ("Epitaph") as the B-side. However, after being offered the contract by the Zagreb Suzy Records to release the single through their label, the band signed yet another contract, releasing "Ulazak u harem" with the song "Sto ptica" ("A Hundred Birds") as the B-side, which resulted in the two labels simultaneously releasing the same single. The release of the singles became the first major music controversy in the history of Yugoslav music. Eventually the band chose to remain with the ZKP RTLJ label and were offered to record their debut album for the label. The following month, the band went on a Bosnian and Croatian tour with Bijelo Dugme and the East German band Puhdys, and had several live appearances with the Hungarian band Sirius and Austrian band Gypsy Love, followed by them headlining the Zagreb BOOM Festival.
Commercial success (1975–1978)
Smak's eponymous debut album, Smak (Endtime), was released in 1975 and featured five tracks: the A-side featured "Perle" (Beads), "Mračni mol" (The Dark Minor), "Blues u parku" (Blues in the Park) and the shortened "Biska 2", whereas the B-side featured the twenty-minute long instrumental "Put od balona" ("The Road Made of Balloons"), originally entitled "Biska 20". Despite its length, the latter track was recorded in a single take and was inspired by the Korni Grupa symphonic rock tracks such as "Prvo svetlo u kući broj 4" (First Light in the House Number 4) and "Jedna žena" (A Woman). The album featured the lyrics mostly written by Mihajlović, but shortly after, the band asked the services of the poet Mirko Glišić from Kragujevac for the same occupation, with whom they collaborated on their subsequent releases. The album received mixed to favorable critics, but nevertheless went silver, being sold in about twenty thousand copies. The album had also increased the cult status of Mihajlović's guitar playing, which was confirmed on their three-week tour of East Germany.
In April 1976 the band released the double 7" EP Satelit (Satellite), featuring the title track which became an instant hit, and had a cover which in its inner side had a satellite jumping out of the sleeves. The promotion of the EP was also organized in an unusual manner: the Ljubljana's ZKP RTLJ record label invited about twenty journalists to a DC10 flight from Belgrade to New York City during which the band performed an improvised session on the plane. They stayed in New York City for a week, recording a promotional video for "Satelit", a documentary about their visit, and performed in a club for expatriates from Banat. Upon their return from the United States, Mihajlović released his debut solo album R. M. Točak, and the band had a mini-tour of Yugoslavia during the Autumn of 1976. In October the band released the single with songs "Ljudi nije fer" (People, It's Not Fair!) with the B-side "El dumo", and as a part of the single promotion, a one-hour documentary about the band's stay in New York was screened. The following month, Laza Ristovski left Smak to join Bijelo Dugme, at the time Smak's rivals, being replaced by the organist Miki Petkovski from the band Breg (the embryonic Leb i Sol), a cello music academy graduate in the class of professor André Navarra.
During the early 1977, the band, Ristovski's departure and Mihailović's illness started preparing material for the following album, with Petkovski also bringing his cello to the rehearsals, and the written material was recorded in London at the Morgan Studios. Crna dama (Black Lady), produced by Martin Levan, featured the lyrics written by Mirko Glišić and the music by Mihajlović, with the exception for "Tegoba" (Ailment), written by Petkovski, in which he presented his sympathies for jazz rock. The musical style ranged from the hard rock influenced title track, ballads "Stvar ljubavi" (A Matter of Love) and "Plava pesma" (Blue Song), featuring the London Harmonium string quartet, folk rock "Daire" (Tambourine), the progressive "'Alo", featuring Aranđelović's scat singing combined with Mihajlović's solo parts, and "Domaći zadatak" (Homework), featuring complex solos on drums, bass guitar and keyboards, which was directly dedicated to Bijelo Dugme. The album had a luxurious cover designed by Dragan S. Stefanović, featuring a new band logo which became one of the band's trademarks.
The album went gold and received mostly positive critics, although Glišić's lyrics received mostly negative reactions, being described as banal and ineffective. PGP RTB had also made a great investment in the album promotion, with the appropriate coverage in the media, thus the songs "Crna dama", "Daire" and "Plava pesma" became nationwide hits. On September 8, 1977, the band embarked on a large promotional tour, playing the opening show in Belgrade, performing in the sold out Pionir hall, and later at the BOOM festival in Novi Sad. In Zagreb, the band promoted the album in a streetcar which circled the city and after the Zagreb performance, in front of eleven thousand people, the representatives of the Frankfurt-based record label Bellaphon Records were introduced to the band. The band signed a five-year contract for eight albums, after which Mihajlović and Aranđelović traveled to London in order to record the tracks for the English language version of Crna dama for the European and American markets. Black Lady, featuring an alternate album cover, in the Melody Maker was reviewed as "a bad copy of Taste and Deep Purple", however, it received a positive review in Guitar Player. In the annual poll the readers of the Džuboks magazine selected Smak as the best band in 1977 and the band got the best album, cover, single, guitarist, bassist and drummer.
In January 1978, during the Midem music industry trade fair in Cannes, the Black Lady rights were bought by the American Fantasy Records and the Spanish branch of RCA Records. However, the atmosphere within the band had become tense, mostly owing to the fact that the successful Crna dama tour had eventually ended up in the band being twenty million dinars (approximately fifty thousand dollars) in debt after the tour. In such atmosphere they had several unsuccessful live performances, including the half-empty Belgrade Pionir hall concert in the spring of 1978. The band had also performed at a Polish international rock music festival in Poznań. At the time, the PGP RTS label bought the MCI 24-channel studio equipment on which, with the help of the personnel from Morgan studio, the band recorded the maxi single Smak Super 45, featuring "Nevidljive terazije" (The Invisible Scales) and "Hitopadeza" (Hitopadesha), the latter featuring Stojanović simultaneously playing two rhythms. During that period Petkovski recorded a solo album Ko zna (Who Knows), on which on one side of the LP performed Smak members and Leb i Sol members on the other. Soon after Petkovski left due to his military service, being replaced by Tibor Levay, the member of the RTV Novi Sad Orchestra.
Decline and crisis (1978–1981)
In a tense atmosphere, the band started writing new material, often clashing with Mihailović who did not react to the band's objections to his lyrical works. Nevertheless, the band traveled to England and in Chipping Norton near Oxford, in a local castle, the band installed their studio and started recording their third studio album. Despite frequent arguments, they recorded the progressive rock album Stranice našeg vremena (Pages of our Time), produced by the band themselves with the producer Barry Hammond, and featured the music and part of the lyrics written by Mihailović. The rest of the song lyrics were written by the Kragujevac poet Zoran Petrović, but did not receive positive reactions from the critics. Beside the new "Ponoćni lovac (Biska 18)" (Midnight Hunter (Biska 18)), "Tendži-tandži", "Nebo je samo drum bez dna" (Sky is Just a Bottomless Road), the album featured a rerecorded version of "Ulazak u harem". The album was released by Bellaphon for the international marked and PGP RTB released a licensed Serbian language version of the album. The English language version of the album, entitled Dab in the Middle, named after the suggestion by the guest percussionist on the album, David Moss.
After the album release, Levay left the band, soon to be followed by Mihailović, dissatisfied with the band's objections to his lyrics writing as well as objections to the usage of Moss' lyrics on Dab in the Middle. Smak continued performing, having several performances with the former Mirni Ljudi guitarist Srđan Miodragović, and former Time members Dado Topić and Chris Nichols. During the late 1978, Stojanović got the call to join September, fronted by Tihomir "Pop" Asanović, but declined due to his ambitions to continue working with Smak. At the beginning of 1979, Mihajlović returned to the band, and Laza Ristovski with him, disappointed with the situation in Bijelo Dugme and the failure of his album Stižemo (Here We Come), recorded with his Bijelo Dugme bandmate Ipe Ivandić. With the guest appearance by Dado Topić, the band released the EP Na Balkanu (On The Balkans), featuring the title track and "Gore dole" ("Up and Down"), with the lyrics written by Marina Tucaković. At the time, the band ended their contract with Bellaphon who were dissatisfied with the Smak album sales, with the band being dissatisfied with the album promotion. Another reason was the court case between Moss, who protected the rights to the usage of Dab in the Middle, and Bellaphon, eventually ending in the label paying ten thousand dollars for royalties.
The band continued collaborating with Dado Topić who produced the album Rok cirkus (Rock Circus), released in early 1980, featuring a more commercial hard rock sound, but met with severe criticism due to flaccid song lyrics, written by Marina Tucaković and Marko Glišić, especially the lyrics for the song "La Kukarača" (La Cucharacha). The album however had shown a reminiscence of their previous works in the instrumental "Instrumental Baby", and the songs "Hirošima" ("Hiroshima") and "Ogledalo" (The Mirror). The only song to become a hit from the album was the song "Profesor" ("Professor"). Influenced by the Rolling Stones' Rock 'n' Roll Circus, the band wanted to promote the album on a tour with performances in a circus tent. For that reason, in April 1980, the band traveled to Slovenia in order to sign a contract with the Slovenian Vargas circus company, however, their tent had been damaged after a heavy snowfall. In expecting another tent to arrive, the band had heard the news of the death of president Josip Broz Tito, after which the album was left almost without any promotion. Furthermore, the popularity of punk and new wave music in Yugoslavia had also influenced the commercial failure of the album.
At the beginning of 1981, Mihailović with Smak members decided to record a solo album, however, during the album recording process, they were uncertain whether it should be Točak's solo album or yet another Smak record. Eventually, it was decided that the album should be Mihailović's solo work, mostly owing to the fact that during the writing process his brother had died which made an influence on the atmosphere of the album and a part of the material recorded as a dedication to his brother. Another reason was the absence of Aranđelović whom did not participate the album recording due to his illness and thus the three non-instrumental tracks on the album featured the vocals of Dado Topić, in the song "Zašto ne volim sneg" ("Why I Dislike the Snow"), recorded in a single first take, and Zoran "Hoze" Živanović, in the songs "Južni voz" ("Southern Train") and "Nebeski splav" ("Sky Raft"). Beside the material written by Mihajlović, the album featured a cover version of the Macedonian folk song "Zajdi, zajdi" ("Set, Set (Oh, Sun)"), originally composed by Aleksandar Sarijveski. Eventually, Zašto ne volim sneg (Why I Dislike the Snow) was released as a Smak album after the PGP RTB persuaded the band to abolish the idea of a solo record. The album was released in five thousand copies only and quickly sold out in less than a month.
Breakup and aftermath (1981–1986)
By the time Zašto ne volim sneg got released, the frequent arguments among the band members precipitated their decision to disband following one final show in Belgrade. In June 1981, they held a farewell concert at the Red Star basketball court within the Kalemegdan fortress in front of six thousand fans, with a guest appearance by Dado Topić who joined the band on stage to perform "Na Balkanu". The concert was originally delayed due to heavy rainfall, partially damaging the equipment. Afterwards, there were issues with the show's promoters who reneged on the terms of the agreement regarding payment for the show, leading to band members only receiving about a fifth of the previously agreed payment. The suddenly reduced financial windfall from the final show led to the band's decision to embark on a farewell tour in order to recoup the lost income despite being on unfriendly terms and originally not intending on performing past the Kalemegdan performance. The farewell tour ended in September 1981 and the members went their separate ways.
Soon after the breakup, Stojanović and Mihajlović, together with Dado Topić on bass and lead vocals, made an agreement to form a band called Tito, an idea the three had as far back as 1973, however, due to Mihajlović disliking the concept of not recording new material and relying on their old repertoire, the band never got off the ground. In early 1982, Mihajlović and Stojanović, this time with bassist Lola Andrejić, decided to form an instrumental music trio, continuing with the style first explored on Zašto ne volim sneg, however, after a misunderstanding between Stojanović and Andrejić, the former left the band.
During 1982, Mihajlović released a single "Mantilja" (Mantilla), with "Specijalka" (A Special) as the B-side, and with Andrejić and Moss who often performed live with him, he recorded maxi single "Marš na Drinu" ("March on the River Drina"), a cover of the World War I song. He had also opened a school for guitar players in Kragujevac and Belgrade, through which an abundance of students had passed over the years. During 1982, with his former Smak bandmates, Boris Aranđelović recorded his debut solo album Iz profila (Profile View), after which he moved to London where he minimized his musical career. Stojanović formed the band Cveće (Flowers) in October 1982, with Chris Nichols (keyboards), Miodrag Babalj (vocals), Srećko Maksimović (guitar) and Branko Pavlović "Stenli" (bass), but by the time their debut album Polenov prah (Pollen Powder) was released in 1983, they had already disbanded. Stojanović then performed in Belgrade's Hotel Mažestik, in clubs in Germany and the Soviet Union and participated in the recording sessions of Toma Zdravković's singles "Ej, Branka, Branka" ("Hey, Branka, Branka") and "Kiša je padala" ("The Rain was Falling"). Ristovski joined the Alvin Lee Band, performing on a tour of Yugoslavia and Hungary, and released five solo albums, before returning to Bijelo Dugme in 1985, remaining until their breakup in 1989.
Reunions and hiatuses (1986–1992)
In mid-October 1986, the mainstay Smak members reunited in the lineup Mihajlović, Stojanović, Aranđelović and Milanović, but without Ristovski who refused to participate in the reunion. The four started rehearsing at the University of Kragujevac campus, and during the rehearsals a young keyboard player Milan Đurđević often attended the rehearsals, however, due to being Mihajlović's reserved towards him, he invited Chris Nichols to record the keyboard parts. The comeback album Smak 86., also featuring Miša Komnenić and Vlada Nikodijević on guest keyboards, but the album was not well received by the critics. The album featured Mihajlović as the album producer, music and lyrics author, even lead vocalist in the song "Kornjačina koža" ("Turtle Skin"). The band members themselves, with the exception of Mihajlović were also dissatisfied with the record: Aranđelović was not satisfied with some of the lyrics and Stojanović was not content with the usage of rhythm machines on certain tracks. After the album release, the band embarked on a tour with Milan Đurđević on keyboards, but without much promotion. After a short tour, the band went on an indefinite hiatus.
In 1987, Mihailović founded his R.M. Točak band, featuring Lola Andrejić and David Moss, with whom he appeared on the Legende YU Rocka (The Legends of YU Rock) concert, organized on May 22, 1987, by the Zagreb Radio 101 at the Dom Sportova, and the recording of the instrumental "Because" appeared on the various artists double live album Legende YU Rocka, released by Jugoton during the same year. Stojanović founded his school of drummers and started performing folk music in both Yugoslavia and abroad. During the time of Smak's inactivity Mihailović, Stojanović and Milanović remained in contact, and in 1988, without much rehearsing, they decided to perform at the traditional Kragujevac Midnight concert, with Milan Đurđević on keyboards, who was at the time serving the army, and the vocalist Milan Šćepović "Šćepa". After having a successful performance in Kragujevac, despite the rumors of reformation, the members devoted to their own careers once again. However, the same lineup had reunited once again in 1990, once again performing at the Kragujevac Midnight concert.
The following year, the band reunited, this time with Aranđelović on vocals, once again at the same concert, and featured a guest appearance by Pera "Džo" Miladinović on harmonica. The same lineup with Ristovski on keyboards performed at the Kragujevac Midnight concert, after which, the band had their first live appearance after six years in Belgrade. The band held two performances in Sava Centar, the first of which was recorded for the live album OdLIVEno (LIVEquefied), on compact cassette only. Beside their own songs, the album featured cover version of blues songs "Cross Road Blues" and "Tobacco Road", and Serbian traditional song "Ukor" ("Blame"). The band had also released a compilation album Smak: Retrospektiva (Smak: A Retrospective) and re-released the album Dab in the Middle as The Pages of Our Time. After the Belgrade performances, the band had a meeting in Kragujevac, where they decided to continue working and started planning a comeback album. Nevertheless, Aranđelović went to Amsterdam where he stayed longer than the intended two months and Milanović and Ristovski did not appear at the band rehearsals, thus the lineup did not make a full-time comeback.
TEK and reformation (1993–2002)
Having realized that there would not be a default lineup reformation, Mihailović and Stojanović nevertheless continued rehearsing together, playing instrumental music with Mihailović's student Milan "Mikica" Milosavljević, a former Alahambra member, who, despite being a solo guitarist, took up playing bass out of the respect for the two musicians. During one of the rehearsals, having heard Stojanović and his 19-year-old son playing drums simultaneously with his father, Mihajlović suggested that Dejan Stojanović "Kepa Jr." should join the three as the second drummer. At the time, in 1993, Mihajlović got the offer to score the film Vizantijsko plavo (Byzantine Blue), directed by Dragan Marinković, which he recorded Stojanović senior and junior on drums and Milosavljević on bass, signed as the band TEK. The soundtrack album, recorded at the Laza Ristovski's studio, featured guest appearances by Ristovski (keyboards), Zoran Milanović (bass), Marija Mihajlović (vocals), Miroslav Savić (keyboards) and Nenad Petrović (saxophone). Beside his own compositions, the album featured several cover versions of folk motifs, including the 1981 version of "Zajdi, zajdi" and the song "Ukor", as well as the compositions by Miroslav Savić and Dragan Stefanović. Mihajlović eventually got the Crystal Prism award for the album.
After the album release, TEK started a promotional tour, performing instrumental music mainly in clubs, however, on the audience request, they included Smak material, but in instrumental versions with the audience filling the vacant vocalist spot. This was the reason why Stojanović suggested Mihailović to return to a classic rock lineup with a vocalist, and in the meantime, Milosavljević switched to guitar, thus the band were to look for a new vocalist and bassist. At first the band considered the Osvajači vocalist Zvonko Pantović "Čipi", due to a similar vocal style with Aranđelović's, but eventually the new vocalist became Dejan Najdanović "Najda", a former Kramer vocalist, after a successful vocal interpretation of the Free song "All Right Now". On the recommendation of a friend, the new bassist became Vlada Samardžić, a young jazz fusion musician from Novi Sad, who performed with Vasil Hadžimanov. The VANS production company, which released the Vizantijsko plavo soundtrack, wanted to start a collaboration with the band in releasing new material, suggesting them to continue using the name Smak.
Having completed the lineup, and having an album's worth material, Radomir "Točak" Mihailović (guitar), Slobodan "Kepa" Stojanović (drums), Dejan "Kepa Jr." Stojanović (drums), Milan "Mikica" Milosavljević (guitar), Dejan "Najda" Najdanović (vocals) and Vlada Samardžić (bass guitar) entered the studio and recorded the Smak's seventh studio album Bioskop Fox (Fox Cinema), produced by Mihailović and released jointly by VANS, Komuna and PGP RTS in 1995. The entire material, consisting of fourteen tracks, was written by Mihajlović, with the exception for a part of the lyrics, written by Zoran Amar, Predrag Drčelić "Skaki" of Trula Koalicija, Jovan Nikolić and Nikola Mihajlović. In order to promote the album, the band had recorded a promotional video for the song "Lisica" ("Fox"), dedicated to Jimi Hendrix, in a professional film studio in Košutnjak, as well as two promotional videos, for the songs "Organizam bluz" (Organism Blues) and "Miris nje" (The Smell of Her), in Novi Sad. Despite the adequate media promotion, Mihajlović was not satisfied with VANS, partially owing to their inexperience with the music business due to being a film company, thus the band ended the collaboration with the company.
After the album release, the band started tour rehearsals in Kragujevac and had their first live appearance with the new lineup in Čačak on September 9, 1995, followed by performances in Kragujevac, however they were facing the problem of a small number of people attending their shows. At the time, the band got an invitation to go on a tour of Canada but despite everything being set for their arrival, Mihajlović changed his mind and the tour was canceled. After the tour cancellation, the bassist Vlada Samardžić, disappointed with the fact, decided to leave the band and dedicated himself to his studies at the Berklee College of Music. Mihailović suggested Lola Anderjić as his replacement, but after Stojanović's refusal, the new bassist became Slobodan Marković "Sale" from Kragujevac. The new lineup continued performing live, including the performance at the Belgrade Sava Centar, which was broadcast on national television, with the performances featuring drum solos on two drums consisting of three sections, the first being unison drum playing, the second with individual improvisations and the third with the Latin-American rhythms under the influence of Steve Gadd's playing style.
During 1996, the RTV Slovenia released a compilation album The Best of Smak, and the following year, in the spring of 1997, the band had a tour of Slovenia. The success of the tour resulted in the plans for another tour which was canceled due to the problems with the management in Slovenia. After the tour, the band had reduced their live activities, performing mainly free concerts at town squares, including the concert in Kragujevac on which all the former members, with the exception of Miki Petkovski, appeared as guests. In May of the same year, in the Kragujevac Šumadija cinema hall, the band made an experiment with performing an entire concert without audience and the recording of the concert was released on the double live album Live Without Audience, featuring live versions of twenty two tracks from the band's entire career. A promotional video for the song was recorded for the song "Ljudi nije fer" which received an adequate media coverage. The following year, in 1998, in a book edited by Duško Antonić and Danilo Štrbac YU 100: Najbolji albumi jugoslovenske rok i pop muzike (YU 100: The Best Albums of Yugoslav Rock and Pop Music), Crna dama appeared on the 40th and Smak on the 63rd place.
In 1999, the band started working on a new studio album, for which Mihajlović and Stojanović decided that it should feature poly-rhythmic drums and scat singing. Nevertheless, Stojanović suggested that beside scat singing, several tracks should feature lyrics, which Mihajlović refused, and thus Stojanović made a decision not to play on the album. Mihajlović then hired Igor Malešević, at the time the member of Vasil Hadžimanov Band, but after not being satisfied with the rehearsals he was fired and Stojanović recorded the drums for all of the fourteen tracks on the album, which was entirely recorded in 72 hours. Egregor, released by PGP RTS, produced by Mihajlović and Saša Habić, featured only one song with lyrics and on the rest Najdanović was featured on scat singing. The song "5. maj" ("May 5") was dedicated to Led Zeppelin and the theme "SOS" featured a sample of Josip Broz Tito's speech from 1948, older generation folk singers Vuka Šeherović and Mijat Mijatović, and an anonymous Radio Belgrade speak at the time of the World War II occupation of Yugoslavia. The album received mixed critics and did not receive an adequate promotion due to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia during the same year.
During 1999, Boris Aranđelović recorded a solo album Milion godina (A Million Years) as Boris i Dinosaurusi on which the music was written by former YU grupa guitarist Bata Kostić, Jimmy Barnes and R.M. Točak, the lyrics by Marina Tucaković and Ranko Slijepčević, and the recordings featured Kostić, Ristovski, Kepa Stojanović, Zoran Milanović, Pera Joe and Neverne Bebe guitarist Saša Ranđelović "Ranđa". On March 3, 2000, the band performed at the Kragujevac Le Cinema hall and the recording of the concert was released in 2002 by Active Time as Live – klub Le Cinema (Live – Le Cinema Club) in 2002. The same label released the recording of the TEK concert in Niš recorded in 1994, on the live album Niš 1994. In 2001, the compilation album Istorija (History) was released by PGP RTS, featuring songs from all the periods of Smak's career and the previously unreleased song "Blues od vina", which was recorded on the 1974 Veče uz radio anniversary concert. The following year, the band disbanded. A compilation album featuring a part of the material from Live Without Audience was released as Antologija! (Anthology!) in 2005, and in autumn of the following year, the PGP RTS released a remastered edition of the album Crna dama.
Reunion (2010–2015)
In 2010, the lineup of Radomir "Točak" Mihailović (guitar), Dejan "Najda" Najdanović (vocals), Slobodan "Kepa" Stojanović (drums), Milan "Mikica" Milosavljević (guitar), Dejan "Kepa Junior" Stojanović (drums) with the new band member Miloš "Šomi" Petrović (bass) reunited and started writing new material. The former bass player Vlada Samardžić did not participate the reunion, but expressed the support of the new lineup. From summer until autumn of the same year, the band had recorded four tracks, "Delfin" (The Dolphin), an instrumental version of the song "Cigansko srce" (Gypsy Heart), originally released on the album Rock cirkus, "Ispiranje" (Ablution) and "Rapsodija o lepom" ("A Rhapsody on Beauty"), which were premiered on the band's official YouTube channel. However, further reunion plans had been interrupted by Slobodan Stojanović's spinal cord surgery. The recorded tracks, along with the bonus video versions of the material, were released in December 2012 on the EP Delfin (The Dolphin) by the Serbian record label One Records. The same label also rereleased in compact disc format the 1992 live album OdLIVEno, previously available on compact cassette only, and released Radomir Mihajlović's solo album Tonsko ukrašavanje (A Tonal Ornamentation).
On December 29, 2012, Smak reunited in the default lineup – Radomir Mihajlović (guitar), Boris Aranđelović (vocals), Zoran Milanović (bass guitar) and Slobodan Stojanović (drums) – for a concert in Kombank Arena. The concert also featured members of the current Smak lineup – Dejan Najdanović (vocals), Milan Milosavljević (guitar), Miloš Petrović (bass guitar) and Dejan Stojanović (drums) – as well as Dejan Zdraevski on keyboards. The reunion of the band's default lineup saw large media coverage and the concert featured about 18,000 spectators. On June 27, 2013, the band, in both the default and current lineup, performed at Kragujevac Arsenal Fest. It was the band's first concert in Kragujevac since 1997. In 2014, the band rerecorded their 1978 song "Nebo je samo drum bez dna" ("The Sky Is Only a Bottomless Road") and released it on their official YouTube channel.
On June 20, 2015, the band, once again in both default and current lineup, held a concert in Belgrade Ušće park, in front of about 20,000 spectators. The concert featured the bands Oktava, Rare and Epilog as the opening bands and Dado Topić as guest.
The concert at Ušće park was Aranđelović's last performance with the band. He died on August 27 of the same year in Rotterdam, after long illness. He was 67.
New reunion (2022–present)
On May 6, 2022, Smak reunited again with a new singer, Jovan Pantić Panta, whose voice tone is very similar to Aranđelović's. They held a concert in Kragujevac at the City Hall.
On September 9, 2022, Smak held a concert in Čačak.
Legacy
In 2017, the band was awarded the silver medal for Merit by the President of Serbia Tomislav Nikolić for their contribution to Serbian culture.
Smak songs have been covered by a plethora of acts and the notable cover versions include: The girl group Aska medley which consisted of passages from "Satelit", "Crna dama", "Nevidljive terazije", "Halo", "Tendži Tandži", "Daire" and "Gore dole" on their 1982 album Disco Rock. The song "Daire" was covered in 1994 by the band Neverne Bebe on their album Neverne Bebe I, their version featuring a passage from "Zajdi, zajdi"; the band covered the song once again on their 2004 album Neverne Bebe IV – Dvoje – The Best Of . Osvajači covered the song "Ljudi nije fer" on their 1994 unplugged concert. The song "Crna dama" was covered in 2000 by singer Viktorija on her album Nostalgija (Nostalgia). In 2011, the band Čipi i Industrija, featuring the original Osvajači members, covered the song "Na Balkanu", with former Generacija 5 vocalist Đorđe David on guest vocals, released on the album Na Balkanu. On his 2012 album Štrajk mozga (Brain Strike), the rapper Edo Maajka sampled the riff of "Biska 2", from the Live Without Audience album, in the song "Diši" ("Breathe"). The following year, "Biska 2" was covered by the Milan Petrović Quartet on their instrumental cover album Favorites.
The albums and songs by Smak were featured on several all-time greatest lists of former Yugoslav rock. The book YU 100: najbolji albumi jugoslovenske rok i pop muzike (YU 100: The Best albums of Yugoslav pop and rock music), published in 1998, features two Smak albums: Crna dama (ranked No. 40) and Smak (ranked No. 63). On the list of 100 greatest Yugoslav album, published by Croatian edition of Rolling Stone in 2015, Crna dama was ranked No. 92. The Rock Express Top 100 Yugoslav Rock Songs of All Times list, published in 2000, featured seven songs by Smak: "Crna dama" (polled No.5), "Ulazak u harem" (polled No.12), "Daire" (polled No.23), "Blues u parku" (polled No.47), "Šumadijski blues" (polled No.65), "Zajdi, zajdi" (polled No.82) and "Satelit" (polled No.94). In 2006, "Plava pesma" was polled No.61 on the B92 Top 100 Domestic Songs list. In 2011, "Daire" was polled, by the listeners of Radio 202, one of 60 greatest songs released by PGP-RTB/PGP-RTS.
Members
Former members
Radomir "Točak" Mihailović – guitar (1971–1981, 1986–1992, 1994–2002, 2010–2015)
– drums, percussion (1971–1981, 1986–1992, 1994–2002, 2010–2015)
– bass guitar (1971–1981, 1986–1992, 2012, 2013, 2015)
– vocals (1973–1981, 1986–1987, 1989–1992, 2012, 2013, 2015)
– guitar (1994–2002, 2010–2015)
– drums, percussion (1994–2002, 2010–2015)
– vocals (1994–2002, 2010–2015)
Dejan Zdravevski – keyboards (2012–2015)
Filip Milanović – bass guitar (2015)
Miša Nikolić – keyboards (1971–1972)
Lola Andrijić – bass guitar (1980–1990)
Slobodan "Koma" Kominac – vocals (1971–1972, 1973)
Slobodan "Johan" Jovanović – vocals (1972)
Milorad "Kimi" Petrović – vocals (1973)
Laza Ristovski – keyboards (1974–1976, 1979–1981, 1992)
– keyboards (1976–1978, 1979)
Tibor Levay – keyboards (1978)
David Moss – percussion (1978)
– keyboards (1986–1990)
Milan Šćepović – vocals (1988, 1990)
– bass guitar (1994–1997)
– bass guitar (1997–2002)
– bass guitar (2010–2013)
Discography
Serbian language albums
Smak (1975)
Crna dama (1977)
Stranice našeg vremena (1978)
Rock cirkus (1980)
Zašto ne volim sneg (1981)
Smak 86. (1986)
Bioskop Fox (1995)
Egregor (1999)
English language albums
Black Lady (1978)
Dab in the Middle (1978)
References
Notes
External links
Biska 2 - Smak (1975)
Blues in the Park - Smak (1975)
Black Lady – Smak (1977)
Entrance to Harem – Smak (1978)
Smak – Black Lady (1978) at Rock On Vinyl (2010)
The end Time in the New World (1976)
Smak (Al Jazeera Balkans Documentary – 2015)
Smak at Myspace
Smak at YouTube
Smak at Discogs
Smak at Rateyourmusic
Smak at Last.fm
Smak at B92.fm
Smak at Progarchives
Serbian rock music groups
Serbian progressive rock groups
Serbian jazz-rock groups
Serbian hard rock musical groups
Serbian folk rock groups
Yugoslav rock music groups
Yugoslav progressive rock groups
Yugoslav jazz-rock groups
Yugoslav hard rock musical groups
Blues rock groups
Musical groups from Kragujevac
Musical groups established in 1971 |
4067375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Earth%20Liberation%20Front%20actions | Timeline of Earth Liberation Front actions | The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) has taken a variety of criminal actions since 1992. Actions were rarely publicised prior to 1996 and are therefore difficult to find.
1997
March 11, 1997, Sandy, Utah: A series of pipe bombs and one firebomb claimed jointly by the ALF and the ELF destroys four trucks and leveled the offices of the Agricultural Fur Breeders Co-Op, causing about $1 million in damage.
March 14, 1997, near Eugene, Oregon: Tree spiking at Robinson-Scott timber harvest site in the McKenzie River watershed, Willamette National Forest . Joint ALF / ELF claim.
March 18, 1997, Davis, California: The "Bay Area Cell of the Earth X ALF" takes credit for setting fire to the University of California, Davis, Center for Comparative Medicine facility, which was still under construction.
July 21, 1997, Redmond, Oregon : Arson attack on the Cavel West meat packing plant. The plant was in the business of slaughtering horses and then shipping the meat to Europe to be sold there. Estimated cost over $1 million. The plant was never rebuilt. Joint ALF / ELF claim.
November 29, 1997, Burns, Oregon: Fire at the Bureau of Land Management Wild Horse Corrals destroys a horse barn, chutes, pens and equipment, and 400 horses are released. ELF and ALF claim joint responsibility. Damages: $474,000.
1998
June 2, 1998, Olympia, Washington: The U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal Damage Control building and another U.S. Department of Agriculture wildlife station, miles apart, go up in flames on the same morning. The Earth Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front take joint responsibility for both actions. Damages: $1.9 million.
June 28, 1998, Boston, Massachusetts: ELF defaces the Mexican Consulate in Boston with red paint in support of the indigenous Zapatista Army of National Liberation uprising in the Mexican state of Chiapas. ELF paints blood-red hand prints on the walls, spills pools of red paint on the ground, and paints "VIVA E.Z.L.N."
July 3, 1998, Middleton, Wisconsin: Break-in and release of 171 mink and ferrets from United Vaccines laboratory during a daylight raid. Holes are cut in the fence and 310 ferrets and mink are released. Equipment and windows are also destroyed. The slogan 'Independence Day for Fur Farm Prisoners' is painted at the United Vaccines laboratory during the daylight raid. Joint ALF / ELF claim.
October 10, 1998, Rock Springs, Wyoming: Saboteurs cut the locks off horse pens at a BLM corral, freeing about 40-100 wild horses. Failed incendiaries are found next to a pickup truck and a building. The ELF and the ALF take joint responsibility.
October 19, 1998, Vail, Colorado: The ELF claims responsibility for burning five buildings and four chair lifts at the Vail Mountain ski resort in Vail, Colorado, causing in excess of $12 million in damages. The action came only five days after a court had ruled that Vail could proceed with its planned Category III expansion into the Two Elks Roadless Area, despite the objections of local environmentalists. In a communiqué, ELF claims that the fires were set on behalf of the lynx. "If there is any critical lynx habitat in the state, this is it!"
October 26, 1998, Powers, Michigan: About 5,000 mink are released from the Pipkorn farm in the Upper Peninsula. Damages: $100,000.
December 26, 1998, Medford, Oregon : Fire ravages the headquarters of U.S. Forest Industries. An ELF communiqué issued weeks later says the strike was payback to the company for razing forests and killing wild animals for profit. Damages: $700,000.
1999
August 7, 1999, Escanaba, Michigan: Two fishing boats are set ablaze in the driveway of a veterinarian who once worked as a mink rancher. A garage door is tagged with graffiti high: "FUR IS MURDER. E.L.F." The ELF later claims in an Internet posting it targeted the veterinarian after finding a "Fur is Enough" sign outside his home. Damages: $15,000.
December 25, 1999, Monmouth, Oregon: Fire destroys the main office of the Boise Cascade logging company costing over $1 million. ELF claim responsibility in a communiqué.
December 31, 1999, East Lansing, Michigan: Arson of the offices of Catherine Ives, Room 324, Agriculture Hall at Michigan State University. The offices were doused with gasoline and set afire. ELF says the fire was set in response to the work being done to force developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa to switch from natural crop plants to genetically engineered sweet potatoes, corn, bananas and pineapples. USAID was the major funder of the research and promotional work being done through Michigan State University. ELF spokesmen claimed Monsanto had been a major contributor to funding the program, however the only funding from Monsanto Corp. was a one-time sum of $2,000 to send five African students to a conference on biotechnology. According to local newspapers, the fire caused over $1 million in damage.
2000
January 23, 2000, Bloomington, Indiana: Arson destroys a partially built luxury home. Investigators found a message spray-painted in black on a sign near the house: "No Sprawl ELF." The ELF later issues a communiqué saying it torched the home because it was in the Lake Monroe Watershed, which provides drinking water to the city of Bloomington. Damages: $200,000.
February 9, 2000, Saint Paul, Minnesota: University of Minnesota, ELF Crop Destruction, $1,000+ in damages.
March 24, 2000, Minneapolis, Minnesota: Highway 55 reroute, $500,000 in damages done to construction equipment.
April 30, 2000, Bloomington, Indiana: At least six pieces of logging and heavy construction equipment are sabotaged and a trailer full of wood chips is set ablaze at a road construction site just outside the city. A communiqué from the Earth Liberation Front states its plan was to punish those developing wooded areas around Bloomington, which "have turned what was once forested land into parking lots, luxury houses for rich scum and expanded roads." Damages: $75,000.
July 20, 2000, Rhinelander, Wisconsin: Vandals hack down thousands of experimental trees, mostly poplars, and spray-paint vehicles at a U.S. Forest Service research station. The ELF claims the attack was against bioengineering, although researchers say the trees were naturally bred (not bioengineered) to grow faster and resist diseases. Damages: $1 million.
September 9, 2000, Bloomington, Indiana: Fire erupts at the headquarters of the Monroe County Republican Party Committee headquarters. Investigators say a flammable liquid was poured on the building and ignited. The arson was a reminder, according to the ELF communiqué, that the ELF would not sit quietly as politicians pushed for plans to extend Interstate 69. Damages: $1,500.
October 18, 2000, Shoals, Indiana: Vandals find four pieces of heavy logging equipment in the Martin State Forest and cut hoses, slash seats, destroy gauges and pour sand in the engines, fuel tanks and radiators. They leave spray-painted graffiti including, "Earth Raper," "Go Cut in Hell," and "ELF." Damages: $55,000.
November 27, 2000, Niwot, Colorado: Arson hits one of the first luxury homes going up in a new subdivision. The ELF later sends a note, made of letters clipped from magazines, to the Boulder Weekly newspaper: "Viva la revolution! The Boulder ELF burned the Legend Ridge mansion on Nov. 27th." The underground group explains in a follow-up communiqué that the arson was driven by defeat of a statewide ballot measure to control growth. Damages: $2.5 million.
December 9, 2000, Middle Island, New York: Fire erupts in a Long Island condominium under construction. The ELF claims responsibility, saying the homes were "future dens of the wealthy elite." The group, announcing "an unbounded war on urban sprawl," claims it checked for occupants—human and animal—in 16 condos before setting incendiaries in them. Damages: $200,000.
December 19, 2000, Miller Place, New York : A Long Island house under construction goes up in flames. "Building homes for the wealthy should not even be a priority," the ELF writes in its communiqué. "Forests, farms and wetlands are being replaced with a sea of houses, green chemical lawns, blacktop and roadkill." Damages: $50,000.
December 29, 2000, Mount Sinai, New York : Three Long Island luxury homes under construction are set ablaze, and a fourth is spray-painted with graffiti: "If you build it we will burn it." The ELF issues a communiqué saying: "Recently, hundreds of houses have been built over much of Mount Sinai's picturesque landscape and developers now plan to build a further 189 luxury houses over the farms and forests adjacent to Island Estates...This hopefully provided a firm message that we will not tolerate the destruction of our island." Damages: $160,000.
2001
May 21, 2001, Seattle, Washington: ELF sets off a firebomb that caused $7 million in damages at the University of Washington's Center for Urban Horticulture. Lacey Phillabaum and Jennifer Kolar pleaded guilty to the attack in 2006. Bill Rodgers, who was "considered to be one of the top organizers of the ELF and a hands-on participant who allegedly help set the fire bombs inside the UW horticulture center," later commits suicide in an Arizona jail. Justin Solondz, who allegedly helped assemble the fire bombs and joined Rodgers in setting them is now a fugitive. Briana Waters, a student at The Evergreen State College at the time of the bombing, was convicted in 2008 and sentenced to six years in prison.
2002
January 26, 2002, St. Paul, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Microbial and Plant Genomics Research Center soil testing lab and construction trailer burned down, construction equipment, including a bulldozer damaged, $630,000 damages. Claimed by ELF.
January 29, 2002, Fairfield, Maine: ELF announced they had sabotaged a "Biotech Park" in a communiqué that read:
February 12, 2002, Washington D.C.: FBI testimony before the House Ecoterror Hearing.
Domestic terrorism is the unlawful use, or threatened use, of violence by a group or individual based and operating entirely within the United States (or its territories) without foreign direction, committed against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives...During the past several years, special interest extremism, as characterized by the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), has emerged as a serious terrorist threat. The FBI estimates that the ALF/ELF have committed more than 600 criminal acts in the United States since 1996, resulting in damages in excess of 43 million dollars.
March 24, 2002, Erie, Pennsylvania: Hundreds of trees spiked in Wintergreen Gorge, crane, generators and pumps torched, other equipment monkey wrenched, $500,000 damages Claimed by ELF.
May 12, 2002, Harbor Creek, Pennsylvania: 200 mink released from Mindek mink farm Claimed by ALF and ELF.
August 11, 2002, Irvine, Pennsylvania: A device, containing gasoline, was thrown onto the roof of the Northeast Research Station in the Allegheny National Forest. The ensuing fire caused nearly $700,000 in damages. An e-mail from ELF's office said:
While innocent life will never be harmed in any action we undertake, where it is necessary, we will no longer hesitate to pick up the gun to implement justice, and provide the needed protection for our planet that decades of legal battles, pleading protest, and economic sabotage have failed so drastically to achieve.
and that
all other US Forest Services administration and research facilities, as well as all Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) buildings nationwide should now be considered likely targets.
September 2002, Harbor Creek, Pennsylvania: more than 50 mink released Mindek mink farm Claimed by ALF and ELF.
September 28, 2002, Richmond, Virginia: 25 windows etched at 1 Burger King and 13 windows etched at each of 2 McDonald's Claimed by ELF.
November 1, 2002, Richmond, Virginia: Vandals who left messages crediting ELF damaged SUVs in several incidents recently. Twenty-five SUVs on the lot of a Ford dealer were permanently defaced with a glass-etching cream. A week later, SUVs parked near homes were severely damaged with an ax or hatchet. Vandalism and attempted arson have also been reported recently at highway and home construction sites in the area.
December 28, 2002, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ELF activists attacked a housing development, severely damaging construction vehicles and the model home on the property.
2003
January 1, 2003, Girard, Pennsylvania: Jugs of gasoline were set under three vehicles at Bob Ferrando Ford Lincoln Mercury and set ablaze. Two pickup trucks, one Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV) and a car were destroyed causing $90,000 in damages. Steve Dartnell of Fairview Pennsylvania claimed responsibility for the attack.
January 20, 2003, Seattle, Washington: Arson at a McDonald's caused $5000 worth of damage. In September, 2005, Christopher W. McIntosh of Maple Shade, NJ, admitted he set the fire by pouring several gallons of gasoline on the roof on behalf of ALF-ELF. In an anonymous phone call he said:
[t]here was an E-L-F-A-L-F hit at McDonald's across from the Space Needle. There will be more. ... As long as Mother Earth is pillaged, raped, destroyed. As long as McDonald's keeps hurting our furry brothers, there will be more.
He was sentenced to eight years in prison.
March 21, 2003, Superior Township, Michigan: Two luxury homes set on fire in a Superior Township housing development in an action against urban sprawl. Claimed by the ELF. Damages estimated at $400,000.
March 28, 2003, Montgomery, Alabama: Five government vehicles were vandalized and one truck was set on fire at a Naval Recruitment Headquarters in Montgomery, Alabama. The ELF claimed responsibility for the attacks both in a communiqué and by spray-painting their initials at the scene. Messages that read, "Stop the War," "Stop killing" and "Leave Iraq" were also found along with the ELF initials.
April 8, 2003, Santa Cruz, California: The ELF claims responsibility for vandalizing 65 SUVs, including about twenty private vehicles as well forty at the North Bay Ford and Lincoln Mercury car dealership. Messages are spray-painted on the vehicles denouncing the war in Iraq.
April 15, 2003, Santa Cruz, California: ELF activists attack 15 SUVs with bright orange paint, and in an ELF press release, complain that the local paper did not cover the story.
June 3, 2003, Chico, California: ELF claims the attempted arson of a new home. The fire burns through a PVC pipe holding water, dousing the flames so the damage was minimal, about $100. "Save our bio-region ELF" is painted on the sidewalk.
June 4, 2003, Macomb County, Michigan: ELF sets fire to two luxury homes in a Macomb County housing development in an action against urban sprawl. "ELF" and "Stop sprawl" are spray painted on nearby construction equipment. Damages estimated at $700,000.
June 5, 2003, Chico, California: An arson attempt is made at a shopping center under construction. Workers find remnants of several small fires, and ELF spray-painted on the door of a work truck at the site. The FBI explores connections with arson attempts at two McDonald's in March, and SUVs in May, in Chico.
June 14, 2003, Santa Cruz, California: Environmental activists scratch the slogan ELF into ten new SUVs, causing $15,000 worth of damage.
July 2, 2003, South Windsor, Connecticut: Signs of the Earth Liberation Front, "ELF" and "no sprawl," are spray-painted on a newly completed. An unidentified man called police and said the graffiti was done by an ELF activist.
August 1, 2003, San Diego, California: A 206-unit condominium being built is burnt down causing damage in excess of $50 million. A banner at the scene reads "If you build it, we will burn it," signed, "The E.L.F.s are mad."
August 22, 2003, West Covina, California: The ELF attacks several car dealerships in east suburban Los Angeles, burning down a warehouse and vandalizing several cars, with such phrases as "I love pollution" written on the cars. All told, more 125 SUVs and Hummers, which were targeted due to their lower than average fuel efficiency, are damaged or destroyed causing $2.3 million in damages.
August 29, 2003, Fairbanks, Alaska: ELF spray-paints concrete walls and construction equipment at a Wal-Mart construction site.
September 4, 2003, Santa Fe, New Mexico: ELF action against SUV dealer in New Mexico - SUVS spray-painted with messages naming the seven deadly sins. 1/3 of the dealership's stock was marked, leaving thousands of dollars in damages.
September 12, 2003: Federal agents arrest Pomona, California resident Joshua Thomas Connole in connection with the August 22nd 2003 Los Angeles area arsons. He was soon released due to lack of evidence. The FBI later awards Connole $100,000 and agrees to give him an apology after he files a lawsuit against the agency.
September 19, 2003, San Diego, California: ELF action against urban sprawl at three separate construction sites in the upscale Carmel Valley neighborhood of San Diego, causing an estimated $1 million in damages. Four unfinished houses were destroyed, two others were damaged and a condominium under construction sustained minor damage. A banner at the site of the first fires read, "Development = destruction. Stop raping nature. The ELFs are mad."
September 22, 2003, Martiny, Michigan: The ELF claims responsibility for planting plastic bottles containing flammable liquid at an Ice Mountain Spring Water Company (a subsidiary of Nestle) pumping station. The devices are apparently intended to start a fire at the premises but are discovered by maintenance workers before they are set ablaze. In a written statement, the ELF stated:
We will no longer stand idly be while corporations profit at the expense of all others. To this end, we have taken action against one of the pumping stations that Perrier uses to steal water… Clean water is one of the most fundamental necessities and no one can be allowed to privatize it, commodify it, and try and sell it back to us.
Two months later a judge orders the company to halt pumping water from the wells. Nestle had been removing 200 gallons of water from the ground per minute and was lowering the water table.
October 6, 2003, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico: Construction equipment belonging to the US Forest has electrical wires cut, tires cut and windows broken by ELF.
October (mid), 2003; Portland, Maine: The Acadian Green Brigade of the ELF slashes the tires of 8 Boise Cascade delivery trucks and two trailers, glued locks and painted slogans across the building's main entrance.
October 24, 2003, Martinsville, Indiana: ELF activists sabotage a Wal-Mart construction site. Survey stakes are removed, and walls and machinery spray-painted. Over a dozen pieces of heavy machinery and vehicles are vandalized, with slashed tires, cut fuel hoses, and sand poured in fuel tanks.
2004
January 22, 2004, Fayetteville, Arkansas: Five Hummer SUVs are vandalized. The letters ELF are spray-painted on the vehicles, tires are slashed and windows broken.
February 7, 2004, Charlottesville, Virginia: The ELF sets fire to a bulldozer and causes damage to other equipment that is parked off Route 29. This site is to be developed into a retail, commercial and residential community. On their website, the ELF writes that the site was "targeted as part of the ELF's ongoing actions against large-scale developments going up at the expense of what little green space is left in North America." A banner left on the site read "Your construction = long term destruction - ELF" The action causes over $30,000 in damages.
February 17, 2004, North Lima, Ohio: Vandals break windows in a construction trailer, spray a fire extinguisher and scratch the initials "ELF" on the side of a piece of construction equipment at the construction site of a new showroom for a fireworks company.
April 20, 2004, Snohomish, Washington: Two homes are destroyed and attempts are made to burn two others at a housing development. A note found at the site of one of the fires is signed "ELF" and reportedly contains statements condemning suburban developments. As well, bottles of flammable liquid are found at two different housing development sites in the area. The action causes an estimated $1 million in damages.
July 30, 2004, Charlotte, North Carolina: Activists vandalize a fleet of utility trucks owned by Utiliquest, a utility contractor. All the trucks are marked with "ELF" and all have their tires slashed.
August 3, 2004, Spokane, Washington: A fire heavily damages one $55,000 Hummer SUV and nearly burns two others at the George Gee Hummer dealership. One H2 Hummer has its windows broken and is spray painted with messages that oppose the Iraq war and President Bush. An e-mail sent to local media outlets claims credit for the Eastern Washington Chapter of the Earth Liberation Front.
December 27, 2004, Lincoln, California: Incendiary devises are located in three houses under construction at the Verdera Models construction site on Flores Court in the Twelve Bridges development. Graffiti is discovered on another house under construction in the same development. The graffiti found at the scene includes notations such as "Enjoy the world as is - as long as you can", "U will pay", "Evasion", "4 Q" and "Leave". This house also sustains broken windows. The letters "ELF" are printed in the cul-de-sac where these homes are located. Across the street from this house a tractor is vandalized with the notation "Disarm or die".
2005
January 12, 2005, Auburn, California: Five un-ignited incendiary devices are discovered in a commercial building under construction that, upon completion, were to be rented as doctor's offices. A letter claiming responsibility for "the actions taken in Placer County (CA)" is received by several media outlets. The return address on the letter indicates it was from "Emma Goldman." Emma Goldman is a major figure in the history of anarchism.
February 7, 2005, Sutter Creek, California: The ELF sets fire to the new Pinewoods apartment complex, about east of Sacramento. Sutter Creek Chief of Police Robert Duke says "there were seven individual fires and some kind of incendiary device with very, very crude triggering mechanisms." graffiti found near the fire reads: "We will win -- ELF."
March 6, 2005, Fair Oaks, California: Three vehicles – two full-size pickup trucks and a Ford Expedition – are spray-painted with the initials "ELF," and their rear license plates are painted over. A total of at least seven SUVs are vandalized in the Sacramento area during the week.
April 13, 2005, Sammamish, Washington: ELF partially burns down one of two buildings it targeted in a King County, Washington development. David Ammon, a developer whose property was burned, had planned on constructing two more homes in the area. Police discover an incendiary device which had failed to ignite in a second house nearby along with a sheet condemning the rape of the Earth, clearing of trees, and claiming responsibility on behalf of ELF. It reads, "Where are all the trees? Burn, rapist, burn. E.L.F" The homes targeted are new ones located in a golf course subdivision.
May 17, 2005, Fair Oaks, California: Several SUVs and trucks are spray-painted with "ELF" and "polluter", and many also have their tires slashed. A short distance away, the words "bomb the White House" are found spray-painted on a real estate sign. FBI, Secret Service, and a joint terrorism task force are investigating, and trying to find out if the two attacks are related.
July 27, 2005 Whatcom County, Washington: Arsonists damage two homes under construction. The first causes $100,000 in damages. The second, a few days later, completely destroys another home being built in the area. ELF has taken credit for other arsons in the area earlier in the year that police are investigating.
September 11, 2005, West Old Town, Maine: The ELF vandalizes at least a dozen large machines at the West Old Town Landfill. The machines had their ignitions ripped out, or superglue poured into them, tires were slashed, two buildings and many vehicles were spray painted, and the fuel in the equipments' tanks may have been tampered with. Officials say the damage will cost tens of thousands of dollars to repair.
October 3, 2005, Bozeman, Montana: U.S. - A construction site owned by the Kenyon Noble lumber company is vandalized by the Earth Liberation Front causing about $3000 in damage.
November 19, 2005, Hagerstown, Maryland: ELF claims responsibility for setting four fires in newly constructed unoccupied homes built by the McLean, Virginia Ryan Homes in the Hager's Crossing subdivision. One building is burned to the ground but the other three sustain less serious damage. The developer estimated the damage at more than $300,000.
Credit for the arson is claimed via an e-mail originating from the e-mail address [email protected]. Treebeard is the name of a giant shepherd, one of a race called the Ents, in J.R.R. Tolkien's cult fantasy novel "The Two Towers." The message reads:
Last night we, the Earth Liberation Front, put the torch to a development of Ryan Homes in Hagerstown, Maryland (off Route 40, behind the Wal-Mart). We did so to strike at the bottom line of this country's most notorious serial land rapist...We warn all developers that the people of the Earth are prepared to defend what remains of the wild and the green...We encourage all who watch with sadness while developers sell out the future of us and our children to join us in resisting them in any and every possible way...The Ents are going to war.
November 25, 2005, Bothell, Washington: Two pieces of construction equipment are destroyed by fire, causing more than $100,000 in damage.
November 29, 2005, Bothell, Washington: One piece of construction equipment is destroyed by fire.
December 14, 2005, Kenmore, Washington: Two pieces of excavation equipment are burned overnight at a housing development, causing around $180,000 in damage. Apparently this is the second fire at this construction site since November. The earlier fire caused $50,000 in damage.
December 16, 2005, Valley Springs, California: A window is broken and the letters E-L-F were spray-painted on the garage door of a partially constructed home. There is considerable opposition to new development and the required re-zoning in rural Calaveras County, where Valley Springs is located.
2006
January 17, 2006, Camano Island, Washington: ELF burns down a nearly completed , $3 million, trophy house. Investigators say that someone spray-painted a threatening message on a pink bedsheet and draped it across the front gate.
January 31, 2006, Guelph, Ontario, Canada: A fire destroys a partially constructed home. ELF claims credit for the blaze a few days later, in an email in which the group explains that the fire had been "A STRIKE AGAINST DEVELOPERS, FOR THE LOCAL COMMUNITY" and that it was done "in the memory of William C. Rodgers 'Avalon'."
March 11, 2006, Salem, Oregon: Three newly constructed upscale homes are vandalized with pro-environmental slogans which read: "Quit building ant farms," "E.L.F.," "Rent is theft," "Viva E.L.F." and "Don't kill my air." Additionally, a window is broken. According to authorities, this is the second time within the past two years that ELF vandals struck in this neighborhood.
June 27, 2006, Guelph, Ontario, Canada: A fire destroys a partially constructed home at 75 Summit Ridge, in view of the old Eastview Road landfill site. It caused about $200,000 of damage. ELF claims credit for the blaze a few days latter in an email which includes anti-development slogans.
2008
March 3, 2008, Street of Dreams, Washington: ELF is the primary suspect for the intentional destruction, by using explosive devices, set fire to four multimillion-dollar homes from the 2007 Seattle Street of Dreams in Woodinville, Washington, costing $7 million in damage. Authorities describe the act as "domestic terrorism" after finding the initials of the Earth Liberation Front spray-painted in red letters, mocking claims that the homes were environmentally friendly: "Built Green? Nope black! McMansions in RCDs r not green. ELF."
Tuesday the 25th to Friday the 28th of November, Mexico City, Mexico: a group calling itself eco-anarquista por el ataque directo (Eco-anarchist cell for direct attack) claimed responsibility for a number of recent actions, including: half a dozen Molotov cocktails thrown at tren férreo (metro rail) in Mexico City, Incendiary sabotage against Telmex, a Molotov cocktail thrown at a Banamex ATM. These attacks were claimed to have taken place "as a form of 'protest' against the construction of a new rail line (line 12), in Mexico City (D.F.) and Mexico State; already because of its construction many trees were cut down, entire families evicted and land expropriated with large hectares of green areas subsequently deforested."
2009
January 29, Mexico City, Mexico: The Frente de Liberación de la Tierra (ELF) claimed responsibility for setting a fire within the College of Sciences and Humanities at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) along with setting fire to and destroying a construction crane. this was in response to the university building upon an ecological reserve.
March 22, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico: Frente de Liberación de la Tierra (ELF) set fire to construction equipment and broke windows of a local bank.
September 4, Everett, Washington: The ELF claims responsibility for the destruction of two broadcasting towers used by the local radio station KRKO.
See also
Timeline of Animal Liberation Front actions
ELF and ALF cooperation
References
External links
Partial list of ELF Direct actions 1996-2003. Do or Die journal
List and analysis of ELF actions in earth liberation movement magazine, Resistance
Earth Liberation Front
Animal Liberation Front
Earth Liberation Front Actions
Earth Liberation Front
Eco-terrorism |
4067532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani%20grammar | Hindustani grammar | Hindustani, the lingua franca of Northern India and Pakistan, has two standardised registers: Hindi and Urdu. Grammatical differences between the two standards are minor but each uses its own script: Hindi uses Devanagari while Urdu uses an extended form of the Perso-Arabic script, typically in the Nastaʿlīq style.
On this grammar page, Hindustani is written in the transcription outlined in . Being "primarily a system of transliteration from the Indian scripts, [and] based in turn upon Sanskrit" (cf. IAST), these are its salient features: subscript dots for retroflex consonants; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels; h for aspirated plosives; and tildes for nasalised vowels.
Phonology
The sounds presented in parentheses in the tables below signify they are only found in loanwords from either Persian or Sanskrit. More information about phonology of Hindustani can be read on Hindustani phonology and IPA/Hindi and Urdu.
Vowels
Hindustani natively possesses a symmetrical ten-vowel system. The vowels [ə], [ɪ], [ʊ] are always short in length, while the vowels [ɑː], [iː], [uː], [eː], [oː], [ɛː], [ɔː] are always considered long, in addition to an eleventh vowel /æː/ which is found in English loanwords.
Vowel and
occurs as a conditional allophone of (schwa) in proximity to , if and only if the is surrounded on both sides by two schwas. and is realised as separate vowel. For example, in ( – 'to say'), the is surrounded on both sides by schwa, hence both the schwas will become fronted to short , giving the pronunciation . Syncopation of phonemic middle schwa can further occur to give .
Similarly, occurs as a conditional allophone of and in proximity to , specifically when they occur in the sequence , pronounced . For example, the word ( – 'many') is pronounced .
Consonants
Hindustani has a core set of 28 consonants inherited from earlier Indo-Aryan. Supplementing these are two consonants that are internal developments in specific word-medial contexts, and seven consonants originally found in loan words, whose expression is dependent on factors such as status (class, education, etc.) and cultural register (Modern Standard Hindi vs Urdu).
Allophony of and
and are allophones in Hindustani. These are distinct phonemes in English, but both are allophones of the phoneme in Hindustani (written in Hindi or in Urdu), including loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin. More specifically, they are conditional allophones, i.e. rules apply on whether is pronounced as or depending on context. Native Hindi speakers pronounce as in ( – , 'vow') and in ( – 'food dish'), treating them as a single phoneme and without being aware of the allophonic distinctions, though these are apparent to native English speakers. The rule is that the consonant is pronounced as semivowel in onglide position, i.e. between an onset consonant and a following vowel.
Consonants and vowels are outlined in the table below. Hovering the mouse cursor over them will reveal the appropriate IPA information, while in the rest of the article hovering the mouse cursor over forms will reveal the appropriate English translation.
Morphology
Nouns
Hindustani distinguishes two genders (masculine and feminine), two noun types (count and non-count), two numbers (singular and plural), and three cases (nominative, oblique, and vocative). Nouns may be further divided into two classes based on declension, called type-I, type-II, and type-III. The basic difference between the two categories is that the former two have characteristic terminations in the nominative singular while the latter does not.
The table below displays the suffix paradigms. A hyphen symbol (for the marked type-I) denotes change from the original termination to another (for example laṛkā to laṛke in the masculine singular oblique), whereas a plus sign (for the unmarked type-II) denotes an ending which should be added (seb to sebõ in the masculine plural oblique). -Ø denotes that no suffix is added to the noun stem. The next table of noun declensions shows the above noun case paradigms in action.
Notesː
The semi-consonant -y- is added after the noun stem before adding the declension suffix in the plural declension when the noun stem ends in a vowel.
A small number of marked masculine nouns like kuā̃ display nasalization of all terminations.
Some masculine nouns (which refer to family relations) ending in -ā do not change in the nominative plural and fall in the unmarked category. i.e. pāpā "father", vālid "father", cācā "uncle", rājā "king".
Unmarked nouns ending in -ū and -ī generally shorten this to -u and -i before the oblique (and vocative) plural terminations, with the latter also inserting the semivowel y.
Many feminine Sanskrit loanwords such as bhāṣā ('language') and mātā (mother) end in -ā, therefore the ending -ā is not always a reliable indicator of noun gender.
In Urdu, many Arabic words may retain their original dual and plural markings in Urdu. i.e. vālid "father" → vālidain "parents".
The -iyā ending is also not always a reliable indicator of gender or noun type.Some words such as pahiyā ('wheel') and Persian takiyā ('pillow') are masculine type-I: ('wheels'), takiye ('pillows').Feminine loanwords such as Arabic duniyā ('world') and Sanskrit kriyā ('action') use feminine type-II endings: duniyāẽ ('worlds'), kriyāẽ ('actions').
Perso-Arabic loans ending in final unpronounced -h are handled as masculine marked nouns. Hence → . The former is the Urdu spelling, the latter the Hindi. The pronunciation is in both cases.
Adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into declinable and indeclinable categories. Declinables are marked, through termination, for the gender, number, case of the nouns they qualify. The set of declinable adjective terminations is similar but greatly simplified in comparison to that of noun terminations. Indeclinable adjectives are completely invariable, and can end in either consonants or vowels (including ā and ī ). A number of declinables display nasalisation of all terminations. Nominative masculine singular form (-ā) is the citation form.
All adjectives can be used either attributively, predicatively, or substantively. Substantively they are declined as nouns rather than adjectives. The semblative postposition sā is used with adjectives for modifying or lightening their meaning; giving them an "-ish", "-esque", "like", or "quite" sense. e.g. nīlā "blue" → nīlā sā "bluish". Its emphasis is rather ambiguous, sometimes enhancing, sometimes toning down, the sense of the adjective.
Examples of declinable (type-I) adjectives: baṛā "big", choṭā "small", acchā "good", burā "bad", kālā "black", ṭhanḍā "cold"..
Examples of declinable (type-II) adjectives: dāyā̃ "right (direction)", bāyā̃ "left (direction)".
Examples of indeclinable adjectives: xarāb "bad", sāf "clean", bhārī "heavy", murdā "dead", sundar "beautiful", pāgal "crazy/mad", lāl "red".
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparisons are made by using the instrumental postposition se (see below) the noun takes the oblique case and the combination of "noun + postposition" gets the instrumental case, and words like aur, zyādā ("more") and kam ("less") are added for relative comparisons. The word for "more" (zyādā) is optional, while "less" (kam) is required, so that in the absence of either, "more" will be inferred.
In the absence of an object of comparison the word for "more" is now no longer optional:
Superlatives are made through comparisons with sab ("all") with the instrumental postposition se as the suffix. Comparisons using "least" are rare; it is more common to use an antonym.
In Sanskritised and Persianised registers of Hindustani, comparative and superlative adjectival forms using suffixes derived from those languages can be found.
Numerals
The numeral systems of several of the Indo-Aryan languages, including Hindustani and Nepali, are typical decimal systems, but contracted to the extent that nearly every number 1–99 is irregular. The first four, and sixth, ordinal numbers are also irregular. The suffix -vā̃ marks ordinals five and seven onwards. The ordinals decline in the same way as the declinable adjectives. The suffix -gunā (translates as "times" as in multiplying) marks the multipliers which for the first three multipliers changes the numeral root. The collective forms of numerals take the same form as the oblique plural case for masculine nouns. They are formed by adding the suffix -õ''. There are two types of adverbials. The first type is formed using the suffix -bārā but only for the numerals 2, 3, and 4 (but it's rarely used for 3 and even more rarely for 4). The second type of adverbial is constructed periphrastically using the quantifier bār meaning "times" (as in turns). The adverbial "dobārā" could be translated as "again" or "for a second time", similarly "tibārā" and "caubārā" mean "for a third time" and "for a fourth time" respectively. However, the periphrasatic adverbial constructions "do bār", "tīn bār" etc. translate as "two times", "three times" etc. respectively.
H = Hindi; U = Urdu
Postpositions
The aforementioned inflectional case system only goes so far on its own, and rather serves as that upon which is built a system of agglutinative suffixes or particles known as postpositions, which parallel English's prepositions. It is their use with a noun or verb that necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case (though the bare oblique is also sometimes used adverbially), and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies. There are eight such "one-word" primary case-marking postpositions.
Primary postpositions
Out of these 8 postpositions, the genitive and semblative postpositions kā & sā decline to agree with the gender, number, and case of the object it shows possession of and the object whose semblance is described.
For some verbs like bolnā (to speak/say), the speaker can use both the instrumental marker se and the accusative/dative marker ko. For example, rāhul se bolo and rāhul ko bolo both translate to the same "Say it to Rahul.". However, the nuance expressed by both are different, instrumental marker se has a softer tone to it. rāhul se bolo is more like a suggestion in form of an imperative while rāhul ko bolo is an order.
Beyond the list above, there are a large range of compound postpositions, constructed majoritarily from the genitive marker kā (in its oblique cases ke & kī) plus an adverb. When using with pronouns, these all the compound postpositions can only be used with the genitive oblique case pronouns and the genitive kī/ke must be omitted before attaching them with the genitive oblique case.
Secondary postpositions
Some compound postpositions do not have the genitive marker as their primary postposition, such as:
Tertiary postpositions
Some other compound postpositions with two secondary postpositions (called tertiary postposition) can be constructed by adding primary postpositions to some of the compound postpositions shown above.
Pronouns
Personal and non-personal pronouns
Hindustani has personal pronouns for the first and second persons, while for the third person demonstratives are used, which can be categorised deictically as proximate and non-proximate. tū, tum, and āp are the three 2P pronouns, constituting a threefold scale of sociolinguistic formality: respectively, intimate, familiar, and formal. The 2P intimate conjugations are grammatically singular while the 2P familiar and formal conjugations are grammatically plural. For the non-personal pronouns (demonstrative, relative, and interrogative) the plural forms are also the formal forms. Pronouns in Hindustani do not distinguish gender however they distinguish the nominative, oblique, and the common accusative/dative grammatical cases. The latter-most, often called a set of contracted forms, is used synonymously with the dative/accusative pronoun constructed from the oblique case by suffixing the dative/accusative postposition ko. So, for e.g., mujhe and mujhko are synonymous dative/accusative pronouns.
The 1P and 2P pronouns (except the formal 2P pronoun āp) have their own distinctive genitive forms merā, hamārā, terā, & tumhārā unlike the non-personal pronouns whose genitive forms are constructed employing the oblique case pronoun to which the genitive postposition kā is suffixed (OBL. + kā). The personal pronouns (except the formal 2P āp) colloquially can also take the genitive oblique case before primary postpositions. So, instead of mujhe or mujhko, the periphrastic construction mere ko is fairly commonly heard as a synonym to mujhe/mujhko in colloquial speech.
To construct the ergative case pronouns, the ergative postposition ne is suffixed to the nominative case forms rather than the oblique case forms for the personal pronouns, while the demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns have unique ergative oblique case forms to which ne gets suffixed. So, rather than *mujh-ne and *tujh-ne, it's maĩ-ne and tū-ne, and for the non-personal pronouns (e.g., for demonstrative plural) it's inhõ-ne and unhõ-ne. The 1P plural and the 2P familiar pronouns also have an emphatic ergative case form which respectively are hamī̃ne and tumhī̃ne which are derived using the exclusive emphatic particle hī as ham + hī + ne and tum + hī + ne. For the rest of the personal pronouns, the inclusive emphatic particle hī must come after the pronoun in ergative case and never between the pronoun and the postposition ne. So, rather than *maĩ-hī-ne, it's periphrastically constructed as maĩne hī. As for the non-personal pronouns, both ways of constructing the emphatic forms are grammatically valid. So, for e.g. the demonstrative proximal singular emphatic pronoun isīne and isne hī are synonymous. The emphatic forms for the relative pronouns are constructed periphrastically as well, but they instead use the inclusive emphatic particle bhī. So, the emphatic form of the relative singular ergative pronoun jisne is jisne bhī meaning "whoever" and not *jis-bhī-ne, which not a valid construction.
Compound postpositions must be used with the genitive oblique cases when using them with the personal pronouns (except the 2P formal āp). So, when using the compound postposition ke andar – "inside", *mujh-ke andar and *mujh andar are grammatically invalid constructions and instead it should be mere andar – "inside me". The compound postpositions that have the primary postposition kī in place of kā must have the genitive oblique case declined to the feminine gender. So, when using the postposition kī taraf – "towards", it should be merī taraf and not *mere taraf.
Note
Postpositions are treated as bound morphemes after pronouns in Hindi, but as separate words in Urdu.
The varying forms for the demonstrative nominative case pronouns constitute one of the small number of grammatical differences between Hindi and Urdu. In Hindi, yah "this" / ye "these" / vah "that" / ve "those" are considered the literary pronoun set while in Urdu, ye "this, these" / vo "that, those" is the only pronoun set.
The above section on postpositions noted that ko (the dative/accusative case) marks direct objects if definite. As "the most specific thing of all is an individual", persons (or their pronouns) nearly always take the dative case or postposition.
It is very common practice to use plural pronouns (and their accompanying conjugation) in formal situations, thus tum can be used in the second person when referring to one person. Similarly, some speakers prefer plural ham over singular maĩ. This is usually not quite the same as the "royal we"; it is rather colloquial.
Reflexive pronouns
apnā is a (genitive) reflexive pronoun: "my/your/etc. (own)". Using non-reflexive and reflexive together gives emphasis; e.g. merā apnā "my (very) own". xud, āp, and svayam are some (nominative; non-genitive) others: "my/your/etc.-self". Bases for oblique usage are usually apne (self) or apne āp (automatically). The latter alone can also mean "of one's own accord"; āpas mẽ means "among/between oneselves".
Indefinite quantifier pronouns
koī and kuch are indefinite pronouns/quantifiers. As pronouns, koī is used for animate singular ("someone") and kuch for animate plural and inanimates ("something"). As quantifiers/adjectives koī is used for singular count nouns and kuch for mass nouns and plural count nouns. koī takes the form kisī in the oblique. The form kaī is a paucal equivalent to koī, being used in the context of "several" or "a few" things. kuch can also act as an adverb, qualifying an adjective, meaning "rather". koī preceding a number takes the meaning of "about, approximately". In this usage it does not oblique to kisī.
Adverbial pronouns
Note:
The feminine plural forms are commonly used as singular respect forms and the feminine singular forms often are used interchangeably with the feminine plural forms.
The declension pattern followed is the same as how genitive pronouns and postpositions decline.
Emphatic pronouns
Emphatic pronouns of Hindustani are formed by combining the exclusive emphatic particle hī or the inclusive emphatic particle bhī (with the interrogatory and relative pronouns respectively) and the pronoun in their regular oblique and nominative case. Usually, combining the emphatic particles and the pronouns with end with the consonant -h form a new set of emphatic nominative case and emphatic oblique case pronouns. The rest of the pronouns can also be combined with the exclusive emphatic particle but they do not form true pronouns, but simply add the emphatic particle as an adposition after them. The Relative and Interrogatory pronouns can only take the inclusive emphatic particle bhī as an adposition and never the exclusive emphatic particle hī.
Adverbs
Hindustani has few underived forms. Adverbs may be derived in ways such as the following —
Simply obliquing some nouns and adjectives:
nīcā "low" → nīce "down"
sīdhā "straight" → sīdhe "straight"
dhīrā "slow" → dhīre "slowly"
saverā "morning" → savere "in the morning"
ye taraf "this direction" → is taraf "in this direction/this way"
kolkātā "Calcutta" → kolkāte "to Calcutta".
Nouns using the instrumental marker se "by, with, -ly":
zor "force" → zor se "forcefully" (lit. "with force")
dhyān "attention" → dhyān se "attentively" (lit. "with attention")
Adjectives using post-positional phrases involving "way, manner":
acchā "good" → acche se "well" (lit. "by/in a good way")
xās "special" → xās taur pe "especially" (lit. "on a special way")
Verbs in conjunctive form:
hãs "laugh" → hãske "laughingly" (lit. "having laughed")
meherbānī kar "do kindness" → meherbānī karke "kindly, please" (lit. "having done kindness")
Formative suffixes from Sanskrit or Perso-Arabic in higher registers of Hindi or Urdu
Skt. sambhava "possible" + → "possibly".
Ara. ittifāq "chance" + -an → ittifāqan "by chance", "coincidentally".
Verbs
Overview
The Hindustani verbal system is largely structured around a combination of aspect and tense/mood. Like the nominal system, the Hindustani verb involves successive layers of (inflectional) elements to the right of the lexical base.
Hindustani has 3 aspects: perfective, habitual, and progressive, each having overt morphological correlates. These are participle forms, inflecting for gender and number by way of a vowel termination, like adjectives. The perfective, though displaying a "number of irregularities and morphophonemic adjustments", is the simplest, being just the verb stem followed by the agreement vowel. The habitual forms from the imperfective participle; verb stem, plus -t-, then vowel. The continuous forms periphrastically through compounding (see below) with the perfective of rahnā "to stay".
The copula honā "to be" can be put into five grammatical moods: indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual and, imperative. Used both in basic predicative/existential sentences and as verbal auxiliaries to aspectual forms, these constitute the basis of tense and mood.
Non-aspectual forms include the infinitive, the imperative, and the conjunctive. Mentioned morphological conditions such as the subjunctive, "presumptive", etc. are applicable to both copula roots for auxiliary usage with aspectual forms and to non-copula roots directly for often unspecified (non-aspectual) finite forms.
Finite verbal agreement is with the nominative subject, except in the transitive perfective, where it is with the direct object, with the erstwhile subject taking the ergative construction -ne (see postpositions above). The perfective aspect thus displays split ergativity.
Tabled below on the left are the paradigms for adjectival concord (A), here only slightly different from that introduced previously: the f. pl. can nasalise under certain conditions. To the right are the paradigms for personal concord (P), used by the subjunctive.
Copula in Hindustani
All the verbs in Hindustani except the verb honā (to be) are defective and cannot be conjugated into these following moods and tenses in their non-aspectual forms (or simple aspect):
present indicative
imperfect indicative
presumptive mood
present subjunctive
The verb honā (to be) serves as the copula whose conjugations are used to form the three aspectual (or compound) forms of verbs (habitual, perfective, and progressive). In the tables below all the conjugations of the copula honā (to be) are shown on the left and all the conjugations of the verb karnā (to do) (like which all other verbs have conjugations) are shown on the right.
1 the pronouns tum and āp can be used in both singular and plural sense by adding plural indicator words like sab (all) and log (people), akin to the English pronouns you and y'all.
2 the contrafactual mood serves as both the past subjunctive and the past conditional mood.
Compound tenses
Periphrastic Hindustani verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements is the aspect marker. The second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker.
Mood & aspects
Hindustani has three aspects, Habitual aspect, Perfective Aspect and the Progressive Aspect. To construct the progressive aspect and forms, Hindustani makes use of the progressive participle rahā which is derived from the verb rahnā ("to stay" or "to remain"). Unlike English and many other Indo-European languages, Hindustani does differentiate between Continuous and the Progressive aspects. So, for e.g. the sentence "maĩ śarṭ pahan rahā hū̃" will always translate as "I am (in the process) of wearing a shirt." and it can never be used to mean "I am (already) wearing a shirt.". In English, however, "I am wearing a shirt." can be used to mean both the idea of progressive action and a continuous action. To convey the continuous state of an action the perfective adjectival participle is employed. So, "I am (already) wearing a shirt." translates into Hindustani as "maĩ śarṭ pahnā huā hū̃." All the personal compound forms of the verb karnā (to do) in all three aspects and all the grammatical moods are shown in the table below:
{|
|
|-
|1 the pronouns tum and āp can be used in both singular and plural sense, akin to the English pronoun you.
|-
|2 the habitual aspect of Hindustani cannot be put into future tense.
|-
|3 the perfective aspect behaves ergatively, agreeing with the object of the sentence. However, if the object is marked with the postposition ko, the noun is placed in the third-person masculine singular. As personal object pronouns are always marked with ko, there are no personal perfective forms.
|-
|4 unlike English in which both the continuous and the progressive aspect have the same forms, the progressive aspect of Hindustani cannot convey the continuous aspect.|}
Different copulas
The habitual, progressive, and imperfect aspectual participles can be used with copulas other than honā (to be) such as rahnā (to stay), ānā (to come), jānā (to go). These copulas can be converted into their participle forms and can be conjugated to form personal compound aspectual forms. Each of the four copulas provides a unique nuance to the aspect.
Participles
The participle forms of any verb is constructed by adding suffixes to the verb root. The participle forms of the verb karnā (to do) are shown in the tables below:
Verb forms
A summary of all verb forms is given in the tables below. The sample verb is intransitive dauṛnā "to run", and the sample inflection is 3rd. masc. sg. (P = e, A = ā) where applicable.
Notes
Much of the above chart information derives from .
The future tense is formed by adding the suffix gā (~ ge ~ gī) to the subjunctive, which is a contraction of gaā (= gayā, perfective participle of jānā "to go"). The future suffix, conjunctive participle, and suffix vālā are treated as bound morphemes in written Hindi, but as separate words in written Urdu.
The present copula () seems not to follow along the lines of the regular P system of terminations; while the subjunctive copula () is thoroughly irregular. So here are all of their forms.
For the 1. subj. sg. copula and list hū̃ while lists hoū̃.
lists the formal imperative ending as -iye, while lists it as -ie but -iye after ā, o, ū.
The euphonic glide y is inserted in perfective participles between prohibited vowel clusters. It is historically the remnant of the old perfective marker. The clusters are a + ā, ā + ā, o + ā, and ī + ā, resulting in āyā, ayā, oyā, iyā. e.g. khāyā/khāye/khāyī/khāyī̃ (khā- "eat").
In addition, the combinations ī + ī and i + ī give ī. e.g. piyā/piye/pī/pī̃ (pī- "drink").
As stated, agreement in the transitive perfective is with the direct object, with the erstwhile subject taking the ergative postposition ne. If however the direct object takes the postposition ko (marking definiteness), or if no direct object is expressed, then agreement neutralises to default m. sg. -ā.
In this regard, there are a small number of verbs that while perhaps logically transitive still do not take ne and continue to agree with the subject, in the perfective. e.g. lānā "to bring", bhūlnā "to forget", milnā "to meet", etc.
Besides supplying the copulas, honā "to be" can be used aspectually: huā "happened, became"; hotā "happens, becomes, is"; ho rahā "happening, being".-ke can be used as a colloquial alternative to -kar for the conjunctive participle of any verb.
Hindustani displays a very small number of irregular forms, spelled out in the cells below. Historically, there were many more irregular forms (e.g. muā for marnā 'to die') but most have been regularised. Notably, some dialects regularise the perfective of karnā to karā and the formal imperative of kijiye to kariye.
The irregular forms are underlined in the above table.
There are two subjunctive stems for the verb honā, one being regular and the other being irregular. The regular set is the future subjunctive forms and the regular ones are the as the present subjunctive forms. honā is the only verb in Hindi to have distinct forms for the future and the present subjunctive, for all other forms there is one common subjunctive form which is used as both the present and the future subjunctive.
However, it is jā- that is used as the perfective stem in the rare instance of an intransitive verb like jānā being expressed passively, such as in a passivized imperative/subjunctive construction: ghar jāyā jāye? "Shall [we] go home?" (lit. "Shall home be gone to [by us]?").
Set of related verbs
Transitives are morphologically contrastive in Hindustani, leading to the existence of related verb sets divisible along such lines. While the derivation of such forms shows patterns, they do reach a level of variegation so as to make it somewhat difficult to outline all-encompassing rules. Furthermore, some sets may have as many as four to five distinct members; also, the meaning of certain members of given sets may be idiosyncratic.
These below are the verb forms that a verb in Hindi can have —
Intransitive
Involitional — these are actions that cannot be done intentionally.
Dative — these involitional verbs require the subject to be in the dative case.
Non-dative — these verbs require the verb to be in the nominative case.
Volitional — these are actions that can be intentionally done.
Ergative — these verbs can take in the ergative case (the subject can be in the ergative case).
Non-ergative — these verbs cannot take in the ergative case (the subject can only be in the nominative case).
Transitive
Direct — the subject themselves experiences the action but the subject and the object are not the same
Indirect — the subject imparts the action onto the object, the object is the experiencer of the action, it is usually translated into English as "to make (someone/something) verb"
Reflexive — the verb does action on the subject itself, the doer and experiencer of the action is the same subject
Causative — the subject causes the action to happen. Translationː "to cause to be verbed", the agent takes the instrumental postposition se. Thus Y se Z banvānā = "to cause Z to be made by Y" = "to cause Y to make Z" = "to have Z made by Y" = "to have Y make Z", etc.
Starting from direct transitive verb forms, the other verb stems i.e., intransitive, causative, reflexive, indirect stems are produced according to these following (not exhaustive) assorted rulesSnell & Weightman (1989ː pg. 243–244) —
Root vowel changeː
a → ā u / ū → o i / ī → e Sometimes the root vowel change accompanies the root's final consonant changeː
k → c ṭ → r̥ l → Ø Suffixation of -ā to form the indirect or reflexive formː
Root vowel changeː ū/o → u; e/ai/ā/ī → i Insertion of semivowel l between such vowel-terminating stems
Suffixation of -vā (in place of -ā where it would occur) to form the causative verb stem
Light verbs
Compound verbs, a highly visible feature of Hindi–Urdu grammar, consist of a verbal stem plus a light verb. The light verb (also called "subsidiary", "explicator verb", and "vector") loses its own independent meaning and instead "lends a certain shade of meaning" to the main or stem verb, which "comprises the lexical core of the compound". While almost any verb can act as a main verb, there is a limited set of productive light verbs. Shown below are prominent such light verbs, with their independent meaning first outlined, followed by their semantic contribution as auxiliaries. Finally, having to do with the manner of an occurrence, compounds verbs are mostly used with completed actions and imperatives, and much less with negatives, conjunctives, and contexts continuous or speculative. This is because non-occurrences cannot be described to have occurred in a particular manner. The auxiliaries when combined with the main verb provides an aspectual sense to the main verb it modifies. Light verbs such as jānā "to go", ānā "to come", cuknā when combined with the main verb give the formed compound verb a perfective aspect, while retaining the original meaning of the main verb.
The first three light verbs in the above table are the most common of auxiliaries, and the "least marked", or "lexically nearly colourless". The nuance conveyed by an auxiliary can often be very subtle, and need not always be expressed with different words in English translation. lenā and denā, transitive verbs, occur with transitives, while intransitive jānā occurs mostly with intransitives; a compound of a transitive and jānā will be grammatically intransitive as jānā is.
Finally, having to do with the manner of an occurrence, compounds verbs are mostly used with completed actions and imperatives, and much less with negatives, conjunctives, and contexts continuous or speculative. This is because non-occurrences cannot be described to have occurred in a particular manner.
Conjuncts
Another notable aspect of Hindi–Urdu grammar is that of "conjunct verbs", composed of a noun or adjective paired up with a general verbaliser, most commonly transitive karnā "to do" or intransitive honā "to be", "to happen", functioning in the place of what in English would be single unified verb. All conjunct verbs formed using karnā are transitive verbs and all conjunct verbs formed using the verb honā are intransitive verbs.
In the case of an adjective as the non-verbal element, it is often helps to think of karnā "to do" as supplementarily having the senses of "to cause to be", "to make", "to render", etc.
In the case of a noun as the non-verbal element, it is treated syntactically as the verb's (direct) object (never taking the ko marker; governing agreement in perfective and infinitival constructions), and the semantic patient (or agent: see gālī khānā below) of the conjunct verbal expression is often expressed/marked syntactically as a genitive postposition (-kā ~ ke ~ kī) of the noun.
With English it is the verb stems themselves that are used. All English loan words are used by forming compound verbs in Hindi by using either honā (intransitive) or karnā (transitive).
Passive
The passive construction is periphrastic. It is formed from the perfective participle by addition of the auxiliary jānā "to go"; i.e. likhnā "to write" → likhā jānā "to be written". The agent is marked by the instrumental postposition se. Furthermore, both intransitive and transitive verbs may be grammatically passivized to show physical/psychological incapacity, usually in negative sentences. Lastly, intransitives often have a passive sense, or convey unintentional action.
Syntax
Word order
Hindustani is a word order free language, in the sense that word order does not usually signal grammatical functions in the language. However, the unmarked word order in Hindustani is SOV. It is neither purely left- nor right-branching, and phenomena of both types can be found. The order of constituents in sentences as a whole lacks governing "hard and fast rules", and frequent deviations can be found from normative word position, describable in terms of a small number of rules, accounting for facts beyond the pale of the label of "SOV".
Subject precedes the direct object of the sentence if both the dative and the accusative case marks the objects of a sentence. Prescriptively, the relative position is fixed in order to make it unambiguous which is the direct object and which is the indirect object in the sentence as both the dative case and the accusative case is the same in Hindustani and are marked by the same postposition ko.
Attributive adjectives precede the noun they qualify by default, but can also be placed after the noun, doing that usually makes the sentence sound either more poetic or gives as stronger emphasises on the attribute that the adjective describes.
Adverbs usually can appear either before or after the verb they qualify.
Negative markers (nahī̃, na, mat) and interrogatives precede the verb by default but can also appear after it, however the position for negation can be more flexible and the negation can occur before or after the auxiliary verbs too if the sentence has an auxiliary verb. Whenever the negation comes after the verbs instead of before the verb, it always emphasises the negation. The negation can never come before a noun.
kyā ("what?") as the yes–no question marker occurs at the beginning or the end of a clause as its unmarked positions but it can be put anywhere in the sentence except before a verb, where it is instead interpreted as the interrogative meaning "what". This is frequently dropped in colloquial conversation, and instead, the last word of the question has a higher pitch.
In the example below, it is shown that all word orders make sense for simple sentences, which do not have adjectives, negations and adverbs. As a general rule, whatever information comes first in the sentence gets emphasised and the information which appears at the end of a sentence gets emphasised the least.
As long as both dative and the accusative case are not used in the sentence, the word order flexibility remains. For example, in the table below the locative and the accusative case is used in the same sentence, the word order is flexible because the markers for the locative and the accusative cases are different but in Hindustani, the marker for the accusative and the dative case are the same, which is ko for nouns and the oblique case pronouns or they have their own unique pronoun forms which are the same for dative and the accusative case.
Usage of dative/accusative noun + accusative/dative pronoun
When noun and pronoun are used together in a sentence and one is in accusative case while the other is in the dative case, there is no way to differentiate which one is which just by looking at the sentence. Usually in such cases, owing to the default word order of Hindi (which is SOV) which noun/pronoun comes earlier in the sentence becomes the subject of the sentence and what comes later becomes the object of the sentence.
Usage of dative noun + accusative noun
Nouns in Hindi are put in the dative or accusative case first having the noun in the oblique case and then by adding the postposition ko after it. However, when two nouns are used in a sentence in which one of them is in the accusative case and the other in the dative case, the sentence becomes ambiguous and stops making sense, so, to make sense of the sentence, one of the noun (which is assumed to be in the accusative case) is put into the nominative case and the other one is left as it is (in the dative case). The noun which is put into the nominative case becomes the direct object of the sentence and the other one (which is now in the Accusative case) becomes the indirect object of the sentence.
When both the nouns use the ko marker, generally, all permutations in which the nouns with the same case marker are adjacent to one another become ambiguous or convey no sense.
Removing the ko from the word sā̃p leaves it in the nominative case. Now, it acts as the direct object of the sentence and saperā becomes the indirect object of the sentence. The English translation becomes "Give the snake-charmer a snake." and when the opposite is done, the English translation of the sentence becomes "Give the snake a snake-charmer."
Usage of dative pronoun + accusative pronoun
When two pronouns are used in a sentence, all the sentences remain grammatically valid but the ambiguity of precisely telling the subject and the object of the sentence remains. However, just as we did above, converting one the pronoun into nominative case does not work for all pronouns but only for the 3rd person pronouns and doing that for any other pronoun will leave the sentence ungrammatical and without sense. The reason that this works only for the 3rd person pronoun because these are not really the "regular" 3rd person pronouns but are instead the demonstrative pronouns. Hindustani lacks the regular 3rd person pronouns and hence compensates for them by using the demonstrative pronouns.
So, the ambiguity cannot completely be removed in this case here, unless of course it is interpreted that what comes first becomes the subject of the sentence. The English translation becomes either "Give me to that/him/her/it." or "Give me that/him/her/it." depending on which pronoun appears first in the sentence.
Possession
Unlike English and many other Indo-European languages, Hindustani does not have a verb which uniquely translate to "to have" of English. Possession is reflected in Hindustani by the genitive marker kā (inflected appropriately) or the postposition ke pās ("near") and the verb honā. Possible objects of possession fall into the following four main categories in Hindustani,
Fundamental possessions: These are possessions that are of permanent nature, which one has not obtained but got naturally and cannot be owned. These include, family relations, body parts, etc.
For indicating fundamental possessions, kā appears after the subject of the possession. With personal pronouns, this requires the use of the possessive pronoun (inflected appropriately).
Non-Fundamental possessions: These are possessions that one has obtained or can be owned. These include possession of any object, living beings (including humans), etc.
For indicating non-fundamental possessions, the compound postposition ke pās (literally, "of near") is used. However, this postposition cannot ever be translated as "near", showing proximity.
Proximal possessions: These are possessions that show that someone or something has something near themselves.
For indicating proximity of the object to the subject, the double compound postposition ke pās mẽ (literally, "of near in") is used. It translates as "nearby".
Dative/Abstract possessions: These are abstract possessions such as pain, problems, issue, wanting, happiness, etc. but sometimes it can also be used to show number of children one has (gave birth to and not adopted).
For indicating dative possessions, the pronouns in their dative case or the dative postposition ko is used.
Note: The verb honā can be translated as "to be", "to have/possess", "to exist" or "to happen" depending on the context. The third person singular and plural conjugations depending on the context could also be translated as "there is" and "there are" respectively.
Note: Sometimes when talking about physical objects (including animals) both the fundamental and non-fundamental possessions are used interchangeably when the meaning conveyed in both cases does not lead to confusion. For example, mere do kutte haĩ and mere pās do kutte haĩ (both translating as, "I have two dogs.") are often used interchangeably when referring to pet dogs, with the sentence with the fundamental possession showing or having more emotional attachment. The reason these both are used interchangeably because it is a priori understood that the dogs in the context must be pet dogs. Same happens with the second example above on both the tables conveying the possession of eyes; it is understood that the eyes in the context are one's own. In the contexts where such a priori information is not immediately understood, these two types of possessions cannot be used interchangeably.
Relativisation
Rather than using relative clauses after nouns, as in English, Hindustani uses correlative clauses. In Hindustani, a correlative clause can go before or after the entire clause, the adjective, the noun, the pronoun or the verb it relativises.
Note: The relative pronoun jo can be used as both relative "what" and relative "who".
Case-marking and verb agreement
Hindustani has tripartite case-marking, which means that the subject in intransitive clauses, and the agent and the object in transitive clauses each can be marked by a distinct case form. The full set of case distinctions is however only realized in certain clause types.
In intransitive clauses, the subject is in nominative case. The verb displays agreement with the subject: depending on aspect and mood, the verb agrees in gender and number, and/or person and number.
In transitive clauses, there are three patterns:
1. Perfective clauses with animate/definite object
Fully distinctive case marking is found in perfective clauses with animate and/or definite objects. Here, the agent takes the ergative case marker ne, while the object takes the accusative case marker ko. The verb does not agree with either of the core arguments (agent and object), but is marked per default as third person masculine singular (calāyā hai).
2. Perfective clauses with inanimate/indefinite object
In perfective clauses with an indefinite object, the agent keeps the ergative case marker, but the object is in nominative case. The verb agrees with the object: the perfective form calāyī hai is marked for feminine gender, agreeing with the gender of the object gāṛī.
3. Non-perfective clauses
In all other clause types, the agent is in nominative case and triggers agreement on the verb. The object is either in nominative case or accusative case, depending on animacy/definiteness
The following table summarises the three basic case-marking and agreement types.
Differential argument marking
Hindustani, like other Indo-Aryan languages, displays differential case marking on both subjects (DSM) and objects (DOM). Diachronically, differential argument marking developed very differently for subjects and objects, but became prevalent for both in the 17th century. For subjects, it is predicate-licensed and dependent on semantics, whereas for objects it is discourse-driven.
For subjects, on top of the previously discussed split ergativity (in which perfective case verbs take the ergative ne on the subject, while other conjugations have an unmarked subject), certain modal auxiliary verbs take different case markers for their subjects.
The most notable instance of DSM is the experiencer dative subject (a type of quirky subject). Verbs indicating sensations (lagnā "to seem"), emotions (mahsūs honā "to feel"), and cognition (patā honā "to be known"), all license the dative case marker ko on their subjects. This is a cross-lingual phenomenon.
Passive subjects taking the modal auxiliary jānā 'to go', usually connoting reduced agentivity, take the instrumental se. This construction can also be used to indicate ability.
The dative ko indicates obligation or necessity. The modal honā 'to be' and paṛnā 'to fall' both take this on their subjects.
The accusative marker ko is only applied when the object is definite, similar to the distinction between the and a(n)'' in English.
Notes
See also
Urdu language
Hindi language
Hindi verbs
Hindi pronouns
Urdu alphabet
Devanagari
Devanagari transliteration
Hindustani phonology
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
(public domain e-book) Contributed by University of California libraries
ABBR1:meaning1
ABBR2:meaning2
Indo-Aryan grammars
Hindustani language
Hindi
Urdu |
4068088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20King%20of%20Fighters%20%2794 | The King of Fighters '94 | The King of Fighters '94 (KOF 94) is a fighting game released by SNK for the Neo Geo MVS arcade system in 1994, as the first in The King of Fighters series. The game was also released for the Neo Geo home console systems, including the Neo Geo AES and Neo Geo CD. In 2008, KOF 94 was one of sixteen games included in SNK Arcade Classics Vol. 1 for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and Wii.
KOF '94 is a crossover featuring characters from SNK's fighting game properties Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting. It also includes revised versions of characters from their pre-Neo Geo games Ikari Warriors and Psycho Soldier, as well as original characters created specifically for the game. The plot features the creation of a new King of Fighters tournament created by the criminal Rugal Bernstein and is the only game to take place during the pre-Orochi Saga of the series.
SNK developed KOF '94 with the initial idea of using several games from the company in order to attract gamers who played these games. The characters' designs, as well as its innovative gameplay system based on using teams of three members, were both well received. The success of the game allowed SNK to produce a series of sequels in The King of Fighters series and the series itself eventually became the flagship series of SNK.
In 2004, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the series, SNK released a remake titled The King of Fighters '94 Re-Bout. It features the original game and a new version with higher resolution graphics and 3D environments.
Gameplay
The basic gameplay system of KOF '94 is similar to SNK's previous games like the Fatal Fury series, Art of Fighting and Samurai Shodown. The game uses a four attack button configuration similar to Fatal Fury 2 and Fatal Fury Special, that consists of light punch, light kick, strong punch and strong kick. Like in Fatal Fury 2, specialized techniques are performed by pressing combinations of buttons, allowing the player to dodge an opponent's attack or to launch a character's powerful knockdown attack. As with most other fighting games, each character has a set of basic, unique, and special moves that can be performed by the player with a specific series of joystick and button inputs.
Each player has a power gauge at the bottom of the screen which charges when the character is blocking or taking attacks. It can also be filled manually, although it leaves the character vulnerable to an attack, by pressing and holding three buttons at the same time. Once the power gauge is filled, the players basic attacks become stronger for a short period. When the characters are in this state, their players can also perform the character's Super Move, which immediately consumes the entire power gauge. The players can also access their character's Super Move when the life gauge is 75% empty and flashing red like in Fatal Fury 2. Taunting an opponent can reduce their power gauge, slow down their manual charging, and stop them from reaching the maximum level.
KOF 94 innovated the genre by replacing a traditional round-based format used in preceding fighting games with a format consisting of 3-on-3 team-based matches dubbed the Team Battle System. Instead of choosing a single character, the player selects from one of eight available teams, each consisting of three members. Before each match, the player chooses the order in which their team members enter the battle. When the match begins, the members chosen to go first on their respective teams will fight. When one character is defeated, the following member of the same team will take his or her place, while the character on the other team will have a small portion of their life restored (if energy was lost during the previous round). If a character is losing a match against the opponent, then the player can call one of the remaining teammates standing on the sidelines to jump in and perform a support attack. The match ends when all three members of either team lose.
Plot
Rugal Bernstein, a notorious and ruthless but skilled and influential black market weapons and drugs dealer bored of the lack of competition, he decides to host a new King of Fighters tournament after the previous K.O.F. announcements. Rugal sent out 24 invitations to certain individuals around the world. Unlike the previous three K.O.F. tournaments depicted in Art of Fighting 2, Fatal Fury: King of Fighters, and Fatal Fury 2; the new King of Fighters is a team tournament, with eight teams of three, each representing a different nationality.
At the tournament's conclusion, Mature, Rugal's personal secretary, invited the Japan team to fight their final match within Black Noah. It is there when Rugal revealed the true purpose of his tournament: defeat the winning team and add them to his grisly collection of previous challengers who were turned into statues. Kyo sees his defeated father there and decides to avenge him. As Rugal is finally beaten, he triggers the self-destruct mechanism on his ship. The team escapes and reflects on their victory.
Characters
The game has 24 playable characters, consisting of eight teams of three fighters. The final boss is not a part of any of the teams, is unplayable and fights the player's team alone. Five teams consist of characters from other SNK series while the rest consist mostly of KoF originals. Each team represents a different country, though this only affects the stage on which the team is fought and the characters in many cases don't share nationalities with the country they represent. Unlike later games in the series, the player cannot freely build a team and must choose one of the eight preset teams. Teams include:
Team Japan (Team Hero):
Kyo Kusanagi, a highschool student whose family possesses an ancient pyrokinetic abilities. He fights using Kenpo.
Benimaru Nikaido, a model who fights with shootboxing and also has electrokinetic abilities.
Goro Daimon, a large judoka who has geokinetic abilities.
Team Fatal Fury:
Terry Bogard, protagonist of the Fatal Fury series who has been trained in various fighting styles such as Karate, Kickboxing and Kung Fu. He can also attack with ki-based techniques he learned from his master, Tung Fu Rue.
Andy Bogard, brother of Terry, who is trained in Koppojutsu and Shiranui-Ryu Ninjutsu. He also has ki-based techniques he learned from Tung Fu Rue.
Joe Higashi, a Muay Thai fighter with aerokinetic abilities.
Team Art of Fighting:
Ryo Sakazaki, protagonist of the Art of Fighting series and the first champion of KoF tournament who practices Kyokugenryu Karate, which is similar to Kyokushin Karate but also contains ki-based techniques. He fights with a traditional version of Kyokugenryu.
Robert Garcia, Ryo's best friend and friendly rival who fights using a kick-heavy version of Kyokugenryu Karate.
Takuma Sakazaki, Ryo's father and a master of Kyokugenryu Karate, the only one who can perform the most advanced techniques of the style.
Team Women Fighters:
Mai Shiranui, a kunoichi who practices her family's own martial art, Shiranui-Ryu Ninjutsu.
Yuri Sakazaki, younger sister of Ryo, who fights with an unorthodox take on Kyokugenryu Karate.
King, a bar owner who fights with her own kick-heavy take on Muay Thai. Can also throw ki-based attacks with her kicks.
Team Ikari Warriors:
Ralf Jones, protagonist of the Ikari Warriors series. A mercenary whose fighting style is based on hard punches.
Clark Still, Ralf's best friend and the other protagonist of the Ikari Warriors series. He fights with a wrestling-based fighting style.
Heidern, the commander of the Ikari Warriors mercenary unit whose hands can cut like knives and he can also throw slashes as projectiles.
Team Korea Justice:
Kim Kaphwan, a Taekwondo-master with a strong sense of justice who is trying to rehabilitate the two criminals in his team.
Chang Koehan, A very large criminal who fights with a large metal ball attached to a chain.
Choi Bounge A very small criminal who fights with Freddy Krueger-esque claws.
Team Psycho Soldier:
Athena Asamiya, the protagonist of Psycho Soldier and an idol with psychokinetic abilities and Kung Fu training, though her fighting style emphasizes the former.
Sie Kensou, the self-proclaimed love interest of Athena. He has the same psychokinetic abilities as Athena, though his fighting style emphasizes his Kung Fu.
Chin Gentsai, master of Athena and Sie and a master of various styles of Kung Fu, though he fights primarily with Drunken Boxing.
Team American Sports:
Heavy D!, a professional boxer who was banned from regular competition after severely injuring his opponent.
Lucky Glauber, a former professional basketball player and a Karate champion with a penchant for street fighting.
Brian Battler, an American football player who also makes use of wrestling.
Final Boss:
Rugal Bernstein An arms dealer and the organizer of The King of Fighters tournament. He is capable of copying any technique after seeing it performed once and he makes heavy use of Geese Howard's Reppuuken (which would later also used by Geese's biological son and Kain R. Heinlein's nephew Rock Howard along with Rugal's son Adelheid Bernstein) and Wolfgang Krauser's Kaiser Wave ki-attacks. He also has techniques of his own, such as a slashing kick named Genocide Cutter.
Development
According to an interview with veteran designers of The King of Fighters series, the prototype version of the game was a Double Dragon-style side-scrolling beat 'em up, titled Survivor. It would only use core characters from the Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury series, specifically allowing players to play Robert Garcia and Terry Bogard for location testing. However, the idea was eventually abandoned. Since SNK were attached to the idea of the two-series crossover, they eventually agreed to make their idea into an all-star fighting game. Vintage characters from Ikari Warriors and Psycho Soldier were also added to the roster. The concept of a three-man team was one of the ideas kept from the side-scrolling version. The title "The King of Fighters" was re-used from the subtitle of the first Fatal Fury game, Fatal Fury: King of Fighters.
The King of Fighters series director Toyohisa Tanabe asserted that the Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury fighters were added specifically for adults, and the newer KOF characters were aimed to appeal to younger and newer audiences. Characters such as Benimaru Nikaido and Chang Koehan were added to have an off-beat variety to the cast, which he has previously deemed to be too serious. SNK artist C.A.C Yamasaki commented that although the lead programmer thought the game would not sell well, he believed it would eventually become popular. Ten people arrived at the first location test, but larger numbers came to subsequent tests. The SNK staff also had troubles with advertising the game due to a lack of money and some of their ads were noted to be of a poor quality.
Designers wanted a new, "snazzy" lead character who would easily fight Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting characters. He was named Kyo Kusanagi in order to relate him with the Yamata no Orochi legend. The boss character, Rugal Bernstein, was developed to be "the mightiest (most violent) and most evil boss character ever". The game was developed to have a "Fugitive Team" composed of Chang, Choi, and an unknown criminal, but Kim Kaphwan was placed in their team. The English Team was composed of King from Art of Fighting along with Billy Kane and Big Bear from the first and second Fatal Fury games. Designers had several problems with Big Bear concerning capacity and the Art of Fighting staff insisted on adding Yuri Sakazaki to KOF. Yuri replaced Billy Kane, and later Mai Shiranui took Big Bear's place to form the England Team (later known as Women Fighters in the following games).
Most of the characters from other games were meant to have some of their moves changed or removed in order to balance them with KOF's new characters. However, designers focused on adjusting the imbalance of certain characters without removing any move. In the end, creators of the series noted that the Art of Fighting characters were the strongest ones in the game. Nevertheless, other characters such as Terry and Andy Bogard became the ones who got the designers' utmost attention and were given new moves.
Release
The King of Fighters '94 was released in Japanese arcades on August 25, 1994. Home versions of the game were released later that same year for the Neo Geo AES on October 1 and for the Neo Geo CD on November 2. The home version was censored outside Japan in two ways, removing Mai's breasts bouncing animations and blood effects (the blood also could have been disabled by arcade operators).
On November 6, 2007, the Neo Geo AES version was emulated and made available for download on the Wii's Virtual Console download service, for a price of 900 Wii Points. The North American and European releases followed on November 23, 2007 and January 7, 2008, respectively. Another emulated version of the game is included in the compilations SNK Arcade Classics Vol. 1 and The King of Fighters Collection: The Orochi Saga, both released for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and Wii. The game was also emulated and released by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable on December 21, 2010, as one of the first games in the NEOGEO Station line-up. In 2012, KOF '94 was announced to be included in the set of twenty pre-loaded games being shipped with SNK Playmore's new handheld game console Neo Geo X, but it was ultimately replaced by The King of Fighters '95. The arcade version was emulated and released as part of the ACA Neo Geo series for the PlayStation 4 on October 27, 2016 with releases for Xbox One, Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, iOS and Android following afterwards.
Remake
A remake, titled The King of Fighters '94 Re-Bout, was released for the PlayStation 2 in Japan only on December 28, 2004, commemorating the tenth anniversary of the franchise. Re-Bout features the original 1994 game and an enhanced version featuring higher resolution graphics, a Team Edit option feature similar to the later KOF games, the ability to play as Saisyu Kusanagi and Rugal Bernstein, arranged music, new stages and an online versus mode. SNK Playmore commented that they received negative fan feedback regarding the game's simple upscaling and smoothing of character sprites, so they decided to create brand new high resolution sprites for the following games in the series.
A North American version was meant to be released for the Xbox. It was completed and even reviewed by some publications, but was canceled on March 23, 2006 for an undisclosed reason. In Japan, the game sold 28,482 units.
Related media
The game received a variety of licensed media released in Japan in 1994–1995:
The original soundtrack The King of Fighters '94 (PCCB-00162) and the arranged soundtrack The King of Fighters '94 Arrange Sound Trax (PCCB-00165), both released by Pony Canyon.
The art book The King of Fighters '94 (GMC-2) published as part of the Gamest Mook series by Shinseisha.
The Laser Disc audio and video release The King of Fighters '94 (PCLP-00539) by Pony Canyon LD.
Several manga published in the Gamest Comics collection by Shinseisha:
A yonkoma manga by various artists, titled The King of Fighters '94 4-Koma Ketteiban ().
A selection of illustrations and short strips by various artists, titled The King of Fighters '94 Comic Anthology ().
Ryo Takamisaki's six-volume adaptation series titled The King of Fighters '94 Gaiden (beginning with ).
Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed The King of Fighters '94 on their October 1, 1994 issue as being the second most popular arcade game at the time. In North America, RePlay reported King of Fighters '94 to be the third most-popular arcade game at the time. Play Meter also listed the title to be the thirty-second most-popular arcade game at the time. The game was well received, with reviews generally praising the deep combat system and the matching up of fighters from different SNK franchises, though the inability to choose team lineups in Team Battle Mode was a near-universal complaint among critics.
A reviewer for Next Generation argued that King of Fighters '94 was a particularly worthwhile arcade game, since the three-character teams meant the player would effectively get three lives for each credit, providing a high value per quarter at a time when most arcade games were much more expensive than they had been in the past. Reviewing the Neo Geo home version, GamePro remarked that the character selection is massive, but very unbalanced, and that most of the new characters are "goofy looking" and underpowered compared to the other fighters. They nonetheless concluded that "The King of Fighters is the very best non-Shodown game available for the Neo Geo, and it's one of the most playable fighting games ever", citing enjoyable gameplay additions such as the dodge move and juggle combos.
In a review of the Virtual Console release, Lucas M. Thomas of IGN praised KOF '94 for its graphics, including fluid animation and vibrant colors, but concluded that buyers might be better off waiting for the improved sequels to arrive on the Virtual Console. According to IGN's Jeremy Dunham, the game "was essentially a cross between Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting," with a faster control response. He added commented that the creation of three-on-three battles was an advanced feature for a game from 1994 and the idea of 'borrowing' characters from other games from the company was also innovative. Reviewing the Virtual Console release, Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer identified the use of characters from multiple franchises and the Team Battle Mode as the most distinctive points. He concluded the game to be "a solid, technical fighting game that, like most SNK outings, skews more towards the hardcore player than the casual punching aficionado." According to Kyle Knight of Allgame, the graphics and sounds, while better than most games of the time, were subpar by SNK standards. He concluded The King of Fighters '94 is "a very good fighting game, but it lacks some refinements that would have made it great."
Electronic Gaming Monthly gave KOF '94 its Game of the Year awards in the categories "Best Fighting Game" and "Best Neo-Geo Game" of 1994; additionally, Mai Shiranui was awarded the title of "Hottest Game Babe" of the year. In Japan, the game was awarded the title of "Best Game of 1994" in the Eighth Annual Grand Prize by the arcade magazine Gamest, also placing first in the categories of "Best Competitive Fighting Game" and "Best Direction", fifth in "Best Graphics", and third in "Best VGM" (several characters from the game were also featured in their list of 1994's top 50, including Athena at #3, Kyo at #4, Yuri at #7, King at #8 and Mai at #10).
The game was acclaimed in a number of retrospective articles and top lists by several publications. G4 noted that The King of Fighters '94 was regarded by some fans as the "Street Fighter beater" and was unique due to its team system. Maximum similarly called it "the first beat-em-up to offer more than the Street Fighter series" and said that the game "helped spearhead the SNK renaissance". 1UP.com lauded the game for its large and well-balanced cast of characters, calling it "a hell of a cast in 1994". In 2010, UGO.com listed it among the Top 25 Fighting Games of All Time, while GamePlayBook ranked it as the seventh best 2D fighting game ever made. Complex writers ranked it as the eighth best fighting game of all time in 2011, as well as the eleventh all-time best SNK fighting game in 2012, commenting that "the unique team selection and elimination style matches of the series made their origin in this great '90s fighter."
Next Generation reviewed the Neo-Geo version of the game, and stated that "Every fighting fan should take a look at this one either in the arcades or in the home."
References
External links
Entry on The King of Fighters 10th anniversary official website
The King of Fighters '94: Re-bout official website
The King of Fighters '94 Virtual Console edition official website
1994 video games
2D fighting games
ACA Neo Geo games
Arcade video games
Neo Geo games
Cancelled Xbox games
Censored video games
Neo Geo CD games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Network games
SNK games
SNK Playmore games
The King of Fighters games
Video games scored by Masahiko Hataya
Video games set in China
Video games set in Brazil
Video games set in England
Video games set in Italy
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in Korea
Video games set in Mexico
Video games set in the United States
Virtual Console games
Xbox One games
D4 Enterprise games
Video games developed in Japan
Hamster Corporation games
Multiplayer and single-player video games |
4068178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police%20misconduct | Police misconduct | Police misconduct is inappropriate conduct and illegal actions taken by police officers in connection with their official duties. Types of misconduct include among others: sexual offences, coerced false confession, intimidation, false arrest, false imprisonment, falsification of evidence, spoliation of evidence, police perjury, witness tampering, police brutality, police corruption, racial profiling, unwarranted surveillance, unwarranted searches, and unwarranted seizure of property.
Types of police misconduct
Types of police misconduct include:
Bribing or lobbying legislators to pass or maintain laws that give police excessive power or status
Similarly, bribing or lobbying city council members to pass or maintain municipal laws that make victimless acts ticket-able (e.g. bicycling on the sidewalk), so as to get more money
Selective enforcement ("throwing the book at" people who one dislikes; this is often related to racial discrimination)
Sexual misconduct
Off-duty misconduct
Killing of dogs unjustly
Noble cause corruption, where the officer believes the good outcomes justify bad behavior
Using badge or other ID to gain entry into concerts, to get discounts, etc.
Influence of drugs or alcohol while on duty
Violations by officers of police procedural policies
Abusive police procedures
Police officers often share what is known in the United States as a "blue code of silence" which means that they do not turn each other in for misconduct. While some officers have called this code a myth, a 2005 survey found evidence that it exists. A 2019 study in the journal Nature found that misconduct by one police officer substantially increased the likelihood that peer officers would also engage in misconduct. In addition to the blue code of silence, police misconduct also can lead to a miscarriage of justice and sometimes the obstruction of justice. At least 85,000 officers in the US have been investigated for misconduct, and some are constantly under investigation; nearly 2,500 have been investigated on 10 or more charges.
In an effort to control police misconduct, there is an accelerating trend for civilian agencies to engage directly in investigations and to have greater inputs into disciplinary decisions. Additionally, individuals and groups are now filming police activities in an effort to make them accountable for their actions. With the proliferation of smart devices capable of high-quality video recording, instances of police misconduct and abuse are gaining attention on social media platforms and video-hosting sites such as YouTube. To protect their interests, some officers have resorted to verbal intimidation as well as physical violence against civilians attempting to record their misdeeds. In other circumstances, police will illegally seize, destroy or delete evidence recorded by civilians, in spite of laws that make it a crime to destroy evidence of a crime being committed.
Contributors and prediction
Police misconduct is sometimes associated with conscious or unconscious discrimination. Misconduct has been shown to be related to personality and correlated to education, but it can also be significantly affected by the culture of the police agency. Education is negatively correlated to misconduct, with better-educated officers receiving fewer complaints on average.
Some analyses have found that changes in structural disadvantage, population mobility, and immigrant population have been associated with changes in police misconduct. Social disorganization may create a context for police misconduct because residents may not have in place the social networks necessary to organize against police malpractice. The fact that most police officers enjoy broad discretion and minimal supervision has been cited as increasing opportunities for police misconduct.
Video and audio recording
Many police cars are now equipped with recording systems, which can deter, document or rebut police misconduct during traffic stops. Usually, the recordings have rebutted claims of police misconduct according to a 2004 study by the International Association of Chiefs of Police and Community Oriented Policing Service; future innovations in recording equipment could allow an officer's entire workday to be recorded. Some transparency advocates believe that such cameras should be installed in all police cruisers to ensure accountability. Some police departments have experimented with Taser cameras that automatically begin recording when the Taser is deployed. The Cato Institute recommends that police record all no-knock raids. In recent times, police departments have been trying to implement the body camera as a step to fixing misconduct. The police departments in Pittsburgh have been trying body cameras on their officers to see both the positive and negative aspects of using body cameras.
Recording by witnesses has made a significant impact on the notability and handling of police incidence, such as the Rodney King beating.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Body Worn Cameras - Police Misconduct
Although body worn cameras(BWCs) can record several situations involving law enforcement misbehavior, the key question is whether they're able to also prevent it. In an effort to enhance interactions between the police and the community, several police departments are beginning to use BWCs. Which agencies are implementing them and which police agencies are not? In this article, the authors highlight how not all police departments around the nation are utilizing video recording technology. Law enforcement agencies who do not believe the new technology is necessary, who indicate a lack of support for BWC adoption from the agency's leadership and from patrol personnel, and who have privacy and cost-related concerns, report resistance to the use of BWCs. Police departments that registered a higher percentage of complaints for the excessive use of physical force are significantly more likely to be against the adoption of BWCs, even though the authors' discussion of the perceived lack of public support for the adoption of BWCs does not distinguish between agencies that intend to acquire BWCs and agencies that do not. Police agencies who have already purchased other types of recording technology have a substantially higher level of support for the use of BWCs. Results showed that law enforcement agencies located in US states with strong police unions are more likely to show resistance to the adoption of BWCs soon, even though recent state level legislative changes related to BWCs do not have a significant impact on BWC adoption decisions at the organization level.
Studies on BWC toward police misconduct
Some studies suggest that body-worn cameras may offer benefits while others show either no impact or possible negative effects when it comes to police misbehavior and many police agencies choosing whether to use BWCs in hopes of reducing police misconduct or strengthen the police and community ties. As an example, some studies have examined the claimed benefits of BWCs, including the ability to reduce citizen complaints and police use of force. Early research claimed that using BWCs lowered both outcomes significantly, but several subsequent investigations have failed to find similar results. for example, one study based on data from a randomized controlled trial conducted by the Spokane (WA) Police Department in which BWCs were issued to about 82 patrol officers in May and the remaining officers in November of the same year. This research evaluates the influence of BWCs on use of force, complaints against police, and officer injuries using more than three years' worth of official department data, both before and after the deployment of BWCs.
Another study examines how BWCs are marketed as a technological improvement that will result in more pleasant interactions between police and residents. There have been attempts to explain how BWCs impact various policing outcomes, but little research has been done on how BWCs influence assaults on police. In this current study is limited to a few jurisdictions and has minimal relevance to a broader spectrum of police organizations. This study explores the relationship between BWCs and police victimization by focusing on total assaults and attacks with guns against police officers using data from a sample of 516 police organizations. The data show that BWC usage is negatively associated with police victimization. The study concludes that BWCs can help prevent the occurrence of both moderate and severe violence against police in a variety of circumstances and among a wide spectrum of law enforcement organizations.
Although there are many studies on why implementing BWCs in the hope of reducing police misconduct and the use of force by law enforcement toward citizens, there are many studies that also show the challenges that come with implementing BWCs. Techno-fixes by themselves will not resolve underlying issues of fractured community–police relations, including ongoing issues of racial and ethnic antagonism and colonialism, and may even exacerbate these tensions. True reform requires establishing bonds of trust between communities and police that acknowledge the importance of procedural treatment, which may be supported by but are not dependent on BWCs.
Mobile devices
As digital recording technology usage has increased, especially using cell phones, there have been more cases of civilians capturing video of alleged police misconduct. In response, members of law enforcement have begun using eavesdropping and wiretapping laws to charge civilians who record police without their knowledge. Some police organizations such as the Fraternal Order of Police support the prosecutions. In Illinois, from 1994 to 2014, recording police without consent was a class 1 felony that could carry a prison term of 15 years. In a May 2012 ruling, the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals ruled 2-1 that the statute "likely violates the First Amendment's free-speech and free-press guarantees". On 30 December 2014, then-Governor Pat Quinn signed into law an amendment to the Statute, PA 98–1142, which decriminalized the recording of law enforcement officers in the performance of their duties in public places or in circumstances in which the officers have no reasonable expectation of privacy.
Most charges involving recording police are dropped or dismissed as courts have ruled on-duty police officers in public have no reasonable expectation of privacy. However, police "can use vaguer charges, such as interfering with a police officer, refusing to obey a lawful order, obstructing an arrest or police action, or disorderly conduct". Perjury put along with this is lying under oath and giving false charges. Arrests for these charges are more common, as are incidents of police illegally confiscating cameras, deleting evidence or misinforming citizens they cannot film. This video evidence has played a key role in raising public awareness of police misconduct during and after an incident such as the BART Police shooting of Oscar Grant, Death of Ian Tomlinson, Robert Dziekański death.
Noted cases
Australia
In 1987, the Fitzgerald Inquiry was launched in response to allegations of misconduct within the Queensland Police Service, before later being expanded to investigate allegations of corruption within the Queensland Government. At the conclusion of the inquiry, several senior police figures and government ministers were charged and jailed for various corruption offences. The inquiry led to the resignation of then Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen, who was later charged with perjury before the case was abandoned due to a hung jury.
In the mid-1990s, a Royal Commission was established to investigate allegations of corruption and misconduct within the New South Wales Police Service (later changed to New South Wales Police Force). The commission found that there was “systematic and entrenched” corruption within the organization, with adverse findings being made against 284 officers, seven of whom were jailed for various offences.
In 2001, New South Wales Police were given the power to deploy drug detection dogs at certain public locations across the state – namely at major events, train stations and licensed venues. More recently, the practice has been criticized due to reports of officers routinely using indications from drug detection dogs as a justification for conducting strip searches, particularly at major public events such as music festivals (see New South Wales Police Force Strip Search Scandal). In 2018, an inquiry was launched by the state’s police watchdog, who found that in several cases, officers had acted unlawfully. In 2022, a class action pertaining to strip searches conducted at music festivals from July 2016 onward was filed in the state’s Supreme Court.
Bahrain
During Bahraini uprising of 2011, the police forces of Bahrain were known for their heavy handedness. Many protesters and even medical staff who attended to the injured, were arrested.
Brazil
Around 6,175 people were killed by police in 2018 and 6,416 in 2020, totaling 37,029 deaths since 2013.
Canada
In October 2007, there was an incident at Vancouver International Airport involving new Polish immigrant Robert Dziekański. Dziekański was tasered five times during the arrest, became unresponsive and died. The incident was video recorded by a civilian who turned it over to police, then sued to get it back for release to news outlets. The official inquiry found the RCMP were not justified deploying the taser and that the officers deliberately misrepresented their actions to investigators. The incident affected taser use in Canada and relations with Poland.
During the 2010 G-20 Toronto summit protests, police enacted regulations the Ombudsman found contributed to "massive violations of civil rights". One regulation made the security zone public works and police interpreted this to permit them to arrest anyone not providing identification within five-metres of the temporary fence. There were 1,118 arrests with 800 released without charge, Police Chief Blair conceded later no five-metre rule existed in law and Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty was criticized for allowing this misinterpretation. In September 2011, officers who removed their name tags during the G-20 protests were refused promotion.
Security officers in Metrotown, Burnaby mall demanded pictures taken of an arrest be deleted from a teen's camera. This led to a verbal confrontation and the RCMP handcuffing the teen and cutting off his backpack to search it. While the mall supports its officers actions according to the teen's lawyer: "private mall security guards and police have no right to try to seize someone's camera or demand that photos be deleted – even on private property."
China
The collusion between local gangs and police officers is a serious problem in many Chinese cities. Local gang bosses make use of personal networks to bribe police officers, and police officers seek corrupt benefits by safeguarding their illegal businesses. A widely publicized case is the Wen Qiang Case. Wen Qiang a deputy police chief, along with family members, were arrested as part of a massive crackdown on corruption of the People's Armed Police and organized crime in Chongqing in late 2009. His crimes included bribes, rape and failing to account for assets. Wen was executed in July 2010. The trials highlighted the continued use of torture by police to obtain confessions, despite laws implemented in June 2010 excluding tortured confessions from being used in trials.
Egypt
A high profile rape case was reported in Egypt by a woman in 2014, who as of 8 February 2021 still seeks justice. In addition, the key witness who offered to help his friend, Seif Bedour, was subjected to torture while in pretrial custody. Bedour has been put through extreme forms of police misconduct and reportedly subjected to virginity tests via forced anal examination and drug tests. His family has been subjected to public humiliation and trauma following his misconduct in the custody. Meanwhile, the lack of adequate investigation into the 2014 Fairmont Hotel rape case has caused an unusual delay in serving justice to the victim.
France
Recent social movements ("Gilets jaunes", 2019-2020 strikes against the pension system reform) brought to light a certain culture of violence ingrained within French police, particularly CRS. Although French President Emmanuel Macron denied police brutality and the use of this term, he acknowledged that there have been some "individual errors" that shouldn't tarnish the police corps as a whole.
A French newspaper has tracked various serious injuries that occurred during the yellow vests movement. The death of a French deliveryman from a heart attack in January 2020 in Paris, after police restraining him in a prone position following a traffic stop, prompted a debate in France over controversial restraint techniques used by police.
Police interventions are mostly to prevent violent actions from members of radical and anarchists groups ("black blocs"), but an important number of bystanders, journalists, and firefighters have also been targeted by the police.
United Nations High Commissioner on Human rights Michelle Bachelet compared the use of force in France to that seen in protests in Sudan and Haiti; in March 2019, the UN opened a formal inquiry into the use of police violence against France.
The right to film police was made known when the "Sécurité Globale" (Global security) law was put under review by the French Parliament.
Hong Kong
India
It is believed that corruption among the Indian Police Service is pervasive and goes up to the top brass. Reform has been made difficult with honest officers pressured by powerful local officials and suffer punitive transfers and threats while corrupt officers receive promotions. An example is the transfer of Kiran Bedi for giving a parking ticket to the Prime Ministers car.
A number of officers face charges in Central Bureau of Investigation cases and disciplinary proceedings but it is alleged that no notable action under the penal provisions is taken. With citizens who are not aware of laws of India, police of Andhra pradesh can shout, swear and be verbally abusive. They are also corrupted by organized crime groups called "factionalists" in Rayalaseema. Some of the past scandals include murder, sexual harassment, sex-on-tape scandal, dowry harassment, fraud and fake killing encounter.
Iran
After the 1979 revolution, the police have become more corrupt. A British-Australian doctor, Dr Kylie Moore-Gilbert endured months of torture after she was arrested by Iranian police.
Norway
Police misconduct has become an issue of high media attention in Norway. The death of Eugene Ejike Obiora, a naturalized Norwegian of Nigerian origin in September 2006 stirred an uproar that has caused the authorities to announce significant changes to the way charges of police brutality and other forms of police misconduct, including corruption, involving the Norwegian police will be handled in the future. As a consequence of the Obiora case, training at the Norwegian Police Academy has undergone changes and national police director Ingelin Killengreen has instigated a thorough review of police methods in general.
One officer employed in Oslo Police District was sentenced in 2006 to two years in prison for human trafficking, embezzlement of money and weapons, as well as theft of emergency passports. Two cases were from Follo Police District. One officer was accused of having felt up a number of women during interrogations. He was acquitted on almost all charges by the regional court. Another officer had been accused of abuse of power during an arrest. The Supreme Court of Norway ordered the case to be retried in the regional court after the acquittal was appealed. Another case involves a female officer from Telemark Police District who was issued a fine of 10.000 kroner and the loss of her employment for a period of five years for embezzlement and breach of confidentiality, among other issues.
A prominent case of intentional miscarriage of justice was against Fritz Moen. In the case, several officers appear to have manipulated timelines, threatened the accused and witnesses, and made false statements to close the case.
According to a 2012 official report, 18 police officers have lost their jobs as result of misconduct since 2005.
On May 21, 2013, the owner of Circus Bazaar Magazine recorded on video two Norwegian plain-clothed police hold a handcuffed African migrant man on the ground and force multiple police batons his mouth under suspicion of concealing drugs. The man was then driven a significant distance outside the capital city of Oslo and left in an unknown location. The recording of the initial incident resulted in extensive investigations by multiple authorities in Norway, including Police internal affairs and the Norwegian Anti Discrimination Ombud. Although the police officers concerned were not charged, the investigations led to Oslo Police District being fined 80,000 Norwegian Kroner and receiving an organizational charge of "Gross misconduct".
The event also resulted in significant media attention, with the Director of the Department of Public and International Law at the University of Oslo, Aslak Syse stating that "It may appear as if both the law against degrading and inhumane treatment (UCHR art. 3), and the law against the violation of a person's privacy, have been violated." A Norwegian news agency also attracted significant attention by controversially running the headline "Even shit-bags should be treated decently by police". The headline was derived from a quote on the incident by the former head of Norwegian Police Security Service (PST) Ellen Holager Andenæs.
The incident also led to the production of the documentary film The Serpent in Paradise.
Poland
The Ministry of Public Security (MBP) was a Polish communist secret police service operating from 1945 to 1954 under Jakub Berman. The MBP carried out brutal pacification of civilians, mass arrests, makeshift executions such as the Mokotów Prison murder and 1946 public execution in Dębica, and secret assassinations.
Individual law enforcement officers noted for torture and terror include Anatol Fejgin (1909–2002) and his deputy Józef Światło (1915–1994), in charge of the MBP's notorious Special Bureau; Salomon Morel (1919–2007), commander of the Zgoda labour camp; Stanisław Radkiewicz (1903–1987), head of the MBP's Department of Security (UB) 1944–1954; and Józef Różański (1907–1981), colonel in the MBP.
After the fall of communism the instances of police brutality are still noted in relation to policing sports matches, mostly football; the 1998 Słupsk riots and 2015 Knurów riots were the result of the killing a fan by the police each time.
Russia
Police corruption and brutality is rampant in Russia as it is common for officers to be hired as private security on the side by businessmen and Russian mafia. This leads to conflicts of interest as business and political rivals are jailed with selective enforcement of laws and trumped-up charges, or kidnapped for ransom. These tactics are believed to have been used against billionaire Mikhail Khodorkovsky to "weaken an outspoken political opponent, to intimidate other wealthy individuals and to regain control of strategic economic assets". Meanwhile, bureaucrats who are found guilty of significant crimes get away with light sentences. Intimidation and violence against journalists and whistle blowers is high as Russia remains one of the worst countries at solving their murders. It is widely believed the Federal Security Service (successor to the KGB) remain in control using the police as foot soldiers, and are unaccountable with connections to organized crime and the Russian leadership.
South Africa
At least 25 people were killed after South African police opened fire on a crowd of about 3,000 striking miners, in Rustenburg, 100 km northwest of Johannesburg, on 16 August 2012. The police were armed with automatic rifles and pistols. Workers at a platinum mine were asking for better wages.
Saudi Arabia
Jamal Khashoggi was a critic of Saudi Arabia who was tortured and murdered by Saudi law enforcement officials. He was invited to the Saudi embassy in Turkey and was kidnapped there. In 2011, Saudi Arabia also sent law enforcement to next door Bahrain to put down protesters.
United Arab Emirates
Police in the UAE have abused those in their custody and sometimes this abuse has led to death. The Abu Dhabi Police allegedly assisted Sheikh Issa bin Zayed Al Nahyan in a 2009 torture incident. The Police are also alleged to have used excessive force on critics and protesters.
United Kingdom
Police misconduct/negligence in the UK has been altered numerous times due to the influx in claims in negligence against the police. The case of Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire initially provided that police could not be liable in negligence since when investigating crime, the police owe no duty of care in tort to individual citizens. This was widely adopted by the courts, but there was backlash since it granted the police 'blanket immunity' essentially meaning they could not be liable in claims of negligence. This was demonstrated in the cases of Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire, Van Colle v Chief Constable of Hertfordshire and Smith v Chief Constable of South Wales Police.
This was later overruled in the case of Robinson v Chief constable of West Yorkshire in which the courts held the police could be liable for harm caused to a claimant as a result of their direct actions. It was still acknowledged that similar to the general public, they do not have a duty of care to warn, protect or rescue an individual from harm caused by a third party of external factor.
United States
The Chicago Police Department in August 1968 initiated a "police riot" according to the Walker Report which gathered testimony on the violence surrounding the 1968 Democratic National Convention and Anti-Vietnam War protests. Years later, the Chicago Police Department would deal with even more scandal involving the now infamous crooked cop Lt. Jon Burge and the torture cases that came out of his district. The New York Police Department (NYPD) had a prominent case of two detectives working for the Mafia during the 1980s. The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) in the late 1990s had a large incident of misconduct with the Rampart scandal implicating 70 officers of an anti-gang unit called C.R.A.S.H. This resulted in a US$70 million in lawsuit settlement payouts, dissolving of the unit and the LAPD entering into a consent decree with the U.S. Department of Justice on comprehensive reforms.
During the 1990s the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) also came under the scrutiny of the Justice Department when a series of crimes, including murders, by officers prompted attempts at reform by then Police Chief Richard Pennington. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina there was a spike in allegations of misconduct and in March 2011 the Justice Department published a 158-page report that found "systemic violations of civil rights" by a NOPD that routinely failed to discipline officers involved. Six cases stemming from Katrina have been investigated and followed closely by ProPublica, one being the Danziger Bridge shootings that resulted in two civilian deaths and four wounded. In August 2011, four officers were convicted of unlawfully firing on citizens then trying to cover it up with the assistance of a fifth investigating officer.
In a number of jurisdictions, police officers have been accused of ticket fixing.
Police lying under oath, particularly in drug crimes, is allegedly commonplace in certain areas; some federal grant programs such as Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant Program are tied to numbers, and police officers may also feel pressured to prove their productivity.
The New York State Police Troop C scandal involved the fabrication of evidence used to convict suspects in New York by the New York State Police.
Police Misconduct in Chicago's Police Department (CPD)
Investigations have found that there is little to no accountability within the CPD. The department has neglected to investigate a majority of case complaints regarding police brutality. Investigations that were made were carried out poorly. Civilian and officer witnesses are often not interviewed, investigators ignored the potential for witness coaching and inappropriate coordination of testimony. Questioning of officers often aim to elicit favorable statements from them, often ignoring inconsistencies and unreasonable explanations when recounting events.
Cost of police misconduct
United States
The United States has lost millions to police misconduct:
In 2015, the Wall Street Journal reported that during a five-year period the 10 United States cities with the largest police departments had spent over $1.4 billion on police misconduct settlements. In between the years of 2010 and 2014 the total annual cost of police misconduct settlements increased, declining only in 2012, and then followed by the highest total in 2014 of $248.7 million.
Largest police misconduct settlements
With the rise of body worn cameras by police departments, settlements have also increased in both the size of the settlement and frequency of settlements. In 2015, Eric Garner's family settled with New York City, and was awarded $5.9 million in a wrongful death suit at the hands of a New York City Police Department (NYPD) officer. While Garner's case was more recent, and perhaps more known to the general public, it was not New York City's most expensive individual settlement due to police misconduct. Abner Louima was abused by NYPD personnel while in custody in 1997 and settled in 2001 with the city of New York for $8.75 million.
Perhaps the most costly individual settlement ever due to police misconduct occurred in Chicago when Christina Eilman suffered from a bipolar episode at Midway Airport and was arrested. Eilman was then released in a high-crime neighborhood at night in Chicago without any assistance or follow-up on her well-being. Eilman fell from a 7th-story window after being raped and suffered permanent brain damage. Eilman received $22.5 million in a settlement with the city of Chicago.
The most expensive group police misconduct settlement case in New York, and possibly the most expensive group police misconduct settlement case ever, was awarded to the Central Park Five. These five men were victims to police torture that eventually resulted in false confessions and convictions. These men settled for $41 million.
Other notable police misconduct settlements
Jon Burge, a former Chicago Police Department Commander is estimated to have cost Chicago, the state of Illinois, and the county of Cook $132 million in over 20 different cases. Burge was known to torture, beat, electrically shock, suffocate, and play games of Russian roulette to force confessions. As part of a reparations package to victims of Burge and his team, Chicago opened the Chicago Torture Justice Center in Englewood to provide services such as counseling to those who have been victim of police misconduct.
In 2000, Prince Jones, a student at Howard University, was followed by an unmarked police car; fearing for his safety he exited the car to confront the man following him who proceeded to flash a gun. Jones entered his car and put his truck into reverse, hitting the officer twice. The officer fired 16 shots into Jones' car, killing him. This incident received national news coverage and was featured in Ta-Nehisi Coates' book Between the World and Me. Jones' family received a settlement from Prince Georges county of $3.7 million.
Settling for Misconduct
The Chicago Reporter created a database titled "Settling for Misconduct" to track civil suits against the Chicago Police Department (CPD) with the intent of bringing awareness to the fact that a lawsuit against CPD is settled, on average, every other day. The website lists cases such as the murder of Laquan McDonald by Jason Van Dyke which gained national attention and resulted in a $5 million settlement for McDonald's family. The database also shows less-known cases such as an older settlement for $100,000 in which Jason Van Dyke was named for excessive force. The database even includes a false arrest settlement for $1.00 against CPD officer Luis Luarenzana.
Canada
Canada has also lost millions of dollars to police misconduct settlements. Toronto, in particular, has paid $27 million in settlements for actions of police dogs, use of force, false arrests, and car chases. The biggest settlement was for $2 million when a taxi driver, Ali Adaba Ghomi, was hit by a car fleeing from police and was taken to the hospital in critical condition. In October 2007 members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) tased Robert Dziekanski, ultimately killing him. The settlement in Dziekanski's case was confidential, although it was revealed that the RCMP in addition to the cost of the settlement also donated $20,000 for a scholarship.
South Africa
In 2011, Nathi Mthethwa, the South African Police Minister disclosed that across the country more than R106m ($7,153,276) was paid in police misconduct settlements due to actions of the South African Police Service (SAPS) in the 2010-2011 fiscal year. According to financial statements of SAPS, the financial balance of civil claims against the South African Police at the conclusion of the 2012 fiscal year totaled R14.8 billion ($998,651,608). In one of the more notable cases, Mido Macia was dragged by a police van, and assaulted by police in 2013 in Daveyton, South Africa, the event was caught on camera, and Macia later died while in the custody of police. On 21 November 2018, his family received R6.5m ($439,110.75) in a lawsuit settlement.
Russia
The cost of police misconduct in Russia comes in the form of bribery. In 2015, Russia Police reported the average amount per bribe had reached 654,000 rubles (US$9,105.18). Russia has attempted to crack down on the situation, in 2015, between January and September, Russian President Vladimir Putin reported that 8,800 people were convicted of corruption. On a 5,000 kilometer route, truck drivers can expect to pay anywhere from 50,000 ($786) to 70,000 rubles ($1,101.45) on bribes to police officers.
Oversight
Hong Kong and New York City
The Hong Kong and New York City police departments, both of which have had issues with police misconduct and corruption, have approached the problem in different ways. For corruption, Hong Kong created an external agency which investigates corruption, while New York reviews corruption through an internal department, although the information is reported to a monitoring commission. New York also uses "integrity checks" in which an officer's integrity is tested through an opportunity for corruption. For misconduct, Hong Kong reviews complaints internally with a monitoring commission while New York has created the New York City Civilian Complaint Review Board (NYCCCRB) which investigates and makes a formal recommendation to the commissioner.
Norway
The Special Unit for Police Affairs (SUPA) was established on 1 January 2005. In 2006 the unit received 904 complaints, of which 101 led to indictment. Of these 26 ended with the issuance of a fine, 8 cases criminal charges were brought, 64 went to trial, and 3 cases were given "påtaleunnlatelse" (no charges despite misconduct likely took place). Four police officers alone were responsible for 63 of the 101 cases. In September 2007, Jan Egil Presthus, Director of SUPA, stated to the Oslo newspaper Dagsavisen that investigations of police conduct involving death are going to be posted on the Internet. He states that total openness will strengthen the publics confidence in the unit's integrity and impartiality. This came following Dagsavisen in June 2007 publishing an overview of police cases with a deadly outcome. The article showed that in the ten most serious cases after the establishment of the SUPA all charges against the police were eventually dropped.
A media discourse focusing on deaths incurred during police arrests and transports continued in Norway throughout 2007, and Presthus counts this as one factor triggering the initiative to publish ongoing investigations on the Internet. The cases will be presented on the web pages of SUPA, in a way that preserves the anonymity of officers and other parties involved where deemed necessary.
United States
The U.S. government does not regularly collect data on police misconduct. One attempt to track misconduct is the Cato Institute's National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, which estimates misconduct rates using newspaper reports. The project's data suggest that police are more likely than the average person to commit a number of crimes including assault, sexual assault, and murder, but less likely to commit robbery. The NPMSRP projects that roughly 1 in 4.7 officers will be implicated in an act of misconduct during the course of their career. In the United States, the exclusionary rule means that evidence gathered through misconduct is sometimes inadmissible in court.
The Black Panther Party sought to oppose police brutality through neighborhood patrols. Police officers were often followed by armed Black Panthers, who at times came to aid African-Americans who were victims of brutality and racial prejudice. Groups like Copwatch continue to use the patrol method in communities, often using video cameras to document them.
In a 2004 United States survey of the public's opinions on accountability in reforming police, most members of the public wanted an "early warning system" that flags officers who have received many complaints, video cameras on police cars, detailed records of police stops, and citizen review boards. Citizen review of police has been an issue, with law enforcement concerned that citizens reviewing their actions do not understand the procedures they operate by and the citizen review board advocates arguing that the law enforcement "code of silence" requires that they have input into the disciplinary action. As of 2003, three-fourths of the United States' largest cities had citizen review boards. Early warning systems are procedures designed to identify and address issues of problem officers, as around 10% of officers are theorized to cause 90% of the problems. Early warning systems were recommended by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights in 1981, and by 1999 an estimated 27% of police agencies serving populations of over 50,000 people had implemented these programs. The systems collect data such as complaints, which triggers an intervention at a certain point. After the intervention, the officer is monitored as a follow-up.
It had been argued that civil liability could create new deterrents to police misconduct. Following major liability settlements in the Breonna Taylor and George Floyd cases insurance companies began to significantly raise rates for liability insurance. Insurance companies also began to inquire about the practices of the law enforcement agencies requesting insurance and requiring modification of their practices as a condition of obtaining coverage. Police commissioners and citizen review boards have been cited as institutions that can help reduce police misconduct. There is some variation as to how much access the civilian reviewers are given to internal police documents and personnel files. Decertification of police has been cited as another possible remedy. Surveys suggest that officers are aware of the detrimental impacts of police misconduct and hold strong opinions as to what strategies are preferable. The exclusionary rule has been one classic deterrent to obtaining evidence through police misconduct, but it is proposed that it be replaced with restitution to victims of misconduct.
United Kingdom
England and Wales
The Police Complaints Board was founded in 1977 to oversee the handling of complaints. This was succeeded by the Police Complaints Authority and the Independent Police Complaints Commission. The current police misconduct authority is the Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC), which was created in 2018. The IOPC investigate only the most serious matters, with the majority of complaints and misconduct cases handled internally by the respective force. In the 2018/19 financial year, 31,097 complaint cases were recorded by police forces in England and Wales.
Northern Ireland
Complaints about the Police Service of Northern Ireland are handled by the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland.
Scotland
The Scottish Police Investigations and Review Commissioner oversees complaints about Police Scotland.
See also
Contempt of cop
Gypsy cop
Lists of killings by law enforcement officers
Mass arrest as a war crime
Photography Is Not a Crime (weblog)
Presumption of guilt
Prisoner abuse
Professional courtesy in law enforcement
Individuals
H. Rap Brown
Antonio Buehler
Patricia Feerick
Rodney King
Epaminondas Korkoneas
Abner Louima
Cory Maye
Whistleblowers
Adrian Schoolcraft
Frank Serpico
Accused
Richard Cain
Lon Horiuchi
Bernard Kerik
Stacey Koon and Laurence Powell
Johannes Mehserle
Patrick Pogan
Salvatore Rivieri
Roger Rogerson
Justin Volpe
Incidents
39th District corruption scandal
Conflicts involving Critical Mass
Death of Jean Charles de Menezes
Death of Harry Stanley
Death of Otto Zehm
Knapp Commission
The Los Angeles May Day Mêlée
Mafia cops
MOVE Organization
NYPD subway sodomy incident
Rampart Scandal
Shooting of Sean Bell
Shooting of Oscar Grant
Shooting of Corey Jackson
Shooting of Kathryn Johnston
Wickersham report
Organizations
Christopher Commission
COINTELPRO
FBI
Internal affairs
Newham Monitoring Project
People's Law Office
References
Further reading
Wang, Peng (2017). The Chinese Mafia: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Extra-Legal Protection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
Police brutality archive worldwide evidence
CBC - The Secret Policeman - with link to article by Mark Daly
Police Misconduct News - Daily News on Police Misconduct in United Kingdom
Fatal Encounters - Database of killings by police in the United States
Misconduct
Police corruption |
4068473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd%20Pratt | Todd Pratt | Todd Alan Pratt (born February 9, 1967) is an American former Major League Baseball (MLB) catcher, playing from 1992 to 2006. He primarily served as a back-up catcher for most of his career.
Pratt was the head baseball coach and athletic director at West Georgia Technical College (West Georgia Tech), a member of the Georgia Collegiate Athletic Association from 2011 to 2016 and the owner/head coach of the Carrollton Clippers (formerly known as Douglasville Bulls), a summer wooden-bat collegiate team playing in the Sunbelt Baseball League from 2009 to 2016. While the Board of Directors of the Sunbelt Baseball League appointed Todd Pratt to serve as the Commissioner of the Sunbelt League from 2014 to 2016 before going to coach in the minors. As of at least 2022 he has been an advisor and special consultant to the GM of a team in a MLB partnered independent professional baseball league named Glacier Range Riders. He was a manager in the Miami Marlins organization for three seasons (Greensboro Grasshoppers (2017–18) and Jupiter Hammerheads (2019)). In January 2020, he was named commissioner of the Sunbelt Baseball League in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia.
Professional career
Boston Red Sox
Pratt was drafted during the 6th round of the 1985 amateur draft. Considered a good prospect, Pratt skipped the entry-level Rookie League and instead was catapulted into the New York–Penn League, where Pratt, barely 18 and out of high school, spent most of his time facing Latin American players with years of professional baseball experience and older American players drafted out of premier universities. This appeared to be a mistake for Pratt, who batted .134 in his first professional appearance and was occasionally pinch-hit for with pitchers (who do not bat in the NY-PL), although he displayed outstanding defense.
The Red Sox refused to admit their mistake and have Pratt repeat the level in 1986, and instead promoted him to the full-season South Atlantic League. Pratt improved, however, and was easily the best catcher on the team, the Greensboro Hornets. He again played excellent defense and was a favorite receiver of Greensboro pitchers, and although his hitting had improved greatly from his debut season, he was still overmatched at the plate, batting .241 and striking out 114 times with only 30 extra-base hits.
He was again promoted in 1987, this time to the Florida State League, where he enjoyed the first full-success of his career. He received a lot of playing time in Spring Training with the Boston Red Sox and was again the best catcher for their A-ball affiliate Winter Haven Red Sox. At Winter Haven, Pratt batted a more-impressive .258 and lowered his strikeout total while continuing to play excellent defense.
Cleveland Indians
Pratt was assigned to Winter Haven during the 1987 season by Boston to make room for another player on the 40-man roster and was never placed on the 40-man roster by December. Pratt had played three seasons in the minor leagues without being on a Major League 40-man roster. This made him eligible for the annual Rule V Draft, where he was selected by the Cleveland Indians. Rule V players have to remain on the selecting team's Major League roster all season or be offered back to the original team in lieu of cash. Pratt played well in Spring Training and competed for a spot as the backup to Andy Allanson, but was beat out for the job by Chris Bando. Pratt was returned to Boston at the end of Spring Training.
Return to Boston
Pratt was assigned to the Eastern League upon his return to the Boston organization in 1988. His struggles at the plate returned at the AA-level, with his batting average dropping to .225 with 110 strikeouts to go along with only 25 extra-base hits. His defense was still sharp and he was still the best catcher for the New Britain Red Sox, though it was beginning to become clear that Pratt's days in professional baseball were numbered.
Finally admitting that they had made a mistake by having Pratt skip a level upon drafting him and that it had affected his development as a hitter, Boston officials decided to have him repeat the AA-level again. He returned to New Britain but fared no better, seeing his batting average finish at .228.
By 1990 the Red Sox had all but given up on Pratt. It was his last year under contract and he'd had a lot of upside but almost no success as a hitter. His prospect status long-gone, he received a lot of playing time in Spring Training with no chance of making the team, making it obvious that the Red Sox were showcasing Pratt for trading partners to move him out of the organization. There were no takers. The Red Sox considered releasing Pratt, but instead decided to send him back to New Britain to serve as a backup catcher and player/coach to tutor prospects Don Florence, Josias Manzanillo, Kevin Morton, Jeff Plympton, Paul Quantrill, and Scott Taylor.
Pratt became a six-year minor league free agent following the 1990 season, although he quickly signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training to return to Boston. The Red Sox sent Pratt to the International League to serve once again as a player/coach, this time working with Gar Finnvold, Mike Gardiner, Peter Hoy, Ken Ryan, and once again Manzanillo, Morton, Plympton, Quantrill, and Taylor. As the pitchers began reaching the Major Leagues, leaving the organization, or losing their prospect status, the need for a player-coach in Pratt's vein dissipated. He became a six-year minor league free agent at the end of the 1991 season and this time left the Boston organization for good.
Baltimore Orioles
Pratt signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training with the Baltimore Orioles on November 13, 1991.
Philadelphia Phillies
Pratt was not on Baltimore's 40-man roster and was instead assigned to the roster of the Rochester Red Wings. Given his years of experience in the minor leagues without being on a Major League 40-man roster Pratt was still eligible for the Rule V Draft and was taken by the Philadelphia Phillies. Pratt played in Spring Training in 1992 and was competing for a job as the backup to Darren Daulton, but lost out to Steve Lake. Pratt had signed with Baltimore on November 13, 1991, to provide depth at the catching position and nothing more, while the 1991 Rule V Draft took place on December 9, 1991, making Pratt a signee of little importance who'd only been in the Baltimore organization for a little more than three weeks during the off-season. When Philadelphia cut Pratt they offered him back to Baltimore but the Orioles organization showed little interest in re-acquiring the minor league veteran. Philadelphia considered releasing Pratt, but still felt he had a lot of upside and decided that too much catching was not a bad thing. Being thin at the AA level, the Phillies sent Pratt to the Eastern League to serve as the everyday catcher. Pratt finally managed to find his swing after his eighth season in the minors, however, batting .333 with a .530 slugging percentage. This performance earned him a promotion to the International League at the midway point of the season, where he finished out the minor league campaign by hitting .320 with a .576 slugging percentage, giving him combined season totals of a .327 batting average and a .553 slugging percentage. When rosters were expanded in September Pratt's contract was purchased by the Phillies, finally allowing him to reach the major leagues after eight seasons in the minors. Pratt played 16 games as the third catcher for the Phillies in September and batted .283.
Pratt won a job on Philadelphia's roster in Spring Training of 1993 as the backup to Daulton. He played 33 games and batted .287 in 1993, helping the Phillies win the National League East and topple the Atlanta Braves in the NLCS to take home the NL pennant, though they lost in six games to the reigning Toronto Blue Jays in the World Series.
Pratt served as Philadelphia's backup to Daulton again in 1994 and had played in 25 games when players struck in August. Pratt's performance was poor however, batting only .196 in limited action. The Phillies were not playing well at the time of the strike and hoped to improve after playing resumed. The strike, however, dragged on and the rest of the season, the postseason, and eventually the World Series were all cancelled. The Phillies decided to make several changes in the off-season as the strike dragged on, and Pratt was non-tendered, making him a free agent.
Chicago Cubs
The strike continued into 1995, with Spring Training being cancelled and no apparent progress being made, and the lack of an agreement left free agents like Pratt in limbo. After MLB owners threatened to use replacement players to begin the season and several minor leaguers and former Major League players crossed the picket line and began participating in Spring Training both sides quickly began rushing to an agreement. The strike finally ended in late March and Spring Training officially began in April. After these developments Pratt finally signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training with the Chicago Cubs on April 8, 1995. Pratt competed for a job as the backup to Scott Servais but lost out to Rick Wilkins. The Cubs decided to keep Pratt in the organization and assigned him to the American Association. Pratt batted .308 in 25 games and was called up to replace Wilkins, who was batting well-below .200 at the midway point of the season. Pratt, however, was even worse, batting only .133 in the second half and once again being pinch hit for with pitchers. After Wilkins was recalled again in September the two split backup catching duties depending on the situation. Pratt was non-tendered at the end of the season and became a free agent.
Seattle Mariners
Pratt signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training with the Seattle Mariners on January 25, 1996. Pratt was brought into Spring Training by Seattle as catching depth and had no chance of making the team, being cut late in Spring Training. The Mariners decided not to keep him in the organization and released him on March 27, 1996.
Domino's
Pratt went unsigned for the rest of 1996 and worked part-time delivering pizzas for Domino's and as an instructor at Bucky Dent's baseball school.
New York Mets
Pratt signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training with the New York Mets on December 23, 1996. Pratt was competing for a job as the backup to Todd Hundley but lost out to Alberto Castillo. The Mets optioned Pratt to the Norfolk Tides to be their everyday catcher, where he batted .301 in 59 games. With Castillo struggling at the Major League level, Pratt was recalled in the second half of the season and hit a game-tying home run in his first at-bat with the Mets. Pratt played 39 games with the Mets and batted .283. The Mets surged to 88 wins in the second half of 1997 with Pratt as their backup catcher but finished in third place and missed the playoffs by a wide margin.
The Mets brought Pratt back in 1998. With Hundley injured and unable to play and unable to catch for all of 1998 (although he did find his way behind the plate for two games in September), Pratt competed for jobs in Spring Training as both New York's starting catcher or its backup. However, he lost out on both jobs to Castillo and Tim Spehr. After Spehr was injured there was a chance that Pratt could be recalled, but the Mets instead stunned the National League and acquired Mike Piazza from the Florida Marlins in exchange for a host of prospects, relegating Castillo to a more familiar backup role and leaving Pratt at Norfolk. Pratt batted .366 in the minor leagues while Castillo's hitting hadn't come around after parts of two seasons in the catching mix for the Mets, however, and Pratt was once again recalled in the second half, playing in 41 games and batting .275. The Mets won 88 games again but missed out on the playoffs by losing to the Atlanta Braves on the last day of the season. Pratt became a free agent at the end of the year.
Piazza was signed to a long-term deal, Hundley finally became healthy enough to catch again and was packaged in a three-team deal that netted the Mets Armando Benitez and Roger Cedeno, Castillo was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals to serve as a part-time starter behind the plate, and the Mets re-signed Pratt to a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training. Without anyone else in his way, Pratt easily won the backup job to Piazza. He played in 71 games and batted .293. The Mets finished the season with 96 wins, behind the Braves but tied with the Cincinnati Reds in the Wild Card race. The two teams played a one-game playoff which the Mets won on the strength of a complete game, two-hit shutout by Al Leiter, allowing the Mets to win the National League Wild Card. Piazza injured his thumb in the NLDS against the Arizona Diamondbacks, pressing Pratt into starting duty for the final two games of the series. The Mets won game three behind Rick Reed, and Pratt came up big in game four, hitting a walk-off solo homer against Matt Mantei in extra innings to clinch the series for the Mets and send them to the NLCS. In game five of the NLCS, Robin Ventura hit what appeared to be a game-winning grand slam in the 16th inning that would have sent the series back to Atlanta. Pratt (who was supposed to be running the bases) was the first Met to embrace Ventura. Since Ventura only touched first base, he was officially credited with a single, referred to jokingly as a "Grand Slam Single". The Mets, however, lost the NLCS to the Braves in six games. Pratt became a free agent at the end of the year.
The Mets re-signed Pratt to a minor league contract and he once again won the role of Piazza's backup in Spring Training. Pratt played in 80 games and batted .275. The Mets won 94 games and emerged as Wild Card winners once again. The Mets toppled the San Francisco Giants in the NLDS and took down the Cardinals in the NLCS, sending them to the World Series against their crosstown rivals, the New York Yankees. Pratt started game one of the series in Yankee Stadium as Piazza was penciled into the lineup as the DH against southpaw Andy Pettitte, a game-time decision as manager Bobby Valentine had considered starting Bubba Trammell against the lefty. The Mets lost in extra innings. Lenny Harris started game two at DH against Roger Clemens and Piazza returned to catching, while Pratt did not start another game in the series. The Mets lost in five games. Pratt became a free agent at the end of the season.
The Mets re-signed Pratt to a minor league contract and he won the backup job to Piazza again, although it had become obvious that longtime Mets farmhand Vance Wilson, never a prospect, had emerged as a more capable backup than Pratt. Pratt played in 45 games for the Mets but only batted .163, being traded mid-season to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Gary Bennett. Bennett got a hit in his only at-bat as a Met and was also traded out of the organization, allowing Wilson to be recalled and serve as Piazza's backup.
Return to Philadelphia
Pratt played in 35 games for the Phillies for the remainder of the 2001 season in a backup role to Johnny Estrada and batted .204, raising his season average to .185.
Despite the poor performance in 2001, the Phillies re-signed Pratt to a minor league contract in 2002 to serve as the backup to Mike Lieberthal. Pratt played in 39 games and batted .311.
Returning to Philadelphia on another minor league contract in 2003, Pratt played in 43 games and batted .272 as Lieberthal's backup.
Pratt signed another minor league deal with the Phillies in 2004 and played in 45 games and batted .258 as Lieberthal's backup.
The Phillies brought Pratt back again on a minor league deal in 2005 and he played in 60 games and batted .251 as Lieberthal's backup. Pratt became a free agent at the end of the year and, this time, the Phillies opted to part ways with the veteran backup.
Atlanta Braves
Pratt signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training with the Braves on December 13, 2005. Pratt won a job in Spring Training as the backup to Brian McCann. Pratt played in 62 games and batted .207. Pratt became a free agent at the end of the season.
New York Yankees
Pratt signed a minor league contract with an invitation to Spring Training with the Yankees on January 12, 2007, although the terms of the deal were unclear, with some sources speculating that Pratt would return to the minor leagues as a player/coach to tutor young Yankees pitchers, a role he'd filled years before with the Boston Red Sox organization. The Yankees had a dearth of backup catchers in spring training and it was unclear what Pratt's role was, though he appeared to be the frontrunner to win the job as the backup to Jorge Posada. However, he lost out on the job to Wil Nieves. The Yankees offered Pratt a position in the organization to tutor some of their pitchers in the minor leagues, though Pratt declined and decided to retire.
As Coach
Pratt was named as the manager for the Jupiter Hammerheads of the Miami Marlins organization for the 2019 season.
Mitchell Report
After his retirement, Pratt was named in the Mitchell Report as a user of performance-enhancing drugs.
Personal life
Pratt and his wife Tracy, along with their four children, Quade, Jake, Kolby and Kamille, currently reside just outside Atlanta, in Douglasville, Georgia.
He is currently the head coach of the South East Canes prospect team.
Pratt served as the head coach of the West Georgia Technical College baseball team until the programs end in 2019.
Pratt was also a notable player of the online video game Ultima Online, and even appeared on the box of Ultima Online: Renaissance for marketing purposes.
He also has been an actor in the movie Taking Out The Trash as Scott.
See also
List of Major League Baseball players named in the Mitchell Report
References
External links
Todd Pratt at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
Todd Pratt at Baseball Almanac
Todd Pratt at Baseball Library
Todd Pratt at Ultimate Mets Database
Todd Pratt at Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Professional Baseball League)
1967 births
Living people
Atlanta Braves players
Baseball coaches from Nebraska
Baseball players from Nebraska
Caribes de Oriente players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Chicago Cubs players
Elmira Pioneers players
Greensboro Hornets players
Iowa Cubs players
Major League Baseball catchers
Minor league baseball managers
New Britain Red Sox players
New York Mets players
Norfolk Tides players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
People from Bellevue, Nebraska
Philadelphia Phillies players
Reading Phillies players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players
St. Lucie Mets players
Baseball players from Chula Vista, California
Winter Haven Red Sox players
Hilltop High School (Chula Vista, California) alumni |
4068811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie%20Amalie%20of%20Brunswick-Calenberg | Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Calenberg | Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Calenberg (24 March 1628 – 20 February 1685) was Queen of Denmark and Norway as the consort of the King Frederick III of Denmark. She is known for her political influence, as well as for her cultural impact: she acted as the adviser of her husband, and introduced ballet and opera to Denmark.
Life
Early life
Sophie Amalie was born at the Herzberg Castle, in Herzberg am Harz. Her parents were George, Duke of Brunswick-Calenberg, and Anne Eleonore of Hesse-Darmstadt. Nothing is known of her childhood.
Sophie Amalie married Prince Frederick in Castle Glücksburg on 1 October 1643. The marriage was arranged in 1640, as it was considered suitable for the current situation of the groom: he was, at that point, Prince-bishop of Bremen and not heir to the throne, and was not expected to succeed to the throne. It is believed to be a political match, though the exact purpose of it is unknown. They had eight children, including King Christian V of Denmark and Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark who married King Charles XI of Sweden.
The couple settled in Bremen. In 1646–47, they lived in humble circumstances in Flensborg, after having been forced to flee Bremen during the war between Denmark-Norway and Sweden. In 1647, Frederick was elected heir to the Danish throne, and the following year, she followed him to Denmark.
Queen
In 1648, Frederick and Sophie Amalie became king and queen of Denmark and Norway.
As her husband was introverted, she became the centre of a sumptuous court life, with exclusive luxury items and grand parties, which shed glory on the royal power. Queen Sophie Amalie made a pioneer cultural act in relation to the court parties by replacing the old medieval court entertainments with opera and ballet, which was thus introduced in Denmark by her at the court festivities. She enjoyed fashion, parties and theatre, arranged masquerades and made the French taste fashionable in Denmark. She remodeled the court after a French and German pattern. In 1649, a large order of items arrived for the new court life she arranged, followed also by new staff and new positions. She hired a German chapel master, Kaspar Förster, a French violin orchestra, a French ballet master, D. de Pilloy, and a French court singer and dancer, Anne Chabanceau de La Barre, and a French theatre company was engaged to perform French theater. Sophie Amalie did not understand the Danish language, but spoke German and French, took lessons in singing and dancing by instructors from France and Italy, was dressed by French maids in French fashion, conversed with her children in French and had a French chaplain, and as the first queen of Denmark took a French motto: „En Dieu mon espérance". Ballet, masquerades and theatre performances were performed, and she and her children participated in ballets and amateur theatre with the nobility; in 1655, she performed five different parts in a ballet at the same occasion. She was interested in literature and composed a library of French, German and Italian writers. She was noted to have great disputes with her Catholic brother John Frederick, in which her husband was called to participate in the debate.
Sophie Amalie was described as a charming beauty with entertaining wit and artistic taste, also in private correspondence not intended for her to see. A Swedish guest described her as "a lovely young person" and a Frenchman described her in 1649: "This princess was tall, blonde, with a very attractive complexion, mild and very accommodating toward strangers; she had a great taste for France, and she had everything it could give her." Sophia of Hanover was impressed by her and said of her that "her goodness and great accomplishments won over all hearts to her", while the French envoy noted that the queen's considerable charm was in fact reserved for those "which belongs to her party or are of use to her interests." The Spanish envoy Bernardino de Rebolledo dedicated sonnets to her in which he described her as a seraph.
Sophie Amalie was described as playful and enjoyed to disguise herself. When the abdicated queen Christina of Sweden was travelling through Denmark toward Germany incognito after her abdication, queen Sophie Amalie, who was at that time staying in Kolding, disguised herself as a maid and traveled to the inn at Haderslev to observe Christina while dining with her retinue, and then left without having introduced herself; on another occasion, she made a similar anonymous visit to Hamburg and back disguised as a maid, despite the fact that Denmark was at that time at war with Hamburg. She enjoyed hunting, particularly at her Jagdschloss of Hørsholm, would hunt in any weather, once killed thirty deer in one day, and was for her success as a huntress compared to the goddess Diana.
Queen Sophie Amalie is known as the hostess and central figure of the many grand representational parties that dominated Danish court life during her husband's reign. The Spanish envoy Rebolledo described her in this role at a party which was hosted in the honor of the queen's brother John Frederick at Jægersborg in 1655. After a deer hunt, where the royal couple participated similarly dressed in red and where "the queen conquered her skill to satisfy her generosity" by, as a good hostess, allowing the guests to win over her, a ball followed in which "the queen danced all night with such a smiling distance and such a majestic dignity, that she attracted the attention and appreciation of all". She participated in the amateur theater and ballet at court and, in one famous occasion, performed five roles in the same ballet: as Fama, a maid, the Muse of war - "in which she danced while waving a banner to the music with such superior rhythm, that she seemed to exceed herself" - a Spanish lady and an Amazon; a performance during which the king asked the Spanish envoy Rebolledo of his opinion and was given the reply "happy is a nation with such a king, and happy is the king with such a queen."
The grand court parties were a part of a representation of royal power deemed necessary to enhance the status of the crown and attract followers among the nobility in the royal couple's goal to strengthen royal power, particularly among the German nobility, which were inducted into the Danish nobility by the protection of the queen despite Danish opposition. The parties were however criticized by the royal council as provocative during the depression of the 1650s, when Denmark suffered from bad finances, and it was pointed out that the king, in order to please the queen, had spent April 1654 to June 1655 in Flensborg Castle, where party followed party "in an unbroken chain".
Sophie Amalie is credited with a great cultural impact in Denmark, breaking with the old Lutheran religious atmosphere and introducing a new court life influenced by a more general secular European art and pleasure culture, which as a role model also came to effect culture in the rest of Danish society.
Political influence
Queen Sophie Amalie was described as ambitious and was well known to participate in state affairs, with the blessing of her husband, and influence policy as his adviser. Her great influence upon her husband was widely known already before he became king: before Frederick had succeeded to the throne, a satire circulated in which this was caricatured in the form of a mock question: "Can a husband make any decisions whatever without the consent of his wife? Signed Duke Frederick."
Her influence is contributed to the fact that she attracted her husband as well as was in possession of a willpower and energy exceeding his, as well as to the fact that they had the same political goals: "With her vivacious nature she understood how to attract her husband, with her greater decisiveness and more fiery temperament she energized his more careful nature to action, and above all she was given power, because she wanted it with all her flaming soul."
The three main political goals of Sophia Amalie and Frederick III were to defeat the power of the nobility, symbolized by the Svogerpartiet (Son-in-law's Party); to defeat the Swedes; and to expand royal power into absolutism, to which the queen gathered followers through her court festivities and by creating a net of contacts by handing out favors.
Queen Sophie Amalie was from the start of her husband's reign famously involved in the power struggle between the crown and the high nobility, symbolized by the so-called Svogerpartiet ('Son's-in-law Party'), composed by six noblemen married to daughters of her father-in-law from his second morganatic marriage with Kirsten Munk, among which Corfitz Ulfeldt, married to Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, was the leading member. Upon her husband's accession she became the first queen in over 30 years, and she could never stand the half-sisters of her spouse, who had fulfilled the position of first lady during their father's reign. This conflict had begun already during the celebration dinner of the king's accession to the throne in Copenhagen Castle 6 July 1648 with an incident Sophie Amalie and Leonora Christine: the queen being unusually quiet, Leonora Christine criticized her for her silence, after which the queen participated in conversation, but notably fell silent every time Leonora Christine joined in. By 1651, the Svogerpartiet, was crushed, its members disperse, the Ulfeldt couple left for Sweden and their property was confiscated.
Sophie Amalie is thought to have initiated the war against Sweden in 1657. After the peace with Sweden in 1658, she presided over the celebration of the Peace of Roskilde when the Swedish king Charles X Gustav was received at Frederiksborg Palace, during which she entertained with avec beaucoup d'éclat and conversed about the crossing of the Bält by the Swedish army. When the Swedish king pointed at Erik Dahlberg and stated that he had been the commander, Frederick III greeted Dahlberg by allowing him to kiss his hand, while the queen for a moment, according to Dahlberg, had an expression which stated her feelings toward him as "not all which was good".
The act for which queen Sophie Amalie is most famous was her behavior during the Siege of Copenhagen in 1658, during which "Sophie Amalie was given the opportunity to show all the strength and decisiveness of her nature, now unleashed for a more noble purpose than a hunt or the most exiting adventure trip".
She is believed to have exerted great influence upon the king, normally often passive and uncertain, in their mutual steadfastness never to surrender, and their act reportedly strengthened civilian morale considerably and earned them widespread popularity. During the Siege, the king showed himself on horse in the weak spots of the city both in night and day, accompanied by the queen, also on horseback, to strengthen public morale. The position of the queen was illustrated by the fact that military commands were known to give their messages to her when they could not find the king, and at one such incident, it was mentioned that she was positioned in the highest tower of Copenhagen Castle, looking toward the Swedish troops. During the war with Sweden in 1658, she sent her own agent Lorents Tuxen to commit sabotage behind the Swedish lines.
Sophie Amalie probably took part in the decision to introduce the absolute monarchy by the 1660 state of emergency in Denmark. This happened while the popularity of the royal couple was at its highest after the Swedish siege of Copenhagen in 1658–60. She was very popular at that point for her moral support during the siege.
During the Assembly of the Estates and the 1660 state of emergency in Denmark, which eventually resulted in the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark, the queen was likely one of the most important participants as the adviser of the king, but it is difficult to determine her concrete actions.
It was reportedly Sophie Amalie, who on 10 October 1660 convinced Frederick III to go through with the plans to introduce absolutism by force in a difficult moment when the estates had refused to agree to introduce it.
The queen was however not involved in the creation of the Kongeloven (Lex Regia), the “constitution” of Danish absolute monarchy, and Christoffer Gabel had difficulty to persuade the king to introduce it because the king feared that she would be displeased with the regulations concerning queen dowagers, and stalled introducing it by saying: "Let me be able to keep the peace with the queen."
After the introduction of the Kongeloven in 1665, the queen's position was undermined by Christoffer Gabel, who replaced her as the king's chief adviser.
She was notably no included as regent in the event of her son succeeding to the throne while still a minor. The reason why her spouse no longer relied so much upon her advice in the latter part of his reign, was likely the instability in foreign policy caused by her indecisiveness as to whether her goals to reconquer the Southern Provinces from Sweden would benefit most from an alliance with France or with the Holy Roman Empire. Another cause was her favoritism of her younger son, and her ambition to secure marriages of the highest status possible for her daughters regardless of political benefit for Denmark; one example of such was arranging for Ulrika Eleonora to marry Charles XI and become Queen of Sweden despite the fact that Sweden was Denmark's enemy.
After the introduction of absolutism, the queen increasingly attracted attention for her protection of favorites and her persecution of those she disliked. It was said that "The queen is not always good toward those, who devote themselves to the king, without being dependent upon others"; that she wished to be "sought and honored", and by handing out favors she gathered followers to a queen's party who owed their loyalty to her personally, and who eventually also gained influence over her. One of her protegees was Jacob Petersen, officially only a chamber servant of the king, who was given much favor by the queen and described as her "most confidant tool" until he was suddenly exiled by the king in 1664 for the unspecific accusation of being involved in "many intrigues"; after the king's death, Sophie Amalie had all accusations against Petersen dropped. Her most favored lady-in-waiting was Abel Cathrine. Of the persecutions, the most known victims are Kai Lykke and Leonora Christine. In 1662, the nobleman Kai Lykke was forced to flee and had his property in Denmark confiscated after he was discovered to have written in a private letter to his mistress that the queen had sex with her lackeys; he was not allowed back to Denmark until after Sophie Amalie's death. In 1663, she famously had Leonora Christina Ulfeldt imprisoned in the Blåtårn, and refused to release her as long as she herself was still alive.
While her artistic taste was French, her political views were German-oriented and her influence was feared, especially among the nobility. A characteristic remark was made by nobleman Henrik Bjelke from the first Swedish war: "The king is good, but God save us with honor from here! The queen is not good by any Dane, and she has the king in her power." Also the foreign ambassadors noted the queen's influence over the king and government. Baron Ludvig Holberg said about her that she had "the capacity of a statesman" and "the heart of a soldier" but also that she was "more admired than loved" and that she went too far in her hatred toward Leonora Christina.
Queen Dowager
In 1670, Frederick III died and was succeeded by her eldest son Christian V. Her son the king did what he could to curb her influence in state affairs, which was evidently not easy: in 1671, he wrote to Griffenfeld: "God be praised, the queen dowager has left for Hirsholm today, so I need no longer hear: 'What do I hear now?'"
Despite her son's dislike over her interference, she remained a factor which was taken into consideration in Danish politics, and Griffenfeld was careful to keep in her good graces. It is noted that Griffenfeld assisted her in her ambition to have her younger son Georg elected king of Poland. Griffenfeld and Sophie Amalie also worked in securing peace with Sweden during the Scanian War, as Sophie Amalie wished for peace with Sweden and its ally France because her favorite Catholic brother was Francophile and because she wished for her daughter Ulrika Eleonora to marry the Swedish king. The fall of Griffenfeld was, therefore, a great misfortune for Sophie Amalie and her political position, and it attracted great attention when the queen dowager demonstratively left the capital after the sudden arrest of Griffenfeld. His later pardon is credited with her influence. The Peace of 1680 was a great joy for her, as it resulted in the desired wedding between her daughter and the Swedish king. She accompanied Ulrika Eleonora to Kronborg, but it was noted how she could not make herself to show her daughter the ceremony due to her future rank as queen.
Her relationship to her daughter-in-law Charlotte Amalie was not a good one. Sophie Amalie was reportedly most unwilling to surrender her position as queen and her precedence as the first lady of the court to her daughter-in-law, and was only with great difficulty made to vacate the queen's apartment to her successor.
Her daughter-in-law was however not willing to give up her rank, and the precedence conflict between the queen and the queen dowager was prolonged for years: reportedly, the queen dowager demanded that the foreign ambassadors call to be introduced to her first rather than the queen, otherwise, she would have them barred from her court, a situation which created such difficulty that the king sometimes solved the matter by leaving for another palace with his wife so that the queen and the queen dowager would not be present at the same time and thus the rank conflict avoided.
Sophie Amalie is known to have assured the continuing imprisonment of Leonora Christine also as a widow. Upon the accession of Christian V, his wife Charlotte Amalie successfully asked him a promise to release Leonora Christine if the expected child was a son, and when she did give birth to a son in 1671, she called in the promise. When Sophie Amalie was informed, however, she managed to have the king retract his promise by refusing to attend the christening of the crown prince. When Leonora Christine's daughter Ellen Kristine petitioned her for her mother's release, Sophie Amalie successfully asked her son the king to banish Ellen Kristine from the nation.
As queen dowager, Sophie Amalie continued to host a grand court life with many festivities, as she had done as queen. She lived in Sophie Amalienborg in Copenhagen in the winters and at Nykøbing Slot or Hørsholm during the summers. Sophie of Hanover visited her in 1680 and said of her: "If I should praise this queen as she deserved, I would never be finished." She still hosted hunting trips and balls and was described as an avid hunter, and attended masquerade balls at court in costume until her death. When the wedding of her daughter Ulrika Eleonora to the Swedish king was arranged, she welcomed the Swedish envoy Johan Gyllenstierna, who was a known misogynist, with a great banquet, and reportedly, when he entered her palace, there was "no man there, only women and the fairest you could imagine. As a wise man, he soon realized that it was deliberately, as he was unmarried, and the rumour had it, that he could abide no female."
She died in Copenhagen and was buried in the Roskilde Cathedral. After her death, Leonora Christina Ulfeldt was finally released, after twenty-two years of imprisonment.
Issue
References
Ancestry
External links
Queen Sophie Amalie at the website of the Royal Danish Collection
1628 births
1685 deaths
People from Herzberg am Harz
Danish royal consorts
Norwegian royal consorts
People from Denmark–Norway
New House of Lüneburg
House of Oldenburg in Denmark
Burials at Roskilde Cathedral
People from the Harz
Duchesses of Brunswick-Lüneburg
Countesses of Oldenburg
17th-century Danish women
Queen mothers
Daughters of monarchs |
4069030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Przeworski | Adam Przeworski | Adam Przeworski (; born May 5, 1940) is a Polish-American professor of political science specializing in comparative politics. He is Carroll and Milton Professor Emeritus in the Department of Politics of New York University. He is a scholar of democratic societies, theory of democracy, social democracy and political economy, as well as an early proponent of rational choice theory in political science.
Biography
He was born in 1940 in Warsaw, Poland when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany. His parents were physicians. His father, whom he never met, was conscripted in the Polish army in 1939 and killed in the 1940 Katyn massacre by Soviet troops.
His uncle Andrzej Przeworski was a Polish footballer, referee and manager. His wife is a former senior manager at the OECD and the UN and the founding director of the Bard Center for Environmental Policy. Their daughter Molly Przeworski is a Population Geneticist. Both Adam Przeworski and Molly were the first father-daughter members elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Przeworski was also elected to the British Academy. Przeworski is an ardent fan of the English football club Arsenal.
Przeworski graduated from Warsaw University in 1961 with a MA in philosophy and sociology. In Warsaw, Przeworski met a Northwestern University political science professor, R. Barry Farrell. Farrell persuaded Przeworski to move to the United States to study political science. According to Przeworski, "I don’t remember if I had the smarts to ask him what political science was: I did not know what it was. But even if he had asked me if I wanted to work on a ship sailing around the world, I would have said ‘‘yes.’’ I was twenty years old, and I would have gone anywhere to do anything."
Przeworski received his Ph.D. in political science from Northwestern University in 1966. Thereafter, he taught at Washington University in St. Louis (1969–1973), the University of Chicago (1973–1995), and New York University (NYU) (1995–present). He is currently Professor Emeritus at NYU.
At the University of Chicago, he was awarded the title of Martin A. Ryerson Distinguished Service Professor. At NYU, he was Carroll and Milton Petrie Professor of Politics and (by courtesy) of Economics Emeritus. He also held visiting appointments in India, Chile, Great Britain, France, Germany, Spain (Juan March Institute), and Switzerland.
Przeworski joined the September Group of analytical Marxists in 1979 or 1980; he left the group in 1995.
Awards and honors
Przeworski has been the recipient of many awards.
1991 Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1998 Gregory M. Luebbert Article Award.
2001 Woodrow Wilson Prize of the American Political Science Association (APSA) for the book Democracy and Development.
2002 Best data set, from the Comparative Politics Section of the American Political Science Association (APSA)
2010 The Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science for "raising the scientific standards regarding the analysis of the relations between democracy, capitalism and economic development."
2018 Juan Linz Prize of the International Political Science Association (IPSA)
2021 Elected member of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences.
2021 Elected as "corresponding fellow" of the British Academy.
Other awards include the 1985 Socialist Review Book Award, Honorary Professor of Chongqing University 2012, a Doctor Honoris Causa by the Universidad Nacional de Tucuman 2016, the Sakip Sabanci International Research Awards’ Jury Prize in 2018, and the 2020 Lawrence Longley Article Award.
The Lijphart/Przeworski/Verba Dataset Award of the Comparative Politics sections of the American Political Science Association (APSA) is named for Przeworski and two other distinguished political scientists. The award recognizes the best publicly accessible data set which benefits the research community as a whole.
Academic research
Przeworski has published widely in a variety of fields. One of his early works, The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry (1970), is "an important influence on methodological practices in comparative politics."
His two books in the 1980s, Capitalism and Social Democracy (1985) and the coauthored Paper Stones (1986), turned to the question of why leftist parties "abandon socialism and adopt instead a reformist agenda within the parameters of capitalism."
Thereafter he wrote several works on various aspects of democracy: Democracy and the Market (1991), Democracy and Development (2000), Democracy and the Limits of Self-Government (2010), Why Bother with Elections? (2018), and Crises of Democracy (2019). Among other things, in these works on democracy Przeworski has defended a minimalist conception of democracy in which "democracy is just a system in which rulers are selected by competitive elections."
Przeworski also published two broad overviews of theories of the state and political economy: The State and the Economy Under Capitalism (1990) and States and Markets (2003).
Two enduring concerns in Przeworski's research have been: (1) the compatibility of democracy and capitalism, and (2) the possibility of a democratic path to socialism. Przeworski acknowledged that an important influence on his thinking throughout his life has been the works of Karl Marx.
The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry
In The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry (1970), Przeworski and Teune introduced the idea of "most similar systems" and "most different systems" designs. This book also introduced a key distinction relevant in research on measurement: the distinction between "common indicators" and "system-specific indicators."
Capitalism and Social Democracy and Paper Stones
In Capitalism and Social Democracy (1985), and in the companion volume with John Sprague Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism (1985), Przeworski argues that European socialist parties in the first half of the 20th century faced a sequence of electoral dilemmas. The first dilemma was whether or not to participate in bourgeois elections, when universal suffrage was progressively established in Europe. The question was whether or not participation would contribute to the struggle for socialism or strengthen the capitalist order. According to Przeworski, most socialist parties have opted to get involved in elections, since it was a means to advance some of the interests of workers in the short run and, as references to Friedrich Engels and Eduard Bernstein illustrate in Przeworski's book, to move toward socialism.
According to Przeworski, the decision to participate in bourgeois elections led to another dilemma. Given that manual workers were not the numerical majority in any European country, to win elections they had to choose whether or not to compromise their socialist principles and adopt a social democratic agenda to attract the support of allies, especially the middle class. Such compromise had major consequences for socialist parties, including the withdrawal of support of workers, the abandoning of extra-parliamentary tactics, and progressively the defection from socialist policies when in power.
Criticism to Przeworski's account of the dilemmas of social democratic parties have been at least twofold. First, it has been shown that numerical majority is not necessary for social democratic parties to control governments, which implies that social democratic parties do not necessarily need to sacrifice workers’ votes to win elections. Second, Gøsta Esping-Andersen argues that Przeworski is mistaken in attempting to differentiate reformist and revolutionary policies, since "we have no accepted criteria for deciding which actions will merely reflect the status quo and which will accelerate historical transformation." Esping-Andersen suggests that policies that leftist parties adopt should be compared based on how they aid the process of class unity.
Democracy and the Market
In Democracy and the Market (1991), Przeworski analyzes events in Eastern Europe and Latin America, focusing on transitions to democracy and market-oriented economic reforms. Przeworski presents a minimalist view of democracy: "Democracy is a system in which parties lose elections.". He analyzes transitions to democracy using rudimentary game theory, and he emphasizes the interdependence of political and economic transformations.
Democracy and Development
In Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990 (2000), Przeworski provides a statistical analysis of the causes and consequences of democracy across the globe.
On the causes of democracy, Przeworski assesses Seymour Martin Lipset’s thesis about the impact of economic development on political regimes and finds that Lipset’s argument regarding the association between a high level of economic development and the stability of democracy is supported. However, Przeworski "challenged the view that increases in the level of development are associated with increased prospects of transitions to democracy."
On the consequences of democracy, Przeworski argued, against authors such as Samuel P. Huntington, that "democracies perform as well economically as do authoritarian regimes."
Democracy and the Limits of Self-Government
This book is Przeworski's most extended discussion of the ideal of democracy and how much of this ideal can realistically be attained.
The book takes as its point of department that democracy is a set of institutions that must meet four "conditions":
Equality, the ability of every citizen to have the same influence on collective decisions
Participation, the ability of every citizen to have an effective influence on collective decisions
Representation, the implementation of collective decisions by elected representatives
Liberty, the respect for individual freedom unimpeded by the state
This way of thinking about democracy is somewhat of a departure for Przeworski, who has been known as a defender of a minimalist conception of democracy. One reviewer argues that in this book Przeworski has gone beyond the standard minimalist conception of democracy associated with Joseph Schumpeter.
Thereafter, Przeworski explores the extent to which these conditions can be met and hence what limits are faced by the ideal of democracy. Przeworski argues that democracy has historically faced four challenges: "(1) the incapacity to generate equality in the socioeconomic realm, (2) the incapacity to make people feel that their political participation is effective, (3) the incapacity to ensure that governments do what they are supposed to do and not do what they are not mandated to do, and (4) the incapacity to balance order and noninterference."
Throughout the book, Przeworski offers a sober assessment of the potential of democracy to revert these challenges. One of his central arguments is that, counter to the hope of many, "democracy does not generate more economic equality." However, he cautions that, even though "democracy faces limits to the extent of possible economic equality, effective participation, perfect agency, and liberty", it is important to recognize these limits so as to better elucidate "directions for reforms that are feasible" and "not to criticize democracy for not achieving what no political arrangement can achieve."
Why Bother with Elections?
In this 2018 book, Adam Przeworski addresses a classic question, why should democracy be valued?
Przeworski considers that democracy is a "method of processing conflicts." He poses the question in the following terms: “Are there good reasons to think that if rulers are selected through contested elections their decisions will be rational, that governments will be representative, the economy will perform well, the distribution of income will be egalitarian, and people will live in liberty and peace?" And he concludes that the strongest rationale for supporting democracy is that it generates civil peace.
His reasoning is worth quoting at length. Przeworski holds that “In the end, the miracle of democracy is that conflicting political forces obey the results of voting. People who have guns obey those without them. Incumbents risk their control of governmental offices by holding elections. Losers wait for their chance to win office. Conflicts are regulated, processed according to rules, and thus limited. This is not consensus, yet not mayhem either. Just regulated conflict; conflict without killing. Ballots are “paper stones.”
Crises of Democracy
Przeworski's Crises of Democracy (2019) analyzes the threats to democracy in the twenty-first century in established democracies and argues that the problems are not just of a political nature. He holds that the problems have deep economic, social, and cultural roots.
Major works
Przeworski, Adam, and Henry Teune. 1970. The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. New York: Wiley.
Cortés, Fernando, Adam Przeworski, and John Sprague. 1974. Systems Analysis for Social Scientists. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Przeworski, Adam. 1975. “Institutionalization of Voting Patterns, or is Mobilization the Source of Decay.” American Political Science Review 69(1): 49-67.
Przeworski, Adam, and Michael Wallerstein. 1982. “The Structure of Class Conflict in Democratic Capitalist Societies.” American Political Science Review 76(2): 215-38.
Przeworski, Adam. 1985. Capitalism and Social Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, and John Sprague. 1986. Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 1986. “Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy,” pp. 47–63, in Guillermo O’Donnell, Philippe Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule. Comparative Perspectives. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, and Michael Wallerstein. 1988. "Structural Dependence of the State on Capital." American Political Science Review 82(1): 11–29.
Przeworski, Adam. 1990. The State and the Economy Under Capitalism. New York: Harwood Academic Publishers.
Przeworski, Adam. 1991. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Luiz Carlos Bresser Pereira, José María Maravall, and Adam Przeworski (eds.). 1993. Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-Democratic Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, and Fernando Limongi. 1993. "Political Regimes and Economic Growth." Journal of Economic Perspectives 7(3): 51–69.
Przeworski, Adam, et al. 1995. Sustainable Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, and Fernando Limongi. 1997. "Modernization: Theories and Facts." World Politics 49(2): 155–83.
Przeworski, Adam, Susan C. Stokes and Bernard Manin (eds.) 1999. Democracy, Accountability and. Representation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 1999. “Minimalist Conception of Democracy: A Defense,” pp. 23–55, in Ian Shapiro and Casiano Hacker-Cordón (eds.), Democracy’s Value. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, with Michael E. Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, and José María Maravall (eds.) 2003. Democracy and the Rule of Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 2003. States and Markets: A Primer in Political Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jennifer Gandhi and Adam Przeworski. 2007. "Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats." Comparative Political Studies 40(11): 1279–1301.
Przeworski, Adam. 2009. “Conquered or Granted? A History of Franchise Extensions.” British Journal of Political Science 39(2): 291-321.
Przeworski, Adam. 2010. Democracy and the Limits of Self-Government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 2018. Why Bother with Elections? London: Polity Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 2019. Crises of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Non-academic writings
Przeworski, Adam. 1992. "The Neoliberal Fallacy." Journal of Democracy 3(3): 45-59.
Przeworski, Adam. 2000. "Life in the Time of COVID-19." Concilium Civitas March 19, 2020.
Przeworski, Adam. 2021. "From Revolution to Reformism." Boston Review Jan. 28, 2021.
Resources on Przeworski and his research
Burawoy, Michael. 1989. “Marxism without Micro-Foundations.” Socialist Review 19: 53–86.
Higgins, Winton, and Nixon Apple. 1983. "How Limited Is Reformism?: A Critique of Przeworski and Panitch." Theory and Society 12,5: 603–30.
Kitschelt, Herbert. 1993. “Comparative Historical Research and Rational Choice Theory: The Case of Transitions to Democracy.” Theory and Society 22(3): 413–27. [Review of Przeworski's 1991 Democracy and the Market.]
Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder. 2007. "Adam Przeworski: Capitalism, Democracy, and Science,” pp. 456–503, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press. [Interview with Adam Przeworski]
Munck, Gerardo L. 2011. “Democratic Theory After Transitions From Authoritarian Rule,” Perspectives on Politics 9(2): 333–43.
Przeworski, Adam. 2016. "Democracy: A Never-Ending Quest." Annual Review of Political Science Vol. 19: 1–12.
Przeworski, Adam. 2021. “What Have I Learned from Marx and What Still Stands? Politics & Society 49(4): 433-450
See also
Notes
References
Adam Przeworski New York University. Official Web Page. Faculty.
Adam Przeworski site Adam Przeworski site with papers
Gerardo L. Munck interview with Przeworski (in English (2003, 62 pages, pdf) (in Spanish)
1940 births
American male non-fiction writers
American political scientists
American political writers
Living people
New York University faculty
Northwestern University alumni
Polish emigrants to the United States
Polish political scientists
University of Chicago faculty
University of Warsaw alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Washington University in St. Louis faculty |
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